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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+        The World War and What Was Behind It
+
+        or
+
+        The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+        By
+
+        L. P. Bénézet
+
+        SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA
+
+[Illustration: The Peace Palace at the Hague]
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils,
+teachers, and the general public in a series of talks on the causes of
+the great European war which were given by the author in the fall of
+1914. The audiences were widely different in character. They included
+pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students in high
+school and normal school, teachers in the public schools, an
+association of business men, and a convention of boards of education.
+In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: “If there were only some
+book which would give us these facts in simple language and illustrate
+them by maps and charts as you have done!” After searching the market
+for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put
+the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to
+write in a style which is well within the comprehension of the children
+in the upper grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The
+book deals with the remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made
+the great war inevitable. Facts are revealed which, so far as the
+author knows, have not been published in any history to date; facts
+which had the strongest possible bearing on the outbreak of the war.
+The average American, whether child or adult, has little conception of
+conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of the
+Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second
+generations both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry
+with Irish, Scotch with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech
+and Teuton, Bulgar and Serb may live side by side for centuries without
+mixing or losing their distinct racial characteristics. In order that
+the American reader may understand the complicated problem of European
+peace, a study of races and languages is given in the text, showing the
+relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin, and Teuton, and the various
+sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of these facts is very
+essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe. The author
+has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely
+king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the
+natural division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the
+mass of the population.
+
+The chapter, entitled “Europe as it Should Be,” with its accompanying
+map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would look if
+the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single
+political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to
+draw sharp lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into
+Skipetar and Serb on the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is
+one-third German in its population. There are large islands of Germans
+and Magyars in the midst of the Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a
+few examples out of many which could be cited. However, the general aim
+of the chapter has been to divide the continent into nations, in each
+of which the leading race would vastly predominate in population.
+
+It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw
+light upon the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its
+cruelty and its needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe
+from the time of the great invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a
+continuous story of government without the consent of the governed.
+
+A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many
+countries have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem
+as though after this terrible demonstration of the results of armed
+peace, the governments of the world would be ready to listen to some
+plan which would forever forbid the possibility of another war. Just as
+individuals in the majority of civilized countries discovered, a
+hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for them to carry
+weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy protection,
+so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable to
+the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after
+years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war,
+at last learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will
+have to learn it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of
+feudal government in Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of
+the common people in many countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with
+the advance of education, and we trust that feudalism will not long
+survive its last terrible crime, the world war of 1914.
+
+Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very
+essential that our people understand the events that led up to our
+participation in the war. So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving
+nature, we are so far removed from the militarism of continental
+Europe, and the whole war seems so needless and so profitless to those
+who have not studied carefully its causes, that there is danger of a
+want of harmony with the program of the government if all are not
+taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel
+through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With
+this in mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to
+demonstrating why no other course was open to this country than to
+accept the war which was forced upon her.
+
+In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many
+helpful suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to
+Professor A. G. Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H.
+Sanford of the Wisconsin State Normal School at La Crosse, who were
+kind enough to read through and correct the manuscript before its final
+revision. The author is especially indebted to the Committee on Public
+Information at Washington, D. C., for furnishing to him authoritative
+data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment is also made to Row,
+Peterson and Company for kind permission to use illustrations from
+_History Stories of Other Lands_; also to the International Film
+Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable copyright
+illustrations of scenes relating to the great war.
+
+L. P. BÉNÉZET.
+
+_Evansville, Indiana,
+January 2, 1918_
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+ Preface
+
+ I. The Great War
+ II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes
+ III. From Chiefs to Kings
+ IV. Master and Man
+ V. A Babel of Tongues
+ VI. “The Terrible Turk”
+ VII. The Rise of Modern Nations
+ VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms
+ IX. The Little Man from the Common People
+ X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs
+ XI. Italy a Nation at Last
+ XII. The Man of Blood and Iron
+ XIII. The Balance of Power
+ XIV. The “Entente Cordiale”
+ XV. The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth
+ XVI. Who Profits?
+ XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine
+ XVIII. Why England Came In
+ XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition
+ XX. Back to the Balkans
+ XXI. The War under the Sea
+ XXII. Another Crown Topples
+ XXIII. The United States at War—Why?
+ XXIV. Europe As It Should Be
+ XXV. The Cost of It All
+ XXVI. What Germany Must Learn
+
+ Pronouncing Glossary
+ Index
+
+
+List of Maps
+
+ I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship
+ II. Distribution of Languages
+ III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C.
+ IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D.
+ V. Southeastern Europe 1690
+ VI. The Empire of Charlemagne
+ VII. Europe in 1540
+ VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806
+ IX. Italy in 525
+ X. Italy in 650
+ XI. Italy in 1175
+ XII. Europe in 1796
+ XIII. Europe in 1810
+ XIV. Europe in 1815
+ XV. Italy Made One Nation—1914—
+ XVI. Formation of the German Empire
+ XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796
+ XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century
+ XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It
+ XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913
+ XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France
+ XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It
+ XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out
+ XXIV. Europe as It Should Be
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+ I. The Peace Palace at the Hague
+ II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging
+ III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe
+ IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago
+ V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators
+ VI. Germans Going into Battle
+ VII. A Hun Warrior
+ VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar
+ IX. A Frankish Chief
+ X. Movable Huts of Early Germans
+ XI. Goths on the March
+ XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine
+ XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England
+ XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians
+ XV. A Knight in Armor
+ XVI. A Norman Castle in England
+ XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord
+ XVIII. William the Conqueror
+ XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family
+ XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople
+ XXI. A Scene in Salonika
+ XXII. Louis XIV
+ XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough
+ XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg
+ XXV. Frederick the Great
+ XXVI. Catharine II
+ XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV
+ XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille
+ XXIX. The Palace of Versailles
+ XXX. The Reign of Terror
+ XXXI. The First Singing of “The Marseillaise”
+ XXXII. Charles the Fifth
+ XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814
+ XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow
+ XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo
+ XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna
+ XXXVII. Prince Metternich
+ XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel
+ XXXIX. Bismarck
+ XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War
+ XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany
+ XLII. Peter the Great
+ XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia
+ XLIV. The Congress of Berlin
+ XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff
+ XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople
+ XLVII. Durazzo
+ XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught
+ XLIX. Submarine
+ L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns
+ LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army
+ LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front
+ LIII. Venizelos
+ LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay
+ LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution
+ LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma
+ LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops
+ LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner
+ LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message
+ LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents
+ LXI. Polish Children
+ LXII. The Price of War
+ LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War
+ LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden
+
+
+
+
+The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I.
+The Great War
+
+      The call from Europe.—Friend against friend.—Why?—Death and
+      devastation.—No private quarrel.—Ordered by government.—What
+      makes government?—The influence of the past.—Four causes of war.
+
+
+      Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being
+      erected in a great American city during the summer of 1914 were
+      two men who had not yet become citizens of the United States.
+      Born abroad, they still owed allegiance, one to the Emperor of
+      Austria, the other to the Czar of Russia.
+
+Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a
+chance to understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They
+were members of the same labor union, and had worked side by side on
+several different jobs. In the course of time, a firm friendship had
+sprung up between them. Suddenly, on the same day, each was notified to
+call at the office of the agent of his government in the city. Next
+morning the Russian came to his boss to explain that he must quit work,
+that he had been called home to fight for the “Little Father” of the
+Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian, there ahead of him, telling
+that he had to go, for the Russians had declared war on Austria and the
+good Kaiser,[1] Franz Josef, had need of all his young men.
+
+ [1] In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor.
+
+      The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The
+      pitiless arm of the god of war had reached across the broad
+      Atlantic, plucking them back from peace and security. With
+      weapons put into their hands they would be ordered to kill each
+      other on sight.
+
+      A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful “Good luck to you,” and they
+      parted.
+
+      Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong
+      enough to separate the two friends and drag them back five
+      thousand miles for the purpose of killing each other? To answer
+      these two questions is the purpose of this little volume.
+
+      Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and
+      Africa were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the
+      world has ever seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions
+      were maimed, blinded, or disfigured for life. Still other
+      millions were herded into prison camps or forced to work like
+      convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with grief.
+      Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the
+      war had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children
+      were left fatherless. What had been the richest and most
+      productive farming land in Europe was made a barren waste.
+      Thousands of villages and towns were utterly destroyed and their
+      inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the sick, and the
+      infants alike.
+
+      In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and
+      Serbia, the wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally
+      starving, because all food had been seized for the use of
+      fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which cannot exist where people
+      have the chance to bathe and keep themselves clean, once more
+      appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims. The
+      strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations
+      were shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable
+      existence, sick or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in
+      many factories which once turned out the comforts and luxuries of
+      civilization. There were no men to make toys for the children, or
+      to work for mankind’s happiness. The only mills and factories
+      which were running full time were those that turned out the tools
+      of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations poured
+      out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of
+      killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What
+      was the reason for it all?
+
+[Illustration: Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging]
+
+      In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in
+      Germany freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with
+      intercourse Russians, and happy to have Englishmen spend their
+      money in Germany. France and Austria exchanged goods and their
+      inhabitants traveled within each other’s boundaries. A Frenchman
+      might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed. There was
+      nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman or
+      Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could
+      meet and find plenty of ground for friendship.
+
+      We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred.
+      One can imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each
+      other every day might have trouble and grow to hate each other,
+      but in this great war soldiers were shooting down other soldiers
+      whom they had never seen before, with whom they had never
+      exchanged a word, and it would not profit them if they killed a
+      whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the soldiers did
+      not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a
+      telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling
+      and telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a
+      trifle for his next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed
+      and fired the gun. Once in a while, a shell from the invisible
+      enemy, two, three, or four miles away, fell among them, killing
+      and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians were ordered to charge
+      the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the Russians
+      because they were told to do so by their officers, and the
+      Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so
+      ordered them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders
+      received from their generals. The generals were only obeying
+      orders from the government.
+
+      In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder
+      what has caused these nations to fly at each other’s throats. The
+      question arises as to what makes up a government or why a
+      government has the right to rule its people.
+
+      In the United States, the government officials are simply the
+      servants of the people. Practically every man in our country,
+      unless he is a citizen of some foreign nation, has a right to
+      vote, and in many of the states women, too, have a voice in the
+      government. We, the people of the United States, can choose our
+      own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and, in some states,
+      can vote out of existence any law that they the people have made
+      which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval
+      of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the
+      next election. Such is the government of a republic, a
+      “government of the people, by the people, and for the people,” as
+      Abraham Lincoln called it. In the leading British colonies, the
+      people rule. Australian citizens voted against forcing men to
+      serve in the army. The result was very close and the vote of the
+      women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary, voted to
+      compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of
+      Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted
+      before their governments called them to arms and sent them to
+      fight each other? It is plain that in order to understand what
+      this war is about, we must look into the story of how the
+      different governments of Europe came to be and learn why their
+      peoples obey them so unquestioningly.
+
+      We must remember that government by the people is a very new
+      thing. One hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United
+      States only about one-fourth of the men had the right to vote.
+      These were citizens of property and wealth. They did not think a
+      poor man was worth considering. In England, a country which
+      allows its people more voice in the government than almost any
+      other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty years
+      that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like
+      Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and
+      others, like Austria, where they have very little voice in how
+      they shall be governed.
+
+      For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without
+      thinking when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up
+      their weapons and go to war. In many instances they have known
+      nothing of the causes of the conflict or of what they were
+      fighting for. A famous English writer has written a poem which
+      illustrates how little the average citizen has ever known
+      concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the
+      way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in
+      which one should regard it. The poem runs as follows:
+
+The Battle of Blenheim
+
+It was a summer evening,
+    Old Kaspar’s work was done,
+And he before his cottage door
+    Was sitting in the sun,
+And by him sported on the green
+His little grandchild Wilhelmine.
+
+She saw her brother Peterkin
+    Roll something large and round,
+Which he beside the rivulet
+    In playing there had found,
+He came to ask what he had found
+That was so large and smooth and round.
+
+Old Kaspar took it from the boy,
+    Who stood expectant by;
+And then the old man shook his head,
+    And, with a natural sigh—
+“’Tis some poor fellow’s skull,” said he,
+“Who fell in the great victory.
+
+“I find them in the garden,
+    For there’s many hereabout;
+And often when I go to plow,
+    The plowshare turns them out!
+For many a thousand men,” said he,
+“Were slain in the great victory.”
+
+“Now tell us what ’twas all about,”
+    Young Peterkin he cries;
+And little Wilhelmine looks up
+    With wonder-waiting eyes—
+“Now tell us all about the war,
+And what they fought each other for.”
+
+“It was the English,” Kaspar cried,
+    “Who put the French to rout;
+But what they fought each other for
+    I could not well make out;
+But everybody said,” quoth he,
+“That ’twas a famous victory.
+
+“My father lived at Blenheim then,
+    Yon little stream hard by;
+They burnt his dwelling to the ground,
+    And he was forced to fly;
+So with his wife and child he fled,
+Nor had he where to rest his head.
+
+“They say it was a shocking sight
+    After the field was won—
+For many thousand bodies here
+    Lay rotting in the sun;
+But things like that, you know, must be
+After a famous victory.
+
+“Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won,
+    And our good Prince Eugene.”
+“Why, ’twas a very wicked thing!”
+    Said little Wilhelmine.
+“Nay, nay, my little girl,” quoth he,
+“It was a famous victory.
+
+“And everybody praised the duke
+    Who this great fight did win.”
+“But what good came of it at last?”
+    Quoth little Peterkin.
+“Why, that I cannot tell,” said he;
+“But ’twas a famous victory.”
+
+—_Robert Southey_.
+
+      Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot
+      feel the wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on
+      the other hand, have a different idea of war. They are not
+      satisfied until they know what it was all about and what good
+      came of it, and they feel that “it was a very wicked thing.” If
+      the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why they were
+      killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the
+      truth, the history of the world would have been very different.
+
+      One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for
+      themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead
+      ancestors think for them and to keep up customs which should have
+      been changed ages ago. People in Europe have lived in the midst
+      of wars or preparation for wars all their lives. There never has
+      been a time when Europe was not either a battlefield or a great
+      drill-ground for armies.
+
+      There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in
+      Europe and not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong
+      to take human life. Today it is not considered wrong to kill,
+      provided a man is ordered to do so by his general or his king.
+      When two kings go to war, each claiming his quarrel to be a just
+      one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made by its
+      government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in
+      its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help
+      to bring about lasting peace among all the nations.
+
+[Illustration: A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.]
+
+      In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the
+      wars of the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all
+      wars can be traced to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among
+      barbarous tribes to fight with and plunder their neighbors; (2)
+      the ambition of kings to enlarge their kingdoms; (3) the desire
+      of the traders of one nation to increase their commerce at the
+      expense of some other nation; (4) a people’s wish to be free from
+      the control of some other country and to become a nation by
+      itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause
+      for war, and this cause has been brought about only when kings
+      have sent their armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other
+      peoples who wished to govern themselves.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why must foreigners in the United States return to their
+          native lands when summoned by their governments?
+
+          How is it that war helps to breed diseases?
+
+          Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it?
+
+          Whom do we mean by the government in the United States?
+
+          Who controls the government in Russia?
+
+          Who in England?
+
+          Who in Germany?
+
+          Who in France?
+
+          In Southey’s poem, how does the children’s idea of the battle
+          differ from that of their grandfather? Why?
+
+          Are people less likely to protest against war if their
+          forefathers have fought many wars?
+
+          What have been the four main causes of war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II.
+Rome and the Barbarian Tribes
+
+      New governments in Europe.—Earliest times.—How civilization
+      began.—The rise of Rome.—Roman civilization.—Roman cruelty.—The
+      German tribes.—The Slavic tribes.—The Celtic tribes.—The Huns and
+      Moors.—The great Germanic invasions of the Roman world.
+
+
+      To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe
+      in 1914, we must go far back into history. It should be
+      remembered that many of the governments of today have not lived
+      as long as that of our own country. This is, perhaps, a new
+      thought to some of us, who rather think that, as America is a new
+      country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one hundred
+      and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed,
+      there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know
+      by that name was cut up among nine or ten little governments.
+      There was no nation known as Germany; the land which is in the
+      present German empire was then divided among some thirty or
+      thirty-five different rulers. There was no Republic of France;
+      instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the French
+      people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium,
+      no kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of
+      Norway was part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now
+      know it, dates back only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the
+      United Kingdom of Italy to about the same time. The kingdoms of
+      Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have been independent of Turkey
+      only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not exist before
+      1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are
+      very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however,
+      originated in the dim twilight of history.
+
+      In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or
+      kingdoms. Men gathered together in little bands, each of which
+      had its leader. This leader was generally chosen because of his
+      bodily strength and courage. He was the best fighter of the
+      tribe. The people did not have any lasting homes. They moved
+      around from place to place, wherever they could find the best
+      hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting
+      grounds, they fought, and the weaker party had to give way.
+      Selfishness was supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged
+      to his weaker neighbor, he simply beat this neighbor over the
+      head with his club, and took it. The stronger tribe attacked the
+      weaker, without any thought of whether or not its quarrel was
+      just.
+
+      Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes
+      began to be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built.
+      Trade came to be one of the occupations. The fighting men needed
+      weapons and armor; so there grew up artisans who were skilled in
+      working metals. In Egypt and Syria there were people who had
+      reached quite a high degree of civilization, and gradually the
+      Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the
+      Greeks, then the Etruscans (Ē-trŭs′cans), a people who lived in
+      Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern
+      Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without
+      hunting and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of
+      animals) came to be the occupation of many. The owners of sheep
+      or cattle drove their flocks from place to place, as grass and
+      water failed them where they were. There was no separate
+      ownership of land.
+
+      At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as
+      the stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule
+      gradually over all the surrounding country. By this time, the
+      barbarians of northern Europe had gotten past the use of clubs as
+      weapons. They, too, had learned to make tools and arms of bronze,
+      and those living near civilized countries had obtained swords of
+      iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign of authority.
+      The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe as a
+      sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king
+      sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right
+      hand. It is interesting to think that this scepter, which the
+      present king of England carries on state occasions to remind his
+      people of his power, is a relic of the old, old days when his
+      grandfather, many times removed, broke the head of his rival for
+      leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club for his
+      awestruck people to worship.
+
+      The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire)
+      spread its rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the
+      Mediterranean Sea, and finally over all the countries of Europe
+      south and west of the rivers Danube and Rhine. One of the
+      emperors planted a colony north of the Danube near its mouth, and
+      the descendants of these colonists are living in that same
+      country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they
+      still call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro͞o-mä′ni]), and talk a
+      language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue
+      spoken by the Romans of old. With the exception of this country,
+      which is now Roumania, the part of Europe north and east of the
+      Danube and Rhine was practically free from the Romans. In this
+      territory, roving bands wandered around, driving their cattle
+      with them and clearing the woods of game.
+
+[Illustration: The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years
+ago.]
+
+      In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had
+      schools where their children were taught to read and write, to
+      speak Greek, and to work problems in geometry. They had
+      magnificent public buildings, fine temples and palaces. They
+      built excellent paved roads all over the southern part of Europe,
+      and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which supplied their
+      cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away. Their
+      dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass,
+      and steel.
+
+      On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people.
+      Their favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators
+      fought, either with each other or with wild beasts. These
+      gladiators were generally men from tribes which had fought
+      against Rome. They had been captured and brought to that city,
+      where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on holidays,
+      with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these
+      unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until
+      one man of each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that
+      one gladiator might be wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The
+      spectators would then shout to the victorious fighter to take his
+      knife and finish what he had begun. In this way what would seem
+      to us like cold-blooded murder was committed hundreds of times
+      each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of Rome sat
+      and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had
+      all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages
+      at heart, and had no sympathy for any people who were not of
+      their own race.
+
+[Illustration: The Last Combat of the Gladiators]
+
+      In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor.
+      They scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or
+      deceive. They lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves
+      luxuries. They rather despised the Greeks, because the latter
+      surrounded themselves with comforts in life. The early Romans
+      were fighters by nature. They had a certain god named Janus (our
+      month January is named after him) and his temple was open only
+      when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of history that
+      during the twelve hundred years from the first building of Rome
+      to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on
+      but three occasions and then only for a short time.
+
+      About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came
+      several disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her
+      sturdy fighters. Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but
+      she won them at tremendous cost to herself. With the killing off
+      of her best and bravest men, a great deal of the old time honesty
+      was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of Roman governors who,
+      when put in charge of conquered states, used their offices only
+      to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome after
+      their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman
+      morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax,
+      and in general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay.
+
+      To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were
+      to become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were
+      the free German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe
+      bounded, roughly, by the rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea,
+      and the Carpathian Mountains. In many ways they were much less
+      civilized than the Romans. They were clad in skins and furs
+      instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in caves
+      dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held
+      human life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among
+      them. As a rule, the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor
+      there was, largely to the women, while they busied themselves in
+      fighting and hunting, or, during their idle times, in gambling.
+      Nevertheless, these people, about the time that the Roman honesty
+      began to disappear, had virtues more like those of the early
+      Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful
+      husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy.
+      They were barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken
+      to Rome and learned the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men
+      than Rome was producing about the time of which we speak.
+
+[Illustration: Germans Going Into Battle]
+
+      To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no
+      better civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the
+      Germans, in later years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in
+      turn, moved westward and occupied much of the land which had been
+      left vacant by the Germans.
+
+[Illustration: A Hun Warrior]
+
+      The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and
+      the British Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could
+      be said to be divided up among four great peoples: There were the
+      Latins in Italy, the Celts in western Europe, the Germans in
+      central Europe, and the Slavs to the east. All of these four
+      families were distantly related, as can be proved by the
+      languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to
+      any one of the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans
+      and Latins. Probably all five peoples are descended from one big
+      family of tribes.
+
+      In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of
+      Europe by other nations which did not have any connection by
+      blood with Celts, Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For
+      instance, the ferocious Huns, a people of the yellow race, rushed
+      into Europe about 400 A.D., but were beaten in a big battle by
+      the Romans and Germans and finally went back to Asia. Three
+      hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from Africa
+      crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and
+      at one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian
+      nations. For several hundred years after this, they held the
+      southern part of Spain, but were finally driven out.
+
+      Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe
+      after the Romans had conquered all the country south and west of
+      the Danube and Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were
+      restlessly roaming through the central part of Europe. They were
+      not at peace with each other. In fact, constant war was going on.
+      Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who conquered what is now
+      France and added it to the Roman world, tells us that one great
+      tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swē′vī), made it their boast that
+      they would let no other tribe live anywhere near them. About a
+      hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and the
+      Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands
+      in countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at
+      last they were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman
+      general, who was Caesar’s uncle by marriage. After this time, the
+      Romans tried to conquer the country of the Germans and they might
+      have been successful but for a young German chief named Arminius.
+      He had lived in Rome as a young man and had learned the Romans’
+      method of war; so when an army came against his tribe, he taught
+      the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman army
+      was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man.
+
+[Illustration: Gaius Julius Caesar.  From a bust in the British Museum]
+
+      This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of
+      conquering all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years,
+      Germans and Romans lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then
+      came a time when the Germans again became the attacking party.
+      Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like the Huns, were assailing
+      them in the east and pushing them forward. They finally broke
+      over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman Empire
+      in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals,
+      Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went
+      to pieces under their savage attacks.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need
+          less land to live on?
+
+          Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than
+          civilized peoples?
+
+          Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more
+          civilized tribes were better armed than the barbarians.
+
+          Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy
+          bloodshed and are not moved by the sufferings of others?
+
+          What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic?
+
+          In what way were the Germans better men than the later
+          Romans?
+
+          What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs?
+
+          Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III.
+From Chiefs to Kings
+
+      The early chief a fighter.—The club the sign of power.—Free men
+      led by a chief of their own choosing.—The first
+      slaves.—Barbarians conquer civilized nations.—A ruling class
+      among conquered people.—All men no longer free and equal.—The
+      value of arms and armor.—The robber chiefs.—How kings first
+      came.—Treaties between tribes follow constant wars.—Tribes unite
+      for protection against enemies.—A king is chosen for the time
+      being.—Some kings refuse to resign their office when the danger
+      is past.—New generations grow up which never knew a kingless
+      state.—The word “king” becomes sacred.
+
+
+      The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of
+      the sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it.
+      Rich cities were plundered at will. They did not admit any man’s
+      ownership of anything. In the old days when the tribes were
+      roaming around, there was no private ownership of land.
+      Everything belonged to the tribe in common. Each man had a vote
+      in the council of the tribe.
+
+      Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no
+      such thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the
+      greater part of his people considered him the best leader in war.
+      Often, no doubt, when a chief had lost a battle and the majority
+      of the tribe had lost confidence in him, he resigned and let them
+      choose a new chief. (For the same reason we frequently hear today
+      that the prime minister, or leader of the government, of some
+      European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact, then, that
+      the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the
+      majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another
+      man in his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in
+      its beginning, was based upon the consent of the governed. All
+      men in the primitive tribe were equal in rank, except as one was
+      a better fighter than another, and the chief held the leadership
+      in war only because the members of his tribe allowed him to keep
+      it.
+
+[Illustration: A Frankish Chief.]
+
+      It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no
+      fixed place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they
+      could put up or tear down at very short notice; and so when they
+      heard of more fertile lands or a warmer climate across the
+      mountains to the south they used to pull up stakes and migrate in
+      a body, never to return. It was always the more savage and
+      uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The lands
+      which they wished to seize they generally found already settled
+      by other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied
+      in trade and agriculture, having gradually turned to these
+      pursuits from their former habits of hunting and fighting.
+      Sometimes these more civilized and peace-loving people were able,
+      by their better weapons and superior knowledge of the art of
+      fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the immigrating
+      barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were the
+      victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to
+      rule them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered
+      ones to feed and clothe them.
+
+[Illustration: Movable Huts of Early Germans]
+
+      History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were
+      taking place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our
+      earliest records date. The best examples, however, are to be
+      found in the invasions of the Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes
+      to which we have referred above. The country between the Rhine
+      River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been called Gaul when
+      the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks conquered
+      the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two
+      German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians
+      came down from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name
+      to their new home in the fertile valley of the Saône (Sōn); the
+      Vandals came out of Germany to roam through Spain, finally
+      founding a kingdom in Africa; while the Lombards crossed the Alps
+      to become the masters of the Valley of the Po, whither the Gauls
+      had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier.
+
+[Illustration: Goths on the March]
+
+[Illustration: Franks Crossing the Rhine]
+
+      The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two
+      thousand years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was
+      overrun and conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and
+      Angles, Germanic tribes, after whom part of the island was called
+      Angleland. (The men from the south of England are of the same
+      blood as the Saxons in the German army, against whom they had to
+      fight in the great war.) Then came Danes, who partially conquered
+      the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066 A.D., the country
+      was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some Norsemen,
+      who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from
+      Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part
+      of France.
+
+[Illustration: Men of Normandy Landing in England.]
+
+      In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands,
+      leaving their former homes to their conquerors. In this way the
+      Britons and Gaels gave up the greater part of their land to the
+      Angles and Saxons and withdrew to the hills and mountains of
+      Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In other cases, the
+      conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same lands
+      side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the
+      Anglo-Saxons.
+
+      In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a
+      raid upon another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some
+      captives who became slaves, working without pay for their
+      conquerors and possessing no more rights than beasts of burden.
+      (This custom exists today in the interior of Africa, and was
+      responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black captives
+      were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors,
+      who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried
+      off and sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.)
+
+      When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors,
+      their number was very small as compared with that of their
+      masters. When, on the other hand, a tribe settled among a people
+      whom they had conquered, they often found themselves fewer in
+      numbers, and kept their leadership only by their greater strength
+      and fighting ability.
+
+      Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer
+      equal, led by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the
+      greater part of them now had no voice in the government. They had
+      become subjects, working to earn their own living and also, as
+      has been said, to support in idleness their conquerors.
+
+      This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to
+      support their masters was increased as certain peoples learned
+      better than others how to make strong armor and effective
+      weapons. Nearly five hundred years before the time of Christ, at
+      the battle of Marathon (Măr′ȧ thŏn), the Greeks discovered
+      that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a long spear,
+      was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and
+      arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a
+      small army of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that
+      wonderful general, Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty
+      times its number of Persians in a great battle in Asia and
+      conquered a vast empire.
+
+[Illustration: Alexander Defeating the Persians]
+
+      In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question
+      of wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the
+      best arms for his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force
+      him to pay money as to a ruler. Finally, in the so-called “Middle
+      Ages,” before the invention of gunpowder, one knight, armed from
+      crown to sole in steel, was worth in battle as much as one
+      hundred poorly-armed farmers or “peasants” as they are called in
+      Europe.
+
+In the “Dark Ages,”[2] after all these barbarians that we have named
+had swarmed over Europe, and before the governments of modern times
+were fully grown, there were hundreds of robber chiefs, who, scattered
+throughout a country, were in the habit of collecting tribute at the
+point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who lived near. This
+tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed amount each
+month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a
+government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel.
+The robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good
+weapons and armor to their men, who lived either in the chief’s castle
+or in small houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any
+travelers who came by, unless their numbers and weapons made them look
+too dangerous to be attacked. But the regular tribute forced from the
+peaceful farmers was the chief source of their income. The robber chief
+and his men lived a life of idleness when they were not out upon some
+raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious peasants worked hard
+enough to support both their own families and those of the robbers.
+
+ [2] The “Dark Ages” came before the “Middle Ages.” They were called
+ “dark” because the barbarians had extinguished nearly all civilization
+ and learning.
+
+[Illustration: A Knight in Armor]
+
+      These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws,
+      and lived either in a country which had no government and laws,
+      or in one whose government was too weak to protect its people.
+      They were no worse, however, than the so-called feudal barons who
+      came after them, who oppressed the people even more, because they
+      had on their side whatever law and government existed in those
+      days.
+
+      Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In
+      the early days of the human race and also in later days among
+      barbarous peoples, the land was very sparsely settled. The reason
+      lay in the chief occupations of the men. A small tribe might
+      inhabit a great stretch of territory through which they wandered
+      to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went on, however,
+      the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place of
+      hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves
+      living in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to
+      their neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just
+      as Caesar tells us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the
+      Germans fought almost daily battles back and forth across the
+      Rhine. In other cases, the tribes found it better for all
+      concerned to make treaties of peace with their neighbors, and if
+      they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms, at least
+      they did not attack each other.
+
+      Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had
+      treaties with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by
+      some horde of another race or nation. Common interest would drive
+      them together for mutual protection, and the chief of some one of
+      them would be chosen to lead their joint army. In this way, we
+      find the fifteen tribes of the Belgians uniting against the Roman
+      army led by Julius Caesar, and electing as king over them the
+      chief of one of the tribes “on account of his justice and
+      wisdom.” Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find
+      practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into
+      a nation under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Vẽr sin jet′ō
+      riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five
+      hundred years later, the Romans themselves were driven to join
+      forces with two of the Germanic tribes to check the swift
+      invasion of the terrible Huns.
+
+      In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the
+      kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that
+      drove the tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted
+      for years or even centuries, so that new generations grew up who
+      had never lived under any other government than that of a king.
+      Thus when the wars were ended, the tribes continued to be ruled
+      by the one man, although the reason for the kingship had ceased
+      to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to 100 B.C.,
+      when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders,
+      appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator
+      ruled like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then,
+      like the famous Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired
+      to private life. The first lasting kingships, then, began, as it
+      were, by the refusal of some dictator to resign when the need for
+      his rule was ended.
+
+      By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king
+      to take his father’s place was fairly well settled, and it did
+      not take long to have it understood as a regular thing that at a
+      king’s death he should be followed by his oldest son. Often there
+      were quarrels and even civil wars caused by ambitious younger
+      sons, who did not submit to their elder brothers without a
+      struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and
+      peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked
+      upon as the rightful heir to the kingship.
+
+      As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be
+      busied in agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in
+      manufacture, the warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people
+      began to forget that the king was originally only a war leader,
+      and that the office was created through military need. They came
+      to regard the rule of the king as a matter of course and stopped
+      thinking of themselves as having any right to say how they should
+      be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling. For the
+      purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the
+      habit of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a
+      divine institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was
+      made by the gods, or in Christian nations, by God, and that it
+      was the divine will that the people of the nations should be
+      ruled by kings. The great Roman orator, Cicero (Sĭs′erō), in a
+      speech delivered in the year 66 B.C., referring to people who
+      lived in kingdoms, says that the name of king “seems to them a
+      great and sacred thing.” This same feeling has lasted through all
+      the ages down to the present time, and the majority of the people
+      in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still look
+      upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if
+      they ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private
+          ownership of land?
+
+          What is meant by saying that government was based upon the
+          consent of the governed?
+
+          Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the
+          German tribes to move southward?
+
+          Explain the beginnings of slavery.
+
+          Explain the value of armor in early times.
+
+          What is meant by the “Dark Ages”?
+
+          What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites?
+
+          When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they
+          should be rulers for life?
+
+          Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power?
+
+          Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IV.
+Master and Man
+
+      The land is the king’s.—He lends it to barons.—Barons lend it to
+      knights and smaller barons.—Smaller barons collect rent for it
+      from the peasants.—A father’s lands are lent to his son.—Barons
+      pay for the land by furnishing men for the king’s wars.—No
+      account is taken of the rights of the peasant.—The peasant, the
+      only producer, is despised by the fighting men.—If a baron
+      rebels, his men must rebel also.—Dukes against kings.—What killed
+      the feudal system.—Feudal wrongs alive today.
+
+
+      When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country,
+      as the Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the
+      Normans entered England in 1066, their king at once took it for
+      granted that he owned all the conquered land. In some cases, he
+      might divide the kingdom up among his chiefs, giving a county to
+      each of forty or fifty leaders. These great leaders (dukes or
+      barons, as they were called in the Norman-French language, or
+      earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide up
+      his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call
+      lesser or little barons. Each little baron might have several
+      knights and squires, who lived in or near his castle and had
+      received from him tracts of land corresponding in size, perhaps,
+      to the American township and who, therefore, fought under his
+      banner in war.
+
+[Illustration: A Norman Castle in England]
+
+      Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men,
+      “men-at-arms,” as they were called, or “retainers,” who in return
+      for their “keep,” that is, their food and lodging, and a chance
+      to share the plunder gained in war, swore to be faithful to him,
+      became his men, and gave him the service called homage. (This
+      word comes from _hōmō_, the Latin for “man.”) The lesser baron,
+      in turn, swore homage to, and was the “man” of the great baron or
+      earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser chiefs to gather
+      their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey, serving
+      him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed
+      them. The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had
+      received his land.
+
+      This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word
+      _feudum_, which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which
+      was given to a man in return for his services in war), a system
+      which reversed the natural laws of society, and stood it on its
+      apex, like a cone balanced on its point. For instead of saying
+      that the land was the property of the people of the tribe or
+      nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all
+      belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the
+      land, outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in
+      return for their faithful support and service in war, the _use_
+      of the land during their lifetime, or so long as they remained
+      true to him. In _Macbeth_, we read how, for his treason, the
+      lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were taken from him by the
+      Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The lands thus
+      lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went
+      back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place,
+      and he at once gave them to some other one of his followers upon
+      the same terms. It often happened that upon the death of an earl
+      or baron his son was granted the lands which his father had held,
+      Finally, in many counties, it grew into a custom, and the oldest
+      son took possession of his father’s fief, but not without first
+      going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity to him.
+
+      Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the
+      system fully. In the first place, in the division of the lands
+      among the barons of the conquering nation, no account was taken
+      of the peasants. As they were of the defeated people, their
+      rights to the land were not once considered. In many countries,
+      the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the conquered
+      territory. They “went with” the land and were considered by the
+      lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned
+      over a farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If
+      any of them tried to run away, they were brought back and
+      whipped. They tilled the land and raised live stock, giving a
+      certain share of their yearly crop and a certain number of
+      beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent for the land,
+      much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to the
+      robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned
+      their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and
+      robbed by all the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs
+      existing today that are due to the fact that the feudal system is
+      not wholly stamped out in some countries.
+
+[Illustration: A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord]
+
+      In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the
+      direct master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn
+      homage to him. He was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The
+      less important barons swore homage to the great barons, and the
+      knights, squires, retainers, and yeomen swore homage to the
+      lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided his fief among
+      certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance, not to
+      him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a
+      “man” rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers,
+      etc., must rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to
+      obey his king and broke his oath of allegiance, all his little
+      barons and knights must turn disloyal too, or rather, must remain
+      loyal, for their oaths had been taken to support the duke, and
+      not the king. History is full of such cases. In many instances,
+      dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war on even
+      terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the
+      kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland
+      in 1403 raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of
+      England; the Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the
+      throne of England and became king in his place.
+
+[Illustration: William the Conqueror]
+
+      A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of
+      Normandy had sworn homage to the king of France, became, through
+      conquest, king of England. His sons, great-grandsons, and
+      great-great-grandsons continued for one hundred and fifty years
+      to be obliged to swear allegiance to the French kings in order to
+      keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the Governor of Texas
+      had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become Emperor of
+      that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up his
+      American citizenship.
+
+      Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring
+      more power to the common people were, first, the invention of
+      gunpowder, and, second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket
+      could bring down a knight in armor as easily as he could the most
+      poorly armored peasant. Kings, in fighting to control their great
+      lords, gave more freedom to citizens of towns in return for their
+      help. The king’s armies came to be recruited largely from
+      townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the feudal
+      lords.
+
+      The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain
+      amount of military service to his ruler has lasted to the present
+      day and is responsible for much of the misery that now exists.
+      Kings went to war with each other simply to increase their
+      territories. The more land a king had under his control, the more
+      people who owed him taxes, and the greater number he could get
+      into his army, the greater became his ambition to spread his
+      kingdom still farther.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all
+          the land in the country which he had invaded?
+
+          Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to
+          the welfare of the working classes?
+
+          Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting
+          men, lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed?
+
+          Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns
+          his living is looked down upon by the nobles?
+
+          What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society
+          upside down?
+
+          Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men?
+
+          Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break
+          up the feudal system.
+
+          How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the
+          feudal system?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V.
+A Babel of Tongues
+
+      The great family of languages.—Few languages in Europe not
+      belonging to the family.—The dying Celtic languages.—The three
+      branches of the Germanic family.—The influence of the Latin
+      tongue on the south of Europe.—The many Slavic peoples.—The map
+      as divided by kings without regard to peoples and languages.—The
+      strange mixture in Austria-Hungary.—The southeast of Europe.—The
+      Greeks and Dacians.—The Roman colonists.—The Slavs.—The
+      Volgars.—The Skipetars.—A hopeless mixture.
+
+
+      In Chapter II it was pointed out that almost all the peoples of
+      Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely
+      that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the
+      Greeks, and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its
+      home back in the highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule,
+      the relationship of peoples to each other can be told by the
+      languages which they speak. If two tribes are related because
+      their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it is almost
+      certain that they will show this relationship in their languages.
+
+      The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like
+      the language of the Germans, for the English were originally
+      German tribes. Even today, it is easy to see that English is a
+      Germanic language. Take the English words house, father, mother,
+      brother, water, here, is, etc. The German words which mean the
+      same are _haus, vater, mutter, bruder, wasser, hier, ist_. It is
+      very plain that the two languages must have come from the same
+      source.
+
+      There are professors in European colleges who have spent their
+      whole lives studying this relationship of languages. These men
+      have proved not only that almost all the languages of Europe are
+      related, but that the language of the Persians, and that of some
+      of the old tribes in Hindustan also belong to one great family of
+      tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In one of the ancient
+      languages of Hindustan it was _matr_; in the Greek, it was
+      _mātār_; in the Latin _mater_ (mätār); in the Bohemian
+      _matka_; in the German _mu̠tter_; in the Spanish mädre; in the
+      Norwegian _mōder_, etc. This great family of languages is called
+      “the Indo-European group,” because the tribes which spoke them,
+      originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered all over India and
+      Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do not belong
+      to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques
+      (Bȧsks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies,
+      and the Turks.
+
+      The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the
+      Celtic languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that
+      first the Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of
+      the lands where the Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal,
+      France, and Belgium now talk languages that have grown from the
+      Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts in the British Isles now
+      all talk English, because the English, who were a Germanic
+      people, conquered them and forced them to use their language.
+      Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the
+      Celtic tribes) are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh
+      languages, but all of the young people in the British Isles learn
+      English, and they are generally content to talk only one
+      language. The other Celtic languages which have existed within
+      the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of
+      Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the
+      southwestern corner of England.
+
+      The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in
+      three parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish,
+      Norwegian, and Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria
+      and Germany form, with Holland and Western Belgium, a second
+      group of German-speaking nations. (The people of eastern Belgium
+      are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The third part of Europe
+      which uses a Germanic language is England.
+
+      In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain,
+      and Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin.
+      Latin languages today are found also in the southern and western
+      parts of Switzerland, all over Italy, and in Roumania.
+
+      We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the
+      Germanic tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs
+      followed them and occupied the lands which had just been left
+      vacant. In this way, we find Slavic peoples talking Slavic
+      (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the parts of Europe to
+      the east and south of the Germans. More than half of the
+      inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians
+      proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to
+      the Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins
+      are Slavs. The Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak
+      a Slavic language and have some Slavic blood in them, although,
+      as will be pointed out later, originally they did not belong to
+      the Slavic family.
+
+[Illustration: Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship]
+
+      The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family
+      of tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of
+      the four great branches.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution Of Languages]
+
+      The two maps on pages 65 and 66 are very much alike and yet in
+      some respects very different. The first shows how Europe is
+      largely inhabited by peoples of the great Indo-European family.
+      Those who are descended from the Celts are marked Celtic even
+      though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have
+      the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France,
+      eastern Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians
+      are marked as not belonging to the great family, although they
+      speak a Slavic language.
+
+      In the second map, the distribution of languages is shown. You
+      will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in small
+      parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of
+      France. The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their
+      language belongs to that branch. One of the most curious things
+      about the two maps is the presence of little spots like islands,
+      particularly made up of German-speaking peoples. There are
+      several of these little islands in Russia. They have been there
+      for nearly two hundred years. A traveler crossing the southern
+      part of Russia is astonished to find districts as large as an
+      American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. The people
+      are all of Germanic blood, although they live under the
+      government of Russia. In the same way, there is a large German
+      island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania and another
+      between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian
+      Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania
+      also, entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on
+      the opposite page shows the main branches of the Indo-European
+      family that are found in Europe.
+
+
+        The Indo-European Family of Languages
+
+          (_a_) Hindu branch
+
+          (_b_) Persian branch
+
+          (_c_) Celtic branch
+          Gāe′lic (northern Scotland) Welsh Cornish (dead)
+          Erse (Irish) Brē′ton (western France)
+
+          (_d_) Latin branch
+          Portuguese Spanish French Romansh (southeastern Switzerland)
+          Italian Roumanian
+
+          (_e_) Germanic branch
+          Norwegian Danish Swedish Dutch Flemish (Belgium)
+          Low German High German English
+
+          (_f_) Slavonic branch
+          Russian Polish Lettish Lithuanian Old Prussian (dead) Czech
+          (Bohemian [pronounced Chĕck]) Slō vak′ (northern Hungary)
+          Serbian Bulgarian Slove′nian (southwestern Austria)
+          Crōa′tian (southern Austria)
+          Ruthē′nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern
+          Russia)
+
+ } } Baltic states of Russia }
+
+          (_g_) Greek
+
+          (_h_) Albā′nian
+
+      The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings
+      and their ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the
+      feudal lords, never considered the wishes of the people when they
+      changed the boundaries of kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good
+      example. The Austrians and Hungarians were two very different
+      peoples. They had nothing in common and did not wish to be joined
+      under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no son to
+      succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of
+      Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of
+      Hapsburg) was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia,
+      although the Bohemian people had not chosen him as their ruler.
+      The Hungarians, before their union with Austria, had conquered
+      certain Slavic tribes and part of the Roumanians. Later Austria
+      annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire became a jumble
+      of languages and nationalities. When its congress is called
+      together, the official announcement is read in eleven different
+      languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not
+      as large as that of the state of Texas.
+
+      We must remember that besides the literary or written languages
+      of each country there are several spoken dialects. A man from
+      Devonshire, England, meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of
+      the same country, has difficulty in understanding many words in
+      his speech. The language of the south of Scotland also is
+      English, although it is very different from the English that we
+      in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees Mountains
+      was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we
+      find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is
+      talked by the country people around him, that can not be
+      understood by the peasants from the north of France near the
+      Flemish border. The man who lives in the east of France can
+      understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of Italy
+      much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic
+      coast.
+
+      In America, with people moving around from place to place by
+      means of stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no
+      great chance to develop dialects, although we can instantly tell
+      the New Englander, the southerner, or the westerner by his
+      speech. It should be remembered that in Europe, for centuries,
+      the people were kept on their own farms or in their own towns.
+      The result of this was that each little village or city has its
+      own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied
+      such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from
+      Europe, can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in
+      the old country. There are no sharply marked boundaries of
+      languages. The dialects of France shade off into those of Spain
+      on the one hand and into those of the Flemish and the Italian on
+      the other.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.]
+
+      The British Isles furnish us with four or five different
+      nationalities. The people of the north of Ireland are really
+      lowland Scotch of Germanic descent, while the other three-fourths
+      of Ireland is inhabited by Celts. To make the difference all the
+      greater, the Celts are almost universally Catholics, while the
+      Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north of Scotland
+      are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or
+      blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The
+      Welsh are a Celtic people, having no relationship with the
+      English, who are a Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of
+      Cornwall and the people of highland Scotland are the descendants
+      of the ancient Britons and Gaels who inhabited the island when
+      Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there. Then five
+      hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great
+      swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the
+      Britons to the west and north, and settled the country now known
+      as England. After these, you will recall, came a number of Danes,
+      another Germanic people, who settled the east coast of England.
+      Two hundred years later, the Normans came from France. These
+      Normans had been living in France for a century or two, but had
+      come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes, Angles, and Saxons
+      all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they fought the
+      Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them,
+      oppressed them harshly for many centuries.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.]
+
+      But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the
+      worst jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ,
+      the Greeks and their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians,
+      and Dacians inhabited this district. When one of the Roman
+      Emperors conquered the Dacians about 100 A.D., he planted a large
+      Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then came the West Goths,
+      who swept into this country, but soon left it for the west of
+      Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the
+      modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not
+      belong to the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to
+      the Finns and the Turks. These people were called the Volgars,
+      for they came from the country around the River Volga. Before
+      long, we find them called the Bulgars. (The letters B and V are
+      often interchanged in the languages of south-eastern Europe. The
+      people of western Europe used to call the country of the Serbs
+      Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word _servio_, in
+      Latin, means “to be a slave,” and that as they were not slaves,
+      they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia.
+      The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though
+      it were V.)
+
+      A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They
+      completely gave up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one,
+      which became in time the purest of the Slavic tongues. They
+      intermarried with the Slavs around them and adopted Slavic names.
+      They founded a flourishing nation which lay between the kingdom
+      of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople.
+
+      North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro͞o
+      mä′nï). These people claimed to be descended from the Roman
+      Emperor’s colonists, as was previously told, but the reason their
+      language is so much like the Italian is that a large number of
+      people from the north of Italy moved into the country nearly a
+      thousand years after the first Roman colonists settled there.
+      From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited by
+      Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: A Typical Bulgarian Family]
+
+      A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians.
+      (See map) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians, who
+      inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the
+      time of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a
+      branch of the Indo-European family which is neither Latin,
+      Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic. They are distant cousins of the
+      Italians and are also slightly related to the Greeks. They are a
+      wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never known the
+      meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each
+      village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring
+      towns. The Albanians, or Skipetars (skïp′ĕtars) as they call
+      themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the
+      Turks about 1460. Since that time, the great majority of them
+      have been staunch believers in the Mohammedan religion.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have
+          its beginning?
+
+          Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out?
+
+          What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France?
+
+          What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages
+          are spoken?
+
+          In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are
+          descended from the Latin?
+
+          Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different
+          peoples?
+
+          Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI.
+“The Terrible Turk”
+
+      The Greek Empire at Constantinople.—The invading Mohammedans.—The
+      Ottoman Turks.—The fall of Constantinople.—The enslaving of the
+      Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.—One little
+      part of Serbia unconquered.—The further conquests of the
+      Turks.—The attack on Vienna.—John Sobieski to the rescue.—The
+      waning of the Turkish empire.—The Spanish Jews.—The jumble of
+      languages and peoples in southeastern Europe.
+
+
+      In the last chapter, we referred briefly to the Greek empire at
+      Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and
+      was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years
+      before Christ. Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor
+      named Constantine decided that he liked Byzantium better than
+      Rome. Accordingly, he moved the capital of the empire to the
+      Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis (the word _polis_
+      means “city” in Greek). Before long, we find the Roman empire
+      divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the other
+      at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the
+      Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the
+      western empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes.
+
+[Illustration: The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople]
+
+      For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged
+      to fight hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across
+      the fertile plains of Mesopotamia (mĕs′ō pō tā′ mĭ ā) and
+      Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the Tigris
+      (tī′grĭs) and Euphrates (ūfrā′tēz) Rivers. Its name in Greek
+      means “between the rivers.”) The fiercest of the Mohammedan
+      tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For
+      several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople,
+      while the Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler.
+
+      At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls,
+      and the Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the
+      past, and all of southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the
+      invading Moslems (another name for “Mohammedans”). The Turks did
+      not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Albanians,
+      but settled down among them as the ruling, military class. They
+      strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity and turn
+      Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the
+      Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians,
+      Greeks, and Roumanians remained where they had been, but were
+      oppressed by the newcomers.
+
+      For more than two hundred years after the capture of
+      Constantinople, the Turks pushed their conquests farther and
+      farther into Europe. The entire coast of the Black Sea fell into
+      their hands. All of Greece, all of Bulgaria, and all of Roumania
+      became part of their empire. Of the kingdom of Serbia, one small
+      province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains near the coast
+      of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the Serbian
+      kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and
+      higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the
+      invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that
+      “the game was not worth the candle.” Thus the little nation of
+      Montenegro was formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted
+      to the Ottoman rule. (The inhabitants of this small country call
+      it Tzernagorah (tzẽr nä gō′ra); the Italians call it
+      Montenegro. Both of these names mean “Dark Mountain.”)
+
+      Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining
+      control of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About
+      1682, they were pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic
+      king of Poland, John Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ), came to the
+      rescue of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans
+      and completely defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any
+      further advance of the Turkish rule into Europe. (The map on page
+      82 shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.)
+
+      It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the
+      conquered lands were still living where they always had lived.
+      The Turks were very few in number compared with the millions of
+      people who inhabited their empire and paid them tribute. Many
+      wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two hundred and
+      thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their
+      territory.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.]
+
+      By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of
+      their kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania
+      was free from Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain
+      Count of Hapsburg had become Emperor of Germany, and when we say
+      Germany, we include Austria, which had become the home of the
+      Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that the Hapsburg family
+      came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage of one of
+      their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that
+      country. (See page 69.)
+
+      In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory
+      known as the Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is
+      now Roumania, were reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint
+      kingdom to which they were attached. (Bukowina has never been a
+      part of Hungary. It is still a crown land, or county subject to
+      the emperor of Austria personally.)
+
+      During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to
+      be inhabited by a still different people. Not long after
+      Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had
+      conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada (see Chapter II) that
+      used to stretch across the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards
+      decided to drive out of their country all “unbelievers,” that is,
+      all who were not Christians of the Catholic faith. (This happened
+      in 1492, the same year that they sent Columbus to America.) The
+      Moors retreated into Africa, which was their former home, but the
+      millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to return. In
+      the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them
+      to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter
+      his land. They did so by hundreds of thousands.
+
+      The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout
+      the Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are
+      so numerous in Constantinople that four newspapers are published
+      there in the Spanish language, but printed in Hebrew characters.
+      The city of Salonika, a prosperous seaport of 140,000 people,
+      which used to belong to Turkey but now is part of Greece, has
+      over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn other tongues, and
+      many of them can talk in four or five languages besides their
+      native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle.
+
+      Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city,
+      that is, a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians,
+      Jews, Italians are all found mingled together.
+
+
+[Illustration: A Scene in Salonicka]
+
+      The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the
+      races and nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost
+      impossible to say which land should belong to which nation. Take
+      the case of Macedonia (the district just northwest of the Aegean
+      Sea). It is inhabited largely by Bulgarians, and yet there are so
+      many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the former that at the close
+      of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia both claimed it
+      as belonging to them because of the “prevailing nationality of
+      its inhabitants!” In other words, the Serbians claimed that the
+      inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were
+      positive that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is
+      very resentful today because the land was not given to her, on
+      the ground that almost all its inhabitants are Bulgarians!
+
+      Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with
+      making the Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right
+      in the center of Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same
+      language, dressing exactly alike, doing business with each other
+      on an equal footing, are to be found the native Bulgarian and the
+      descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one goes to the Greek
+      Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the Mohammedan
+      Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and
+      oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise
+      each other with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan
+      states, with their seething pot of racial and religious hatred,
+      and turn to other causes of European wars.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured
+          Constantinople?
+
+          Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks?
+
+          How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks
+          threatening Vienna?
+
+          Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different
+          nationalities.
+
+          Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII.
+The Rise of Modern Nations
+
+      How the peasants looked upon war.—War the opportunity of the
+      fighting men.—The decreasing power of barons.—The growth of royal
+      power.—How four little kingdoms became Spain.—Other kingdoms of
+      Europe.—The rise of Russia.—The Holy Roman Empire.—The
+      electors.—The rise of Brandenburg.—The elector of Brandenburg
+      becomes King of Prussia.—Frederick the Great.—The seizure of
+      Silesia and the consequent wars.
+
+
+      You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal
+      system, the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men
+      made up a class of the population whose only trade was war, and
+      how the poor peasants were compelled to raise crops and live
+      stock enough to feed both themselves and the fighting men. These
+      peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only in their
+      losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the
+      enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do
+      unless war was going on, and as those who were not killed
+      returned from a war with rich plunder in case they were
+      victorious, they were always looking for a chance to start
+      trouble with some neighboring country.
+
+      In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long
+      as the nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war.
+      As a result, one county in a certain kingdom would often be at
+      war with a neighboring county. The fighting man either was killed
+      in battle or he came out of it with increased glory and plunder,
+      but the peasants and the common people had nothing to gain by war
+      and everything to lose. As we have seen, force ruled the world,
+      and the common people had no voice in their government. The
+      workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting
+      class, who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered
+      honest toil as degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the
+      only respectable trade in Europe in those days was what we today
+      would call highway robbery.
+
+      France and England in the 15th Century
+
+      Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to
+      put down the power of his nobles and make himself master over the
+      whole nation. In this way a strong central power grew up in
+      France. After the death of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in
+      1477, no noble dared to question the leadership of the king of
+      France. The same thing was true in England after the battle of
+      Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King Richard III
+      and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne.
+
+      Spain and Other Kingdoms
+
+      Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile,
+      Aragon, and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation
+      marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon
+      joined the three Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492,
+      when the Moors were defeated and Granada annexed to the realm of
+      Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became one kingdom. About this
+      time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of Hungary, a
+      kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark.
+      Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom.
+      In Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong
+      power which was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the
+      Great (1690-1725).
+
+      The Holy Roman Empire
+
+      The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the
+      Turkish Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a
+      rule which had been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great
+      Frankish monarch, who had been crowned in Rome by the pope as
+      ruler of the western world. (The name “Holy Roman Empire” was not
+      used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it under Otto I, the Saxon
+      emperor, who was crowned in 962.)
+
+[Illustration: The Empire of Charlemagne]
+
+      This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany
+      (except the eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now
+      Bohemia, Austria (but not Hungary), and all of Italy except the
+      part south of Naples. There were times when part of France and
+      all of the low countries (now Belgium and Holland) also belonged
+      to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won their
+      independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and
+      formed a little republic.) See map “Europe in 1540.”
+
+
+[Illustration: Europe in 1540]
+
+      In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not
+      necessarily succeed his father as ruler. There were seven
+      (afterwards nine) “electors” who, at the death of the ruling
+      monarch, met to elect his successor. Three of these electors were
+      archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the others were counts
+      of large counties in Germany like Hanover and Brandenburg. It
+      frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member of the
+      family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families
+      which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most
+      famous of these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from
+      whom the present emperor of Austria is descended.
+
+[Illustration: Louis XIV]
+
+      This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the
+      kingdoms of England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia,
+      Saxony, and Bavaria all were subjects of the emperor, as were
+      many powerful counts. These men were jealous of the emperor’s
+      power, and he did not dare govern them as strictly as the king of
+      France ruled his nobles.
+
+      France in the 18th Century
+
+[Illustration: John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough]
+
+      During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by
+      the ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to
+      increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up
+      a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals
+      spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and
+      Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany
+      between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vōzh) Mountains.
+      Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman
+      Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at
+      the battle of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough,
+      aided by the emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion
+      of the French.
+
+[Illustration: The Great Elector of Brandenburg]
+
+      Prussia
+
+      The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe.
+      You will recall that there was a county in Germany named
+      Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose
+      the emperor. The capital of this county was Berlin. It so
+      happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of
+      Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little
+      county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of
+      these counts, called “the Great Elector,” had added to
+      Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of
+      Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but
+      was a very proud and vain man. He happened to visit King William
+      III of England, and was very much offended because during the
+      interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the
+      elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which
+      was straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult,
+      as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should
+      be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He
+      could not call himself “King of Brandenburg,” for Brandenburg was
+      part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had
+      happened some one hundred years before, that, through his
+      marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of
+      Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as
+      East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic
+      Sea. Between this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the
+      district known as West Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of
+      Poland. However, Prussia lay outside the boundaries of the
+      Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say about what went on
+      there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the kings and
+      princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the “King
+      of Prussia.” It was a situation somewhat like the one we have
+      already referred to, when the kings of England were independent
+      monarchs and yet subjects of the kings of France because they
+      were also dukes of Normandy.
+
+[Illustration: Frederick The Great]
+
+      The son of this elector who first called himself king had more
+      energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country
+      with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He
+      was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over
+      Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in
+      his famous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of
+      the Prussian kingdom.
+
+      His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most
+      remarkable fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had
+      been brought up under strict discipline by his father. The old
+      king had been insistent that his son should be no weakling. It is
+      told that one day, finding Frederick playing upon a flute, he
+      seized the instrument and snapped it in twain over his son’s
+      shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh training, became
+      a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died and left
+      him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was
+      fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as
+      has been said, was made up of a great many little counties, each
+      ruled by its petty prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general
+      way, to the ruler of Austria, who still was supposed to be the
+      head of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+[Illustration: The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806]
+
+      This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many
+      different nationalities which had little sympathy with each
+      other. The ruler of Austria was also king of Bohemia and of
+      Hungary, but neither country was happy at being governed by a
+      German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians, Serbs, Slovenes, and
+      Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the Hungarians and
+      then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished their
+      independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick
+      became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the
+      House of Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria
+      Theresa, to rule the big empire. Frederick decided that he could
+      easily defeat the disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced
+      to the world that the rich province of Silesia was henceforth to
+      be his and that he proposed to take it by force of arms.
+      Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria, but in the
+      end, Frederick’s well-trained troops, his store of money, and
+      above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians
+      victorious, and at the close of the fighting, almost all of
+      Silesia remained a part of the kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians,
+      however, were not satisfied, and two more wars were fought before
+      they finally gave up trying to recover the stolen state.
+      Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his
+      victories.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss
+          to a nation in general?
+
+          How was it that Spain became one nation?
+
+          What did Peter the Great do for Russia?
+
+          Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings?
+
+          What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France?
+
+          What effect had the training of his father upon the character
+          of Frederick the Great?
+
+          Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII.
+The Fall of the Two Kingdoms
+
+      The Poles, a divided nation.—The three partitions.—Wars and
+      revolts as a result.—The disappearance of Lithuania.—The growing
+      power of the king of France.—An extravagant and corrupt
+      court.—Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.—Bankruptcy at
+      last.—The meeting of the three estates.—The third estate defies
+      the king.—The fall of the Bastille.—The flight and capture of the
+      king.—The king beheaded.—Other kings alarmed.—Valmy saves the
+      revolution.—The reign of terror.
+
+
+      In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east
+      of Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in
+      Europe with the exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said
+      before, were a Slavic people, distant cousins of the Russians and
+      Bohemians. They had a strong nobility or upper class, but these
+      nobles were jealous of each other, and as a result, the country
+      was torn apart by many warring factions. The condition of the
+      working class was very miserable. The nobles did not allow them
+      any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically
+      slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of
+      the crops that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles,
+      no law could be passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a
+      result of this jealousy between factions, the Poles could not be
+      induced to obey any one leader, and thus, divided, were easy to
+      conquer.
+
+      Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated
+      from his land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia,
+      which was part of Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria
+      Theresa of Austria, and to the Empress Catharine II of Russia
+      that they each take a slice of Poland. This was accordingly done,
+      in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist the three
+      great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had
+      been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by
+      without a protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia
+      each again annexed a large part of the remainder of Poland, and
+      two years after this, the three powers divided up among them all
+      that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The Poles fought violently
+      against this last partition, but they were not united and were
+      greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers.
+
+      This great crime against a nation was the result of the military
+      system; and this in turn was the result of the feudal system,
+      which made the king, as commander-in-chief of the army, the
+      supreme ruler of his country. The men in the Prussian and
+      Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer the poor
+      Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage
+      from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply
+      meant an enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes
+      to them, and more men to draw on for their armies.
+
+[Illustration: Catharine II]
+
+      Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country,
+      this wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all
+      the stronger. There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by
+      Polish uprisings, time and time again, and the Poles will never
+      be satisfied until their unhappy country is once more united.
+
+      To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country
+      had been annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had
+      married the daughter of the king of Poland, followed his
+      father-in-law on the Polish throne. Lithuania fell to Russia’s
+      share in the division, so that its people only changed masters.
+      They are a distinct nation, however, possessing a language and
+      literature of their own, and having no desire to be ruled by
+      either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice, they
+      would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and
+      Russia proper.
+
+      The Downfall of the French Monarchy
+
+[Illustration: Courtier of time of Louis XIV]
+
+      In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There,
+      for hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing
+      greater, until by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the
+      country who could oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons
+      where he sent those who had offended him, shutting them up
+      without a trial and not even letting their families know where
+      they had been taken. The peasants and working classes had been
+      ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier. The king
+      spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his
+      courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest
+      capital in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and
+      the poor peasants paid the bills.
+
+[Illustration: The Taking of The Bastille]
+
+      For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a
+      revolt, but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead
+      them. At last, came a time when there was no money in the royal
+      treasury. After all the waste and corruption, nothing was left to
+      pay the army and keep up the expenses of the government. One
+      minister of finance after another tried to devise some scheme
+      whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success.
+      The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred
+      years were at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king
+      summoned a meeting of representative men from all over the
+      kingdom. There were three classes represented, the nobles, the
+      clergy, and what was called “the third estate,” which meant
+      merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A great statesman
+      appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the third
+      estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such
+      that the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst
+      of these exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison,
+      the Bastille. They took it by storm, and tore it to the ground.
+      This happened on the fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the
+      French still celebrate as the birthday of their nation’s liberty.
+      All over France the common people rose in revolt. The soldiers in
+      the army would no longer obey their officers. The king was
+      closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was
+      brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in
+      terror, fled from the country. Thus began what is known as the
+      French Revolution.
+
+[Illustration: The Palace of Versailles]
+
+      As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of
+      France took charge of their government, a panic arose throughout
+      the courts of Europe. Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the
+      king of France, began to fear for themselves. They, too, had
+      taxed and oppressed their subjects. They felt that this revolt of
+      the French people must be put down, and the king of France set
+      back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt might
+      take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of
+      Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made
+      war on the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the
+      French by force of arms and compel them to put back their king
+      upon his throne.
+
+      Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known
+      what the object of this war was, they would have had very little
+      sympathy with it, but for years they had been trained to obey
+      their officers, who in turn obeyed their generals, who in turn
+      obeyed the orders of the kings. The common soldiers were like
+      sheep, in that they did not think for themselves, but followed
+      their leaders. They were not allowed to know the truth concerning
+      this attack on France. They did not know the French language, and
+      had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were no
+      public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how
+      to read the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled
+      by the governments, and were allowed to print only what favored
+      the cause of the kings.
+
+      The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French
+      poet from Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song
+      which was first sung in Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus
+      has come to be called “La Marseillaise.” It is the cry of a
+      crushed and oppressed people against foreign tyrants who would
+      again enslave them. It fired the French army with a wonderful
+      enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back the
+      invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French
+      Republic.
+
+[Illustration: The Reign of Terror]
+
+      The period known as “the reign of terror” now began in earnest. A
+      faction of the extreme republican party got control of the
+      government, and kept it by terrorizing the more peaceable
+      citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles had put upon the lower
+      classes for so many hundred years were brutally avenged. The king
+      was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not fled from
+      the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the
+      principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the
+      nation came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly
+      good government was organized, and the executions ceased. Still
+      the kings of Europe would not recognize the new republic. There
+      was war against France for the next twenty years on the part of
+      England, and generally two or three other countries as well.
+
+[Illustration: The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors?
+
+          Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent
+          the partition of Poland?
+
+          How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland?
+
+          What things could the king of France do which would not be
+          tolerated in the United States today?
+
+          Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king?
+
+          Why did the king call together the three “estates”?
+
+          Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July?
+
+          Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of
+          France?
+
+          What was the cause of the reign of terror?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX.
+The Little Man from the Common People
+
+      The young Corsican.—The war in Italy.—Italy a battlefield for
+      centuries.—The victories of Bonaparte.—The first consul.—The
+      empire.—The French sweep over Europe.—Kings and emperors beaten
+      and deposed.—The fatal Russian campaign.—The first
+      abdication.—The return from Elba.—The battle of Waterloo.—The
+      feudal lords once more triumphant.
+
+
+      And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable
+      characters in all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little
+      man from the island of Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a
+      French citizen, for the island had been forcibly The annexed to
+      France shortly before his birth. As a young lieutenant in the
+      army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later on, being
+      in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament,
+      he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this
+      period. A Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they
+      had the castle of the king. As a reward, he had been put in
+      charge of the French army in Italy, which was engaged in fighting
+      the Austrians.
+
+      In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this
+      point to devote some attention to the past history of the Italian
+      peninsula.
+
+      Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman
+      Empire. The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with
+      Sicily, a small nation called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
+      The northern part had belonged to the Ostrogoths, the Lombards,
+      the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in turn. The Italian people
+      wanted to become one nation, but they were divided up among many
+      little princes, each with his separate dominions. The cities of
+      Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was strong on
+      the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired
+      practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople,
+      Egypt, and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the
+      control of northern Italy except the lands around the city of
+      Venice and the county of Piedmont. The latter formed a separate
+      kingdom with the island of Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined
+      with the southern end of the peninsula.
+
+      Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns,
+      Lombards, Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought
+      their battles for the control of the civilized world. (See the
+      following maps.) At one time, the Austrian House of Hapsburg
+      controlled the greater part of the peninsula. This was especially
+      true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
+      As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low
+      Countries (what is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of
+      Spain, being the oldest living grandson of Ferdinand and
+      Isabella. When he became ruler of the two Sicilies, and defeated
+      the French king for the control of northern Italy, there were
+      only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway: Russia,
+      Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.)
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 525 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 650 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 1175 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Charles the Fifth]
+
+      Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading
+      Italy, and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had
+      overrun and controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of
+      the war was still the deposing of the French monarch. The
+      Austrian armies were fighting to force the people of France to
+      take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies of France, on
+      the other hand, represented the rights of the people to choose
+      their own form of government.
+
+      Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the
+      Revolution, were eager to spread the republican form of
+      government all over Europe. There was a real possibility that
+      they might do so, and the kings were fighting in defense of their
+      thrones. (The map shows the conquests of the new republic up to
+      this time.)
+
+
+[Illustration: Europe in 1796]
+
+      Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of
+      age, went down into Italy to take command of the French army. The
+      generals, many of them as old as his father, began offering him
+      advice, but he impatiently waved them aside and announced that he
+      was going to wage war on a plan hitherto unheard of. He made good
+      his boast, and after a short campaign in which he inspired his
+      ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting, he had driven
+      the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic of
+      Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a
+      brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte
+      returned to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had
+      little difficulty in overthrowing the five Directors of the
+      French government and having himself elected “First Consul” or
+      president of France.
+
+      A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but
+      Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time
+      compelled his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the
+      French people elect him “emperor of the French” for life, and by
+      an overwhelming vote they did so. The empire was very different
+      from the other empires and kingships of Europe, since it was
+      created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs held their
+      thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the
+      plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By
+      this time, the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to
+      the swords of their fighting men, and there had grown up a
+      doctrine called “The Divine Right of Kings.” In other words, the
+      kings claimed that God in his wisdom had seen fit to make them
+      rulers over these lands, and that they were responsible to God
+      alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that any one who
+      attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the will
+      of Heaven.
+
+      The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from
+      the tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in
+      the wonderful victories gained by their armies under the
+      brilliant leadership of Napoleon. (He dropped his last name,
+      Bonaparte, when he was elected emperor.) They swept over the
+      greater part of Europe and helped to spread the idea that the
+      people had rights that all kings were bound to respect, and that
+      it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber
+      chiefs.
+
+      For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the
+      Austrians and Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two
+      fierce battles, he crushed the wonderful Prussian army, which had
+      been trained in the military school of Frederick the Great. He
+      drove out the king of Spain, the king of the Two Sicilies, the
+      kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made one of his
+      brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king of
+      Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law
+      on the throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of
+      Rome. He took away from Prussia all of her territory except
+      Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania. and East and West Prussia. He
+      reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings called it the Grand
+      Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all claim to
+      northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now
+      Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See
+      map entitled “Europe in 1810.”)
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1810]
+
+      All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to
+      understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old
+      feudal kings and princes driven from their thrones and their
+      places taken by men sprung from the common people. The father of
+      the Bonapartes had been a poor lawyer. Murat, Napoleon’s
+      brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son of an innkeeper.
+      Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s generals, whom the Swedes chose as
+      their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In
+      nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing
+      the rulers there sprang up a new hope.
+
+[Illustration: The Emperor Napoleon in 1814]
+
+      Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a
+      million men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters
+      in Moscow. The Russian people, however, set fire themselves to
+      their beautiful city, and the French had to retreat a thousand
+      miles through snow and ice, while bands of Russian Cossacks
+      swooped down on them from the rear and took a hundred thousand
+      prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the French, the
+      allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to drive
+      the little Corsican from the throne of France.
+
+      For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack
+      of soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the
+      enthusiasm which he never failed to arouse in his troops. In
+      1814, however, surrounded by the troops of Austria, Prussia,
+      Russia, and England, he had to confess himself beaten. Even
+      Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops against
+      him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the
+      brother of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years
+      before, and set him on the throne of France. Napoleon was
+      banished to the little island of Elba to the west of Italy, and
+      the monarchs flattered themselves that their troubles were ended.
+
+[Illustration: The Retreat from Moscow]
+
+      In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped
+      from his island prison and landed on the southern coast of
+      France. The king ordered his soldiers to capture their former
+      emperor. But the magic of his presence was too much for them, and
+      the men who had been sent to put him into chains shed tears of
+      joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at his feet. One
+      week later, the king of France had fled a second time from his
+      country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the
+      head of the government.
+
+      All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four
+      large armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not
+      wait for them to come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly
+      north into the low countries, where he met and defeated an army
+      of Prussians. Another army of English was advancing from
+      Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French were defeated in
+      one of the great battles of the world’s history. The defeated
+      Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to
+      the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon
+      had sent to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the
+      emperor from being crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give
+      up his crown, and a second time King Louis XVIII was brought back
+      into Paris and put upon the French throne by the bayonets of
+      foreign troops. The people had been crushed, apparently, and the
+      old feudal lords were once more in control.
+
+[Illustration: Napoleon at Waterloo]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Had Italy ever been a nation?
+
+          What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See map.)
+
+          What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See map.)
+
+          What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire?
+          (See map.)
+
+          What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul
+          and afterward Emperor?
+
+          What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers?
+
+          What was Napoleon’s great mistake?
+
+          Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba?
+
+          What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X.
+A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs
+
+      A meeting of kings and diplomats.—Austrians and English vs.
+      Prussians and Russians.—Talleyrand the subtle.—Carving a new
+      map.—The people are ignored.—Sowing the seeds of trouble.—Unhappy
+      Poland.—Divided Italy.—Revolts of the people.—The outbreaks of
+      1848.
+
+
+      And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and
+      diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of
+      Europe. In past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion
+      and jealousy among these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by
+      without finding two of them flying at each other’s throats in
+      some unjust war or other. Only their great fear of uprisings
+      similar to the French Revolution had driven them to act together
+      in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by the
+      people, which had followed it. This famous “Congress of Vienna,”
+      which took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which
+      European lands have been cut up and parceled out to various
+      monarchs without any regard for the wishes of the people.
+
+[Illustration: The Congress of Vienna]
+
+      Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies
+      had had in crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide
+      the map of Europe as suited them, and it was only by a great deal
+      of diplomacy that they were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is
+      frequently a polite name for some very cunning deception,
+      involving lying and cheating, in which kings and their ministers
+      take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the Russian-Prussian
+      combination, and they induced England to side with them. England
+      did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The
+      English minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the
+      Austrians, Prussians, and Russians, to allow the French diplomat,
+      Talleyrand, to take part in their final meetings. Now Talleyrand
+      was probably the most slippery and tricky diplomat of all Europe.
+      He had grown to power during the troublous days of the latter
+      part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which party would
+      remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the
+      strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served
+      Napoleon during the first years of the empire, he was shrewd
+      enough to remain true to King Louis XVIII during the latter’s
+      second exile. The Prussian-Russian combination was finally
+      obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of Austria, England,
+      and France. Compare this map with the one given in the preceding
+      chapter, and you will see most of the important changes.
+
+      Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by
+      Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a
+      great deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part
+      of the kingdom of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It
+      is needless to say that its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy
+      over this arrangement. Austria kept part of her Polish territory,
+      and gave the rest of it to Russia.
+
+      The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called
+      Belgium, had belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of
+      Austria. As was previously said, it was conquered by the French
+      and remained part of France until the fall of Napoleon. It was
+      now joined with Holland to make the kingdom of the Netherlands.
+      Its people were Walloons and Flemish, almost entirely Catholic in
+      their religion, and they very much disliked to be joined with the
+      Protestant Dutch of Holland.
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1815]
+
+      The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend
+      itself against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had
+      been fought over by these two powers for more than a century. It
+      was finally transferred to Russia, and in order to appease
+      Sweden, Norway, which had been ruled by the Danes, was torn away
+      from Denmark and made part of the kingdom of Sweden. The
+      Norwegians desired to remain an independent country, and they
+      loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes. Therefore,
+      this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of the
+      kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia.
+
+      Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and
+      in addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and
+      Austria. In order to pay back Austria for the loss of part of
+      Poland, she was given all of northern Italy except the counties
+      of Piedmont and Savoy near France.
+
+      The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia)
+      were formed into a loose alliance called the German
+      Confederation. England’s share of the plunder consisted largely
+      of distant colonies, such as South Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc.
+      France shrank back to the boundaries which she had had at the
+      beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of the Two
+      Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon
+      family) who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon
+      their thrones.
+
+      This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten
+      different parts, although its people desired to be one nation. It
+      left Austria a government over twelve different nationalities,
+      each one of which was dissatisfied. It joined Belgium to Holland
+      in a combination displeasing to both. It gave Norway and Finland
+      as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It left the
+      Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all
+      subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once
+      vacant, kings who were hated by their subjects. It divided the
+      Poles up among four different governments—for, strange as it may
+      seem, the powers could not decide who should own the city of
+      Cracow and the territory around it, and they ended by making this
+      district a little republic, under the joint protection of
+      Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in their
+      lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who
+      were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the
+      foundation for future revolutions and wars without number.
+
+      At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but
+      after two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland,
+      which, as one of the states of the Russian Empire, was still
+      called a kingdom, was deprived of all its rights, and its people
+      were forced to give up the use of their language in their
+      schools, their courts, and even their churches. In the same
+      fashion, the Poles in Prussia were “not even allowed to think in
+      Polish,” as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the
+      first half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and
+      struggles among these people. As a result of one of them, in
+      1846, the little Republic of Cracow was abolished, and its
+      territory forcibly annexed to Austria.
+
+      The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their
+      object the uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from
+      foreign rulers. All through Germany there were mutterings of
+      discontent. The people wanted more freedom from their lords.
+      Greece broke out into insurrection against the Turks, and fifteen
+      years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to independence.
+      Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands broke
+      itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world
+      that it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of
+      Belgium. About the same time, the people of France rose up
+      against the Bourbon kings, and threw them out “for good.” A
+      distant cousin of the king was elected, not “king of France” but
+      “citizen king of the French,” and the people were allowed to
+      elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at Paris.
+      In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time,
+      Spain was a republic, but the people were not well enough
+      educated to govern themselves, and the kingdom was restored.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Metternich]
+
+      The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory
+      in 1815 than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood
+      for the “divine right of kings,” and did not believe in allowing
+      the common people any liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising
+      occurred in Austria, and crowds in Vienna, crying, “down with
+      Metternich,” forced the aged diplomat to flee. During the same
+      year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people everywhere were
+      revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and princes,
+      and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France,
+      also, grew tired of her “citizen king,” and that country a second
+      time became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of
+      electing as their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of
+      the great Napoleon, and in time he did exactly what his uncle had
+      done,—persuaded the French people to elect him emperor.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What were the motives of each of the nations represented at
+          the Congress of Vienna?
+
+          Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the
+          meeting at first?
+
+          Why did the English and Austrians assist each other?
+
+          What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See last chapter.)
+
+          What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their
+          thrones?
+
+          What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress?
+
+          How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the
+          Congress?
+
+          What did the Belgians do about it?
+
+          What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI.
+Italy a Nation at Last
+
+      The Crimean War curbs Russia.—Cavour plans a United Italy.—War
+      against Austria.—Garibaldi, the patriot.—The Kingdom of Sardinia
+      becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.—Venice and Rome are
+      added.—Some Italians still outside the kingdom.
+
+
+      Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named
+      Mazzini and Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the
+      Italian princes who were subject to them were constantly crushing
+      some attempted revolution.
+
+      One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great
+      powers were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia
+      attacked Turkey in 1853, but France and England were afraid that
+      if Russia conquered the Turks and took Constantinople, she would
+      become too powerful for them. Therefore, both countries rushed
+      troops to aid Turkey, and in the end, Russia was defeated,
+      although thousands of soldiers were killed on both sides before
+      the struggle was over.
+
+      You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in
+      western Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a
+      little kingdom known as the “Kingdom of Sardinia.” This country
+      had for its prime minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who,
+      like all Italians, strongly hoped for the day when all the people
+      living on the Italian peninsula should be one nation. At the time
+      of the Crimean War (as the war between Russia on the one side and
+      Turkey, France, and England on the other was called) he caused
+      his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a tiny army
+      to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later,
+      he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what
+      President Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been
+      elected emperor.) The French agreed to make war with his country
+      against the Austrians. If they won, the Sardinians were to
+      receive all north Italy, and in return for France’s help were to
+      give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of Nice.
+
+      When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not
+      hard to find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on
+      Sardinia, and, as had been arranged, France rushed to the aid of
+      the Italians. Austria was speedily beaten, but no sooner was the
+      war finished than the French emperor repented of his bargain. He
+      was afraid that it would make trouble for him with his Catholic
+      subjects if the Italians were allowed to take all the northern
+      half of the peninsula, including the pope’s lands, into their
+      kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in
+      return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the
+      Austrians kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled,
+      however, is hard to put out. No sooner did the people of the
+      other states of northern Italy see the success of Sardinia, than,
+      one after another, they revolted against their Austrian princes
+      and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this way, Parma,
+      Modena, Tuscany, and part of the “States of the Church” were
+      added. All of this happened in the year 1859.
+
+      These “States of the Church” came to be formed in the following
+      way: The father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who
+      had been crowned western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had
+      rescued northern Italy from the rule of the Lombards. He had made
+      the pope lord of a stretch of territory extending across Italy
+      from the Adriatic Sea to the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of
+      this country had no ruler but the pope. They paid their taxes to
+      him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord. It was part of
+      this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of
+      Italy.
+
+      You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who
+      with Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They
+      finally pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He
+      came to America and set up a fruit store in New York City, where
+      there were quite a number of his countrymen. By 1854, he had made
+      a great deal of money in the fruit business, but had not
+      forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be rich only in
+      order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold out
+      his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for
+      Italy. When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought
+      throughout the campaign.
+
+      But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not
+      satisfied with a country only half free. In the region around
+      Genoa, he enrolled a thousand men to go on what looked like a
+      desperate enterprise. Garibaldi had talked with Cavour, and
+      between them, they had schemed to overthrow the kingdom of the
+      Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern country. Of
+      course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi,
+      for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of
+      the king of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi
+      all the help that he dared, and urged men to enroll with him.
+
+[Illustration: The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel]
+
+      With his thousand “red-shirts,” as they were called, Garibaldi
+      landed on the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose
+      to welcome him, and everywhere they drove out the officers who
+      had been appointed by their king to rule them. In a short time,
+      all Sicily had risen in rebellion against the king. (You will
+      remember that this family of kings had been driven out by
+      Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. They
+      were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain
+      and the last kings of France. They stood for “the divine right of
+      kings,” and had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing
+      over to the mainland, Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen
+      to ten times its former size, swept everything before him as he
+      marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the people rose against their
+      former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The king fled in
+      haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over the
+      southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people
+      wanted to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom
+      of Italy. It was so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel,
+      king of Sardinia, thus became the first king of United Italy. He
+      made Florence his capital at first, as the country around Rome
+      still belonged to the pope. The pope had few soldiers, but was
+      protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten years later,
+      in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the
+      French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly
+      in and took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the
+      capital, not only of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world,
+      became once more the chief city of the peninsula. The pope was
+      granted a liberal pension by the Italian government in order to
+      make up to him for the loss of the money from his former lands.
+      The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had finally come to
+      pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular Victor
+      Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to
+      elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the
+      worst blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by
+      the patriotism of the people of Italy.
+
+      It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who
+      are not part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the
+      extreme northeast of Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as
+      the result of a war which will be told about more fully in the
+      next chapter, but the territory around the city of Trent, called
+      by the Italians Trentino, and the county of Istria at the head of
+      the Adriatic Sea, containing the important seaports of Trieste,
+      Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost entirely by people of
+      Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of Dalmatia also
+      are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule of
+      Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and
+      was the chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria
+      in the great war of 1914.
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Italy Made One Nation, 1914]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia?
+
+          What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III?
+
+          How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia?
+
+          Explain the origin of the “States of the Church.”
+
+          Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king?
+
+          What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII.
+The Man of Blood and Iron
+
+      The people demand their rights—Bismarck, the chief prop of the
+      Prussian monarchy—The question of the leadership of the German
+      states—The wonderful Prussian army—The war on Denmark—Preparing
+      to crush Austria—The battle of Sadowa—Easy terms to the defeated
+      nation—Preparing to defeat France—A good example of a war caused
+      by diplomats—Prussia’s easy victory—The new German empire—Harsh
+      terms of peace—The triumph of feudal government.
+
+
+      All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in
+      contests with their own people. The overthrow of the French king
+      at the time of the revolution taught the people of the other
+      countries of Europe that they too could obtain their liberties.
+      You have already been told how the people of Austria drove out
+      Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the party which refused
+      any rights to the working classes.
+
+      That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of
+      France, had witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had
+      found many German princes in trouble with their subjects, who
+      were demanding a share in the government, the right of free
+      speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury. The empires of
+      Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia in a
+      combination which was known as the “Holy Alliance.” This was
+      meant to stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb
+      the growing power of the common people.
+
+[Illustration: Bismarck]
+
+      Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a
+      remarkable man, who for the next forty years was perhaps the most
+      prominent statesman in Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard
+      Leopold von Bismarck-Schönausen, but we generally know him under
+      the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian nobleman, a believer in
+      the divine right of kings, the man who more than anybody else is
+      responsible for the establishing of the present empire of
+      Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in
+      which he said that “blood and iron,” not speeches and treaties,
+      would unite Germany into a nation. His one object was a united
+      Germany, which should be the strongest nation in Europe. He
+      wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia, Prussia to be ruled by its
+      king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled by Bismarck. It is
+      marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through his whole
+      plan.
+
+      After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the
+      powers of Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia,
+      England, or France. The German states, some 35 in number, had
+      united in a loose alliance called the German Confederation. (This
+      union was somewhat similar to the United States of America
+      between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these states,
+      and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group.
+      Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and
+      much smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and
+      Wurtemburg. Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a
+      wonderfully strong army. He did this by means of a military
+      system which at first made him very unpopular with the people.
+      Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was obliged to serve a
+      certain number of years in the army and be ready at a moment’s
+      notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war.
+
+      Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern
+      weapon, Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose.
+      There were two counties named Schleswig (shlĕs′vig) and Holstein
+      (hōl′stīn) which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet
+      contained a great many German people. The inhabitants of
+      Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while those of Holstein were
+      more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had protested against
+      certain actions of the Danish government, and were threatening to
+      revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and Austria, as
+      the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on
+      little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed
+      by the armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn
+      away from Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria
+      and Prussia.
+
+      This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there
+      was bound to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now
+      Bismarck had a chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up
+      his mind to crush Austria and put Prussia in her place as the
+      leader of the German states. He first negotiated with Napoleon
+      III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that this monarch would
+      not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of Venetia,
+      Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians
+      had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck
+      induced Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia
+      and the other provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria,
+      and Hanover were friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear
+      them. He knew that his army, under the leadership of its
+      celebrated general, von Moltke, was more than a match for the
+      Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined.
+
+      When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians
+      were successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in
+      Bohemia, their armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the
+      Prussians. Austria was put down from her place as the leader of
+      the German Confederation, and Prussia took the leadership.
+      Hanover, whose king had sided with the Austrians, was annexed to
+      Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his generals were
+      anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been the
+      custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war.
+      Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making
+      Prussia the leading military state in Europe, he saw that his
+      next opponent would be France, and he did not propose, on
+      attacking France, to find his army assailed in the rear by the
+      revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck compelled the king to
+      let Austria off without any loss of territory except Venetia,
+      which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to
+      retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large
+      indemnity to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the
+      middle ages, when cities which were captured had been obliged to
+      pay great sums of money, in order to get rid of the conquering
+      armies, was the payment of a war indemnity by the defeated
+      nation. This was a sum of money as large as the conquerors
+      thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The
+      Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which
+      Bismarck had provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact
+      that he was generous in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he
+      could have done had he wanted to.
+
+      The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle
+      between Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible
+      for two men like Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in
+      power very long without coming to blows. It was Bismarck’s
+      ambition, as was previously said, to make Prussia the leading
+      military nation of Europe, and he knew that this meant a struggle
+      with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a united
+      Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would
+      bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was
+      extremely jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had
+      won over Austria. He had been proud of the French army, and
+      wanted it to remain the greatest fighting force in Europe. He was
+      just as anxious for an excuse to attack Prussia as Bismarck was
+      for a pretext to attack him.
+
+      It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no
+      ill-feeling between the French people and the Germans. In fact,
+      the Germans of the Rhine country were very friendly to France,
+      and during Napoleon’s time had been given more liberties and had
+      been governed better than under the rule of their former feudal
+      lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between the military
+      chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no
+      feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their
+      military power should be crushed and his program must be carried
+      through. Europe, to his mind, was too small to contain more than
+      one master military power.
+
+      The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to
+      gain friends for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to
+      make enemies for France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria,
+      Baden, and Wurtemburg), which had sided with Austria during the
+      late war, were friendly to France and hostile to Prussia.
+      Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing to Bismarck
+      that France should be given a slice of this south German
+      territory in return for some other land which France was to allow
+      Prussia to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal,
+      but was careful to keep the original copy, in the French
+      ambassador’s own handwriting. (Each nation sends a man to
+      represent her at the capital of each other nation. These men are
+      called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements for
+      their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little
+      south German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon
+      and to make secret treaties with these states by which they bound
+      themselves to fight on the side of Prussia in case a war broke
+      out with France. In similar fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians
+      angry against the French by letting it be known that Napoleon was
+      trying to annex their country also.
+
+      Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (rōn),
+      Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in
+      Prussia had been trained a certain number of years in the army
+      and was ready at a moment’s notice to join his regiment. The
+      whole campaign against France had been planned months in advance.
+      In France on the other hand, the illness and irritability of
+      Napoleon III had resulted in poor organization. Men who did not
+      wish to serve their time in the army were allowed to pay money to
+      the government instead. Yet their names were carried on the
+      rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the strength in
+      actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain
+      government officials had taken advantage of the emperor’s
+      weakness and lack of system and had put into their own pockets
+      money that should have been spent in buying guns and ammunition.
+
+      When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard
+      to find an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven
+      from her throne, and the Spanish army under General Prim offered
+      the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king
+      of Prussia. This alarmed Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia
+      attacked him on the east, this Prussian prince, as king of Spain,
+      would lead the Spanish army over the Pyrenees against him on the
+      south. France made so vigorous a protest that the prince asked
+      the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was not enough
+      for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The
+      incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent
+      his ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter
+      to assure France that never again should Prince Leopold be
+      considered for the position of king of Spain. The king answered
+      that he could not guarantee this, for he was merely the head of
+      the Hohenzollern family. Prince Leopold, whose lands lay outside
+      of Prussia, was not even one of his subjects. The interview
+      between the king and the French ambassador had been a friendly
+      one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king, and the
+      king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on
+      good terms.
+
+[Illustration: An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.]
+
+      In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war
+      would come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von
+      Moltke and Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the
+      king, telling of his interview with the French ambassador. In the
+      story of his life written by himself, Bismarck tells how, as he
+      read the telegram both Roon and Moltke groaned in disappointment.
+      He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older in a minute. Both
+      had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took the
+      dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message
+      polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had
+      been a friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two
+      hundred words to one of twenty. When he had finished, the message
+      sounded as if the French ambassador had bullied and threatened
+      the king of Prussia, while the latter had snubbed and insulted
+      the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered telegram to Roon and
+      Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt better. “How is
+      that?” he asked. “That will do it,” they answered. “War is
+      assured.”
+
+      The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four
+      hours, the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war.
+      Napoleon III hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals
+      and his wife who urged him to “avenge the insult to the French
+      nation.”
+
+[Illustration: The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of
+Germany]
+
+      We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of
+      1870 just to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck
+      did was no worse than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have
+      done, or the Austrian, Metternich, or several of the Turkish or
+      Russian diplomats. It simply proves how helpless the people of
+      European countries are, when the military class which rules them
+      has decided, for its own power and glory, on war with some other
+      nation.
+
+      The war was short. The forces of France were miserably
+      unprepared. The first great defeat of the French army resulted in
+      the capture of the emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing
+      of the government in Paris, where a third republic was started.
+      One of the French generals turned traitor, thinking that if he
+      surrendered his army and cut short the war the Prussians would
+      force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor. Paris was
+      besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even
+      on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at
+      last they were starved out, and peace was made.
+
+[Illustration: Formation of the German Empire]
+
+      In the meantime, another of Bismarck’s plans had been successful.
+      In January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he
+      induced the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with
+      Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and all the other little German states to
+      join Prussia in forming a new empire of Germany. The king of
+      Prussia was to be “German Emperor,” and the people of Germany
+      were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or Imperial
+      Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom
+      of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was
+      signed by the republic of France and the empire of Germany.
+
+      Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was
+      condemned to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one
+      billion dollars) and certain parts of France were to be occupied
+      by the German troops until this money was fully paid. Two
+      counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine, were to be annexed to
+      Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of German
+      descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the
+      whole province had belonged to France so long that its people
+      felt themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few
+      Germans, and was taken, contrary to Bismarck’s best judgment,
+      because it contained the important city of Metz, which was
+      strongly fortified. Here the military chiefs overruled Bismarck.
+      The desire among the French for revenge on Germany for taking
+      this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck was right.
+      It was a blunder of the worst kind.
+
+      The policy of “blood and iron” had been successful. From a second
+      rate power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck’s leadership, to
+      become the strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been
+      torn from Danish, Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had
+      been forcibly annexed, and Alsace and Lorraine wrested from
+      France. The greater part of the inhabitants of these countries
+      were bitterly unhappy at being placed under the Prussian military
+      rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great deal of this
+      growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the
+      common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech,
+      free newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to
+      a congress or parliament, and while some of these rights had been
+      granted, still the whole country was under the control of the war
+      department. The emperor, as commander-in-chief of the army, could
+      suppress any newspaper and dismiss the congress whenever he might
+      think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it has been called, a
+      big debating society, whose members had the right to talk, but
+      were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the
+      wishes of the military leaders.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe?
+
+          What was the object of the “Holy Alliance”?
+
+          What was Bismarck’s purpose in building up a strong army?
+
+          How did Bismarck defeat Austria?
+
+          What is a war indemnity?
+
+          Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III.
+
+          Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to
+          Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern?
+
+          What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France?
+
+          Was Prussia’s victory a good thing for her people?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII.
+The Balance of Power
+
+      The recovery of France.—The jealousy of the powers.—The policy of
+      uniting against the strongest.—The dream of Russia.—A war of
+      liberation.—The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.—The
+      Congress of Berlin.—Bismarck’s Triple Alliance.—France and Russia
+      are driven together.—The race for war preparation.—The growth of
+      big navies.
+
+Under the third republic,[3] France recovered very rapidly from the
+terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her people worked hard and saved
+their money. In less than two years, they had paid off the last cent of
+the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops were obliged to
+go home. France had adopted the same military system that Germany had,
+and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army and be
+ready at a moment’s notice to rush to arms. She began also to build up
+a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of
+the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed
+Bismarck, who thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would
+she become a strong power. He had tried to renew the old “Holy
+Alliance” between Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of
+preventing the spread of republics. These were the three nations which
+gave their people very few rights, and which stood for the “divine
+right of kings” and for the crushing of all republics. Bismarck called
+this new combination the “Drei-kaiser-bund” or three-emperor-bond. He
+himself says that the proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the
+lies and treachery of Prince Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of
+Foreign Affairs.
+
+ [3] The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was
+ beheaded, the second in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the “citizen king,”
+ was driven out.
+
+      An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany
+      from Russia. As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and
+      alarmed when he saw how quickly France was getting over the
+      effects of the war. In 1875, some trouble came up again between
+      France and Germany, and Bismarck a second time planned to make
+      war on the republic and—complete the task that he had left
+      unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of a
+      second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time,
+      however, England and Russia growled ominously. They notified
+      Bismarck that they would not stand by and see France crushed—not
+      from any love of France, but because they were jealous of Prussia
+      and afraid that the Germans might become too powerful in Europe.
+      Accordingly, Bismarck had to give up his idea of war. Prussia was
+      strong, but she could not fight England, Russia, and France
+      combined. However, he remembered that England and Russia had
+      spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge.
+
+[Illustration: Peter the Great]
+
+      The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what
+      they called “the balance of power.” By this they meant that no
+      one country was to be allowed to grow so strong that she could
+      defy the rest of Europe. Whenever one nation grew too powerful,
+      the others combined to pull her down.
+
+      In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan
+      nations, which were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had
+      broken out among the Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and
+      Bulgaria. As has already been told, these nations are Slavic,
+      cousins of the Russians, and they have always looked upon Russia
+      as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared, intelligent
+      Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so much
+      like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word “grad” means
+      “city” in both languages.)
+
+Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were
+oppressing the little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for
+wanting to see Turkey overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the
+Great, Russia had had her eye upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered
+the district east of the Gulf of Finland, and had founded St.
+Petersburg[4] there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice.
+In the same way, other czars who followed him had fought their way
+southward to the Black Sea, seeking for a chance to trade with the
+Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like a bottle, and the Turks
+at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade at any time they
+might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and must ship
+her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange it
+for their manufactures.
+
+ [4] Now called Petrograd.
+
+[Illustration: Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia]
+
+      Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one
+      day Russia might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient
+      days, was the home of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital
+      of the western Catholic church. The Russians are all Greek
+      Catholics, and every Russian looks forward to the day when the
+      great church of St. Sophia, which is now a Mohammedan mosque,
+      shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With this plan
+      in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up trouble
+      for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as
+      Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at
+      the two following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey
+      had been reduced in size during the two hundred years which
+      followed the Turkish defeat at the gates of Vienna by John
+      Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of Bessarabia had changed
+      hands two or three times, remaining finally in the hands of
+      Russia.
+
+      The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed
+      with joy among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg
+      lost no time in rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and
+      declaring war on Turkey. After a short but stubbornly contested
+      conflict, Russia and the little countries were victors. A treaty
+      of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which Roumania, Serbia,
+      and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as independent
+      states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean
+      Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from
+      her county of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it
+      will help you to understand Russia’s later feeling when Bulgaria
+      in 1915 joined the ranks of her enemies.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706]
+
+[Illustration: Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century]
+
+[Illustration: The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated).
+Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.]
+
+      The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms,
+      when once more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will
+      be remembered that Russia three years before had prevented a
+      second war against France planned by Bismarck. It was very easy
+      for him to persuade Austria and England that if Russia were
+      allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new kingdoms which
+      would be under her control, she would speedily become the
+      strongest nation in Europe. The “balance of power” would be
+      disturbed. England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting
+      of statesmen and diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide
+      once more what should be the map of Europe. Representatives were
+      present from all the leading European countries. Even Turkey had
+      two men at the meeting, but the three men who really controlled
+      were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and Lord Beaconsfield
+      (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a great part
+      of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under
+      the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum
+      of money each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her
+      territory was made much smaller than had been agreed to by the
+      treaty of San Stephano. In fact less than one-third of the
+      Bulgarians were living within the boundaries finally agreed upon
+      by the congress. A great part of the Serbians were still left
+      under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of Thessaly and Epirus.
+      The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still to belong
+      to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to
+      keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run
+      their government, although their taxes were still to be paid to
+      Turkey. Austria solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey.
+      Russia, naturally, was very unhappy over this arrangement, and so
+      were the inhabitants of the Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped
+      that now they were at last to be freed from the oppression of
+      their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress of Berlin,
+      like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars
+      and revolutions.
+
+      Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances
+      with other European states. He first made up with his old enemy,
+      Austria. Thanks to the liberal treatment that he had given this
+      country after her disastrous war of 1866, he was able to get the
+      Austrians to join Germany in an alliance which states that if two
+      countries of Europe should ever attack one of the two allies, the
+      other would rush to her help.
+
+      The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that
+      they had gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the
+      Prussians, but they had always looked upon the Austrians as their
+      worst enemies. It was a wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck
+      finally induced Italy to join with Austria and Germany in a
+      “Dreibund” or “Triple Alliance.”
+
+      The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this
+      going over to their enemies would never have been possible but
+      for an act of France which greatly angered Italy. For many years,
+      France had been in control of Algeria on the north coast of
+      Africa. This country had once been a nest of pirates, and the
+      French had gone there originally to clean them out. Next to
+      Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as you will
+      see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians
+      had been looking longingly at this district for some time,
+      intending to organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to
+      their kingdom. They waited too long, however, and one fine day in
+      1881 they found the prize gone,—France had seized this county for
+      herself. It was Italy’s anger over this act of France more than
+      anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an alliance
+      with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria.
+
+      France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of
+      enemies. It looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the
+      republic at any time, and be perfectly safe from interference,
+      with Austria and Italy to protect him. Russia, smarting under the
+      treatment which she had been given by the Congress of Berlin, was
+      full of resentment against Germany. Both the French and the
+      Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck’s Dreibund, and
+      so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other.
+      The result was the “Dual Alliance” between France and Russia,
+      which bound either country to come to the aid of the other in
+      case of an attack by two powers at once.
+
+      In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck’s
+      “Dreibund,” was again restored. Many people thought the forming
+      of the two alliances a fine thing, “for,” said they, “each party
+      is now too strong to be attacked by the other. Therefore, we
+      shall never again have war among the great powers.”
+
+      England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her
+      position on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did
+      not feel obliged to keep a large standing army such as the great
+      powers on the continent maintained.
+
+      These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as
+      France equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria
+      had to do the same. As soon as the Germans invented a new
+      magazine rifle, the Russians and French had to invent similar
+      arms for their soldiers. If Germany passed a law compelling all
+      men up to the age of forty-five to report for two weeks’ military
+      training once every year, France and Russia had to do the same.
+      If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to
+      build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships
+      built by Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one
+      hundred torpedo boats, the Triple Alliance had to “go her one
+      better” by building one hundred and fifty. If Germany equipped
+      her army with war balloons, Russia and France had to do the same.
+      If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery, Germany and
+      Austria built a still bigger gun.
+
+This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only
+with the five nations in the two alliances about which you have been
+told. However, the death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought
+to the throne his grandson, the present Kaiser,[5] and he formed a plan
+for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as Bismarck had made
+her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant colonies and
+dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that Germany,
+too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from
+which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to
+protect these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as
+Germany built some new battleships, England built still others, larger
+and with heavier guns. The next year, Germany would build still larger
+ships, and the next England would come back with still heavier guns. As
+fast as England built ships, Germany built them. Now, each battleship
+costs from five to fifteen million dollars, and it does not take long
+before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high for people to
+stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of discontent
+were heard among the working classes.
+
+ [5] The present Kaiser’s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he
+ was a very sick man at the time of the old emperor’s death.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly?
+
+          Why did Bismarck’s three-emperor-alliance fail?
+
+          What is meant by “the balance of power”?
+
+          What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before
+          1878?
+
+          Why did Russia covet Constantinople?
+
+          Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from
+          being carried out?
+
+          What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin?
+
+          Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance?
+
+          How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy,
+          Austria?
+
+          What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance
+          on France and Russia?
+
+          What result had the formation of the two alliances on the
+          gun-industry?
+
+          How was England brought into the race for war equipment?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIV.
+The “Entente Cordiale”
+
+      Ancient enemies.—England and France in Africa.—A collision at
+      Fashoda.—Germany offers to help France.—Delcassé the
+      peacemaker.—A French-English agreement.—Friendship takes the
+      place of hostility.—England’s relations with Italy, Russia, and
+      Germany.—Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of
+      Turkey.—The Morocco-Algeciras incident.—The question of Bosnia
+      and Herzegovina.—England joins France and Russia to form the
+      “Triple Entente.”—The Agadir incident.
+
+
+      England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars
+      between them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time
+      that they had fought on the same side was in the campaign against
+      Russia in 1855, but even then there was no real sympathy between
+      them.
+
+      In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an
+      excuse for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt
+      was a part of the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a
+      certain amount of money to Constantinople, the Turks did not care
+      very much how it was governed. But now a wild chief of the desert
+      had announced himself as the prophet Mohammed come to earth
+      again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had joined him.
+      They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and killed
+      General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the
+      English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally
+      beat them and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom
+      on the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: An Arab Sheik and His Staff]
+
+      In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had
+      formed a plan for a railroad which should run the entire length
+      of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England’s
+      ambition to control all the territory through which this road
+      should run. But the French, too, were spreading out over Africa.
+      Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had joined their
+      colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of
+      Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year,
+      1898, while Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French
+      expedition under Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and
+      reached the Nile at Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom.
+      Marchand planted the French flag and announced that he took
+      possession of this territory for the republic of France.
+
+      The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand
+      had done. If France held Fashoda, their “Cape to Cairo” railroad
+      was cut right in the middle, and they could advance their
+      territory no farther up the valley of the Nile. They notified
+      France that this was English land. Marchand retorted that no
+      Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the French flag
+      would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on the
+      Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for
+      England, and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The
+      English newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which
+      had already begun its campaign to wrest from England the leading
+      place on the ocean, was delighted at the prospect of a war
+      between France and the British. The German diplomats patted
+      France on the back, and practically assured her of German help in
+      case it came to a war with England.
+
+      Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France.
+      The French population was not increasing, while Germany was
+      steadily growing in numbers. It was England whom Germany saw
+      across her path toward control of the sea.
+
+      There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making
+      up with Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost
+      provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was very strong with him. This
+      was Théophile Delcassé, a little man with a large head and a
+      great brain. He refused to be tempted by the offers of German
+      help, thinking that England, with its free government, was a much
+      better friend for the republic than the military empire of
+      Germany could be.
+
+      Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador
+      came to see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the
+      French foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is
+      to say, a final notice to France that she must give in or England
+      would declare war on her. As he walked into Delcassé’s presence,
+      he began fumbling with the top button of his coat. “Don’t touch
+      that button,” said Delcassé quickly. “Drop your hand. You have
+      something in your pocket which must not be taken out. It is a
+      threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit down. Let us talk
+      this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves all right
+      in the end.” And they did. Delcassé was finally able to quiet the
+      French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade
+      France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was
+      given a free hand in Egypt, without any interference from the
+      French. Naturally the English were very grateful to Delcassé for
+      having refused to profit by German help and declare war. In
+      return for the French agreement to stay out of Egypt, the English
+      promised to help France get control of Morocco.
+
+      Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her
+      son, Edward VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time
+      in France, and was very fond of the French and was popular with
+      them. He saw the growing power of Germany, and knew that England
+      could not afford to be without a friend in Europe. He did his
+      best to bring about a feeling of friendship between the English
+      and the French, and was very successful in doing so. He made
+      frequent visits to France, where he was received with great
+      cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of
+      France in London in a princely fashion. French warships paid
+      friendly visits to English waters, and the sailors mingled with
+      each other and did their best to understand each other’s
+      language. All France, and England as well, welcomed the beginning
+      of the “Entente Cordiale,” or friendly understanding between the
+      two nations.
+
+      England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly
+      understanding with Italy. With the other nations of Europe
+      England had no great friendship. Between England and Russia,
+      there had been a hostile feeling for a long time, for the British
+      felt that the Russians would like nothing better than to stretch
+      their empire from Siberia, down to include British India, or at
+      least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in
+      control.
+
+      The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the
+      future growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to
+      the throne, Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction
+      of manufactures. She had become one of the leading nations of the
+      world. One of her chief questions was, where to market these
+      goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a visit to Syria and Turkey. He
+      was received with great enthusiasm by the Turks, who were glad to
+      have one strong friend among the powers of Europe. Soon
+      afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of
+      the Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the
+      Turks to build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf
+      through Bagdad. German railways ran through Austria-Hungary,
+      which was Germany’s ally, to Constantinople and Salonika, the two
+      greatest ports of Turkey in Europe. This short overland route to
+      Persia was looked upon with suspicion and distrust by the
+      English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost all of
+      Europe’s commerce with India and the neighboring countries.
+
+[Illustration: A Scene In Constantinople]
+
+      Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the
+      west coast of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in
+      the corner of the Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands
+      in the Pacific Ocean were seized. Her foreign trade was growing
+      by leaps and bounds, and she threatened to take away from England
+      a great deal of the latter’s commerce.
+
+      The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted
+      whenever any changes of territory took place, no matter in what
+      part of the earth. Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help
+      of Great Britain and Spain, told the sultan of Morocco that he
+      had to behave himself, the German emperor in person made a visit
+      to Morocco and assured the sultan that he didn’t have to pay any
+      attention to France.
+
+      There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a
+      meeting was held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of
+      all the great powers came together. In the end, France and
+      England were upheld, for even Italy, Germany’s ally, voted
+      against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé, the Frenchman
+      who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his
+      position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans
+      objected to him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated
+      them.
+
+      In 1908, the “young Turk” party in Constantinople (the party
+      which stood for progress and for more popular government) drove
+      the old sultan off his throne, and announced that there should be
+      a Turkish parliament, or congress, to which all parts of the
+      empire should send representatives.
+
+      You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia
+      and Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the
+      Congress of Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised
+      that she would never try to annex these provinces. In 1908,
+      however, she forgot all about her promise. When Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them in the new
+      Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this they
+      should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they
+      belonged to Turkey no longer.
+
+      The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia
+      had looked forward to the day when they should once more be
+      joined to herself. These states, like Montenegro, had been part
+      of the ancient kingdom of Serbia. As long as they were in dispute
+      between Austria and Turkey, Serbia had hopes of regaining them,
+      but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them, it seemed to the
+      Serbs that they were lost forever.
+
+      Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states
+      look upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly
+      indignant at this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the
+      czar talked of war. His generals and war ministers, however,
+      dissuaded him. “Oh, no, your majesty,” said they, “we are in no
+      shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our army was badly
+      disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we shall
+      not be ready for another fight for some time to come.” Russia
+      protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by
+      Austria, and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and
+      France were not ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but
+      did so with a bitter feeling toward the “central empires,” as
+      Germany and Austria are called.
+
+      It has already been shown that England for a long time had been
+      suspicious of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming
+      at control of India. Of late this hostile feeling had been dying
+      out, especially as the friendship between France and Great
+      Britain grew stronger. It was impossible for Russia, France’s
+      partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain unfriendly to England,
+      France’s ally in the “Entente Cordiale.” Both England and Russia
+      felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her war
+      chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each
+      other.
+
+      In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they
+      marked off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each
+      agreeing to stay in her own portion, and not disturb the traders
+      of the other country in theirs. After this Russia, England, and
+      France were usually found acting together in European diplomacy,
+      under the name of the “Triple Entente.” The “balance of power”
+      had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but the English
+      navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than balanced
+      the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance.
+
+      Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with
+      England’s backing and Spain’s friendship, sent her troops among
+      the Moors to enforce law and order. Any one could see that with
+      Tunis and Algeria already in French hands, it was only a question
+      of a little while before Morocco would be theirs also.
+
+      This time Germany rushed her warship _Panther_ to the Moorish
+      port of Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French
+      appealed to England to know whether they could look to her for
+      support. Russia was now in much better shape for war than she had
+      been three years before, and notified France that she was ready
+      to give her support. Therefore, when Mr. Lloyd-George, the little
+      Welshman who was really the leader of the British government,
+      stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and told the world
+      that “to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,” England
+      would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to
+      back down or else start a tremendous European war.
+
+      It was now Germany’s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did
+      not propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So,
+      although the French gave Germany a few square miles of land in
+      central Africa in return for the Kaiser’s agreement to let France
+      have her way in Morocco, the result was a backdown for Germany,
+      and it left scars which would not heal.
+
+      During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents
+      happening, any one of which might have started the world war.
+      Fashoda, Algeciras, Bosnia, Agadir—each time it seemed as if only
+      a miracle could avert the conflict. Europe was like a powder
+      magazine. No man knew when the spark might fall that would bring
+      on the explosion.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What were the plans of the English regarding Africa?
+
+          How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe?
+
+          Why was Germany ready to help France?
+
+          Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England?
+
+          Why was England suspicious of Russia?
+
+          Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks?
+
+          Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+          Austria start a general European war?
+
+          Why did England and Russia become friendly?
+
+          Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XV.
+The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth
+
+      The growth of German trade.—Balkan hatreds.—The wonderful
+      alliance against Turkey.—The sympathies of the big nations.—Their
+      interference and its results.—A new kingdom.—The second war.—The
+      work of diplomacy.—The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria.
+
+
+      Germany’s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her
+      ships, in order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the
+      Mediterranean, had to go a great deal farther than those of
+      France or England. As a result, the Germans had been looking
+      toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as the part of the
+      world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was Germany’s
+      plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip
+      of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and
+      Turkey through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia,
+      and India.
+
+      The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already
+      been explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they
+      had fought a bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the
+      Bulgarians. The Albanians had no love for either nation, while
+      the Greeks looked down on all the others. Montenegro and Serbia
+      were friends, naturally, since they were inhabited by the same
+      kind of people and had once been parts of the original kingdom of
+      Serbia.
+
+[Illustration: Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it.
+(1912-13)]
+
+      Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no
+      more tribute to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of
+      the independent nations of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so
+      strong and the Turks so weak, that Turkey did not dare go to war,
+      so permitted the matter to go unnoticed. The only thing on which
+      all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was their bitter
+      hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them cruelly
+      for the last three hundred and fifty years.
+
+      Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished
+      a wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia,
+      Montenegro, and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each
+      other, for the time being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In
+      order that there should not be any quarreling over the spoils
+      when the war was over, the four little nations agreed, in a
+      secret treaty, that when they got through with Turkey, they would
+      divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The head,
+      including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course.
+      Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body,
+      Greece was to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest
+      of the body was to go to Serbia with the exception of the very
+      tail, including the city of Scutari, which was to be given to
+      Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a seacoast and a chance to
+      trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs had a grudge
+      against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of the
+      fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their
+      country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured
+      goods and paid them very little for their own products in return.
+      Bulgaria was to have Kavala (kȧ va′lȧ) as a seaport on the
+      Aegean and all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli
+      (găl ĭ′po li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city
+      of Salonika (sȧlōni′kȧ), southern Macedonia, and southern
+      Albania.
+
+      With this secret agreement between them, the four little states
+      went to war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship
+      sprung up between Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and
+      generals were sent to Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops.
+      Cannon and machine guns were sent them from German factories, and
+      their rifles were fed with German bullets. The four little
+      countries, accordingly, turned to France and Russia for
+      assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and
+      machine guns, and their military advisers were French and
+      Russians. While the big nations managed to keep out of the war
+      themselves, all were strongly interested in one side or the
+      other.
+
+      The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To
+      their consternation and disgust, the four little nations made
+      short work of the Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was
+      thoroughly beaten, and the allies were ready to put through their
+      program of dividing up the spoils.
+
+      And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their
+      interference laid the foundation for future wars and misery.
+      Austria and Germany saw their path to Constantinople and the east
+      cut right in two. Their railroads, instead of passing through a
+      series of countries under German control, now were to be cut
+      asunder by an arm of Slavic states under Russian protection,
+      which would certainly stop German progress toward Asia.
+
+      With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one
+      little strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar,
+      between Serbia and Montenegro, which connected Turkey with
+      Austria. To be sure, this country was inhabited almost entirely
+      by Serbians, but so long as it was under the military control of
+      Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for the east
+      could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide
+      this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her
+      seaport on the Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to
+      find new markets in Italy, Spain, and France.
+
+[Illustration: Durazzo]
+
+      The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They
+      longed for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be
+      turned over to them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (dū
+      rȧt′zō) and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many
+      Italians, and Italy had always cherished the hope that they might
+      belong to her. Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the
+      Serbian program of seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as
+      the four little countries announced their intention of dividing
+      up Turkey in Europe among themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy
+      raised a great clamor.
+
+      Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held,
+      and once more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead
+      of allowing the four little countries to divide up the conquered
+      land between them, the powers made a fifth small country, the
+      kingdom of Albania, and brought down from Germany a little prince
+      to rule over these wild mountaineers. Notice that the Albanians
+      were not consulted. The great powers simply took a map, drew a
+      certain line on it and said, “This shall be the kingdom of
+      Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.” Again we
+      have a king-made map with the usual trail of grievances.
+
+      This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of
+      its seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country
+      west of Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ). France and Russia did not like this
+      program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance
+      to prevent its being put into effect.
+
+[Illustration: Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13]
+
+      The three little countries, separated from a great part of their
+      new territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to
+      her, “Since we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to
+      divide up all over again. You must give us part of your plunder
+      in order to ‘make it square.’” Now was the time for the ancient
+      ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their neighbors to show
+      itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in so many
+      words, “Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight.
+      It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a
+      very insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we
+      dare you to come and take it.” And the Bulgarians made a
+      treacherous night attack on their recent allies, which brought a
+      declaration of war from the three little nations.
+
+      This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria
+      wanted. It accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan
+      alliance under the protection of Russia. So with Austria and
+      Germany egging on Bulgaria, and Russia and France doing their
+      best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and surrender some land
+      to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in 1913 almost
+      before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled.
+
+      Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who
+      had been mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went
+      down to defeat before the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field
+      of Bregalnitza (brĕg′ȧl nĭt zȧ). To add to Bulgaria’s
+      troubles, the Turks, taking advantage of the discord among their
+      late opponents, suddenly attacked the Bulgarians in the rear and
+      stole back the city of Adrianople, which had cost the Bulgarians
+      so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania, which up
+      to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of
+      her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The
+      Roumanian statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the
+      spoils, and moved simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their
+      kingdom, declared war on Bulgaria also.
+
+      Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at
+      the best price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving
+      to her a strip of land in the country called the Dobrudja (dō
+      brood′jȧ) between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to
+      agree to a new boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept
+      Adrianople. She had to give Kavala and the surrounding country to
+      Greece and the territory around Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′) to
+      Serbia, although these districts were inhabited largely by her
+      own people.
+
+      Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and
+      protector, Russia. The Russians were disgusted to think that the
+      Bulgarians had refused to listen to them when they urged them to
+      grant some small pieces of land to Greece and Serbia at the close
+      of the first war. They felt that the Bulgarians had been
+      headstrong and richly deserved what they got. Therefore, Russia
+      refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from humiliation. In
+      the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal of
+      mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was
+      badly broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria,
+      which had been buried for the time being during the first Balkan
+      war, now broke out with greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked,
+      feeling revengeful against all of her neighbors, but especially
+      angry at Russia, who had always been her friend before.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did the Germans desire a road to the east?
+
+          What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were
+          united?
+
+          What was Russia’s purpose in helping to form the Balkan
+          Alliance?
+
+          Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little
+          countries from carrying out their secret agreement?
+
+          What was the cause of the second Balkan war?
+
+          Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin?
+
+          Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors?
+
+[Illustration: A Modern Dreadnaught]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVI.
+Who Profits?
+
+      The race for power on the sea.—The “naval holiday” declined.—The
+      declining birth-rate.—The growth of the Socialists.—The
+      militarists of Germany.—How wars cure labor troubles.—The forces
+      behind the war game.—Profits and press agents.
+
+
+      Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their
+      mad race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships
+      than its neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other
+      munitions of war. The German navy had been growing by leaps and
+      bounds. From being the sixth largest navy in the world, within
+      ten years it had grown to second place. But, fast as the Germans
+      built ships, the English built them more rapidly still. England
+      built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which was
+      twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly
+      replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and
+      England came back with some still larger vessels which are known
+      as super-dreadnaughts.
+
+      At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston
+      Churchill, proposed to Germany that each country take a “naval
+      holiday.” In other words, he practically said to Germany, “If you
+      people will stop building warships for a year, we will also. Then
+      at the end of the year, we shall be no worse off or better off
+      than we were at the beginning.”
+
+[Illustration: Submarine]
+
+      Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England
+      could not stand the strain very much longer. “Besides,” said the
+      Germans, “it is all very well for England to be satisfied with
+      her present navy, which is half again as large as ours. If our
+      navy were the strongest in the world, we too would be glad to
+      have all nations stop building warships,” and they laid down the
+      keels of four new super-dreadnaughts.
+
+      But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German
+      militarists. For a long time, the population of France had not
+      been increasing, while Germany almost doubled her numbers from
+      1860 to 1900. Now, to their dismay, the German birth-rate began
+      to grow less and they saw the population of Russia growing larger
+      by 20% every ten years. Again, they learned that Russia was about
+      to build a series of railroads near the German frontier which
+      would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany at very short
+      notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own
+      country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have
+      this advantage also.
+
+      Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man
+      to put three years in military service instead of two. This would
+      increase France’s standing army by 50 per cent. The German
+      people, who up to this time had been very docile and very
+      obedient to the military rule, were showing signs of discontent.
+      The Socialists, a party who represented the working people
+      largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been growing
+      very fast. In the last election, they had gained many
+      representatives in the German congress, and had cast over
+      4,000,000 votes. The only thing that kept them from having a
+      majority in the Reichstag (the German congress) was the fact that
+      in some districts, the voters of the other parties combined
+      against them. In this way, the military class still held control
+      of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not be
+      for long.
+
+      With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending
+      their time drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the
+      population had to earn money enough to support their own families
+      and also the families of the men in the army. As one writer has
+      put it, “Every workingman in Europe carried a soldier on his back
+      who reached down and took the bread out of his platter.”
+
+      The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military
+      leaders of Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia
+      must rule Germany, and Germany must be the greatest power in
+      Europe. To their minds, war between Germany and her allies and
+      the rest of Europe must come. Being warriors by trade and having
+      nothing else to do, they saw that, if the great war were
+      postponed much longer, the chances of Germany’s winning it would
+      grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and
+      Germany was unable to catch up to England’s navy. It should be
+      remembered that this class made up a small part only of the
+      German nation. Their influence was all out of proportion to their
+      numbers. They controlled the government, and the government
+      controlled the schools and the newspapers. The people believed
+      what they were told. They were simply parts of the war machine.
+      Bismarck’s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He
+      never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to
+      win it. In like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped
+      to conquer France and Russia before England was ready. It was the
+      old story as told by Shakespeare. “Our legions are brim full, our
+      cause is ripe. The enemy increaseth every day. We, at the height,
+      are ready to decline.”
+
+      Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised
+      the nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or
+      parliament to be called together, the military class, who were
+      trying to keep the common people under control and in ignorance
+      as much as possible had been able to prevent the duma from
+      obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than the German
+      Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to pass
+      laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia
+      for life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor
+      troubles and strikes. The people of Russia, especially those
+      living in cities, were learning how little freedom they had,
+      compared with citizens of other countries, and the time seemed
+      ripe for a revolution.
+
+      It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their
+      people off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to
+      think about. Although the Russian government did all that it
+      could to prevent the war without completely betraying Serbia,
+      still the war probably put off the Russian Revolution for two
+      years.
+
+      It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia
+      there was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were
+      the so-called Junkers (Yo͝onkers), direct descendants of the old
+      feudal barons. They were owners of rich tracts of land which had
+      been handed down to them by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to
+      them by the people who lived on their farms supported them richly
+      in idleness. Just as their ancestors in the old days had lived
+      only by fighting and plundering, so these people still had the
+      idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs.
+
+      Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for
+      the common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days
+      when he was Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress
+      had refused to vote to raise certain moneys through taxes that
+      Bismarck advised, because he wanted to spend all of it in
+      preparations for war. In spite of the vote of the representatives
+      of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the money and
+      spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had
+      won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the
+      Austrians, and lastly over the French, the Prussian people,
+      swollen with pride at what their armies had accomplished, forgave
+      Bismarck for riding rough-shod over their liberties. But Bismarck
+      was able to do what he did because he had the backing of the king
+      and the great land-owning Junker class.
+
+      In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By
+      1914, however, a change had come about. The wonderful development
+      of Germany’s trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power
+      to the merchant class and these had to be considered when plans
+      for war were being formed.
+
+Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially
+trade with foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce,
+carried on with Great Britain, the United States, South America, and
+far distant colonies, had to travel over the ocean. German merchants
+would never support a war cheerfully if they thought that their trade
+would be interrupted for any length of time. So the Junkers, when they
+made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of France and Russia,
+persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been conquered
+they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which would
+more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians
+would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only
+with German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany
+would be much richer.[6]
+
+ [6] When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very
+ down-hearted, for they saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a
+ blow. But the Junkers called together the leading merchants and bribed
+ them with promises. In the year 1918 one of the prominent
+ manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out and was
+ published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame
+ for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military
+ class, he confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the
+ war by the promise of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which
+ was to be given to him after Germany had conquered the world. This, of
+ course, was pure piracy; the motto of Prussia for some time had been
+ that piracy pays.
+
+      There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but
+      gained it through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns
+      and munitions. They were clamorously back of the Junkers in their
+      demands for war. These people profited by preparation for war.
+      They kept inventing newer and stronger guns so that the weapons
+      which they had sold the governments one year would be out-of-date
+      the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap. In this way, the
+      factories were kept working over-time and their profits were
+      enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the
+      common people.
+
+      Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in
+      newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that
+      the great gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper
+      writers to keep up threats of war. They paid certain papers in
+      Paris to print articles to make the French people think that the
+      Germans were about to attack them. These same gun-makers in
+      Berlin tried to persuade the German people that the French were
+      on the point of attacking them.
+
+      All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people
+      all over Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the
+      Junkers were ready to strike and the great war broke out, people
+      would say, “At last it has come, the war that we knew was
+      inevitable.”
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Germany decline to take a “naval holiday”?
+
+          What is meant by “strategic railroads”?
+
+          Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the
+          Socialist Party?
+
+          What was the fate of popular government in Russia?
+
+          How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system?
+
+          How were the German merchants won over to war?
+
+          What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVII.
+The Spark that Exploded the Magazine
+
+      The year 1914.—England’s troubles.—Plots for a “Greater
+      Serbia.”—The hated archduke.—The shot whose echoes shook the
+      whole world.—Austria’s extreme demands.—Russia threatens.—Frantic
+      attempts to prevent war.—Mobilizing on both sides.—Germany’s
+      tiger-like spring.—The forts of the Vosges Mountains.—The other
+      path to Paris.—The neutrality of Belgium.—Belgium defends
+      herself.
+
+
+      The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her
+      parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to
+      be an Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish
+      wanted it governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of
+      Ireland, however, was very unhappy over this arrangement. Its
+      people were largely of English and Scotch descent, and they were
+      Protestants, while the other inhabitants of Ireland were Celts
+      and Catholics. The people of this province were so bitter against
+      home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled
+      regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England
+      compelled them to be governed by an Irish parliament.
+
+      There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and
+      threatened revolutions in India, where the English government was
+      none too popular. Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that
+      England had so many troubles of her own that she would never dare
+      to enter a general European war.
+
+      Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of
+      these provinces to revolt. The military leaders who really ruled
+      Austria, were in favor of crushing these attempted uprisings with
+      an iron hand.
+
+      One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by
+      the Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the
+      emperor and heir to the throne. He finally announced that he was
+      going in person to Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō) in Bosnia to look
+      into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not
+      to come, saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so
+      hated. Being a headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to
+      listen to this advice, but insisted on going. His devoted wife,
+      after doing her best to dissuade him, finally refused to let him
+      go without her.
+
+      When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian
+      revolutionists laid their plans. They found out just where his
+      carriage was to pass, and at almost every street corner, they had
+      some assassin with bomb or pistol. One bomb was thrown at him,
+      but it exploded too soon, and he escaped. Bursting with
+      indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax policing,
+      when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with
+      a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife.
+
+      Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the
+      great European war. As you have been shown, however, this was
+      simply the spark that exploded the magazine. With the whole
+      situation as highly charged as it was, any other little spark
+      would have been enough to set the war a-going.
+
+      The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had
+      been traced to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of
+      the government. It demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she
+      hunt out and punish the plotters at once. And because Austria did
+      not trust the Serbians to hold an honest investigation, she
+      demanded that her officers should sit in the Serbian courts as
+      judges.
+
+      Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the
+      United States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a
+      Japanese judge be sent to California to try the case because
+      Japan could not trust America to give her justice! The Serbians,
+      of course, were in no position to fight a great power like
+      Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they could not
+      submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian
+      demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian
+      courts. They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was
+      done them.
+
+      Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a
+      sharp warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and
+      that Austria and Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the
+      meantime, Serbia offered to lay the matter before the court of
+      arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at the invitation of the czar
+      of Russia, representatives of all the great powers of Europe met
+      at the Hague to found a lasting court which should decide
+      disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to
+      as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been
+      successful in averting trouble.)
+
+      Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and
+      Serbia should be judged by a court composed of representatives of
+      France, England, Italy, and Germany. Austria’s reply to the
+      proposals of England and Serbia was a notice to the latter
+      country that she had just forty-eight hours in which to give in
+      completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr.
+      Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly
+      pleading with England to declare what she would do in case the
+      Triple Alliance started a war with France and Russia.
+
+      Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent
+      the threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that
+      Russia was gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is
+      called. As Russia has so much more territory to draw from than
+      any other country, and as her railroads are not many and are
+      poorly served, it was figured that it would be six weeks before
+      the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody. Germany, on the
+      other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned
+      railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could
+      launch her forces across the frontier at two days’ notice. As
+      soon as the Germans began to hear that the Russians were
+      mobilizing their troops against Austria, Germany set in motion
+      the rapid machinery for gathering her own army. She sent a sharp
+      message to Russia, warning the latter that she must instantly
+      stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans
+      asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria
+      declared war on Russia. France replied that she would act in
+      accordance with what seemed to be her best interests. This answer
+      did not seem very reassuring, and without any declaration of war,
+      the German army rushed for the French frontier.
+
+      Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line
+      of great forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her
+      territory approached that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal,
+      Verdun, Longwy, they ranged through the mountains northeast of
+      France as guardians of their country against another German
+      attack. To rush an army into France over this rough country and
+      between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies
+      carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades.
+      Therefore, if Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at
+      France and get her armies back six weeks later to meet the
+      slow-moving Russians, it was plain that she must seek some other
+      approach than that through the Vosges Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns]
+
+      From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the
+      northern and western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat
+      plain, with level roads, easy to cross. (See map.) Now, years
+      before, Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England
+      that no one of them would disturb its neutrality. In other words
+      it was pledged that in case of a war, no armed force of any of
+      these three nations should enter Belgian territory, nor should
+      Belgium be involved in any trouble arising among them. In case
+      any one of the nations named or in fact any other hostile force,
+      invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to rush to
+      Belgium’s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her
+      small army any troops which might invade her country.
+
+      In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty,
+      the Germans started their rush toward France, not through the
+      line of forts in the mountains, but across the gently rolling
+      plain to the north. They first asked permission of the Belgians
+      to pass through their country. On being refused, they entered
+      Belgian territory just east of Liége (lï ĕzh′). The Belgians
+      telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The Germans replied that
+      they were sorry but it was necessary for them to invade Belgium
+      in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and to pay
+      the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might
+      seize. The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France,
+      England, and Germany they were bound on their honor to resist
+      just such an invasion as this. They asked the Germans how Germany
+      would regard them if they were to permit a French army to cross
+      Belgian territory to take Germany by surprise. The Germans again
+      said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium refused permission
+      to their army to cross, the army would go through without
+      permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make,
+      but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist
+      by all means the passage of the German troops. The great war had
+      begun.
+
+[Illustration: Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.]
+
+      As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the
+      blame, almost alone.
+
+      The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913,
+      thinking that this little country had grown too powerful, as a
+      result of her victories in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had
+      counted on “bluffing” Russia to keep out, as she had been bluffed
+      in 1908, and when she saw that this time the Russians meant
+      business, she became frightened and sent word that she might be
+      willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans
+      were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent
+      their warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a
+      ground for war.
+
+      Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia
+      was at its height, both Austria and Russia had their armies
+      mobilized and ready for war for weeks and months. Still no war
+      came out of it. It looked as if Germany was hard put to it to
+      find an excuse for launching her plan to conquer Europe.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Ulster object to home rule?
+
+          What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia?
+
+          Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia?
+
+          Why did Russia mobilize her troops?
+
+          Why was the road through Belgium chosen?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVIII.
+Why England Came In
+
+      The question of Italy and England.—Italy’s position.—The war with
+      Turkey.—Italy declines to join her allies.—England is aware of
+      the German plans.—The treaty with Belgium.—The “defensive”
+      war.—The “scrap of paper.”—Germany’s rage at England’s
+      declaration of war.—England does the unexpected.
+
+
+      France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria
+      and Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her
+      neighbor and kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy
+      and England do. Italy, like Russia and Germany, had been having
+      trouble in holding down her people. A revolution had been
+      threatened which would overthrow the king and set up a republic.
+      The Socialist Party, representing the working class, had been
+      growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles was
+      that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by
+      the Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people.
+      Throughout the entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated.
+
+      You will remember that France had aroused the Italians’ anger in
+      1881 by seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province
+      for herself, for the Italian peninsula was crowded with people,
+      and as the population increased, it was thought necessary that
+      colonies be established to which the people could migrate to have
+      more room. Finally in 1911, in order to divert the minds of the
+      people from revolutionary thoughts, the government organized an
+      expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was
+      supposed to belong to Turkey.
+
+      This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany
+      and Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking
+      Turkey, with which the Austrians and Germans were trying to
+      establish a firm friendship. However, “self-preservation is the
+      first law of nature,” and the Italian king and nobles valued
+      their leadership in the nation much more than they dreaded the
+      dislike of Germany and Austria.
+
+      The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia
+      and France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their
+      people too well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been
+      growing up a friendship between the people of Italy and those of
+      France, and the Italian generals knew that it would be a
+      difficult task to induce their men to fire upon their kinsmen
+      from across the Alps. Therefore, when Austria and Germany
+      demanded their support in the war, they replied by pointing out
+      that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to their
+      help only _if they were attacked_. “In this case,” said the
+      Italians, “you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind
+      us to support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not
+      consulted before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands.
+      Expect no help from us.”
+
+      Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen
+      were not blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended
+      to crush France first, capturing Paris and dealing the French
+      army such an overwhelming blow that it would take it a long time
+      to recover. Then the German armies were to be rushed back over
+      their marvelous system of government-owned railroads to meet the
+      on-coming German tide of Russians.
+
+      The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and
+      all war supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful
+      guns which were large enough to batter down the strongest forts
+      in the world. They did not have very much respect for the ability
+      of the Russian generals. They had watched them bungle badly in
+      the Japanese war, ten years before. If once France were brought
+      to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after France and
+      Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later on,
+      to settle with Great Britain.
+
+      The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan.
+      They saw that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal
+      time. However, Great Britain, having a government which is more
+      in the hands of the people than even that of republican France,
+      did not have the system of forcing her young men to do military
+      service. Her little army in England was made up entirely of men
+      who enlisted in it because they wished to, and because they
+      received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with
+      Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so.
+      Otherwise, her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would
+      never enlist to fight against them. The question was, would
+      anything happen to make the English people feel that they were
+      justified in entering the war on the side of France and Russia.
+
+      You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised
+      each other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870,
+      France and Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops
+      upon Belgian soil. Now, however, with the German army invading
+      Belgium, the English statesmen had to decide their course. As
+      heads of one of the nations to guarantee Belgium’s freedom, they
+      called on Germany to explain this unprovoked invasion. The
+      Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city of
+      Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to
+      withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying
+      no attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her
+      stand alongside of Russia and France.
+
+      The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the
+      French. They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of
+      her alliance, to stand by Russia, but they had confidently
+      counted on keeping England out of the war. In fact, the German
+      ambassador to England had assured the German emperor that England
+      had so many troubles, with her uprising in Ireland and threatened
+      rebellions in India and South Africa that she would never dare
+      fight at this time.
+
+      The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly
+      aroused. If there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself
+      on, it is keeping his word. The word of the English had been
+      given, through their government, to Belgium that this little
+      country, if it should resist invasion, would be protected, and
+      this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made no
+      difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly
+      unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had
+      to make the day before, this was a crucial step for the British
+      to take, but to their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In
+      the case of Germany’s declaration of war the German laws say that
+      no war can be declared by the Kaiser alone unless it is a
+      defensive war. Therefore, as one American writer has pointed out,
+      this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever declares. The
+      German military group, having control of the newspapers, put in a
+      lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers
+      having crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd.
+      They told how French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German
+      cities. As a matter of fact, the French soldiers, by orders of
+      their government, were drawn back from the frontier a distance of
+      six miles in order to avoid any appearance of attacking the
+      Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities that
+      was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a
+      formal statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city
+      and no French aviators had been seen near it. But the German
+      government gave out this “news” and promptly declared a
+      “defensive” war, and the German people had to believe what they
+      were told.
+
+      Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people,
+      with free schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had
+      been taught in the schools of his country that Germany was
+      surrounded by a ring of jealous enemies and would one day have to
+      fight them all, so the people of England had been taught in their
+      schools that war between civilized peoples is a hateful thing and
+      must finally disappear from the earth.
+
+      The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the
+      war at first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the
+      same, were doomed to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany
+      the protests against war were still more feeble. The newspapers,
+      with few exceptions, as was previously pointed out, were under
+      the control of the military leaders and the manufacturers of war
+      materials. These papers persuaded the German people that England,
+      through her jealousy of Germany’s great growth in trade, had
+      egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and
+      Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext.
+      At first the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince
+      Lichnowsky, the former German ambassador to Great Britain,
+      published a story in which he told how the German government had
+      forced the war in spite of all that England could do to prevent
+      it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs told them, that the
+      war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies.
+
+      Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old
+      feudal nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the
+      English people.
+
+      When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor
+      (as the prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told
+      him that unless German troops were immediately withdrawn from
+      Belgium, England would declare war, for the Belgian government
+      had a treaty signed by England promising them protection, the
+      German chancellor exclaimed. “What! Would you plunge into this
+      terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!” The chancellor
+      was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were sure
+      that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to
+      go into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans
+      for the conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the
+      chancellor forgot his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He
+      showed the world that honor had no place in the minds of the
+      German war lords. To the English a treaty with Belgium was a
+      sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which could be
+      torn up at a moment’s notice if it stood in the way of their
+      interests.
+
+      There was a violent outburst against England in all of the
+      newspapers of Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called
+      “The Hymn of Hate,” in which he told how while they had no love
+      for the Frenchman or the Russian, they had no hate for them
+      either. One nation alone they hated—England! “Gott strafe
+      England” (may God punish England) became the war cry of the
+      Germans.
+
+      Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until
+      England decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first,
+      even before the terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That
+      any nation should put her honor before her comfort and profit,
+      had never occurred to the war leaders of Germany.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911?
+
+          Why did not Italy join in the attack on France?
+
+          What was Germany’s plan?
+
+          How is the English army different from others?
+
+          What reason had England for declaring war?
+
+          Had the German’s expected England to attack them? Give
+          reasons for your answer.
+
+          Why did the phrase “scrap of paper” make such a deep
+          impression on the world?
+
+          Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIX.
+Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition
+
+      Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.—The demands of
+      Italy.—She joins the Triple Entente.—The retreat of the
+      Russians.—The Balkans again.—Bulgaria’s bargaining.—German
+      princes on Balkan thrones.—The central empires bid the highest
+      for Bulgarian support.—The attitude of Greece.—Roumania’s hopes.
+
+
+      To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all
+      haste to put pressure upon the governments of the countries which
+      were not engaged in the struggle, in order to win them over.
+      Germany and Austria worked hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with
+      Bulgaria. The Turks were the first to plunge in. The party headed
+      by Enver Bey (the young minister of war) saw that a victory for
+      Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of the Turks from
+      Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this
+      faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of
+      October (1914) when Turkish warships, without any provocation,
+      sailed into some Russian ports on the Black Sea and blazed away
+      with their big guns.
+
+      Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their
+      best to get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all
+      responsibility for this act of their naval commanders. The “Young
+      Turks,” however, were all for war on the side of Germany. What is
+      more, Russia, always anxious for an excuse to seize
+      Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize for their
+      act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was
+      quickly followed by France and England.
+
+      Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the
+      sympathies of the Italian people were with France and England.
+      The six grandsons of Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and
+      volunteered for fighting on the French lines. Two of them were
+      killed, and at their funerals in Rome, nearly all the inhabitants
+      of the city turned out and showed plainly that they too would
+      like to be fighting on the side of France.
+
+      You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the
+      provinces of Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent,
+      Trieste (trï ĕs′te), Pola (pō′lä), and Fiume (fē ū′me), all
+      inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and
+      cities by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between
+      the two nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the
+      price of her keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her
+      this land inhabited by Italians. Germany urged Austria to do
+      this, and sent as her special ambassador, to keep Italy from
+      joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow, whose wife was an Italian
+      lady, and who was very popular with the Italian statesmen.
+
+      For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce
+      Italy to accept a small part of the disputed territory and then,
+      when he found this impossible, doing his best to induce Austria
+      to give it all. Austria was stubborn. She did not take kindly to
+      the plan of giving away her cities. She offered to cede some
+      territory if Italy should wait until the end of the war.
+
+      This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that
+      Austria and Germany were going to win the war and was even less
+      sure that Austria would be willing, in case of her victory, to
+      give up a foot of territory. It seemed to the Italian statesmen
+      that it was “now or never” if Italy wished to get within her
+      kingdom all of her own people. In the month of May 1915 Italy
+      threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria and
+      entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England.
+
+[Illustration: Russian peasants fleeing before the German army]
+
+      Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had
+      millions and millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them
+      all. They had plenty of food but very little ammunition for their
+      cannon. Austria and Germany, on the other hand, had been
+      manufacturing shot and shells in enormous quantities, and from
+      the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the Carpathian
+      Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and
+      Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October,
+      forcing them to retreat nearly three hundred miles.
+
+      In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble.
+      You will recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her
+      victory over Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it
+      came to a division of the conquered territory. Thus she brought
+      on a second war, in the course of which Greece and Serbia
+      defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of her territory and
+      the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of Russia
+      had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending
+      a personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King
+      Peter of Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race,
+      not to let their quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of
+      her ability to defeat Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the
+      Russians’ pleadings, and as a result Russia did not interfere to
+      save her when her neighbors were robbing her of part of the land
+      which she had taken from Turkey.
+
+It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had
+felt most sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in
+their blood, although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore,
+just as Italy strove by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her
+nation, so Bulgaria now saw her chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia.
+Accordingly, she asked the four great powers what they would give her
+in case she entered the war on their side, and attacked Turkey by way
+of Constantinople, while the French and English were hammering at the
+forts along the Dardanelles.[7]
+
+ [7] England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great
+ quantities at her ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and
+ England, by supplying Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike
+ a hard blow at Germany.
+
+      The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally
+      induced Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to
+      Bulgaria. They further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of
+      Adrianople and the territory around it which Turkey had
+      reconquered. But Bulgaria was not easily satisfied. She wanted
+      more than Serbia was willing to give; she wanted, too, the port
+      of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the allies could
+      not promise.
+
+      In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany,
+      and Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back
+      Serbia for the loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina in case they won the war from Austria. In like
+      fashion, Austria and Germany promised Bulgaria some Turkish
+      territory and also the southern part of the present kingdom of
+      Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side.
+
+      Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call
+      himself, is a German. (As these little countries won their
+      independence from Turkey, they almost always called in foreign
+      princes to be their kings. In this way it had come about that the
+      king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the king of Roumania was
+      a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar of Bulgaria
+      was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has
+      furnished England and Belgium with their kings.)
+
+      The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic
+      Church, and they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia,
+      as the head of that church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling,
+      however. He wanted to be the most powerful ruler in the Balkan
+      states, and it made no difference to him which side helped him to
+      gain his object.
+
+[Illustration: A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front]
+
+      About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a
+      line running south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern
+      boundary of Roumania. The French and English had been pounding at
+      the Dardanelles for some months, but the stubborn resistance of
+      the Turks seemed likely to hold them out of Constantinople for a
+      long time to come. The checked Italians had not been able to make
+      much headway against the Austrians through the mountainous Alpine
+      country where the fighting was taking place. In the west, the
+      Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British
+      and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that
+      the German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help,
+      flung their nation into its third war within four years. This
+      happened in Octoher, 1915.
+
+      Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece
+      defeated Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to
+      come to the help of the other in case either was attacked by
+      Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was friendly to Greece and Serbia,
+      rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the Roumanians knew that
+      Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory of which
+      Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way,
+      the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped
+      that the entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany
+      and Turkey, would bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side.
+
+      The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia’s aid and so was
+      the Greek prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a
+      sister of the German emperor, and through her influence with her
+      husband she was able to defeat the plans of Venizelos (vĕn ĭ
+      zĕl′ŏs), the prime minister, who was notified by the king that
+      Greece would not enter the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned,
+      but not until he had given permission to the French and English
+      to land troops at Salonika, for the purpose of rushing to the
+      help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that German and Austrian
+      armies might lay waste her territory, as they had Serbia’s,
+      before England and France could come to the rescue.)
+
+      Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan
+      wars had drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the
+      Austrians had invaded her kingdom in this war, and twice they had
+      been driven out. Then came a dreadful epidemic of typhus fever
+      which was the result of unhealthful conditions caused by the war.
+      Now the little kingdom, attacked by the Germans and Austrians on
+      two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was literally
+      fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to
+      stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria,
+      but we have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to
+      prevent this. Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her
+      help. However, as you have been told, the king of Roumania is a
+      German of the Hohenzollern family, a cousin of the emperor, and
+      in spite of the sympathy of his people for Italy, France, and
+      Serbia, he was able to keep them from joining in the defense of
+      the Serbs.
+
+      Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes ȧ
+      rȧ′bi ȧ), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the
+      greater part of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo kō vï′nȧ),
+      which are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for
+      a great part of the inhabitants of these three counties are
+      Roumanians by blood and language. They would like to be parts of
+      the kingdom of Roumania, and Roumania would like to possess them.
+      The Quadruple Entente would promise Roumania parts of
+      Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on their
+      side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her
+      Bessarabia. Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled
+      by colonists sent out from Rome, and in the eleventh century a
+      large number of people from the north of Italy settled there. On
+      this account, Roumania looks upon Italy as her mother country,
+      and it was thought that Italy’s attack upon Austria would
+      influence her to support the Entente.
+
+      Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order
+      to share in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the
+      Quadruple Entente did not need her help Roumania was eager to
+      offer it, at a price which seemed to the allies too high. When,
+      however, the tide turned the other way, she lost her enthusiasm
+      for the cause of her friends, fearing what the central empires
+      might do to her.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war?
+
+          Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on
+          them?
+
+          What were the feelings of the Italian people?
+
+          What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain?
+
+          What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the
+          Entente powers?
+
+          Why did Bulgaria join the central empires?
+
+          Why did Greece keep out of the conflict?
+
+          What were Roumania’s hopes?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XX.
+Back to the Balkans
+
+      The troubles of Crete.—The bigotry of the “Young
+      Turks.”—Venizelos in Greece.—The pro-German king.—The new
+      government at Salonika.—The downfall of Constantine.—The
+      ambitions of Roumania.—Pro-Germans in Russia.—Roumania declares
+      war.—Russian treachery and German trickery.—The defeat of
+      Roumania.
+
+
+      Greece
+
+      You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime
+      minister of Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her
+      bargain from Crete with Serbia (pages 239-240). Now Venizelos had
+      originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks,
+      but controlled by Turkey for many years (see map). In 1897 the
+      Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island,
+      and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they
+      forced their king to declare war on Turkey.
+
+      Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the
+      attention of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the
+      Turks, and they never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed
+      by them. For over a year Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy
+      had their warships in Cretan ports and the government of Crete
+      was under their protection.
+
+      Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince,
+      Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become
+      very unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics—on the wrong
+      side—and had to leave.
+
+      The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The
+      Cretan government was really independent, like a little kingdom
+      without a king, and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had
+      looked forward to the time when they might be united in one great
+      kingdom. The shores of Asia Minor and the cities along the Aegean
+      Sea and the Dardanelles were largely inhabited by Greeks. Crete
+      and the islands of the Aegean had once been part of Greece and
+      they never would be content until they were again joined to it.
+      The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be
+      annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the
+      “Young Turks” which drove the old Sultan from his throne (page
+      186).
+
+      The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the
+      government were tolerant to all the other races and religions in
+      their country. At first the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians,
+      the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in the Turkish Empire were very
+      happy over the result of the revolution. It looked as if a new
+      day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible for these
+      various races and different religions to live side by side in
+      peace.
+
+      No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government,
+      however, than they began to change. “Turkey for the Turks, and
+      for the Turks only” became their motto. With this in mind they
+      massacred Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia (page 85) and
+      Armenians in Asia Minor. The thought of the loss of Crete roused
+      their anger and they began scheming to get it back under Turkish
+      rule.
+
+      In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left
+      for Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the
+      Turks and annex Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his
+      single-hearted love for his country soon made him as prominent on
+      the mainland as he had been in his island home. Before long he
+      was chosen as prime minister of Greece.
+
+      He found the country in a very sad condition. The military
+      officers were poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know
+      this, but imagined that their army was the best in the world. The
+      politicians had plundered the people and there was graft and poor
+      management throughout the government.
+
+      Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic
+      for some of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over
+      the Greek army and taught the Greek officers the real science of
+      war.
+
+[Illustration: Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England]
+
+      Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be
+      frightened, controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent
+      officials and forced the others to attend to business. In fact he
+      reorganized the whole government service in a way to make every
+      department do better work. Few countries in Europe were as well
+      managed as was Greece with Venizelos as its prime minister.
+
+      Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no
+      man of Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You
+      have been told how the Russians have looked forward to the day
+      when Saint Sophia, the great mosque of the Turks, shall once more
+      become a Christian cathedral. In the same way the Greeks have
+      passionately desired to see Constantinople, which was for over a
+      thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the
+      control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the
+      Greeks first won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the
+      boundary of their kingdom has been pushed northward, freeing more
+      and more of their people from the rule of the Ottomans.
+      Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of Greece as many as
+      possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming night and day
+      for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have been
+      told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing
+      Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for
+      whom she had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many
+      people felt that this combination would never have been possible
+      without the far-seeing wisdom of of Venizelos. In fact, some
+      historians give him the credit of first planning the alliance.
+
+      His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as
+      you have been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of
+      their country, whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than
+      Greeks among its inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the
+      attack on Turkey that the greater part of Macedonia should be
+      given to Bulgaria, had hard work after the victory in convincing
+      his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the claims of the
+      three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in the
+      combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs
+      in the course of the first war against Turkey, while the
+      Bulgarians were defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of
+      Constantinople, brought on the second war. Bulgaria was not
+      willing to give up Macedonia to the Greeks and Serbs, and her
+      troops made a treacherous attack on her former allies (June,
+      1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to.
+
+      At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five
+      nations at once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks
+      took advantage of her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika
+      but also Kavala, which by all rights should have gone to the
+      Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be generous to Bulgaria, but
+      the Greeks had had their heads turned by the extraordinary
+      successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and as a
+      result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of
+      the conquered lands.
+
+      Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had
+      begun: In March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and
+      England made their violent attack on the forts of the
+      Dardanelles, intending to break through and bombard
+      Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the
+      conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end,
+      would lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be
+      divided up among the conquering nations. He wanted to get for
+      Greece the shores of the Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor,
+      where a great majority of the inhabitants were people of Greek
+      blood. The king of Greece, Constantine, as has been explained, is
+      a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has always been
+      friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends while
+      both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little
+      incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a
+      coolness between them.
+
+      King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a
+      banquet and told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine
+      work of the Greek soldiers in the two wars just fought had been
+      due to help which he had received from German military men. This
+      statement angered the French very much, for you will remember
+      that it was French generals who had trained the Greek army
+      officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip to
+      Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine
+      condition of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had
+      trained its officers before the war of 1912. This was a direct
+      “slap in the face” of the king but it was the truth and everyone
+      in Greece knew it. From this time on it was evident to everybody
+      that Venizelos was friendly to the French and English, while the
+      King was pro-German.
+
+      Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek
+      government to join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give
+      the order. Venizelos, who was prime minister, straightway
+      resigned, broke up the parliament, and ordered a general
+      election. This put the case squarely up to the people of Greece
+      and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred
+      eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as
+      against one hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war.
+
+      Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election,
+      ordered the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was
+      that Bulgaria, in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the
+      side of the Germans and Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In
+      order to keep peace with Bulgaria Venizelos was willing to give
+      to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had cheated her out of at
+      the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his country
+      would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule
+      of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose
+      population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this,
+      however, and the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted
+      as their prime minister, backed the king. When the attack by the
+      Central Powers on Serbia took place, as has been told, Venizelos
+      a second time tried to get the Greek government to join the war
+      on the side of France and England. He said plainly to the king
+      that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not a “scrap of
+      paper” as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with
+      Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a
+      full understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand,
+      insisted that the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that
+      it was not intended to drag Greece into a general European war.
+      As a result, he dismissed Venizelos a second time, in spite of
+      the fact that twice, by their votes, the Greeks had shown that
+      they approved of his policy.
+
+      Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the
+      constitution the king must obey the will of the people as shown
+      by the votes of a majority of the members of parliament. In spite
+      of the vote of parliament the king refused to stand by the
+      Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating the law of his
+      country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very
+      little power, as the Greek constitution had made him.
+
+      Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and
+      English had landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the
+      hard-pressed Serbs. You have already been told how Venizelos
+      arranged this. Their aid, however, had come too late. Before they
+      could reach the gallant little Serbian army it had been crushed
+      between the Austrians and Germans on one side and the Bulgarians
+      on the other, and its survivors had fled across the mountains to
+      the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments were not
+      strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany,
+      Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern
+      Serbia. King Constantine notified the Allied governments that if
+      these troops retreated upon Greek soil he would send his army to
+      surround them and hold them as prisoners for the rest of the war.
+      France and England replied by notifying him that if he did this
+      they would blockade the ports of Greece and prevent any ships
+      from entering her harbors. This act on the part of France and
+      England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the
+      proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The
+      king took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of
+      pro-Germans to important positions in the government. Constantine
+      allowed German submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases
+      of supply from which they got their oil and provisions. The Greek
+      army was still mobilized, and the small force of French and
+      English, which had retreated to Salonika, were afraid that at any
+      moment they might receive a stab in the back by order of the
+      Greek king.
+
+      In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek
+      frontier and demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When
+      the commander of one of them proposed to fight, the German
+      general told him to call up his government at Athens over the
+      long distance telephone. He did so and was ordered to give up the
+      fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already seen what the
+      answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be sure,
+      the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but
+      they had come there under permission of the prime minister of
+      Greece to do a thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised
+      that she would do, namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars.
+
+      This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too
+      much for Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people
+      in which he declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution
+      and was ruling as a tyrant; that he was betraying his country to
+      the Germans and Bulgars and that all loyal Greeks should refuse
+      to obey him. At Salonika, under the protection of the British and
+      French, together with the admiral of the Greek navy and one of
+      the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a new
+      government—a republic of Greece.
+
+      Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern
+      Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered
+      his men to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores,
+      and the equipment which had been furnished to them by the French
+      to defend themselves against the Germans! In the meantime, the
+      Bulgarians had seized Kavala.
+
+      The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy
+      between the Italians and Austrians even during the years when
+      they were partners in the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy
+      entered the war on the side of France and England, her
+      government, fearing the Austrians, had sent Italian troops to
+      seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was not
+      wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no
+      government at all there since the outbreak of the great war.
+      However, the presence of this Italian garrison prevented the
+      forces of the central powers from advancing southward along the
+      Adriatic coast.
+
+      Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika.
+      The gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to
+      command the joint army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came
+      there to join the French and British. A hundred thousand hardy
+      young veterans, survivors of the Serbian army, picked up by
+      allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were refitted and
+      carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined
+      General Sarrail’s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for
+      revenge on the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the
+      Greek troops, following the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the
+      king and joined the allies.
+
+      Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to
+      steer the ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil.
+      The great majority of them were warm friends of France and
+      England—all of them hated the Turks. The pro-German acts of the
+      king, however, provoked the French and English to such an extent
+      that they frequently had to interfere in Athens. The Greek people
+      resented this interference and on one or two occasions fights
+      broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets of the
+      capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments
+      of France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the
+      treacherous conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that
+      he was assisting Germany in every possible way. They knew that
+      their camp was full of spies who were reporting all their
+      movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that at the first chance
+      he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear. They
+      finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the
+      throne to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince,
+      having been educated in Germany and sharing King Constantine’s
+      pro-German sentiments, was barred from succeeding his father.
+      This seemed a high-handed thing to do but there was no other way
+      out of a difficult situation. Constantine had allowed his
+      sympathies with his wife’s brother to prevent his country from
+      carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute
+      monarch; had plotted with all his power for the overthrow of
+      Russia, France, and England, the three countries which had won
+      Greece its independence in the first place and which still
+      desired its people to have the right to rule themselves.
+
+The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of
+the Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king
+and Germany. A second[8] time within four months a European monarch who
+was out of sympathy with his subjects was forced to resign his crown.
+
+ [8] The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter.
+
+      With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the
+      return to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people
+      hailed his coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the
+      members of parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control
+      of the government.
+
+      In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that,
+      henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of
+      France, Great Britain, and the other nations of the Entente.
+
+      Roumania
+
+      You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs
+      hoped for help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a
+      grudge against Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory
+      which she had been compelled to give up to her neighbor on the
+      north at the close of the second Balkan war. They expected this
+      fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring the Roumanians to the rescue.
+
+      You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as
+      well as in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a
+      long time the government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to
+      plunge into the war before the time was ripe, and dreading the
+      danger of choosing the wrong side.
+
+      The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to
+      war she would have to count strongly on the help of her great
+      neighbor to the north.
+
+Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember
+that there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian
+domain which borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and
+Courland were ruled in the olden times by the “Teutonic knights.”)
+These Germans are much better educated, on the whole, than the
+Russians; they are descendants of old feudal warriors and as such are
+men of force and influence in the Russian government. It was a common
+thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve, Rennenkampf, and
+Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in Russia. In
+this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian
+government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were
+actively plotting with this in view. “There is a secret wire from the
+czar’s palace to Berlin,” said one of the most patriotic Russian
+generals, explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance.
+Graft and bad management, as well as treachery, were all through the
+nation. Train-loads of ammunition intended for the Russian army were
+left piled up on the wharves at the northern ports. Guns sent by
+England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food that was badly needed by
+the men at the front was hoarded by government officials in order to
+raise prices for their friends who were growing rich through
+“cornering” food supplies.[9]
+
+ [9] When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so
+ as to keep it from being sold in great quantities and make it appear
+ that there is not enough to go around, they are said to “corner” the
+ market. Three or four men in America at various times have been able
+ to corner the wheat market or the corn market or the market for
+ cotton.
+
+      The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On
+      the other hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German
+      princess whose brothers were fighting in the German army, and she
+      had little love for her adopted country. The poor little
+      Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in the war, “When
+      the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are beaten,
+      mamma weeps.” In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had
+      great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who
+      were secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use
+      this influence in many ways.
+
+      In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia—a man named
+      Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians,
+      after their long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their
+      strength, and had piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new
+      attack. This began early in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff
+      attacked the Austro-Hungarians in Galicia and Bukowina and drove
+      them back for miles and miles, capturing hundreds of thousands of
+      prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians, although
+      subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the
+      Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of
+      Bohemian troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in
+      a body and afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army.
+
+      In northern France, the British and French had at last gained
+      more guns and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer
+      weight of metal were pushing the latter out of the trenches which
+      they had held for over two years. It seemed to Roumania that the
+      turning point of the war had come. With the Russians winning big
+      victories over Austria, and the French and English pushing back
+      the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as though the end
+      were in sight.
+
+Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a
+distant cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from
+the case in Greece and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and
+she was able to help the party that was friendly to France and Great
+Britain. The man who had and worked early and late to get his
+countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the wisest of the
+Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the second
+Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within
+fourteen months.[10]
+
+ [10] As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months
+ between wars.
+
+[Illustration: What The Allies Wished]
+
+      By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if
+      they wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the
+      province of Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the
+      war on the side of the Entente. It is claimed by some that they
+      had planned to wait until the following winter in order to get
+      their army into the best of condition and training, but that the
+      treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when he found that
+      they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria,
+      persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were
+      unprepared and that their inexperienced troops would be no match
+      for the veterans of the central powers. At any rate, about the
+      first of September Roumania declared war on Austria and joined
+      the Entente.
+
+      The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war
+      first on Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north
+      while General Sarrail attacked it from the south, crush it before
+      help could arrive from Germany, much in the fashion in which poor
+      Serbia had been caught between Austria and Bulgaria a year
+      previously. The Roumanians, however, were eager to “liberate”
+      their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by bad advice
+      from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest
+      instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the
+      conquest of Bulgaria. (See maps.)
+
+[Illustration: Messen How Roumania was crushed]
+
+      Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania.
+      The battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet
+      weather, had become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it
+      was impossible to drag the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia
+      had pushed back the Austrians for many miles but a lack of
+      ammunition and the arrival of strong German re-inforcements had
+      prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian generals on the
+      north, under the influence of the pro-German prime minister, were
+      doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a deadlock.
+      The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that
+      neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow
+      advance of General Sarrail. His great problem was to get
+      sufficient shells for his guns and food for his men. All the
+      time, too, he had to keep a watchful eye on King Constantine,
+      lest the latter launch the Greek army in a treacherous attack on
+      his rear. For the time being, then, the central powers were free
+      to give their whole attention to Roumania.
+
+      Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the
+      Russians to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand
+      men from France and Poland and hurled them all together upon the
+      Roumanians. At the same time, another force composed of Turks,
+      Bulgarians, and some Germans marched north through the Dobrudja
+      to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the very trick that the
+      French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now worked upon
+      her by the central powers. France and England were helpless. They
+      sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the
+      Roumanians the latest science of war, but men and guns they could
+      not send. Look at the map and see how Roumania was shut off from
+      all help except what came from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his
+      part to help Germany. Ammunition and troops which were intended
+      to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The Germans had spies in
+      the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew exactly where the
+      Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to do.
+
+      The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each
+      gun was a delicate sight with a spirit level—a little glass tube
+      supposed to be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly
+      the Germans had filled these tubes with water, intending, in case
+      Roumania entered the war on their side, to warn them about the
+      “mistake.” When the guns were hauled up into the mountains and
+      freezing weather came, these sights burst, making the guns almost
+      useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and the south, the
+      Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile after
+      mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by
+      the Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil
+      wells are, fell into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest,
+      the capital.
+
+      Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost
+      beaten, now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat,
+      Roumanian oil, and above all, the glory of the victories, the
+      central powers were now in better shape to fight than if Roumania
+      had kept out of the war. The German comic papers were full of
+      pictures which declared that as England and France had always
+      wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now take a long
+      look at King Ferdinand of Roumania.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to
+          power of the “young Turks”?
+
+          What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos
+          in Greece?
+
+          What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of
+          1913?
+
+          What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and
+          King Constantine?
+
+          Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as
+          prisoners the French and British troops who were driven back
+          upon Greek soil?
+
+          What right had Venizelos to set up a republic?
+
+          Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King
+          Constantine?
+
+          What made Roumania decide to join the Entente?
+
+          How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central
+          Powers?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXI.
+The War Under the Sea
+
+      Britannia rules the waves.—Enter the submarine.—The blockade of
+      Germany.—The sinking of the _Lusitania_ and other ships.—The
+      trade in munitions of war.—The voyages of the
+      _Deutschland_.—Germany ready for peace (on her own terms).—The
+      reply of the allies.—Germany’s amazing announcement.—The United
+      States breaks off friendly relations.
+
+
+      You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building
+      warships, with the hope that one day their navy might be the
+      strongest in the world. At the outbreak of the great war in 1914
+      they were still far behind England in naval power. On the other
+      hand, it was necessary for the English to keep their navy
+      scattered all over the world. English battleships were guarding
+      trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the
+      Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of
+      Malta—all were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed
+      to defend them.
+
+      The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few
+      cruisers in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the
+      Mediterranean, was gathered in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern
+      part of the North Sea, and the great Kiel Canal which connected
+      these two bodies of water. It was quite possible that this fleet,
+      by making a quick dash for the ports of England, might find there
+      only a portion of the English ships and be able to overwhelm them
+      before the rest of the English navy should assemble from the far
+      parts of the earth.
+
+      Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the
+      foresight to assemble enough English vessels in home waters in
+      the latter part of the month of July, 1914, to give England the
+      upper hand over the fleet of Germany. As a result, finding the
+      British too strong, the Germans did not venture out into the high
+      seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were fought between
+      cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash across the
+      North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns,
+      killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting
+      back to the Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any
+      number.
+
+      A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time
+      the British were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers
+      were sunk and the others barely escaped the fire of the avengers.
+
+      About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German
+      fleet sailed out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were
+      successful in sinking several large ships, but when the main
+      British fleet arrived they began in turn to suffer great losses,
+      and were obliged to retire. With the exception of these two
+      fights and two other battles fought off the coast of South
+      America (in the first of which a small English fleet was
+      destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British
+      fleet took revenge), there have been no battles between the sea
+      forces.
+
+      The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels
+      were either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral
+      nations. German commerce was swept from the seas, while ships
+      carrying supplies to France and the British Isles sailed
+      unmolested—for a time. Only in the Baltic Sea was Germany
+      mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark was kept up
+      as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came
+      great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries
+      bought, in the markets of the world, apparently for themselves,
+      but really for Germany.
+
+      However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new
+      and terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat,
+      the invention of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and
+      enlarged by the Germans. In one of the early months of the war
+      three British warships, the _Hogue_, the _Cressy_, and the
+      _Aboukir_, were cruising about, guarding the waters of the North
+      Sea. There was the explosion of a torpedo, and the _Hogue_ began
+      to sink. One of her sister ships rushed in to pick up the crew as
+      they struggled in the water. A second torpedo struck and a second
+      ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate of the other two,
+      the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster—the German
+      submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant
+      ships with a thousand men had gone down.
+
+      This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and
+      cruisers were not enough. While England controlled the surface of
+      the sea, there was no way to prevent the coming and going of the
+      German submarine beneath the waters. All naval warfare was
+      changed in a moment; new methods and new weapons had to be
+      employed.
+
+      At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up
+      a strict blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which
+      were called “contraband of war” and which, according to the law
+      of nations, might be seized by one country if they were the
+      property of her enemy. On the list of contraband were all kinds
+      of ammunition and guns, as well as materials for making these.
+      England and France, however, added to the list which all nations
+      before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like
+      cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton
+      and other high explosives, gasoline—fuel for the thousands of
+      automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for
+      their tires. Soon other substances were added to the list.
+
+      An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The
+      central empires, in ordinary years, raise only about
+      three-fourths of the food that they eat. With the great supply of
+      Russian wheat shut off and vessels from North America and South
+      America not allowed to pass the British blockade, Germany’s
+      imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland, and the
+      Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about
+      four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not
+      take a detective to discover that she was secretly selling to
+      Germany the great bulk of what she was buying apparently for
+      herself. In a like manner Switzerland and the Scandinavian
+      countries suddenly developed a much greater appetite than before
+      the war! The British blockade grew stricter. It was agreed to
+      allow these countries to import just enough food for their own
+      purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the food
+      themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The
+      Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had
+      slaughtered many of their cows for beef and as a result grew
+      short of milk and butter.
+
+      To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use
+      her submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles.
+      This happened in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest
+      from the world in general, but Germany agreed that her submarine
+      commanders should warn each ship of its danger and allow the
+      captain time to get the passengers and crew into boats before the
+      deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the danger of
+      the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore,
+      were in serious danger.
+
+      The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars
+      up to this time, have said that a blockade, in order to be
+      recognized by all nations, had to be successful in doing the work
+      for which it was intended. If England really was able to stop
+      every boat sailing for German shores, then all nations would have
+      to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the Germans were able
+      to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed into
+      English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a
+      real blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral
+      nations who were peaceably trying to trade with all the countries
+      at war, this sinking of merchantmen by submarines went on.
+
+      In May, 1915, the great steamship _Lusitania_ was due to sail
+      from New York for England. A few days before her departure
+      notices signed by the German ambassador were put into New York
+      papers, warning people that Germany would not be responsible for
+      what happened to them if they took passage on this boat. Very few
+      people paid any attention to these warnings. With over a thousand
+      persons on board the _Lusitania_ sailed, on schedule time.
+      Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to hear that a German
+      submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had sent two
+      torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending
+      her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the
+      boats, but over eight hundred men, women, and children were
+      drowned, of whom over one hundred were American citizens. Strange
+      as it may seem, this action caused a thrill of joy throughout
+      Germany. Some of the Germans were horrified, as were people in
+      neutral countries, but on the whole the action of the German navy
+      was approved by the voice of the German people. With a curiously
+      warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed that the
+      English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children
+      to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was
+      going to be sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which
+      one would speak of the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent
+      children and women to march in front of armies in order to
+      protect the troops from the fire of their enemies.
+
+      A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the
+      United States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans,
+      however, prevailed, and the upshot of the matter was that a stern
+      note was sent to Berlin notifying the Kaiser that the United
+      States could not permit vessels carrying Americans to be
+      torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The German papers
+      proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured every
+      French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two
+      Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the
+      boat might be under the protection of the United States.
+
+      However, in spite of Germany’s solemn promise that nothing of the
+      sort would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring,
+      although on a smaller scale. The American steamers _Falaba_ and
+      _Gulflight_ were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the
+      loss of one or two lives. Finally, the steamer _Sussex_, crossing
+      the English Channel, was hit by a torpedo which killed many of
+      the passengers. As several Americans lost their lives, once more
+      the United States warned Germany that this must not be repeated.
+      Germany acknowledged that her submarine commander had gone
+      further than his orders allowed him and promised that the act
+      should not be repeated—provided that the United States should
+      force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal
+      blockade. The United States in reply made it plain that while the
+      English blockade was unpleasant to American citizens, still it
+      was very different from the brutal murder of women and children
+      on the high seas. England, when convinced that an American ship
+      was carrying supplies which would be sold in the end to Germany,
+      merely took this vessel into an English port, where a court
+      decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British
+      government to pay that sum to the (American) owners.
+
+      This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not
+      anything to go to war over. The United States gave warning that
+      she would hold Germany responsible for any damage to American
+      ships or loss of American lives.
+
+      All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of
+      favoring the nations of the Entente because they were selling
+      munitions of war to them and none to Germany. They said that it
+      was grossly unfair for neutral nations to sell to one side when,
+      owing to the blockade, they could not sell to the other also.
+      When a protest was made by Austria, the United States pointed out
+      that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time the empire
+      of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in
+      South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy
+      munitions in the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not
+      prevent both Austria and Germany from selling guns and ammunition
+      to Great Britain. (It must be made plain that the United States
+      _government_ was not selling munitions of war to any of the
+      warring nations. What Germany wanted and Austria asked was that
+      our government should prevent our private companies, as, for
+      example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which would
+      eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it
+      plain that our people had no feeling in the matter—that they were
+      in business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it
+      was not our fault that the British navy, being larger than the
+      German, prevented Germany from trading with us.)
+
+      In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition
+      factories in the United States that were turning out shells and
+      guns for the Allies. Several hundred Americans were killed in
+      these explosions, and property to the value of millions of
+      dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the Austrian ambassador
+      and several of the German diplomats had been hiring men to commit
+      these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the fact
+      that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the
+      President insisted that their governments recall them.
+
+      The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English
+      blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany,
+      who were being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English.
+      As a matter of fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber,
+      cotton, gasoline, and above all, nickel and cobalt, two metals
+      which were needed in the manufacture of guns and shells.
+
+      Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large
+      German submarine, the _Deutschland_, made the voyage across the
+      Atlantic Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of
+      Baltimore. In spite of all the trouble that the United States had
+      had with Germany over the sinking of ships by submarines, the
+      crew of this vessel was warmly received, and the cargo of dyes
+      which she brought was eagerly purchased. The Germans, in return,
+      loaded their ship with the metals and other products of which
+      Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said, the
+      _Deutschland_ took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the
+      starving babies of Germany. Once more the _Deutschland_ came,
+      this time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with
+      every sign of hospitality.
+
+[Illustration: The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay]
+
+      In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign
+      against Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning
+      to feel the pinch of starvation and the drain on their young men,
+      made it known that as they had won the war they were now ready to
+      treat for peace. This message carried with it a threat to all
+      countries not at war that if they did not help to force the
+      Entente to accept the Kaiser’s peace terms, Germany could not be
+      held responsible for anything that might happen to them in the
+      future.
+
+      President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw
+      the United States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this
+      opportunity, and in a public message he asked both sides to state
+      to the world on what terms they would stop the war.
+
+      The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite
+      proposal. On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no
+      uncertain terms, declared that no peace would be made unless the
+      central powers restored what they had wrongfully seized, paid the
+      victims of their unprovoked attack for the damage they had done,
+      and guaranteed that no such act should ever be committed in the
+      future. They also declared that the Poles, Danes, Czechs,
+      Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed from the
+      tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language
+      this meant that the central powers must give back part of
+      Schleswig to Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored
+      as it once had been; permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an
+      independent nation in the midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the
+      people of Alsace and Lorraine the right of returning to France;
+      annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to Italy, and permit the
+      Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their cousins to the
+      southeast in one great Serbian nation.
+
+      When these terms were published the German government exclaimed
+      that while they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even
+      give back the conquered portions of Belgium and northern France
+      in return for the captured German colonies in Africa and the
+      Pacific Ocean, with the payment of indemnities to Germany, now it
+      was plain that the nations of the Entente intended to wipe out
+      utterly the German nation and dismember the empire of
+      Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies
+      an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for
+      the central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and _use
+      any means whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace_.
+
+      In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany
+      said, “We have won the war. Don’t you recognize the fact that you
+      have been beaten? Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom
+      of Poland, out of the part of Russian Poland which we have
+      conquered, as a separate kingdom under our protection, but don’t
+      expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or Prussian
+      Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are _ours_. You wouldn’t
+      expect _us_ to give up any part of _them_, would you?) Allow us
+      to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the
+      Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of
+      Belgium, and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we
+      are making!”
+
+      The Allied nations replied, in effect: “You now have gotten
+      three-fourths of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we
+      make peace now, allowing you to keep the greater part of what you
+      have conquered, you will be magnanimous and give back a small
+      portion of it if we in turn surrender all your lost colonies.
+      Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you recompense, as far
+      as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack for the
+      death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things
+      back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it
+      plain to us that never again will we have to be on guard against
+      the possibility of a ruthless invasion by your army; that you
+      give to the peoples whom you and your allies have forcibly
+      annexed or retained under your rule a chance to choose their own
+      form of government.”
+
+      Then said the Germans to the world, “You see! They want to wipe
+      us out of existence and cut the empire of our allies into small
+      bits. Nothing is left but to fight for our existence, and, as we
+      are fighting for our existence, all rules hitherto observed in
+      civilized warfare are now called off!”
+
+      In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government
+      announced that, inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an
+      honorable peace (which would have left them still in possession
+      of three-fourths the plunder they had gained in the war) and this
+      peace offer had been rejected by the Entente, all responsibility
+      for anything which might happen hereafter in the war would have
+      to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It was
+      stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when
+      one’s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible.
+      Germany proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink
+      _without warning_ all merchant ships sailing toward English or
+      French ports.
+
+      In a special note to the United States, the German government
+      said that once a week, at a certain time, the United States would
+      be permitted to send a passenger vessel to England, provided that
+      this boat were duly inspected and proved to have no munitions of
+      war or supplies for England on board. It must be painted all over
+      with red, white, and blue stripes and must be marked in other
+      ways so that the German submarine commanders would know it. (It
+      must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was fighting
+      for the freedom of the seas!)
+
+      Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are
+      free to all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to
+      sink without warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of
+      effrontery that few had imagined even the German government was
+      capable of.
+
+      President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In
+      fact, a great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in
+      the country had criticized him for being too patient. The great
+      majority of the people of the United States were for peace,
+      ardently. The government at Washington knew this. Nevertheless,
+      this last announcement by Germany that she proposed to kill any
+      American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in the
+      neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a
+      self-respecting nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent
+      notice to Count Von Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave
+      this country. Friendly relations between the imperial government
+      of Germany and the United States of America were at an end.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare?
+
+          What is contraband of war?
+
+          Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany?
+
+          Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war
+          material object to the sale of such material to fighting
+          nations by nations at peace?
+
+          Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to
+          make all nations devote too much work to the preparation of
+          war supplies.
+
+          Show the difference between the British blockade and the
+          sinking of ships by German submarines.
+
+          Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of
+          the German government have been a good enough reason for the
+          United States to have declared war?
+
+          How did the voyages of the _Deutschland_ prove that the
+          United States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war?
+
+          What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in
+          December 1916?
+
+          Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state
+          their aims in the war?
+
+          How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without
+          warning?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXII.
+Another Crown Topples
+
+      The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.—The
+      first Duma and the revolt of 1905.—The Zemptsvos and the people
+      against the pro-German officials.—The death of Rasputin and other
+      signs of unrest.—The revolution of March 1917.—The Czar becomes
+      Mr. Romanoff.—Four different governments within eight
+      months.—Civil war and a German effort for peace.
+
+
+      It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first
+      place by the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the
+      unwillingness of Russia to stand by and see her little neighbor
+      crushed, and that England came in to make good her word, pledged
+      to Belgium, to defend that small country from all hostile
+      attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the world
+      as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights
+      of peoples to live under the form of government which they might
+      choose. You will remember that when the central powers said that
+      they were ready to talk peace terms the nations of the Entente
+      replied that there could be no peace as long as the Danes, Poles,
+      and Alsatians were forcibly held by Germany in her empire and as
+      long as Austria denied the Ruthenians, Roumanians, Czechs,
+      Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right either to
+      rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of
+      blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond
+      of saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those
+      enslaved by military rule—a conflict between self-governed
+      nations and those which were oppressing their foreign subjects.
+      Replying to this the central powers would always point to Russia.
+      Russia, said they, oppressed the Poles and Lithuanians, the
+      Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well as
+      Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within
+      her territories. Her people had even less political freedom than
+      the inhabitants of Austria and Germany.
+
+      The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the
+      Germans. There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact
+      there is no doubt that French and British statesmen were afraid
+      of a Russian victory. They did not want the war to be won by the
+      one nation in their group which had a despotic form of
+      government. On the other hand the high officials in Russia were
+      not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the free
+      peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a
+      country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you
+      have been told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of
+      German blood and secretly desired the victory of their
+      fatherland, while many Russians of the party who wanted to keep
+      all power out of the hands of the common people were afraid of
+      seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people would rise up
+      and demand more liberty.
+
+      You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time
+      of the outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were
+      threatened, so that many people thought the Czar had not been at
+      all sorry to see the war break out, in order to turn the minds of
+      his people away from their own wrongs.
+
+      At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the
+      cry from the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of
+      elective government, had been so strong that the Czar had to give
+      in. So he called the first Duma. This body of men, as has been
+      explained, could talk and could complain, but could pass no laws.
+      The first Duma had had so many grievances and had talked so
+      bitterly against the government, that it had been forced to break
+      up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down riots among the
+      people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great ferocity. All
+      this time there had been growing, among the Russian people, a
+      feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand
+      dukes and high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that
+      the Czar was well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere
+      puppet in the hands of his German wife, his cousins the grand
+      dukes, and above all a notorious monk, called Rasputin. This
+      strange man, a son of the common people, had risen to great power
+      in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone could
+      keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince,
+      the Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of
+      the ladies in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy’s food
+      whenever Rasputin was away from the court for more than a few
+      days. The poor little prince, of course, was made sick;
+      whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for Rasputin, upon
+      whose arrival the Czarevitch “miraculously” got well. In this
+      manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and
+      Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put
+      bishops out of their places, and even change prime ministers.
+      There is no doubt that the Germans bribed him to use his
+      influence in their behalf. It is a sad illustration of the
+      ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such a man could
+      have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses.
+
+      The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos.
+      These were little assemblies, one in each county in Russia,
+      elected by the people to decide all local matters, like the
+      building of roads, helping feed the poor, etc. They had been
+      started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although the court was
+      rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true to
+      the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and
+      when the world war broke out, this body, really the only
+      patriotic part of the Russian government, kept the grand dukes
+      and the pro-Germans from betraying the nation into the hands of
+      the enemy.
+
+      It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the
+      representatives that they elected to these little county
+      assemblies were patriotically carrying out the war, while the
+      grand dukes and the court nobles, who had gotten Russia into this
+      trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the soldiers, either
+      through grafting off the supplies and speculating in food, or
+      traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans.
+      With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain
+      stored away by men who were holding it in order to get still
+      higher prices, there was not enough for the people of Petrograd
+      to eat.
+
+      As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was
+      made prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk,
+      Rasputin. Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was
+      crushed between the armies of the Germans on the one side and the
+      Turks and Bulgars on the other, while trainload after trainload
+      of the guns and munitions which would have enabled her armies to
+      stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on Russian railroads.
+      “Your Majesty, we are betrayed,” said the French general who had
+      been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the king of
+      Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise
+      after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken.
+
+      Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of
+      Turkey, Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the
+      people had had no schooling and were unable to read and write. It
+      was easier for the grand dukes and nobles to keep down the
+      peasants and to remain undisturbed in the ownership of their
+      great estates if the people knew nothing more than to labor and
+      suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however, the
+      most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were
+      working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then
+      too, the Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by
+      throwing bombs) for the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their
+      teachings throughout the country. Students of the universities,
+      writers, musicians, and artists, had preached the doctrines of
+      the rights of man. While outwardly the government appeared as
+      strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose trunk has rotted
+      through and through, and which needs only one vigorous push to
+      send it crashing to the ground.
+
+      It is generally in large cities that protests against the
+      government are begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob
+      of people, to pick out the ones who are responsible for starting
+      the trouble. Then again it is natural for people to make their
+      protests in capital cities where the government cannot fail to
+      hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that in large cities
+      there are always a great number of persons who are poor and who
+      are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard
+      times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of
+      causing the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people
+      desperate—they do not care whether they live or not—and, as a
+      result, they dare to oppose themselves to the police and the
+      soldiers.
+
+      There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long
+      time. This was felt not only among the common people, but also
+      among the more patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of
+      the winter of 1916-17, the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot,
+      was invited to the home of a grand duke, a cousin of the Czar.
+      There a young prince, determined to free Russia of this pest,
+      shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the ice of the
+      frozen Neva.
+
+      About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely
+      of speculation and “cornering the market,” had become so serious
+      that the government thought it wise to call in several regiments
+      of Cossacks to reinforce the police.
+
+      These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a
+      freedom not shared by any other class in Russia. They are
+      warriors by trade and their sole duty consists in offering
+      themselves, fully equipped, whenever the government has need of
+      their services in war. They were of a different race, originally,
+      than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying they now
+      have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the
+      streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people.
+      Enjoying freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the
+      practice of their trade—fighting—they had had little or no
+      sympathy with the wrongs of the populace, and so were the
+      strongest supporters of the despotic rule of the Czar. At times
+      when the Czar did not dare to trust his regular soldiers to
+      enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the men would
+      refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks
+      could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly
+      through the people, sabering to right and left those who refused
+      to disperse.
+
+[Illustration: Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution]
+
+      The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd
+      protesting against the high prices of food and forming in long
+      lines to demand grain of the government. As day succeeded day,
+      the crowds grew larger and bolder in their murmurings. Cossacks
+      were sent into the city, but for some strange reason they did not
+      cause fear as they had in times past. Their manner was different.
+      Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly joked with
+      the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and were
+      actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger
+      and more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called
+      in. The police fired upon the people when the latter refused to
+      go home. Then a strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes
+      flashing fire, rode at full tilt up the street toward a policeman
+      who was firing on the mob, and shot him dead on the spot. A shout
+      went up from the people: “The Cossacks are with us!” New
+      regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed them
+      knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own
+      kind of people—their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that
+      they were hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned
+      upon its officers, refusing to obey them, and made them
+      prisoners. Another and another joined the revolting forces. It
+      was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July, 1789. The
+      people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they
+      did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments
+      loyal to the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their
+      revolting comrades. They hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed
+      over to them, pleading with them not to fire. A few scattering
+      volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with a shout of joy,
+      the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and rushed
+      across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the
+      mob a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call
+      upon the Duma and ask this body to form a temporary government.
+      Another group was appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him
+      that henceforth he was not the Czar of all the Russias, but plain
+      Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were sent to the fighting fronts to
+      inform the generals that they were no longer to take orders from
+      the Czar, but from the representatives of the free people of
+      Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the new
+      situation. Within two days a new government had been formed,
+      composed of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar
+      signed a paper giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his
+      young son and nominating his brother Michael to take his place.
+      Michael, however, was too wise. He notified the people that he
+      would accept the crown only if they should vote to give it to
+      him; and this the people would not do.
+
+[Illustration: Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma]
+
+      The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of
+      different departments like the American cabinet, was composed of
+      citizens of the middle classes—lawyers, professors of the
+      universities, land-owners, merchants were represented—and at the
+      head of the ministry was a prince. This arrangement did not
+      satisfy the rabble. The radical socialists, most of whom owned no
+      property and wanted all wealth divided up among all the people,
+      were not much happier to be ruled by the moderately well-to-do
+      than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles. The council
+      of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which had
+      formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the
+      powers of government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian
+      people should have peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign
+      minister for the new government, assured France and England that
+      Russia would stick by them to the last, a howling crowd of
+      workingmen threatened to mob him. “No annexations and no
+      indemnities,” was the cry of the socialists. “Let us go back to
+      conditions as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the
+      burden of its own losses and let us have peace.” After a stormy
+      session, the new government agreed to include in its numbers
+      several representatives of the soldiers and workingmen. Prof.
+      Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a radical young
+      lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government.
+
+[Illustration: Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian
+troops]
+
+      Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage
+      offered by Russia’s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered
+      to make friends with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They
+      played eagerly upon the new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of
+      man and freedom and equality, to do away with fighting on the
+      east, thus being able to transfer to the western front some of
+      their best regiments. As a result the French and English, after
+      driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France were
+      at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole
+      war seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies
+      in the west. Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the
+      central powers grew stronger and stronger. The Russian troops
+      felt that they had been fighting the battles of the Czar and the
+      grand dukes and they saw no reason why they should go on shooting
+      their brother workingmen in Germany.
+
+      At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set
+      out to visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle
+      grounds of eastern Galicia he made rousing speeches to the
+      soldiers and actually led them in person toward the German
+      trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all along the line
+      under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the Germans
+      and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to
+      recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace
+      party were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a
+      certain division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to
+      the rear, begun by these troops, carried others with it, and for
+      a time it seemed as though the whole Russian army was going to
+      pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to the soldiers. The
+      situation was serious and called for a strong hand. Kerensky was
+      made prime minister and the members of the government and the
+      council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of
+      a Czar. He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or
+      traitors be shot, if need be, without trial. Under his rule the
+      Russian army began to re-form, and the situation improved.
+
+      In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the
+      Bolsheviki (Bŏl-shĕ-vï′kï) won over the garrisons of
+      Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government, forcing
+      Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany.
+      These people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large
+      cities. They have few followers outside of the city population,
+      for the average Russian in the country is a land owner, and he
+      does not take kindly to the idea of losing his property or
+      dividing it with some landless beggar from Petrograd.
+
+      The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion
+      in the realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by
+      the fights of the different factions. Finland demanded its
+      independence, and German spies and agents encouraged the
+      Ruthenians living in a great province called the Ukraine, to do
+      the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north of
+      the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on
+      fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered
+      largely from the states between the Black and Caspian Seas.
+      Having suffered persecution in the old days, they had hated the
+      Turks for ages and needed no orders from Petrograd to induce them
+      to take revenge.
+
+      Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the
+      central powers which gave Germany and Austria everything that
+      they wanted. The Russian armies were disbanded and the Germans
+      and Austrians were free to turn their fighting men back to the
+      western front. In the meantime, the Ruthenian republic, now
+      called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki to make a
+      separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the
+      Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and
+      the Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the
+      central empires. However, for a whole year hardly anybody in
+      Russia had been willing to do a stroke of work. The fields had
+      gone untilled while the peasants, drunk with their new freedom,
+      and without a care for the morrow, lived off the grain that had
+      been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever grain
+      the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to
+      hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished
+      and as food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater.
+
+      The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy—a government
+      where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny
+      of the lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the
+      middle classes were not allowed any voice in the government. When
+      the first National Assembly or Congress was elected and called
+      together, the Bolsheviki finding that they did not control a
+      majority of its members, disbanded it by force.
+
+      Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected
+      to being robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by
+      the Czar.
+
+      When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops
+      that refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the
+      regiments of Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against
+      their will, to serve in the Austrian army. They were from the
+      northern part of the Austrian empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They
+      were Slavs, related to the Russians, speaking a language very
+      much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria and anxious to
+      free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When General
+      Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had
+      deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They
+      could not get back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them
+      as deserters. Of course, the Austrian and the German generals
+      would make no peace with them. Therefore, this army, 200,000
+      strong, kept their own officers and their order and their arms
+      and refused to have anything to do with the cowardly peace made
+      by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their way across
+      Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the
+      Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the
+      thousands in the armies of the Entente. The main body of them,
+      however, are still in Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great
+      Siberian railway, fully ready to renew the war against the
+      central powers at any time when the patriotic Russians will rise
+      and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the Czechs
+      without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied
+      statesmen.
+
+      The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the
+      result of this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and
+      tricksters, that would never deceive an educated man.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany?
+
+          Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente?
+
+          Why was Rasputin killed?
+
+          Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks?
+
+          What classes fought after the Czar’s downfall?
+
+          How did the central powers take advantage of Russia’s
+          troubles?
+
+          How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany?
+
+          Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXIII.
+The United States at War—Why?
+
+      Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.—Dr.
+      Zimmermann’s famous note.—Congress declares war.—Other nations
+      follow our example.—The plight of Holland, Denmark, and
+      Norway.—German arguments for submarine warfare shown to be
+      groundless.—German agents blow up American factories.—German
+      threats against the United States.—Germany and the Monroe
+      Doctrine.—A government whose deeds its people cannot
+      question.—Why American troops were sent to Europe.—Why the war
+      lords wanted peace in January, 1918.
+
+
+      In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the
+      German ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by
+      the United States. The Germans, true to their word, had begun
+      their campaign of attacking and sinking without warning ships of
+      all kinds in the waters surrounding Great Britain and France.
+      Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red cross, and
+      boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were
+      torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in
+      Germany is well illustrated by an incident which happened at this
+      time. It so happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the
+      channel, was laden with about as many German wounded as British.
+      These men had been left helpless on the field of battle after the
+      Germans had retreated, and had been picked up and cared for by
+      the British, along with their own troops. A German submarine with
+      its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom. The wounded
+      men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest chance
+      for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over
+      Germany against the “unspeakable brutality” of the British who
+      dared to expose German wounded men to the danger of travel on the
+      open sea! The British were warned that if this happened again the
+      Germans would make reprisals upon British prisoners in their
+      hands.
+
+[Illustration: Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner]
+
+      Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war
+      between the United States and Germany. But in the latter part of
+      February, the United States government made public a note which
+      its secret agents had stopped from being delivered to the German
+      ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by Dr. Zimmermann, German
+      minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the ambassador as
+      soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of war
+      with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships
+      without warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with
+      Germany. “Together we will make war on the United States,” said
+      Dr. Zimmermann, “and together we will make peace. Mexico will
+      receive as her reward her lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and
+      New Mexico.” “Ask the Mexican government,” said Dr. Zimmermann,
+      “to propose to the Japanese that Japan break away from her
+      alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in an attack
+      upon the United States.”
+
+      The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling
+      in the United States. Up to this time a great portion of the
+      people had felt that perhaps we were hasty in breaking off
+      relations with Germany, and in their earnest desire for peace had
+      been willing to put up with injury and even insults on the part
+      of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their military
+      necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann’s note, however,
+      showed the people of the United States the true temper of the
+      government at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords
+      had no respect for anything but brute force, that the language of
+      cannon was the only language which they could understand, and
+      that any further patience on the part of this country would be
+      looked upon as weakness and treated with scorn and contempt.
+
+      On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the
+      President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war
+      existed between the United States of America and the Imperial
+      Government of Germany.
+
+      At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought
+      the United States into the great war. These causes may be given
+      under two heads: (1) the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2)
+      the German plots and threats against our country at a time when
+      we were at peace with them. The latter, as given in pages to
+      follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser’s threat, (b) Admiral Von
+      Tirpitz’s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and
+      death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war
+      with Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German
+      government’s money in an attempt to make our congressmen vote as
+      Germany wished.
+
+[Illustration: President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress]
+
+      The Submarine War
+
+      Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred
+      and twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their
+      death through the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning,
+      under orders of the German government. These people were
+      peaceable travelers, going about their business on the high seas
+      in passenger steamers owned by private companies. According to
+      the law observed by all nations up to this time there was no more
+      reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if they had
+      been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other
+      country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing
+      about the brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without
+      warning, was an act of war on the part of Germany against any
+      country whose citizens happened to be traveling on these ocean
+      steamers. That the action of the United States in calling the
+      submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved by the
+      fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going
+      to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same
+      stand. Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American
+      republics found that they could not maintain their honor without
+      declaring war on Germany. German ambassadors and ministers have
+      been dismissed from practically every capital in Spanish America.
+
+      In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and
+      Norway saw their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite
+      of their wrongs, however, the first two did not dare to declare
+      war on Germany, as the Germans would be able to throw a strong
+      army across the border and overrun each of these two little
+      countries before the allies could come to their help. With the
+      fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the Dutch
+      swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed
+      their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of
+      the Entente to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame
+      Denmark and Holland.
+
+      Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet.
+      Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the
+      Kiel Canal connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities
+      on the Norwegian coast or even land an army to invade the
+      country. The three little countries together do not have an army
+      any larger than that of Roumania, and it would have been out of
+      the question for them to declare war on Germany without seeing
+      their whole territory overrun and laid waste.
+
+      Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against
+      Germany that the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917
+      sent a vigorous protest to Berlin, closing with these words:
+
+      “The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it
+      has already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of
+      the principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the
+      proclamation of large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by
+      the sinking of neutral merchant ships not carrying contraband.
+
+      “It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that
+      not only have German submarines continued to sink peaceful
+      neutral merchant ships, paying no attention to the fate of their
+      crews, but that even German warships adopted the same tactics.
+      The Norwegian government decided to send this note in order to
+      bring to the attention of the German government the impression
+      these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.”
+
+      The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify
+      themselves for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1)
+      that on these ships which were sunk were supplies for the French
+      and British armies, the arrival of which would aid them in
+      killing Germans, and (2) that the English, by their blockade of
+      Germany, were doing something which was contrary to the laws of
+      nations and starving German women and children, and, therefore,
+      since England was breaking some rules of the war game, Germany
+      had the right to go ahead and break others.
+
+      The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France
+      and England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the
+      United States was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to
+      them. Of course, this was foolish, as has been pointed out, for
+      the United States was just as ready to sell to Germany as to the
+      Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of the _Deutschland_. If
+      our government had forbidden our people to sell war supplies at
+      all, and if other neutral countries had done the same thing, then
+      the result would be that all wars would be won by the country
+      which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A
+      law passed by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from
+      selling munitions would leave a non-military nation, which had
+      not been getting ready for war, absolutely at the mercy of a
+      neighbor who for years had been storing up shells and guns for
+      the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was this right to
+      sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but ordered
+      Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to
+      point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to
+      Great Britain during the Boer War as you have already been told,
+      and Austria had no answer to give.
+
+      What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of
+      different nations at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying
+      to prevent future wars, if possible, or at least to make them
+      more humane and less brutal to the women and children and others
+      who were not actually fighting, Germany had always upheld the
+      right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her
+      representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to
+      settle disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time
+      when many European nations signed treaties with the United States
+      agreeing to allow one year to elapse between a dispute which
+      might lead to war and the actual declaring of war itself, Germany
+      positively refused to consider such an agreement.
+
+      As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany
+      than Germany or any other country would have done to England if
+      the English navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the
+      North kept up a like blockade of the South and no nation
+      protested against it, for it was recognized as an entirely legal
+      act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, the Germans were
+      blockading the city of Paris and the country around it. The
+      Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the
+      lines to be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the
+      bayonet, and told them that they might “fry in their own fat.”
+      According to the laws of war they were perfectly justified in
+      what they did. Then, too, the English blockade, which stopped
+      ships which were found to be loaded with supplies for Germany and
+      took them peaceably to an English port, where it was decided how
+      much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very
+      different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women,
+      and children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the
+      goods were caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances
+      did not get their money promptly. On the other side, there was
+      murder of the most fiendish kind, an act of war against neutral
+      states.
+
+      Plots and Threats Against the United States
+
+[Illustration: American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents]
+
+      Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United
+      States had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who
+      sympathized with Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for
+      the relief of the German wounded, it is strongly suspected that
+      this was the very money, which, collected by the German
+      government’s own agents, was being spent in plots involving the
+      destroying of the property of some American citizens and the
+      death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were
+      hiring men to blow up American factories, to destroy railroad
+      bridges, and to kill Americans who were making war supplies for
+      the armies of Europe. Factory after factory was blown up with
+      considerable loss of life. Bombs, with clock work attachment to
+      explode them at a certain time, were found on ships sailing for
+      Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to influence
+      members of the United States Congress to vote against the
+      shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for
+      by German money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the
+      West Indies. For a long time there had been a series of stories
+      and newspaper and magazine articles trying to prove to the
+      American people that Japan was planning to make war on us. The
+      same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the Japanese
+      that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States.
+      It now appears that the great part of these stories were started
+      by the Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and
+      profit by the ill will which must follow between the two
+      countries.
+
+      At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these
+      things could be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their
+      Fatherland caused them to go too far. But it has been proved
+      beyond a doubt that all of these acts, which were really acts of
+      war against the United States, were ordered by the government at
+      Berlin and paid for by German money, or by American money which
+      had been contributed for the benefit of the German Red Cross
+      service.
+
+      In addition to these facts there were threats against the United
+      States which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our
+      ambassador at Berlin, Mr. Gerard, that “America had better beware
+      after this war” for he “would stand no nonsense from her.”
+      Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of the Navy, also told
+      Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as a place
+      from which to start her “future war on England and America.”
+
+      American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this
+      kind, for they knew that the government in power at Berlin could
+      absolutely command its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of
+      news and substituting other things in the German newspapers could
+      make the German people think anything which the war lords wished
+      them to think. Thus there was great danger that, having won the
+      war from the Entente or having stood them off successfully until
+      the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next attack the
+      United States with the idea of collecting from this comparatively
+      defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which she
+      had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and
+      with the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set
+      up a great empire in South America which would make her almost as
+      powerful as she would have been had her first plans for crushing
+      France and Russia been successful.
+
+      You will recall, from your study of United States history, that
+      President Monroe had warned European governments to keep their
+      hands off South America, for the United States would act as big
+      brother to any of the little republics there who might be
+      attacked by a European foe. Germany in recent years has resented
+      this very vigorously. There were nearly half a million Germans in
+      the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine Republic
+      also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were
+      out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a
+      footing in these countries in which she had colonists and
+      gradually to gain control of the entire country. In the fall of
+      1917 there was uncovered a plot among the German residents of
+      certain states in the southern part of Brazil to make this
+      territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This discovery,
+      along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove
+      Brazil into war with Germany.
+
+      To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because
+      German submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping
+      her lawful trade; second, because paid agents of the German
+      government were destroying American property in the United
+      States, killing American citizens, and creating discord in our
+      political life; they were pretending to be friendly and yet were
+      trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war against us; third, for
+      the reason that because of Germany’s threats and her well-known
+      policy in South America there was grave danger that it would be
+      our turn next if the central powers should come out of the
+      European war uncrushed.
+
+      The American government has made it plain that we are not moved
+      by any desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win
+      through the war except the assurance that our nation will be
+      safe. If Germany had a government which the people controlled,
+      then the United States could trust promises of that government.
+      But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no one can trust the
+      present government of Germany, for it is responsible to no one
+      for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its
+      Chancellor called “scraps of paper”; it has broken its word; it
+      has ordered “acts of frightfulness” in the lands which it has
+      conquered and on the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing
+      its will upon enemies and neutral countries alike. It has
+      deceived its own people, persuading them that they were attacked
+      by France and Russia, while all the time it was plotting to rule
+      the world through force of arms.
+
+      President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in
+      this war is “to make the world safe for democracy.” This means
+      that a free people, who have no desire to interfere with any of
+      their neighbors or to make conquests by force of arms, shall be
+      allowed to live their lives without preparation for war and
+      without fear that they may be attacked by a nation with military
+      rulers.
+
+      We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by
+      Germany in 1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun
+      for gun and ship for ship with her warlike neighbor to the east.
+      The dread of an attack by the military party of Germany hung over
+      France like a shadow throughout forty-three years of a peace
+      which was only a little better than war, because of the vast
+      amount of money that had to be spent and the attention that had
+      to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one
+      day come.
+
+      When once the German people have a controlling voice in the
+      government, then, and not till then, can other governments
+      believe the word of the statesmen at Berlin. But at present the
+      citizens of Germany have little real power. For, while they can
+      elect members of the Reichstag, the Reichstag can pass no laws,
+      for above this body is the national council, whose members are
+      appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand dukes. The
+      power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the
+      hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any
+      of Germany’s laws, under the plea that “military necessity” calls
+      for certain things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into
+      prison those who dared to speak against the war, and has either
+      suppressed newspapers or ordered them to print only what he
+      wished printed; thus the German people have let him do their
+      thinking for them.
+
+      They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German
+      baby is taught to say is “Kaiser,” and all of the schools, which
+      are run by the government, have taught nothing but respect for
+      the present form of government, and almost a worship of the
+      Kaiser himself. What it is hoped that this war will bring about
+      is the freeing of the German people from their blind obedience to
+      the military power, which for its own glory and pride has hurled
+      them by the millions to death.
+
+      The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very
+      different from any hitherto used. With the exception of some
+      troops raised for a few months during the dark days of the War of
+      the Rebellion, all of our armies have been recruited from men who
+      enlisted of their own free will. In this great conflict in which
+      we are now engaged, the government has drawn its soldiers by lot
+      from a list of all the young men in the country between the ages
+      of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are
+      fighting in our ranks.
+
+      For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to
+      fight on another continent. Many persons have felt that we should
+      keep our young men at home and wait for Germany to cross the
+      Atlantic in order to attack us. Our statesmen, on the other hand,
+      saw that the peace of the world was at stake. If Germany,
+      Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose people have no
+      voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this conflict
+      victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad
+      race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the
+      other hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true
+      today, as in the olden times, that those people who take up the
+      sword shall perish by the sword, they will overthrow their
+      leaders and agree to disarm and live at peace in future with
+      their neighbors.
+
+      The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only
+      way by which these people can be convinced is by brute force.
+      When they realize that they have not gained by war, but have
+      lost, not only a great deal of their wealth, through the terrific
+      cost of the war, but the friendship and respect of the whole
+      world, when they realize that the nations allied against them
+      will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs
+      confess that they never want to hear the word “war” again, then,
+      and only then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and
+      agree to join a league of the nations whose object shall be to
+      prevent any future wars.
+
+      As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that
+      they were going to come out of the conflict with added territory
+      and big money indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower
+      of their young men slain, and the prospect of conquest and
+      plunder growing smaller and smaller with each passing month, the
+      Germans, too, are beginning to hate the thought of war.
+
+      The American army can give the finishing touch to the German
+      downfall along the western front, and the sooner the Germans
+      realize that they cannot win from the rapidly growing number of
+      their enemies, the sooner will come the the end of this greatest
+      tragedy in the civilized world.
+
+      The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must
+      be defeated and they were striving hard all through the years
+      1916 and 1917 to make peace while they had possession of enough
+      of the enemy’s lands so that they could show their own people
+      some gain in territory to pay them back for their terrible
+      sufferings. The German war debt was so great that the war lords
+      dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized that
+      they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had
+      told them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war
+      upon Germany, (2) that the German armies would win the war in
+      short order, and (3) that a huge sum of money would be collected
+      from France, Belgium, and Russia to pay the expenses of the war.
+      The war lords dreaded to think of the time when their people,
+      knowing that they themselves will have to bear the fearful burden
+      of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced upon
+      the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By
+      Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was
+      ready to talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been
+      made then it would have left Germany absolute mistress of all of
+      middle Europe. Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the
+      control of the Kaiser and his war lords than were parts of his
+      own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In Belgium, Serbia, Poland,
+      Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the central powers had
+      over forty millions of people who were compelled to work for them
+      like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran into
+      billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the
+      results of the second Balkan war (see map), had been forced open
+      by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and
+      Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory.
+      With the drain on the man power of the central powers, with
+      dissatisfaction growing among their people, with the steady
+      increase in the armies of the United States, time was fighting on
+      the side of the allies.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government
+          understood conditions in Mexico and the United States?
+
+          Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon
+          American public opinion?
+
+          What were the steps by which the United States was forced
+          into war?
+
+          Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also?
+
+          What was the main difference between the English blockade of
+          Germany and the German submarine war on England?
+
+          Was the German government responsible for the acts of its
+          agents in this country?
+
+          What is the Monroe Doctrine?
+
+          Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted?
+
+          How was this war different for the United States from any
+          previous conflict?
+
+          What was the greatest obstacle to peace?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXIV.
+Europe as it Should Be
+
+      Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.—Peoples outside of the
+      nations with whom they belong.—The mixture of peoples in
+      Austria-Hungary, and Russia.—The British Isles.—The Balkan
+      states.—Recent changes in the map.—The wrongs done by mighty
+      nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness.
+
+
+      We have several times shown you, in the course of this little
+      history, maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and
+      through bloodshed. Let us now examine a map of Europe divided
+      according to the race and language of its various peoples. It
+      often happens that the boundaries set by nature, like seas, high
+      mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people from another. It
+      is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed in by
+      the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should
+      grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language.
+
+      In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France,
+      Great Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by
+      nature. On this account, it is not surprising that the map of
+      “Europe as it should be” which unites people of the same blood
+      under the same government, agrees rather closely in some places
+      with the map of Europe as it is.
+
+      The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom
+      of Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish
+      and Portuguese peoples.
+
+      There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and
+      Flemish. Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French
+      people are found in Switzerland and others in that part of the
+      German Empire which was taken away from France after the
+      Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
+
+      The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them
+      inhabit the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were
+      torn away from Denmark by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of
+      the Scandinavian peninsula separate the Norwegians from the
+      Swedes about as well as they divide the countries geographically.
+
+      The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the
+      northwestern corner of the German Empire is also peopled by
+      Dutch. The territory around Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the
+      German Empire, is inhabited by Walloons, a Celtic people who
+      speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it is, contains two
+      different types of population, the Walloons and the Flemish.
+
+      The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great
+      many of these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria
+      (sty̆′rĭȧ), and the northern Tyrol (ty̆′rol) (western counties
+      of the Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of
+      Switzerland and the edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be
+      found in parts of Hungary; and in the Baltic provinces of Russia
+      there are over two million of them.
+
+      All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island
+      of Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians.
+      The province of Trentino (trĕn ti′nō) (the southern half of the
+      Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is
+      also Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and
+      Fiume. Certain islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely
+      Italian in their population.
+
+      The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and
+      Germans. Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth
+      tongue is spoken there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner
+      of Switzerland are found people who talk a corruption of the old
+      Latin, which they call Romaunsch or Romansh.
+
+      Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of
+      languages and nationalities. This empire includes nearly a
+      million Italians in its southwestern corner, and three million
+      Roumanians in Transylvania. It has as its subjects in Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina several million Serbians. In Slavonia (slȧ vō′nĭ
+      ȧ), Croatia (crō a′tia), and Dalmatia (dăl mā tia), it has
+      two or three million Slavs, who are closely related to the
+      Serbians. In the north, its government rules over several million
+      Czechs (chĕcks) (Bohemians and Moravians) who strongly desire to
+      have a country of their own. It controls also two million
+      Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their
+      independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni ō′lȧ), there
+      are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people
+      belonging either by themselves or with their cousins, the
+      Croatians and Serbs.
+
+      The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen,
+      who want to get back under French control, a million or two
+      Danes, who want once more to belong to Denmark, and several
+      million Poles, who desire to see their country again united.
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe as It Should Be]
+
+      Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as
+      those composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not
+      one people. The Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different
+      from the people of Little Russia, and they in turn are different
+      from the people of Great Russia, to the north. The Baltic
+      provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two million
+      Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number
+      of Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians,
+      cousins of the Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose
+      people, with the Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European
+      family, and who would dearly love to have a separate government
+      of their own.
+
+[Illustration: Polish children]
+
+      You have already been told in Chapter V that the country of the
+      English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or
+      the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern
+      part of Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish
+      kingdom.
+
+      Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the
+      reason that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly
+      mixed and jumbled. There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the
+      Roumanians and Bulgarians in the Dobrudja. Parts of southern
+      Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia are inhabited by people
+      of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the exception of the two
+      little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited by
+      Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of
+      Bukowina also ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater
+      part of the Russian state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has
+      a population of 7,000,000, there are between five and six million
+      of her people who live outside her present boundaries.
+
+      The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece.
+      Greek people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The
+      Albanians are a separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia
+      should be joined to Serbia.
+
+      Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will
+      see that most of the changes that have been made of late years
+      are bringing boundaries nearer where they should be. You will
+      also note that wherever there have been recent changes contrary
+      to this plan, they have always resulted in more bloodshed. The
+      partition of Poland, the annexation of Schleswig, Alsace, and
+      Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian Macedonia between
+      Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+      Austria are good examples.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural
+          boundaries?
+
+          Who are the Walloons?
+
+          Who are the Romansh people?
+
+          To what other people are the Esthonians related?
+
+[Illustration: The price of the war]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXV.
+The Cost of It All
+
+      What war debts mean—The devastation of farms and
+      villages—Diseases which travel with war—The men picked to die
+      first—The survivors and their children—The effect on France of
+      Napoleon’s wars—What Hannibal did to Rome—What happened to the
+      Franks—Sweden before and after the wars of Charles XII—Europe at
+      the close of the Great War
+
+
+      In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly
+      rushing toward bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day;
+      France, Germany, and Austria nearly as much apiece. Thus in the
+      course of a year, a debt of $300 was piled upon every man, woman,
+      and child in the British kingdom. The average family consists of
+      five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per family for
+      each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family
+      in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of
+      money that they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the
+      British people are obliged to add this tremendous debt to the
+      already very large amount that they owe, and will have to go on
+      paying interest on it for hundreds of years.
+
+      In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France,
+      Germany, Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In
+      spite of what we have said above of the average income of English
+      families, Great Britain is rich when compared with Austria and
+      Russia. What is more, Great Britain is practically unscarred,
+      while on the continent great tracts of land which used to be well
+      cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless abandon. East
+      Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary, Alsace,
+      Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary,
+      and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to
+      one-fifth of the whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and
+      devastated.
+
+      It will be years and years before these countries recover from
+      the effects of war’s invasion. For every man killed on the field
+      of battle, it is estimated that two people die among the
+      noncombatants. Children whose fathers are at the front, frail
+      women trying to do the work of men, aged inhabitants of destroyed
+      villages die by the thousands from want of food and shelter.
+
+      In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to
+      look after their health or even to keep clean. As a result,
+      diseases like the plagues of olden times, which civilization
+      thought it had killed, come to life again and destroy whole
+      cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off one-fifth of the
+      population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera raged
+      among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every
+      soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die
+      from disease or wounds or lack of proper care.
+
+[Illustration: Rendered Homeless by War]
+
+      In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the
+      country, the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of
+      men who ought to be carefully saved as the fathers of the people
+      to come. As these are killed or disabled, governments draw on the
+      older men who are still vigorous and hardy. Then finally they
+      call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the aged, and the young
+      boys. As a general rule, the members of this last class make up
+      the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of the
+      strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of
+      children.
+
+      In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on
+      the coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like
+      Rome, owned lands far and near. Carthage would have been
+      satisfied to “live and let live,” but Rome would not have it so.
+      As a result, the two cities engaged in three terrible wars which
+      ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before Carthage was
+      finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal, dealt
+      Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near
+      destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000
+      men apiece, he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these
+      150,000 men was a loss from which Rome never recovered. From this
+      time on, her citizens were made of poorer stuff, and the old
+      Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free government began to
+      decline.
+
+      The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who
+      swarmed into the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although
+      they were barbarians, nevertheless had many excellent qualities.
+      They were brave, hardy men and stood for freedom from tyrants.
+      However, they fought so many wars that they were gradually killed
+      off. Take the Franks, for example; the three grandsons of
+      Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a
+      disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle
+      that almost wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about
+      840 A.D.
+
+      Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about
+      1700 A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer
+      Russia and Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in
+      the southern part of Russia nearly a thousand miles away from
+      home, and his great army was wiped out. After his time, Sweden
+      sank to the level of a second class nation. The bodies of her
+      best men had been strewn on battlefields reaching from the Gulf
+      of Bothnia to the Black Sea.
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII of Sweden]
+
+      For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation
+      showed a lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men
+      than it had one hundred years previously. The reason for this is
+      easily found. During the twenty-three years of terrible fighting
+      which followed the execution of the king, France left her finest
+      young men dead all over the face of Europe. They died by the
+      thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in Germany, and above
+      all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within the last
+      twenty years have the French, through their new interest in
+      out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a
+      hardy, vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war
+      to set France back where she was one hundred years ago.
+
+      Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her
+      young manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will
+      keep them in poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at
+      a standstill; but worst of all, the feeling of friendship between
+      nations, of world brotherhood, postponed one hundred years.
+      Hatred of nation for nation is stronger than ever.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How does a nation at war increase its debts?
+
+          Why do diseases thrive in war time?
+
+          What became of the Goths and Franks?
+
+          Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden?
+
+          What was the effect of Napoleon’s many wars upon the strength
+          of the French nation?
+
+          Is war growing more humane?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXVI.
+What Germany Must Learn
+
+      The German plot.—What the Czar’s prohibition order did.—Where
+      Germany miscalculated.—Where England and America failed to
+      understand.—An appeal to force must be answered by force.—Effect
+      of the Russian revolution.—“It never must happen again.”—The
+      league to enforce peace.—The final lesson.
+
+
+      Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in
+      English speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be
+      a real war between civilized nations.
+
+      Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was
+      unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would
+      deliberately plot, in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the
+      world through military force, as we now know that the war lords
+      of Prussia and Austria planned it. However, the plot was not only
+      made but was almost successful. They made, though, a great
+      mistake in the case of England. They were sure that she would not
+      enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France and
+      Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in
+      calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her
+      troops. In 1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the
+      Russian soldiers had become so drunk that it was many weeks
+      before they could be gotten into any kind of military shape. But
+      at the outbreak of the great “world-war” the order of the Czar
+      which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all of Prussia’s
+      plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her
+      army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through
+      the German province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had
+      opened. The result was that the German soldiers had to be sent
+      back from northern France to stop the victorious march of the
+      Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in the first week of
+      September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung in the
+      balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces
+      on either side might have made all the difference in the world in
+      the final outcome. The little British army, which was less than
+      one-eighth of the force of the Allied side, probably furnished
+      the factor that defeated the Germans. The presence in the battle
+      of the German troops who had been withdrawn to stop the Russians,
+      might have given victory to the invaders.
+
+      Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the
+      attack on France. Any one of these three factors might have won
+      the war in short order for the forces of Austria and Germany.
+      With France crushed, as she might have been, in spite of her
+      heroic resistance, without the help of the tiny British army, or
+      with the intervention of Italy on the side of her former allies,
+      it would have been no difficult task for the combined forces of
+      Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into
+      confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia,
+      and be back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves
+      fell from the trees.
+
+      As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations
+      where the people rule, could not believe that in this day and age
+      the rulers of any civilized country would deliberately plot
+      robbery and piracy on so grand a scale. They had looked forward
+      to the time when all nations might disarm and live in peace with
+      their neighbors. In France alone, of all the western nations, was
+      there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France, having learned
+      the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France, burdened by
+      a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by the
+      Germans in ’71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to
+      arms at the first rattling of the Prussian saber.
+
+      Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians,
+      and thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the
+      doctrine that military force is the only power in the world worth
+      considering. Some of the German people still cling to the high
+      ideals of their ancestors, but the majority had drunk deeply of
+      the wine of conquest and were intoxicated with the idea that
+      Germany’s mission in life was to conquer all the other nations of
+      the world and rule them for their own good by German thoroughness
+      and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp this
+      feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force
+      and appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they
+      will listen to reason only after they have been thoroughly
+      crushed by a superior force. The sufferings brought upon the
+      German nation by the war have had a great effect in making them
+      doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As long as the
+      people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful
+      victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the
+      Roumanians, they were contented to endure all manner of
+      hardships.
+
+      Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in
+      a despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the
+      German people, although they were governed strictly by the
+      military rule, nevertheless, were contented as long as they were
+      prosperous and victorious in war. With the rumors and fears of
+      defeat, however, they began to doubt their government. There are
+      indications that sweeping reforms in the election of
+      representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body
+      itself will take place before long.
+
+      The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central
+      powers. In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for
+      a ruler while England, France, and Italy were countries where the
+      people elected their law makers, made it impossible that there
+      should be the best of understanding between the allies. Then,
+      again, the various peoples of Austria-Hungary, while they were
+      not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg family, were afraid
+      lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be “jumping
+      from the frying pan into the fire.” They would rather bear the
+      evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand
+      dukes might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to
+      Germany to the end, because of her fear that Russia would seize
+      Constantinople. When the new government of Russia, then,
+      announced that they did not desire to annex by force any
+      territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were in
+      bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital
+      city was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs
+      of Austria that they were in no danger of being swallowed up in
+      the Russian empire, but that, on the other hand, the Russians
+      wanted them to be free, like themselves; it showed the German
+      people how easily a whole nation, when united, could get rid of
+      its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who had never favored
+      the military rule.
+
+      The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now
+      united in an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in
+      Austria and in Germany—a curse which has disappeared from all
+      other parts of the civilized world. They are united to crush the
+      military spirit of conquest which exists among the war leaders of
+      the Prussians. They are pledged “to make the world safe for
+      democracy” as President Wilson has said; to do away with the rule
+      of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and
+      Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil
+      power, so long will it be necessary to police the world. There
+      must be no repetition of the savage attack of August, 1914. There
+      was a time when many of us believed that some one nation, by
+      disbanding its army and refusing to build warships, might set an
+      example of disarming which all the world would finally follow. It
+      now is plain that there must be a “League to Enforce Peace” as
+      Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have declared. The
+      United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy, Belgium,
+      Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway,
+      Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the
+      will of the people is the law, must unite in an alliance which
+      will insist on arbitration as a means of settling disputes.
+
+      In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which
+      might well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however,
+      they laid their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an
+      Italian, a Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court,
+      by a vote of four to one, decided against England, and England
+      accepted the decision as final, although it cost her many
+      millions of dollars.
+
+      The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the
+      world maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as
+      police for its own affairs, and there must be an international
+      police to settle all differences between nations and to enforce
+      the orders of the court of arbitration. In time (no one knows how
+      soon) the people of Germany and Austria will be freed from the
+      military rule which now has the power to hurl them into war. When
+      that day arrives and they learn that they have been led astray by
+      Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a blessing to
+      a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to
+      survive, they will know that “Thou shalt not kill” is just as
+      strong a commandment today as when it first was uttered.
+
+      Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to
+      live, and that no country can wrong another through force of arms
+      without suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in
+      the loss of the sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening
+      of the Christ-spirit of doing good to others, the nation which
+      resorts to force to gratify its own selfish ends, like the
+      individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds. It, was a
+      great American who said, “The world is my country and mankind are
+      my brothers.”
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did England and the United States fail to understand
+          Germany?
+
+          What right would Germany have had to an indemnity?
+
+          What great change took place in Germany after 1866?
+
+          Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed?
+
+          What lesson must Germany learn?
+
+          Why have the South American republics fought so many wars?
+
+          Suggest some solution for the problem of war.
+
+          What is meant by arbitration?
+
+          What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war?
+
+          How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente?
+
+          What is the greatest lesson taught by the war?
+
+
+
+Pronouncing Glossary
+
+      In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the
+      English pronunciation is given for names that have become at all
+      familiar in history or geography. Thus the English Crā′cōw is
+      given instead of the Polish Krȧ′ko͝of or the German Krä′kau.
+
+      On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given
+      as the natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no
+      recognized English pronunciation.
+
+      In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations,
+      the author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus
+      a seaport in Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no
+      less than five names. Its Greek name is pronounced
+      Thĕssȧlōnyi′ki, while other nations term it variously
+      Sȧlōni′kā, Sĕlȧnïk′, Sō′lōn, Sȧlōni′ki or Salō′nicȧ.
+
+      Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking
+      people to reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables
+      which approximate them as nearly as possible.
+
+      Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found
+      pronounced in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as
+      Austria, Bismarck, etc., can hardly be mispronounced.
+
+
+Aboukir (ä′bö̈ kïr)
+Aegean (ē jē′ăn)
+Agadir (ȧ gȧ dïr′)
+Aix-la-Chapelle (āks lä shȧpĕl′)
+Albania (ăl bā′nï ȧ)
+Algeciras (ăl jĕ si′rȧs) or (ȧljĕ sï′rȧs)
+Alsace (ȧl sȧs′)
+Andrassy (ȧn drȧs′sy̆)
+Aragon (ă′rȧ gŏn)
+Armada (är mä′dȧ)
+Armenians (är mē′nï ȧns)
+Arminius (är mĭn′ï ŭs)
+Avlona (ȧv lō′ṅa)
+Baden (bä′dĕn)
+Balkan (bȧl kän′) or (bôl′kän)
+Banat (bȧn′ȧt)
+Basques (bȧsks)
+Bastille (bȧ stïl′)
+Bavaria (bȧ vā′rï ȧ)
+Belfort (bĕl′fôr)
+Bernadotte (bēr′nȧ dŏt)
+Bessarabia (bĕs sȧ rā′bï ȧ) or (bĕs sȧ rä′bï ȧ)
+Bismarck-Schönausen (shẽn how′zĕn)
+Blenheim (blĕn′ĕm) or (blĕn′hīm)
+Boer (bo͞or)
+Bohemia (bōhē′mīȧ)
+Bonaparte (bō′nȧ pärt)
+Bosnia (bŏz′ni̇ ȧ)
+Bourbon (bo͞or′bŭn)
+Brandenburg (brăn′dĕn bûrg)
+Breton (brē′ton) or (brĕt′ŭn)
+Brusiloff (brū si′lŏff)
+Bukowina (bo͝o kō vï′nȧ)
+Bulgaria (bŭl gā′ri̇ ȧ)
+Burgundians (bûr′gŭn’dï ȧns)
+Burgundy (bûr′gŭn dy)
+Byzantium (by̆ zăn′tï ̆um)
+Caesar (sēz′ēr)
+Carniola (cȧr nï ō′lȧ)
+Carpathian (cãr pā′thï ȧn)
+Carthage (cȧr′thāj)
+Castile (cȧs til′)
+Castlereagh (căs′l rā)
+Cavour (cȧ vo͞or′)
+Charlemagne (shär lĕ mān′)
+Chauvinists (shō′vĭn ĭsts)
+Cicero (sĭs′ē rō)
+Cimbri (sĭm′brï)
+Cincinnatus (sĭn sĭn nä′tŭs)
+Constantine (cŏn′stăn tïn)
+Cracow (crā′cō)
+Crimea (crĭ mē′ȧ)
+Croatia (crō ä′tï ȧ) or (crōä′shȧ)
+Czech (chĕk)
+Dacians (dā′shŭnz)
+Dalmatia (dăl mā′shï ȧ)
+Théophile Delcassé (tā′ō fïl dĕl cȧ sä′)
+Deutschland (doitsh′lȧnd)
+Devonshire (dĕv′ŏn shïr)
+Disraeli (dĭz rā′lĭ)
+Dobrudja (dō bro͝od′jȧ)
+Dreibund (drī′bo͝ond)
+Durazzo (dū rȧt′zö)
+Emmanuel (ĕm măn′ū ĕl)
+Entente Cordiale (ȧn tȧnt′côr dyȧl′)
+Enver Bey (ĕn′vẽr bā′)
+Epinal (ĕp′ï nȧl)
+Epirus (ĕp ī′rŭs)
+Erse (ērs)
+Esthonians (ĕs thō′nï ănz)
+Etruscans (ē trŭs′cănz)
+Euphrates (ū frā′tēz)
+Fashoda (fȧ shō′dȧ)
+Fiume (fï ū′me)
+Gaelic (gā′lĭc)
+Galicia (găl ĭ′shȧ)
+Gallipoli (găl ĭ′pōlï)
+Garibaldi (gȧr ï bȧl′dï)
+Gerard (jĕr ärd′)
+Germanic (jẽr măn′ĭc)
+Glamis (glăm′ĭs)
+Gortchakoff (gôr′chȧ kŏf)
+Goths (gŏths)
+Granada (grȧ nä′dȧ)
+Hannibal (hăn′nĭ bl)
+Hanover (hăn′ō vẽr)
+Herzegovina (hārt′sĕ gō vï′nȧ)
+Hesse-Darmstadt (hĕs sĕ därm′stȧt)
+Hindustan (hĭn do͞o stän′)
+Hohenzollern (hō ĕn tsŏl′ẽrn)
+Holstein (hōl′stīn)
+Illyrians (ĭ ly̆r′ĭ ȧns)
+Istria (ĭs′trï ȧ)
+Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ)
+Janus (jā′nŭs)
+Jonescu (jō nĕs′ko͞o)
+Jutes (jūts)
+Kaiser (kī′zẽr)
+Kaspar (kăs′pär)
+Kavala (kȧ vä′ lȧ)
+Kerensky (kĕ rĕn′skĭ)
+Khartoom (kär to͞om′)
+Korea (kō rē′ȧ)
+Kȯrniloff (kor nï′lŏff)
+Koumanova (ko͞o mä′nō vȧ)
+Lamar (lȧ mär′)
+Leon (lē′ŏn)
+Liege (lï ĕzh′)
+Lithuania (lĭth o͞o ā′nīȧ)
+Longwy (lŏng′vy̆)
+Lorraine (lôr rān′)
+Macedonia (mă sē dō′nï ȧ)
+Magyar (mŏd′yär)
+Manchuria (măn chū′rï ȧ)
+Marathon (măr′ȧ thŏn)
+Marchand (mär shän′)
+Maria Theresa (mä rī′ä tĕr ēs′ä)
+Marlborough (märl′bō rō)
+Marsala (mär sä′lȧ)
+Marseillaise (mär sĕl yāz′)
+Mazzini (mȧt sï′nï)
+Mesopotamia (mĕs ō pō tā′mĭ ä)
+Metternich (mĕt′tẽr nĭkh)
+Milioukoff (mĭl yo͞o′kŏff)
+Mirabeau (mĭr′ȧ bō)
+Modena (mō dē′nȧ) or (mō′dā nȧ)
+Mohammedan (mō hăm′mĕd ȧn)
+Moltke (mōlt′kȧ)
+Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′)
+Montenegrin (mŏn tē nē′grĭn)
+Montenegro (mŏn tē nē′grō)
+Moslems (mŏz′lĕmz)
+Murat (mü′rä)
+Napoleon (nȧ pō′lē ŏn)
+Nice (nïs)
+Northumberland (nôrth ŭm′bẽr lănd)
+Novibazar (nō′vĭ bȧ zär′)
+Ostrogoths (ŏs′trō gŏths)
+Ottoman (ŏt′tō mȧn)
+Parma (pär′mȧ)
+Piedmont (pēd′mŏnt)
+Pola (pō′lä)
+Poland (pō′lănd)
+Pomerania (pŏm ĕr ā′nï ȧ)
+Pyrenees (pĭr′ĕn ēēz)
+Rasputin (räs po͞o′tïn)
+Reichstag (rīkhs′tägh)
+Riga (rï′gȧ)
+Romansh (rō mȧnsh′)
+Roon (rōn)
+Roumani (ro͞o mä′nï)
+Roumania (ro͞o mā′nï ȧ)
+Ruthenian (ro͝o thē′nï ȧn)
+Sadowa (sä′dō vȧ)
+Salonika (sȧ′lō nï′kȧ)
+Sanjak (sȧn jȧk′)
+San Stephano (sȧn stĕ fä′nö)
+Saône (sōn)
+Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō)
+Sardinia (sär dĭn′i̇ ȧ)
+Sarrail (sȧr rī′)
+Savoy (sȧ voy′)
+Saxony (săx′ōn y̆)
+Sazanof (sä′zä nŏff)
+Scandinavian (scăn dĭ nā′vĭ ȧn)
+Schleswig (shlĕs′vĭg)
+Scutari (sko͞o′tä rï)
+Serbia (sẽr′bĭ ȧ)
+Silesia (sĭl ē′shȧ)
+Skipetars (skïp′ĕ tarz)
+Slavic (slä′vĭc)
+Slavonia (slȧ vō′nï ȧ)
+Slavonic (slȧ vŏn′ĭc)
+Slavs (slävz)
+Slovak (slō väk′)
+Slovenes (slō vēnz′)
+Slovenian (slō vē′nï ȧn)
+Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ)
+Stoessel (stēs′sĕl)
+Strasbourg (strȧs′bo͝org)
+Styria (sty̆′rĭ ȧ)
+Suevi (swē′vï)
+Syria (sy̆r′ï ȧ)
+Take (tä kā)
+Talleyrand (tȧl′lā rȧn)
+Teutones (tū tō′nēz)
+Teutonic (tū tŏn′ĭc)
+Thessaly (thĕs′sȧ ly̆)
+Thracians (thrā′shŭnz)
+Tigris (tī′grĭs)
+Toul (to͞ol)
+Transylvania (trăn sy̆l vā′nï ȧ)
+Trentino (trĕn tī′nō)
+Trieste (trï ĕst′) or (trï ĕs′tā)
+Tripoli (trĭp′ō lĭ)
+Tuscany (tŭs′cȧ ny̆)
+Tyrol (ty̆′rōl)
+Tzernagorah (tzēr nä′gō′rȧ)
+Vandals (văn′dlz)
+Venetia (vĕn ē′shȧ)
+Venizelos (vĕn ĭ zĕl′ŏs)
+Vercingetorix (vēr sĭn jĕt′ö rĭks)
+Verdun (vār dŭn′)
+Volgars (vŏl′gärz)
+Von Bernstorff (fŏn bārns′torf)
+Von Plehve (fŏn plā′vē)
+Von Tirpitz (fŏn tïr′pĭts)
+Vosges (vōzh)
+Walloon (wäl lo͞on′)
+Westphalia (wĕst fā′lï ȧ)
+Wied (we͞ed)
+Wilhelmine (wĭl′hĕl mïn)
+Yorkshire (yôrk′shīr)
+
+
+Index
+
+        Adriatic Sea, question of the control of. Agadir incident.
+        Albania, formation of the kingdom of. Albanians, language of;
+        habits of. Alexander the Great. Algeciras incident. Alliance,
+        the Holy. Alliance, the Triple.
+        Alliance, the Dual. Alliance, the Balkan. Alsace.
+        Ambassador. Angles, the, invade Britain. Arbitration of
+        national disputes. Arminius. Armor, value of.
+        Austria-Hungary, origin of; helps to divide Poland; at war with
+        France; at war with Sardinia and France; at war with Prussia
+        and Italy; refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble.
+        Austrians in Italy.
+
+        Balance of Power. Balkan problem. Barons. Bastille, fall of
+        the. Belgium, joined to Holland to form the Netherlands;
+        independent; guaranteed its freedom by three powers.
+        Bernadotte. Bismarck-Schönausen.
+        Blenheim, battle of (poem). Blockade of Germany. Bohemia,
+          part of the Holy Roman Empire; part of the Hapsburg domains.
+          Bolsheviki, revolt of the. Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon.
+          Bonaparte, Napoleon. Bosnian problem. Bourbon family.
+          Brandenburg; rise of. Brazil declares war on Germany.
+          Britons. Bulgaria, freed by Russia; left partially under the
+          control of Turkey;
+          independent; at war; with five nations; plunges into world
+          war; treacherously orders an attack on Greece and Serbia.
+          Bulgars, origin of; in Macedonia. Bulow, Prince von.
+        Burgundians. Byzantium becomes Constantinople.
+
+        Caesar, Julius. Cape to Cairo Railroad. Catharine II of Russia.
+        Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia. Celtic languages,
+        disappearance of. Celts. Charlemagne. Charles V. Charles XII of
+        Sweden. Chauvinists. Churchill, Winston. Cincinnatus.
+        Constantine, prince in Crete; king of Greece. Constantinople.
+        Contraband of war. Cracow, Republic of. Crete. Czechs.
+
+        Danes, in Schleswig. Dark Ages. Delcassé.
+        Denmark, loses Norway; defeated by Prussia and Austria; injured
+        by submarine campaign.
+        _Deutschland_, voyages of the. Dialects. Dictator, Roman.
+        Divine right of kings. Dukes vs. Kings. Duma, the Russian;
+          asked to form a government.
+
+        Edward VII. Elba, Napoleon’s return from. Elector, the Great.
+        Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. England, power of the king
+        of; in Egypt; troubles of, in 1914. Entente Cordiale. Entente,
+        the Triple.
+        Esthonians. Etruscans.
+
+        Fashoda incident. Ferdinand of Bulgaria; enters war on side of
+        Germany and Austria; attacks Serbia;
+          ambitions of. Feudal system. Finland annexed to Russia.
+          Finns; conquered by the Swedes.
+        Flemish. France, power of king of; execution of king of; in
+        Africa; wars of.
+        Franks. Franz Ferdinand. Frederick the Great. French
+        Revolution.
+
+        Gaelic language. Gaels. Garibaldi. Gauls. German Confederation.
+        German secret agents set fire to American property and kill
+        Americans; try to stir up war between the U. S. and Japan; stir
+        up trouble in Russia. German tribes. Germanic languages.
+        Germany, the Holy Roman Empire of. Germany, the modern Empire
+        of; encourages France to declare war on England;
+          makes friends with Turkey; policy toward Balkan nations;
+          warns Russia; attacks France through Belgium. Goths.
+          Government, by the people; based on the consent of the
+          governed;
+          limited to the ruling class. Governments, newness of
+          European. Great Britain offers to judge Serbian trouble;
+          declares war on Germany. Greece,
+          treaty of, with Serbia; Greek Empire, origin of; fall of.
+          Greeks; ungenerous to Bulgarians, desert to Venizelos; join
+          the Entente.
+
+        Hague, court of the. Hannibal’s war against Rome. Hapsburgs,
+        the. Hohenzollern family. Holstein. Homage.
+        Hungarians. Huns.
+
+        Indemnity. Indo-European family of languages. Istria.
+        Italy, a battle ground of nations; becomes a nation; makes war
+        on Turkey; declines to support Austria and Germany; declares
+        war on Austria.
+
+        Kavala. Kent, William, on Mexican intervention. Kerensky,
+        leader of the Russian government. Kings, origin of. Koumanova,
+        battle of.
+
+        Labor troubles, in England; in Russia.
+        Language, relationship shown by. Latin tongues. Lithuania.
+        Lombards. Lorraine. Louis XIV of France. _Lusitania_, sinking
+        of the.
+
+        Macedonia. Magyars. Marathon, battle of. Marchand, Major.
+        Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria; helps to divide Poland.
+        Marlborough, Duke of. Mazzini.
+        Metternich. Middle Ages. Military service, owed to rulers; in
+        Prussia; in France.
+        Mirabeau. Moltke. Montenegro, origin of;
+          declares war on Austria. Monroe Doctrine. Moors.
+        Murat.
+
+        Napoleon III. Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of.
+        Newspapers, control of. Normans. Norway, joined to Sweden;
+        danger from Germany; vigorously protests submarine warfare.
+        Novibazar, the Sanjak of.
+
+        Ostrogoths.
+
+        Paris, siege of. Peace, German offer of;
+          Allies’ terms of; United States’ desire for; Russo-German
+          conference toward; German desire for. Peasants, attached to
+          the land;
+          support fighting classes. Peter the Great. Poland,
+          kingdom of; partition of; given largely to Russia;
+          revolutions in. Preparation for war Prussia, origin of
+          kingdom of; crushed by Napoleon; dominated by Bismarck.
+
+        Rasputin; assists Sturmer; is killed.
+        Reichstag. Reign of Terror. Republic, first French; second
+        French; third French.
+        Robber chiefs. Roman Empire, beginnings of. Romansh people.
+        Rome, wars of, with Carthage. Roon. Rothschild, the banking
+        house of. Roumani. Roumania; hopes of;
+          population of; declares war on Austria;
+          is crushed between two armies. Russia, rise of; attacks
+          Turkey; policy of;
+          relations with Bulgaria; defends Serbia;
+          ignorance of the people of; revolution in;
+          controlled by the Bolsheviki. Ruthenians.
+
+        Sarrail, sent to Salonika; watching Bulgars and Greeks. Saxons.
+        Saxony, annexed in part to Prussia; allied to Austria.
+        Salonika, Spanish Jews in. Sardinia, kingdom of. Schleswig.
+        Scutari. Serbia, trade with Austria; relations with Bulgaria;
+        trouble with Austria; attacked on three sides. Serbs, origin
+        of; lands of; language of. Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two.
+        Silesia, seizure of. Slavic tribes. Slovaks. Slovenes.
+        Sobieski, John, king of Poland. Socialists, in Germany; in
+        Italy. Spain, origin of; drives out “unbelievers,”; becomes a
+        republic. Submarine boats sink British warships;
+          sink merchant ships; sink the _Lusitania_;
+          cross the Atlantic; begin to sink all ships without warning;
+          kill Americans; sink Norwegian ships. Suevi. Sturmer chosen
+          prime minister of Russia. Sweden, decline of.
+
+        Talleyrand. Trentino. Tunis, seized by France. Turkey,
+          defended by France and England; attacks Russia. Turks;
+          capture Constantinople; driven back from Vienna; the young
+          Turks; tolerance of the young; bigotry of the young.
+
+        Ulster trouble, the. United States, indignant over the
+        _Lusitania_; warns Germany; defends munitions trade in reply to
+        Austria; receives _Deutschland_ hospitably; sends the German
+        Ambassador home;
+          declares war; desires nothing but to be safe from attack;
+          sends an army to Europe.
+
+        Vandals. Venice, Republic of. Venizelos, prime minister of
+        Greece; comes from Crete; opposes King Constantine; once more
+        prime minister.
+        Vercingetorix. Victor Emmanuel. Vienna, Congress of.
+
+        Walloons. War, four causes of; cost of; diseases caused by;
+        increasing horror of. Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of. Waterloo, battle
+        of.
+        William of Normandy. Wilson, President, patient with Germany;
+        asks both sides to name their terms;
+          calls Congress to declare war.
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***
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+</head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:55%;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" style="width:100%;" alt="[Illustration]" />
+</div>
+
+      <h1>
+        The World War and What Was Behind It
+      </h1>
+      <p class="center">
+        or
+      </p>
+      <h3>
+        The Story of the Map of Europe
+      </h3>
+      <p class="center">
+        By
+      </p>
+      <h2>
+        L. P. Bénézet
+      </h2>
+      <p class="center">
+        SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA
+      </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus01"></a>
+<img src="images/01.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Peace Palace at the Hague</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="pref01"></a>Preface</h2>
+
+<p>
+This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils, teachers, and
+the general public in a series of talks on the causes of the great European war
+which were given by the author in the fall of 1914. The audiences were widely
+different in character. They included pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth
+grades, students in high school and normal school, teachers in the public
+schools, an association of business men, and a convention of boards of
+education. In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: &ldquo;If there were
+only some book which would give us these facts in simple language and
+illustrate them by maps and charts as you have done!&rdquo; After searching the
+market for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put
+the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to write in
+a style which is well within the comprehension of the children in the upper
+grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The book deals with the
+remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made the great war inevitable.
+Facts are revealed which, so far as the author knows, have not been published
+in any history to date; facts which had the strongest possible bearing on the
+outbreak of the war. The average American, whether child or adult, has little
+conception of conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of
+the Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second generations
+both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry with Irish, Scotch
+with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech and Teuton, Bulgar and
+Serb may live side by side for centuries without mixing or losing their
+distinct racial characteristics. In order that the American reader may
+understand the complicated problem of European peace, a study of races and
+languages is given in the text, showing the relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin,
+and Teuton, and the various sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of
+these facts is very essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe.
+The author has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely
+king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the natural
+division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the mass of the
+population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chapter, entitled &ldquo;Europe as it Should Be,&rdquo; with its
+accompanying map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would
+look if the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single
+political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to draw sharp
+lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into Skipetar and Serb on
+the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is one-third German in its
+population. There are large islands of Germans and Magyars in the midst of the
+Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a few examples out of many which could be
+cited. However, the general aim of the chapter has been to divide the continent
+into nations, in each of which the leading race would vastly predominate in
+population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw light upon
+the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its cruelty and its
+needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe from the time of the great
+invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a continuous story of government
+without the consent of the governed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many countries
+have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem as though after
+this terrible demonstration of the results of armed peace, the governments of
+the world would be ready to listen to some plan which would forever forbid the
+possibility of another war. Just as individuals in the majority of civilized
+countries discovered, a hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for
+them to carry weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy
+protection, so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable
+to the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after
+years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war, at last
+learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will have to learn
+it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of feudal government in
+Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of the common people in many
+countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with the advance of education, and we
+trust that feudalism will not long survive its last terrible crime, the world
+war of 1914.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very essential that
+our people understand the events that led up to our participation in the war.
+So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving nature, we are so far removed
+from the militarism of continental Europe, and the whole war seems so needless
+and so profitless to those who have not studied carefully its causes, that
+there is danger of a want of harmony with the program of the government if all
+are not taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel
+through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With this in
+mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to demonstrating why
+no other course was open to this country than to accept the war which was
+forced upon her.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many helpful
+suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to Professor A. G.
+Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H. Sanford of the Wisconsin
+State Normal School at La Crosse, who were kind enough to read through and
+correct the manuscript before its final revision. The author is especially
+indebted to the Committee on Public Information at Washington, D. C., for
+furnishing to him authoritative data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment
+is also made to Row, Peterson and Company for kind permission to use
+illustrations from <i>History Stories of Other Lands</i>; also to the
+International Film Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable
+copyright illustrations of scenes relating to the great war.
+</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+L. P. BÉNÉZET.
+</p>
+
+<p class="letter">
+<i>Evansville, Indiana,<br />
+January 2, 1918</i>
+</p>
+
+<h2>Contents</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#pref01">Preface</a><br/><br/></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap01">I. The Great War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap02">II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap03">III. From Chiefs to Kings</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap04">IV. Master and Man</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap05">V. A Babel of Tongues</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap06">VI. &ldquo;The Terrible Turk&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap07">VII. The Rise of Modern Nations</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap08">VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap09">IX. The Little Man from the Common People</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap10">X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap11">XI. Italy a Nation at Last</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap12">XII. The Man of Blood and Iron</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap13">XIII. The Balance of Power</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap14">XIV. The &ldquo;Entente Cordiale&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap15">XV. The Sowing of the Dragon&rsquo;s Teeth</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap16">XVI. Who Profits?</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap17">XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap18">XVIII. Why England Came In</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap19">XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap20">XX. Back to the Balkans</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap21">XXI. The War under the Sea</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap22">XXII. Another Crown Topples</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap23">XXIII. The United States at War&mdash;Why?</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap24">XXIV. Europe As It Should Be</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap25">XXV. The Cost of It All</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap26">XXVI. What Germany Must Learn</a><br/><br/></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap27">Pronouncing Glossary</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap28">Index</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2>List of Maps</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map01">I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map02">II. Distribution of Languages</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map03">III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map04">IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map05">V. Southeastern Europe 1690</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map06">VI. The Empire of Charlemagne</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map07">VII. Europe in 1540</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map08">VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map09">IX. Italy in 525</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map10">X. Italy in 650</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map11">XI. Italy in 1175</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map12">XII. Europe in 1796</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map13">XIII. Europe in 1810</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map14">XIV. Europe in 1815</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map15">XV. Italy Made One Nation&mdash;1914&mdash;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map16">XVI. Formation of the German Empire</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map17">XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map18">XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map19">XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map20">XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map21">XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map22">XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map23">XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map24">XXIV. Europe as It Should Be</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2>List of Illustrations</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus01">I. The Peace Palace at the Hague</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus02">II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus03">III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus04">IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus05">V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus06">VI. Germans Going into Battle</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus07">VII. A Hun Warrior</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus08">VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus09">IX. A Frankish Chief</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus10">X. Movable Huts of Early Germans</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus11">XI. Goths on the March</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus12">XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus13">XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus14">XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus15">XV. A Knight in Armor</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus16">XVI. A Norman Castle in England</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus17">XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus18">XVIII. William the Conqueror</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus19">XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus20">XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus21">XXI. A Scene in Salonika</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus22">XXII. Louis XIV</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus23">XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus24">XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus25">XXV. Frederick the Great</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus26">XXVI. Catharine II</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus27">XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus28">XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus29">XXIX. The Palace of Versailles</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus30">XXX. The Reign of Terror</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus31">XXXI. The First Singing of &ldquo;The Marseillaise&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus32">XXXII. Charles the Fifth</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus33">XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus34">XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus35">XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus36">XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus37">XXXVII. Prince Metternich</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus38">XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus39">XXXIX. Bismarck</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus40">XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus41">XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus42">XLII. Peter the Great</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus43">XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus44">XLIV. The Congress of Berlin</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus45">XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus46">XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus47">XLVII. Durazzo</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus48">XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus49">XLIX. Submarine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus50">L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus51">LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus52">LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus53">LIII. Venizelos</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus54">LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus55">LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus56">LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus57">LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus58">LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus59">LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus60">LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus61">LXI. Polish Children</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus62">LXII. The Price of War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus63">LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus64">LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>The Story of the Map of Europe</h2>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap01"></a>Chapter I.<br/>
+The Great War</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The call from Europe.&mdash;Friend against friend.&mdash;Why?&mdash;Death
+      and devastation.&mdash;No private quarrel.&mdash;Ordered by government.&mdash;What
+      makes government?&mdash;The influence of the past.&mdash;Four causes of
+      war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being erected in a
+      great American city during the summer of 1914 were two men who had not yet
+      become citizens of the United States. Born abroad, they still owed
+      allegiance, one to the Emperor of Austria, the other to the Czar of
+      Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a chance to
+understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They were members of
+the same labor union, and had worked side by side on several different jobs. In
+the course of time, a firm friendship had sprung up between them. Suddenly, on
+the same day, each was notified to call at the office of the agent of his
+government in the city. Next morning the Russian came to his boss to explain
+that he must quit work, that he had been called home to fight for the
+&ldquo;Little Father&rdquo; of the Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian,
+there ahead of him, telling that he had to go, for the Russians had declared
+war on Austria and the good Kaiser,<a href="#fn-1" name="fnref-1" id="fnref-1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
+Franz Josef, had need of all his young men.
+    </p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-1" id="fn-1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1">[1]</a>
+In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The pitiless arm
+      of the god of war had reached across the broad Atlantic, plucking them
+      back from peace and security. With weapons put into their hands they would
+      be ordered to kill each other on sight.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful &ldquo;Good luck to you,&rdquo; and they parted.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong enough to
+      separate the two friends and drag them back five thousand miles for the
+      purpose of killing each other? To answer these two questions is the
+      purpose of this little volume.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and Africa
+      were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the world has ever
+      seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions were maimed, blinded, or
+      disfigured for life. Still other millions were herded into prison camps or
+      forced to work like convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with
+      grief. Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the war
+      had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children were left
+      fatherless. What had been the richest and most productive farming land in
+      Europe was made a barren waste. Thousands of villages and towns were
+      utterly destroyed and their inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the
+      sick, and the infants alike.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and Serbia, the
+      wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally starving, because all
+      food had been seized for the use of fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which
+      cannot exist where people have the chance to bathe and keep themselves
+      clean, once more appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims.
+      The strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations were
+      shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable existence, sick
+      or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in many factories which once
+      turned out the comforts and luxuries of civilization. There were no men to
+      make toys for the children, or to work for mankind&rsquo;s happiness. The only
+      mills and factories which were running full time were those that turned
+      out the tools of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations
+      poured out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of
+      killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What was the
+      reason for it all?
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus02"></a>
+<img src="images/02.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in Germany
+      freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with intercourse Russians,
+      and happy to have Englishmen spend their money in Germany. France and
+      Austria exchanged goods and their inhabitants traveled within each other&rsquo;s
+      boundaries. A Frenchman might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed.
+      There was nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman
+      or Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could meet
+      and find plenty of ground for friendship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred. One can
+      imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each other every day
+      might have trouble and grow to hate each other, but in this great war
+      soldiers were shooting down other soldiers whom they had never seen
+      before, with whom they had never exchanged a word, and it would not profit
+      them if they killed a whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the
+      soldiers did not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a
+      telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling and
+      telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a trifle for his
+      next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed and fired the gun. Once
+      in a while, a shell from the invisible enemy, two, three, or four miles
+      away, fell among them, killing and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians
+      were ordered to charge the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the
+      Russians because they were told to do so by their officers, and the
+      Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so ordered
+      them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders received from
+      their generals. The generals were only obeying orders from the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder what has
+      caused these nations to fly at each other&rsquo;s throats. The question arises
+      as to what makes up a government or why a government has the right to rule
+      its people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the United States, the government officials are simply the servants of
+      the people. Practically every man in our country, unless he is a citizen
+      of some foreign nation, has a right to vote, and in many of the states
+      women, too, have a voice in the government. We, the people of the United
+      States, can choose our own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and,
+      in some states, can vote out of existence any law that they the people
+      have made which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval
+      of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the next
+      election. Such is the government of a republic, a &ldquo;government of the
+      people, by the people, and for the people,&rdquo; as Abraham Lincoln called it.
+      In the leading British colonies, the people rule. Australian citizens
+      voted against forcing men to serve in the army. The result was very close
+      and the vote of the women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary,
+      voted to compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of
+      Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted before
+      their governments called them to arms and sent them to fight each other?
+      It is plain that in order to understand what this war is about, we must
+      look into the story of how the different governments of Europe came to be
+      and learn why their peoples obey them so unquestioningly.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We must remember that government by the people is a very new thing. One
+      hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United States only about
+      one-fourth of the men had the right to vote. These were citizens of
+      property and wealth. They did not think a poor man was worth considering.
+      In England, a country which allows its people more voice in the government
+      than almost any other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty
+      years that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like
+      Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and others, like
+      Austria, where they have very little voice in how they shall be governed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without thinking
+      when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up their weapons and
+      go to war. In many instances they have known nothing of the causes of the
+      conflict or of what they were fighting for. A famous English writer has
+      written a poem which illustrates how little the average citizen has ever
+      known concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the
+      way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in which
+      one should regard it. The poem runs as follows:
+    </p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>The Battle of Blenheim</b>
+</p>
+
+<p class="letter">
+It was a summer evening,<br/>
+    Old Kaspar&rsquo;s work was done,<br/>
+And he before his cottage door<br/>
+    Was sitting in the sun,<br/>
+And by him sported on the green<br/>
+His little grandchild Wilhelmine.<br/>
+<br/>
+She saw her brother Peterkin<br/>
+    Roll something large and round,<br/>
+Which he beside the rivulet<br/>
+    In playing there had found,<br/>
+He came to ask what he had found<br/>
+That was so large and smooth and round.<br/>
+<br/>
+Old Kaspar took it from the boy,<br/>
+    Who stood expectant by;<br/>
+And then the old man shook his head,<br/>
+    And, with a natural sigh&mdash;<br/>
+&ldquo;&rsquo;Tis some poor fellow&rsquo;s skull,&rdquo; said he,<br/>
+&ldquo;Who fell in the great victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;I find them in the garden,<br/>
+    For there&rsquo;s many hereabout;<br/>
+And often when I go to plow,<br/>
+    The plowshare turns them out!<br/>
+For many a thousand men,&rdquo; said he,<br/>
+&ldquo;Were slain in the great victory.&rdquo;<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;Now tell us what &rsquo;twas all about,&rdquo;<br/>
+    Young Peterkin he cries;<br/>
+And little Wilhelmine looks up<br/>
+    With wonder-waiting eyes&mdash;<br/>
+&ldquo;Now tell us all about the war,<br/>
+And what they fought each other for.&rdquo;<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;It was the English,&rdquo; Kaspar cried,<br/>
+    &ldquo;Who put the French to rout;<br/>
+But what they fought each other for<br/>
+    I could not well make out;<br/>
+But everybody said,&rdquo; quoth he,<br/>
+&ldquo;That &rsquo;twas a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;My father lived at Blenheim then,<br/>
+    Yon little stream hard by;<br/>
+They burnt his dwelling to the ground,<br/>
+    And he was forced to fly;<br/>
+So with his wife and child he fled,<br/>
+Nor had he where to rest his head.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;They say it was a shocking sight<br/>
+    After the field was won&mdash;<br/>
+For many thousand bodies here<br/>
+    Lay rotting in the sun;<br/>
+But things like that, you know, must be<br/>
+After a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won,<br/>
+    And our good Prince Eugene.&rdquo;<br/>
+&ldquo;Why, &rsquo;twas a very wicked thing!&rdquo;<br/>
+    Said little Wilhelmine.<br/>
+&ldquo;Nay, nay, my little girl,&rdquo; quoth he,<br/>
+&ldquo;It was a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;And everybody praised the duke<br/>
+    Who this great fight did win.&rdquo;<br/>
+&ldquo;But what good came of it at last?&rdquo;<br/>
+    Quoth little Peterkin.<br/>
+&ldquo;Why, that I cannot tell,&rdquo; said he;<br/>
+&ldquo;But &rsquo;twas a famous victory.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+&mdash;<i>Robert Southey</i>.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot feel the
+      wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on the other hand, have
+      a different idea of war. They are not satisfied until they know what it
+      was all about and what good came of it, and they feel that &ldquo;it was a very
+      wicked thing.&rdquo; If the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why
+      they were killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the
+      truth, the history of the world would have been very different.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for
+      themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead ancestors think
+      for them and to keep up customs which should have been changed ages ago.
+      People in Europe have lived in the midst of wars or preparation for wars
+      all their lives. There never has been a time when Europe was not either a
+      battlefield or a great drill-ground for armies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in Europe and
+      not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong to take human life.
+      Today it is not considered wrong to kill, provided a man is ordered to do
+      so by his general or his king. When two kings go to war, each claiming his
+      quarrel to be a just one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made
+      by its government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in
+      its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help to bring
+      about lasting peace among all the nations.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus03"></a>
+<img src="images/03.jpg" width="400" height="226" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the wars of
+      the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all wars can be traced
+      to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among barbarous tribes to fight
+      with and plunder their neighbors; (2) the ambition of kings to enlarge
+      their kingdoms; (3) the desire of the traders of one nation to increase
+      their commerce at the expense of some other nation; (4) a people&rsquo;s wish to
+      be free from the control of some other country and to become a nation by
+      itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause for war,
+      and this cause has been brought about only when kings have sent their
+      armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other peoples who wished to
+      govern themselves.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why must foreigners in the United States return to their native lands
+          when summoned by their governments?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How is it that war helps to breed diseases?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Whom do we mean by the government in the United States?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who controls the government in Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In Southey&rsquo;s poem, how does the children&rsquo;s idea of the battle differ
+          from that of their grandfather? Why?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are people less likely to protest against war if their forefathers
+          have fought many wars?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What have been the four main causes of war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap02"></a>Chapter II.<br/>
+Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      New governments in Europe.&mdash;Earliest times.&mdash;How civilization
+      began.&mdash;The rise of Rome.&mdash;Roman civilization.&mdash;Roman
+      cruelty.&mdash;The German tribes.&mdash;The Slavic tribes.&mdash;The
+      Celtic tribes.&mdash;The Huns and Moors.&mdash;The great Germanic
+      invasions of the Roman world.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe in 1914,
+      we must go far back into history. It should be remembered that many of the
+      governments of today have not lived as long as that of our own country.
+      This is, perhaps, a new thought to some of us, who rather think that, as
+      America is a new country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one
+      hundred and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed,
+      there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know by that
+      name was cut up among nine or ten little governments. There was no nation
+      known as Germany; the land which is in the present German empire was then
+      divided among some thirty or thirty-five different rulers. There was no
+      Republic of France; instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the
+      French people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium, no
+      kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of Norway was
+      part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now know it, dates back
+      only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the United Kingdom of Italy to
+      about the same time. The kingdoms of Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have
+      been independent of Turkey only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not
+      exist before 1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are
+      very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however, originated in
+      the dim twilight of history.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or kingdoms. Men
+      gathered together in little bands, each of which had its leader. This
+      leader was generally chosen because of his bodily strength and courage. He
+      was the best fighter of the tribe. The people did not have any lasting
+      homes. They moved around from place to place, wherever they could find the
+      best hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting grounds,
+      they fought, and the weaker party had to give way. Selfishness was
+      supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged to his weaker neighbor,
+      he simply beat this neighbor over the head with his club, and took it. The
+      stronger tribe attacked the weaker, without any thought of whether or not
+      its quarrel was just.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes began to
+      be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built. Trade came to be one
+      of the occupations. The fighting men needed weapons and armor; so there
+      grew up artisans who were skilled in working metals. In Egypt and Syria
+      there were people who had reached quite a high degree of civilization, and
+      gradually the Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the
+      Greeks, then the Etruscans (E&#772;-tru&#774;s&#8242;cans), a people who
+      lived in Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern
+      Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without hunting
+      and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of animals) came to be the
+      occupation of many. The owners of sheep or cattle drove their flocks from
+      place to place, as grass and water failed them where they were. There was
+      no separate ownership of land.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as the
+      stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule gradually over all
+      the surrounding country. By this time, the barbarians of northern Europe
+      had gotten past the use of clubs as weapons. They, too, had learned to
+      make tools and arms of bronze, and those living near civilized countries
+      had obtained swords of iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign
+      of authority. The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe
+      as a sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king
+      sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right hand. It is
+      interesting to think that this scepter, which the present king of England
+      carries on state occasions to remind his people of his power, is a relic
+      of the old, old days when his grandfather, many times removed, broke the
+      head of his rival for leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club
+      for his awestruck people to worship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire) spread its
+      rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and
+      finally over all the countries of Europe south and west of the rivers
+      Danube and Rhine. One of the emperors planted a colony north of the Danube
+      near its mouth, and the descendants of these colonists are living in that
+      same country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they still
+      call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro&#862;o-ma&#776;&#8242;ni]), and talk a
+      language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue spoken by the
+      Romans of old. With the exception of this country, which is now Roumania,
+      the part of Europe north and east of the Danube and Rhine was practically
+      free from the Romans. In this territory, roving bands wandered around,
+      driving their cattle with them and clearing the woods of game.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus04"></a>
+<img src="images/04.jpg" width="401" height="264" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years ago.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had schools
+      where their children were taught to read and write, to speak Greek, and to
+      work problems in geometry. They had magnificent public buildings, fine
+      temples and palaces. They built excellent paved roads all over the
+      southern part of Europe, and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which
+      supplied their cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away.
+      Their dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass,
+      and steel.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people. Their
+      favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators fought, either with
+      each other or with wild beasts. These gladiators were generally men from
+      tribes which had fought against Rome. They had been captured and brought
+      to that city, where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on
+      holidays, with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these
+      unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until one man of
+      each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that one gladiator might be
+      wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The spectators would then shout to
+      the victorious fighter to take his knife and finish what he had begun. In
+      this way what would seem to us like cold-blooded murder was committed
+      hundreds of times each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of
+      Rome sat and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had
+      all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages at heart,
+      and had no sympathy for any people who were not of their own race.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus05"></a>
+<img src="images/05.jpg" width="282" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Last Combat of the Gladiators</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor. They
+      scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or deceive. They
+      lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves luxuries. They rather
+      despised the Greeks, because the latter surrounded themselves with
+      comforts in life. The early Romans were fighters by nature. They had a
+      certain god named Janus (our month January is named after him) and his
+      temple was open only when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of
+      history that during the twelve hundred years from the first building of
+      Rome to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on but
+      three occasions and then only for a short time.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came several
+      disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her sturdy fighters.
+      Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but she won them at tremendous
+      cost to herself. With the killing off of her best and bravest men, a great
+      deal of the old time honesty was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of
+      Roman governors who, when put in charge of conquered states, used their
+      offices only to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome
+      after their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman
+      morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax, and in
+      general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were to
+      become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were the free
+      German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe bounded, roughly, by the
+      rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, and the Carpathian Mountains. In
+      many ways they were much less civilized than the Romans. They were clad in
+      skins and furs instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in
+      caves dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held human
+      life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among them. As a rule,
+      the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor there was, largely to the
+      women, while they busied themselves in fighting and hunting, or, during
+      their idle times, in gambling. Nevertheless, these people, about the time
+      that the Roman honesty began to disappear, had virtues more like those of
+      the early Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful
+      husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy. They were
+      barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken to Rome and learned
+      the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men than Rome was producing
+      about the time of which we speak.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus06"></a>
+<img src="images/06.jpg" width="400" height="199" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Germans Going Into Battle</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no better
+      civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the Germans, in later
+      years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in turn, moved westward and
+      occupied much of the land which had been left vacant by the Germans.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus07"></a>
+<img src="images/07.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Hun Warrior</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and the British
+      Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could be said to be divided
+      up among four great peoples: There were the Latins in Italy, the Celts in
+      western Europe, the Germans in central Europe, and the Slavs to the east.
+      All of these four families were distantly related, as can be proved by the
+      languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to any one of
+      the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans and Latins. Probably
+      all five peoples are descended from one big family of tribes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of Europe by
+      other nations which did not have any connection by blood with Celts,
+      Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For instance, the ferocious Huns, a
+      people of the yellow race, rushed into Europe about 400 A.D., but were
+      beaten in a big battle by the Romans and Germans and finally went back to
+      Asia. Three hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from
+      Africa crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and at
+      one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian nations. For
+      several hundred years after this, they held the southern part of Spain,
+      but were finally driven out.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe after the
+      Romans had conquered all the country south and west of the Danube and
+      Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were restlessly roaming through the
+      central part of Europe. They were not at peace with each other. In fact,
+      constant war was going on. Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who
+      conquered what is now France and added it to the Roman world, tells us
+      that one great tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swe&#772;&#8242;vi&#772;),
+      made it their boast that they would let no other tribe live anywhere near
+      them. About a hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and
+      the Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands in
+      countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at last they
+      were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman general, who was Caesar&rsquo;s
+      uncle by marriage. After this time, the Romans tried to conquer the
+      country of the Germans and they might have been successful but for a young
+      German chief named Arminius. He had lived in Rome as a young man and had
+      learned the Romans&rsquo; method of war; so when an army came against his tribe,
+      he taught the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman
+      army was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus08"></a>
+<img src="images/08.jpg" width="267" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Gaius Julius Caesar.  From a bust in the British Museum</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of conquering
+      all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years, Germans and Romans
+      lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then came a time when the Germans
+      again became the attacking party. Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like
+      the Huns, were assailing them in the east and pushing them forward. They
+      finally broke over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman
+      Empire in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals,
+      Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went to pieces
+      under their savage attacks.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need less land
+          to live on?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than civilized
+          peoples?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more civilized
+          tribes were better armed than the barbarians.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy bloodshed and are
+          not moved by the sufferings of others?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In what way were the Germans better men than the later Romans?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap03"></a>Chapter III.<br/>
+From Chiefs to Kings</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The early chief a fighter.&mdash;The club the sign of power.&mdash;Free
+      men led by a chief of their own choosing.&mdash;The first slaves.&mdash;Barbarians
+      conquer civilized nations.&mdash;A ruling class among conquered people.&mdash;All
+      men no longer free and equal.&mdash;The value of arms and armor.&mdash;The
+      robber chiefs.&mdash;How kings first came.&mdash;Treaties between tribes
+      follow constant wars.&mdash;Tribes unite for protection against enemies.&mdash;A
+      king is chosen for the time being.&mdash;Some kings refuse to resign their
+      office when the danger is past.&mdash;New generations grow up which never
+      knew a kingless state.&mdash;The word &ldquo;king&rdquo; becomes sacred.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of the
+      sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it. Rich cities
+      were plundered at will. They did not admit any man&rsquo;s ownership of
+      anything. In the old days when the tribes were roaming around, there was
+      no private ownership of land. Everything belonged to the tribe in common.
+      Each man had a vote in the council of the tribe.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no such
+      thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the greater part of
+      his people considered him the best leader in war. Often, no doubt, when a
+      chief had lost a battle and the majority of the tribe had lost confidence
+      in him, he resigned and let them choose a new chief. (For the same reason
+      we frequently hear today that the prime minister, or leader of the
+      government, of some European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact,
+      then, that the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the
+      majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another man in
+      his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in its beginning,
+      was based upon the consent of the governed. All men in the primitive tribe
+      were equal in rank, except as one was a better fighter than another, and
+      the chief held the leadership in war only because the members of his tribe
+      allowed him to keep it.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus09"></a>
+<img src="images/09.jpg" width="116" height="300" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Frankish Chief.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no fixed
+      place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they could put up or
+      tear down at very short notice; and so when they heard of more fertile
+      lands or a warmer climate across the mountains to the south they used to
+      pull up stakes and migrate in a body, never to return. It was always the
+      more savage and uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The
+      lands which they wished to seize they generally found already settled by
+      other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied in trade
+      and agriculture, having gradually turned to these pursuits from their
+      former habits of hunting and fighting. Sometimes these more civilized and
+      peace-loving people were able, by their better weapons and superior
+      knowledge of the art of fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the
+      immigrating barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were
+      the victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to rule
+      them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered ones to feed and
+      clothe them.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus10"></a>
+<img src="images/10.jpg" width="400" height="258" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Movable Huts of Early Germans</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were taking
+      place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our earliest records
+      date. The best examples, however, are to be found in the invasions of the
+      Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes to which we have referred above. The
+      country between the Rhine River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been
+      called Gaul when the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks
+      conquered the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two
+      German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians came down
+      from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name to their new home in
+      the fertile valley of the Sa&#244;ne (So&#772;n); the Vandals came out of
+      Germany to roam through Spain, finally founding a kingdom in Africa; while
+      the Lombards crossed the Alps to become the masters of the Valley of the
+      Po, whither the Gauls had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus11"></a>
+<img src="images/11.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Goths on the March</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus12"></a>
+<img src="images/12.jpg" width="401" height="227" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Franks Crossing the Rhine</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two thousand
+      years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was overrun and
+      conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and Angles, Germanic
+      tribes, after whom part of the island was called Angleland. (The men from
+      the south of England are of the same blood as the Saxons in the German
+      army, against whom they had to fight in the great war.) Then came Danes,
+      who partially conquered the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066
+      A.D., the country was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some
+      Norsemen, who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from
+      Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part of France.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus13"></a>
+<img src="images/13.jpg" width="400" height="230" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Men of Normandy Landing in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands, leaving their
+      former homes to their conquerors. In this way the Britons and Gaels gave
+      up the greater part of their land to the Angles and Saxons and withdrew to
+      the hills and mountains of Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In
+      other cases, the conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same
+      lands side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the
+      Anglo-Saxons.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a raid upon
+      another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some captives who became
+      slaves, working without pay for their conquerors and possessing no more
+      rights than beasts of burden. (This custom exists today in the interior of
+      Africa, and was responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black
+      captives were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors,
+      who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried off and
+      sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors, their
+      number was very small as compared with that of their masters. When, on the
+      other hand, a tribe settled among a people whom they had conquered, they
+      often found themselves fewer in numbers, and kept their leadership only by
+      their greater strength and fighting ability.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer equal, led
+      by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the greater part of them
+      now had no voice in the government. They had become subjects, working to
+      earn their own living and also, as has been said, to support in idleness
+      their conquerors.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to support their
+      masters was increased as certain peoples learned better than others how to
+      make strong armor and effective weapons. Nearly five hundred years before
+      the time of Christ, at the battle of Marathon (Ma&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; tho&#774;n),
+      the Greeks discovered that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a
+      long spear, was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and
+      arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a small army
+      of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that wonderful general,
+      Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty times its number of Persians in
+      a great battle in Asia and conquered a vast empire.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus14"></a>
+<img src="images/14.jpg" width="381" height="184" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Alexander Defeating the Persians</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question of
+      wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the best arms for
+      his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force him to pay money as to
+      a ruler. Finally, in the so-called &ldquo;Middle Ages,&rdquo; before the invention of
+      gunpowder, one knight, armed from crown to sole in steel, was worth in
+      battle as much as one hundred poorly-armed farmers or &ldquo;peasants&rdquo; as they
+      are called in Europe.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+In the &ldquo;Dark Ages,&rdquo;<a href="#fn-2" name="fnref-2" id="fnref-2"><sup>[2]</sup></a>
+after all these barbarians that we have named had swarmed over Europe, and
+before the governments of modern times were fully grown, there were hundreds of
+robber chiefs, who, scattered throughout a country, were in the habit of
+collecting tribute at the point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who
+lived near. This tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed
+amount each month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a
+government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. The
+robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good weapons and
+armor to their men, who lived either in the chief&rsquo;s castle or in small
+houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any travelers who came by,
+unless their numbers and weapons made them look too dangerous to be attacked.
+But the regular tribute forced from the peaceful farmers was the chief source
+of their income. The robber chief and his men lived a life of idleness when
+they were not out upon some raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious
+peasants worked hard enough to support both their own families and those of the
+robbers.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-2" id="fn-2"></a> <a href="#fnref-2">[2]</a>
+The &ldquo;Dark Ages&rdquo; came before the &ldquo;Middle Ages.&rdquo; They
+were called &ldquo;dark&rdquo; because the barbarians had extinguished nearly
+all civilization and learning.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus15"></a>
+<img src="images/15.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Knight in Armor</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws, and lived
+      either in a country which had no government and laws, or in one whose
+      government was too weak to protect its people. They were no worse,
+      however, than the so-called feudal barons who came after them, who
+      oppressed the people even more, because they had on their side whatever
+      law and government existed in those days.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In the early
+      days of the human race and also in later days among barbarous peoples, the
+      land was very sparsely settled. The reason lay in the chief occupations of
+      the men. A small tribe might inhabit a great stretch of territory through
+      which they wandered to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went
+      on, however, the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place
+      of hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves living
+      in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to their
+      neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just as Caesar tells
+      us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the Germans fought almost
+      daily battles back and forth across the Rhine. In other cases, the tribes
+      found it better for all concerned to make treaties of peace with their
+      neighbors, and if they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms,
+      at least they did not attack each other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had treaties
+      with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by some horde of
+      another race or nation. Common interest would drive them together for
+      mutual protection, and the chief of some one of them would be chosen to
+      lead their joint army. In this way, we find the fifteen tribes of the
+      Belgians uniting against the Roman army led by Julius Caesar, and electing
+      as king over them the chief of one of the tribes &ldquo;on account of his
+      justice and wisdom.&rdquo; Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find
+      practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into a nation
+      under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Ve&#771;r sin jet&#8242;o&#772;
+      riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five hundred years
+      later, the Romans themselves were driven to join forces with two of the
+      Germanic tribes to check the swift invasion of the terrible Huns.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the
+      kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that drove the
+      tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted for years or even
+      centuries, so that new generations grew up who had never lived under any
+      other government than that of a king. Thus when the wars were ended, the
+      tribes continued to be ruled by the one man, although the reason for the
+      kingship had ceased to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to
+      100 B.C., when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders,
+      appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator ruled
+      like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then, like the famous
+      Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired to private life. The
+      first lasting kingships, then, began, as it were, by the refusal of some
+      dictator to resign when the need for his rule was ended.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king to take
+      his father&rsquo;s place was fairly well settled, and it did not take long to
+      have it understood as a regular thing that at a king&rsquo;s death he should be
+      followed by his oldest son. Often there were quarrels and even civil wars
+      caused by ambitious younger sons, who did not submit to their elder
+      brothers without a struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and
+      peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked upon as
+      the rightful heir to the kingship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be busied in
+      agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in manufacture, the
+      warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people began to forget that the
+      king was originally only a war leader, and that the office was created
+      through military need. They came to regard the rule of the king as a
+      matter of course and stopped thinking of themselves as having any right to
+      say how they should be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling.
+      For the purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the habit
+      of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a divine
+      institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was made by the gods,
+      or in Christian nations, by God, and that it was the divine will that the
+      people of the nations should be ruled by kings. The great Roman orator,
+      Cicero (Si&#774;s&#8242;ero&#772;), in a speech delivered in the year 66
+      B.C., referring to people who lived in kingdoms, says that the name of
+      king &ldquo;seems to them a great and sacred thing.&rdquo; This same feeling has
+      lasted through all the ages down to the present time, and the majority of
+      the people in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still
+      look upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if they
+      ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private ownership of
+          land?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that government was based upon the consent of
+          the governed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the German
+          tribes to move southward?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the beginnings of slavery.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the value of armor in early times.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by the &ldquo;Dark Ages&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they should be
+          rulers for life?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap04"></a>Chapter IV.<br/>
+Master and Man</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The land is the king&rsquo;s.&mdash;He lends it to barons.&mdash;Barons lend it
+      to knights and smaller barons.&mdash;Smaller barons collect rent for it
+      from the peasants.&mdash;A father&rsquo;s lands are lent to his son.&mdash;Barons
+      pay for the land by furnishing men for the king&rsquo;s wars.&mdash;No account
+      is taken of the rights of the peasant.&mdash;The peasant, the only
+      producer, is despised by the fighting men.&mdash;If a baron rebels, his
+      men must rebel also.&mdash;Dukes against kings.&mdash;What killed the
+      feudal system.&mdash;Feudal wrongs alive today.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country, as the
+      Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the Normans entered
+      England in 1066, their king at once took it for granted that he owned all
+      the conquered land. In some cases, he might divide the kingdom up among
+      his chiefs, giving a county to each of forty or fifty leaders. These great
+      leaders (dukes or barons, as they were called in the Norman-French
+      language, or earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide
+      up his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call lesser
+      or little barons. Each little baron might have several knights and
+      squires, who lived in or near his castle and had received from him tracts
+      of land corresponding in size, perhaps, to the American township and who,
+      therefore, fought under his banner in war.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus16"></a>
+<img src="images/16.jpg" width="356" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Norman Castle in England</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men, &ldquo;men-at-arms,&rdquo; as
+      they were called, or &ldquo;retainers,&rdquo; who in return for their &ldquo;keep,&rdquo; that is,
+      their food and lodging, and a chance to share the plunder gained in war,
+      swore to be faithful to him, became his men, and gave him the service
+      called homage. (This word comes from <i>ho&#772;mo&#772;</i>, the Latin
+      for &ldquo;man.&rdquo;) The lesser baron, in turn, swore homage to, and was the &ldquo;man&rdquo;
+      of the great baron or earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser
+      chiefs to gather their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey,
+      serving him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed them.
+      The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had received his
+      land.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word <i>feudum</i>,
+      which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which was given to a man
+      in return for his services in war), a system which reversed the natural
+      laws of society, and stood it on its apex, like a cone balanced on its
+      point. For instead of saying that the land was the property of the people
+      of the tribe or nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all
+      belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the land,
+      outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in return for
+      their faithful support and service in war, the <i>use</i> of the land
+      during their lifetime, or so long as they remained true to him. In <i>Macbeth</i>,
+      we read how, for his treason, the lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were
+      taken from him by the Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The
+      lands thus lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went
+      back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place, and he at
+      once gave them to some other one of his followers upon the same terms. It
+      often happened that upon the death of an earl or baron his son was granted
+      the lands which his father had held, Finally, in many counties, it grew
+      into a custom, and the oldest son took possession of his father&rsquo;s fief,
+      but not without first going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity
+      to him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the system fully.
+      In the first place, in the division of the lands among the barons of the
+      conquering nation, no account was taken of the peasants. As they were of
+      the defeated people, their rights to the land were not once considered. In
+      many countries, the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the
+      conquered territory. They &ldquo;went with&rdquo; the land and were considered by the
+      lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned over a
+      farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If any of them
+      tried to run away, they were brought back and whipped. They tilled the
+      land and raised live stock, giving a certain share of their yearly crop
+      and a certain number of beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent
+      for the land, much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to
+      the robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned
+      their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and robbed by all
+      the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs existing today that are
+      due to the fact that the feudal system is not wholly stamped out in some
+      countries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus17"></a>
+<img src="images/17.jpg" width="401" height="234" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the direct
+      master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn homage to him. He
+      was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The less important barons swore
+      homage to the great barons, and the knights, squires, retainers, and
+      yeomen swore homage to the lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided
+      his fief among certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance,
+      not to him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a
+      &ldquo;man&rdquo; rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers, etc., must
+      rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to obey his king and
+      broke his oath of allegiance, all his little barons and knights must turn
+      disloyal too, or rather, must remain loyal, for their oaths had been taken
+      to support the duke, and not the king. History is full of such cases. In
+      many instances, dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war
+      on even terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the
+      kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland in 1403
+      raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of England; the
+      Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the throne of England and
+      became king in his place.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus18"></a>
+<img src="images/18.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">William the Conqueror</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of Normandy had
+      sworn homage to the king of France, became, through conquest, king of
+      England. His sons, great-grandsons, and great-great-grandsons continued
+      for one hundred and fifty years to be obliged to swear allegiance to the
+      French kings in order to keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the
+      Governor of Texas had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become
+      Emperor of that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up
+      his American citizenship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring more
+      power to the common people were, first, the invention of gunpowder, and,
+      second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket could bring down a knight
+      in armor as easily as he could the most poorly armored peasant. Kings, in
+      fighting to control their great lords, gave more freedom to citizens of
+      towns in return for their help. The king&rsquo;s armies came to be recruited
+      largely from townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the
+      feudal lords.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain amount of
+      military service to his ruler has lasted to the present day and is
+      responsible for much of the misery that now exists. Kings went to war with
+      each other simply to increase their territories. The more land a king had
+      under his control, the more people who owed him taxes, and the greater
+      number he could get into his army, the greater became his ambition to
+      spread his kingdom still farther.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all the land in
+          the country which he had invaded?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to the
+          welfare of the working classes?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting men,
+          lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns his living
+          is looked down upon by the nobles?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society upside
+          down?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break up the
+          feudal system.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the feudal
+          system?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap05"></a>Chapter V.<br/>
+A Babel of Tongues</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The great family of languages.&mdash;Few languages in Europe not belonging
+      to the family.&mdash;The dying Celtic languages.&mdash;The three branches
+      of the Germanic family.&mdash;The influence of the Latin tongue on the
+      south of Europe.&mdash;The many Slavic peoples.&mdash;The map as divided
+      by kings without regard to peoples and languages.&mdash;The strange
+      mixture in Austria-Hungary.&mdash;The southeast of Europe.&mdash;The
+      Greeks and Dacians.&mdash;The Roman colonists.&mdash;The Slavs.&mdash;The
+      Volgars.&mdash;The Skipetars.&mdash;A hopeless mixture.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a> it was pointed out that almost all the
+      peoples of Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely
+      that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the Greeks,
+      and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its home back in the
+      highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule, the relationship of peoples
+      to each other can be told by the languages which they speak. If two tribes
+      are related because their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it
+      is almost certain that they will show this relationship in their
+      languages.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like the
+      language of the Germans, for the English were originally German tribes.
+      Even today, it is easy to see that English is a Germanic language. Take
+      the English words house, father, mother, brother, water, here, is, etc.
+      The German words which mean the same are <i>haus, vater, mutter, bruder,
+      wasser, hier, ist</i>. It is very plain that the two languages must have
+      come from the same source.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There are professors in European colleges who have spent their whole lives
+      studying this relationship of languages. These men have proved not only
+      that almost all the languages of Europe are related, but that the language
+      of the Persians, and that of some of the old tribes in Hindustan also
+      belong to one great family of tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In
+      one of the ancient languages of Hindustan it was <i>matr</i>; in the
+      Greek, it was <i>ma&#772;ta&#772;r</i>; in the Latin <i>mater</i> (ma&#776;ta&#772;r);
+      in the Bohemian <i>matka</i>; in the German <i>mu&#800;tter</i>; in the
+      Spanish m&#228;dre; in the Norwegian <i>mo&#772;der</i>, etc. This great
+      family of languages is called &ldquo;the Indo-European group,&rdquo; because the
+      tribes which spoke them, originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered
+      all over India and Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do
+      not belong to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques
+      (Ba&#775;sks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies, and
+      the Turks.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the Celtic
+      languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that first the
+      Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of the lands where the
+      Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal, France, and Belgium now talk
+      languages that have grown from the Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts
+      in the British Isles now all talk English, because the English, who were a
+      Germanic people, conquered them and forced them to use their language.
+      Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the Celtic tribes)
+      are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh languages, but all of the
+      young people in the British Isles learn English, and they are generally
+      content to talk only one language. The other Celtic languages which have
+      existed within the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of
+      Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the
+      southwestern corner of England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in three
+      parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian, and
+      Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria and Germany form, with
+      Holland and Western Belgium, a second group of German-speaking nations.
+      (The people of eastern Belgium are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The
+      third part of Europe which uses a Germanic language is England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain, and
+      Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin. Latin languages
+      today are found also in the southern and western parts of Switzerland, all
+      over Italy, and in Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the Germanic
+      tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs followed them and
+      occupied the lands which had just been left vacant. In this way, we find
+      Slavic peoples talking Slavic (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the
+      parts of Europe to the east and south of the Germans. More than half of
+      the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians
+      proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to the
+      Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins are Slavs. The
+      Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak a Slavic language and
+      have some Slavic blood in them, although, as will be pointed out later,
+      originally they did not belong to the Slavic family.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map01"></a>
+<img src="images/map01.jpg" width="700" height="468" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family of
+      tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of the four
+      great branches.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map02"></a>
+<img src="images/map02.jpg" width="699" height="467" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Distribution Of Languages</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The two maps on pages <a href="#map01">65</a> and <a href="#map02">66</a>
+      are very much alike and yet in some respects very different. The first
+      shows how Europe is largely inhabited by peoples of the great
+      Indo-European family. Those who are descended from the Celts are marked
+      Celtic even though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have
+      the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France, eastern
+      Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians are marked as not
+      belonging to the great family, although they speak a Slavic language.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the <a href="#map02">second map</a>, the distribution of languages
+      is shown. You will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in
+      small parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of France.
+      The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their language belongs to
+      that branch. One of the most curious things about the two maps is the
+      presence of little spots like islands, particularly made up of
+      German-speaking peoples. There are several of these little islands in
+      Russia. They have been there for nearly two hundred years. A traveler
+      crossing the southern part of Russia is astonished to find districts as
+      large as an American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. <a
+      name="page69" id="page69"></a>The people are all of Germanic blood,
+      although they live under the government of Russia. In the same way, there
+      is a large German island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania
+      and another between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian
+      Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania also,
+      entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on the opposite
+      page shows the main branches of the Indo-European family that are found in
+      Europe.<br/><br/>
+    </p>
+
+    <table summary="A tree diagram of languages by family">
+      <caption>
+        The Indo-European Family of Languages
+      </caption>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>a</i>) Hindu branch
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>b</i>) Persian branch
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>c</i>) Celtic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Ga&#772;e&#8242;lic (northern Scotland)<br /> Welsh<br /> Cornish (dead)<br />
+          Erse (Irish)<br /> Bre&#772;&#8242;ton (western France)
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>d</i>) Latin branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Portuguese<br /> Spanish<br /> French<br /> Romansh (southeastern
+          Switzerland)<br /> Italian<br /> Roumanian
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>e</i>) Germanic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Norwegian<br /> Danish<br /> Swedish<br /> Dutch<br /> Flemish (Belgium)<br />
+          Low German<br /> High German<br /> English
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>f</i>) Slavonic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Russian<br /> Polish<br /> Lettish<br /> Lithuanian<br /> Old Prussian
+          (dead)<br /> Czech (Bohemian [pronounced Che&#774;ck])<br /> Slo&#772;
+          vak&#8242; (northern Hungary)<br /> Serbian<br /> Bulgarian<br /> Slove&#8242;nian
+          (southwestern Austria)<br /> Cro&#772;a&#8242;tian (southern Austria)<br />
+          Ruthe&#772;&#8242;nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern
+          Russia)
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          <br /> }<br /> } Baltic states of Russia<br /> }<br />
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>g</i>) Greek
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>h</i>) Alba&#772;&#8242;nian
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+
+    <p class="p2">
+      The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings and their
+      ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the feudal lords, never
+      considered the wishes of the people when they changed the boundaries of
+      kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good example. The Austrians and Hungarians
+      were two very different peoples. They had nothing in common and did not
+      wish to be joined under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no
+      son to succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of
+      Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of Hapsburg)
+      was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, although the Bohemian
+      people had not chosen him as their ruler. The Hungarians, before their
+      union with Austria, had conquered certain Slavic tribes and part of the
+      Roumanians. Later Austria annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire
+      became a jumble of languages and nationalities. When its congress is
+      called together, the official announcement is read in eleven different
+      languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not as large
+      as that of the state of Texas.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We must remember that besides the literary or written languages of each
+      country there are several spoken dialects. A man from Devonshire, England,
+      meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of the same country, has
+      difficulty in understanding many words in his speech. The language of the
+      south of Scotland also is English, although it is very different from the
+      English that we in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees
+      Mountains was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we
+      find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is talked by
+      the country people around him, that can not be understood by the peasants
+      from the north of France near the Flemish border. The man who lives in the
+      east of France can understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of
+      Italy much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic
+      coast.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In America, with people moving around from place to place by means of
+      stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no great chance to
+      develop dialects, although we can instantly tell the New Englander, the
+      southerner, or the westerner by his speech. It should be remembered that
+      in Europe, for centuries, the people were kept on their own farms or in
+      their own towns. The result of this was that each little village or city
+      has its own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied
+      such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from Europe,
+      can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in the old country.
+      There are no sharply marked boundaries of languages. The dialects of
+      France shade off into those of Spain on the one hand and into those of the
+      Flemish and the Italian on the other.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map03"></a>
+<img src="images/map03.jpg" width="701" height="469" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The British Isles furnish us with four or five different nationalities.
+      The people of the north of Ireland are really lowland Scotch of Germanic
+      descent, while the other three-fourths of Ireland is inhabited by Celts.
+      To make the difference all the greater, the Celts are almost universally
+      Catholics, while the Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north
+      of Scotland are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or
+      blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The Welsh are
+      a Celtic people, having no relationship with the English, who are a
+      Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of Cornwall and the people of
+      highland Scotland are the descendants of the ancient Britons and Gaels who
+      inhabited the island when Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there.
+      Then five hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great
+      swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the Britons to
+      the west and north, and settled the country now known as England. After
+      these, you will recall, came a number of Danes, another Germanic people,
+      who settled the east coast of England. Two hundred years later, the
+      Normans came from France. These Normans had been living in France for a
+      century or two, but had come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes,
+      Angles, and Saxons all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they
+      fought the Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them,
+      oppressed them harshly for many centuries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map04"></a>
+<img src="images/map04.jpg" width="700" height="466" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the worst
+      jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ, the Greeks and
+      their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians, and Dacians inhabited
+      this district. When one of the Roman Emperors conquered the Dacians about
+      100 A.D., he planted a large Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then
+      came the West Goths, who swept into this country, but soon left it for the
+      west of Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the
+      modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not belong to
+      the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to the Finns and the
+      Turks. These people were called the Volgars, for they came from the
+      country around the River Volga. Before long, we find them called the
+      Bulgars. (The letters B and V are often interchanged in the languages of
+      south-eastern Europe. The people of western Europe used to call the
+      country of the Serbs Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word
+      <i>servio</i>, in Latin, means &ldquo;to be a slave,&rdquo; and that as they were not
+      slaves, they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia.
+      The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though it were
+      V.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They completely gave
+      up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one, which became in time the
+      purest of the Slavic tongues. They intermarried with the Slavs around them
+      and adopted Slavic names. They founded a flourishing nation which lay
+      between the kingdom of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;).
+      These people claimed to be descended from the Roman Emperor&rsquo;s colonists,
+      as was previously told, but the reason their language is so much like the
+      Italian is that a large number of people from the north of Italy moved
+      into the country nearly a thousand years after the first Roman colonists
+      settled there. From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited
+      by Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus19"></a>
+<img src="images/19.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Typical Bulgarian Family</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians. (<a
+      href="#map04">See map</a>) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians,
+      who inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the time
+      of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a branch of the
+      Indo-European family which is neither Latin, Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic.
+      They are distant cousins of the Italians and are also slightly related to
+      the Greeks. They are a wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never
+      known the meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each
+      village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring towns. The
+      Albanians, or Skipetars (ski&#776;p&#8242;e&#774;tars) as they call
+      themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the Turks about
+      1460. Since that time, the great majority of them have been staunch
+      believers in the Mohammedan religion.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have its
+          beginning?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages are
+          spoken?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are descended from
+          the Latin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different peoples?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap06"></a>Chapter VI.<br/>
+&ldquo;The Terrible Turk&rdquo;</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Greek Empire at Constantinople.&mdash;The invading Mohammedans.&mdash;The
+      Ottoman Turks.&mdash;The fall of Constantinople.&mdash;The enslaving of
+      the Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.&mdash;One little
+      part of Serbia unconquered.&mdash;The further conquests of the Turks.&mdash;The
+      attack on Vienna.&mdash;John Sobieski to the rescue.&mdash;The waning of
+      the Turkish empire.&mdash;The Spanish Jews.&mdash;The jumble of languages
+      and peoples in southeastern Europe.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the <a href="#chap05">last chapter</a>, we referred briefly to the Greek
+      empire at Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and
+      was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years before Christ.
+      Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor named Constantine decided
+      that he liked Byzantium better than Rome. Accordingly, he moved the
+      capital of the empire to the Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis
+      (the word <i>polis</i> means &ldquo;city&rdquo; in Greek). Before long, we find the
+      Roman empire divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the
+      other at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the
+      Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the western
+      empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus20"></a>
+<img src="images/20.jpg" width="337" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged to fight
+      hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across the fertile plains
+      of Mesopotamia (me&#774;s&#8242;o&#772; po&#772; ta&#772;&#8242; mi&#774;
+      a&#772;) and Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the
+      Tigris (ti&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;s) and Euphrates (u&#772;fra&#772;&#8242;te&#772;z)
+      Rivers. Its name in Greek means &ldquo;between the rivers.&rdquo;) The fiercest of the
+      Mohammedan tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For
+      several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople, while the
+      Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls, and the
+      Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the past, and all of
+      southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the invading Moslems (another name
+      for &ldquo;Mohammedans&rdquo;). The Turks did not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians,
+      Serbians, and Albanians, but settled down among them as the ruling,
+      military class. They strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity
+      and turn Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the
+      Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and
+      Roumanians remained where they had been, but were oppressed by the
+      newcomers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For more than two hundred years after the capture of Constantinople, the
+      Turks pushed their conquests farther and farther into Europe. The entire
+      coast of the Black Sea fell into their hands. All of Greece, all of
+      Bulgaria, and all of Roumania became part of their empire. Of the kingdom
+      of Serbia, one small province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains
+      near the coast of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the
+      Serbian kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and
+      higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the
+      invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that &ldquo;the game
+      was not worth the candle.&rdquo; Thus the little nation of Montenegro was
+      formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted to the Ottoman rule. (The
+      inhabitants of this small country call it Tzernagorah (tze&#771;r na&#776;
+      go&#772;&#8242;ra); the Italians call it Montenegro. Both of these names
+      mean &ldquo;Dark Mountain.&rdquo;)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining control
+      of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About 1682, they were
+      pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic king of Poland, John
+      Sobieski (so&#772; bi&#774; e&#774;s&#8242;ki&#774;), came to the rescue
+      of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans and completely
+      defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any further advance of the
+      Turkish rule into Europe. (The <a href="#map05">map on page 82</a>
+      shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the conquered lands
+      were still living where they always had lived. The Turks were very few in
+      number compared with the millions of people who inhabited their empire and
+      paid them tribute. Many wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two
+      hundred and thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their
+      territory.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map05"></a>
+<img src="images/map05.jpg" width="700" height="465" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of their
+      kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania was free from
+      Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain Count of Hapsburg had
+      become Emperor of Germany, and when we say Germany, we include Austria,
+      which had become the home of the Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that
+      the Hapsburg family came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage
+      of one of their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that
+      country. (See <a href="#page69">page 69</a>.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory known as the
+      Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is now Roumania, were
+      reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint kingdom to which they were
+      attached. (Bukowina has never been a part of Hungary. It is still a crown
+      land, or county subject to the emperor of Austria personally.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to be
+      inhabited by a still different people. Not long after Ferdinand and
+      Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had conquered the Moorish kingdom
+      of Granada (see <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a>) that used to stretch across
+      the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards decided to drive out of their
+      country all &ldquo;unbelievers,&rdquo; that is, all who were not Christians of the
+      Catholic faith. (This happened in 1492, the same year that they sent
+      Columbus to America.) The Moors retreated into Africa, which was their
+      former home, but the millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to
+      return. In the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them
+      to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter his
+      land. They did so by hundreds of thousands.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout the
+      Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are so numerous
+      in Constantinople that four newspapers are published there in the Spanish
+      language, but printed in Hebrew characters. The city of Salonika, a
+      prosperous seaport of 140,000 people, which used to belong to Turkey but
+      now is part of Greece, has over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn
+      other tongues, and many of them can talk in four or five languages besides
+      their native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city, that is,
+      a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, Italians are
+      all found mingled together.
+    </p>
+
+  
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus21"></a>
+<img src="images/21.jpg" width="401" height="261" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Scene in Salonicka</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p id="page85">
+      The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the races and
+      nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost impossible to say
+      which land should belong to which nation. Take the case of Macedonia (the
+      district just northwest of the Aegean Sea). It is inhabited largely by
+      Bulgarians, and yet there are so many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the
+      former that at the close of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia
+      both claimed it as belonging to them because of the &ldquo;prevailing
+      nationality of its inhabitants!&rdquo; In other words, the Serbians claimed that
+      the inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were positive
+      that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is very resentful
+      today because the land was not given to her, on the ground that almost all
+      its inhabitants are Bulgarians!
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with making the
+      Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right in the center of
+      Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same language, dressing exactly alike,
+      doing business with each other on an equal footing, are to be found the
+      native Bulgarian and the descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one
+      goes to the Greek Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the
+      Mohammedan Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and
+      oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise each other
+      with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan states, with their
+      seething pot of racial and religious hatred, and turn to other causes of
+      European wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured Constantinople?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks threatening
+          Vienna?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different
+          nationalities.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap07"></a>Chapter VII.<br/>
+The Rise of Modern Nations</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      How the peasants looked upon war.&mdash;War the opportunity of the
+      fighting men.&mdash;The decreasing power of barons.&mdash;The growth of
+      royal power.&mdash;How four little kingdoms became Spain.&mdash;Other
+      kingdoms of Europe.&mdash;The rise of Russia.&mdash;The Holy Roman Empire.&mdash;The
+      electors.&mdash;The rise of Brandenburg.&mdash;The elector of Brandenburg
+      becomes King of Prussia.&mdash;Frederick the Great.&mdash;The seizure of
+      Silesia and the consequent wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal system,
+      the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men made up a class
+      of the population whose only trade was war, and how the poor peasants were
+      compelled to raise crops and live stock enough to feed both themselves and
+      the fighting men. These peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only
+      in their losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the
+      enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do unless war
+      was going on, and as those who were not killed returned from a war with
+      rich plunder in case they were victorious, they were always looking for a
+      chance to start trouble with some neighboring country.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long as the
+      nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war. As a result, one
+      county in a certain kingdom would often be at war with a neighboring
+      county. The fighting man either was killed in battle or he came out of it
+      with increased glory and plunder, but the peasants and the common people
+      had nothing to gain by war and everything to lose. As we have seen, force
+      ruled the world, and the common people had no voice in their government.
+      The workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting class,
+      who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered honest toil as
+      degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the only respectable trade in
+      Europe in those days was what we today would call highway robbery.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      France and England in the 15th Century
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to put down
+      the power of his nobles and make himself master over the whole nation. In
+      this way a strong central power grew up in France. After the death of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1477, no noble dared to question
+      the leadership of the king of France. The same thing was true in England
+      after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King
+      Richard III and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Spain and Other Kingdoms
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile, Aragon,
+      and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation marriage of
+      Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon joined the three
+      Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492, when the Moors were defeated
+      and Granada annexed to the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became
+      one kingdom. About this time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of
+      Hungary, a kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark.
+      Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom. In
+      Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong power which
+      was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the Great (1690-1725).
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Holy Roman Empire
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the Turkish
+      Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a rule which had
+      been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great Frankish monarch, who
+      had been crowned in Rome by the pope as ruler of the western world. (The
+      name &ldquo;Holy Roman Empire&rdquo; was not used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it
+      under Otto I, the Saxon emperor, who was crowned in 962.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map06"></a>
+<img src="images/map06.jpg" width="701" height="442" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Empire of Charlemagne</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany (except the
+      eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now Bohemia, Austria (but not
+      Hungary), and all of Italy except the part south of Naples. There were
+      times when part of France and all of the low countries (now Belgium and
+      Holland) also belonged to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won
+      their independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and formed a
+      little republic.) See <a href="#map07">map &ldquo;Europe in 1540.&rdquo;</a>
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map07"></a>
+<a href="images/map07.jpg">
+<img src="images/map07.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1540</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not necessarily
+      succeed his father as ruler. There were seven (afterwards nine) &ldquo;electors&rdquo;
+      who, at the death of the ruling monarch, met to elect his successor. Three
+      of these electors were archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the
+      others were counts of large counties in Germany like Hanover and
+      Brandenburg. It frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member
+      of the family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families
+      which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most famous of
+      these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from whom the present
+      emperor of Austria is descended.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus22"></a>
+<img src="images/22.jpg" width="340" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Louis XIV</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the kingdoms of
+      England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, Saxony, and Bavaria
+      all were subjects of the emperor, as were many powerful counts. These men
+      were jealous of the emperor&rsquo;s power, and he did not dare govern them as
+      strictly as the king of France ruled his nobles.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      France in the 18th Century
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus23"></a>
+<img src="images/23.jpg" width="300" height="391" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by the
+      ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to increase
+      their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful
+      kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great
+      part of what is Belgium and Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom
+      the part of Germany between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vo&#772;zh)
+      Mountains. Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman
+      Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle
+      of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough, aided by the
+      emperor&rsquo;s army, put an end to the further expansion of the French.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus24"></a>
+<img src="images/24.jpg" width="275" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Great Elector of Brandenburg</p>
+</div>
+
+    <h3>
+      Prussia
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will
+      recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count
+      was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this
+      county was Berlin. It so happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg,
+      of the family of Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The
+      little county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of
+      these counts, called &ldquo;the Great Elector,&rdquo; had added to Brandenburg the
+      greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have
+      the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man. He happened
+      to visit King William III of England, and was very much offended because
+      during the interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the
+      elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was
+      straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed
+      to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The
+      question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself &ldquo;King of
+      Brandenburg,&rdquo; for Brandenburg was part of the Empire, and the emperor
+      would not allow it. It had happened some one hundred years before, that,
+      through his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of
+      Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as East
+      Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea. Between
+      this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the district known as West
+      Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of Poland. However, Prussia lay
+      outside the boundaries of the Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say
+      about what went on there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the
+      kings and princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the
+      &ldquo;King of Prussia.&rdquo; It was a situation somewhat like the one we have
+      already referred to, when the kings of England were independent monarchs
+      and yet subjects of the kings of France because they were also dukes of
+      Normandy.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus25"></a>
+<img src="images/25.jpg" width="284" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Frederick The Great</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and
+      more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron,
+      and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall
+      soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over
+      six feet tall to serve in his famous regiment of Guards. He further
+      increased the size of the Prussian kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most remarkable
+      fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had been brought up
+      under strict discipline by his father. The old king had been insistent
+      that his son should be no weakling. It is told that one day, finding
+      Frederick playing upon a flute, he seized the instrument and snapped it in
+      twain over his son&rsquo;s shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh
+      training, became a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died
+      and left him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was
+      fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as has been
+      said, was made up of a great many little counties, each ruled by its petty
+      prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general way, to the ruler of
+      Austria, who still was supposed to be the head of the Holy Roman Empire.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map08"></a>
+<img src="images/map08.jpg" width="700" height="471" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many different
+      nationalities which had little sympathy with each other. The ruler of
+      Austria was also king of Bohemia and of Hungary, but neither country was
+      happy at being governed by a German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians,
+      Serbs, Slovenes, and Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the
+      Hungarians and then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished
+      their independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick
+      became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the House of
+      Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria Theresa, to rule
+      the big empire. Frederick decided that he could easily defeat the
+      disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced to the world that the rich
+      province of Silesia was henceforth to be his and that he proposed to take
+      it by force of arms. Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria,
+      but in the end, Frederick&rsquo;s well-trained troops, his store of money, and
+      above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians victorious, and
+      at the close of the fighting, almost all of Silesia remained a part of the
+      kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians, however, were not satisfied, and two
+      more wars were fought before they finally gave up trying to recover the
+      stolen state. Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his
+      victories.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss to a
+          nation in general?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was it that Spain became one nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did Peter the Great do for Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What effect had the training of his father upon the character of
+          Frederick the Great?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap08"></a>Chapter VIII.<br/>
+The Fall of the Two Kingdoms</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Poles, a divided nation.&mdash;The three partitions.&mdash;Wars and
+      revolts as a result.&mdash;The disappearance of Lithuania.&mdash;The
+      growing power of the king of France.&mdash;An extravagant and corrupt
+      court.&mdash;Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.&mdash;Bankruptcy at
+      last.&mdash;The meeting of the three estates.&mdash;The third estate
+      defies the king.&mdash;The fall of the Bastille.&mdash;The flight and
+      capture of the king.&mdash;The king beheaded.&mdash;Other kings alarmed.&mdash;Valmy
+      saves the revolution.&mdash;The reign of terror.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east of
+      Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in Europe with the
+      exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said before, were a Slavic
+      people, distant cousins of the Russians and Bohemians. They had a strong
+      nobility or upper class, but these nobles were jealous of each other, and
+      as a result, the country was torn apart by many warring factions. The
+      condition of the working class was very miserable. The nobles did not
+      allow them any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically
+      slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of the crops
+      that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles, no law could be
+      passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a result of this jealousy
+      between factions, the Poles could not be induced to obey any one leader,
+      and thus, divided, were easy to conquer.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated from his
+      land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia, which was part of
+      Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria Theresa of Austria, and to the
+      Empress Catharine II of Russia that they each take a slice of Poland. This
+      was accordingly done, in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist
+      the three great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had
+      been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by without a
+      protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia each again annexed a
+      large part of the remainder of Poland, and two years after this, the three
+      powers divided up among them all that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The
+      Poles fought violently against this last partition, but they were not
+      united and were greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This great crime against a nation was the result of the military system;
+      and this in turn was the result of the feudal system, which made the king,
+      as commander-in-chief of the army, the supreme ruler of his country. The
+      men in the Prussian and Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer
+      the poor Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage
+      from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply meant an
+      enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes to them, and more
+      men to draw on for their armies.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus26"></a>
+<img src="images/26.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Catharine II</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country, this
+      wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all the stronger.
+      There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by Polish uprisings, time
+      and time again, and the Poles will never be satisfied until their unhappy
+      country is once more united.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country had been
+      annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had married the
+      daughter of the king of Poland, followed his father-in-law on the Polish
+      throne. Lithuania fell to Russia&rsquo;s share in the division, so that its
+      people only changed masters. They are a distinct nation, however,
+      possessing a language and literature of their own, and having no desire to
+      be ruled by either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice,
+      they would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and Russia
+      proper.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Downfall of the French Monarchy
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus27"></a>
+<img src="images/27.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Courtier of time of Louis XIV</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There, for
+      hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing greater, until
+      by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the country who could
+      oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons where he sent those who
+      had offended him, shutting them up without a trial and not even letting
+      their families know where they had been taken. The peasants and working
+      classes had been ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier.
+      The king spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his
+      courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest capital
+      in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and the poor
+      peasants paid the bills.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus28"></a>
+<img src="images/28.jpg" width="400" height="317" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Taking of The Bastille</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a revolt,
+      but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead them. At last, came
+      a time when there was no money in the royal treasury. After all the waste
+      and corruption, nothing was left to pay the army and keep up the expenses
+      of the government. One minister of finance after another tried to devise
+      some scheme whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success.
+      The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred years were
+      at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king summoned a meeting
+      of representative men from all over the kingdom. There were three classes
+      represented, the nobles, the clergy, and what was called &ldquo;the third
+      estate,&rdquo; which meant merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A
+      great statesman appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the
+      third estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such that
+      the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst of these
+      exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison, the Bastille. They
+      took it by storm, and tore it to the ground. This happened on the
+      fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the French still celebrate as the
+      birthday of their nation&rsquo;s liberty. All over France the common people rose
+      in revolt. The soldiers in the army would no longer obey their officers.
+      The king was closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was
+      brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in terror, fled
+      from the country. Thus began what is known as the French Revolution.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus29"></a>
+<img src="images/29.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Palace of Versailles</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of France took
+      charge of their government, a panic arose throughout the courts of Europe.
+      Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the king of France, began to fear
+      for themselves. They, too, had taxed and oppressed their subjects. They
+      felt that this revolt of the French people must be put down, and the king
+      of France set back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt
+      might take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of
+      Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made war on
+      the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the French by force of
+      arms and compel them to put back their king upon his throne.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known what the
+      object of this war was, they would have had very little sympathy with it,
+      but for years they had been trained to obey their officers, who in turn
+      obeyed their generals, who in turn obeyed the orders of the kings. The
+      common soldiers were like sheep, in that they did not think for
+      themselves, but followed their leaders. They were not allowed to know the
+      truth concerning this attack on France. They did not know the French
+      language, and had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were
+      no public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how to read
+      the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled by the
+      governments, and were allowed to print only what favored the cause of the
+      kings.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French poet from
+      Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song which was first sung in
+      Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus has come to be called &ldquo;La
+      Marseillaise.&rdquo; It is the cry of a crushed and oppressed people against
+      foreign tyrants who would again enslave them. It fired the French army
+      with a wonderful enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back
+      the invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French
+      Republic.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus30"></a>
+<img src="images/30.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Reign of Terror</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The period known as &ldquo;the reign of terror&rdquo; now began in earnest. A faction
+      of the extreme republican party got control of the government, and kept it
+      by terrorizing the more peaceable citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles
+      had put upon the lower classes for so many hundred years were brutally
+      avenged. The king was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not
+      fled from the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the
+      principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the nation
+      came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly good government
+      was organized, and the executions ceased. Still the kings of Europe would
+      not recognize the new republic. There was war against France for the next
+      twenty years on the part of England, and generally two or three other
+      countries as well.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus31"></a>
+<img src="images/31.jpg" width="399" height="266" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent the
+          partition of Poland?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What things could the king of France do which would not be tolerated
+          in the United States today?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the king call together the three &ldquo;estates&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the cause of the reign of terror?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap09"></a>Chapter IX.<br/>
+The Little Man from the Common People</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The young Corsican.&mdash;The war in Italy.&mdash;Italy a battlefield for
+      centuries.&mdash;The victories of Bonaparte.&mdash;The first consul.&mdash;The
+      empire.&mdash;The French sweep over Europe.&mdash;Kings and emperors
+      beaten and deposed.&mdash;The fatal Russian campaign.&mdash;The first
+      abdication.&mdash;The return from Elba.&mdash;The battle of Waterloo.&mdash;The
+      feudal lords once more triumphant.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable characters in
+      all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little man from the island of
+      Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a French citizen, for the island had
+      been forcibly The annexed to France shortly before his birth. As a young
+      lieutenant in the army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later
+      on, being in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament,
+      he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this period. A
+      Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they had the castle of the
+      king. As a reward, he had been put in charge of the French army in Italy,
+      which was engaged in fighting the Austrians.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this point to
+      devote some attention to the past history of the Italian peninsula.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman Empire.
+      The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with Sicily, a small nation
+      called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The northern part had belonged to
+      the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in
+      turn. The Italian people wanted to become one nation, but they were
+      divided up among many little princes, each with his separate dominions.
+      The cities of Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was
+      strong on the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired
+      practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople, Egypt,
+      and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the control of northern
+      Italy except the lands around the city of Venice and the county of
+      Piedmont. The latter formed a separate kingdom with the island of
+      Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined with the southern end of the
+      peninsula.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns, Lombards,
+      Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought their battles for the
+      control of the civilized world. (See the following maps.) At one time, the
+      Austrian House of Hapsburg controlled the greater part of the peninsula.
+      This was especially true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy
+      Roman Empire. As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low Countries (what
+      is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of Spain, being the oldest
+      living grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. When he became ruler of the two
+      Sicilies, and defeated the French king for the control of northern Italy,
+      there were only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway:
+      Russia, Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map09"></a>
+<img src="images/map09.jpg" width="477" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 525 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map10"></a>
+<img src="images/map10.jpg" width="471" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 650 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map11"></a>
+<img src="images/map11.jpg" width="472" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 1175 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus32"></a>
+<img src="images/32.jpg" width="338" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Charles the Fifth</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading Italy,
+      and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had overrun and
+      controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of the war was still the
+      deposing of the French monarch. The Austrian armies were fighting to force
+      the people of France to take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies
+      of France, on the other hand, represented the rights of the people to
+      choose their own form of government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the Revolution, were
+      eager to spread the republican form of government all over Europe. There
+      was a real possibility that they might do so, and the kings were fighting
+      in defense of their thrones. (The <a href="#map12">map</a> shows the
+      conquests of the new republic up to this time.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map12"></a>
+<a href="images/map12.jpg">
+<img src="images/map12.jpg" width="700" height="480" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1796</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of age, went
+      down into Italy to take command of the French army. The generals, many of
+      them as old as his father, began offering him advice, but he impatiently
+      waved them aside and announced that he was going to wage war on a plan
+      hitherto unheard of. He made good his boast, and after a short campaign in
+      which he inspired his ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting,
+      he had driven the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic
+      of Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a
+      brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte returned
+      to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had little difficulty
+      in overthrowing the five Directors of the French government and having
+      himself elected &ldquo;First Consul&rdquo; or president of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but
+      Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time compelled
+      his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the French people elect
+      him &ldquo;emperor of the French&rdquo; for life, and by an overwhelming vote they did
+      so. The empire was very different from the other empires and kingships of
+      Europe, since it was created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs
+      held their thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the
+      plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By this time,
+      the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to the swords of their
+      fighting men, and there had grown up a doctrine called &ldquo;The Divine Right
+      of Kings.&rdquo; In other words, the kings claimed that God in his wisdom had
+      seen fit to make them rulers over these lands, and that they were
+      responsible to God alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that
+      any one who attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the
+      will of Heaven.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from the
+      tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in the wonderful
+      victories gained by their armies under the brilliant leadership of
+      Napoleon. (He dropped his last name, Bonaparte, when he was elected
+      emperor.) They swept over the greater part of Europe and helped to spread
+      the idea that the people had rights that all kings were bound to respect,
+      and that it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber
+      chiefs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the Austrians and
+      Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two fierce battles, he crushed
+      the wonderful Prussian army, which had been trained in the military school
+      of Frederick the Great. He drove out the king of Spain, the king of the
+      Two Sicilies, the kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made
+      one of his brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king
+      of Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law on the
+      throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of Rome. He took away
+      from Prussia all of her territory except Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania.
+      and East and West Prussia. He reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings
+      called it the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all
+      claim to northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now
+      Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See <a
+      href="#map13">map entitled &ldquo;Europe in 1810.&rdquo;</a>)
+    </p>
+    
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map13"></a>
+<a href="images/map13.jpg">
+<img src="images/map13.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1810</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to
+      understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old feudal kings
+      and princes driven from their thrones and their places taken by men sprung
+      from the common people. The father of the Bonapartes had been a poor
+      lawyer. Murat, Napoleon&rsquo;s brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son
+      of an innkeeper. Bernadotte, one of Napoleon&rsquo;s generals, whom the Swedes
+      chose as their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In
+      nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing the rulers
+      there sprang up a new hope.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus33"></a>
+<img src="images/33.jpg" width="254" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a million
+      men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters in Moscow. The
+      Russian people, however, set fire themselves to their beautiful city, and
+      the French had to retreat a thousand miles through snow and ice, while
+      bands of Russian Cossacks swooped down on them from the rear and took a
+      hundred thousand prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the
+      French, the allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to
+      drive the little Corsican from the throne of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack of
+      soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the enthusiasm which he
+      never failed to arouse in his troops. In 1814, however, surrounded by the
+      troops of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England, he had to confess himself
+      beaten. Even Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops
+      against him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the brother
+      of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years before, and set
+      him on the throne of France. Napoleon was banished to the little island of
+      Elba to the west of Italy, and the monarchs flattered themselves that
+      their troubles were ended.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus34"></a>
+<img src="images/34.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Retreat from Moscow</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped from his
+      island prison and landed on the southern coast of France. The king ordered
+      his soldiers to capture their former emperor. But the magic of his
+      presence was too much for them, and the men who had been sent to put him
+      into chains shed tears of joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at
+      his feet. One week later, the king of France had fled a second time from
+      his country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the head of
+      the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four large
+      armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not wait for them to
+      come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly north into the low
+      countries, where he met and defeated an army of Prussians. Another army of
+      English was advancing from Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French
+      were defeated in one of the great battles of the world&rsquo;s history. The
+      defeated Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to
+      the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon had sent
+      to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the emperor from being
+      crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give up his crown, and a second
+      time King Louis XVIII was brought back into Paris and put upon the French
+      throne by the bayonets of foreign troops. The people had been crushed,
+      apparently, and the old feudal lords were once more in control.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus35"></a>
+<img src="images/35.jpg" width="400" height="305" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Napoleon at Waterloo</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Had Italy ever been a nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See <a href="#map09">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See <a href="#map10">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire? (See <a
+          href="#map11">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul and
+          afterward Emperor?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Napoleon&rsquo;s great mistake?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap10"></a>Chapter X.<br/>
+A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      A meeting of kings and diplomats.&mdash;Austrians and English vs.
+      Prussians and Russians.&mdash;Talleyrand the subtle.&mdash;Carving a new
+      map.&mdash;The people are ignored.&mdash;Sowing the seeds of trouble.&mdash;Unhappy
+      Poland.&mdash;Divided Italy.&mdash;Revolts of the people.&mdash;The
+      outbreaks of 1848.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and
+      diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of Europe. In
+      past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion and jealousy among
+      these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by without finding two of them
+      flying at each other&rsquo;s throats in some unjust war or other. Only their
+      great fear of uprisings similar to the French Revolution had driven them
+      to act together in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by
+      the people, which had followed it. This famous &ldquo;Congress of Vienna,&rdquo; which
+      took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which European lands have
+      been cut up and parceled out to various monarchs without any regard for
+      the wishes of the people.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus36"></a>
+<img src="images/36.jpg" width="400" height="271" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Congress of Vienna</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies had had in
+      crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide the map of Europe
+      as suited them, and it was only by a great deal of diplomacy that they
+      were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is frequently a polite name for some
+      very cunning deception, involving lying and cheating, in which kings and
+      their ministers take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the
+      Russian-Prussian combination, and they induced England to side with them.
+      England did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The English
+      minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the Austrians, Prussians,
+      and Russians, to allow the French diplomat, Talleyrand, to take part in
+      their final meetings. Now Talleyrand was probably the most slippery and
+      tricky diplomat of all Europe. He had grown to power during the troublous
+      days of the latter part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which
+      party would remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the
+      strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served Napoleon during
+      the first years of the empire, he was shrewd enough to remain true to King
+      Louis XVIII during the latter&rsquo;s second exile. The Prussian-Russian
+      combination was finally obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of
+      Austria, England, and France. Compare this map with the one given in the
+      preceding chapter, and you will see most of the important changes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by
+      Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a great
+      deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part of the kingdom
+      of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It is needless to say that
+      its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy over this arrangement. Austria kept
+      part of her Polish territory, and gave the rest of it to Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called Belgium, had
+      belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of Austria. As was
+      previously said, it was conquered by the French and remained part of
+      France until the fall of Napoleon. It was now joined with Holland to make
+      the kingdom of the Netherlands. Its people were Walloons and Flemish,
+      almost entirely Catholic in their religion, and they very much disliked to
+      be joined with the Protestant Dutch of Holland.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map14"></a>
+<a href="images/map14.jpg">
+<img src="images/map14.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1815</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend itself
+      against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had been fought
+      over by these two powers for more than a century. It was finally
+      transferred to Russia, and in order to appease Sweden, Norway, which had
+      been ruled by the Danes, was torn away from Denmark and made part of the
+      kingdom of Sweden. The Norwegians desired to remain an independent
+      country, and they loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes.
+      Therefore, this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of
+      the kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and in
+      addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and Austria. In order
+      to pay back Austria for the loss of part of Poland, she was given all of
+      northern Italy except the counties of Piedmont and Savoy near France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia) were
+      formed into a loose alliance called the German Confederation. England&rsquo;s
+      share of the plunder consisted largely of distant colonies, such as South
+      Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc. France shrank back to the boundaries which
+      she had had at the beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of
+      the Two Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon family)
+      who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon their thrones.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten different parts,
+      although its people desired to be one nation. It left Austria a government
+      over twelve different nationalities, each one of which was dissatisfied.
+      It joined Belgium to Holland in a combination displeasing to both. It gave
+      Norway and Finland as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It
+      left the Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all
+      subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once vacant, kings
+      who were hated by their subjects. It divided the Poles up among four
+      different governments&mdash;for, strange as it may seem, the powers could
+      not decide who should own the city of Cracow and the territory around it,
+      and they ended by making this district a little republic, under the joint
+      protection of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in
+      their lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who
+      were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the foundation for
+      future revolutions and wars without number.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but after
+      two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland, which, as one
+      of the states of the Russian Empire, was still called a kingdom, was
+      deprived of all its rights, and its people were forced to give up the use
+      of their language in their schools, their courts, and even their churches.
+      In the same fashion, the Poles in Prussia were &ldquo;not even allowed to think
+      in Polish,&rdquo; as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the first
+      half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and struggles among these
+      people. As a result of one of them, in 1846, the little Republic of Cracow
+      was abolished, and its territory forcibly annexed to Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their object the
+      uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from foreign rulers. All
+      through Germany there were mutterings of discontent. The people wanted
+      more freedom from their lords. Greece broke out into insurrection against
+      the Turks, and fifteen years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to
+      independence. Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands
+      broke itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world that
+      it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of Belgium. About
+      the same time, the people of France rose up against the Bourbon kings, and
+      threw them out &ldquo;for good.&rdquo; A distant cousin of the king was elected, not
+      &ldquo;king of France&rdquo; but &ldquo;citizen king of the French,&rdquo; and the people were
+      allowed to elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at
+      Paris. In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time, Spain
+      was a republic, but the people were not well enough educated to govern
+      themselves, and the kingdom was restored.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus37"></a>
+<img src="images/37.jpg" width="200" height="205" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Prince Metternich</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory in 1815
+      than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood for the &ldquo;divine
+      right of kings,&rdquo; and did not believe in allowing the common people any
+      liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising occurred in Austria, and crowds
+      in Vienna, crying, &ldquo;down with Metternich,&rdquo; forced the aged diplomat to
+      flee. During the same year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people
+      everywhere were revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and
+      princes, and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France,
+      also, grew tired of her &ldquo;citizen king,&rdquo; and that country a second time
+      became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of electing as
+      their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Napoleon,
+      and in time he did exactly what his uncle had done,&mdash;persuaded the
+      French people to elect him emperor.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What were the motives of each of the nations represented at the
+          Congress of Vienna?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the meeting at
+          first?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the English and Austrians assist each other?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See <a href="#chap09">last chapter</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their thrones?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the Congress?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did the Belgians do about it?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap11"></a>Chapter XI.<br/>
+Italy a Nation at Last</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Crimean War curbs Russia.&mdash;Cavour plans a United Italy.&mdash;War
+      against Austria.&mdash;Garibaldi, the patriot.&mdash;The Kingdom of
+      Sardinia becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.&mdash;Venice and Rome
+      are added.&mdash;Some Italians still outside the kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named Mazzini and
+      Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the Italian princes who
+      were subject to them were constantly crushing some attempted revolution.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great powers
+      were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia attacked Turkey in
+      1853, but France and England were afraid that if Russia conquered the
+      Turks and took Constantinople, she would become too powerful for them.
+      Therefore, both countries rushed troops to aid Turkey, and in the end,
+      Russia was defeated, although thousands of soldiers were killed on both
+      sides before the struggle was over.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in western
+      Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a little kingdom
+      known as the &ldquo;Kingdom of Sardinia.&rdquo; This country had for its prime
+      minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who, like all Italians, strongly
+      hoped for the day when all the people living on the Italian peninsula
+      should be one nation. At the time of the Crimean War (as the war between
+      Russia on the one side and Turkey, France, and England on the other was
+      called) he caused his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a
+      tiny army to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later,
+      he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what President
+      Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been elected emperor.) The
+      French agreed to make war with his country against the Austrians. If they
+      won, the Sardinians were to receive all north Italy, and in return for
+      France&rsquo;s help were to give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of
+      Nice.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not hard to
+      find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on Sardinia, and, as had
+      been arranged, France rushed to the aid of the Italians. Austria was
+      speedily beaten, but no sooner was the war finished than the French
+      emperor repented of his bargain. He was afraid that it would make trouble
+      for him with his Catholic subjects if the Italians were allowed to take
+      all the northern half of the peninsula, including the pope&rsquo;s lands, into
+      their kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in
+      return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the Austrians
+      kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled, however, is hard to put
+      out. No sooner did the people of the other states of northern Italy see
+      the success of Sardinia, than, one after another, they revolted against
+      their Austrian princes and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this
+      way, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the &ldquo;States of the Church&rdquo; were
+      added. All of this happened in the year 1859.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These &ldquo;States of the Church&rdquo; came to be formed in the following way: The
+      father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who had been crowned
+      western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had rescued northern Italy
+      from the rule of the Lombards. He had made the pope lord of a stretch of
+      territory extending across Italy from the Adriatic Sea to the
+      Mediterranean. The inhabitants of this country had no ruler but the pope.
+      They paid their taxes to him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord.
+      It was part of this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of
+      Italy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who with
+      Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They finally
+      pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He came to America and
+      set up a fruit store in New York City, where there were quite a number of
+      his countrymen. By 1854, he had made a great deal of money in the fruit
+      business, but had not forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be
+      rich only in order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold
+      out his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for Italy.
+      When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought throughout the
+      campaign.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not satisfied
+      with a country only half free. In the region around Genoa, he enrolled a
+      thousand men to go on what looked like a desperate enterprise. Garibaldi
+      had talked with Cavour, and between them, they had schemed to overthrow
+      the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern
+      country. Of course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi,
+      for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of the king
+      of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi all the help that he
+      dared, and urged men to enroll with him.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus38"></a>
+<img src="images/38.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      With his thousand &ldquo;red-shirts,&rdquo; as they were called, Garibaldi landed on
+      the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose to welcome him, and
+      everywhere they drove out the officers who had been appointed by their
+      king to rule them. In a short time, all Sicily had risen in rebellion
+      against the king. (You will remember that this family of kings had been
+      driven out by Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
+      They were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain and
+      the last kings of France. They stood for &ldquo;the divine right of kings,&rdquo; and
+      had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing over to the mainland,
+      Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen to ten times its former size,
+      swept everything before him as he marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the
+      people rose against their former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The
+      king fled in haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over
+      the southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people wanted
+      to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom of Italy. It was
+      so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, thus
+      became the first king of United Italy. He made Florence his capital at
+      first, as the country around Rome still belonged to the pope. The pope had
+      few soldiers, but was protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten
+      years later, in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the
+      French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly in and
+      took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the capital, not only
+      of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world, became once more the chief
+      city of the peninsula. The pope was granted a liberal pension by the
+      Italian government in order to make up to him for the loss of the money
+      from his former lands. The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had
+      finally come to pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular
+      Victor Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to
+      elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the worst
+      blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by the patriotism of
+      the people of Italy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who are not
+      part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the extreme northeast of
+      Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as the result of a war which will
+      be told about more fully in the <a href="#chap12">next chapter</a>, but the
+      territory around the city of Trent, called by the Italians Trentino, and
+      the county of Istria at the head of the Adriatic Sea, containing the
+      important seaports of Trieste, Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost
+      entirely by people of Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of
+      Dalmatia also are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule
+      of Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and was the
+      chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria in the great war
+      of 1914.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map15"></a>
+<a href="images/map15.jpg">
+<img src="images/map15.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Italy Made One Nation, 1914</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the origin of the &ldquo;States of the Church.&rdquo;
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap12"></a>Chapter XII.<br/>
+The Man of Blood and Iron</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The people demand their rights&mdash;Bismarck, the chief prop of the
+      Prussian monarchy&mdash;The question of the leadership of the German
+      states&mdash;The wonderful Prussian army&mdash;The war on Denmark&mdash;Preparing
+      to crush Austria&mdash;The battle of Sadowa&mdash;Easy terms to the
+      defeated nation&mdash;Preparing to defeat France&mdash;A good example of a
+      war caused by diplomats&mdash;Prussia&rsquo;s easy victory&mdash;The new German
+      empire&mdash;Harsh terms of peace&mdash;The triumph of feudal government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in contests with
+      their own people. The overthrow of the French king at the time of the
+      revolution taught the people of the other countries of Europe that they
+      too could obtain their liberties. You have already been told how the
+      people of Austria drove out Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the
+      party which refused any rights to the working classes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of France, had
+      witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had found many German princes
+      in trouble with their subjects, who were demanding a share in the
+      government, the right of free speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury.
+      The empires of Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia
+      in a combination which was known as the &ldquo;Holy Alliance.&rdquo; This was meant to
+      stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb the growing power
+      of the common people.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus39"></a>
+<img src="images/39.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Bismarck</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a remarkable man,
+      who for the next forty years was perhaps the most prominent statesman in
+      Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen,
+      but we generally know him under the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian
+      nobleman, a believer in the divine right of kings, the man who more than
+      anybody else is responsible for the establishing of the present empire of
+      Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in which he
+      said that &ldquo;blood and iron,&rdquo; not speeches and treaties, would unite Germany
+      into a nation. His one object was a united Germany, which should be the
+      strongest nation in Europe. He wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia,
+      Prussia to be ruled by its king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled
+      by Bismarck. It is marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through
+      his whole plan.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the powers of
+      Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia, England, or France. The
+      German states, some 35 in number, had united in a loose alliance called
+      the German Confederation. (This union was somewhat similar to the United
+      States of America between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these
+      states, and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group.
+      Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and much
+      smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtemburg.
+      Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a wonderfully strong
+      army. He did this by means of a military system which at first made him
+      very unpopular with the people. Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was
+      obliged to serve a certain number of years in the army and be ready at a
+      moment&rsquo;s notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern weapon,
+      Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose. There were two
+      counties named Schleswig (shle&#774;s&#8242;vig) and Holstein (ho&#772;l&#8242;sti&#772;n)
+      which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet contained a great many
+      German people. The inhabitants of Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while
+      those of Holstein were more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had
+      protested against certain actions of the Danish government, and were
+      threatening to revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and
+      Austria, as the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on
+      little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed by the
+      armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn away from
+      Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria and Prussia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there was bound
+      to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now Bismarck had a
+      chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up his mind to crush Austria
+      and put Prussia in her place as the leader of the German states. He first
+      negotiated with Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that
+      this monarch would not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of
+      Venetia, Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians
+      had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck induced
+      Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia and the other
+      provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover were
+      friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear them. He knew that his
+      army, under the leadership of its celebrated general, von Moltke, was more
+      than a match for the Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians were
+      successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in Bohemia, their
+      armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the Prussians. Austria was
+      put down from her place as the leader of the German Confederation, and
+      Prussia took the leadership. Hanover, whose king had sided with the
+      Austrians, was annexed to Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his
+      generals were anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been
+      the custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war.
+      Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making Prussia the
+      leading military state in Europe, he saw that his next opponent would be
+      France, and he did not propose, on attacking France, to find his army
+      assailed in the rear by the revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck
+      compelled the king to let Austria off without any loss of territory except
+      Venetia, which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to
+      retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large indemnity
+      to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the middle ages, when
+      cities which were captured had been obliged to pay great sums of money, in
+      order to get rid of the conquering armies, was the payment of a war
+      indemnity by the defeated nation. This was a sum of money as large as the
+      conquerors thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The
+      Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which Bismarck had
+      provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact that he was generous
+      in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he could have done had he wanted
+      to.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle between
+      Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible for two men like
+      Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in power very long without
+      coming to blows. It was Bismarck&rsquo;s ambition, as was previously said, to
+      make Prussia the leading military nation of Europe, and he knew that this
+      meant a struggle with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a
+      united Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would
+      bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was extremely
+      jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had won over Austria.
+      He had been proud of the French army, and wanted it to remain the greatest
+      fighting force in Europe. He was just as anxious for an excuse to attack
+      Prussia as Bismarck was for a pretext to attack him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no ill-feeling
+      between the French people and the Germans. In fact, the Germans of the
+      Rhine country were very friendly to France, and during Napoleon&rsquo;s time had
+      been given more liberties and had been governed better than under the rule
+      of their former feudal lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between
+      the military chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no
+      feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their military
+      power should be crushed and his program must be carried through. Europe,
+      to his mind, was too small to contain more than one master military power.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to gain friends
+      for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to make enemies for
+      France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg),
+      which had sided with Austria during the late war, were friendly to France
+      and hostile to Prussia. Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing
+      to Bismarck that France should be given a slice of this south German
+      territory in return for some other land which France was to allow Prussia
+      to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal, but was careful to
+      keep the original copy, in the French ambassador&rsquo;s own handwriting. (Each
+      nation sends a man to represent her at the capital of each other nation.
+      These men are called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements
+      for their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little south
+      German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon and to make
+      secret treaties with these states by which they bound themselves to fight
+      on the side of Prussia in case a war broke out with France. In similar
+      fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians angry against the French by letting it
+      be known that Napoleon was trying to annex their country also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (ro&#772;n),
+      Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in Prussia had
+      been trained a certain number of years in the army and was ready at a
+      moment&rsquo;s notice to join his regiment. The whole campaign against France
+      had been planned months in advance. In France on the other hand, the
+      illness and irritability of Napoleon III had resulted in poor
+      organization. Men who did not wish to serve their time in the army were
+      allowed to pay money to the government instead. Yet their names were
+      carried on the rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the
+      strength in actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain
+      government officials had taken advantage of the emperor&rsquo;s weakness and
+      lack of system and had put into their own pockets money that should have
+      been spent in buying guns and ammunition.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard to find
+      an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven from her throne,
+      and the Spanish army under General Prim offered the crown to Prince
+      Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king of Prussia. This alarmed
+      Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia attacked him on the east, this
+      Prussian prince, as king of Spain, would lead the Spanish army over the
+      Pyrenees against him on the south. France made so vigorous a protest that
+      the prince asked the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was
+      not enough for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The
+      incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent his
+      ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter to assure
+      France that never again should Prince Leopold be considered for the
+      position of king of Spain. The king answered that he could not guarantee
+      this, for he was merely the head of the Hohenzollern family. Prince
+      Leopold, whose lands lay outside of Prussia, was not even one of his
+      subjects. The interview between the king and the French ambassador had
+      been a friendly one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king,
+      and the king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on
+      good terms.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus40"></a>
+<img src="images/40.jpg" width="400" height="248" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war would
+      come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von Moltke and
+      Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the king, telling of his
+      interview with the French ambassador. In the story of his life written by
+      himself, Bismarck tells how, as he read the telegram both Roon and Moltke
+      groaned in disappointment. He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older
+      in a minute. Both had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took
+      the dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message
+      polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had been a
+      friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two hundred words to
+      one of twenty. When he had finished, the message sounded as if the French
+      ambassador had bullied and threatened the king of Prussia, while the
+      latter had snubbed and insulted the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered
+      telegram to Roon and Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt
+      better. &ldquo;How is that?&rdquo; he asked. &ldquo;That will do it,&rdquo; they answered. &ldquo;War is
+      assured.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four hours,
+      the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. Napoleon III
+      hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals and his wife who urged
+      him to &ldquo;avenge the insult to the French nation.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus41"></a>
+<img src="images/41.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 just
+      to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck did was no worse
+      than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have done, or the Austrian,
+      Metternich, or several of the Turkish or Russian diplomats. It simply
+      proves how helpless the people of European countries are, when the
+      military class which rules them has decided, for its own power and glory,
+      on war with some other nation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The war was short. The forces of France were miserably unprepared. The
+      first great defeat of the French army resulted in the capture of the
+      emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing of the government in Paris,
+      where a third republic was started. One of the French generals turned
+      traitor, thinking that if he surrendered his army and cut short the war
+      the Prussians would force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor.
+      Paris was besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even
+      on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at last they
+      were starved out, and peace was made.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map16"></a>
+<img src="images/map16.jpg" width="699" height="471" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Formation of the German Empire</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, another of Bismarck&rsquo;s plans had been successful. In
+      January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he induced the
+      kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt,
+      and all the other little German states to join Prussia in forming a new
+      empire of Germany. The king of Prussia was to be &ldquo;German Emperor,&rdquo; and the
+      people of Germany were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or
+      Imperial Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom
+      of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was signed by the
+      republic of France and the empire of Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was condemned to pay
+      an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one billion dollars) and
+      certain parts of France were to be occupied by the German troops until
+      this money was fully paid. Two counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine,
+      were to be annexed to Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of
+      German descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the
+      whole province had belonged to France so long that its people felt
+      themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few Germans, and
+      was taken, contrary to Bismarck&rsquo;s best judgment, because it contained the
+      important city of Metz, which was strongly fortified. Here the military
+      chiefs overruled Bismarck. The desire among the French for revenge on
+      Germany for taking this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck
+      was right. It was a blunder of the worst kind.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The policy of &ldquo;blood and iron&rdquo; had been successful. From a second rate
+      power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck&rsquo;s leadership, to become the
+      strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been torn from Danish,
+      Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had been forcibly annexed, and
+      Alsace and Lorraine wrested from France. The greater part of the
+      inhabitants of these countries were bitterly unhappy at being placed under
+      the Prussian military rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great
+      deal of this growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the
+      common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech, free
+      newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to a congress or
+      parliament, and while some of these rights had been granted, still the
+      whole country was under the control of the war department. The emperor, as
+      commander-in-chief of the army, could suppress any newspaper and dismiss
+      the congress whenever he might think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it
+      has been called, a big debating society, whose members had the right to
+      talk, but were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the
+      wishes of the military leaders.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the object of the &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Bismarck&rsquo;s purpose in building up a strong army?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Bismarck defeat Austria?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is a war indemnity?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to Prince
+          Leopold of Hohenzollern?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was Prussia&rsquo;s victory a good thing for her people?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap13"></a>Chapter XIII.<br/>
+The Balance of Power</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The recovery of France.&mdash;The jealousy of the powers.&mdash;The policy
+      of uniting against the strongest.&mdash;The dream of Russia.&mdash;A war
+      of liberation.&mdash;The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.&mdash;The
+      Congress of Berlin.&mdash;Bismarck&rsquo;s Triple Alliance.&mdash;France and
+      Russia are driven together.&mdash;The race for war preparation.&mdash;The
+      growth of big navies.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Under the third republic,<a href="#fn-3" name="fnref-3" id="fnref-3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
+France recovered very rapidly from the terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her
+people worked hard and saved their money. In less than two years, they had paid
+off the last cent of the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops
+were obliged to go home. France had adopted the same military system that
+Germany had, and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army
+and be ready at a moment&rsquo;s notice to rush to arms. She began also to
+build up a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of
+the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed Bismarck, who
+thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would she become a strong
+power. He had tried to renew the old &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo; between
+Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of preventing the spread of
+republics. These were the three nations which gave their people very few
+rights, and which stood for the &ldquo;divine right of kings&rdquo; and for the
+crushing of all republics. Bismarck called this new combination the
+&ldquo;Drei-kaiser-bund&rdquo; or three-emperor-bond. He himself says that the
+proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the lies and treachery of Prince
+Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-3" id="fn-3"></a> <a href="#fnref-3">[3]</a>
+The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was beheaded, the second
+in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the &ldquo;citizen king,&rdquo; was driven out.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany from Russia.
+      As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and alarmed when he saw
+      how quickly France was getting over the effects of the war. In 1875, some
+      trouble came up again between France and Germany, and Bismarck a second
+      time planned to make war on the republic and&mdash;complete the task that
+      he had left unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of
+      a second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time, however,
+      England and Russia growled ominously. They notified Bismarck that they
+      would not stand by and see France crushed&mdash;not from any love of
+      France, but because they were jealous of Prussia and afraid that the
+      Germans might become too powerful in Europe. Accordingly, Bismarck had to
+      give up his idea of war. Prussia was strong, but she could not fight
+      England, Russia, and France combined. However, he remembered that England
+      and Russia had spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus42"></a>
+<img src="images/42.jpg" width="182" height="200" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Peter the Great</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what they
+      called &ldquo;the balance of power.&rdquo; By this they meant that no one country was
+      to be allowed to grow so strong that she could defy the rest of Europe.
+      Whenever one nation grew too powerful, the others combined to pull her
+      down.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan nations, which
+      were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had broken out among the
+      Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and Bulgaria. As has already been told,
+      these nations are Slavic, cousins of the Russians, and they have always
+      looked upon Russia as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared,
+      intelligent Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so
+      much like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word &ldquo;grad&rdquo; means
+      &ldquo;city&rdquo; in both languages.)
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were oppressing the
+little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for wanting to see Turkey
+overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had had her eye
+upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered the district east of the Gulf of
+Finland, and had founded St. Petersburg<a href="#fn-4" name="fnref-4" id="fnref-4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>
+there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice. In the same way, other
+czars who followed him had fought their way southward to the Black Sea, seeking
+for a chance to trade with the Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like
+a bottle, and the Turks at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade
+at any time they might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and
+must ship her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange
+it for their manufactures.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-4" id="fn-4"></a> <a href="#fnref-4">[4]</a>
+Now called Petrograd.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus43"></a>
+<img src="images/43.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one day Russia
+      might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient days, was the home
+      of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital of the western Catholic
+      church. The Russians are all Greek Catholics, and every Russian looks
+      forward to the day when the great church of St. Sophia, which is now a
+      Mohammedan mosque, shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With
+      this plan in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up
+      trouble for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as
+      Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at the two
+      following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey had been reduced
+      in size during the two hundred years which followed the Turkish defeat at
+      the gates of Vienna by John Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of
+      Bessarabia had changed hands two or three times, remaining finally in the
+      hands of Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed with joy
+      among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg lost no time in
+      rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and declaring war on Turkey. After
+      a short but stubbornly contested conflict, Russia and the little countries
+      were victors. A treaty of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which
+      Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as
+      independent states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean
+      Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from her county
+      of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it will help you to
+      understand Russia&rsquo;s later feeling when Bulgaria in 1915 joined the ranks
+      of her enemies.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map17"></a>
+<img src="images/map17.jpg" width="700" height="464" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map18"></a>
+<img src="images/map18.jpg" width="700" height="467" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus44"></a>
+<img src="images/44.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated).
+Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms, when once
+      more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will be remembered that
+      Russia three years before had prevented a second war against France
+      planned by Bismarck. It was very easy for him to persuade Austria and
+      England that if Russia were allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new
+      kingdoms which would be under her control, she would speedily become the
+      strongest nation in Europe. The &ldquo;balance of power&rdquo; would be disturbed.
+      England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting of statesmen and
+      diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide once more what should be
+      the map of Europe. Representatives were present from all the leading
+      European countries. Even Turkey had two men at the meeting, but the three
+      men who really controlled were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and
+      Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a
+      great part of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under
+      the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum of money
+      each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her territory was made
+      much smaller than had been agreed to by the treaty of San Stephano. In
+      fact less than one-third of the Bulgarians were living within the
+      boundaries finally agreed upon by the congress. A great part of the
+      Serbians were still left under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of
+      Thessaly and Epirus. The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still
+      to belong to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to
+      keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run their
+      government, although their taxes were still to be paid to Turkey. Austria
+      solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey. Russia, naturally, was
+      very unhappy over this arrangement, and so were the inhabitants of the
+      Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped that now they were at last to be freed
+      from the oppression of their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress
+      of Berlin, like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars
+      and revolutions.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances with other
+      European states. He first made up with his old enemy, Austria. Thanks to
+      the liberal treatment that he had given this country after her disastrous
+      war of 1866, he was able to get the Austrians to join Germany in an
+      alliance which states that if two countries of Europe should ever attack
+      one of the two allies, the other would rush to her help.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that they had
+      gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the Prussians, but they
+      had always looked upon the Austrians as their worst enemies. It was a
+      wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck finally induced Italy to join with
+      Austria and Germany in a &ldquo;Dreibund&rdquo; or &ldquo;Triple Alliance.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this going
+      over to their enemies would never have been possible but for an act of
+      France which greatly angered Italy. For many years, France had been in
+      control of Algeria on the north coast of Africa. This country had once
+      been a nest of pirates, and the French had gone there originally to clean
+      them out. Next to Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as
+      you will see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians
+      had been looking longingly at this district for some time, intending to
+      organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to their kingdom. They waited
+      too long, however, and one fine day in 1881 they found the prize gone,&mdash;France
+      had seized this county for herself. It was Italy&rsquo;s anger over this act of
+      France more than anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an
+      alliance with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of enemies. It
+      looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the republic at any time,
+      and be perfectly safe from interference, with Austria and Italy to protect
+      him. Russia, smarting under the treatment which she had been given by the
+      Congress of Berlin, was full of resentment against Germany. Both the
+      French and the Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck&rsquo;s Dreibund,
+      and so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other. The
+      result was the &ldquo;Dual Alliance&rdquo; between France and Russia, which bound
+      either country to come to the aid of the other in case of an attack by two
+      powers at once.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck&rsquo;s &ldquo;Dreibund,&rdquo; was
+      again restored. Many people thought the forming of the two alliances a
+      fine thing, &ldquo;for,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;each party is now too strong to be attacked
+      by the other. Therefore, we shall never again have war among the great
+      powers.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her position
+      on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did not feel obliged to
+      keep a large standing army such as the great powers on the continent
+      maintained.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as France
+      equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria had to do the
+      same. As soon as the Germans invented a new magazine rifle, the Russians
+      and French had to invent similar arms for their soldiers. If Germany
+      passed a law compelling all men up to the age of forty-five to report for
+      two weeks&rsquo; military training once every year, France and Russia had to do
+      the same. If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to
+      build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships built by
+      Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one hundred torpedo boats,
+      the Triple Alliance had to &ldquo;go her one better&rdquo; by building one hundred and
+      fifty. If Germany equipped her army with war balloons, Russia and France
+      had to do the same. If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery,
+      Germany and Austria built a still bigger gun.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only with the
+five nations in the two alliances about which you have been told. However, the
+death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought to the throne his grandson,
+the present Kaiser,<a href="#fn-5" name="fnref-5" id="fnref-5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
+and he formed a plan for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as
+Bismarck had made her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant
+colonies and dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that
+Germany, too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from
+which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to protect
+these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as Germany built some
+new battleships, England built still others, larger and with heavier guns. The
+next year, Germany would build still larger ships, and the next England would
+come back with still heavier guns. As fast as England built ships, Germany
+built them. Now, each battleship costs from five to fifteen million dollars,
+and it does not take long before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high
+for people to stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of
+discontent were heard among the working classes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-5" id="fn-5"></a> <a href="#fnref-5">[5]</a>
+The present Kaiser&rsquo;s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he was a
+very sick man at the time of the old emperor&rsquo;s death.
+</p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bismarck&rsquo;s three-emperor-alliance fail?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by &ldquo;the balance of power&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before 1878?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia covet Constantinople?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from being
+          carried out?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy, Austria?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance on France
+          and Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What result had the formation of the two alliances on the
+          gun-industry?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was England brought into the race for war equipment?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap14"></a>Chapter XIV.<br/>
+The &ldquo;Entente Cordiale&rdquo;</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Ancient enemies.&mdash;England and France in Africa.&mdash;A collision at
+      Fashoda.&mdash;Germany offers to help France.&mdash;Delcassé the
+      peacemaker.&mdash;A French-English agreement.&mdash;Friendship takes the
+      place of hostility.&mdash;England&rsquo;s relations with Italy, Russia, and
+      Germany.&mdash;Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of Turkey.&mdash;The
+      Morocco-Algeciras incident.&mdash;The question of Bosnia and Herzegovina.&mdash;England
+      joins France and Russia to form the &ldquo;Triple Entente.&rdquo;&mdash;The Agadir
+      incident.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars between
+      them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time that they had
+      fought on the same side was in the campaign against Russia in 1855, but
+      even then there was no real sympathy between them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an excuse
+      for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt was a part of
+      the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a certain amount of money to
+      Constantinople, the Turks did not care very much how it was governed. But
+      now a wild chief of the desert had announced himself as the prophet
+      Mohammed come to earth again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had
+      joined him. They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and
+      killed General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the
+      English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally beat them
+      and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom on the Nile.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus45"></a>
+<img src="images/45.jpg" width="401" height="216" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">An Arab Sheik and His Staff</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had formed a plan
+      for a railroad which should run the entire length of Africa from the Cape
+      of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England&rsquo;s ambition to control all the
+      territory through which this road should run. But the French, too, were
+      spreading out over Africa. Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had
+      joined their colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of
+      Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year, 1898, while
+      Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French expedition under
+      Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and reached the Nile at
+      Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom. Marchand planted the French flag
+      and announced that he took possession of this territory for the republic
+      of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand had done.
+      If France held Fashoda, their &ldquo;Cape to Cairo&rdquo; railroad was cut right in
+      the middle, and they could advance their territory no farther up the
+      valley of the Nile. They notified France that this was English land.
+      Marchand retorted that no Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the
+      French flag would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on
+      the Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for England,
+      and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The English
+      newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which had already begun
+      its campaign to wrest from England the leading place on the ocean, was
+      delighted at the prospect of a war between France and the British. The
+      German diplomats patted France on the back, and practically assured her of
+      German help in case it came to a war with England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France. The French
+      population was not increasing, while Germany was steadily growing in
+      numbers. It was England whom Germany saw across her path toward control of
+      the sea.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making up with
+      Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost provinces of Alsace
+      and Lorraine was very strong with him. This was Théophile Delcassé,
+      a little man with a large head and a great brain. He refused to be tempted
+      by the offers of German help, thinking that England, with its free
+      government, was a much better friend for the republic than the military
+      empire of Germany could be.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador came to
+      see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the French
+      foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is to say, a final
+      notice to France that she must give in or England would declare war on
+      her. As he walked into Delcassé&rsquo;s presence, he began fumbling with
+      the top button of his coat. &ldquo;Don&rsquo;t touch that button,&rdquo; said Delcassé
+      quickly. &ldquo;Drop your hand. You have something in your pocket which must not
+      be taken out. It is a threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit
+      down. Let us talk this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves
+      all right in the end.&rdquo; And they did. Delcassé was finally able to
+      quiet the French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade
+      France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was given a free
+      hand in Egypt, without any interference from the French. Naturally the
+      English were very grateful to Delcassé for having refused to profit
+      by German help and declare war. In return for the French agreement to stay
+      out of Egypt, the English promised to help France get control of Morocco.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her son, Edward
+      VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time in France, and was
+      very fond of the French and was popular with them. He saw the growing
+      power of Germany, and knew that England could not afford to be without a
+      friend in Europe. He did his best to bring about a feeling of friendship
+      between the English and the French, and was very successful in doing so.
+      He made frequent visits to France, where he was received with great
+      cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of France in
+      London in a princely fashion. French warships paid friendly visits to
+      English waters, and the sailors mingled with each other and did their best
+      to understand each other&rsquo;s language. All France, and England as well,
+      welcomed the beginning of the &ldquo;Entente Cordiale,&rdquo; or friendly
+      understanding between the two nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly understanding
+      with Italy. With the other nations of Europe England had no great
+      friendship. Between England and Russia, there had been a hostile feeling
+      for a long time, for the British felt that the Russians would like nothing
+      better than to stretch their empire from Siberia, down to include British
+      India, or at least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in
+      control.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the future
+      growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to the throne,
+      Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction of manufactures. She
+      had become one of the leading nations of the world. One of her chief
+      questions was, where to market these goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a
+      visit to Syria and Turkey. He was received with great enthusiasm by the
+      Turks, who were glad to have one strong friend among the powers of Europe.
+      Soon afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of the
+      Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the Turks to
+      build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf through Bagdad. German
+      railways ran through Austria-Hungary, which was Germany&rsquo;s ally, to
+      Constantinople and Salonika, the two greatest ports of Turkey in Europe.
+      This short overland route to Persia was looked upon with suspicion and
+      distrust by the English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost
+      all of Europe&rsquo;s commerce with India and the neighboring countries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus46"></a>
+<img src="images/46.jpg" width="401" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Scene In Constantinople</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the west coast
+      of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in the corner of the
+      Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands in the Pacific Ocean were
+      seized. Her foreign trade was growing by leaps and bounds, and she
+      threatened to take away from England a great deal of the latter&rsquo;s
+      commerce.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted whenever any
+      changes of territory took place, no matter in what part of the earth.
+      Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help of Great Britain and Spain,
+      told the sultan of Morocco that he had to behave himself, the German
+      emperor in person made a visit to Morocco and assured the sultan that he
+      didn&rsquo;t have to pay any attention to France.
+    </p>
+    <p id="page186">
+      There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a meeting was
+      held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of all the great powers
+      came together. In the end, France and England were upheld, for even Italy,
+      Germany&rsquo;s ally, voted against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé,
+      the Frenchman who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his
+      position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans objected to
+      him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1908, the &ldquo;young Turk&rdquo; party in Constantinople (the party which stood
+      for progress and for more popular government) drove the old sultan off his
+      throne, and announced that there should be a Turkish parliament, or
+      congress, to which all parts of the empire should send representatives.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the Congress of
+      Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised that she would never
+      try to annex these provinces. In 1908, however, she forgot all about her
+      promise. When Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them
+      in the new Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this
+      they should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they
+      belonged to Turkey no longer.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia had
+      looked forward to the day when they should once more be joined to herself.
+      These states, like Montenegro, had been part of the ancient kingdom of
+      Serbia. As long as they were in dispute between Austria and Turkey, Serbia
+      had hopes of regaining them, but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them,
+      it seemed to the Serbs that they were lost forever.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states look
+      upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly indignant at
+      this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the czar talked of war. His
+      generals and war ministers, however, dissuaded him. &ldquo;Oh, no, your
+      majesty,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;we are in no shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our
+      army was badly disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we
+      shall not be ready for another fight for some time to come.&rdquo; Russia
+      protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by Austria,
+      and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and France were not
+      ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but did so with a bitter
+      feeling toward the &ldquo;central empires,&rdquo; as Germany and Austria are called.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It has already been shown that England for a long time had been suspicious
+      of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming at control of India.
+      Of late this hostile feeling had been dying out, especially as the
+      friendship between France and Great Britain grew stronger. It was
+      impossible for Russia, France&rsquo;s partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain
+      unfriendly to England, France&rsquo;s ally in the &ldquo;Entente Cordiale.&rdquo; Both
+      England and Russia felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her
+      war chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they marked
+      off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each agreeing to stay
+      in her own portion, and not disturb the traders of the other country in
+      theirs. After this Russia, England, and France were usually found acting
+      together in European diplomacy, under the name of the &ldquo;Triple Entente.&rdquo;
+      The &ldquo;balance of power&rdquo; had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but
+      the English navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than
+      balanced the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with England&rsquo;s
+      backing and Spain&rsquo;s friendship, sent her troops among the Moors to enforce
+      law and order. Any one could see that with Tunis and Algeria already in
+      French hands, it was only a question of a little while before Morocco
+      would be theirs also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This time Germany rushed her warship <i>Panther</i> to the Moorish port of
+      Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French appealed to
+      England to know whether they could look to her for support. Russia was now
+      in much better shape for war than she had been three years before, and
+      notified France that she was ready to give her support. Therefore, when
+      Mr. Lloyd-George, the little Welshman who was really the leader of the
+      British government, stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and
+      told the world that &ldquo;to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,&rdquo;
+      England would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to
+      back down or else start a tremendous European war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It was now Germany&rsquo;s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did not
+      propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So, although the
+      French gave Germany a few square miles of land in central Africa in return
+      for the Kaiser&rsquo;s agreement to let France have her way in Morocco, the
+      result was a backdown for Germany, and it left scars which would not heal.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents happening,
+      any one of which might have started the world war. Fashoda, Algeciras,
+      Bosnia, Agadir&mdash;each time it seemed as if only a miracle could avert
+      the conflict. Europe was like a powder magazine. No man knew when the
+      spark might fall that would bring on the explosion.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What were the plans of the English regarding Africa?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Germany ready to help France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was England suspicious of Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria start
+          a general European war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and Russia become friendly?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap15"></a>Chapter XV.<br/>
+The Sowing of the Dragon&rsquo;s Teeth</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The growth of German trade.&mdash;Balkan hatreds.&mdash;The wonderful
+      alliance against Turkey.&mdash;The sympathies of the big nations.&mdash;Their
+      interference and its results.&mdash;A new kingdom.&mdash;The second war.&mdash;The
+      work of diplomacy.&mdash;The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany&rsquo;s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her ships, in
+      order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the Mediterranean, had to
+      go a great deal farther than those of France or England. As a result, the
+      Germans had been looking toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as
+      the part of the world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was
+      Germany&rsquo;s plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip
+      of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and Turkey
+      through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia, and India.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already been
+      explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they had fought a
+      bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the Bulgarians. The Albanians
+      had no love for either nation, while the Greeks looked down on all the
+      others. Montenegro and Serbia were friends, naturally, since they were
+      inhabited by the same kind of people and had once been parts of the
+      original kingdom of Serbia.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map19"></a>
+<img src="images/map19.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it.
+(1912-13)</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no more tribute
+      to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of the independent nations
+      of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so strong and the Turks so weak, that
+      Turkey did not dare go to war, so permitted the matter to go unnoticed.
+      The only thing on which all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was
+      their bitter hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them
+      cruelly for the last three hundred and fifty years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished a
+      wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro,
+      and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each other, for the time
+      being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In order that there should not
+      be any quarreling over the spoils when the war was over, the four little
+      nations agreed, in a secret treaty, that when they got through with
+      Turkey, they would divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The
+      head, including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course.
+      Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body, Greece was
+      to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest of the body was to
+      go to Serbia with the exception of the very tail, including the city of
+      Scutari, which was to be given to Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a
+      seacoast and a chance to trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs
+      had a grudge against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of
+      the fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their
+      country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured goods and
+      paid them very little for their own products in return. Bulgaria was to
+      have Kavala (ka&#775; va&#8242;la&#775;) as a seaport on the Aegean and
+      all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;po
+      li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city of Salonika (sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ka&#775;),
+      southern Macedonia, and southern Albania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With this secret agreement between them, the four little states went to
+      war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship sprung up between
+      Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and generals were sent to
+      Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops. Cannon and machine guns were
+      sent them from German factories, and their rifles were fed with German
+      bullets. The four little countries, accordingly, turned to France and
+      Russia for assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and
+      machine guns, and their military advisers were French and Russians. While
+      the big nations managed to keep out of the war themselves, all were
+      strongly interested in one side or the other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To their
+      consternation and disgust, the four little nations made short work of the
+      Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was thoroughly beaten, and the
+      allies were ready to put through their program of dividing up the spoils.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their interference
+      laid the foundation for future wars and misery. Austria and Germany saw
+      their path to Constantinople and the east cut right in two. Their
+      railroads, instead of passing through a series of countries under German
+      control, now were to be cut asunder by an arm of Slavic states under
+      Russian protection, which would certainly stop German progress toward
+      Asia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one little
+      strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar, between Serbia and
+      Montenegro, which connected Turkey with Austria. To be sure, this country
+      was inhabited almost entirely by Serbians, but so long as it was under the
+      military control of Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for
+      the east could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide
+      this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her seaport on the
+      Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to find new markets in
+      Italy, Spain, and France.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus47"></a>
+<img src="images/47.jpg" width="201" height="102" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Durazzo</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They longed
+      for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be turned over to
+      them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (du&#772; ra&#775;t&#8242;zo&#772;)
+      and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many Italians, and
+      Italy had always cherished the hope that they might belong to her.
+      Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the Serbian program of
+      seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as the four little countries
+      announced their intention of dividing up Turkey in Europe among
+      themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy raised a great clamor.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held, and once
+      more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead of allowing the
+      four little countries to divide up the conquered land between them, the
+      powers made a fifth small country, the kingdom of Albania, and brought
+      down from Germany a little prince to rule over these wild mountaineers.
+      Notice that the Albanians were not consulted. The great powers simply took
+      a map, drew a certain line on it and said, &ldquo;This shall be the kingdom of
+      Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.&rdquo; Again we have a
+      king-made map with the usual trail of grievances.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of its
+      seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country west of Janina
+      (ya&#775; ni&#776;&#8242;na&#775;). France and Russia did not like this
+      program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance to
+      prevent its being put into effect.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map20"></a>
+<img src="images/map20.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The three little countries, separated from a great part of their new
+      territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to her, &ldquo;Since
+      we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to divide up all over again.
+      You must give us part of your plunder in order to &lsquo;make it square.&rsquo;&rdquo; Now
+      was the time for the ancient ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their
+      neighbors to show itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in
+      so many words, &ldquo;Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight.
+      It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a very
+      insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we dare you to
+      come and take it.&rdquo; And the Bulgarians made a treacherous night attack on
+      their recent allies, which brought a declaration of war from the three
+      little nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria wanted. It
+      accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan alliance under the
+      protection of Russia. So with Austria and Germany egging on Bulgaria, and
+      Russia and France doing their best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and
+      surrender some land to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in
+      1913 almost before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who had been
+      mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went down to defeat before
+      the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field of Bregalnitza (bre&#774;g&#8242;a&#775;l
+      ni&#774;t za&#775;). To add to Bulgaria&rsquo;s troubles, the Turks, taking
+      advantage of the discord among their late opponents, suddenly attacked the
+      Bulgarians in the rear and stole back the city of Adrianople, which had
+      cost the Bulgarians so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania,
+      which up to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of
+      her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The Roumanian
+      statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the spoils, and moved
+      simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their kingdom, declared war on
+      Bulgaria also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at the best
+      price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving to her a strip of
+      land in the country called the Dobrudja (do&#772; brood&#8242;ja&#775;)
+      between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to agree to a new
+      boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept Adrianople. She had to
+      give Kavala and the surrounding country to Greece and the territory around
+      Monastir (mo&#772; na&#775; sti&#776;r&#8242;) to Serbia, although these
+      districts were inhabited largely by her own people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and protector, Russia.
+      The Russians were disgusted to think that the Bulgarians had refused to
+      listen to them when they urged them to grant some small pieces of land to
+      Greece and Serbia at the close of the first war. They felt that the
+      Bulgarians had been headstrong and richly deserved what they got.
+      Therefore, Russia refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from
+      humiliation. In the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal
+      of mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was badly
+      broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria, which had been
+      buried for the time being during the first Balkan war, now broke out with
+      greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked, feeling revengeful against all
+      of her neighbors, but especially angry at Russia, who had always been her
+      friend before.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Germans desire a road to the east?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were united?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Russia&rsquo;s purpose in helping to form the Balkan Alliance?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little
+          countries from carrying out their secret agreement?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the cause of the second Balkan war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus48"></a>
+<img src="images/48.jpg" width="400" height="268" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Modern Dreadnaught</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap16"></a>Chapter XVI.<br/>
+Who Profits?</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The race for power on the sea.&mdash;The &ldquo;naval holiday&rdquo; declined.&mdash;The
+      declining birth-rate.&mdash;The growth of the Socialists.&mdash;The
+      militarists of Germany.&mdash;How wars cure labor troubles.&mdash;The
+      forces behind the war game.&mdash;Profits and press agents.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their mad
+      race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships than its
+      neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other munitions of war. The
+      German navy had been growing by leaps and bounds. From being the sixth
+      largest navy in the world, within ten years it had grown to second place.
+      But, fast as the Germans built ships, the English built them more rapidly
+      still. England built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which
+      was twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly
+      replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and England came
+      back with some still larger vessels which are known as super-dreadnaughts.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston Churchill,
+      proposed to Germany that each country take a &ldquo;naval holiday.&rdquo; In other
+      words, he practically said to Germany, &ldquo;If you people will stop building
+      warships for a year, we will also. Then at the end of the year, we shall
+      be no worse off or better off than we were at the beginning.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus49"></a>
+<img src="images/49.jpg" width="201" height="105" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Submarine</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England could not
+      stand the strain very much longer. &ldquo;Besides,&rdquo; said the Germans, &ldquo;it is all
+      very well for England to be satisfied with her present navy, which is half
+      again as large as ours. If our navy were the strongest in the world, we
+      too would be glad to have all nations stop building warships,&rdquo; and they
+      laid down the keels of four new super-dreadnaughts.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German militarists.
+      For a long time, the population of France had not been increasing, while
+      Germany almost doubled her numbers from 1860 to 1900. Now, to their
+      dismay, the German birth-rate began to grow less and they saw the
+      population of Russia growing larger by 20% every ten years. Again, they
+      learned that Russia was about to build a series of railroads near the
+      German frontier which would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany
+      at very short notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own
+      country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have this
+      advantage also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man to put
+      three years in military service instead of two. This would increase
+      France&rsquo;s standing army by 50 per cent. The German people, who up to this
+      time had been very docile and very obedient to the military rule, were
+      showing signs of discontent. The Socialists, a party who represented the
+      working people largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been
+      growing very fast. In the last election, they had gained many
+      representatives in the German congress, and had cast over 4,000,000 votes.
+      The only thing that kept them from having a majority in the Reichstag (the
+      German congress) was the fact that in some districts, the voters of the
+      other parties combined against them. In this way, the military class still
+      held control of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not
+      be for long.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending their time
+      drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the population had to
+      earn money enough to support their own families and also the families of
+      the men in the army. As one writer has put it, &ldquo;Every workingman in Europe
+      carried a soldier on his back who reached down and took the bread out of
+      his platter.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military leaders of
+      Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia must rule Germany,
+      and Germany must be the greatest power in Europe. To their minds, war
+      between Germany and her allies and the rest of Europe must come. Being
+      warriors by trade and having nothing else to do, they saw that, if the
+      great war were postponed much longer, the chances of Germany&rsquo;s winning it
+      would grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and
+      Germany was unable to catch up to England&rsquo;s navy. It should be remembered
+      that this class made up a small part only of the German nation. Their
+      influence was all out of proportion to their numbers. They controlled the
+      government, and the government controlled the schools and the newspapers.
+      The people believed what they were told. They were simply parts of the war
+      machine. Bismarck&rsquo;s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He
+      never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to win it. In
+      like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped to conquer France
+      and Russia before England was ready. It was the old story as told by
+      Shakespeare. &ldquo;Our legions are brim full, our cause is ripe. The enemy
+      increaseth every day. We, at the height, are ready to decline.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised the
+      nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or parliament to be
+      called together, the military class, who were trying to keep the common
+      people under control and in ignorance as much as possible had been able to
+      prevent the duma from obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than
+      the German Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to
+      pass laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia for
+      life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor troubles and
+      strikes. The people of Russia, especially those living in cities, were
+      learning how little freedom they had, compared with citizens of other
+      countries, and the time seemed ripe for a revolution.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their people
+      off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to think about.
+      Although the Russian government did all that it could to prevent the war
+      without completely betraying Serbia, still the war probably put off the
+      Russian Revolution for two years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia there
+      was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were the so-called
+      Junkers (Yo&#861;onkers), direct descendants of the old feudal barons.
+      They were owners of rich tracts of land which had been handed down to them
+      by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to them by the people who lived on
+      their farms supported them richly in idleness. Just as their ancestors in
+      the old days had lived only by fighting and plundering, so these people
+      still had the idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for the
+      common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days when he was
+      Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress had refused to vote
+      to raise certain moneys through taxes that Bismarck advised, because he
+      wanted to spend all of it in preparations for war. In spite of the vote of
+      the representatives of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the
+      money and spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had
+      won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the Austrians,
+      and lastly over the French, the Prussian people, swollen with pride at
+      what their armies had accomplished, forgave Bismarck for riding rough-shod
+      over their liberties. But Bismarck was able to do what he did because he
+      had the backing of the king and the great land-owning Junker class.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By 1914,
+      however, a change had come about. The wonderful development of Germany&rsquo;s
+      trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power to the merchant class
+      and these had to be considered when plans for war were being formed.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially trade with
+foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce, carried on with Great
+Britain, the United States, South America, and far distant colonies, had to
+travel over the ocean. German merchants would never support a war cheerfully if
+they thought that their trade would be interrupted for any length of time. So
+the Junkers, when they made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of
+France and Russia, persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been
+conquered they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which
+would more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians
+would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only with
+German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany would be much
+richer.<a href="#fn-6" name="fnref-6" id="fnref-6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-6" id="fn-6"></a> <a href="#fnref-6">[6]</a>
+When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very down-hearted, for they
+saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a blow. But the Junkers called
+together the leading merchants and bribed them with promises. In the year 1918
+one of the prominent manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out
+and was published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame
+for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military class, he
+confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the war by the promise
+of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which was to be given to him after
+Germany had conquered the world. This, of course, was pure piracy; the motto of
+Prussia for some time had been that piracy pays.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but gained it
+      through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns and munitions. They
+      were clamorously back of the Junkers in their demands for war. These
+      people profited by preparation for war. They kept inventing newer and
+      stronger guns so that the weapons which they had sold the governments one
+      year would be out-of-date the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap.
+      In this way, the factories were kept working over-time and their profits
+      were enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the common
+      people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in
+      newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that the great
+      gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper writers to keep up
+      threats of war. They paid certain papers in Paris to print articles to
+      make the French people think that the Germans were about to attack them.
+      These same gun-makers in Berlin tried to persuade the German people that
+      the French were on the point of attacking them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people all over
+      Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the Junkers were
+      ready to strike and the great war broke out, people would say, &ldquo;At last it
+      has come, the war that we knew was inevitable.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Germany decline to take a &ldquo;naval holiday&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by &ldquo;strategic railroads&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the Socialist
+          Party?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the fate of popular government in Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How were the German merchants won over to war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap17"></a>Chapter XVII.<br/>
+The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The year 1914.&mdash;England&rsquo;s troubles.&mdash;Plots for a &ldquo;Greater
+      Serbia.&rdquo;&mdash;The hated archduke.&mdash;The shot whose echoes shook the
+      whole world.&mdash;Austria&rsquo;s extreme demands.&mdash;Russia threatens.&mdash;Frantic
+      attempts to prevent war.&mdash;Mobilizing on both sides.&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s
+      tiger-like spring.&mdash;The forts of the Vosges Mountains.&mdash;The
+      other path to Paris.&mdash;The neutrality of Belgium.&mdash;Belgium
+      defends herself.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her
+      parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to be an
+      Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish wanted it
+      governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of Ireland, however, was
+      very unhappy over this arrangement. Its people were largely of English and
+      Scotch descent, and they were Protestants, while the other inhabitants of
+      Ireland were Celts and Catholics. The people of this province were so
+      bitter against home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled
+      regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England compelled
+      them to be governed by an Irish parliament.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and threatened
+      revolutions in India, where the English government was none too popular.
+      Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that England had so many
+      troubles of her own that she would never dare to enter a general European
+      war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina
+      to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of these provinces to
+      revolt. The military leaders who really ruled Austria, were in favor of
+      crushing these attempted uprisings with an iron hand.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by the
+      Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the emperor and heir
+      to the throne. He finally announced that he was going in person to
+      Sarajevo (sa&#776; ra&#776; ye&#774;&#8242;vo&#772;) in Bosnia to look
+      into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not to come,
+      saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so hated. Being a
+      headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to listen to this advice, but
+      insisted on going. His devoted wife, after doing her best to dissuade him,
+      finally refused to let him go without her.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian revolutionists
+      laid their plans. They found out just where his carriage was to pass, and
+      at almost every street corner, they had some assassin with bomb or pistol.
+      One bomb was thrown at him, but it exploded too soon, and he escaped.
+      Bursting with indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax
+      policing, when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with
+      a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the great
+      European war. As you have been shown, however, this was simply the spark
+      that exploded the magazine. With the whole situation as highly charged as
+      it was, any other little spark would have been enough to set the war
+      a-going.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had been traced
+      to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of the government. It
+      demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she hunt out and punish the
+      plotters at once. And because Austria did not trust the Serbians to hold
+      an honest investigation, she demanded that her officers should sit in the
+      Serbian courts as judges.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the United
+      States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a Japanese judge be
+      sent to California to try the case because Japan could not trust America
+      to give her justice! The Serbians, of course, were in no position to fight
+      a great power like Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they
+      could not submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian
+      demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian courts.
+      They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was done them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a sharp
+      warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and that Austria and
+      Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the meantime, Serbia offered to
+      lay the matter before the court of arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at
+      the invitation of the czar of Russia, representatives of all the great
+      powers of Europe met at the Hague to found a lasting court which should
+      decide disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to
+      as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been
+      successful in averting trouble.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and Serbia should
+      be judged by a court composed of representatives of France, England,
+      Italy, and Germany. Austria&rsquo;s reply to the proposals of England and Serbia
+      was a notice to the latter country that she had just forty-eight hours in
+      which to give in completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr.
+      Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly pleading
+      with England to declare what she would do in case the Triple Alliance
+      started a war with France and Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent the
+      threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that Russia was
+      gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is called. As Russia has so
+      much more territory to draw from than any other country, and as her
+      railroads are not many and are poorly served, it was figured that it would
+      be six weeks before the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody.
+      Germany, on the other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned
+      railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could launch her
+      forces across the frontier at two days&rsquo; notice. As soon as the Germans
+      began to hear that the Russians were mobilizing their troops against
+      Austria, Germany set in motion the rapid machinery for gathering her own
+      army. She sent a sharp message to Russia, warning the latter that she must
+      instantly stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans
+      asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria declared
+      war on Russia. France replied that she would act in accordance with what
+      seemed to be her best interests. This answer did not seem very reassuring,
+      and without any declaration of war, the German army rushed for the French
+      frontier.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line of great
+      forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her territory approached
+      that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal, Verdun, Longwy, they ranged
+      through the mountains northeast of France as guardians of their country
+      against another German attack. To rush an army into France over this rough
+      country and between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies
+      carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades. Therefore, if
+      Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at France and get her
+      armies back six weeks later to meet the slow-moving Russians, it was plain
+      that she must seek some other approach than that through the Vosges
+      Mountains.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus50"></a>
+<img src="images/50.jpg" width="399" height="265" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the northern and
+      western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat plain, with level roads,
+      easy to cross. (See <a href="#map21">map</a>.) Now, years before,
+      Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England that no one of
+      them would disturb its neutrality. In other words it was pledged that in
+      case of a war, no armed force of any of these three nations should enter
+      Belgian territory, nor should Belgium be involved in any trouble arising
+      among them. In case any one of the nations named or in fact any other
+      hostile force, invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to
+      rush to Belgium&rsquo;s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her
+      small army any troops which might invade her country.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty, the Germans
+      started their rush toward France, not through the line of forts in the
+      mountains, but across the gently rolling plain to the north. They first
+      asked permission of the Belgians to pass through their country. On being
+      refused, they entered Belgian territory just east of Liége (li&#776;
+      e&#774;zh&#8242;). The Belgians telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The
+      Germans replied that they were sorry but it was necessary for them to
+      invade Belgium in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and
+      to pay the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might seize.
+      The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France, England, and
+      Germany they were bound on their honor to resist just such an invasion as
+      this. They asked the Germans how Germany would regard them if they were to
+      permit a French army to cross Belgian territory to take Germany by
+      surprise. The Germans again said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium
+      refused permission to their army to cross, the army would go through
+      without permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make,
+      but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist by all
+      means the passage of the German troops. The great war had begun.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map21"></a>
+<img src="images/map21.jpg" width="400" height="389" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the blame,
+      almost alone.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913, thinking that
+      this little country had grown too powerful, as a result of her victories
+      in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had counted on &ldquo;bluffing&rdquo; Russia to
+      keep out, as she had been bluffed in 1908, and when she saw that this time
+      the Russians meant business, she became frightened and sent word that she
+      might be willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans
+      were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent their
+      warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a ground for war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia was at its
+      height, both Austria and Russia had their armies mobilized and ready for
+      war for weeks and months. Still no war came out of it. It looked as if
+      Germany was hard put to it to find an excuse for launching her plan to
+      conquer Europe.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Ulster object to home rule?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia mobilize her troops?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was the road through Belgium chosen?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap18"></a>Chapter XVIII.<br/>
+Why England Came In</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The question of Italy and England.&mdash;Italy&rsquo;s position.&mdash;The war
+      with Turkey.&mdash;Italy declines to join her allies.&mdash;England is
+      aware of the German plans.&mdash;The treaty with Belgium.&mdash;The
+      &ldquo;defensive&rdquo; war.&mdash;The &ldquo;scrap of paper.&rdquo;&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s rage at
+      England&rsquo;s declaration of war.&mdash;England does the unexpected.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria and
+      Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her neighbor and
+      kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy and England do. Italy,
+      like Russia and Germany, had been having trouble in holding down her
+      people. A revolution had been threatened which would overthrow the king
+      and set up a republic. The Socialist Party, representing the working
+      class, had been growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles
+      was that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by the
+      Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people. Throughout the
+      entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that France had aroused the Italians&rsquo; anger in 1881 by
+      seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province for herself, for
+      the Italian peninsula was crowded with people, and as the population
+      increased, it was thought necessary that colonies be established to which
+      the people could migrate to have more room. Finally in 1911, in order to
+      divert the minds of the people from revolutionary thoughts, the government
+      organized an expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was
+      supposed to belong to Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany and
+      Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking Turkey, with
+      which the Austrians and Germans were trying to establish a firm
+      friendship. However, &ldquo;self-preservation is the first law of nature,&rdquo; and
+      the Italian king and nobles valued their leadership in the nation much
+      more than they dreaded the dislike of Germany and Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia and
+      France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their people too
+      well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been growing up a
+      friendship between the people of Italy and those of France, and the
+      Italian generals knew that it would be a difficult task to induce their
+      men to fire upon their kinsmen from across the Alps. Therefore, when
+      Austria and Germany demanded their support in the war, they replied by
+      pointing out that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to
+      their help only <i>if they were attacked</i>. &ldquo;In this case,&rdquo; said the
+      Italians, &ldquo;you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind us to
+      support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not consulted
+      before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands. Expect no help from
+      us.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen were not
+      blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended to crush France
+      first, capturing Paris and dealing the French army such an overwhelming
+      blow that it would take it a long time to recover. Then the German armies
+      were to be rushed back over their marvelous system of government-owned
+      railroads to meet the on-coming German tide of Russians.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and all war
+      supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful guns which were
+      large enough to batter down the strongest forts in the world. They did not
+      have very much respect for the ability of the Russian generals. They had
+      watched them bungle badly in the Japanese war, ten years before. If once
+      France were brought to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after
+      France and Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later
+      on, to settle with Great Britain.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan. They saw
+      that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal time. However,
+      Great Britain, having a government which is more in the hands of the
+      people than even that of republican France, did not have the system of
+      forcing her young men to do military service. Her little army in England
+      was made up entirely of men who enlisted in it because they wished to, and
+      because they received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with
+      Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so. Otherwise,
+      her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would never enlist to
+      fight against them. The question was, would anything happen to make the
+      English people feel that they were justified in entering the war on the
+      side of France and Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised each
+      other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, France and
+      Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops upon Belgian soil.
+      Now, however, with the German army invading Belgium, the English statesmen
+      had to decide their course. As heads of one of the nations to guarantee
+      Belgium&rsquo;s freedom, they called on Germany to explain this unprovoked
+      invasion. The Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city
+      of Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to
+      withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying no
+      attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her stand
+      alongside of Russia and France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the French.
+      They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of her alliance, to
+      stand by Russia, but they had confidently counted on keeping England out
+      of the war. In fact, the German ambassador to England had assured the
+      German emperor that England had so many troubles, with her uprising in
+      Ireland and threatened rebellions in India and South Africa that she would
+      never dare fight at this time.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly aroused. If
+      there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself on, it is keeping his
+      word. The word of the English had been given, through their government, to
+      Belgium that this little country, if it should resist invasion, would be
+      protected, and this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made
+      no difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly
+      unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had to make
+      the day before, this was a crucial step for the British to take, but to
+      their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In the case of Germany&rsquo;s
+      declaration of war the German laws say that no war can be declared by the
+      Kaiser alone unless it is a defensive war. Therefore, as one American
+      writer has pointed out, this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever
+      declares. The German military group, having control of the newspapers, put
+      in a lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers having
+      crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd. They told how
+      French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German cities. As a matter of
+      fact, the French soldiers, by orders of their government, were drawn back
+      from the frontier a distance of six miles in order to avoid any appearance
+      of attacking the Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities
+      that was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a formal
+      statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city and no French
+      aviators had been seen near it. But the German government gave out this
+      &ldquo;news&rdquo; and promptly declared a &ldquo;defensive&rdquo; war, and the German people had
+      to believe what they were told.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people, with free
+      schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had been taught in the
+      schools of his country that Germany was surrounded by a ring of jealous
+      enemies and would one day have to fight them all, so the people of England
+      had been taught in their schools that war between civilized peoples is a
+      hateful thing and must finally disappear from the earth.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the war at
+      first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the same, were doomed
+      to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany the protests against war
+      were still more feeble. The newspapers, with few exceptions, as was
+      previously pointed out, were under the control of the military leaders and
+      the manufacturers of war materials. These papers persuaded the German
+      people that England, through her jealousy of Germany&rsquo;s great growth in
+      trade, had egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and
+      Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext. At first
+      the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince Lichnowsky, the
+      former German ambassador to Great Britain, published a story in which he
+      told how the German government had forced the war in spite of all that
+      England could do to prevent it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs
+      told them, that the war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old feudal
+      nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the English people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor (as the
+      prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told him that unless
+      German troops were immediately withdrawn from Belgium, England would
+      declare war, for the Belgian government had a treaty signed by England
+      promising them protection, the German chancellor exclaimed. &ldquo;What! Would
+      you plunge into this terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!&rdquo; The
+      chancellor was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were
+      sure that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to go
+      into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans for the
+      conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the chancellor forgot
+      his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He showed the world that honor
+      had no place in the minds of the German war lords. To the English a treaty
+      with Belgium was a sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which
+      could be torn up at a moment&rsquo;s notice if it stood in the way of their
+      interests.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a violent outburst against England in all of the newspapers of
+      Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called &ldquo;The Hymn of Hate,&rdquo; in
+      which he told how while they had no love for the Frenchman or the Russian,
+      they had no hate for them either. One nation alone they hated&mdash;England!
+      &ldquo;Gott strafe England&rdquo; (may God punish England) became the war cry of the
+      Germans.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until England
+      decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first, even before the
+      terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That any nation should put her
+      honor before her comfort and profit, had never occurred to the war leaders
+      of Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Italy join in the attack on France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Germany&rsquo;s plan?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How is the English army different from others?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What reason had England for declaring war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Had the German&rsquo;s expected England to attack them? Give reasons for
+          your answer.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the phrase &ldquo;scrap of paper&rdquo; make such a deep impression on the
+          world?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap19"></a>Chapter XIX.<br/>
+Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.&mdash;The demands of
+      Italy.&mdash;She joins the Triple Entente.&mdash;The retreat of the
+      Russians.&mdash;The Balkans again.&mdash;Bulgaria&rsquo;s bargaining.&mdash;German
+      princes on Balkan thrones.&mdash;The central empires bid the highest for
+      Bulgarian support.&mdash;The attitude of Greece.&mdash;Roumania&rsquo;s hopes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all haste to
+      put pressure upon the governments of the countries which were not engaged
+      in the struggle, in order to win them over. Germany and Austria worked
+      hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with Bulgaria. The Turks were the first
+      to plunge in. The party headed by Enver Bey (the young minister of war)
+      saw that a victory for Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of
+      the Turks from Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this
+      faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of October (1914)
+      when Turkish warships, without any provocation, sailed into some Russian
+      ports on the Black Sea and blazed away with their big guns.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their best to
+      get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all responsibility for
+      this act of their naval commanders. The &ldquo;Young Turks,&rdquo; however, were all
+      for war on the side of Germany. What is more, Russia, always anxious for
+      an excuse to seize Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize
+      for their act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was
+      quickly followed by France and England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the sympathies
+      of the Italian people were with France and England. The six grandsons of
+      Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and volunteered for fighting on the
+      French lines. Two of them were killed, and at their funerals in Rome,
+      nearly all the inhabitants of the city turned out and showed plainly that
+      they too would like to be fighting on the side of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the provinces of
+      Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent, Trieste (tri&#776; e&#774;s&#8242;te),
+      Pola (po&#772;&#8242;la&#776;), and Fiume (fe&#772; u&#772;&#8242;me), all
+      inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and cities
+      by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between the two
+      nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the price of her
+      keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her this land inhabited by
+      Italians. Germany urged Austria to do this, and sent as her special
+      ambassador, to keep Italy from joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow,
+      whose wife was an Italian lady, and who was very popular with the Italian
+      statesmen.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce Italy to
+      accept a small part of the disputed territory and then, when he found this
+      impossible, doing his best to induce Austria to give it all. Austria was
+      stubborn. She did not take kindly to the plan of giving away her cities.
+      She offered to cede some territory if Italy should wait until the end of
+      the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that Austria and
+      Germany were going to win the war and was even less sure that Austria
+      would be willing, in case of her victory, to give up a foot of territory.
+      It seemed to the Italian statesmen that it was &ldquo;now or never&rdquo; if Italy
+      wished to get within her kingdom all of her own people. In the month of
+      May 1915 Italy threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria
+      and entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus51"></a>
+<img src="images/51.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Russian peasants fleeing before the German army</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had millions and
+      millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them all. They had plenty
+      of food but very little ammunition for their cannon. Austria and Germany,
+      on the other hand, had been manufacturing shot and shells in enormous
+      quantities, and from the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the
+      Carpathian Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and
+      Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October, forcing
+      them to retreat nearly three hundred miles.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble. You will
+      recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her victory over
+      Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it came to a division of
+      the conquered territory. Thus she brought on a second war, in the course
+      of which Greece and Serbia defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of
+      her territory and the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of
+      Russia had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending a
+      personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King Peter of
+      Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race, not to let their
+      quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of her ability to defeat
+      Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the Russians&rsquo; pleadings, and as a
+      result Russia did not interfere to save her when her neighbors were
+      robbing her of part of the land which she had taken from Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had felt most
+sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in their blood,
+although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore, just as Italy strove
+by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her nation, so Bulgaria now saw her
+chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia. Accordingly, she asked the four great
+powers what they would give her in case she entered the war on their side, and
+attacked Turkey by way of Constantinople, while the French and English were
+hammering at the forts along the Dardanelles.<a href="#fn-7" name="fnref-7" id="fnref-7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-7" id="fn-7"></a> <a href="#fnref-7">[7]</a>
+England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great quantities at her
+ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and England, by supplying
+Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike a hard blow at Germany.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally induced
+      Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to Bulgaria. They
+      further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of Adrianople and the
+      territory around it which Turkey had reconquered. But Bulgaria was not
+      easily satisfied. She wanted more than Serbia was willing to give; she
+      wanted, too, the port of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the
+      allies could not promise.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany, and
+      Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back Serbia for the
+      loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and Herzegovina in case they
+      won the war from Austria. In like fashion, Austria and Germany promised
+      Bulgaria some Turkish territory and also the southern part of the present
+      kingdom of Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call himself, is a
+      German. (As these little countries won their independence from Turkey,
+      they almost always called in foreign princes to be their kings. In this
+      way it had come about that the king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the
+      king of Roumania was a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar
+      of Bulgaria was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has
+      furnished England and Belgium with their kings.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic Church, and
+      they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia, as the head of that
+      church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling, however. He wanted to be the
+      most powerful ruler in the Balkan states, and it made no difference to him
+      which side helped him to gain his object.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus52"></a>
+<img src="images/52.jpg" width="294" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p id="page239">
+      About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a line running
+      south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern boundary of Roumania.
+      The French and English had been pounding at the Dardanelles for some
+      months, but the stubborn resistance of the Turks seemed likely to hold
+      them out of Constantinople for a long time to come. The checked Italians
+      had not been able to make much headway against the Austrians through the
+      mountainous Alpine country where the fighting was taking place. In the
+      west, the Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British
+      and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that the
+      German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help, flung their
+      nation into its third war within four years. This happened in Octoher,
+      1915.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece defeated
+      Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to come to the help
+      of the other in case either was attacked by Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was
+      friendly to Greece and Serbia, rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the
+      Roumanians knew that Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory
+      of which Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way,
+      the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped that the
+      entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany and Turkey, would
+      bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia&rsquo;s aid and so was the Greek
+      prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a sister of the German
+      emperor, and through her influence with her husband she was able to defeat
+      the plans of Venizelos (ve&#774;n i&#774; ze&#774;l&#8242;o&#774;s), the
+      prime minister, who was notified by the king that Greece would not enter
+      the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned, but not until he had given
+      permission to the French and English to land troops at Salonika, for the
+      purpose of rushing to the help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that
+      German and Austrian armies might lay waste her territory, as they had
+      Serbia&rsquo;s, before England and France could come to the rescue.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan wars had
+      drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the Austrians had invaded
+      her kingdom in this war, and twice they had been driven out. Then came a
+      dreadful epidemic of typhus fever which was the result of unhealthful
+      conditions caused by the war. Now the little kingdom, attacked by the
+      Germans and Austrians on two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was
+      literally fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to
+      stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria, but we
+      have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to prevent this.
+      Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her help. However, as you
+      have been told, the king of Roumania is a German of the Hohenzollern
+      family, a cousin of the emperor, and in spite of the sympathy of his
+      people for Italy, France, and Serbia, he was able to keep them from
+      joining in the defense of the Serbs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes a&#775; ra&#775;&#8242;bi
+      a&#775;), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the greater part
+      of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo ko&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;), which
+      are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for a great part of
+      the inhabitants of these three counties are Roumanians by blood and
+      language. They would like to be parts of the kingdom of Roumania, and
+      Roumania would like to possess them. The Quadruple Entente would promise
+      Roumania parts of Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on
+      their side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her Bessarabia.
+      Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled by colonists sent out
+      from Rome, and in the eleventh century a large number of people from the
+      north of Italy settled there. On this account, Roumania looks upon Italy
+      as her mother country, and it was thought that Italy&rsquo;s attack upon Austria
+      would influence her to support the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order to share
+      in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the Quadruple Entente
+      did not need her help Roumania was eager to offer it, at a price which
+      seemed to the allies too high. When, however, the tide turned the other
+      way, she lost her enthusiasm for the cause of her friends, fearing what
+      the central empires might do to her.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on them?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the feelings of the Italian people?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the Entente
+          powers?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bulgaria join the central empires?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Greece keep out of the conflict?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were Roumania&rsquo;s hopes?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap20"></a>Chapter XX.<br/>
+Back to the Balkans</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The troubles of Crete.&mdash;The bigotry of the &ldquo;Young Turks.&rdquo;&mdash;Venizelos
+      in Greece.&mdash;The pro-German king.&mdash;The new government at
+      Salonika.&mdash;The downfall of Constantine.&mdash;The ambitions of
+      Roumania.&mdash;Pro-Germans in Russia.&mdash;Roumania declares war.&mdash;Russian
+      treachery and German trickery.&mdash;The defeat of Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Greece
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime minister of
+      Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her bargain from Crete
+      with Serbia (<a href="#page239">pages 239-240</a>). Now Venizelos had
+      originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks, but
+      controlled by Turkey for many years (see <a href="#map20">map</a>). In
+      1897 the Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island,
+      and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they forced
+      their king to declare war on Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the attention
+      of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the Turks, and they
+      never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed by them. For over a year
+      Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy had their warships in Cretan
+      ports and the government of Crete was under their protection.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince,
+      Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become very
+      unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics&mdash;on the wrong side&mdash;and
+      had to leave.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The Cretan
+      government was really independent, like a little kingdom without a king,
+      and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had looked forward to the
+      time when they might be united in one great kingdom. The shores of Asia
+      Minor and the cities along the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles were largely
+      inhabited by Greeks. Crete and the islands of the Aegean had once been
+      part of Greece and they never would be content until they were again
+      joined to it. The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be
+      annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the &ldquo;Young
+      Turks&rdquo; which drove the old Sultan from his throne (<a href="#page186">page
+      186</a>).
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the government were
+      tolerant to all the other races and religions in their country. At first
+      the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians, the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in
+      the Turkish Empire were very happy over the result of the revolution. It
+      looked as if a new day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible
+      for these various races and different religions to live side by side in
+      peace.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government, however, than
+      they began to change. &ldquo;Turkey for the Turks, and for the Turks only&rdquo;
+      became their motto. With this in mind they massacred Bulgarians and Greeks
+      in Macedonia (<a href="#page85">page 85</a>) and Armenians in Asia Minor.
+      The thought of the loss of Crete roused their anger and they began
+      scheming to get it back under Turkish rule.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left for
+      Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the Turks and annex
+      Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his single-hearted love for his country
+      soon made him as prominent on the mainland as he had been in his island
+      home. Before long he was chosen as prime minister of Greece.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      He found the country in a very sad condition. The military officers were
+      poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know this, but imagined that
+      their army was the best in the world. The politicians had plundered the
+      people and there was graft and poor management throughout the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic for some
+      of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over the Greek army and
+      taught the Greek officers the real science of war.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus53"></a>
+<img src="images/53.jpg" width="401" height="308" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be frightened,
+      controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent officials and forced
+      the others to attend to business. In fact he reorganized the whole
+      government service in a way to make every department do better work. Few
+      countries in Europe were as well managed as was Greece with Venizelos as
+      its prime minister.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no man of
+      Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You have been told how
+      the Russians have looked forward to the day when Saint Sophia, the great
+      mosque of the Turks, shall once more become a Christian cathedral. In the
+      same way the Greeks have passionately desired to see Constantinople, which
+      was for over a thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the
+      control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the Greeks first
+      won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the boundary of their kingdom
+      has been pushed northward, freeing more and more of their people from the
+      rule of the Ottomans. Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of
+      Greece as many as possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming
+      night and day for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have
+      been told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing
+      Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for whom she
+      had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many people felt that this
+      combination would never have been possible without the far-seeing wisdom
+      of of Venizelos. In fact, some historians give him the credit of first
+      planning the alliance.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as you have
+      been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of their country,
+      whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than Greeks among its
+      inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the attack on Turkey that the
+      greater part of Macedonia should be given to Bulgaria, had hard work after
+      the victory in convincing his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the
+      claims of the three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in
+      the combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs in the
+      course of the first war against Turkey, while the Bulgarians were
+      defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of Constantinople, brought
+      on the second war. Bulgaria was not willing to give up Macedonia to the
+      Greeks and Serbs, and her troops made a treacherous attack on her former
+      allies (June, 1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five nations at
+      once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks took advantage of
+      her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika but also Kavala, which by
+      all rights should have gone to the Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be
+      generous to Bulgaria, but the Greeks had had their heads turned by the
+      extraordinary successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and
+      as a result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of the
+      conquered lands.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had begun: In
+      March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and England made their
+      violent attack on the forts of the Dardanelles, intending to break through
+      and bombard Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the
+      conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end, would
+      lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be divided up among
+      the conquering nations. He wanted to get for Greece the shores of the
+      Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor, where a great majority of the
+      inhabitants were people of Greek blood. The king of Greece, Constantine,
+      as has been explained, is a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has
+      always been friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends
+      while both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little
+      incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a coolness
+      between them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a banquet and
+      told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine work of the Greek
+      soldiers in the two wars just fought had been due to help which he had
+      received from German military men. This statement angered the French very
+      much, for you will remember that it was French generals who had trained
+      the Greek army officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip
+      to Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine condition
+      of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had trained its officers
+      before the war of 1912. This was a direct &ldquo;slap in the face&rdquo; of the king
+      but it was the truth and everyone in Greece knew it. From this time on it
+      was evident to everybody that Venizelos was friendly to the French and
+      English, while the King was pro-German.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek government to
+      join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give the order. Venizelos, who
+      was prime minister, straightway resigned, broke up the parliament, and
+      ordered a general election. This put the case squarely up to the people of
+      Greece and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred
+      eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as against one
+      hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election, ordered
+      the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was that Bulgaria,
+      in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the side of the Germans and
+      Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In order to keep peace with Bulgaria
+      Venizelos was willing to give to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had
+      cheated her out of at the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his
+      country would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule
+      of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose
+      population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this, however, and
+      the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted as their prime
+      minister, backed the king. When the attack by the Central Powers on Serbia
+      took place, as has been told, Venizelos a second time tried to get the
+      Greek government to join the war on the side of France and England. He
+      said plainly to the king that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not
+      a &ldquo;scrap of paper&rdquo; as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with
+      Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a full
+      understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand, insisted that
+      the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that it was not intended to
+      drag Greece into a general European war. As a result, he dismissed
+      Venizelos a second time, in spite of the fact that twice, by their votes,
+      the Greeks had shown that they approved of his policy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the constitution the
+      king must obey the will of the people as shown by the votes of a majority
+      of the members of parliament. In spite of the vote of parliament the king
+      refused to stand by the Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating
+      the law of his country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very
+      little power, as the Greek constitution had made him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and English had
+      landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the hard-pressed Serbs.
+      You have already been told how Venizelos arranged this. Their aid,
+      however, had come too late. Before they could reach the gallant little
+      Serbian army it had been crushed between the Austrians and Germans on one
+      side and the Bulgarians on the other, and its survivors had fled across
+      the mountains to the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments
+      were not strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany,
+      Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern Serbia. King
+      Constantine notified the Allied governments that if these troops retreated
+      upon Greek soil he would send his army to surround them and hold them as
+      prisoners for the rest of the war. France and England replied by notifying
+      him that if he did this they would blockade the ports of Greece and
+      prevent any ships from entering her harbors. This act on the part of
+      France and England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the
+      proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The king
+      took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of pro-Germans to
+      important positions in the government. Constantine allowed German
+      submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases of supply from which
+      they got their oil and provisions. The Greek army was still mobilized, and
+      the small force of French and English, which had retreated to Salonika,
+      were afraid that at any moment they might receive a stab in the back by
+      order of the Greek king.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek frontier and
+      demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When the commander of one
+      of them proposed to fight, the German general told him to call up his
+      government at Athens over the long distance telephone. He did so and was
+      ordered to give up the fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already
+      seen what the answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be
+      sure, the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but they
+      had come there under permission of the prime minister of Greece to do a
+      thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised that she would do,
+      namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too much for
+      Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people in which he
+      declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution and was ruling as a
+      tyrant; that he was betraying his country to the Germans and Bulgars and
+      that all loyal Greeks should refuse to obey him. At Salonika, under the
+      protection of the British and French, together with the admiral of the
+      Greek navy and one of the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a
+      new government&mdash;a republic of Greece.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern
+      Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered his men
+      to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores, and the equipment
+      which had been furnished to them by the French to defend themselves
+      against the Germans! In the meantime, the Bulgarians had seized Kavala.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy between the
+      Italians and Austrians even during the years when they were partners in
+      the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy entered the war on the side of
+      France and England, her government, fearing the Austrians, had sent
+      Italian troops to seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was
+      not wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no government at
+      all there since the outbreak of the great war. However, the presence of
+      this Italian garrison prevented the forces of the central powers from
+      advancing southward along the Adriatic coast.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika. The
+      gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to command the joint
+      army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came there to join the French
+      and British. A hundred thousand hardy young veterans, survivors of the
+      Serbian army, picked up by allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were
+      refitted and carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined
+      General Sarrail&rsquo;s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for revenge on
+      the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the Greek troops, following
+      the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the king and joined the allies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to steer the
+      ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil. The great majority
+      of them were warm friends of France and England&mdash;all of them hated
+      the Turks. The pro-German acts of the king, however, provoked the French
+      and English to such an extent that they frequently had to interfere in
+      Athens. The Greek people resented this interference and on one or two
+      occasions fights broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets
+      of the capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments of
+      France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the treacherous
+      conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that he was assisting
+      Germany in every possible way. They knew that their camp was full of spies
+      who were reporting all their movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that
+      at the first chance he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear.
+      They finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the throne
+      to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince, having been educated
+      in Germany and sharing King Constantine&rsquo;s pro-German sentiments, was
+      barred from succeeding his father. This seemed a high-handed thing to do
+      but there was no other way out of a difficult situation. Constantine had
+      allowed his sympathies with his wife&rsquo;s brother to prevent his country from
+      carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute monarch; had
+      plotted with all his power for the overthrow of Russia, France, and
+      England, the three countries which had won Greece its independence in the
+      first place and which still desired its people to have the right to rule
+      themselves.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of the
+Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king and Germany.
+A second<a href="#fn-8" name="fnref-8" id="fnref-8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> time
+within four months a European monarch who was out of sympathy with his subjects
+was forced to resign his crown.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-8" id="fn-8"></a> <a href="#fnref-8">[8]</a>
+The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the return
+      to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people hailed his
+      coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the members of
+      parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control of the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that,
+      henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of France, Great
+      Britain, and the other nations of the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Roumania
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs hoped for
+      help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a grudge against
+      Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory which she had been
+      compelled to give up to her neighbor on the north at the close of the
+      second Balkan war. They expected this fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring
+      the Roumanians to the rescue.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as well as
+      in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a long time the
+      government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to plunge into the war before
+      the time was ripe, and dreading the danger of choosing the wrong side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to war she
+      would have to count strongly on the help of her great neighbor to the
+      north.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember that
+there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian domain which
+borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and Courland were ruled in the
+olden times by the &ldquo;Teutonic knights.&rdquo;) These Germans are much
+better educated, on the whole, than the Russians; they are descendants of old
+feudal warriors and as such are men of force and influence in the Russian
+government. It was a common thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve,
+Rennenkampf, and Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in
+Russia. In this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian
+government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were actively
+plotting with this in view. &ldquo;There is a secret wire from the czar&rsquo;s
+palace to Berlin,&rdquo; said one of the most patriotic Russian generals,
+explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance. Graft and bad
+management, as well as treachery, were all through the nation. Train-loads of
+ammunition intended for the Russian army were left piled up on the wharves at
+the northern ports. Guns sent by England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food
+that was badly needed by the men at the front was hoarded by government
+officials in order to raise prices for their friends who were growing rich
+through &ldquo;cornering&rdquo; food supplies.<a href="#fn-9" name="fnref-9" id="fnref-9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-9" id="fn-9"></a> <a href="#fnref-9">[9]</a>
+When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so as to keep it
+from being sold in great quantities and make it appear that there is not enough
+to go around, they are said to &ldquo;corner&rdquo; the market. Three or four
+men in America at various times have been able to corner the wheat market or
+the corn market or the market for cotton.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On the other
+      hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German princess whose brothers
+      were fighting in the German army, and she had little love for her adopted
+      country. The poor little Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in
+      the war, &ldquo;When the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are
+      beaten, mamma weeps.&rdquo; In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had
+      great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who were
+      secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use this influence
+      in many ways.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia&mdash;a man named
+      Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians, after their
+      long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their strength, and had
+      piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new attack. This began early
+      in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff attacked the Austro-Hungarians in
+      Galicia and Bukowina and drove them back for miles and miles, capturing
+      hundreds of thousands of prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians,
+      although subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the
+      Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of Bohemian
+      troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in a body and
+      afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In northern France, the British and French had at last gained more guns
+      and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer weight of metal were
+      pushing the latter out of the trenches which they had held for over two
+      years. It seemed to Roumania that the turning point of the war had come.
+      With the Russians winning big victories over Austria, and the French and
+      English pushing back the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as
+      though the end were in sight.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a distant
+cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from the case in Greece
+and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and she was able to help the
+party that was friendly to France and Great Britain. The man who had and worked
+early and late to get his countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the
+wisest of the Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the
+second Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within
+fourteen months.<a href="#fn-10" name="fnref-10" id="fnref-10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-10" id="fn-10"></a> <a href="#fnref-10">[10]</a>
+As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months between wars.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map22"></a>
+<a href="images/map22.jpg">
+<img src="images/map22.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">What The Allies Wished</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if they
+      wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the province of
+      Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the war on the side of the
+      Entente. It is claimed by some that they had planned to wait until the
+      following winter in order to get their army into the best of condition and
+      training, but that the treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when
+      he found that they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria,
+      persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were unprepared and
+      that their inexperienced troops would be no match for the veterans of the
+      central powers. At any rate, about the first of September Roumania
+      declared war on Austria and joined the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war first on
+      Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north while General Sarrail
+      attacked it from the south, crush it before help could arrive from
+      Germany, much in the fashion in which poor Serbia had been caught between
+      Austria and Bulgaria a year previously. The Roumanians, however, were
+      eager to &ldquo;liberate&rdquo; their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by
+      bad advice from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest
+      instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the conquest of
+      Bulgaria. (See maps.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map23"></a>
+<a href="images/map23.jpg">
+<img src="images/map23.jpg" width="397" height="600" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">How Roumania was crushed</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania. The
+      battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet weather, had
+      become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it was impossible to drag
+      the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia had pushed back the Austrians for
+      many miles but a lack of ammunition and the arrival of strong German
+      re-inforcements had prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian
+      generals on the north, under the influence of the pro-German prime
+      minister, were doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a
+      deadlock. The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that
+      neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow advance of
+      General Sarrail. His great problem was to get sufficient shells for his
+      guns and food for his men. All the time, too, he had to keep a watchful
+      eye on King Constantine, lest the latter launch the Greek army in a
+      treacherous attack on his rear. For the time being, then, the central
+      powers were free to give their whole attention to Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the Russians
+      to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand men from France and
+      Poland and hurled them all together upon the Roumanians. At the same time,
+      another force composed of Turks, Bulgarians, and some Germans marched
+      north through the Dobrudja to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the
+      very trick that the French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now
+      worked upon her by the central powers. France and England were helpless.
+      They sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the Roumanians
+      the latest science of war, but men and guns they could not send. Look at
+      the map and see how Roumania was shut off from all help except what came
+      from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his part to help Germany. Ammunition
+      and troops which were intended to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The
+      Germans had spies in the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew
+      exactly where the Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to
+      do.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each gun was
+      a delicate sight with a spirit level&mdash;a little glass tube supposed to
+      be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly the Germans had
+      filled these tubes with water, intending, in case Roumania entered the war
+      on their side, to warn them about the &ldquo;mistake.&rdquo; When the guns were hauled
+      up into the mountains and freezing weather came, these sights burst,
+      making the guns almost useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and
+      the south, the Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile
+      after mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by the
+      Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil wells are, fell
+      into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest, the capital.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost beaten,
+      now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat, Roumanian oil, and
+      above all, the glory of the victories, the central powers were now in
+      better shape to fight than if Roumania had kept out of the war. The German
+      comic papers were full of pictures which declared that as England and
+      France had always wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now
+      take a long look at King Ferdinand of Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to power of
+          the &ldquo;young Turks&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos in
+          Greece?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of 1913?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and King
+          Constantine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as prisoners the
+          French and British troops who were driven back upon Greek soil?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What right had Venizelos to set up a republic?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King
+          Constantine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What made Roumania decide to join the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central Powers?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap21"></a>Chapter XXI.<br/>
+The War Under the Sea</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Britannia rules the waves.&mdash;Enter the submarine.&mdash;The blockade
+      of Germany.&mdash;The sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i> and other ships.&mdash;The
+      trade in munitions of war.&mdash;The voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i>.&mdash;Germany
+      ready for peace (on her own terms).&mdash;The reply of the allies.&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s
+      amazing announcement.&mdash;The United States breaks off friendly
+      relations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building warships, with
+      the hope that one day their navy might be the strongest in the world. At
+      the outbreak of the great war in 1914 they were still far behind England
+      in naval power. On the other hand, it was necessary for the English to
+      keep their navy scattered all over the world. English battleships were
+      guarding trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the
+      Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of Malta&mdash;all
+      were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed to defend them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few cruisers
+      in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the Mediterranean, was gathered
+      in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern part of the North Sea, and the great
+      Kiel Canal which connected these two bodies of water. It was quite
+      possible that this fleet, by making a quick dash for the ports of England,
+      might find there only a portion of the English ships and be able to
+      overwhelm them before the rest of the English navy should assemble from
+      the far parts of the earth.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the foresight to
+      assemble enough English vessels in home waters in the latter part of the
+      month of July, 1914, to give England the upper hand over the fleet of
+      Germany. As a result, finding the British too strong, the Germans did not
+      venture out into the high seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were
+      fought between cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash
+      across the North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns,
+      killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting back to the
+      Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any number.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time the British
+      were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers were sunk and the
+      others barely escaped the fire of the avengers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German fleet sailed
+      out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were successful in sinking
+      several large ships, but when the main British fleet arrived they began in
+      turn to suffer great losses, and were obliged to retire. With the
+      exception of these two fights and two other battles fought off the coast
+      of South America (in the first of which a small English fleet was
+      destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British fleet took
+      revenge), there have been no battles between the sea forces.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels were
+      either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral nations. German
+      commerce was swept from the seas, while ships carrying supplies to France
+      and the British Isles sailed unmolested&mdash;for a time. Only in the
+      Baltic Sea was Germany mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
+      was kept up as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came
+      great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries bought, in
+      the markets of the world, apparently for themselves, but really for
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new and
+      terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat, the invention
+      of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and enlarged by the
+      Germans. In one of the early months of the war three British warships, the
+      <i>Hogue</i>, the <i>Cressy</i>, and the <i>Aboukir</i>, were cruising
+      about, guarding the waters of the North Sea. There was the explosion of a
+      torpedo, and the <i>Hogue</i> began to sink. One of her sister ships
+      rushed in to pick up the crew as they struggled in the water. A second
+      torpedo struck and a second ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate
+      of the other two, the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster&mdash;the
+      German submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant ships
+      with a thousand men had gone down.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and cruisers were
+      not enough. While England controlled the surface of the sea, there was no
+      way to prevent the coming and going of the German submarine beneath the
+      waters. All naval warfare was changed in a moment; new methods and new
+      weapons had to be employed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up a strict
+      blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which were called
+      &ldquo;contraband of war&rdquo; and which, according to the law of nations, might be
+      seized by one country if they were the property of her enemy. On the list
+      of contraband were all kinds of ammunition and guns, as well as materials
+      for making these. England and France, however, added to the list which all
+      nations before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like
+      cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton and
+      other high explosives, gasoline&mdash;fuel for the thousands of
+      automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for their tires.
+      Soon other substances were added to the list.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The central
+      empires, in ordinary years, raise only about three-fourths of the food
+      that they eat. With the great supply of Russian wheat shut off and vessels
+      from North America and South America not allowed to pass the British
+      blockade, Germany&rsquo;s imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland,
+      and the Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about
+      four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not take a
+      detective to discover that she was secretly selling to Germany the great
+      bulk of what she was buying apparently for herself. In a like manner
+      Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries suddenly developed a much
+      greater appetite than before the war! The British blockade grew stricter.
+      It was agreed to allow these countries to import just enough food for
+      their own purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the
+      food themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The
+      Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had slaughtered many
+      of their cows for beef and as a result grew short of milk and butter.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use her
+      submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles. This happened
+      in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest from the world in general,
+      but Germany agreed that her submarine commanders should warn each ship of
+      its danger and allow the captain time to get the passengers and crew into
+      boats before the deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the
+      danger of the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore,
+      were in serious danger.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars up to this
+      time, have said that a blockade, in order to be recognized by all nations,
+      had to be successful in doing the work for which it was intended. If
+      England really was able to stop every boat sailing for German shores, then
+      all nations would have to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the
+      Germans were able to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed
+      into English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a real
+      blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral nations who were
+      peaceably trying to trade with all the countries at war, this sinking of
+      merchantmen by submarines went on.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In May, 1915, the great steamship <i>Lusitania</i> was due to sail from
+      New York for England. A few days before her departure notices signed by
+      the German ambassador were put into New York papers, warning people that
+      Germany would not be responsible for what happened to them if they took
+      passage on this boat. Very few people paid any attention to these
+      warnings. With over a thousand persons on board the <i>Lusitania</i>
+      sailed, on schedule time. Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to
+      hear that a German submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had
+      sent two torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending
+      her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the boats,
+      but over eight hundred men, women, and children were drowned, of whom over
+      one hundred were American citizens. Strange as it may seem, this action
+      caused a thrill of joy throughout Germany. Some of the Germans were
+      horrified, as were people in neutral countries, but on the whole the
+      action of the German navy was approved by the voice of the German people.
+      With a curiously warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed
+      that the English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children
+      to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was going to be
+      sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which one would speak of
+      the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent children and women to march
+      in front of armies in order to protect the troops from the fire of their
+      enemies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the United
+      States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans, however, prevailed, and
+      the upshot of the matter was that a stern note was sent to Berlin
+      notifying the Kaiser that the United States could not permit vessels
+      carrying Americans to be torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The
+      German papers proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured
+      every French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two
+      Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the boat might
+      be under the protection of the United States.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      However, in spite of Germany&rsquo;s solemn promise that nothing of the sort
+      would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring, although on a
+      smaller scale. The American steamers <i>Falaba</i> and <i>Gulflight</i>
+      were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the loss of one or two
+      lives. Finally, the steamer <i>Sussex</i>, crossing the English Channel,
+      was hit by a torpedo which killed many of the passengers. As several
+      Americans lost their lives, once more the United States warned Germany
+      that this must not be repeated. Germany acknowledged that her submarine
+      commander had gone further than his orders allowed him and promised that
+      the act should not be repeated&mdash;provided that the United States
+      should force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal blockade.
+      The United States in reply made it plain that while the English blockade
+      was unpleasant to American citizens, still it was very different from the
+      brutal murder of women and children on the high seas. England, when
+      convinced that an American ship was carrying supplies which would be sold
+      in the end to Germany, merely took this vessel into an English port, where
+      a court decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British
+      government to pay that sum to the (American) owners.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not anything to go
+      to war over. The United States gave warning that she would hold Germany
+      responsible for any damage to American ships or loss of American lives.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of favoring
+      the nations of the Entente because they were selling munitions of war to
+      them and none to Germany. They said that it was grossly unfair for neutral
+      nations to sell to one side when, owing to the blockade, they could not
+      sell to the other also. When a protest was made by Austria, the United
+      States pointed out that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time
+      the empire of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in
+      South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy munitions in
+      the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not prevent both Austria and
+      Germany from selling guns and ammunition to Great Britain. (It must be
+      made plain that the United States <i>government</i> was not selling
+      munitions of war to any of the warring nations. What Germany wanted and
+      Austria asked was that our government should prevent our private
+      companies, as, for example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which
+      would eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it plain
+      that our people had no feeling in the matter&mdash;that they were in
+      business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it was not our
+      fault that the British navy, being larger than the German, prevented
+      Germany from trading with us.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition factories
+      in the United States that were turning out shells and guns for the Allies.
+      Several hundred Americans were killed in these explosions, and property to
+      the value of millions of dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the
+      Austrian ambassador and several of the German diplomats had been hiring
+      men to commit these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the
+      fact that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the President
+      insisted that their governments recall them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English
+      blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany, who were
+      being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English. As a matter of
+      fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber, cotton, gasoline, and above
+      all, nickel and cobalt, two metals which were needed in the manufacture of
+      guns and shells.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large German
+      submarine, the <i>Deutschland</i>, made the voyage across the Atlantic
+      Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of Baltimore. In spite of
+      all the trouble that the United States had had with Germany over the
+      sinking of ships by submarines, the crew of this vessel was warmly
+      received, and the cargo of dyes which she brought was eagerly purchased.
+      The Germans, in return, loaded their ship with the metals and other
+      products of which Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said,
+      the <i>Deutschland</i> took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the
+      starving babies of Germany. Once more the <i>Deutschland</i> came, this
+      time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with every sign of
+      hospitality.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus54"></a>
+<img src="images/54.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign against
+      Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning to feel the pinch
+      of starvation and the drain on their young men, made it known that as they
+      had won the war they were now ready to treat for peace. This message
+      carried with it a threat to all countries not at war that if they did not
+      help to force the Entente to accept the Kaiser&rsquo;s peace terms, Germany
+      could not be held responsible for anything that might happen to them in
+      the future.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw the United
+      States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this opportunity, and in a
+      public message he asked both sides to state to the world on what terms
+      they would stop the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite proposal.
+      On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no uncertain terms,
+      declared that no peace would be made unless the central powers restored
+      what they had wrongfully seized, paid the victims of their unprovoked
+      attack for the damage they had done, and guaranteed that no such act
+      should ever be committed in the future. They also declared that the Poles,
+      Danes, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed
+      from the tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language
+      this meant that the central powers must give back part of Schleswig to
+      Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored as it once had been;
+      permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an independent nation in the
+      midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the people of Alsace and Lorraine the
+      right of returning to France; annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to
+      Italy, and permit the Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their
+      cousins to the southeast in one great Serbian nation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When these terms were published the German government exclaimed that while
+      they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even give back the
+      conquered portions of Belgium and northern France in return for the
+      captured German colonies in Africa and the Pacific Ocean, with the payment
+      of indemnities to Germany, now it was plain that the nations of the
+      Entente intended to wipe out utterly the German nation and dismember the
+      empire of Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies
+      an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for the
+      central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and <i>use any means
+      whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace</i>.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany said, &ldquo;We
+      have won the war. Don&rsquo;t you recognize the fact that you have been beaten?
+      Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom of Poland, out of the part
+      of Russian Poland which we have conquered, as a separate kingdom under our
+      protection, but don&rsquo;t expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or
+      Prussian Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are <i>ours</i>. You
+      wouldn&rsquo;t expect <i>us</i> to give up any part of <i>them</i>, would you?)
+      Allow us to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the
+      Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of Belgium,
+      and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we are making!&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Allied nations replied, in effect: &ldquo;You now have gotten three-fourths
+      of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we make peace now,
+      allowing you to keep the greater part of what you have conquered, you will
+      be magnanimous and give back a small portion of it if we in turn surrender
+      all your lost colonies. Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you
+      recompense, as far as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack
+      for the death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things
+      back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it plain to us
+      that never again will we have to be on guard against the possibility of a
+      ruthless invasion by your army; that you give to the peoples whom you and
+      your allies have forcibly annexed or retained under your rule a chance to
+      choose their own form of government.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Then said the Germans to the world, &ldquo;You see! They want to wipe us out of
+      existence and cut the empire of our allies into small bits. Nothing is
+      left but to fight for our existence, and, as we are fighting for our
+      existence, all rules hitherto observed in civilized warfare are now called
+      off!&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government announced that,
+      inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an honorable peace (which would
+      have left them still in possession of three-fourths the plunder they had
+      gained in the war) and this peace offer had been rejected by the Entente,
+      all responsibility for anything which might happen hereafter in the war
+      would have to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It
+      was stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when
+      one&rsquo;s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible. Germany
+      proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink <i>without
+      warning</i> all merchant ships sailing toward English or French ports.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In a special note to the United States, the German government said that
+      once a week, at a certain time, the United States would be permitted to
+      send a passenger vessel to England, provided that this boat were duly
+      inspected and proved to have no munitions of war or supplies for England
+      on board. It must be painted all over with red, white, and blue stripes
+      and must be marked in other ways so that the German submarine commanders
+      would know it. (It must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was
+      fighting for the freedom of the seas!)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are free to
+      all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to sink without
+      warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of effrontery that few had
+      imagined even the German government was capable of.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In fact, a
+      great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in the country had
+      criticized him for being too patient. The great majority of the people of
+      the United States were for peace, ardently. The government at Washington
+      knew this. Nevertheless, this last announcement by Germany that she
+      proposed to kill any American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in
+      the neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a self-respecting
+      nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent notice to Count Von
+      Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave this country. Friendly
+      relations between the imperial government of Germany and the United States
+      of America were at an end.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is contraband of war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war material
+          object to the sale of such material to fighting nations by nations at
+          peace?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to make all
+          nations devote too much work to the preparation of war supplies.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Show the difference between the British blockade and the sinking of
+          ships by German submarines.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of the
+          German government have been a good enough reason for the United States
+          to have declared war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i> prove that the United
+          States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in December
+          1916?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state their aims
+          in the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without warning?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap22"></a>Chapter XXII.<br/>
+Another Crown Topples</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.&mdash;The first
+      Duma and the revolt of 1905.&mdash;The Zemptsvos and the people against
+      the pro-German officials.&mdash;The death of Rasputin and other signs of
+      unrest.&mdash;The revolution of March 1917.&mdash;The Czar becomes Mr.
+      Romanoff.&mdash;Four different governments within eight months.&mdash;Civil
+      war and a German effort for peace.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first place by
+      the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the unwillingness of Russia
+      to stand by and see her little neighbor crushed, and that England came in
+      to make good her word, pledged to Belgium, to defend that small country
+      from all hostile attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the
+      world as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights of
+      peoples to live under the form of government which they might choose. You
+      will remember that when the central powers said that they were ready to
+      talk peace terms the nations of the Entente replied that there could be no
+      peace as long as the Danes, Poles, and Alsatians were forcibly held by
+      Germany in her empire and as long as Austria denied the Ruthenians,
+      Roumanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right
+      either to rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of
+      blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond of
+      saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those enslaved by
+      military rule&mdash;a conflict between self-governed nations and those
+      which were oppressing their foreign subjects. Replying to this the central
+      powers would always point to Russia. Russia, said they, oppressed the
+      Poles and Lithuanians, the Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well
+      as Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within her
+      territories. Her people had even less political freedom than the
+      inhabitants of Austria and Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the Germans.
+      There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact there is no doubt
+      that French and British statesmen were afraid of a Russian victory. They
+      did not want the war to be won by the one nation in their group which had
+      a despotic form of government. On the other hand the high officials in
+      Russia were not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the
+      free peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a
+      country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you have been
+      told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of German blood and
+      secretly desired the victory of their fatherland, while many Russians of
+      the party who wanted to keep all power out of the hands of the common
+      people were afraid of seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people
+      would rise up and demand more liberty.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time of the
+      outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were threatened, so
+      that many people thought the Czar had not been at all sorry to see the war
+      break out, in order to turn the minds of his people away from their own
+      wrongs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the cry from
+      the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of elective government,
+      had been so strong that the Czar had to give in. So he called the first
+      Duma. This body of men, as has been explained, could talk and could
+      complain, but could pass no laws. The first Duma had had so many
+      grievances and had talked so bitterly against the government, that it had
+      been forced to break up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down
+      riots among the people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great
+      ferocity. All this time there had been growing, among the Russian people,
+      a feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand dukes and
+      high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that the Czar was
+      well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere puppet in the hands of his
+      German wife, his cousins the grand dukes, and above all a notorious monk,
+      called Rasputin. This strange man, a son of the common people, had risen
+      to great power in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone
+      could keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince, the
+      Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of the ladies
+      in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy&rsquo;s food whenever Rasputin was
+      away from the court for more than a few days. The poor little prince, of
+      course, was made sick; whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for
+      Rasputin, upon whose arrival the Czarevitch &ldquo;miraculously&rdquo; got well. In
+      this manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and
+      Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put bishops out
+      of their places, and even change prime ministers. There is no doubt that
+      the Germans bribed him to use his influence in their behalf. It is a sad
+      illustration of the ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such
+      a man could have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos. These were
+      little assemblies, one in each county in Russia, elected by the people to
+      decide all local matters, like the building of roads, helping feed the
+      poor, etc. They had been started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although
+      the court was rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true
+      to the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and when
+      the world war broke out, this body, really the only patriotic part of the
+      Russian government, kept the grand dukes and the pro-Germans from
+      betraying the nation into the hands of the enemy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the representatives
+      that they elected to these little county assemblies were patriotically
+      carrying out the war, while the grand dukes and the court nobles, who had
+      gotten Russia into this trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the
+      soldiers, either through grafting off the supplies and speculating in
+      food, or traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans.
+      With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain stored
+      away by men who were holding it in order to get still higher prices, there
+      was not enough for the people of Petrograd to eat.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was made
+      prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk, Rasputin.
+      Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was crushed between the
+      armies of the Germans on the one side and the Turks and Bulgars on the
+      other, while trainload after trainload of the guns and munitions which
+      would have enabled her armies to stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on
+      Russian railroads. &ldquo;Your Majesty, we are betrayed,&rdquo; said the French
+      general who had been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the
+      king of Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise
+      after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of Turkey,
+      Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the people had had no
+      schooling and were unable to read and write. It was easier for the grand
+      dukes and nobles to keep down the peasants and to remain undisturbed in
+      the ownership of their great estates if the people knew nothing more than
+      to labor and suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however,
+      the most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were
+      working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then too, the
+      Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by throwing bombs) for
+      the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their teachings throughout the
+      country. Students of the universities, writers, musicians, and artists,
+      had preached the doctrines of the rights of man. While outwardly the
+      government appeared as strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose
+      trunk has rotted through and through, and which needs only one vigorous
+      push to send it crashing to the ground.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It is generally in large cities that protests against the government are
+      begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob of people, to pick out
+      the ones who are responsible for starting the trouble. Then again it is
+      natural for people to make their protests in capital cities where the
+      government cannot fail to hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that
+      in large cities there are always a great number of persons who are poor
+      and who are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard
+      times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of causing
+      the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people desperate&mdash;they do
+      not care whether they live or not&mdash;and, as a result, they dare to
+      oppose themselves to the police and the soldiers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long time. This
+      was felt not only among the common people, but also among the more
+      patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of the winter of 1916-17,
+      the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot, was invited to the home of a
+      grand duke, a cousin of the Czar. There a young prince, determined to free
+      Russia of this pest, shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the
+      ice of the frozen Neva.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely of
+      speculation and &ldquo;cornering the market,&rdquo; had become so serious that the
+      government thought it wise to call in several regiments of Cossacks to
+      reinforce the police.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a freedom not
+      shared by any other class in Russia. They are warriors by trade and their
+      sole duty consists in offering themselves, fully equipped, whenever the
+      government has need of their services in war. They were of a different
+      race, originally, than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying
+      they now have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the
+      streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people. Enjoying
+      freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the practice of their
+      trade&mdash;fighting&mdash;they had had little or no sympathy with the
+      wrongs of the populace, and so were the strongest supporters of the
+      despotic rule of the Czar. At times when the Czar did not dare to trust
+      his regular soldiers to enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the
+      men would refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks
+      could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly through the
+      people, sabering to right and left those who refused to disperse.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus55"></a>
+<img src="images/55.jpg" width="400" height="294" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd protesting
+      against the high prices of food and forming in long lines to demand grain
+      of the government. As day succeeded day, the crowds grew larger and bolder
+      in their murmurings. Cossacks were sent into the city, but for some
+      strange reason they did not cause fear as they had in times past. Their
+      manner was different. Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly
+      joked with the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and
+      were actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger and
+      more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called in. The
+      police fired upon the people when the latter refused to go home. Then a
+      strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes flashing fire, rode at full
+      tilt up the street toward a policeman who was firing on the mob, and shot
+      him dead on the spot. A shout went up from the people: &ldquo;The Cossacks are
+      with us!&rdquo; New regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed
+      them knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own kind
+      of people&mdash;their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that they were
+      hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned upon its officers,
+      refusing to obey them, and made them prisoners. Another and another joined
+      the revolting forces. It was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July,
+      1789. The people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they
+      did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments loyal to
+      the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their revolting comrades. They
+      hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed over to them, pleading with them not
+      to fire. A few scattering volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with
+      a shout of joy, the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and
+      rushed across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the mob
+      a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call upon the Duma
+      and ask this body to form a temporary government. Another group was
+      appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him that henceforth he was not
+      the Czar of all the Russias, but plain Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were
+      sent to the fighting fronts to inform the generals that they were no
+      longer to take orders from the Czar, but from the representatives of the
+      free people of Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the
+      new situation. Within two days a new government had been formed, composed
+      of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar signed a paper
+      giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his young son and nominating
+      his brother Michael to take his place. Michael, however, was too wise. He
+      notified the people that he would accept the crown only if they should
+      vote to give it to him; and this the people would not do.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus56"></a>
+<img src="images/56.jpg" width="399" height="324" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of different
+      departments like the American cabinet, was composed of citizens of the
+      middle classes&mdash;lawyers, professors of the universities, land-owners,
+      merchants were represented&mdash;and at the head of the ministry was a
+      prince. This arrangement did not satisfy the rabble. The radical
+      socialists, most of whom owned no property and wanted all wealth divided
+      up among all the people, were not much happier to be ruled by the
+      moderately well-to-do than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles.
+      The council of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which
+      had formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the powers of
+      government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian people should have
+      peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign minister for the new government,
+      assured France and England that Russia would stick by them to the last, a
+      howling crowd of workingmen threatened to mob him. &ldquo;No annexations and no
+      indemnities,&rdquo; was the cry of the socialists. &ldquo;Let us go back to conditions
+      as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the burden of its own
+      losses and let us have peace.&rdquo; After a stormy session, the new government
+      agreed to include in its numbers several representatives of the soldiers
+      and workingmen. Prof. Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a
+      radical young lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus57"></a>
+<img src="images/57.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian troops</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage offered
+      by Russia&rsquo;s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered to make friends
+      with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They played eagerly upon the
+      new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of man and freedom and equality, to
+      do away with fighting on the east, thus being able to transfer to the
+      western front some of their best regiments. As a result the French and
+      English, after driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France
+      were at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole war
+      seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies in the west.
+      Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the central powers grew
+      stronger and stronger. The Russian troops felt that they had been fighting
+      the battles of the Czar and the grand dukes and they saw no reason why
+      they should go on shooting their brother workingmen in Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set out to
+      visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle grounds of eastern
+      Galicia he made rousing speeches to the soldiers and actually led them in
+      person toward the German trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all
+      along the line under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the
+      Germans and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to
+      recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace party
+      were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a certain
+      division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to the rear, begun by
+      these troops, carried others with it, and for a time it seemed as though
+      the whole Russian army was going to pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to
+      the soldiers. The situation was serious and called for a strong hand.
+      Kerensky was made prime minister and the members of the government and the
+      council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of a Czar.
+      He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or traitors be shot,
+      if need be, without trial. Under his rule the Russian army began to
+      re-form, and the situation improved.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the
+      Bolsheviki (Bo&#774;l-she&#774;-vi&#776;&#8242;ki&#776;) won over the
+      garrisons of Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government,
+      forcing Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany. These
+      people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large cities. They
+      have few followers outside of the city population, for the average Russian
+      in the country is a land owner, and he does not take kindly to the idea of
+      losing his property or dividing it with some landless beggar from
+      Petrograd.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion in the
+      realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by the fights of the
+      different factions. Finland demanded its independence, and German spies
+      and agents encouraged the Ruthenians living in a great province called the
+      Ukraine, to do the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north
+      of the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on
+      fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered largely from
+      the states between the Black and Caspian Seas. Having suffered persecution
+      in the old days, they had hated the Turks for ages and needed no orders
+      from Petrograd to induce them to take revenge.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the central powers
+      which gave Germany and Austria everything that they wanted. The Russian
+      armies were disbanded and the Germans and Austrians were free to turn
+      their fighting men back to the western front. In the meantime, the
+      Ruthenian republic, now called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki
+      to make a separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the
+      Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and the
+      Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the central empires.
+      However, for a whole year hardly anybody in Russia had been willing to do
+      a stroke of work. The fields had gone untilled while the peasants, drunk
+      with their new freedom, and without a care for the morrow, lived off the
+      grain that had been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever
+      grain the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to
+      hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished and as
+      food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy&mdash;a government
+      where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny of the
+      lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the middle classes
+      were not allowed any voice in the government. When the first National
+      Assembly or Congress was elected and called together, the Bolsheviki
+      finding that they did not control a majority of its members, disbanded it
+      by force.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected to being
+      robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by the Czar.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops that
+      refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the regiments of
+      Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against their will, to serve in
+      the Austrian army. They were from the northern part of the Austrian
+      empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They were Slavs, related to the Russians,
+      speaking a language very much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria
+      and anxious to free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When
+      General Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had
+      deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They could not get
+      back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them as deserters. Of
+      course, the Austrian and the German generals would make no peace with
+      them. Therefore, this army, 200,000 strong, kept their own officers and
+      their order and their arms and refused to have anything to do with the
+      cowardly peace made by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their
+      way across Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the
+      Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the thousands in
+      the armies of the Entente. The main body of them, however, are still in
+      Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great Siberian railway, fully ready
+      to renew the war against the central powers at any time when the patriotic
+      Russians will rise and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the
+      Czechs without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied
+      statesmen.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the result of
+      this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and tricksters, that
+      would never deceive an educated man.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Rasputin killed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What classes fought after the Czar&rsquo;s downfall?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the central powers take advantage of Russia&rsquo;s troubles?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from.
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap23"></a>Chapter XXIII.<br/>
+The United States at War&mdash;Why?</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.&mdash;Dr.
+      Zimmermann&rsquo;s famous note.&mdash;Congress declares war.&mdash;Other nations
+      follow our example.&mdash;The plight of Holland, Denmark, and Norway.&mdash;German
+      arguments for submarine warfare shown to be groundless.&mdash;German
+      agents blow up American factories.&mdash;German threats against the United
+      States.&mdash;Germany and the Monroe Doctrine.&mdash;A government whose
+      deeds its people cannot question.&mdash;Why American troops were sent to
+      Europe.&mdash;Why the war lords wanted peace in January, 1918.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the German
+      ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by the United States.
+      The Germans, true to their word, had begun their campaign of attacking and
+      sinking without warning ships of all kinds in the waters surrounding Great
+      Britain and France. Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red
+      cross, and boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were
+      torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in Germany is
+      well illustrated by an incident which happened at this time. It so
+      happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the channel, was laden
+      with about as many German wounded as British. These men had been left
+      helpless on the field of battle after the Germans had retreated, and had
+      been picked up and cared for by the British, along with their own troops.
+      A German submarine with its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom.
+      The wounded men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest
+      chance for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over Germany
+      against the &ldquo;unspeakable brutality&rdquo; of the British who dared to expose
+      German wounded men to the danger of travel on the open sea! The British
+      were warned that if this happened again the Germans would make reprisals
+      upon British prisoners in their hands.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus58"></a>
+<img src="images/58.jpg" width="400" height="330" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war between the
+      United States and Germany. But in the latter part of February, the United
+      States government made public a note which its secret agents had stopped
+      from being delivered to the German ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by
+      Dr. Zimmermann, German minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the
+      ambassador as soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of
+      war with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships without
+      warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with Germany.
+      &ldquo;Together we will make war on the United States,&rdquo; said Dr. Zimmermann,
+      &ldquo;and together we will make peace. Mexico will receive as her reward her
+      lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico.&rdquo; &ldquo;Ask the Mexican
+      government,&rdquo; said Dr. Zimmermann, &ldquo;to propose to the Japanese that Japan
+      break away from her alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in
+      an attack upon the United States.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling in the
+      United States. Up to this time a great portion of the people had felt that
+      perhaps we were hasty in breaking off relations with Germany, and in their
+      earnest desire for peace had been willing to put up with injury and even
+      insults on the part of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their
+      military necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann&rsquo;s note, however,
+      showed the people of the United States the true temper of the government
+      at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords had no respect for
+      anything but brute force, that the language of cannon was the only
+      language which they could understand, and that any further patience on the
+      part of this country would be looked upon as weakness and treated with
+      scorn and contempt.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the
+      President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war existed
+      between the United States of America and the Imperial Government of
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought the United
+      States into the great war. These causes may be given under two heads: (1)
+      the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2) the German plots and threats
+      against our country at a time when we were at peace with them. The latter,
+      as given in pages to follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser&rsquo;s threat, (b)
+      Admiral Von Tirpitz&rsquo;s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and
+      death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war with
+      Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German government&rsquo;s money in
+      an attempt to make our congressmen vote as Germany wished.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus59"></a>
+<img src="images/59.jpg" width="399" height="284" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress</p>
+</div>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Submarine War
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred and
+      twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their death through
+      the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning, under orders of the
+      German government. These people were peaceable travelers, going about
+      their business on the high seas in passenger steamers owned by private
+      companies. According to the law observed by all nations up to this time
+      there was no more reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if
+      they had been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other
+      country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing about the
+      brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without warning, was an act of
+      war on the part of Germany against any country whose citizens happened to
+      be traveling on these ocean steamers. That the action of the United States
+      in calling the submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved
+      by the fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going
+      to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same stand.
+      Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American republics found
+      that they could not maintain their honor without declaring war on Germany.
+      German ambassadors and ministers have been dismissed from practically
+      every capital in Spanish America.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and Norway saw
+      their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite of their wrongs,
+      however, the first two did not dare to declare war on Germany, as the
+      Germans would be able to throw a strong army across the border and overrun
+      each of these two little countries before the allies could come to their
+      help. With the fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the
+      Dutch swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed
+      their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of the Entente
+      to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame Denmark and Holland.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet.
+      Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the Kiel Canal
+      connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities on the Norwegian
+      coast or even land an army to invade the country. The three little
+      countries together do not have an army any larger than that of Roumania,
+      and it would have been out of the question for them to declare war on
+      Germany without seeing their whole territory overrun and laid waste.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against Germany that
+      the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917 sent a vigorous protest
+      to Berlin, closing with these words:
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it has
+      already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of the
+      principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the proclamation of
+      large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by the sinking of neutral
+      merchant ships not carrying contraband.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that not only
+      have German submarines continued to sink peaceful neutral merchant ships,
+      paying no attention to the fate of their crews, but that even German
+      warships adopted the same tactics. The Norwegian government decided to
+      send this note in order to bring to the attention of the German government
+      the impression these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify themselves
+      for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1) that on these ships
+      which were sunk were supplies for the French and British armies, the
+      arrival of which would aid them in killing Germans, and (2) that the
+      English, by their blockade of Germany, were doing something which was
+      contrary to the laws of nations and starving German women and children,
+      and, therefore, since England was breaking some rules of the war game,
+      Germany had the right to go ahead and break others.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France and
+      England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the United States
+      was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to them. Of course, this was
+      foolish, as has been pointed out, for the United States was just as ready
+      to sell to Germany as to the Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of
+      the <i>Deutschland</i>. If our government had forbidden our people to sell
+      war supplies at all, and if other neutral countries had done the same
+      thing, then the result would be that all wars would be won by the country
+      which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A law passed
+      by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from selling munitions
+      would leave a non-military nation, which had not been getting ready for
+      war, absolutely at the mercy of a neighbor who for years had been storing
+      up shells and guns for the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was
+      this right to sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but
+      ordered Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to
+      point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to Great Britain
+      during the Boer War as you have already been told, and Austria had no
+      answer to give.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of different nations
+      at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying to prevent future wars, if
+      possible, or at least to make them more humane and less brutal to the
+      women and children and others who were not actually fighting, Germany had
+      always upheld the right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her
+      representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to settle
+      disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time when many
+      European nations signed treaties with the United States agreeing to allow
+      one year to elapse between a dispute which might lead to war and the
+      actual declaring of war itself, Germany positively refused to consider
+      such an agreement.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany than
+      Germany or any other country would have done to England if the English
+      navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the North kept up a like
+      blockade of the South and no nation protested against it, for it was
+      recognized as an entirely legal act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871,
+      the Germans were blockading the city of Paris and the country around it.
+      The Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the lines to
+      be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the bayonet, and told
+      them that they might &ldquo;fry in their own fat.&rdquo; According to the laws of war
+      they were perfectly justified in what they did. Then, too, the English
+      blockade, which stopped ships which were found to be loaded with supplies
+      for Germany and took them peaceably to an English port, where it was
+      decided how much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very
+      different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women, and
+      children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the goods were
+      caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances did not get their
+      money promptly. On the other side, there was murder of the most fiendish
+      kind, an act of war against neutral states.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Plots and Threats Against the United States
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus60"></a>
+<img src="images/60.jpg" width="400" height="285" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United States
+      had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who sympathized with
+      Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for the relief of the German
+      wounded, it is strongly suspected that this was the very money, which,
+      collected by the German government&rsquo;s own agents, was being spent in plots
+      involving the destroying of the property of some American citizens and the
+      death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were hiring men to
+      blow up American factories, to destroy railroad bridges, and to kill
+      Americans who were making war supplies for the armies of Europe. Factory
+      after factory was blown up with considerable loss of life. Bombs, with
+      clock work attachment to explode them at a certain time, were found on
+      ships sailing for Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to
+      influence members of the United States Congress to vote against the
+      shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for by German
+      money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the West Indies. For a
+      long time there had been a series of stories and newspaper and magazine
+      articles trying to prove to the American people that Japan was planning to
+      make war on us. The same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the
+      Japanese that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States.
+      It now appears that the great part of these stories were started by the
+      Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and profit by the ill
+      will which must follow between the two countries.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these things could
+      be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their Fatherland caused them
+      to go too far. But it has been proved beyond a doubt that all of these
+      acts, which were really acts of war against the United States, were
+      ordered by the government at Berlin and paid for by German money, or by
+      American money which had been contributed for the benefit of the German
+      Red Cross service.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In addition to these facts there were threats against the United States
+      which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our ambassador at Berlin,
+      Mr. Gerard, that &ldquo;America had better beware after this war&rdquo; for he &ldquo;would
+      stand no nonsense from her.&rdquo; Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of
+      the Navy, also told Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as
+      a place from which to start her &ldquo;future war on England and America.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this kind, for
+      they knew that the government in power at Berlin could absolutely command
+      its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of news and substituting other
+      things in the German newspapers could make the German people think
+      anything which the war lords wished them to think. Thus there was great
+      danger that, having won the war from the Entente or having stood them off
+      successfully until the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next
+      attack the United States with the idea of collecting from this
+      comparatively defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which
+      she had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and with
+      the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set up a great
+      empire in South America which would make her almost as powerful as she
+      would have been had her first plans for crushing France and Russia been
+      successful.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall, from your study of United States history, that President
+      Monroe had warned European governments to keep their hands off South
+      America, for the United States would act as big brother to any of the
+      little republics there who might be attacked by a European foe. Germany in
+      recent years has resented this very vigorously. There were nearly half a
+      million Germans in the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine
+      Republic also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were
+      out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a footing in
+      these countries in which she had colonists and gradually to gain control
+      of the entire country. In the fall of 1917 there was uncovered a plot
+      among the German residents of certain states in the southern part of
+      Brazil to make this territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This
+      discovery, along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove
+      Brazil into war with Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because German
+      submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping her lawful
+      trade; second, because paid agents of the German government were
+      destroying American property in the United States, killing American
+      citizens, and creating discord in our political life; they were pretending
+      to be friendly and yet were trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war
+      against us; third, for the reason that because of Germany&rsquo;s threats and
+      her well-known policy in South America there was grave danger that it
+      would be our turn next if the central powers should come out of the
+      European war uncrushed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The American government has made it plain that we are not moved by any
+      desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win through the war
+      except the assurance that our nation will be safe. If Germany had a
+      government which the people controlled, then the United States could trust
+      promises of that government. But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no
+      one can trust the present government of Germany, for it is responsible to
+      no one for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its
+      Chancellor called &ldquo;scraps of paper&rdquo;; it has broken its word; it has
+      ordered &ldquo;acts of frightfulness&rdquo; in the lands which it has conquered and on
+      the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing its will upon enemies and
+      neutral countries alike. It has deceived its own people, persuading them
+      that they were attacked by France and Russia, while all the time it was
+      plotting to rule the world through force of arms.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in this war
+      is &ldquo;to make the world safe for democracy.&rdquo; This means that a free people,
+      who have no desire to interfere with any of their neighbors or to make
+      conquests by force of arms, shall be allowed to live their lives without
+      preparation for war and without fear that they may be attacked by a nation
+      with military rulers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by Germany in
+      1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun for gun and ship for
+      ship with her warlike neighbor to the east. The dread of an attack by the
+      military party of Germany hung over France like a shadow throughout
+      forty-three years of a peace which was only a little better than war,
+      because of the vast amount of money that had to be spent and the attention
+      that had to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one
+      day come.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When once the German people have a controlling voice in the government,
+      then, and not till then, can other governments believe the word of the
+      statesmen at Berlin. But at present the citizens of Germany have little
+      real power. For, while they can elect members of the Reichstag, the
+      Reichstag can pass no laws, for above this body is the national council,
+      whose members are appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand
+      dukes. The power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the
+      hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any of
+      Germany&rsquo;s laws, under the plea that &ldquo;military necessity&rdquo; calls for certain
+      things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into prison those who dared
+      to speak against the war, and has either suppressed newspapers or ordered
+      them to print only what he wished printed; thus the German people have let
+      him do their thinking for them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German baby is
+      taught to say is &ldquo;Kaiser,&rdquo; and all of the schools, which are run by the
+      government, have taught nothing but respect for the present form of
+      government, and almost a worship of the Kaiser himself. What it is hoped
+      that this war will bring about is the freeing of the German people from
+      their blind obedience to the military power, which for its own glory and
+      pride has hurled them by the millions to death.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very different
+      from any hitherto used. With the exception of some troops raised for a few
+      months during the dark days of the War of the Rebellion, all of our armies
+      have been recruited from men who enlisted of their own free will. In this
+      great conflict in which we are now engaged, the government has drawn its
+      soldiers by lot from a list of all the young men in the country between
+      the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are
+      fighting in our ranks.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to fight on
+      another continent. Many persons have felt that we should keep our young
+      men at home and wait for Germany to cross the Atlantic in order to attack
+      us. Our statesmen, on the other hand, saw that the peace of the world was
+      at stake. If Germany, Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose
+      people have no voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this
+      conflict victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad
+      race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the other
+      hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true today, as in the
+      olden times, that those people who take up the sword shall perish by the
+      sword, they will overthrow their leaders and agree to disarm and live at
+      peace in future with their neighbors.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only way by
+      which these people can be convinced is by brute force. When they realize
+      that they have not gained by war, but have lost, not only a great deal of
+      their wealth, through the terrific cost of the war, but the friendship and
+      respect of the whole world, when they realize that the nations allied
+      against them will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs
+      confess that they never want to hear the word &ldquo;war&rdquo; again, then, and only
+      then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and agree to join a
+      league of the nations whose object shall be to prevent any future wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that they were
+      going to come out of the conflict with added territory and big money
+      indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower of their young men
+      slain, and the prospect of conquest and plunder growing smaller and
+      smaller with each passing month, the Germans, too, are beginning to hate
+      the thought of war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The American army can give the finishing touch to the German downfall
+      along the western front, and the sooner the Germans realize that they
+      cannot win from the rapidly growing number of their enemies, the sooner
+      will come the the end of this greatest tragedy in the civilized world.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must be
+      defeated and they were striving hard all through the years 1916 and 1917
+      to make peace while they had possession of enough of the enemy&rsquo;s lands so
+      that they could show their own people some gain in territory to pay them
+      back for their terrible sufferings. The German war debt was so great that
+      the war lords dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized
+      that they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had told
+      them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war upon Germany,
+      (2) that the German armies would win the war in short order, and (3) that
+      a huge sum of money would be collected from France, Belgium, and Russia to
+      pay the expenses of the war. The war lords dreaded to think of the time
+      when their people, knowing that they themselves will have to bear the
+      fearful burden of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced
+      upon the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By
+      Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was ready to
+      talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been made then it would
+      have left Germany absolute mistress of all of middle Europe. Austria,
+      Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the control of the Kaiser and his war
+      lords than were parts of his own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In
+      Belgium, Serbia, Poland, Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the
+      central powers had over forty millions of people who were compelled to
+      work for them like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran
+      into billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the results
+      of the second Balkan war (see <a href="#map20">map</a>), had been
+      forced open by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and
+      Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory. With the
+      drain on the man power of the central powers, with dissatisfaction growing
+      among their people, with the steady increase in the armies of the United
+      States, time was fighting on the side of the allies.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government understood
+          conditions in Mexico and the United States?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon American
+          public opinion?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the steps by which the United States was forced into war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the main difference between the English blockade of Germany
+          and the German submarine war on England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was the German government responsible for the acts of its agents in
+          this country?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is the Monroe Doctrine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was this war different for the United States from any previous
+          conflict?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the greatest obstacle to peace?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap24"></a>Chapter XXIV.<br/>
+Europe as it Should Be</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.&mdash;Peoples outside of the
+      nations with whom they belong.&mdash;The mixture of peoples in
+      Austria-Hungary, and Russia.&mdash;The British Isles.&mdash;The Balkan
+      states.&mdash;Recent changes in the map.&mdash;The wrongs done by mighty
+      nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We have several times shown you, in the course of this little history,
+      maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and through bloodshed. Let
+      us now examine a map of Europe divided according to the race and language
+      of its various peoples. It often happens that the boundaries set by
+      nature, like seas, high mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people
+      from another. It is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed
+      in by the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should
+      grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, Great
+      Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by nature. On this
+      account, it is not surprising that the map of &ldquo;Europe as it should be&rdquo;
+      which unites people of the same blood under the same government, agrees
+      rather closely in some places with the map of Europe as it is.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom of
+      Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish and
+      Portuguese peoples.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and Flemish.
+      Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French people are found in
+      Switzerland and others in that part of the German Empire which was taken
+      away from France after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them inhabit the
+      two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were torn away from Denmark
+      by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula
+      separate the Norwegians from the Swedes about as well as they divide the
+      countries geographically.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the northwestern
+      corner of the German Empire is also peopled by Dutch. The territory around
+      Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the German Empire, is inhabited by
+      Walloons, a Celtic people who speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it
+      is, contains two different types of population, the Walloons and the
+      Flemish.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great many of
+      these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria (sty&#774;&#8242;ri&#774;a&#775;),
+      and the northern Tyrol (ty&#774;&#8242;rol) (western counties of the
+      Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of Switzerland and the
+      edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be found in parts of Hungary; and in
+      the Baltic provinces of Russia there are over two million of them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island of
+      Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians. The province
+      of Trentino (tre&#774;n ti&#8242;no&#772;) (the southern half of the
+      Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is also
+      Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. Certain
+      islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely Italian in their
+      population.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and Germans.
+      Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth tongue is spoken
+      there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner of Switzerland are found
+      people who talk a corruption of the old Latin, which they call Romaunsch
+      or Romansh.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of languages and
+      nationalities. This empire includes nearly a million Italians in its
+      southwestern corner, and three million Roumanians in Transylvania. It has
+      as its subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina several million Serbians. In
+      Slavonia (sla&#775; vo&#772;&#8242;ni&#774; a&#775;), Croatia (cro&#772; a&#8242;tia),
+      and Dalmatia (da&#774;l ma&#772; tia), it has two or three million Slavs,
+      who are closely related to the Serbians. In the north, its government
+      rules over several million Czechs (che&#774;cks) (Bohemians and Moravians)
+      who strongly desire to have a country of their own. It controls also two
+      million Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their
+      independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni o&#772;&#8242;la&#775;),
+      there are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people belonging
+      either by themselves or with their cousins, the Croatians and Serbs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen, who want to
+      get back under French control, a million or two Danes, who want once more
+      to belong to Denmark, and several million Poles, who desire to see their
+      country again united.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map24"></a>
+<a href="images/map24.jpg">
+<img src="images/map24.jpg" width="700" height="484" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe as It Should Be</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as those
+      composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not one people. The
+      Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different from the people of Little
+      Russia, and they in turn are different from the people of Great Russia, to
+      the north. The Baltic provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two
+      million Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number of
+      Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians, cousins of the
+      Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose people, with the
+      Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European family, and who would
+      dearly love to have a separate government of their own.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus61"></a>
+<img src="images/61.jpg" width="401" height="310" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Polish children</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      You have already been told in <a href="#chap05">Chapter V</a> that the country
+      of the English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or
+      the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern part of
+      Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the reason
+      that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly mixed and jumbled.
+      There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the Roumanians and Bulgarians in
+      the Dobrudja. Parts of southern Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia
+      are inhabited by people of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the
+      exception of the two little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited
+      by Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of Bukowina also
+      ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater part of the Russian
+      state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has a population of 7,000,000,
+      there are between five and six million of her people who live outside her
+      present boundaries.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece. Greek
+      people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The Albanians are a
+      separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia should be joined to Serbia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will see that
+      most of the changes that have been made of late years are bringing
+      boundaries nearer where they should be. You will also note that wherever
+      there have been recent changes contrary to this plan, they have always
+      resulted in more bloodshed. The partition of Poland, the annexation of
+      Schleswig, Alsace, and Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian
+      Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina by Austria are good examples.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural boundaries?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who are the Walloons?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who are the Romansh people?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          To what other people are the Esthonians related?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus62"></a>
+<img src="images/62.jpg" width="399" height="270" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The price of the war</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap25"></a>Chapter XXV.<br/>
+The Cost of It All</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      What war debts mean&mdash;The devastation of farms and villages&mdash;Diseases
+      which travel with war&mdash;The men picked to die first&mdash;The
+      survivors and their children&mdash;The effect on France of Napoleon&rsquo;s wars&mdash;What
+      Hannibal did to Rome&mdash;What happened to the Franks&mdash;Sweden before
+      and after the wars of Charles XII&mdash;Europe at the close of the Great
+      War
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly rushing toward
+      bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day; France, Germany, and Austria
+      nearly as much apiece. Thus in the course of a year, a debt of $300 was
+      piled upon every man, woman, and child in the British kingdom. The average
+      family consists of five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per
+      family for each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family
+      in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of money that
+      they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the British people are
+      obliged to add this tremendous debt to the already very large amount that
+      they owe, and will have to go on paying interest on it for hundreds of
+      years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France, Germany,
+      Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In spite of what we have
+      said above of the average income of English families, Great Britain is
+      rich when compared with Austria and Russia. What is more, Great Britain is
+      practically unscarred, while on the continent great tracts of land which
+      used to be well cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless
+      abandon. East Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary,
+      Alsace, Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary,
+      and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to one-fifth of the
+      whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and devastated.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It will be years and years before these countries recover from the effects
+      of war&rsquo;s invasion. For every man killed on the field of battle, it is
+      estimated that two people die among the noncombatants. Children whose
+      fathers are at the front, frail women trying to do the work of men, aged
+      inhabitants of destroyed villages die by the thousands from want of food
+      and shelter.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to look
+      after their health or even to keep clean. As a result, diseases like the
+      plagues of olden times, which civilization thought it had killed, come to
+      life again and destroy whole cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off
+      one-fifth of the population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera
+      raged among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every
+      soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die from
+      disease or wounds or lack of proper care.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus63"></a>
+<img src="images/63.jpg" width="399" height="268" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Rendered Homeless by War</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the country,
+      the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of men who ought to be
+      carefully saved as the fathers of the people to come. As these are killed
+      or disabled, governments draw on the older men who are still vigorous and
+      hardy. Then finally they call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the
+      aged, and the young boys. As a general rule, the members of this last
+      class make up the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of
+      the strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of
+      children.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on the
+      coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like Rome, owned lands
+      far and near. Carthage would have been satisfied to &ldquo;live and let live,&rdquo;
+      but Rome would not have it so. As a result, the two cities engaged in
+      three terrible wars which ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before
+      Carthage was finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal,
+      dealt Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near
+      destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000 men apiece,
+      he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these 150,000 men was a loss from
+      which Rome never recovered. From this time on, her citizens were made of
+      poorer stuff, and the old Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free
+      government began to decline.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who swarmed into
+      the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although they were barbarians,
+      nevertheless had many excellent qualities. They were brave, hardy men and
+      stood for freedom from tyrants. However, they fought so many wars that
+      they were gradually killed off. Take the Franks, for example; the three
+      grandsons of Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a
+      disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle that almost
+      wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about 840 A.D.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about 1700
+      A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer Russia and
+      Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in the southern part of
+      Russia nearly a thousand miles away from home, and his great army was
+      wiped out. After his time, Sweden sank to the level of a second class
+      nation. The bodies of her best men had been strewn on battlefields
+      reaching from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Black Sea.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus64"></a>
+<img src="images/64.jpg" width="268" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Charles XII of Sweden</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation showed a
+      lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men than it had one
+      hundred years previously. The reason for this is easily found. During the
+      twenty-three years of terrible fighting which followed the execution of
+      the king, France left her finest young men dead all over the face of
+      Europe. They died by the thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in
+      Germany, and above all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within
+      the last twenty years have the French, through their new interest in
+      out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a hardy,
+      vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war to set France
+      back where she was one hundred years ago.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her young
+      manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will keep them in
+      poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at a standstill; but
+      worst of all, the feeling of friendship between nations, of world
+      brotherhood, postponed one hundred years. Hatred of nation for nation is
+      stronger than ever.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How does a nation at war increase its debts?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why do diseases thrive in war time?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What became of the Goths and Franks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of Napoleon&rsquo;s many wars upon the strength of the
+          French nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is war growing more humane?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap26"></a>Chapter XXVI.<br/>
+What Germany Must Learn</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The German plot.&mdash;What the Czar&rsquo;s prohibition order did.&mdash;Where
+      Germany miscalculated.&mdash;Where England and America failed to
+      understand.&mdash;An appeal to force must be answered by force.&mdash;Effect
+      of the Russian revolution.&mdash;&ldquo;It never must happen again.&rdquo;&mdash;The
+      league to enforce peace.&mdash;The final lesson.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in English
+      speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be a real war
+      between civilized nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was
+      unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would deliberately plot,
+      in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the world through military
+      force, as we now know that the war lords of Prussia and Austria planned
+      it. However, the plot was not only made but was almost successful. They
+      made, though, a great mistake in the case of England. They were sure that
+      she would not enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France
+      and Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in
+      calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her troops. In
+      1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the Russian soldiers had
+      become so drunk that it was many weeks before they could be gotten into
+      any kind of military shape. But at the outbreak of the great &ldquo;world-war&rdquo;
+      the order of the Czar which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all
+      of Prussia&rsquo;s plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her
+      army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through the German
+      province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had opened. The result
+      was that the German soldiers had to be sent back from northern France to
+      stop the victorious march of the Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in
+      the first week of September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung
+      in the balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces on
+      either side might have made all the difference in the world in the final
+      outcome. The little British army, which was less than one-eighth of the
+      force of the Allied side, probably furnished the factor that defeated the
+      Germans. The presence in the battle of the German troops who had been
+      withdrawn to stop the Russians, might have given victory to the invaders.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the attack on
+      France. Any one of these three factors might have won the war in short
+      order for the forces of Austria and Germany. With France crushed, as she
+      might have been, in spite of her heroic resistance, without the help of
+      the tiny British army, or with the intervention of Italy on the side of
+      her former allies, it would have been no difficult task for the combined
+      forces of Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into
+      confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia, and be
+      back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves fell from the
+      trees.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations where the
+      people rule, could not believe that in this day and age the rulers of any
+      civilized country would deliberately plot robbery and piracy on so grand a
+      scale. They had looked forward to the time when all nations might disarm
+      and live in peace with their neighbors. In France alone, of all the
+      western nations, was there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France,
+      having learned the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France,
+      burdened by a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by
+      the Germans in &rsquo;71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to arms
+      at the first rattling of the Prussian saber.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians, and
+      thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the doctrine that
+      military force is the only power in the world worth considering. Some of
+      the German people still cling to the high ideals of their ancestors, but
+      the majority had drunk deeply of the wine of conquest and were intoxicated
+      with the idea that Germany&rsquo;s mission in life was to conquer all the other
+      nations of the world and rule them for their own good by German
+      thoroughness and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp
+      this feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force and
+      appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they will listen to
+      reason only after they have been thoroughly crushed by a superior force.
+      The sufferings brought upon the German nation by the war have had a great
+      effect in making them doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As
+      long as the people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful
+      victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the Roumanians, they
+      were contented to endure all manner of hardships.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in a
+      despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the German people,
+      although they were governed strictly by the military rule, nevertheless,
+      were contented as long as they were prosperous and victorious in war. With
+      the rumors and fears of defeat, however, they began to doubt their
+      government. There are indications that sweeping reforms in the election of
+      representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body itself will
+      take place before long.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central powers.
+      In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for a ruler while
+      England, France, and Italy were countries where the people elected their
+      law makers, made it impossible that there should be the best of
+      understanding between the allies. Then, again, the various peoples of
+      Austria-Hungary, while they were not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg
+      family, were afraid lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be
+      &ldquo;jumping from the frying pan into the fire.&rdquo; They would rather bear the
+      evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand dukes
+      might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to Germany to the
+      end, because of her fear that Russia would seize Constantinople. When the
+      new government of Russia, then, announced that they did not desire to
+      annex by force any territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were
+      in bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital city
+      was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs of Austria that
+      they were in no danger of being swallowed up in the Russian empire, but
+      that, on the other hand, the Russians wanted them to be free, like
+      themselves; it showed the German people how easily a whole nation, when
+      united, could get rid of its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who
+      had never favored the military rule.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now united in
+      an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in Austria and in Germany&mdash;a
+      curse which has disappeared from all other parts of the civilized world.
+      They are united to crush the military spirit of conquest which exists
+      among the war leaders of the Prussians. They are pledged &ldquo;to make the
+      world safe for democracy&rdquo; as President Wilson has said; to do away with
+      the rule of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and
+      Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil power, so
+      long will it be necessary to police the world. There must be no repetition
+      of the savage attack of August, 1914. There was a time when many of us
+      believed that some one nation, by disbanding its army and refusing to
+      build warships, might set an example of disarming which all the world
+      would finally follow. It now is plain that there must be a &ldquo;League to
+      Enforce Peace&rdquo; as Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have
+      declared. The United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy,
+      Belgium, Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway,
+      Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the will of the
+      people is the law, must unite in an alliance which will insist on
+      arbitration as a means of settling disputes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which might
+      well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however, they laid
+      their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an Italian, a
+      Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court, by a vote of four
+      to one, decided against England, and England accepted the decision as
+      final, although it cost her many millions of dollars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the world
+      maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as police for its own
+      affairs, and there must be an international police to settle all
+      differences between nations and to enforce the orders of the court of
+      arbitration. In time (no one knows how soon) the people of Germany and
+      Austria will be freed from the military rule which now has the power to
+      hurl them into war. When that day arrives and they learn that they have
+      been led astray by Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a
+      blessing to a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to
+      survive, they will know that &ldquo;Thou shalt not kill&rdquo; is just as strong a
+      commandment today as when it first was uttered.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to live,
+      and that no country can wrong another through force of arms without
+      suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in the loss of the
+      sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening of the Christ-spirit of
+      doing good to others, the nation which resorts to force to gratify its own
+      selfish ends, like the individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds.
+      It, was a great American who said, &ldquo;The world is my country and mankind
+      are my brothers.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and the United States fail to understand Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What right would Germany have had to an indemnity?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What great change took place in Germany after 1866?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What lesson must Germany learn?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why have the South American republics fought so many wars?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Suggest some solution for the problem of war.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by arbitration?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is the greatest lesson taught by the war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap27"></a>Pronouncing Glossary</h2>
+
+    <p>
+      In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the English
+      pronunciation is given for names that have become at all familiar in
+      history or geography. Thus the English Cra&#772;&#8242;co&#772;w is given
+      instead of the Polish Kra&#775;&#8242;ko&#861;of or the German Kra&#776;&#8242;kau.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given as the
+      natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no recognized English
+      pronunciation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations, the
+      author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus a seaport in
+      Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no less than five names. Its
+      Greek name is pronounced The&#774;ssa&#775;lo&#772;nyi&#8242;ki, while
+      other nations term it variously Sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ka&#772;, Se&#774;la&#775;ni&#776;k&#8242;,
+      So&#772;&#8242;lo&#772;n, Sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ki or Salo&#772;&#8242;nica&#775;.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking people to
+      reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables which approximate them
+      as nearly as possible.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found pronounced
+      in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as Austria, Bismarck, etc.,
+      can hardly be mispronounced.<br/><br/>
+    </p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+Aboukir (a&#776;&#8242;bo&#776;&#776; ki&#776;r)<br/>
+Aegean (e&#772; je&#772;&#8242;a&#774;n)<br/>
+Agadir (a&#775; ga&#775; di&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Aix-la-Chapelle (a&#772;ks la&#776; sha&#775;pe&#774;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Albania (a&#774;l ba&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Algeciras (a&#774;l je&#774; si&#8242;ra&#775;s) or (a&#775;lje&#774; si&#776;&#8242;ra&#775;s)<br/>
+Alsace (a&#775;l sa&#775;s&#8242;)<br/>
+Andrassy (a&#775;n dra&#775;s&#8242;sy&#774;)<br/>
+Aragon (a&#774;&#8242;ra&#775; go&#774;n)<br/>
+Armada (a&#776;r ma&#776;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Armenians (a&#776;r me&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Arminius (a&#776;r mi&#774;n&#8242;i&#776; u&#774;s)<br/>
+Avlona (a&#775;v lo&#772;&#8242;n&#775;a)<br/>
+Baden (ba&#776;&#8242;de&#774;n)<br/>
+Balkan (ba&#775;l ka&#776;n&#8242;) or (bo&#770;l&#8242;ka&#776;n)<br/>
+Banat (ba&#775;n&#8242;a&#775;t)<br/>
+Basques (ba&#775;sks)<br/>
+Bastille (ba&#775; sti&#776;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Bavaria (ba&#775; va&#772;&#8242;ri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Belfort (be&#774;l&#8242;fo&#770;r)<br/>
+Bernadotte (be&#772;r&#8242;na&#775; do&#774;t)<br/>
+Bessarabia (be&#774;s sa&#775; ra&#772;&#8242;bi&#776; a&#775;) or (be&#774;s
+sa&#775; ra&#776;&#8242;bi&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen (she&#771;n how&#8242;ze&#774;n)<br/>
+Blenheim (ble&#774;n&#8242;e&#774;m) or (ble&#774;n&#8242;hi&#772;m)<br/>
+Boer (bo&#862;or)<br/>
+Bohemia (bo&#772;he&#772;&#8242;mi&#772;a&#775;)<br/>
+Bonaparte (bo&#772;&#8242;na&#775; pa&#776;rt)<br/>
+Bosnia (bo&#774;z&#8242;ni&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Bourbon (bo&#862;or&#8242;bu&#774;n)<br/>
+Brandenburg (bra&#774;n&#8242;de&#774;n bu&#770;rg)<br/>
+Breton (bre&#772;&#8242;ton) or (bre&#774;t&#8242;u&#774;n)<br/>
+Brusiloff (bru&#772; si&#8242;lo&#774;ff)<br/>
+Bukowina (bo&#861;o ko&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Bulgaria (bu&#774;l ga&#772;&#8242;ri&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Burgundians (bu&#770;r&#8242;gu&#774;n&rsquo;di&#776; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Burgundy (bu&#770;r&#8242;gu&#774;n dy)<br/>
+Byzantium (by&#774; za&#774;n&#8242;ti&#776; &#774;um)<br/>
+Caesar (se&#772;z&#8242;e&#772;r)<br/>
+Carniola (ca&#775;r ni&#776; o&#772;&#8242;la&#775;)<br/>
+Carpathian (ca&#771;r pa&#772;&#8242;thi&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Carthage (ca&#775;r&#8242;tha&#772;j)<br/>
+Castile (ca&#775;s til&#8242;)<br/>
+Castlereagh (ca&#774;s&#8242;l ra&#772;)<br/>
+Cavour (ca&#775; vo&#862;or&#8242;)<br/>
+Charlemagne (sha&#776;r le&#774; ma&#772;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Chauvinists (sho&#772;&#8242;vi&#774;n i&#774;sts)<br/>
+Cicero (si&#774;s&#8242;e&#772; ro&#772;)<br/>
+Cimbri (si&#774;m&#8242;bri&#776;)<br/>
+Cincinnatus (si&#774;n si&#774;n na&#776;&#8242;tu&#774;s)<br/>
+Constantine (co&#774;n&#8242;sta&#774;n ti&#776;n)<br/>
+Cracow (cra&#772;&#8242;co&#772;)<br/>
+Crimea (cri&#774; me&#772;&#8242;a&#775;)<br/>
+Croatia (cro&#772; a&#776;&#8242;ti&#776; a&#775;) or (cro&#772;a&#776;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Czech (che&#774;k)<br/>
+Dacians (da&#772;&#8242;shu&#774;nz)<br/>
+Dalmatia (da&#774;l ma&#772;&#8242;shi&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Théophile Delcassé (ta&#772;&#8242;o&#772; fi&#776;l de&#774;l
+ca&#775; sa&#776;&#8242;)<br/>
+Deutschland (doitsh&#8242;la&#775;nd)<br/>
+Devonshire (de&#774;v&#8242;o&#774;n shi&#776;r)<br/>
+Disraeli (di&#774;z ra&#772;&#8242;li&#774;)<br/>
+Dobrudja (do&#772; bro&#861;od&#8242;ja&#775;)<br/>
+Dreibund (dri&#772;&#8242;bo&#861;ond)<br/>
+Durazzo (du&#772; ra&#775;t&#8242;zo&#776;)<br/>
+Emmanuel (e&#774;m ma&#774;n&#8242;u&#772; e&#774;l)<br/>
+Entente Cordiale (a&#775;n ta&#775;nt&#8242;co&#770;r dya&#775;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Enver Bey (e&#774;n&#8242;ve&#771;r ba&#772;&#8242;)<br/>
+Epinal (e&#774;p&#8242;i&#776; na&#775;l)<br/>
+Epirus (e&#774;p i&#772;&#8242;ru&#774;s)<br/>
+Erse (e&#772;rs)<br/>
+Esthonians (e&#774;s tho&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#774;nz)<br/>
+Etruscans (e&#772; tru&#774;s&#8242;ca&#774;nz)<br/>
+Euphrates (u&#772; fra&#772;&#8242;te&#772;z)<br/>
+Fashoda (fa&#775; sho&#772;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Fiume (fi&#776; u&#772;&#8242;me)<br/>
+Gaelic (ga&#772;&#8242;li&#774;c)<br/>
+Galicia (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Gallipoli (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;po&#772;li&#776;)<br/>
+Garibaldi (ga&#775;r i&#776; ba&#775;l&#8242;di&#776;)<br/>
+Gerard (je&#774;r a&#776;rd&#8242;)<br/>
+Germanic (je&#771;r ma&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Glamis (gla&#774;m&#8242;i&#774;s)<br/>
+Gortchakoff (go&#770;r&#8242;cha&#775; ko&#774;f)<br/>
+Goths (go&#774;ths)<br/>
+Granada (gra&#775; na&#776;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Hannibal (ha&#774;n&#8242;ni&#774; bl)<br/>
+Hanover (ha&#774;n&#8242;o&#772; ve&#771;r)<br/>
+Herzegovina (ha&#772;rt&#8242;se&#774; go&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Hesse-Darmstadt (he&#774;s se&#774; da&#776;rm&#8242;sta&#775;t)<br/>
+Hindustan (hi&#774;n do&#862;o sta&#776;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Hohenzollern (ho&#772; e&#774;n tso&#774;l&#8242;e&#771;rn)<br/>
+Holstein (ho&#772;l&#8242;sti&#772;n)<br/>
+Illyrians (i&#774; ly&#774;r&#8242;i&#774; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Istria (i&#774;s&#8242;tri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Janina (ya&#775; ni&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Janus (ja&#772;&#8242;nu&#774;s)<br/>
+Jonescu (jo&#772; ne&#774;s&#8242;ko&#862;o)<br/>
+Jutes (ju&#772;ts)<br/>
+Kaiser (ki&#772;&#8242;ze&#771;r)<br/>
+Kaspar (ka&#774;s&#8242;pa&#776;r)<br/>
+Kavala (ka&#775; va&#776;&#8242; la&#775;)<br/>
+Kerensky (ke&#774; re&#774;n&#8242;ski&#774;)<br/>
+Khartoom (ka&#776;r to&#862;om&#8242;)<br/>
+Korea (ko&#772; re&#772;&#8242;a&#775;)<br/>
+Ko&#775;rniloff (kor ni&#776;&#8242;lo&#774;ff)<br/>
+Koumanova (ko&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;no&#772; va&#775;)<br/>
+Lamar (la&#775; ma&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Leon (le&#772;&#8242;o&#774;n)<br/>
+Liege (li&#776; e&#774;zh&#8242;)<br/>
+Lithuania (li&#774;th o&#862;o a&#772;&#8242;ni&#772;a&#775;)<br/>
+Longwy (lo&#774;ng&#8242;vy&#774;)<br/>
+Lorraine (lo&#770;r ra&#772;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Macedonia (ma&#774; se&#772; do&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Magyar (mo&#774;d&#8242;ya&#776;r)<br/>
+Manchuria (ma&#774;n chu&#772;&#8242;ri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Marathon (ma&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; tho&#774;n)<br/>
+Marchand (ma&#776;r sha&#776;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Maria Theresa (ma&#776; ri&#772;&#8242;a&#776; te&#774;r e&#772;s&#8242;a&#776;)<br/>
+Marlborough (ma&#776;rl&#8242;bo&#772; ro&#772;)<br/>
+Marsala (ma&#776;r sa&#776;&#8242;la&#775;)<br/>
+Marseillaise (ma&#776;r se&#774;l ya&#772;z&#8242;)<br/>
+Mazzini (ma&#775;t si&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;)<br/>
+Mesopotamia (me&#774;s o&#772; po&#772; ta&#772;&#8242;mi&#774; a&#776;)<br/>
+Metternich (me&#774;t&#8242;te&#771;r ni&#774;kh)<br/>
+Milioukoff (mi&#774;l yo&#862;o&#8242;ko&#774;ff)<br/>
+Mirabeau (mi&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; bo&#772;)<br/>
+Modena (mo&#772; de&#772;&#8242;na&#775;) or (mo&#772;&#8242;da&#772; na&#775;)<br/>
+Mohammedan (mo&#772; ha&#774;m&#8242;me&#774;d a&#775;n)<br/>
+Moltke (mo&#772;lt&#8242;ka&#775;)<br/>
+Monastir (mo&#772; na&#775; sti&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Montenegrin (mo&#774;n te&#772; ne&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;n)<br/>
+Montenegro (mo&#774;n te&#772; ne&#772;&#8242;gro&#772;)<br/>
+Moslems (mo&#774;z&#8242;le&#774;mz)<br/>
+Murat (mu&#776;&#8242;ra&#776;)<br/>
+Napoleon (na&#775; po&#772;&#8242;le&#772; o&#774;n)<br/>
+Nice (ni&#776;s)<br/>
+Northumberland (no&#770;rth u&#774;m&#8242;be&#771;r la&#774;nd)<br/>
+Novibazar (no&#772;&#8242;vi&#774; ba&#775; za&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Ostrogoths (o&#774;s&#8242;tro&#772; go&#774;ths)<br/>
+Ottoman (o&#774;t&#8242;to&#772; ma&#775;n)<br/>
+Parma (pa&#776;r&#8242;ma&#775;)<br/>
+Piedmont (pe&#772;d&#8242;mo&#774;nt)<br/>
+Pola (po&#772;&#8242;la&#776;)<br/>
+Poland (po&#772;&#8242;la&#774;nd)<br/>
+Pomerania (po&#774;m e&#774;r a&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Pyrenees (pi&#774;r&#8242;e&#774;n e&#772;e&#772;z)<br/>
+Rasputin (ra&#776;s po&#862;o&#8242;ti&#776;n)<br/>
+Reichstag (ri&#772;khs&#8242;ta&#776;gh)<br/>
+Riga (ri&#776;&#8242;ga&#775;)<br/>
+Romansh (ro&#772; ma&#775;nsh&#8242;)<br/>
+Roon (ro&#772;n)<br/>
+Roumani (ro&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;)<br/>
+Roumania (ro&#862;o ma&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Ruthenian (ro&#861;o the&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Sadowa (sa&#776;&#8242;do&#772; va&#775;)<br/>
+Salonika (sa&#775;&#8242;lo&#772; ni&#776;&#8242;ka&#775;)<br/>
+Sanjak (sa&#775;n ja&#775;k&#8242;)<br/>
+San Stephano (sa&#775;n ste&#774; fa&#776;&#8242;no&#776;)<br/>
+Sa&ocirc;ne (so&#772;n)<br/>
+Sarajevo (sa&#776; ra&#776; ye&#774;&#8242;vo&#772;)<br/>
+Sardinia (sa&#776;r di&#774;n&#8242;i&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Sarrail (sa&#775;r ri&#772;&#8242;)<br/>
+Savoy (sa&#775; voy&#8242;)<br/>
+Saxony (sa&#774;x&#8242;o&#772;n y&#774;)<br/>
+Sazanof (sa&#776;&#8242;za&#776; no&#774;ff)<br/>
+Scandinavian (sca&#774;n di&#774; na&#772;&#8242;vi&#774; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Schleswig (shle&#774;s&#8242;vi&#774;g)<br/>
+Scutari (sko&#862;o&#8242;ta&#776; ri&#776;)<br/>
+Serbia (se&#771;r&#8242;bi&#774; a&#775;)<br/>
+Silesia (si&#774;l e&#772;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Skipetars (ski&#776;p&#8242;e&#774; tarz)<br/>
+Slavic (sla&#776;&#8242;vi&#774;c)<br/>
+Slavonia (sla&#775; vo&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Slavonic (sla&#775; vo&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Slavs (sla&#776;vz)<br/>
+Slovak (slo&#772; va&#776;k&#8242;)<br/>
+Slovenes (slo&#772; ve&#772;nz&#8242;)<br/>
+Slovenian (slo&#772; ve&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Sobieski (so&#772; bi&#774; e&#774;s&#8242;ki&#774;)<br/>
+Stoessel (ste&#772;s&#8242;se&#774;l)<br/>
+Strasbourg (stra&#775;s&#8242;bo&#861;org)<br/>
+Styria (sty&#774;&#8242;ri&#774; a&#775;)<br/>
+Suevi (swe&#772;&#8242;vi&#776;)<br/>
+Syria (sy&#774;r&#8242;i&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Take (ta&#776; ka&#772;)<br/>
+Talleyrand (ta&#775;l&#8242;la&#772; ra&#775;n)<br/>
+Teutones (tu&#772; to&#772;&#8242;ne&#772;z)<br/>
+Teutonic (tu&#772; to&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Thessaly (the&#774;s&#8242;sa&#775; ly&#774;)<br/>
+Thracians (thra&#772;&#8242;shu&#774;nz)<br/>
+Tigris (ti&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;s)<br/>
+Toul (to&#862;ol)<br/>
+Transylvania (tra&#774;n sy&#774;l va&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Trentino (tre&#774;n ti&#772;&#8242;no&#772;)<br/>
+Trieste (tri&#776; e&#774;st&#8242;) or (tri&#776; e&#774;s&#8242;ta&#772;)<br/>
+Tripoli (tri&#774;p&#8242;o&#772; li&#774;)<br/>
+Tuscany (tu&#774;s&#8242;ca&#775; ny&#774;)<br/>
+Tyrol (ty&#774;&#8242;ro&#772;l)<br/>
+Tzernagorah (tze&#772;r na&#776;&#8242;go&#772;&#8242;ra&#775;)<br/>
+Vandals (va&#774;n&#8242;dlz)<br/>
+Venetia (ve&#774;n e&#772;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Venizelos (ve&#774;n i&#774; ze&#774;l&#8242;o&#774;s)<br/>
+Vercingetorix (ve&#772;r si&#774;n je&#774;t&#8242;o&#776; ri&#774;ks)<br/>
+Verdun (va&#772;r du&#774;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Volgars (vo&#774;l&#8242;ga&#776;rz)<br/>
+Von Bernstorff (fo&#774;n ba&#772;rns&#8242;torf)<br/>
+Von Plehve (fo&#774;n pla&#772;&#8242;ve&#772;)<br/>
+Von Tirpitz (fo&#774;n ti&#776;r&#8242;pi&#774;ts)<br/>
+Vosges (vo&#772;zh)<br/>
+Walloon (wa&#776;l lo&#862;on&#8242;)<br/>
+Westphalia (we&#774;st fa&#772;&#8242;li&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Wied (we&#862;ed)<br/>
+Wilhelmine (wi&#774;l&#8242;he&#774;l mi&#776;n)<br/>
+Yorkshire (yo&#770;rk&#8242;shi&#772;r)
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap28"></a>Index</h2>
+
+      <p>
+        Adriatic Sea, question of the control of.<br /> Agadir incident.<br />
+        Albania, formation of the kingdom of.<br /> Albanians,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;language
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;habits of.<br /> Alexander the Great.<br /> Algeciras
+        incident.<br /> Alliance, the Holy.<br /> Alliance, the Triple.<br />
+        Alliance, the Dual.<br /> Alliance, the Balkan.<br /> Alsace.<br />
+        Ambassador.<br /> Angles, the, invade Britain.<br /> Arbitration of
+        national disputes.<br /> Arminius.<br /> Armor, value of.<br />
+        Austria-Hungary,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;helps to
+        divide Poland;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war with France;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at
+        war with Sardinia and France;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war with Prussia and
+        Italy;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble.<br />
+        Austrians in Italy.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Balance of Power.<br /> Balkan problem.<br /> Barons.<br /> Bastille, fall
+        of the.<br /> Belgium,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;joined to Holland to form the
+        Netherlands;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;independent;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;guaranteed
+        its freedom by three powers.<br /> Bernadotte.<br /> Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen.<br />
+        Blenheim, battle of (poem).<br /> Blockade of Germany.<br /> Bohemia,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;part of the Holy Roman Empire;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;part of the
+        Hapsburg domains.<br /> Bolsheviki, revolt of the.<br /> Bonaparte, Louis
+        Napoleon.<br /> Bonaparte, Napoleon.<br /> Bosnian problem.<br /> Bourbon
+        family.<br /> Brandenburg;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp; rise of.<br /> Brazil
+        declares war on Germany.<br /> Britons.<br /> Bulgaria,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;freed
+        by Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;left partially under the control of Turkey;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;independent;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;with
+        five nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;plunges into world war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;treacherously
+        orders an attack on Greece and Serbia.<br /> Bulgars,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Macedonia.<br /> Bulow, Prince von.<br />
+        Burgundians.<br /> Byzantium becomes Constantinople.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Caesar, Julius.<br /> Cape to Cairo Railroad.<br /> Catharine II of
+        Russia.<br /> Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia.<br /> Celtic
+        languages, disappearance of.<br /> Celts.<br /> Charlemagne.<br /> Charles
+        V.<br /> Charles XII of Sweden.<br /> Chauvinists.<br /> Churchill,
+        Winston.<br /> Cincinnatus.<br /> Constantine,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;prince in
+        Crete;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;king of Greece.<br /> Constantinople.<br />
+        Contraband of war.<br /> Cracow, Republic of.<br /> Crete.<br /> Czechs.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Danes,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Schleswig.<br /> Dark Ages.<br /> Delcassé.<br />
+        Denmark,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;loses Norway;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defeated by
+        Prussia and Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;injured by submarine campaign.<br />
+        <i>Deutschland</i>, voyages of the.<br /> Dialects.<br /> Dictator, Roman.<br />
+        Divine right of kings.<br /> Dukes vs. Kings.<br /> Duma, the Russian;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;asked to form a government.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Edward VII.<br /> Elba, Napoleon&rsquo;s return from.<br /> Elector, the Great.<br />
+        Electors of the Holy Roman Empire.<br /> England,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;power
+        of the king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Egypt;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;troubles of,
+        in 1914.<br /> Entente Cordiale.<br /> Entente, the Triple.<br />
+        Esthonians.<br /> Etruscans.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fashoda incident.<br /> Ferdinand of Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;enters
+        war on side of Germany and Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks Serbia;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;ambitions of.<br /> Feudal system.<br /> Finland annexed to
+        Russia.<br /> Finns;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp; conquered by the Swedes.<br />
+        Flemish.<br /> France,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;power of king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;execution
+        of king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Africa;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;wars of.<br />
+        Franks.<br /> Franz Ferdinand.<br /> Frederick the Great.<br /> French
+        Revolution.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gaelic language.<br /> Gaels.<br /> Garibaldi.<br /> Gauls.<br /> German
+        Confederation.<br /> German secret agents<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;set fire to
+        American property and kill Americans;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;try to stir up
+        war between the U. S. and Japan;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;stir up trouble in
+        Russia.<br /> German tribes.<br /> Germanic languages.<br /> Germany, the
+        Holy Roman Empire of.<br /> Germany,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;the modern Empire
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;encourages France to declare war on England;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;makes friends with Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;policy toward
+        Balkan nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;warns Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks
+        France through Belgium.<br /> Goths.<br /> Government,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;by
+        the people;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;based on the consent of the governed;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;limited to the ruling class.<br /> Governments, newness of
+        European.<br /> Great Britain<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;offers to judge Serbian
+        trouble;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Germany.<br /> Greece,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;treaty of, with Serbia;<br /> Greek Empire,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;fall of.<br /> Greeks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;ungenerous
+        to Bulgarians,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;desert to Venizelos;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;join
+        the Entente.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hague, court of the.<br /> Hannibal&rsquo;s war against Rome.<br /> Hapsburgs,
+        the.<br /> Hohenzollern family.<br /> Holstein.<br /> Homage.<br />
+        Hungarians.<br /> Huns.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Indemnity.<br /> Indo-European family of languages.<br /> Istria.<br />
+        Italy,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;a battle ground of nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;becomes
+        a nation;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;makes war on Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declines
+        to support Austria and Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on
+        Austria.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Kavala.<br /> Kent, William, on Mexican intervention.<br /> Kerensky,
+        leader of the Russian government.<br /> Kings, origin of.<br /> Koumanova,
+        battle of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Labor troubles,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in England;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Russia.<br />
+        Language, relationship shown by.<br /> Latin tongues.<br /> Lithuania.<br />
+        Lombards.<br /> Lorraine.<br /> Louis XIV of France.<br /> <i>Lusitania</i>,
+        sinking of the.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Macedonia.<br /> Magyars.<br /> Marathon, battle of.<br /> Marchand, Major.<br />
+        Maria Theresa,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;Empress of Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;helps
+        to divide Poland.<br /> Marlborough, Duke of.<br /> Mazzini.<br />
+        Metternich.<br /> Middle Ages.<br /> Military service,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;owed
+        to rulers;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Prussia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in France.<br />
+        Mirabeau.<br /> Moltke.<br /> Montenegro,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Austria.<br /> Monroe Doctrine.<br /> Moors.<br />
+        Murat.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Napoleon III.<br /> Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of.<br />
+        Newspapers, control of.<br /> Normans.<br /> Norway,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;joined
+        to Sweden;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;danger from Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;vigorously
+        protests submarine warfare.<br /> Novibazar, the Sanjak of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ostrogoths.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Paris, siege of.<br /> Peace,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;German offer of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;Allies&rsquo; terms of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;United States&rsquo; desire
+        for;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;Russo-German conference toward;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;German
+        desire for.<br /> Peasants,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attached to the land;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;support fighting classes.<br /> Peter the Great.<br /> Poland,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;kingdom of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;partition of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;given
+        largely to Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;revolutions in.<br /> Preparation for
+        war<br /> Prussia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of kingdom of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;crushed
+        by Napoleon;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;dominated by Bismarck.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rasputin;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;assists Sturmer;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;is killed.<br />
+        Reichstag.<br /> Reign of Terror.<br /> Republic,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;first
+        French;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;second French;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;third French.<br />
+        Robber chiefs.<br /> Roman Empire, beginnings of.<br /> Romansh people.<br />
+        Rome, wars of, with Carthage.<br /> Roon.<br /> Rothschild, the banking
+        house of.<br /> Roumani.<br /> Roumania;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;hopes of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;population of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Austria;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;is crushed between two armies.<br /> Russia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;rise
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;policy of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;relations with Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defends Serbia;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;ignorance of the people of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;revolution in;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;controlled by the Bolsheviki.<br /> Ruthenians.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sarrail,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sent to Salonika;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;watching
+        Bulgars and Greeks.<br /> Saxons.<br /> Saxony,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;annexed
+        in part to Prussia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;allied to Austria.<br /> Salonika,
+        Spanish Jews in.<br /> Sardinia, kingdom of.<br /> Schleswig.<br />
+        Scutari.<br /> Serbia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;trade with Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;relations
+        with Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;trouble with Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacked
+        on three sides.<br /> Serbs,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;lands
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;language of.<br /> Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two.<br />
+        Silesia, seizure of.<br /> Slavic tribes.<br /> Slovaks.<br /> Slovenes.<br />
+        Sobieski, John, king of Poland.<br /> Socialists,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in
+        Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Italy.<br /> Spain,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;drives out &ldquo;unbelievers,&rdquo;;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;becomes
+        a republic.<br /> Submarine boats<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink British warships;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;sink merchant ships;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;cross the Atlantic;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;begin to sink all ships
+        without warning;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;kill Americans;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink
+        Norwegian ships.<br /> Suevi.<br /> Sturmer chosen prime minister of
+        Russia.<br /> Sweden, decline of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Talleyrand.<br /> Trentino.<br /> Tunis, seized by France.<br /> Turkey,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;defended by France and England;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks
+        Russia.<br /> Turks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;capture Constantinople;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;driven
+        back from Vienna;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;the young Turks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;tolerance
+        of the young;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;bigotry of the young.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ulster trouble, the.<br /> United States,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;indignant over
+        the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;warns Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defends
+        munitions trade in reply to Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;receives <i>Deutschland</i>
+        hospitably;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sends the German Ambassador home;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;desires nothing but to be
+        safe from attack;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sends an army to Europe.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vandals.<br /> Venice, Republic of.<br /> Venizelos,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;prime
+        minister of Greece;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;comes from Crete;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;opposes
+        King Constantine;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;once more prime minister.<br />
+        Vercingetorix.<br /> Victor Emmanuel.<br /> Vienna, Congress of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Walloons.<br /> War,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;four causes of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;cost
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;diseases caused by;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;increasing
+        horror of.<br /> Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of.<br /> Waterloo, battle of.<br />
+        William of Normandy.<br /> Wilson, President,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;patient
+        with Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;asks both sides to name their terms;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;calls Congress to declare war.
+      </p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***</div>
+</body>
+
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #11200 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11200)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The World War and What Was Behind It
+       The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+Author: L. P. Bénézet
+
+Release Date: February 20, 2004 [EBook #11200]
+[Most recently updated: June 22, 2020]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD WAR AND WHAT WAS BEHIND IT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+        The World War and What Was Behind It
+
+        or
+
+        The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+        By
+
+        L. P. Bénézet
+
+        SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA
+
+[Illustration: The Peace Palace at the Hague]
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils,
+teachers, and the general public in a series of talks on the causes of
+the great European war which were given by the author in the fall of
+1914. The audiences were widely different in character. They included
+pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students in high
+school and normal school, teachers in the public schools, an
+association of business men, and a convention of boards of education.
+In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: “If there were only some
+book which would give us these facts in simple language and illustrate
+them by maps and charts as you have done!” After searching the market
+for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put
+the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to
+write in a style which is well within the comprehension of the children
+in the upper grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The
+book deals with the remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made
+the great war inevitable. Facts are revealed which, so far as the
+author knows, have not been published in any history to date; facts
+which had the strongest possible bearing on the outbreak of the war.
+The average American, whether child or adult, has little conception of
+conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of the
+Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second
+generations both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry
+with Irish, Scotch with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech
+and Teuton, Bulgar and Serb may live side by side for centuries without
+mixing or losing their distinct racial characteristics. In order that
+the American reader may understand the complicated problem of European
+peace, a study of races and languages is given in the text, showing the
+relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin, and Teuton, and the various
+sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of these facts is very
+essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe. The author
+has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely
+king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the
+natural division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the
+mass of the population.
+
+The chapter, entitled “Europe as it Should Be,” with its accompanying
+map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would look if
+the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single
+political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to
+draw sharp lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into
+Skipetar and Serb on the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is
+one-third German in its population. There are large islands of Germans
+and Magyars in the midst of the Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a
+few examples out of many which could be cited. However, the general aim
+of the chapter has been to divide the continent into nations, in each
+of which the leading race would vastly predominate in population.
+
+It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw
+light upon the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its
+cruelty and its needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe
+from the time of the great invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a
+continuous story of government without the consent of the governed.
+
+A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many
+countries have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem
+as though after this terrible demonstration of the results of armed
+peace, the governments of the world would be ready to listen to some
+plan which would forever forbid the possibility of another war. Just as
+individuals in the majority of civilized countries discovered, a
+hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for them to carry
+weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy protection,
+so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable to
+the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after
+years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war,
+at last learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will
+have to learn it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of
+feudal government in Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of
+the common people in many countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with
+the advance of education, and we trust that feudalism will not long
+survive its last terrible crime, the world war of 1914.
+
+Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very
+essential that our people understand the events that led up to our
+participation in the war. So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving
+nature, we are so far removed from the militarism of continental
+Europe, and the whole war seems so needless and so profitless to those
+who have not studied carefully its causes, that there is danger of a
+want of harmony with the program of the government if all are not
+taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel
+through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With
+this in mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to
+demonstrating why no other course was open to this country than to
+accept the war which was forced upon her.
+
+In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many
+helpful suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to
+Professor A. G. Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H.
+Sanford of the Wisconsin State Normal School at La Crosse, who were
+kind enough to read through and correct the manuscript before its final
+revision. The author is especially indebted to the Committee on Public
+Information at Washington, D. C., for furnishing to him authoritative
+data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment is also made to Row,
+Peterson and Company for kind permission to use illustrations from
+_History Stories of Other Lands_; also to the International Film
+Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable copyright
+illustrations of scenes relating to the great war.
+
+L. P. BÉNÉZET.
+
+_Evansville, Indiana,
+January 2, 1918_
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+ Preface
+
+ I. The Great War
+ II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes
+ III. From Chiefs to Kings
+ IV. Master and Man
+ V. A Babel of Tongues
+ VI. “The Terrible Turk”
+ VII. The Rise of Modern Nations
+ VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms
+ IX. The Little Man from the Common People
+ X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs
+ XI. Italy a Nation at Last
+ XII. The Man of Blood and Iron
+ XIII. The Balance of Power
+ XIV. The “Entente Cordiale”
+ XV. The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth
+ XVI. Who Profits?
+ XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine
+ XVIII. Why England Came In
+ XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition
+ XX. Back to the Balkans
+ XXI. The War under the Sea
+ XXII. Another Crown Topples
+ XXIII. The United States at War—Why?
+ XXIV. Europe As It Should Be
+ XXV. The Cost of It All
+ XXVI. What Germany Must Learn
+
+ Pronouncing Glossary
+ Index
+
+
+List of Maps
+
+ I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship
+ II. Distribution of Languages
+ III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C.
+ IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D.
+ V. Southeastern Europe 1690
+ VI. The Empire of Charlemagne
+ VII. Europe in 1540
+ VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806
+ IX. Italy in 525
+ X. Italy in 650
+ XI. Italy in 1175
+ XII. Europe in 1796
+ XIII. Europe in 1810
+ XIV. Europe in 1815
+ XV. Italy Made One Nation—1914—
+ XVI. Formation of the German Empire
+ XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796
+ XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century
+ XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It
+ XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913
+ XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France
+ XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It
+ XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out
+ XXIV. Europe as It Should Be
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+ I. The Peace Palace at the Hague
+ II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging
+ III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe
+ IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago
+ V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators
+ VI. Germans Going into Battle
+ VII. A Hun Warrior
+ VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar
+ IX. A Frankish Chief
+ X. Movable Huts of Early Germans
+ XI. Goths on the March
+ XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine
+ XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England
+ XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians
+ XV. A Knight in Armor
+ XVI. A Norman Castle in England
+ XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord
+ XVIII. William the Conqueror
+ XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family
+ XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople
+ XXI. A Scene in Salonika
+ XXII. Louis XIV
+ XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough
+ XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg
+ XXV. Frederick the Great
+ XXVI. Catharine II
+ XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV
+ XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille
+ XXIX. The Palace of Versailles
+ XXX. The Reign of Terror
+ XXXI. The First Singing of “The Marseillaise”
+ XXXII. Charles the Fifth
+ XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814
+ XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow
+ XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo
+ XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna
+ XXXVII. Prince Metternich
+ XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel
+ XXXIX. Bismarck
+ XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War
+ XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany
+ XLII. Peter the Great
+ XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia
+ XLIV. The Congress of Berlin
+ XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff
+ XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople
+ XLVII. Durazzo
+ XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught
+ XLIX. Submarine
+ L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns
+ LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army
+ LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front
+ LIII. Venizelos
+ LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay
+ LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution
+ LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma
+ LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops
+ LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner
+ LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message
+ LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents
+ LXI. Polish Children
+ LXII. The Price of War
+ LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War
+ LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden
+
+
+
+
+The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I.
+The Great War
+
+      The call from Europe.—Friend against friend.—Why?—Death and
+      devastation.—No private quarrel.—Ordered by government.—What
+      makes government?—The influence of the past.—Four causes of war.
+
+
+      Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being
+      erected in a great American city during the summer of 1914 were
+      two men who had not yet become citizens of the United States.
+      Born abroad, they still owed allegiance, one to the Emperor of
+      Austria, the other to the Czar of Russia.
+
+Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a
+chance to understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They
+were members of the same labor union, and had worked side by side on
+several different jobs. In the course of time, a firm friendship had
+sprung up between them. Suddenly, on the same day, each was notified to
+call at the office of the agent of his government in the city. Next
+morning the Russian came to his boss to explain that he must quit work,
+that he had been called home to fight for the “Little Father” of the
+Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian, there ahead of him, telling
+that he had to go, for the Russians had declared war on Austria and the
+good Kaiser,[1] Franz Josef, had need of all his young men.
+
+ [1] In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor.
+
+      The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The
+      pitiless arm of the god of war had reached across the broad
+      Atlantic, plucking them back from peace and security. With
+      weapons put into their hands they would be ordered to kill each
+      other on sight.
+
+      A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful “Good luck to you,” and they
+      parted.
+
+      Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong
+      enough to separate the two friends and drag them back five
+      thousand miles for the purpose of killing each other? To answer
+      these two questions is the purpose of this little volume.
+
+      Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and
+      Africa were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the
+      world has ever seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions
+      were maimed, blinded, or disfigured for life. Still other
+      millions were herded into prison camps or forced to work like
+      convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with grief.
+      Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the
+      war had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children
+      were left fatherless. What had been the richest and most
+      productive farming land in Europe was made a barren waste.
+      Thousands of villages and towns were utterly destroyed and their
+      inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the sick, and the
+      infants alike.
+
+      In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and
+      Serbia, the wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally
+      starving, because all food had been seized for the use of
+      fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which cannot exist where people
+      have the chance to bathe and keep themselves clean, once more
+      appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims. The
+      strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations
+      were shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable
+      existence, sick or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in
+      many factories which once turned out the comforts and luxuries of
+      civilization. There were no men to make toys for the children, or
+      to work for mankind’s happiness. The only mills and factories
+      which were running full time were those that turned out the tools
+      of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations poured
+      out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of
+      killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What
+      was the reason for it all?
+
+[Illustration: Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging]
+
+      In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in
+      Germany freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with
+      intercourse Russians, and happy to have Englishmen spend their
+      money in Germany. France and Austria exchanged goods and their
+      inhabitants traveled within each other’s boundaries. A Frenchman
+      might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed. There was
+      nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman or
+      Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could
+      meet and find plenty of ground for friendship.
+
+      We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred.
+      One can imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each
+      other every day might have trouble and grow to hate each other,
+      but in this great war soldiers were shooting down other soldiers
+      whom they had never seen before, with whom they had never
+      exchanged a word, and it would not profit them if they killed a
+      whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the soldiers did
+      not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a
+      telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling
+      and telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a
+      trifle for his next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed
+      and fired the gun. Once in a while, a shell from the invisible
+      enemy, two, three, or four miles away, fell among them, killing
+      and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians were ordered to charge
+      the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the Russians
+      because they were told to do so by their officers, and the
+      Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so
+      ordered them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders
+      received from their generals. The generals were only obeying
+      orders from the government.
+
+      In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder
+      what has caused these nations to fly at each other’s throats. The
+      question arises as to what makes up a government or why a
+      government has the right to rule its people.
+
+      In the United States, the government officials are simply the
+      servants of the people. Practically every man in our country,
+      unless he is a citizen of some foreign nation, has a right to
+      vote, and in many of the states women, too, have a voice in the
+      government. We, the people of the United States, can choose our
+      own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and, in some states,
+      can vote out of existence any law that they the people have made
+      which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval
+      of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the
+      next election. Such is the government of a republic, a
+      “government of the people, by the people, and for the people,” as
+      Abraham Lincoln called it. In the leading British colonies, the
+      people rule. Australian citizens voted against forcing men to
+      serve in the army. The result was very close and the vote of the
+      women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary, voted to
+      compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of
+      Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted
+      before their governments called them to arms and sent them to
+      fight each other? It is plain that in order to understand what
+      this war is about, we must look into the story of how the
+      different governments of Europe came to be and learn why their
+      peoples obey them so unquestioningly.
+
+      We must remember that government by the people is a very new
+      thing. One hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United
+      States only about one-fourth of the men had the right to vote.
+      These were citizens of property and wealth. They did not think a
+      poor man was worth considering. In England, a country which
+      allows its people more voice in the government than almost any
+      other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty years
+      that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like
+      Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and
+      others, like Austria, where they have very little voice in how
+      they shall be governed.
+
+      For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without
+      thinking when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up
+      their weapons and go to war. In many instances they have known
+      nothing of the causes of the conflict or of what they were
+      fighting for. A famous English writer has written a poem which
+      illustrates how little the average citizen has ever known
+      concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the
+      way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in
+      which one should regard it. The poem runs as follows:
+
+The Battle of Blenheim
+
+It was a summer evening,
+    Old Kaspar’s work was done,
+And he before his cottage door
+    Was sitting in the sun,
+And by him sported on the green
+His little grandchild Wilhelmine.
+
+She saw her brother Peterkin
+    Roll something large and round,
+Which he beside the rivulet
+    In playing there had found,
+He came to ask what he had found
+That was so large and smooth and round.
+
+Old Kaspar took it from the boy,
+    Who stood expectant by;
+And then the old man shook his head,
+    And, with a natural sigh—
+“’Tis some poor fellow’s skull,” said he,
+“Who fell in the great victory.
+
+“I find them in the garden,
+    For there’s many hereabout;
+And often when I go to plow,
+    The plowshare turns them out!
+For many a thousand men,” said he,
+“Were slain in the great victory.”
+
+“Now tell us what ’twas all about,”
+    Young Peterkin he cries;
+And little Wilhelmine looks up
+    With wonder-waiting eyes—
+“Now tell us all about the war,
+And what they fought each other for.”
+
+“It was the English,” Kaspar cried,
+    “Who put the French to rout;
+But what they fought each other for
+    I could not well make out;
+But everybody said,” quoth he,
+“That ’twas a famous victory.
+
+“My father lived at Blenheim then,
+    Yon little stream hard by;
+They burnt his dwelling to the ground,
+    And he was forced to fly;
+So with his wife and child he fled,
+Nor had he where to rest his head.
+
+“They say it was a shocking sight
+    After the field was won—
+For many thousand bodies here
+    Lay rotting in the sun;
+But things like that, you know, must be
+After a famous victory.
+
+“Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won,
+    And our good Prince Eugene.”
+“Why, ’twas a very wicked thing!”
+    Said little Wilhelmine.
+“Nay, nay, my little girl,” quoth he,
+“It was a famous victory.
+
+“And everybody praised the duke
+    Who this great fight did win.”
+“But what good came of it at last?”
+    Quoth little Peterkin.
+“Why, that I cannot tell,” said he;
+“But ’twas a famous victory.”
+
+—_Robert Southey_.
+
+      Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot
+      feel the wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on
+      the other hand, have a different idea of war. They are not
+      satisfied until they know what it was all about and what good
+      came of it, and they feel that “it was a very wicked thing.” If
+      the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why they were
+      killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the
+      truth, the history of the world would have been very different.
+
+      One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for
+      themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead
+      ancestors think for them and to keep up customs which should have
+      been changed ages ago. People in Europe have lived in the midst
+      of wars or preparation for wars all their lives. There never has
+      been a time when Europe was not either a battlefield or a great
+      drill-ground for armies.
+
+      There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in
+      Europe and not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong
+      to take human life. Today it is not considered wrong to kill,
+      provided a man is ordered to do so by his general or his king.
+      When two kings go to war, each claiming his quarrel to be a just
+      one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made by its
+      government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in
+      its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help
+      to bring about lasting peace among all the nations.
+
+[Illustration: A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.]
+
+      In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the
+      wars of the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all
+      wars can be traced to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among
+      barbarous tribes to fight with and plunder their neighbors; (2)
+      the ambition of kings to enlarge their kingdoms; (3) the desire
+      of the traders of one nation to increase their commerce at the
+      expense of some other nation; (4) a people’s wish to be free from
+      the control of some other country and to become a nation by
+      itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause
+      for war, and this cause has been brought about only when kings
+      have sent their armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other
+      peoples who wished to govern themselves.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why must foreigners in the United States return to their
+          native lands when summoned by their governments?
+
+          How is it that war helps to breed diseases?
+
+          Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it?
+
+          Whom do we mean by the government in the United States?
+
+          Who controls the government in Russia?
+
+          Who in England?
+
+          Who in Germany?
+
+          Who in France?
+
+          In Southey’s poem, how does the children’s idea of the battle
+          differ from that of their grandfather? Why?
+
+          Are people less likely to protest against war if their
+          forefathers have fought many wars?
+
+          What have been the four main causes of war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II.
+Rome and the Barbarian Tribes
+
+      New governments in Europe.—Earliest times.—How civilization
+      began.—The rise of Rome.—Roman civilization.—Roman cruelty.—The
+      German tribes.—The Slavic tribes.—The Celtic tribes.—The Huns and
+      Moors.—The great Germanic invasions of the Roman world.
+
+
+      To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe
+      in 1914, we must go far back into history. It should be
+      remembered that many of the governments of today have not lived
+      as long as that of our own country. This is, perhaps, a new
+      thought to some of us, who rather think that, as America is a new
+      country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one hundred
+      and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed,
+      there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know
+      by that name was cut up among nine or ten little governments.
+      There was no nation known as Germany; the land which is in the
+      present German empire was then divided among some thirty or
+      thirty-five different rulers. There was no Republic of France;
+      instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the French
+      people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium,
+      no kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of
+      Norway was part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now
+      know it, dates back only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the
+      United Kingdom of Italy to about the same time. The kingdoms of
+      Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have been independent of Turkey
+      only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not exist before
+      1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are
+      very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however,
+      originated in the dim twilight of history.
+
+      In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or
+      kingdoms. Men gathered together in little bands, each of which
+      had its leader. This leader was generally chosen because of his
+      bodily strength and courage. He was the best fighter of the
+      tribe. The people did not have any lasting homes. They moved
+      around from place to place, wherever they could find the best
+      hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting
+      grounds, they fought, and the weaker party had to give way.
+      Selfishness was supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged
+      to his weaker neighbor, he simply beat this neighbor over the
+      head with his club, and took it. The stronger tribe attacked the
+      weaker, without any thought of whether or not its quarrel was
+      just.
+
+      Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes
+      began to be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built.
+      Trade came to be one of the occupations. The fighting men needed
+      weapons and armor; so there grew up artisans who were skilled in
+      working metals. In Egypt and Syria there were people who had
+      reached quite a high degree of civilization, and gradually the
+      Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the
+      Greeks, then the Etruscans (Ē-trŭs′cans), a people who lived in
+      Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern
+      Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without
+      hunting and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of
+      animals) came to be the occupation of many. The owners of sheep
+      or cattle drove their flocks from place to place, as grass and
+      water failed them where they were. There was no separate
+      ownership of land.
+
+      At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as
+      the stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule
+      gradually over all the surrounding country. By this time, the
+      barbarians of northern Europe had gotten past the use of clubs as
+      weapons. They, too, had learned to make tools and arms of bronze,
+      and those living near civilized countries had obtained swords of
+      iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign of authority.
+      The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe as a
+      sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king
+      sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right
+      hand. It is interesting to think that this scepter, which the
+      present king of England carries on state occasions to remind his
+      people of his power, is a relic of the old, old days when his
+      grandfather, many times removed, broke the head of his rival for
+      leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club for his
+      awestruck people to worship.
+
+      The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire)
+      spread its rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the
+      Mediterranean Sea, and finally over all the countries of Europe
+      south and west of the rivers Danube and Rhine. One of the
+      emperors planted a colony north of the Danube near its mouth, and
+      the descendants of these colonists are living in that same
+      country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they
+      still call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro͞o-mä′ni]), and talk a
+      language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue
+      spoken by the Romans of old. With the exception of this country,
+      which is now Roumania, the part of Europe north and east of the
+      Danube and Rhine was practically free from the Romans. In this
+      territory, roving bands wandered around, driving their cattle
+      with them and clearing the woods of game.
+
+[Illustration: The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years
+ago.]
+
+      In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had
+      schools where their children were taught to read and write, to
+      speak Greek, and to work problems in geometry. They had
+      magnificent public buildings, fine temples and palaces. They
+      built excellent paved roads all over the southern part of Europe,
+      and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which supplied their
+      cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away. Their
+      dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass,
+      and steel.
+
+      On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people.
+      Their favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators
+      fought, either with each other or with wild beasts. These
+      gladiators were generally men from tribes which had fought
+      against Rome. They had been captured and brought to that city,
+      where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on holidays,
+      with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these
+      unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until
+      one man of each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that
+      one gladiator might be wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The
+      spectators would then shout to the victorious fighter to take his
+      knife and finish what he had begun. In this way what would seem
+      to us like cold-blooded murder was committed hundreds of times
+      each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of Rome sat
+      and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had
+      all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages
+      at heart, and had no sympathy for any people who were not of
+      their own race.
+
+[Illustration: The Last Combat of the Gladiators]
+
+      In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor.
+      They scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or
+      deceive. They lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves
+      luxuries. They rather despised the Greeks, because the latter
+      surrounded themselves with comforts in life. The early Romans
+      were fighters by nature. They had a certain god named Janus (our
+      month January is named after him) and his temple was open only
+      when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of history that
+      during the twelve hundred years from the first building of Rome
+      to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on
+      but three occasions and then only for a short time.
+
+      About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came
+      several disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her
+      sturdy fighters. Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but
+      she won them at tremendous cost to herself. With the killing off
+      of her best and bravest men, a great deal of the old time honesty
+      was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of Roman governors who,
+      when put in charge of conquered states, used their offices only
+      to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome after
+      their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman
+      morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax,
+      and in general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay.
+
+      To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were
+      to become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were
+      the free German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe
+      bounded, roughly, by the rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea,
+      and the Carpathian Mountains. In many ways they were much less
+      civilized than the Romans. They were clad in skins and furs
+      instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in caves
+      dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held
+      human life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among
+      them. As a rule, the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor
+      there was, largely to the women, while they busied themselves in
+      fighting and hunting, or, during their idle times, in gambling.
+      Nevertheless, these people, about the time that the Roman honesty
+      began to disappear, had virtues more like those of the early
+      Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful
+      husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy.
+      They were barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken
+      to Rome and learned the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men
+      than Rome was producing about the time of which we speak.
+
+[Illustration: Germans Going Into Battle]
+
+      To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no
+      better civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the
+      Germans, in later years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in
+      turn, moved westward and occupied much of the land which had been
+      left vacant by the Germans.
+
+[Illustration: A Hun Warrior]
+
+      The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and
+      the British Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could
+      be said to be divided up among four great peoples: There were the
+      Latins in Italy, the Celts in western Europe, the Germans in
+      central Europe, and the Slavs to the east. All of these four
+      families were distantly related, as can be proved by the
+      languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to
+      any one of the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans
+      and Latins. Probably all five peoples are descended from one big
+      family of tribes.
+
+      In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of
+      Europe by other nations which did not have any connection by
+      blood with Celts, Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For
+      instance, the ferocious Huns, a people of the yellow race, rushed
+      into Europe about 400 A.D., but were beaten in a big battle by
+      the Romans and Germans and finally went back to Asia. Three
+      hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from Africa
+      crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and
+      at one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian
+      nations. For several hundred years after this, they held the
+      southern part of Spain, but were finally driven out.
+
+      Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe
+      after the Romans had conquered all the country south and west of
+      the Danube and Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were
+      restlessly roaming through the central part of Europe. They were
+      not at peace with each other. In fact, constant war was going on.
+      Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who conquered what is now
+      France and added it to the Roman world, tells us that one great
+      tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swē′vī), made it their boast that
+      they would let no other tribe live anywhere near them. About a
+      hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and the
+      Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands
+      in countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at
+      last they were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman
+      general, who was Caesar’s uncle by marriage. After this time, the
+      Romans tried to conquer the country of the Germans and they might
+      have been successful but for a young German chief named Arminius.
+      He had lived in Rome as a young man and had learned the Romans’
+      method of war; so when an army came against his tribe, he taught
+      the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman army
+      was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man.
+
+[Illustration: Gaius Julius Caesar.  From a bust in the British Museum]
+
+      This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of
+      conquering all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years,
+      Germans and Romans lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then
+      came a time when the Germans again became the attacking party.
+      Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like the Huns, were assailing
+      them in the east and pushing them forward. They finally broke
+      over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman Empire
+      in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals,
+      Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went
+      to pieces under their savage attacks.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need
+          less land to live on?
+
+          Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than
+          civilized peoples?
+
+          Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more
+          civilized tribes were better armed than the barbarians.
+
+          Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy
+          bloodshed and are not moved by the sufferings of others?
+
+          What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic?
+
+          In what way were the Germans better men than the later
+          Romans?
+
+          What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs?
+
+          Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III.
+From Chiefs to Kings
+
+      The early chief a fighter.—The club the sign of power.—Free men
+      led by a chief of their own choosing.—The first
+      slaves.—Barbarians conquer civilized nations.—A ruling class
+      among conquered people.—All men no longer free and equal.—The
+      value of arms and armor.—The robber chiefs.—How kings first
+      came.—Treaties between tribes follow constant wars.—Tribes unite
+      for protection against enemies.—A king is chosen for the time
+      being.—Some kings refuse to resign their office when the danger
+      is past.—New generations grow up which never knew a kingless
+      state.—The word “king” becomes sacred.
+
+
+      The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of
+      the sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it.
+      Rich cities were plundered at will. They did not admit any man’s
+      ownership of anything. In the old days when the tribes were
+      roaming around, there was no private ownership of land.
+      Everything belonged to the tribe in common. Each man had a vote
+      in the council of the tribe.
+
+      Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no
+      such thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the
+      greater part of his people considered him the best leader in war.
+      Often, no doubt, when a chief had lost a battle and the majority
+      of the tribe had lost confidence in him, he resigned and let them
+      choose a new chief. (For the same reason we frequently hear today
+      that the prime minister, or leader of the government, of some
+      European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact, then, that
+      the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the
+      majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another
+      man in his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in
+      its beginning, was based upon the consent of the governed. All
+      men in the primitive tribe were equal in rank, except as one was
+      a better fighter than another, and the chief held the leadership
+      in war only because the members of his tribe allowed him to keep
+      it.
+
+[Illustration: A Frankish Chief.]
+
+      It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no
+      fixed place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they
+      could put up or tear down at very short notice; and so when they
+      heard of more fertile lands or a warmer climate across the
+      mountains to the south they used to pull up stakes and migrate in
+      a body, never to return. It was always the more savage and
+      uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The lands
+      which they wished to seize they generally found already settled
+      by other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied
+      in trade and agriculture, having gradually turned to these
+      pursuits from their former habits of hunting and fighting.
+      Sometimes these more civilized and peace-loving people were able,
+      by their better weapons and superior knowledge of the art of
+      fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the immigrating
+      barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were the
+      victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to
+      rule them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered
+      ones to feed and clothe them.
+
+[Illustration: Movable Huts of Early Germans]
+
+      History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were
+      taking place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our
+      earliest records date. The best examples, however, are to be
+      found in the invasions of the Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes
+      to which we have referred above. The country between the Rhine
+      River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been called Gaul when
+      the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks conquered
+      the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two
+      German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians
+      came down from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name
+      to their new home in the fertile valley of the Saône (Sōn); the
+      Vandals came out of Germany to roam through Spain, finally
+      founding a kingdom in Africa; while the Lombards crossed the Alps
+      to become the masters of the Valley of the Po, whither the Gauls
+      had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier.
+
+[Illustration: Goths on the March]
+
+[Illustration: Franks Crossing the Rhine]
+
+      The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two
+      thousand years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was
+      overrun and conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and
+      Angles, Germanic tribes, after whom part of the island was called
+      Angleland. (The men from the south of England are of the same
+      blood as the Saxons in the German army, against whom they had to
+      fight in the great war.) Then came Danes, who partially conquered
+      the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066 A.D., the country
+      was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some Norsemen,
+      who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from
+      Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part
+      of France.
+
+[Illustration: Men of Normandy Landing in England.]
+
+      In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands,
+      leaving their former homes to their conquerors. In this way the
+      Britons and Gaels gave up the greater part of their land to the
+      Angles and Saxons and withdrew to the hills and mountains of
+      Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In other cases, the
+      conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same lands
+      side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the
+      Anglo-Saxons.
+
+      In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a
+      raid upon another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some
+      captives who became slaves, working without pay for their
+      conquerors and possessing no more rights than beasts of burden.
+      (This custom exists today in the interior of Africa, and was
+      responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black captives
+      were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors,
+      who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried
+      off and sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.)
+
+      When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors,
+      their number was very small as compared with that of their
+      masters. When, on the other hand, a tribe settled among a people
+      whom they had conquered, they often found themselves fewer in
+      numbers, and kept their leadership only by their greater strength
+      and fighting ability.
+
+      Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer
+      equal, led by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the
+      greater part of them now had no voice in the government. They had
+      become subjects, working to earn their own living and also, as
+      has been said, to support in idleness their conquerors.
+
+      This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to
+      support their masters was increased as certain peoples learned
+      better than others how to make strong armor and effective
+      weapons. Nearly five hundred years before the time of Christ, at
+      the battle of Marathon (Măr′ȧ thŏn), the Greeks discovered
+      that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a long spear,
+      was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and
+      arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a
+      small army of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that
+      wonderful general, Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty
+      times its number of Persians in a great battle in Asia and
+      conquered a vast empire.
+
+[Illustration: Alexander Defeating the Persians]
+
+      In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question
+      of wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the
+      best arms for his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force
+      him to pay money as to a ruler. Finally, in the so-called “Middle
+      Ages,” before the invention of gunpowder, one knight, armed from
+      crown to sole in steel, was worth in battle as much as one
+      hundred poorly-armed farmers or “peasants” as they are called in
+      Europe.
+
+In the “Dark Ages,”[2] after all these barbarians that we have named
+had swarmed over Europe, and before the governments of modern times
+were fully grown, there were hundreds of robber chiefs, who, scattered
+throughout a country, were in the habit of collecting tribute at the
+point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who lived near. This
+tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed amount each
+month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a
+government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel.
+The robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good
+weapons and armor to their men, who lived either in the chief’s castle
+or in small houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any
+travelers who came by, unless their numbers and weapons made them look
+too dangerous to be attacked. But the regular tribute forced from the
+peaceful farmers was the chief source of their income. The robber chief
+and his men lived a life of idleness when they were not out upon some
+raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious peasants worked hard
+enough to support both their own families and those of the robbers.
+
+ [2] The “Dark Ages” came before the “Middle Ages.” They were called
+ “dark” because the barbarians had extinguished nearly all civilization
+ and learning.
+
+[Illustration: A Knight in Armor]
+
+      These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws,
+      and lived either in a country which had no government and laws,
+      or in one whose government was too weak to protect its people.
+      They were no worse, however, than the so-called feudal barons who
+      came after them, who oppressed the people even more, because they
+      had on their side whatever law and government existed in those
+      days.
+
+      Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In
+      the early days of the human race and also in later days among
+      barbarous peoples, the land was very sparsely settled. The reason
+      lay in the chief occupations of the men. A small tribe might
+      inhabit a great stretch of territory through which they wandered
+      to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went on, however,
+      the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place of
+      hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves
+      living in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to
+      their neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just
+      as Caesar tells us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the
+      Germans fought almost daily battles back and forth across the
+      Rhine. In other cases, the tribes found it better for all
+      concerned to make treaties of peace with their neighbors, and if
+      they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms, at least
+      they did not attack each other.
+
+      Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had
+      treaties with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by
+      some horde of another race or nation. Common interest would drive
+      them together for mutual protection, and the chief of some one of
+      them would be chosen to lead their joint army. In this way, we
+      find the fifteen tribes of the Belgians uniting against the Roman
+      army led by Julius Caesar, and electing as king over them the
+      chief of one of the tribes “on account of his justice and
+      wisdom.” Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find
+      practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into
+      a nation under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Vẽr sin jet′ō
+      riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five
+      hundred years later, the Romans themselves were driven to join
+      forces with two of the Germanic tribes to check the swift
+      invasion of the terrible Huns.
+
+      In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the
+      kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that
+      drove the tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted
+      for years or even centuries, so that new generations grew up who
+      had never lived under any other government than that of a king.
+      Thus when the wars were ended, the tribes continued to be ruled
+      by the one man, although the reason for the kingship had ceased
+      to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to 100 B.C.,
+      when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders,
+      appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator
+      ruled like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then,
+      like the famous Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired
+      to private life. The first lasting kingships, then, began, as it
+      were, by the refusal of some dictator to resign when the need for
+      his rule was ended.
+
+      By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king
+      to take his father’s place was fairly well settled, and it did
+      not take long to have it understood as a regular thing that at a
+      king’s death he should be followed by his oldest son. Often there
+      were quarrels and even civil wars caused by ambitious younger
+      sons, who did not submit to their elder brothers without a
+      struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and
+      peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked
+      upon as the rightful heir to the kingship.
+
+      As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be
+      busied in agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in
+      manufacture, the warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people
+      began to forget that the king was originally only a war leader,
+      and that the office was created through military need. They came
+      to regard the rule of the king as a matter of course and stopped
+      thinking of themselves as having any right to say how they should
+      be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling. For the
+      purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the
+      habit of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a
+      divine institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was
+      made by the gods, or in Christian nations, by God, and that it
+      was the divine will that the people of the nations should be
+      ruled by kings. The great Roman orator, Cicero (Sĭs′erō), in a
+      speech delivered in the year 66 B.C., referring to people who
+      lived in kingdoms, says that the name of king “seems to them a
+      great and sacred thing.” This same feeling has lasted through all
+      the ages down to the present time, and the majority of the people
+      in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still look
+      upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if
+      they ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private
+          ownership of land?
+
+          What is meant by saying that government was based upon the
+          consent of the governed?
+
+          Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the
+          German tribes to move southward?
+
+          Explain the beginnings of slavery.
+
+          Explain the value of armor in early times.
+
+          What is meant by the “Dark Ages”?
+
+          What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites?
+
+          When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they
+          should be rulers for life?
+
+          Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power?
+
+          Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IV.
+Master and Man
+
+      The land is the king’s.—He lends it to barons.—Barons lend it to
+      knights and smaller barons.—Smaller barons collect rent for it
+      from the peasants.—A father’s lands are lent to his son.—Barons
+      pay for the land by furnishing men for the king’s wars.—No
+      account is taken of the rights of the peasant.—The peasant, the
+      only producer, is despised by the fighting men.—If a baron
+      rebels, his men must rebel also.—Dukes against kings.—What killed
+      the feudal system.—Feudal wrongs alive today.
+
+
+      When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country,
+      as the Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the
+      Normans entered England in 1066, their king at once took it for
+      granted that he owned all the conquered land. In some cases, he
+      might divide the kingdom up among his chiefs, giving a county to
+      each of forty or fifty leaders. These great leaders (dukes or
+      barons, as they were called in the Norman-French language, or
+      earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide up
+      his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call
+      lesser or little barons. Each little baron might have several
+      knights and squires, who lived in or near his castle and had
+      received from him tracts of land corresponding in size, perhaps,
+      to the American township and who, therefore, fought under his
+      banner in war.
+
+[Illustration: A Norman Castle in England]
+
+      Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men,
+      “men-at-arms,” as they were called, or “retainers,” who in return
+      for their “keep,” that is, their food and lodging, and a chance
+      to share the plunder gained in war, swore to be faithful to him,
+      became his men, and gave him the service called homage. (This
+      word comes from _hōmō_, the Latin for “man.”) The lesser baron,
+      in turn, swore homage to, and was the “man” of the great baron or
+      earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser chiefs to gather
+      their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey, serving
+      him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed
+      them. The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had
+      received his land.
+
+      This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word
+      _feudum_, which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which
+      was given to a man in return for his services in war), a system
+      which reversed the natural laws of society, and stood it on its
+      apex, like a cone balanced on its point. For instead of saying
+      that the land was the property of the people of the tribe or
+      nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all
+      belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the
+      land, outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in
+      return for their faithful support and service in war, the _use_
+      of the land during their lifetime, or so long as they remained
+      true to him. In _Macbeth_, we read how, for his treason, the
+      lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were taken from him by the
+      Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The lands thus
+      lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went
+      back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place,
+      and he at once gave them to some other one of his followers upon
+      the same terms. It often happened that upon the death of an earl
+      or baron his son was granted the lands which his father had held,
+      Finally, in many counties, it grew into a custom, and the oldest
+      son took possession of his father’s fief, but not without first
+      going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity to him.
+
+      Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the
+      system fully. In the first place, in the division of the lands
+      among the barons of the conquering nation, no account was taken
+      of the peasants. As they were of the defeated people, their
+      rights to the land were not once considered. In many countries,
+      the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the conquered
+      territory. They “went with” the land and were considered by the
+      lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned
+      over a farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If
+      any of them tried to run away, they were brought back and
+      whipped. They tilled the land and raised live stock, giving a
+      certain share of their yearly crop and a certain number of
+      beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent for the land,
+      much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to the
+      robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned
+      their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and
+      robbed by all the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs
+      existing today that are due to the fact that the feudal system is
+      not wholly stamped out in some countries.
+
+[Illustration: A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord]
+
+      In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the
+      direct master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn
+      homage to him. He was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The
+      less important barons swore homage to the great barons, and the
+      knights, squires, retainers, and yeomen swore homage to the
+      lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided his fief among
+      certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance, not to
+      him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a
+      “man” rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers,
+      etc., must rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to
+      obey his king and broke his oath of allegiance, all his little
+      barons and knights must turn disloyal too, or rather, must remain
+      loyal, for their oaths had been taken to support the duke, and
+      not the king. History is full of such cases. In many instances,
+      dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war on even
+      terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the
+      kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland
+      in 1403 raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of
+      England; the Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the
+      throne of England and became king in his place.
+
+[Illustration: William the Conqueror]
+
+      A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of
+      Normandy had sworn homage to the king of France, became, through
+      conquest, king of England. His sons, great-grandsons, and
+      great-great-grandsons continued for one hundred and fifty years
+      to be obliged to swear allegiance to the French kings in order to
+      keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the Governor of Texas
+      had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become Emperor of
+      that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up his
+      American citizenship.
+
+      Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring
+      more power to the common people were, first, the invention of
+      gunpowder, and, second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket
+      could bring down a knight in armor as easily as he could the most
+      poorly armored peasant. Kings, in fighting to control their great
+      lords, gave more freedom to citizens of towns in return for their
+      help. The king’s armies came to be recruited largely from
+      townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the feudal
+      lords.
+
+      The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain
+      amount of military service to his ruler has lasted to the present
+      day and is responsible for much of the misery that now exists.
+      Kings went to war with each other simply to increase their
+      territories. The more land a king had under his control, the more
+      people who owed him taxes, and the greater number he could get
+      into his army, the greater became his ambition to spread his
+      kingdom still farther.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all
+          the land in the country which he had invaded?
+
+          Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to
+          the welfare of the working classes?
+
+          Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting
+          men, lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed?
+
+          Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns
+          his living is looked down upon by the nobles?
+
+          What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society
+          upside down?
+
+          Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men?
+
+          Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break
+          up the feudal system.
+
+          How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the
+          feudal system?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V.
+A Babel of Tongues
+
+      The great family of languages.—Few languages in Europe not
+      belonging to the family.—The dying Celtic languages.—The three
+      branches of the Germanic family.—The influence of the Latin
+      tongue on the south of Europe.—The many Slavic peoples.—The map
+      as divided by kings without regard to peoples and languages.—The
+      strange mixture in Austria-Hungary.—The southeast of Europe.—The
+      Greeks and Dacians.—The Roman colonists.—The Slavs.—The
+      Volgars.—The Skipetars.—A hopeless mixture.
+
+
+      In Chapter II it was pointed out that almost all the peoples of
+      Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely
+      that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the
+      Greeks, and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its
+      home back in the highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule,
+      the relationship of peoples to each other can be told by the
+      languages which they speak. If two tribes are related because
+      their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it is almost
+      certain that they will show this relationship in their languages.
+
+      The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like
+      the language of the Germans, for the English were originally
+      German tribes. Even today, it is easy to see that English is a
+      Germanic language. Take the English words house, father, mother,
+      brother, water, here, is, etc. The German words which mean the
+      same are _haus, vater, mutter, bruder, wasser, hier, ist_. It is
+      very plain that the two languages must have come from the same
+      source.
+
+      There are professors in European colleges who have spent their
+      whole lives studying this relationship of languages. These men
+      have proved not only that almost all the languages of Europe are
+      related, but that the language of the Persians, and that of some
+      of the old tribes in Hindustan also belong to one great family of
+      tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In one of the ancient
+      languages of Hindustan it was _matr_; in the Greek, it was
+      _mātār_; in the Latin _mater_ (mätār); in the Bohemian
+      _matka_; in the German _mu̠tter_; in the Spanish mädre; in the
+      Norwegian _mōder_, etc. This great family of languages is called
+      “the Indo-European group,” because the tribes which spoke them,
+      originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered all over India and
+      Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do not belong
+      to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques
+      (Bȧsks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies,
+      and the Turks.
+
+      The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the
+      Celtic languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that
+      first the Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of
+      the lands where the Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal,
+      France, and Belgium now talk languages that have grown from the
+      Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts in the British Isles now
+      all talk English, because the English, who were a Germanic
+      people, conquered them and forced them to use their language.
+      Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the
+      Celtic tribes) are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh
+      languages, but all of the young people in the British Isles learn
+      English, and they are generally content to talk only one
+      language. The other Celtic languages which have existed within
+      the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of
+      Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the
+      southwestern corner of England.
+
+      The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in
+      three parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish,
+      Norwegian, and Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria
+      and Germany form, with Holland and Western Belgium, a second
+      group of German-speaking nations. (The people of eastern Belgium
+      are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The third part of Europe
+      which uses a Germanic language is England.
+
+      In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain,
+      and Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin.
+      Latin languages today are found also in the southern and western
+      parts of Switzerland, all over Italy, and in Roumania.
+
+      We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the
+      Germanic tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs
+      followed them and occupied the lands which had just been left
+      vacant. In this way, we find Slavic peoples talking Slavic
+      (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the parts of Europe to
+      the east and south of the Germans. More than half of the
+      inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians
+      proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to
+      the Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins
+      are Slavs. The Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak
+      a Slavic language and have some Slavic blood in them, although,
+      as will be pointed out later, originally they did not belong to
+      the Slavic family.
+
+[Illustration: Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship]
+
+      The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family
+      of tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of
+      the four great branches.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution Of Languages]
+
+      The two maps on pages 65 and 66 are very much alike and yet in
+      some respects very different. The first shows how Europe is
+      largely inhabited by peoples of the great Indo-European family.
+      Those who are descended from the Celts are marked Celtic even
+      though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have
+      the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France,
+      eastern Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians
+      are marked as not belonging to the great family, although they
+      speak a Slavic language.
+
+      In the second map, the distribution of languages is shown. You
+      will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in small
+      parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of
+      France. The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their
+      language belongs to that branch. One of the most curious things
+      about the two maps is the presence of little spots like islands,
+      particularly made up of German-speaking peoples. There are
+      several of these little islands in Russia. They have been there
+      for nearly two hundred years. A traveler crossing the southern
+      part of Russia is astonished to find districts as large as an
+      American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. The people
+      are all of Germanic blood, although they live under the
+      government of Russia. In the same way, there is a large German
+      island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania and another
+      between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian
+      Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania
+      also, entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on
+      the opposite page shows the main branches of the Indo-European
+      family that are found in Europe.
+
+
+        The Indo-European Family of Languages
+
+          (_a_) Hindu branch
+
+          (_b_) Persian branch
+
+          (_c_) Celtic branch
+          Gāe′lic (northern Scotland) Welsh Cornish (dead)
+          Erse (Irish) Brē′ton (western France)
+
+          (_d_) Latin branch
+          Portuguese Spanish French Romansh (southeastern Switzerland)
+          Italian Roumanian
+
+          (_e_) Germanic branch
+          Norwegian Danish Swedish Dutch Flemish (Belgium)
+          Low German High German English
+
+          (_f_) Slavonic branch
+          Russian Polish Lettish Lithuanian Old Prussian (dead) Czech
+          (Bohemian [pronounced Chĕck]) Slō vak′ (northern Hungary)
+          Serbian Bulgarian Slove′nian (southwestern Austria)
+          Crōa′tian (southern Austria)
+          Ruthē′nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern
+          Russia)
+
+ } } Baltic states of Russia }
+
+          (_g_) Greek
+
+          (_h_) Albā′nian
+
+      The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings
+      and their ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the
+      feudal lords, never considered the wishes of the people when they
+      changed the boundaries of kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good
+      example. The Austrians and Hungarians were two very different
+      peoples. They had nothing in common and did not wish to be joined
+      under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no son to
+      succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of
+      Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of
+      Hapsburg) was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia,
+      although the Bohemian people had not chosen him as their ruler.
+      The Hungarians, before their union with Austria, had conquered
+      certain Slavic tribes and part of the Roumanians. Later Austria
+      annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire became a jumble
+      of languages and nationalities. When its congress is called
+      together, the official announcement is read in eleven different
+      languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not
+      as large as that of the state of Texas.
+
+      We must remember that besides the literary or written languages
+      of each country there are several spoken dialects. A man from
+      Devonshire, England, meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of
+      the same country, has difficulty in understanding many words in
+      his speech. The language of the south of Scotland also is
+      English, although it is very different from the English that we
+      in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees Mountains
+      was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we
+      find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is
+      talked by the country people around him, that can not be
+      understood by the peasants from the north of France near the
+      Flemish border. The man who lives in the east of France can
+      understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of Italy
+      much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic
+      coast.
+
+      In America, with people moving around from place to place by
+      means of stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no
+      great chance to develop dialects, although we can instantly tell
+      the New Englander, the southerner, or the westerner by his
+      speech. It should be remembered that in Europe, for centuries,
+      the people were kept on their own farms or in their own towns.
+      The result of this was that each little village or city has its
+      own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied
+      such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from
+      Europe, can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in
+      the old country. There are no sharply marked boundaries of
+      languages. The dialects of France shade off into those of Spain
+      on the one hand and into those of the Flemish and the Italian on
+      the other.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.]
+
+      The British Isles furnish us with four or five different
+      nationalities. The people of the north of Ireland are really
+      lowland Scotch of Germanic descent, while the other three-fourths
+      of Ireland is inhabited by Celts. To make the difference all the
+      greater, the Celts are almost universally Catholics, while the
+      Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north of Scotland
+      are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or
+      blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The
+      Welsh are a Celtic people, having no relationship with the
+      English, who are a Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of
+      Cornwall and the people of highland Scotland are the descendants
+      of the ancient Britons and Gaels who inhabited the island when
+      Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there. Then five
+      hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great
+      swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the
+      Britons to the west and north, and settled the country now known
+      as England. After these, you will recall, came a number of Danes,
+      another Germanic people, who settled the east coast of England.
+      Two hundred years later, the Normans came from France. These
+      Normans had been living in France for a century or two, but had
+      come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes, Angles, and Saxons
+      all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they fought the
+      Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them,
+      oppressed them harshly for many centuries.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.]
+
+      But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the
+      worst jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ,
+      the Greeks and their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians,
+      and Dacians inhabited this district. When one of the Roman
+      Emperors conquered the Dacians about 100 A.D., he planted a large
+      Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then came the West Goths,
+      who swept into this country, but soon left it for the west of
+      Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the
+      modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not
+      belong to the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to
+      the Finns and the Turks. These people were called the Volgars,
+      for they came from the country around the River Volga. Before
+      long, we find them called the Bulgars. (The letters B and V are
+      often interchanged in the languages of south-eastern Europe. The
+      people of western Europe used to call the country of the Serbs
+      Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word _servio_, in
+      Latin, means “to be a slave,” and that as they were not slaves,
+      they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia.
+      The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though
+      it were V.)
+
+      A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They
+      completely gave up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one,
+      which became in time the purest of the Slavic tongues. They
+      intermarried with the Slavs around them and adopted Slavic names.
+      They founded a flourishing nation which lay between the kingdom
+      of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople.
+
+      North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro͞o
+      mä′nï). These people claimed to be descended from the Roman
+      Emperor’s colonists, as was previously told, but the reason their
+      language is so much like the Italian is that a large number of
+      people from the north of Italy moved into the country nearly a
+      thousand years after the first Roman colonists settled there.
+      From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited by
+      Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: A Typical Bulgarian Family]
+
+      A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians.
+      (See map) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians, who
+      inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the
+      time of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a
+      branch of the Indo-European family which is neither Latin,
+      Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic. They are distant cousins of the
+      Italians and are also slightly related to the Greeks. They are a
+      wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never known the
+      meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each
+      village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring
+      towns. The Albanians, or Skipetars (skïp′ĕtars) as they call
+      themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the
+      Turks about 1460. Since that time, the great majority of them
+      have been staunch believers in the Mohammedan religion.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have
+          its beginning?
+
+          Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out?
+
+          What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France?
+
+          What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages
+          are spoken?
+
+          In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are
+          descended from the Latin?
+
+          Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different
+          peoples?
+
+          Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI.
+“The Terrible Turk”
+
+      The Greek Empire at Constantinople.—The invading Mohammedans.—The
+      Ottoman Turks.—The fall of Constantinople.—The enslaving of the
+      Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.—One little
+      part of Serbia unconquered.—The further conquests of the
+      Turks.—The attack on Vienna.—John Sobieski to the rescue.—The
+      waning of the Turkish empire.—The Spanish Jews.—The jumble of
+      languages and peoples in southeastern Europe.
+
+
+      In the last chapter, we referred briefly to the Greek empire at
+      Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and
+      was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years
+      before Christ. Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor
+      named Constantine decided that he liked Byzantium better than
+      Rome. Accordingly, he moved the capital of the empire to the
+      Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis (the word _polis_
+      means “city” in Greek). Before long, we find the Roman empire
+      divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the other
+      at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the
+      Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the
+      western empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes.
+
+[Illustration: The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople]
+
+      For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged
+      to fight hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across
+      the fertile plains of Mesopotamia (mĕs′ō pō tā′ mĭ ā) and
+      Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the Tigris
+      (tī′grĭs) and Euphrates (ūfrā′tēz) Rivers. Its name in Greek
+      means “between the rivers.”) The fiercest of the Mohammedan
+      tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For
+      several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople,
+      while the Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler.
+
+      At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls,
+      and the Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the
+      past, and all of southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the
+      invading Moslems (another name for “Mohammedans”). The Turks did
+      not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Albanians,
+      but settled down among them as the ruling, military class. They
+      strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity and turn
+      Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the
+      Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians,
+      Greeks, and Roumanians remained where they had been, but were
+      oppressed by the newcomers.
+
+      For more than two hundred years after the capture of
+      Constantinople, the Turks pushed their conquests farther and
+      farther into Europe. The entire coast of the Black Sea fell into
+      their hands. All of Greece, all of Bulgaria, and all of Roumania
+      became part of their empire. Of the kingdom of Serbia, one small
+      province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains near the coast
+      of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the Serbian
+      kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and
+      higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the
+      invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that
+      “the game was not worth the candle.” Thus the little nation of
+      Montenegro was formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted
+      to the Ottoman rule. (The inhabitants of this small country call
+      it Tzernagorah (tzẽr nä gō′ra); the Italians call it
+      Montenegro. Both of these names mean “Dark Mountain.”)
+
+      Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining
+      control of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About
+      1682, they were pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic
+      king of Poland, John Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ), came to the
+      rescue of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans
+      and completely defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any
+      further advance of the Turkish rule into Europe. (The map on page
+      82 shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.)
+
+      It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the
+      conquered lands were still living where they always had lived.
+      The Turks were very few in number compared with the millions of
+      people who inhabited their empire and paid them tribute. Many
+      wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two hundred and
+      thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their
+      territory.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.]
+
+      By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of
+      their kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania
+      was free from Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain
+      Count of Hapsburg had become Emperor of Germany, and when we say
+      Germany, we include Austria, which had become the home of the
+      Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that the Hapsburg family
+      came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage of one of
+      their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that
+      country. (See page 69.)
+
+      In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory
+      known as the Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is
+      now Roumania, were reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint
+      kingdom to which they were attached. (Bukowina has never been a
+      part of Hungary. It is still a crown land, or county subject to
+      the emperor of Austria personally.)
+
+      During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to
+      be inhabited by a still different people. Not long after
+      Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had
+      conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada (see Chapter II) that
+      used to stretch across the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards
+      decided to drive out of their country all “unbelievers,” that is,
+      all who were not Christians of the Catholic faith. (This happened
+      in 1492, the same year that they sent Columbus to America.) The
+      Moors retreated into Africa, which was their former home, but the
+      millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to return. In
+      the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them
+      to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter
+      his land. They did so by hundreds of thousands.
+
+      The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout
+      the Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are
+      so numerous in Constantinople that four newspapers are published
+      there in the Spanish language, but printed in Hebrew characters.
+      The city of Salonika, a prosperous seaport of 140,000 people,
+      which used to belong to Turkey but now is part of Greece, has
+      over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn other tongues, and
+      many of them can talk in four or five languages besides their
+      native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle.
+
+      Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city,
+      that is, a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians,
+      Jews, Italians are all found mingled together.
+
+
+[Illustration: A Scene in Salonicka]
+
+      The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the
+      races and nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost
+      impossible to say which land should belong to which nation. Take
+      the case of Macedonia (the district just northwest of the Aegean
+      Sea). It is inhabited largely by Bulgarians, and yet there are so
+      many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the former that at the close
+      of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia both claimed it
+      as belonging to them because of the “prevailing nationality of
+      its inhabitants!” In other words, the Serbians claimed that the
+      inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were
+      positive that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is
+      very resentful today because the land was not given to her, on
+      the ground that almost all its inhabitants are Bulgarians!
+
+      Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with
+      making the Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right
+      in the center of Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same
+      language, dressing exactly alike, doing business with each other
+      on an equal footing, are to be found the native Bulgarian and the
+      descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one goes to the Greek
+      Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the Mohammedan
+      Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and
+      oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise
+      each other with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan
+      states, with their seething pot of racial and religious hatred,
+      and turn to other causes of European wars.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured
+          Constantinople?
+
+          Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks?
+
+          How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks
+          threatening Vienna?
+
+          Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different
+          nationalities.
+
+          Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII.
+The Rise of Modern Nations
+
+      How the peasants looked upon war.—War the opportunity of the
+      fighting men.—The decreasing power of barons.—The growth of royal
+      power.—How four little kingdoms became Spain.—Other kingdoms of
+      Europe.—The rise of Russia.—The Holy Roman Empire.—The
+      electors.—The rise of Brandenburg.—The elector of Brandenburg
+      becomes King of Prussia.—Frederick the Great.—The seizure of
+      Silesia and the consequent wars.
+
+
+      You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal
+      system, the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men
+      made up a class of the population whose only trade was war, and
+      how the poor peasants were compelled to raise crops and live
+      stock enough to feed both themselves and the fighting men. These
+      peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only in their
+      losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the
+      enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do
+      unless war was going on, and as those who were not killed
+      returned from a war with rich plunder in case they were
+      victorious, they were always looking for a chance to start
+      trouble with some neighboring country.
+
+      In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long
+      as the nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war.
+      As a result, one county in a certain kingdom would often be at
+      war with a neighboring county. The fighting man either was killed
+      in battle or he came out of it with increased glory and plunder,
+      but the peasants and the common people had nothing to gain by war
+      and everything to lose. As we have seen, force ruled the world,
+      and the common people had no voice in their government. The
+      workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting
+      class, who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered
+      honest toil as degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the
+      only respectable trade in Europe in those days was what we today
+      would call highway robbery.
+
+      France and England in the 15th Century
+
+      Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to
+      put down the power of his nobles and make himself master over the
+      whole nation. In this way a strong central power grew up in
+      France. After the death of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in
+      1477, no noble dared to question the leadership of the king of
+      France. The same thing was true in England after the battle of
+      Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King Richard III
+      and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne.
+
+      Spain and Other Kingdoms
+
+      Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile,
+      Aragon, and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation
+      marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon
+      joined the three Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492,
+      when the Moors were defeated and Granada annexed to the realm of
+      Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became one kingdom. About this
+      time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of Hungary, a
+      kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark.
+      Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom.
+      In Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong
+      power which was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the
+      Great (1690-1725).
+
+      The Holy Roman Empire
+
+      The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the
+      Turkish Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a
+      rule which had been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great
+      Frankish monarch, who had been crowned in Rome by the pope as
+      ruler of the western world. (The name “Holy Roman Empire” was not
+      used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it under Otto I, the Saxon
+      emperor, who was crowned in 962.)
+
+[Illustration: The Empire of Charlemagne]
+
+      This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany
+      (except the eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now
+      Bohemia, Austria (but not Hungary), and all of Italy except the
+      part south of Naples. There were times when part of France and
+      all of the low countries (now Belgium and Holland) also belonged
+      to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won their
+      independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and
+      formed a little republic.) See map “Europe in 1540.”
+
+
+[Illustration: Europe in 1540]
+
+      In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not
+      necessarily succeed his father as ruler. There were seven
+      (afterwards nine) “electors” who, at the death of the ruling
+      monarch, met to elect his successor. Three of these electors were
+      archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the others were counts
+      of large counties in Germany like Hanover and Brandenburg. It
+      frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member of the
+      family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families
+      which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most
+      famous of these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from
+      whom the present emperor of Austria is descended.
+
+[Illustration: Louis XIV]
+
+      This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the
+      kingdoms of England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia,
+      Saxony, and Bavaria all were subjects of the emperor, as were
+      many powerful counts. These men were jealous of the emperor’s
+      power, and he did not dare govern them as strictly as the king of
+      France ruled his nobles.
+
+      France in the 18th Century
+
+[Illustration: John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough]
+
+      During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by
+      the ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to
+      increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up
+      a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals
+      spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and
+      Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany
+      between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vōzh) Mountains.
+      Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman
+      Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at
+      the battle of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough,
+      aided by the emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion
+      of the French.
+
+[Illustration: The Great Elector of Brandenburg]
+
+      Prussia
+
+      The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe.
+      You will recall that there was a county in Germany named
+      Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose
+      the emperor. The capital of this county was Berlin. It so
+      happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of
+      Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little
+      county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of
+      these counts, called “the Great Elector,” had added to
+      Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of
+      Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but
+      was a very proud and vain man. He happened to visit King William
+      III of England, and was very much offended because during the
+      interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the
+      elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which
+      was straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult,
+      as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should
+      be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He
+      could not call himself “King of Brandenburg,” for Brandenburg was
+      part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had
+      happened some one hundred years before, that, through his
+      marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of
+      Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as
+      East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic
+      Sea. Between this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the
+      district known as West Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of
+      Poland. However, Prussia lay outside the boundaries of the
+      Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say about what went on
+      there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the kings and
+      princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the “King
+      of Prussia.” It was a situation somewhat like the one we have
+      already referred to, when the kings of England were independent
+      monarchs and yet subjects of the kings of France because they
+      were also dukes of Normandy.
+
+[Illustration: Frederick The Great]
+
+      The son of this elector who first called himself king had more
+      energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country
+      with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He
+      was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over
+      Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in
+      his famous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of
+      the Prussian kingdom.
+
+      His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most
+      remarkable fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had
+      been brought up under strict discipline by his father. The old
+      king had been insistent that his son should be no weakling. It is
+      told that one day, finding Frederick playing upon a flute, he
+      seized the instrument and snapped it in twain over his son’s
+      shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh training, became
+      a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died and left
+      him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was
+      fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as
+      has been said, was made up of a great many little counties, each
+      ruled by its petty prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general
+      way, to the ruler of Austria, who still was supposed to be the
+      head of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+[Illustration: The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806]
+
+      This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many
+      different nationalities which had little sympathy with each
+      other. The ruler of Austria was also king of Bohemia and of
+      Hungary, but neither country was happy at being governed by a
+      German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians, Serbs, Slovenes, and
+      Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the Hungarians and
+      then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished their
+      independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick
+      became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the
+      House of Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria
+      Theresa, to rule the big empire. Frederick decided that he could
+      easily defeat the disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced
+      to the world that the rich province of Silesia was henceforth to
+      be his and that he proposed to take it by force of arms.
+      Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria, but in the
+      end, Frederick’s well-trained troops, his store of money, and
+      above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians
+      victorious, and at the close of the fighting, almost all of
+      Silesia remained a part of the kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians,
+      however, were not satisfied, and two more wars were fought before
+      they finally gave up trying to recover the stolen state.
+      Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his
+      victories.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss
+          to a nation in general?
+
+          How was it that Spain became one nation?
+
+          What did Peter the Great do for Russia?
+
+          Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings?
+
+          What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France?
+
+          What effect had the training of his father upon the character
+          of Frederick the Great?
+
+          Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII.
+The Fall of the Two Kingdoms
+
+      The Poles, a divided nation.—The three partitions.—Wars and
+      revolts as a result.—The disappearance of Lithuania.—The growing
+      power of the king of France.—An extravagant and corrupt
+      court.—Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.—Bankruptcy at
+      last.—The meeting of the three estates.—The third estate defies
+      the king.—The fall of the Bastille.—The flight and capture of the
+      king.—The king beheaded.—Other kings alarmed.—Valmy saves the
+      revolution.—The reign of terror.
+
+
+      In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east
+      of Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in
+      Europe with the exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said
+      before, were a Slavic people, distant cousins of the Russians and
+      Bohemians. They had a strong nobility or upper class, but these
+      nobles were jealous of each other, and as a result, the country
+      was torn apart by many warring factions. The condition of the
+      working class was very miserable. The nobles did not allow them
+      any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically
+      slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of
+      the crops that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles,
+      no law could be passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a
+      result of this jealousy between factions, the Poles could not be
+      induced to obey any one leader, and thus, divided, were easy to
+      conquer.
+
+      Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated
+      from his land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia,
+      which was part of Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria
+      Theresa of Austria, and to the Empress Catharine II of Russia
+      that they each take a slice of Poland. This was accordingly done,
+      in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist the three
+      great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had
+      been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by
+      without a protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia
+      each again annexed a large part of the remainder of Poland, and
+      two years after this, the three powers divided up among them all
+      that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The Poles fought violently
+      against this last partition, but they were not united and were
+      greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers.
+
+      This great crime against a nation was the result of the military
+      system; and this in turn was the result of the feudal system,
+      which made the king, as commander-in-chief of the army, the
+      supreme ruler of his country. The men in the Prussian and
+      Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer the poor
+      Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage
+      from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply
+      meant an enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes
+      to them, and more men to draw on for their armies.
+
+[Illustration: Catharine II]
+
+      Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country,
+      this wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all
+      the stronger. There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by
+      Polish uprisings, time and time again, and the Poles will never
+      be satisfied until their unhappy country is once more united.
+
+      To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country
+      had been annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had
+      married the daughter of the king of Poland, followed his
+      father-in-law on the Polish throne. Lithuania fell to Russia’s
+      share in the division, so that its people only changed masters.
+      They are a distinct nation, however, possessing a language and
+      literature of their own, and having no desire to be ruled by
+      either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice, they
+      would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and
+      Russia proper.
+
+      The Downfall of the French Monarchy
+
+[Illustration: Courtier of time of Louis XIV]
+
+      In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There,
+      for hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing
+      greater, until by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the
+      country who could oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons
+      where he sent those who had offended him, shutting them up
+      without a trial and not even letting their families know where
+      they had been taken. The peasants and working classes had been
+      ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier. The king
+      spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his
+      courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest
+      capital in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and
+      the poor peasants paid the bills.
+
+[Illustration: The Taking of The Bastille]
+
+      For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a
+      revolt, but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead
+      them. At last, came a time when there was no money in the royal
+      treasury. After all the waste and corruption, nothing was left to
+      pay the army and keep up the expenses of the government. One
+      minister of finance after another tried to devise some scheme
+      whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success.
+      The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred
+      years were at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king
+      summoned a meeting of representative men from all over the
+      kingdom. There were three classes represented, the nobles, the
+      clergy, and what was called “the third estate,” which meant
+      merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A great statesman
+      appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the third
+      estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such
+      that the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst
+      of these exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison,
+      the Bastille. They took it by storm, and tore it to the ground.
+      This happened on the fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the
+      French still celebrate as the birthday of their nation’s liberty.
+      All over France the common people rose in revolt. The soldiers in
+      the army would no longer obey their officers. The king was
+      closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was
+      brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in
+      terror, fled from the country. Thus began what is known as the
+      French Revolution.
+
+[Illustration: The Palace of Versailles]
+
+      As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of
+      France took charge of their government, a panic arose throughout
+      the courts of Europe. Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the
+      king of France, began to fear for themselves. They, too, had
+      taxed and oppressed their subjects. They felt that this revolt of
+      the French people must be put down, and the king of France set
+      back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt might
+      take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of
+      Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made
+      war on the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the
+      French by force of arms and compel them to put back their king
+      upon his throne.
+
+      Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known
+      what the object of this war was, they would have had very little
+      sympathy with it, but for years they had been trained to obey
+      their officers, who in turn obeyed their generals, who in turn
+      obeyed the orders of the kings. The common soldiers were like
+      sheep, in that they did not think for themselves, but followed
+      their leaders. They were not allowed to know the truth concerning
+      this attack on France. They did not know the French language, and
+      had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were no
+      public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how
+      to read the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled
+      by the governments, and were allowed to print only what favored
+      the cause of the kings.
+
+      The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French
+      poet from Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song
+      which was first sung in Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus
+      has come to be called “La Marseillaise.” It is the cry of a
+      crushed and oppressed people against foreign tyrants who would
+      again enslave them. It fired the French army with a wonderful
+      enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back the
+      invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French
+      Republic.
+
+[Illustration: The Reign of Terror]
+
+      The period known as “the reign of terror” now began in earnest. A
+      faction of the extreme republican party got control of the
+      government, and kept it by terrorizing the more peaceable
+      citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles had put upon the lower
+      classes for so many hundred years were brutally avenged. The king
+      was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not fled from
+      the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the
+      principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the
+      nation came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly
+      good government was organized, and the executions ceased. Still
+      the kings of Europe would not recognize the new republic. There
+      was war against France for the next twenty years on the part of
+      England, and generally two or three other countries as well.
+
+[Illustration: The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors?
+
+          Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent
+          the partition of Poland?
+
+          How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland?
+
+          What things could the king of France do which would not be
+          tolerated in the United States today?
+
+          Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king?
+
+          Why did the king call together the three “estates”?
+
+          Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July?
+
+          Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of
+          France?
+
+          What was the cause of the reign of terror?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX.
+The Little Man from the Common People
+
+      The young Corsican.—The war in Italy.—Italy a battlefield for
+      centuries.—The victories of Bonaparte.—The first consul.—The
+      empire.—The French sweep over Europe.—Kings and emperors beaten
+      and deposed.—The fatal Russian campaign.—The first
+      abdication.—The return from Elba.—The battle of Waterloo.—The
+      feudal lords once more triumphant.
+
+
+      And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable
+      characters in all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little
+      man from the island of Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a
+      French citizen, for the island had been forcibly The annexed to
+      France shortly before his birth. As a young lieutenant in the
+      army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later on, being
+      in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament,
+      he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this
+      period. A Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they
+      had the castle of the king. As a reward, he had been put in
+      charge of the French army in Italy, which was engaged in fighting
+      the Austrians.
+
+      In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this
+      point to devote some attention to the past history of the Italian
+      peninsula.
+
+      Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman
+      Empire. The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with
+      Sicily, a small nation called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
+      The northern part had belonged to the Ostrogoths, the Lombards,
+      the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in turn. The Italian people
+      wanted to become one nation, but they were divided up among many
+      little princes, each with his separate dominions. The cities of
+      Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was strong on
+      the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired
+      practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople,
+      Egypt, and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the
+      control of northern Italy except the lands around the city of
+      Venice and the county of Piedmont. The latter formed a separate
+      kingdom with the island of Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined
+      with the southern end of the peninsula.
+
+      Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns,
+      Lombards, Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought
+      their battles for the control of the civilized world. (See the
+      following maps.) At one time, the Austrian House of Hapsburg
+      controlled the greater part of the peninsula. This was especially
+      true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
+      As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low
+      Countries (what is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of
+      Spain, being the oldest living grandson of Ferdinand and
+      Isabella. When he became ruler of the two Sicilies, and defeated
+      the French king for the control of northern Italy, there were
+      only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway: Russia,
+      Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.)
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 525 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 650 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Italy in 1175 A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: Charles the Fifth]
+
+      Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading
+      Italy, and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had
+      overrun and controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of
+      the war was still the deposing of the French monarch. The
+      Austrian armies were fighting to force the people of France to
+      take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies of France, on
+      the other hand, represented the rights of the people to choose
+      their own form of government.
+
+      Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the
+      Revolution, were eager to spread the republican form of
+      government all over Europe. There was a real possibility that
+      they might do so, and the kings were fighting in defense of their
+      thrones. (The map shows the conquests of the new republic up to
+      this time.)
+
+
+[Illustration: Europe in 1796]
+
+      Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of
+      age, went down into Italy to take command of the French army. The
+      generals, many of them as old as his father, began offering him
+      advice, but he impatiently waved them aside and announced that he
+      was going to wage war on a plan hitherto unheard of. He made good
+      his boast, and after a short campaign in which he inspired his
+      ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting, he had driven
+      the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic of
+      Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a
+      brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte
+      returned to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had
+      little difficulty in overthrowing the five Directors of the
+      French government and having himself elected “First Consul” or
+      president of France.
+
+      A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but
+      Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time
+      compelled his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the
+      French people elect him “emperor of the French” for life, and by
+      an overwhelming vote they did so. The empire was very different
+      from the other empires and kingships of Europe, since it was
+      created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs held their
+      thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the
+      plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By
+      this time, the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to
+      the swords of their fighting men, and there had grown up a
+      doctrine called “The Divine Right of Kings.” In other words, the
+      kings claimed that God in his wisdom had seen fit to make them
+      rulers over these lands, and that they were responsible to God
+      alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that any one who
+      attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the will
+      of Heaven.
+
+      The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from
+      the tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in
+      the wonderful victories gained by their armies under the
+      brilliant leadership of Napoleon. (He dropped his last name,
+      Bonaparte, when he was elected emperor.) They swept over the
+      greater part of Europe and helped to spread the idea that the
+      people had rights that all kings were bound to respect, and that
+      it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber
+      chiefs.
+
+      For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the
+      Austrians and Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two
+      fierce battles, he crushed the wonderful Prussian army, which had
+      been trained in the military school of Frederick the Great. He
+      drove out the king of Spain, the king of the Two Sicilies, the
+      kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made one of his
+      brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king of
+      Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law
+      on the throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of
+      Rome. He took away from Prussia all of her territory except
+      Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania. and East and West Prussia. He
+      reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings called it the Grand
+      Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all claim to
+      northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now
+      Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See
+      map entitled “Europe in 1810.”)
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1810]
+
+      All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to
+      understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old
+      feudal kings and princes driven from their thrones and their
+      places taken by men sprung from the common people. The father of
+      the Bonapartes had been a poor lawyer. Murat, Napoleon’s
+      brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son of an innkeeper.
+      Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s generals, whom the Swedes chose as
+      their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In
+      nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing
+      the rulers there sprang up a new hope.
+
+[Illustration: The Emperor Napoleon in 1814]
+
+      Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a
+      million men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters
+      in Moscow. The Russian people, however, set fire themselves to
+      their beautiful city, and the French had to retreat a thousand
+      miles through snow and ice, while bands of Russian Cossacks
+      swooped down on them from the rear and took a hundred thousand
+      prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the French, the
+      allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to drive
+      the little Corsican from the throne of France.
+
+      For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack
+      of soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the
+      enthusiasm which he never failed to arouse in his troops. In
+      1814, however, surrounded by the troops of Austria, Prussia,
+      Russia, and England, he had to confess himself beaten. Even
+      Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops against
+      him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the
+      brother of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years
+      before, and set him on the throne of France. Napoleon was
+      banished to the little island of Elba to the west of Italy, and
+      the monarchs flattered themselves that their troubles were ended.
+
+[Illustration: The Retreat from Moscow]
+
+      In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped
+      from his island prison and landed on the southern coast of
+      France. The king ordered his soldiers to capture their former
+      emperor. But the magic of his presence was too much for them, and
+      the men who had been sent to put him into chains shed tears of
+      joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at his feet. One
+      week later, the king of France had fled a second time from his
+      country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the
+      head of the government.
+
+      All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four
+      large armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not
+      wait for them to come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly
+      north into the low countries, where he met and defeated an army
+      of Prussians. Another army of English was advancing from
+      Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French were defeated in
+      one of the great battles of the world’s history. The defeated
+      Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to
+      the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon
+      had sent to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the
+      emperor from being crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give
+      up his crown, and a second time King Louis XVIII was brought back
+      into Paris and put upon the French throne by the bayonets of
+      foreign troops. The people had been crushed, apparently, and the
+      old feudal lords were once more in control.
+
+[Illustration: Napoleon at Waterloo]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Had Italy ever been a nation?
+
+          What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See map.)
+
+          What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See map.)
+
+          What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire?
+          (See map.)
+
+          What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul
+          and afterward Emperor?
+
+          What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers?
+
+          What was Napoleon’s great mistake?
+
+          Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba?
+
+          What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X.
+A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs
+
+      A meeting of kings and diplomats.—Austrians and English vs.
+      Prussians and Russians.—Talleyrand the subtle.—Carving a new
+      map.—The people are ignored.—Sowing the seeds of trouble.—Unhappy
+      Poland.—Divided Italy.—Revolts of the people.—The outbreaks of
+      1848.
+
+
+      And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and
+      diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of
+      Europe. In past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion
+      and jealousy among these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by
+      without finding two of them flying at each other’s throats in
+      some unjust war or other. Only their great fear of uprisings
+      similar to the French Revolution had driven them to act together
+      in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by the
+      people, which had followed it. This famous “Congress of Vienna,”
+      which took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which
+      European lands have been cut up and parceled out to various
+      monarchs without any regard for the wishes of the people.
+
+[Illustration: The Congress of Vienna]
+
+      Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies
+      had had in crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide
+      the map of Europe as suited them, and it was only by a great deal
+      of diplomacy that they were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is
+      frequently a polite name for some very cunning deception,
+      involving lying and cheating, in which kings and their ministers
+      take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the Russian-Prussian
+      combination, and they induced England to side with them. England
+      did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The
+      English minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the
+      Austrians, Prussians, and Russians, to allow the French diplomat,
+      Talleyrand, to take part in their final meetings. Now Talleyrand
+      was probably the most slippery and tricky diplomat of all Europe.
+      He had grown to power during the troublous days of the latter
+      part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which party would
+      remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the
+      strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served
+      Napoleon during the first years of the empire, he was shrewd
+      enough to remain true to King Louis XVIII during the latter’s
+      second exile. The Prussian-Russian combination was finally
+      obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of Austria, England,
+      and France. Compare this map with the one given in the preceding
+      chapter, and you will see most of the important changes.
+
+      Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by
+      Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a
+      great deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part
+      of the kingdom of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It
+      is needless to say that its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy
+      over this arrangement. Austria kept part of her Polish territory,
+      and gave the rest of it to Russia.
+
+      The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called
+      Belgium, had belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of
+      Austria. As was previously said, it was conquered by the French
+      and remained part of France until the fall of Napoleon. It was
+      now joined with Holland to make the kingdom of the Netherlands.
+      Its people were Walloons and Flemish, almost entirely Catholic in
+      their religion, and they very much disliked to be joined with the
+      Protestant Dutch of Holland.
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1815]
+
+      The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend
+      itself against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had
+      been fought over by these two powers for more than a century. It
+      was finally transferred to Russia, and in order to appease
+      Sweden, Norway, which had been ruled by the Danes, was torn away
+      from Denmark and made part of the kingdom of Sweden. The
+      Norwegians desired to remain an independent country, and they
+      loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes. Therefore,
+      this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of the
+      kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia.
+
+      Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and
+      in addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and
+      Austria. In order to pay back Austria for the loss of part of
+      Poland, she was given all of northern Italy except the counties
+      of Piedmont and Savoy near France.
+
+      The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia)
+      were formed into a loose alliance called the German
+      Confederation. England’s share of the plunder consisted largely
+      of distant colonies, such as South Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc.
+      France shrank back to the boundaries which she had had at the
+      beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of the Two
+      Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon
+      family) who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon
+      their thrones.
+
+      This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten
+      different parts, although its people desired to be one nation. It
+      left Austria a government over twelve different nationalities,
+      each one of which was dissatisfied. It joined Belgium to Holland
+      in a combination displeasing to both. It gave Norway and Finland
+      as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It left the
+      Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all
+      subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once
+      vacant, kings who were hated by their subjects. It divided the
+      Poles up among four different governments—for, strange as it may
+      seem, the powers could not decide who should own the city of
+      Cracow and the territory around it, and they ended by making this
+      district a little republic, under the joint protection of
+      Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in their
+      lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who
+      were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the
+      foundation for future revolutions and wars without number.
+
+      At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but
+      after two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland,
+      which, as one of the states of the Russian Empire, was still
+      called a kingdom, was deprived of all its rights, and its people
+      were forced to give up the use of their language in their
+      schools, their courts, and even their churches. In the same
+      fashion, the Poles in Prussia were “not even allowed to think in
+      Polish,” as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the
+      first half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and
+      struggles among these people. As a result of one of them, in
+      1846, the little Republic of Cracow was abolished, and its
+      territory forcibly annexed to Austria.
+
+      The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their
+      object the uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from
+      foreign rulers. All through Germany there were mutterings of
+      discontent. The people wanted more freedom from their lords.
+      Greece broke out into insurrection against the Turks, and fifteen
+      years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to independence.
+      Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands broke
+      itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world
+      that it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of
+      Belgium. About the same time, the people of France rose up
+      against the Bourbon kings, and threw them out “for good.” A
+      distant cousin of the king was elected, not “king of France” but
+      “citizen king of the French,” and the people were allowed to
+      elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at Paris.
+      In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time,
+      Spain was a republic, but the people were not well enough
+      educated to govern themselves, and the kingdom was restored.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Metternich]
+
+      The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory
+      in 1815 than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood
+      for the “divine right of kings,” and did not believe in allowing
+      the common people any liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising
+      occurred in Austria, and crowds in Vienna, crying, “down with
+      Metternich,” forced the aged diplomat to flee. During the same
+      year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people everywhere were
+      revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and princes,
+      and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France,
+      also, grew tired of her “citizen king,” and that country a second
+      time became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of
+      electing as their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of
+      the great Napoleon, and in time he did exactly what his uncle had
+      done,—persuaded the French people to elect him emperor.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What were the motives of each of the nations represented at
+          the Congress of Vienna?
+
+          Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the
+          meeting at first?
+
+          Why did the English and Austrians assist each other?
+
+          What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See last chapter.)
+
+          What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their
+          thrones?
+
+          What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress?
+
+          How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the
+          Congress?
+
+          What did the Belgians do about it?
+
+          What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI.
+Italy a Nation at Last
+
+      The Crimean War curbs Russia.—Cavour plans a United Italy.—War
+      against Austria.—Garibaldi, the patriot.—The Kingdom of Sardinia
+      becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.—Venice and Rome are
+      added.—Some Italians still outside the kingdom.
+
+
+      Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named
+      Mazzini and Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the
+      Italian princes who were subject to them were constantly crushing
+      some attempted revolution.
+
+      One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great
+      powers were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia
+      attacked Turkey in 1853, but France and England were afraid that
+      if Russia conquered the Turks and took Constantinople, she would
+      become too powerful for them. Therefore, both countries rushed
+      troops to aid Turkey, and in the end, Russia was defeated,
+      although thousands of soldiers were killed on both sides before
+      the struggle was over.
+
+      You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in
+      western Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a
+      little kingdom known as the “Kingdom of Sardinia.” This country
+      had for its prime minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who,
+      like all Italians, strongly hoped for the day when all the people
+      living on the Italian peninsula should be one nation. At the time
+      of the Crimean War (as the war between Russia on the one side and
+      Turkey, France, and England on the other was called) he caused
+      his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a tiny army
+      to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later,
+      he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what
+      President Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been
+      elected emperor.) The French agreed to make war with his country
+      against the Austrians. If they won, the Sardinians were to
+      receive all north Italy, and in return for France’s help were to
+      give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of Nice.
+
+      When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not
+      hard to find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on
+      Sardinia, and, as had been arranged, France rushed to the aid of
+      the Italians. Austria was speedily beaten, but no sooner was the
+      war finished than the French emperor repented of his bargain. He
+      was afraid that it would make trouble for him with his Catholic
+      subjects if the Italians were allowed to take all the northern
+      half of the peninsula, including the pope’s lands, into their
+      kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in
+      return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the
+      Austrians kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled,
+      however, is hard to put out. No sooner did the people of the
+      other states of northern Italy see the success of Sardinia, than,
+      one after another, they revolted against their Austrian princes
+      and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this way, Parma,
+      Modena, Tuscany, and part of the “States of the Church” were
+      added. All of this happened in the year 1859.
+
+      These “States of the Church” came to be formed in the following
+      way: The father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who
+      had been crowned western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had
+      rescued northern Italy from the rule of the Lombards. He had made
+      the pope lord of a stretch of territory extending across Italy
+      from the Adriatic Sea to the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of
+      this country had no ruler but the pope. They paid their taxes to
+      him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord. It was part of
+      this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of
+      Italy.
+
+      You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who
+      with Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They
+      finally pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He
+      came to America and set up a fruit store in New York City, where
+      there were quite a number of his countrymen. By 1854, he had made
+      a great deal of money in the fruit business, but had not
+      forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be rich only in
+      order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold out
+      his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for
+      Italy. When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought
+      throughout the campaign.
+
+      But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not
+      satisfied with a country only half free. In the region around
+      Genoa, he enrolled a thousand men to go on what looked like a
+      desperate enterprise. Garibaldi had talked with Cavour, and
+      between them, they had schemed to overthrow the kingdom of the
+      Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern country. Of
+      course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi,
+      for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of
+      the king of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi
+      all the help that he dared, and urged men to enroll with him.
+
+[Illustration: The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel]
+
+      With his thousand “red-shirts,” as they were called, Garibaldi
+      landed on the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose
+      to welcome him, and everywhere they drove out the officers who
+      had been appointed by their king to rule them. In a short time,
+      all Sicily had risen in rebellion against the king. (You will
+      remember that this family of kings had been driven out by
+      Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. They
+      were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain
+      and the last kings of France. They stood for “the divine right of
+      kings,” and had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing
+      over to the mainland, Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen
+      to ten times its former size, swept everything before him as he
+      marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the people rose against their
+      former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The king fled in
+      haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over the
+      southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people
+      wanted to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom
+      of Italy. It was so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel,
+      king of Sardinia, thus became the first king of United Italy. He
+      made Florence his capital at first, as the country around Rome
+      still belonged to the pope. The pope had few soldiers, but was
+      protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten years later,
+      in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the
+      French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly
+      in and took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the
+      capital, not only of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world,
+      became once more the chief city of the peninsula. The pope was
+      granted a liberal pension by the Italian government in order to
+      make up to him for the loss of the money from his former lands.
+      The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had finally come to
+      pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular Victor
+      Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to
+      elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the
+      worst blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by
+      the patriotism of the people of Italy.
+
+      It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who
+      are not part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the
+      extreme northeast of Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as
+      the result of a war which will be told about more fully in the
+      next chapter, but the territory around the city of Trent, called
+      by the Italians Trentino, and the county of Istria at the head of
+      the Adriatic Sea, containing the important seaports of Trieste,
+      Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost entirely by people of
+      Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of Dalmatia also
+      are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule of
+      Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and
+      was the chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria
+      in the great war of 1914.
+
+
+[Illustration: Messen Italy Made One Nation, 1914]
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia?
+
+          What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III?
+
+          How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia?
+
+          Explain the origin of the “States of the Church.”
+
+          Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king?
+
+          What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII.
+The Man of Blood and Iron
+
+      The people demand their rights—Bismarck, the chief prop of the
+      Prussian monarchy—The question of the leadership of the German
+      states—The wonderful Prussian army—The war on Denmark—Preparing
+      to crush Austria—The battle of Sadowa—Easy terms to the defeated
+      nation—Preparing to defeat France—A good example of a war caused
+      by diplomats—Prussia’s easy victory—The new German empire—Harsh
+      terms of peace—The triumph of feudal government.
+
+
+      All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in
+      contests with their own people. The overthrow of the French king
+      at the time of the revolution taught the people of the other
+      countries of Europe that they too could obtain their liberties.
+      You have already been told how the people of Austria drove out
+      Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the party which refused
+      any rights to the working classes.
+
+      That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of
+      France, had witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had
+      found many German princes in trouble with their subjects, who
+      were demanding a share in the government, the right of free
+      speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury. The empires of
+      Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia in a
+      combination which was known as the “Holy Alliance.” This was
+      meant to stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb
+      the growing power of the common people.
+
+[Illustration: Bismarck]
+
+      Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a
+      remarkable man, who for the next forty years was perhaps the most
+      prominent statesman in Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard
+      Leopold von Bismarck-Schönausen, but we generally know him under
+      the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian nobleman, a believer in
+      the divine right of kings, the man who more than anybody else is
+      responsible for the establishing of the present empire of
+      Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in
+      which he said that “blood and iron,” not speeches and treaties,
+      would unite Germany into a nation. His one object was a united
+      Germany, which should be the strongest nation in Europe. He
+      wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia, Prussia to be ruled by its
+      king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled by Bismarck. It is
+      marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through his whole
+      plan.
+
+      After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the
+      powers of Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia,
+      England, or France. The German states, some 35 in number, had
+      united in a loose alliance called the German Confederation. (This
+      union was somewhat similar to the United States of America
+      between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these states,
+      and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group.
+      Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and
+      much smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and
+      Wurtemburg. Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a
+      wonderfully strong army. He did this by means of a military
+      system which at first made him very unpopular with the people.
+      Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was obliged to serve a
+      certain number of years in the army and be ready at a moment’s
+      notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war.
+
+      Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern
+      weapon, Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose.
+      There were two counties named Schleswig (shlĕs′vig) and Holstein
+      (hōl′stīn) which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet
+      contained a great many German people. The inhabitants of
+      Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while those of Holstein were
+      more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had protested against
+      certain actions of the Danish government, and were threatening to
+      revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and Austria, as
+      the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on
+      little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed
+      by the armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn
+      away from Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria
+      and Prussia.
+
+      This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there
+      was bound to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now
+      Bismarck had a chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up
+      his mind to crush Austria and put Prussia in her place as the
+      leader of the German states. He first negotiated with Napoleon
+      III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that this monarch would
+      not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of Venetia,
+      Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians
+      had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck
+      induced Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia
+      and the other provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria,
+      and Hanover were friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear
+      them. He knew that his army, under the leadership of its
+      celebrated general, von Moltke, was more than a match for the
+      Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined.
+
+      When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians
+      were successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in
+      Bohemia, their armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the
+      Prussians. Austria was put down from her place as the leader of
+      the German Confederation, and Prussia took the leadership.
+      Hanover, whose king had sided with the Austrians, was annexed to
+      Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his generals were
+      anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been the
+      custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war.
+      Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making
+      Prussia the leading military state in Europe, he saw that his
+      next opponent would be France, and he did not propose, on
+      attacking France, to find his army assailed in the rear by the
+      revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck compelled the king to
+      let Austria off without any loss of territory except Venetia,
+      which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to
+      retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large
+      indemnity to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the
+      middle ages, when cities which were captured had been obliged to
+      pay great sums of money, in order to get rid of the conquering
+      armies, was the payment of a war indemnity by the defeated
+      nation. This was a sum of money as large as the conquerors
+      thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The
+      Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which
+      Bismarck had provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact
+      that he was generous in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he
+      could have done had he wanted to.
+
+      The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle
+      between Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible
+      for two men like Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in
+      power very long without coming to blows. It was Bismarck’s
+      ambition, as was previously said, to make Prussia the leading
+      military nation of Europe, and he knew that this meant a struggle
+      with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a united
+      Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would
+      bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was
+      extremely jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had
+      won over Austria. He had been proud of the French army, and
+      wanted it to remain the greatest fighting force in Europe. He was
+      just as anxious for an excuse to attack Prussia as Bismarck was
+      for a pretext to attack him.
+
+      It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no
+      ill-feeling between the French people and the Germans. In fact,
+      the Germans of the Rhine country were very friendly to France,
+      and during Napoleon’s time had been given more liberties and had
+      been governed better than under the rule of their former feudal
+      lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between the military
+      chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no
+      feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their
+      military power should be crushed and his program must be carried
+      through. Europe, to his mind, was too small to contain more than
+      one master military power.
+
+      The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to
+      gain friends for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to
+      make enemies for France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria,
+      Baden, and Wurtemburg), which had sided with Austria during the
+      late war, were friendly to France and hostile to Prussia.
+      Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing to Bismarck
+      that France should be given a slice of this south German
+      territory in return for some other land which France was to allow
+      Prussia to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal,
+      but was careful to keep the original copy, in the French
+      ambassador’s own handwriting. (Each nation sends a man to
+      represent her at the capital of each other nation. These men are
+      called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements for
+      their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little
+      south German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon
+      and to make secret treaties with these states by which they bound
+      themselves to fight on the side of Prussia in case a war broke
+      out with France. In similar fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians
+      angry against the French by letting it be known that Napoleon was
+      trying to annex their country also.
+
+      Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (rōn),
+      Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in
+      Prussia had been trained a certain number of years in the army
+      and was ready at a moment’s notice to join his regiment. The
+      whole campaign against France had been planned months in advance.
+      In France on the other hand, the illness and irritability of
+      Napoleon III had resulted in poor organization. Men who did not
+      wish to serve their time in the army were allowed to pay money to
+      the government instead. Yet their names were carried on the
+      rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the strength in
+      actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain
+      government officials had taken advantage of the emperor’s
+      weakness and lack of system and had put into their own pockets
+      money that should have been spent in buying guns and ammunition.
+
+      When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard
+      to find an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven
+      from her throne, and the Spanish army under General Prim offered
+      the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king
+      of Prussia. This alarmed Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia
+      attacked him on the east, this Prussian prince, as king of Spain,
+      would lead the Spanish army over the Pyrenees against him on the
+      south. France made so vigorous a protest that the prince asked
+      the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was not enough
+      for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The
+      incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent
+      his ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter
+      to assure France that never again should Prince Leopold be
+      considered for the position of king of Spain. The king answered
+      that he could not guarantee this, for he was merely the head of
+      the Hohenzollern family. Prince Leopold, whose lands lay outside
+      of Prussia, was not even one of his subjects. The interview
+      between the king and the French ambassador had been a friendly
+      one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king, and the
+      king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on
+      good terms.
+
+[Illustration: An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.]
+
+      In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war
+      would come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von
+      Moltke and Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the
+      king, telling of his interview with the French ambassador. In the
+      story of his life written by himself, Bismarck tells how, as he
+      read the telegram both Roon and Moltke groaned in disappointment.
+      He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older in a minute. Both
+      had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took the
+      dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message
+      polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had
+      been a friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two
+      hundred words to one of twenty. When he had finished, the message
+      sounded as if the French ambassador had bullied and threatened
+      the king of Prussia, while the latter had snubbed and insulted
+      the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered telegram to Roon and
+      Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt better. “How is
+      that?” he asked. “That will do it,” they answered. “War is
+      assured.”
+
+      The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four
+      hours, the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war.
+      Napoleon III hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals
+      and his wife who urged him to “avenge the insult to the French
+      nation.”
+
+[Illustration: The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of
+Germany]
+
+      We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of
+      1870 just to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck
+      did was no worse than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have
+      done, or the Austrian, Metternich, or several of the Turkish or
+      Russian diplomats. It simply proves how helpless the people of
+      European countries are, when the military class which rules them
+      has decided, for its own power and glory, on war with some other
+      nation.
+
+      The war was short. The forces of France were miserably
+      unprepared. The first great defeat of the French army resulted in
+      the capture of the emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing
+      of the government in Paris, where a third republic was started.
+      One of the French generals turned traitor, thinking that if he
+      surrendered his army and cut short the war the Prussians would
+      force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor. Paris was
+      besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even
+      on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at
+      last they were starved out, and peace was made.
+
+[Illustration: Formation of the German Empire]
+
+      In the meantime, another of Bismarck’s plans had been successful.
+      In January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he
+      induced the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with
+      Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and all the other little German states to
+      join Prussia in forming a new empire of Germany. The king of
+      Prussia was to be “German Emperor,” and the people of Germany
+      were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or Imperial
+      Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom
+      of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was
+      signed by the republic of France and the empire of Germany.
+
+      Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was
+      condemned to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one
+      billion dollars) and certain parts of France were to be occupied
+      by the German troops until this money was fully paid. Two
+      counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine, were to be annexed to
+      Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of German
+      descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the
+      whole province had belonged to France so long that its people
+      felt themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few
+      Germans, and was taken, contrary to Bismarck’s best judgment,
+      because it contained the important city of Metz, which was
+      strongly fortified. Here the military chiefs overruled Bismarck.
+      The desire among the French for revenge on Germany for taking
+      this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck was right.
+      It was a blunder of the worst kind.
+
+      The policy of “blood and iron” had been successful. From a second
+      rate power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck’s leadership, to
+      become the strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been
+      torn from Danish, Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had
+      been forcibly annexed, and Alsace and Lorraine wrested from
+      France. The greater part of the inhabitants of these countries
+      were bitterly unhappy at being placed under the Prussian military
+      rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great deal of this
+      growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the
+      common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech,
+      free newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to
+      a congress or parliament, and while some of these rights had been
+      granted, still the whole country was under the control of the war
+      department. The emperor, as commander-in-chief of the army, could
+      suppress any newspaper and dismiss the congress whenever he might
+      think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it has been called, a
+      big debating society, whose members had the right to talk, but
+      were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the
+      wishes of the military leaders.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe?
+
+          What was the object of the “Holy Alliance”?
+
+          What was Bismarck’s purpose in building up a strong army?
+
+          How did Bismarck defeat Austria?
+
+          What is a war indemnity?
+
+          Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III.
+
+          Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to
+          Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern?
+
+          What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France?
+
+          Was Prussia’s victory a good thing for her people?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII.
+The Balance of Power
+
+      The recovery of France.—The jealousy of the powers.—The policy of
+      uniting against the strongest.—The dream of Russia.—A war of
+      liberation.—The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.—The
+      Congress of Berlin.—Bismarck’s Triple Alliance.—France and Russia
+      are driven together.—The race for war preparation.—The growth of
+      big navies.
+
+Under the third republic,[3] France recovered very rapidly from the
+terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her people worked hard and saved
+their money. In less than two years, they had paid off the last cent of
+the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops were obliged to
+go home. France had adopted the same military system that Germany had,
+and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army and be
+ready at a moment’s notice to rush to arms. She began also to build up
+a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of
+the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed
+Bismarck, who thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would
+she become a strong power. He had tried to renew the old “Holy
+Alliance” between Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of
+preventing the spread of republics. These were the three nations which
+gave their people very few rights, and which stood for the “divine
+right of kings” and for the crushing of all republics. Bismarck called
+this new combination the “Drei-kaiser-bund” or three-emperor-bond. He
+himself says that the proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the
+lies and treachery of Prince Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of
+Foreign Affairs.
+
+ [3] The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was
+ beheaded, the second in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the “citizen king,”
+ was driven out.
+
+      An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany
+      from Russia. As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and
+      alarmed when he saw how quickly France was getting over the
+      effects of the war. In 1875, some trouble came up again between
+      France and Germany, and Bismarck a second time planned to make
+      war on the republic and—complete the task that he had left
+      unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of a
+      second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time,
+      however, England and Russia growled ominously. They notified
+      Bismarck that they would not stand by and see France crushed—not
+      from any love of France, but because they were jealous of Prussia
+      and afraid that the Germans might become too powerful in Europe.
+      Accordingly, Bismarck had to give up his idea of war. Prussia was
+      strong, but she could not fight England, Russia, and France
+      combined. However, he remembered that England and Russia had
+      spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge.
+
+[Illustration: Peter the Great]
+
+      The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what
+      they called “the balance of power.” By this they meant that no
+      one country was to be allowed to grow so strong that she could
+      defy the rest of Europe. Whenever one nation grew too powerful,
+      the others combined to pull her down.
+
+      In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan
+      nations, which were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had
+      broken out among the Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and
+      Bulgaria. As has already been told, these nations are Slavic,
+      cousins of the Russians, and they have always looked upon Russia
+      as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared, intelligent
+      Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so much
+      like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word “grad” means
+      “city” in both languages.)
+
+Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were
+oppressing the little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for
+wanting to see Turkey overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the
+Great, Russia had had her eye upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered
+the district east of the Gulf of Finland, and had founded St.
+Petersburg[4] there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice.
+In the same way, other czars who followed him had fought their way
+southward to the Black Sea, seeking for a chance to trade with the
+Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like a bottle, and the Turks
+at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade at any time they
+might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and must ship
+her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange it
+for their manufactures.
+
+ [4] Now called Petrograd.
+
+[Illustration: Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia]
+
+      Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one
+      day Russia might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient
+      days, was the home of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital
+      of the western Catholic church. The Russians are all Greek
+      Catholics, and every Russian looks forward to the day when the
+      great church of St. Sophia, which is now a Mohammedan mosque,
+      shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With this plan
+      in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up trouble
+      for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as
+      Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at
+      the two following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey
+      had been reduced in size during the two hundred years which
+      followed the Turkish defeat at the gates of Vienna by John
+      Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of Bessarabia had changed
+      hands two or three times, remaining finally in the hands of
+      Russia.
+
+      The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed
+      with joy among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg
+      lost no time in rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and
+      declaring war on Turkey. After a short but stubbornly contested
+      conflict, Russia and the little countries were victors. A treaty
+      of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which Roumania, Serbia,
+      and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as independent
+      states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean
+      Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from
+      her county of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it
+      will help you to understand Russia’s later feeling when Bulgaria
+      in 1915 joined the ranks of her enemies.
+
+[Illustration: Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706]
+
+[Illustration: Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century]
+
+[Illustration: The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated).
+Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.]
+
+      The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms,
+      when once more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will
+      be remembered that Russia three years before had prevented a
+      second war against France planned by Bismarck. It was very easy
+      for him to persuade Austria and England that if Russia were
+      allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new kingdoms which
+      would be under her control, she would speedily become the
+      strongest nation in Europe. The “balance of power” would be
+      disturbed. England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting
+      of statesmen and diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide
+      once more what should be the map of Europe. Representatives were
+      present from all the leading European countries. Even Turkey had
+      two men at the meeting, but the three men who really controlled
+      were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and Lord Beaconsfield
+      (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a great part
+      of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under
+      the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum
+      of money each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her
+      territory was made much smaller than had been agreed to by the
+      treaty of San Stephano. In fact less than one-third of the
+      Bulgarians were living within the boundaries finally agreed upon
+      by the congress. A great part of the Serbians were still left
+      under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of Thessaly and Epirus.
+      The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still to belong
+      to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to
+      keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run
+      their government, although their taxes were still to be paid to
+      Turkey. Austria solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey.
+      Russia, naturally, was very unhappy over this arrangement, and so
+      were the inhabitants of the Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped
+      that now they were at last to be freed from the oppression of
+      their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress of Berlin,
+      like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars
+      and revolutions.
+
+      Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances
+      with other European states. He first made up with his old enemy,
+      Austria. Thanks to the liberal treatment that he had given this
+      country after her disastrous war of 1866, he was able to get the
+      Austrians to join Germany in an alliance which states that if two
+      countries of Europe should ever attack one of the two allies, the
+      other would rush to her help.
+
+      The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that
+      they had gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the
+      Prussians, but they had always looked upon the Austrians as their
+      worst enemies. It was a wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck
+      finally induced Italy to join with Austria and Germany in a
+      “Dreibund” or “Triple Alliance.”
+
+      The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this
+      going over to their enemies would never have been possible but
+      for an act of France which greatly angered Italy. For many years,
+      France had been in control of Algeria on the north coast of
+      Africa. This country had once been a nest of pirates, and the
+      French had gone there originally to clean them out. Next to
+      Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as you will
+      see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians
+      had been looking longingly at this district for some time,
+      intending to organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to
+      their kingdom. They waited too long, however, and one fine day in
+      1881 they found the prize gone,—France had seized this county for
+      herself. It was Italy’s anger over this act of France more than
+      anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an alliance
+      with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria.
+
+      France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of
+      enemies. It looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the
+      republic at any time, and be perfectly safe from interference,
+      with Austria and Italy to protect him. Russia, smarting under the
+      treatment which she had been given by the Congress of Berlin, was
+      full of resentment against Germany. Both the French and the
+      Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck’s Dreibund, and
+      so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other.
+      The result was the “Dual Alliance” between France and Russia,
+      which bound either country to come to the aid of the other in
+      case of an attack by two powers at once.
+
+      In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck’s
+      “Dreibund,” was again restored. Many people thought the forming
+      of the two alliances a fine thing, “for,” said they, “each party
+      is now too strong to be attacked by the other. Therefore, we
+      shall never again have war among the great powers.”
+
+      England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her
+      position on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did
+      not feel obliged to keep a large standing army such as the great
+      powers on the continent maintained.
+
+      These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as
+      France equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria
+      had to do the same. As soon as the Germans invented a new
+      magazine rifle, the Russians and French had to invent similar
+      arms for their soldiers. If Germany passed a law compelling all
+      men up to the age of forty-five to report for two weeks’ military
+      training once every year, France and Russia had to do the same.
+      If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to
+      build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships
+      built by Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one
+      hundred torpedo boats, the Triple Alliance had to “go her one
+      better” by building one hundred and fifty. If Germany equipped
+      her army with war balloons, Russia and France had to do the same.
+      If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery, Germany and
+      Austria built a still bigger gun.
+
+This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only
+with the five nations in the two alliances about which you have been
+told. However, the death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought
+to the throne his grandson, the present Kaiser,[5] and he formed a plan
+for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as Bismarck had made
+her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant colonies and
+dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that Germany,
+too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from
+which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to
+protect these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as
+Germany built some new battleships, England built still others, larger
+and with heavier guns. The next year, Germany would build still larger
+ships, and the next England would come back with still heavier guns. As
+fast as England built ships, Germany built them. Now, each battleship
+costs from five to fifteen million dollars, and it does not take long
+before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high for people to
+stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of discontent
+were heard among the working classes.
+
+ [5] The present Kaiser’s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he
+ was a very sick man at the time of the old emperor’s death.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly?
+
+          Why did Bismarck’s three-emperor-alliance fail?
+
+          What is meant by “the balance of power”?
+
+          What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before
+          1878?
+
+          Why did Russia covet Constantinople?
+
+          Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from
+          being carried out?
+
+          What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin?
+
+          Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance?
+
+          How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy,
+          Austria?
+
+          What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance
+          on France and Russia?
+
+          What result had the formation of the two alliances on the
+          gun-industry?
+
+          How was England brought into the race for war equipment?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIV.
+The “Entente Cordiale”
+
+      Ancient enemies.—England and France in Africa.—A collision at
+      Fashoda.—Germany offers to help France.—Delcassé the
+      peacemaker.—A French-English agreement.—Friendship takes the
+      place of hostility.—England’s relations with Italy, Russia, and
+      Germany.—Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of
+      Turkey.—The Morocco-Algeciras incident.—The question of Bosnia
+      and Herzegovina.—England joins France and Russia to form the
+      “Triple Entente.”—The Agadir incident.
+
+
+      England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars
+      between them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time
+      that they had fought on the same side was in the campaign against
+      Russia in 1855, but even then there was no real sympathy between
+      them.
+
+      In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an
+      excuse for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt
+      was a part of the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a
+      certain amount of money to Constantinople, the Turks did not care
+      very much how it was governed. But now a wild chief of the desert
+      had announced himself as the prophet Mohammed come to earth
+      again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had joined him.
+      They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and killed
+      General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the
+      English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally
+      beat them and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom
+      on the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: An Arab Sheik and His Staff]
+
+      In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had
+      formed a plan for a railroad which should run the entire length
+      of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England’s
+      ambition to control all the territory through which this road
+      should run. But the French, too, were spreading out over Africa.
+      Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had joined their
+      colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of
+      Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year,
+      1898, while Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French
+      expedition under Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and
+      reached the Nile at Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom.
+      Marchand planted the French flag and announced that he took
+      possession of this territory for the republic of France.
+
+      The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand
+      had done. If France held Fashoda, their “Cape to Cairo” railroad
+      was cut right in the middle, and they could advance their
+      territory no farther up the valley of the Nile. They notified
+      France that this was English land. Marchand retorted that no
+      Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the French flag
+      would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on the
+      Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for
+      England, and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The
+      English newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which
+      had already begun its campaign to wrest from England the leading
+      place on the ocean, was delighted at the prospect of a war
+      between France and the British. The German diplomats patted
+      France on the back, and practically assured her of German help in
+      case it came to a war with England.
+
+      Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France.
+      The French population was not increasing, while Germany was
+      steadily growing in numbers. It was England whom Germany saw
+      across her path toward control of the sea.
+
+      There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making
+      up with Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost
+      provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was very strong with him. This
+      was Théophile Delcassé, a little man with a large head and a
+      great brain. He refused to be tempted by the offers of German
+      help, thinking that England, with its free government, was a much
+      better friend for the republic than the military empire of
+      Germany could be.
+
+      Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador
+      came to see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the
+      French foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is
+      to say, a final notice to France that she must give in or England
+      would declare war on her. As he walked into Delcassé’s presence,
+      he began fumbling with the top button of his coat. “Don’t touch
+      that button,” said Delcassé quickly. “Drop your hand. You have
+      something in your pocket which must not be taken out. It is a
+      threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit down. Let us talk
+      this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves all right
+      in the end.” And they did. Delcassé was finally able to quiet the
+      French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade
+      France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was
+      given a free hand in Egypt, without any interference from the
+      French. Naturally the English were very grateful to Delcassé for
+      having refused to profit by German help and declare war. In
+      return for the French agreement to stay out of Egypt, the English
+      promised to help France get control of Morocco.
+
+      Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her
+      son, Edward VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time
+      in France, and was very fond of the French and was popular with
+      them. He saw the growing power of Germany, and knew that England
+      could not afford to be without a friend in Europe. He did his
+      best to bring about a feeling of friendship between the English
+      and the French, and was very successful in doing so. He made
+      frequent visits to France, where he was received with great
+      cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of
+      France in London in a princely fashion. French warships paid
+      friendly visits to English waters, and the sailors mingled with
+      each other and did their best to understand each other’s
+      language. All France, and England as well, welcomed the beginning
+      of the “Entente Cordiale,” or friendly understanding between the
+      two nations.
+
+      England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly
+      understanding with Italy. With the other nations of Europe
+      England had no great friendship. Between England and Russia,
+      there had been a hostile feeling for a long time, for the British
+      felt that the Russians would like nothing better than to stretch
+      their empire from Siberia, down to include British India, or at
+      least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in
+      control.
+
+      The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the
+      future growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to
+      the throne, Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction
+      of manufactures. She had become one of the leading nations of the
+      world. One of her chief questions was, where to market these
+      goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a visit to Syria and Turkey. He
+      was received with great enthusiasm by the Turks, who were glad to
+      have one strong friend among the powers of Europe. Soon
+      afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of
+      the Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the
+      Turks to build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf
+      through Bagdad. German railways ran through Austria-Hungary,
+      which was Germany’s ally, to Constantinople and Salonika, the two
+      greatest ports of Turkey in Europe. This short overland route to
+      Persia was looked upon with suspicion and distrust by the
+      English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost all of
+      Europe’s commerce with India and the neighboring countries.
+
+[Illustration: A Scene In Constantinople]
+
+      Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the
+      west coast of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in
+      the corner of the Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands
+      in the Pacific Ocean were seized. Her foreign trade was growing
+      by leaps and bounds, and she threatened to take away from England
+      a great deal of the latter’s commerce.
+
+      The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted
+      whenever any changes of territory took place, no matter in what
+      part of the earth. Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help
+      of Great Britain and Spain, told the sultan of Morocco that he
+      had to behave himself, the German emperor in person made a visit
+      to Morocco and assured the sultan that he didn’t have to pay any
+      attention to France.
+
+      There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a
+      meeting was held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of
+      all the great powers came together. In the end, France and
+      England were upheld, for even Italy, Germany’s ally, voted
+      against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé, the Frenchman
+      who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his
+      position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans
+      objected to him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated
+      them.
+
+      In 1908, the “young Turk” party in Constantinople (the party
+      which stood for progress and for more popular government) drove
+      the old sultan off his throne, and announced that there should be
+      a Turkish parliament, or congress, to which all parts of the
+      empire should send representatives.
+
+      You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia
+      and Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the
+      Congress of Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised
+      that she would never try to annex these provinces. In 1908,
+      however, she forgot all about her promise. When Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them in the new
+      Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this they
+      should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they
+      belonged to Turkey no longer.
+
+      The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia
+      had looked forward to the day when they should once more be
+      joined to herself. These states, like Montenegro, had been part
+      of the ancient kingdom of Serbia. As long as they were in dispute
+      between Austria and Turkey, Serbia had hopes of regaining them,
+      but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them, it seemed to the
+      Serbs that they were lost forever.
+
+      Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states
+      look upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly
+      indignant at this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the
+      czar talked of war. His generals and war ministers, however,
+      dissuaded him. “Oh, no, your majesty,” said they, “we are in no
+      shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our army was badly
+      disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we shall
+      not be ready for another fight for some time to come.” Russia
+      protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by
+      Austria, and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and
+      France were not ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but
+      did so with a bitter feeling toward the “central empires,” as
+      Germany and Austria are called.
+
+      It has already been shown that England for a long time had been
+      suspicious of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming
+      at control of India. Of late this hostile feeling had been dying
+      out, especially as the friendship between France and Great
+      Britain grew stronger. It was impossible for Russia, France’s
+      partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain unfriendly to England,
+      France’s ally in the “Entente Cordiale.” Both England and Russia
+      felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her war
+      chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each
+      other.
+
+      In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they
+      marked off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each
+      agreeing to stay in her own portion, and not disturb the traders
+      of the other country in theirs. After this Russia, England, and
+      France were usually found acting together in European diplomacy,
+      under the name of the “Triple Entente.” The “balance of power”
+      had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but the English
+      navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than balanced
+      the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance.
+
+      Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with
+      England’s backing and Spain’s friendship, sent her troops among
+      the Moors to enforce law and order. Any one could see that with
+      Tunis and Algeria already in French hands, it was only a question
+      of a little while before Morocco would be theirs also.
+
+      This time Germany rushed her warship _Panther_ to the Moorish
+      port of Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French
+      appealed to England to know whether they could look to her for
+      support. Russia was now in much better shape for war than she had
+      been three years before, and notified France that she was ready
+      to give her support. Therefore, when Mr. Lloyd-George, the little
+      Welshman who was really the leader of the British government,
+      stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and told the world
+      that “to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,” England
+      would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to
+      back down or else start a tremendous European war.
+
+      It was now Germany’s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did
+      not propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So,
+      although the French gave Germany a few square miles of land in
+      central Africa in return for the Kaiser’s agreement to let France
+      have her way in Morocco, the result was a backdown for Germany,
+      and it left scars which would not heal.
+
+      During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents
+      happening, any one of which might have started the world war.
+      Fashoda, Algeciras, Bosnia, Agadir—each time it seemed as if only
+      a miracle could avert the conflict. Europe was like a powder
+      magazine. No man knew when the spark might fall that would bring
+      on the explosion.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What were the plans of the English regarding Africa?
+
+          How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe?
+
+          Why was Germany ready to help France?
+
+          Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England?
+
+          Why was England suspicious of Russia?
+
+          Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks?
+
+          Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+          Austria start a general European war?
+
+          Why did England and Russia become friendly?
+
+          Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XV.
+The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth
+
+      The growth of German trade.—Balkan hatreds.—The wonderful
+      alliance against Turkey.—The sympathies of the big nations.—Their
+      interference and its results.—A new kingdom.—The second war.—The
+      work of diplomacy.—The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria.
+
+
+      Germany’s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her
+      ships, in order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the
+      Mediterranean, had to go a great deal farther than those of
+      France or England. As a result, the Germans had been looking
+      toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as the part of the
+      world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was Germany’s
+      plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip
+      of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and
+      Turkey through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia,
+      and India.
+
+      The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already
+      been explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they
+      had fought a bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the
+      Bulgarians. The Albanians had no love for either nation, while
+      the Greeks looked down on all the others. Montenegro and Serbia
+      were friends, naturally, since they were inhabited by the same
+      kind of people and had once been parts of the original kingdom of
+      Serbia.
+
+[Illustration: Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it.
+(1912-13)]
+
+      Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no
+      more tribute to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of
+      the independent nations of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so
+      strong and the Turks so weak, that Turkey did not dare go to war,
+      so permitted the matter to go unnoticed. The only thing on which
+      all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was their bitter
+      hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them cruelly
+      for the last three hundred and fifty years.
+
+      Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished
+      a wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia,
+      Montenegro, and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each
+      other, for the time being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In
+      order that there should not be any quarreling over the spoils
+      when the war was over, the four little nations agreed, in a
+      secret treaty, that when they got through with Turkey, they would
+      divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The head,
+      including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course.
+      Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body,
+      Greece was to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest
+      of the body was to go to Serbia with the exception of the very
+      tail, including the city of Scutari, which was to be given to
+      Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a seacoast and a chance to
+      trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs had a grudge
+      against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of the
+      fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their
+      country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured
+      goods and paid them very little for their own products in return.
+      Bulgaria was to have Kavala (kȧ va′lȧ) as a seaport on the
+      Aegean and all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli
+      (găl ĭ′po li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city
+      of Salonika (sȧlōni′kȧ), southern Macedonia, and southern
+      Albania.
+
+      With this secret agreement between them, the four little states
+      went to war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship
+      sprung up between Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and
+      generals were sent to Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops.
+      Cannon and machine guns were sent them from German factories, and
+      their rifles were fed with German bullets. The four little
+      countries, accordingly, turned to France and Russia for
+      assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and
+      machine guns, and their military advisers were French and
+      Russians. While the big nations managed to keep out of the war
+      themselves, all were strongly interested in one side or the
+      other.
+
+      The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To
+      their consternation and disgust, the four little nations made
+      short work of the Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was
+      thoroughly beaten, and the allies were ready to put through their
+      program of dividing up the spoils.
+
+      And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their
+      interference laid the foundation for future wars and misery.
+      Austria and Germany saw their path to Constantinople and the east
+      cut right in two. Their railroads, instead of passing through a
+      series of countries under German control, now were to be cut
+      asunder by an arm of Slavic states under Russian protection,
+      which would certainly stop German progress toward Asia.
+
+      With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one
+      little strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar,
+      between Serbia and Montenegro, which connected Turkey with
+      Austria. To be sure, this country was inhabited almost entirely
+      by Serbians, but so long as it was under the military control of
+      Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for the east
+      could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide
+      this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her
+      seaport on the Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to
+      find new markets in Italy, Spain, and France.
+
+[Illustration: Durazzo]
+
+      The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They
+      longed for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be
+      turned over to them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (dū
+      rȧt′zō) and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many
+      Italians, and Italy had always cherished the hope that they might
+      belong to her. Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the
+      Serbian program of seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as
+      the four little countries announced their intention of dividing
+      up Turkey in Europe among themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy
+      raised a great clamor.
+
+      Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held,
+      and once more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead
+      of allowing the four little countries to divide up the conquered
+      land between them, the powers made a fifth small country, the
+      kingdom of Albania, and brought down from Germany a little prince
+      to rule over these wild mountaineers. Notice that the Albanians
+      were not consulted. The great powers simply took a map, drew a
+      certain line on it and said, “This shall be the kingdom of
+      Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.” Again we
+      have a king-made map with the usual trail of grievances.
+
+      This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of
+      its seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country
+      west of Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ). France and Russia did not like this
+      program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance
+      to prevent its being put into effect.
+
+[Illustration: Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13]
+
+      The three little countries, separated from a great part of their
+      new territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to
+      her, “Since we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to
+      divide up all over again. You must give us part of your plunder
+      in order to ‘make it square.’” Now was the time for the ancient
+      ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their neighbors to show
+      itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in so many
+      words, “Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight.
+      It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a
+      very insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we
+      dare you to come and take it.” And the Bulgarians made a
+      treacherous night attack on their recent allies, which brought a
+      declaration of war from the three little nations.
+
+      This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria
+      wanted. It accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan
+      alliance under the protection of Russia. So with Austria and
+      Germany egging on Bulgaria, and Russia and France doing their
+      best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and surrender some land
+      to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in 1913 almost
+      before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled.
+
+      Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who
+      had been mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went
+      down to defeat before the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field
+      of Bregalnitza (brĕg′ȧl nĭt zȧ). To add to Bulgaria’s
+      troubles, the Turks, taking advantage of the discord among their
+      late opponents, suddenly attacked the Bulgarians in the rear and
+      stole back the city of Adrianople, which had cost the Bulgarians
+      so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania, which up
+      to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of
+      her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The
+      Roumanian statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the
+      spoils, and moved simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their
+      kingdom, declared war on Bulgaria also.
+
+      Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at
+      the best price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving
+      to her a strip of land in the country called the Dobrudja (dō
+      brood′jȧ) between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to
+      agree to a new boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept
+      Adrianople. She had to give Kavala and the surrounding country to
+      Greece and the territory around Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′) to
+      Serbia, although these districts were inhabited largely by her
+      own people.
+
+      Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and
+      protector, Russia. The Russians were disgusted to think that the
+      Bulgarians had refused to listen to them when they urged them to
+      grant some small pieces of land to Greece and Serbia at the close
+      of the first war. They felt that the Bulgarians had been
+      headstrong and richly deserved what they got. Therefore, Russia
+      refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from humiliation. In
+      the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal of
+      mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was
+      badly broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria,
+      which had been buried for the time being during the first Balkan
+      war, now broke out with greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked,
+      feeling revengeful against all of her neighbors, but especially
+      angry at Russia, who had always been her friend before.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did the Germans desire a road to the east?
+
+          What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were
+          united?
+
+          What was Russia’s purpose in helping to form the Balkan
+          Alliance?
+
+          Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little
+          countries from carrying out their secret agreement?
+
+          What was the cause of the second Balkan war?
+
+          Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin?
+
+          Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors?
+
+[Illustration: A Modern Dreadnaught]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVI.
+Who Profits?
+
+      The race for power on the sea.—The “naval holiday” declined.—The
+      declining birth-rate.—The growth of the Socialists.—The
+      militarists of Germany.—How wars cure labor troubles.—The forces
+      behind the war game.—Profits and press agents.
+
+
+      Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their
+      mad race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships
+      than its neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other
+      munitions of war. The German navy had been growing by leaps and
+      bounds. From being the sixth largest navy in the world, within
+      ten years it had grown to second place. But, fast as the Germans
+      built ships, the English built them more rapidly still. England
+      built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which was
+      twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly
+      replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and
+      England came back with some still larger vessels which are known
+      as super-dreadnaughts.
+
+      At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston
+      Churchill, proposed to Germany that each country take a “naval
+      holiday.” In other words, he practically said to Germany, “If you
+      people will stop building warships for a year, we will also. Then
+      at the end of the year, we shall be no worse off or better off
+      than we were at the beginning.”
+
+[Illustration: Submarine]
+
+      Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England
+      could not stand the strain very much longer. “Besides,” said the
+      Germans, “it is all very well for England to be satisfied with
+      her present navy, which is half again as large as ours. If our
+      navy were the strongest in the world, we too would be glad to
+      have all nations stop building warships,” and they laid down the
+      keels of four new super-dreadnaughts.
+
+      But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German
+      militarists. For a long time, the population of France had not
+      been increasing, while Germany almost doubled her numbers from
+      1860 to 1900. Now, to their dismay, the German birth-rate began
+      to grow less and they saw the population of Russia growing larger
+      by 20% every ten years. Again, they learned that Russia was about
+      to build a series of railroads near the German frontier which
+      would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany at very short
+      notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own
+      country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have
+      this advantage also.
+
+      Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man
+      to put three years in military service instead of two. This would
+      increase France’s standing army by 50 per cent. The German
+      people, who up to this time had been very docile and very
+      obedient to the military rule, were showing signs of discontent.
+      The Socialists, a party who represented the working people
+      largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been growing
+      very fast. In the last election, they had gained many
+      representatives in the German congress, and had cast over
+      4,000,000 votes. The only thing that kept them from having a
+      majority in the Reichstag (the German congress) was the fact that
+      in some districts, the voters of the other parties combined
+      against them. In this way, the military class still held control
+      of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not be
+      for long.
+
+      With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending
+      their time drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the
+      population had to earn money enough to support their own families
+      and also the families of the men in the army. As one writer has
+      put it, “Every workingman in Europe carried a soldier on his back
+      who reached down and took the bread out of his platter.”
+
+      The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military
+      leaders of Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia
+      must rule Germany, and Germany must be the greatest power in
+      Europe. To their minds, war between Germany and her allies and
+      the rest of Europe must come. Being warriors by trade and having
+      nothing else to do, they saw that, if the great war were
+      postponed much longer, the chances of Germany’s winning it would
+      grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and
+      Germany was unable to catch up to England’s navy. It should be
+      remembered that this class made up a small part only of the
+      German nation. Their influence was all out of proportion to their
+      numbers. They controlled the government, and the government
+      controlled the schools and the newspapers. The people believed
+      what they were told. They were simply parts of the war machine.
+      Bismarck’s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He
+      never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to
+      win it. In like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped
+      to conquer France and Russia before England was ready. It was the
+      old story as told by Shakespeare. “Our legions are brim full, our
+      cause is ripe. The enemy increaseth every day. We, at the height,
+      are ready to decline.”
+
+      Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised
+      the nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or
+      parliament to be called together, the military class, who were
+      trying to keep the common people under control and in ignorance
+      as much as possible had been able to prevent the duma from
+      obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than the German
+      Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to pass
+      laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia
+      for life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor
+      troubles and strikes. The people of Russia, especially those
+      living in cities, were learning how little freedom they had,
+      compared with citizens of other countries, and the time seemed
+      ripe for a revolution.
+
+      It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their
+      people off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to
+      think about. Although the Russian government did all that it
+      could to prevent the war without completely betraying Serbia,
+      still the war probably put off the Russian Revolution for two
+      years.
+
+      It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia
+      there was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were
+      the so-called Junkers (Yo͝onkers), direct descendants of the old
+      feudal barons. They were owners of rich tracts of land which had
+      been handed down to them by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to
+      them by the people who lived on their farms supported them richly
+      in idleness. Just as their ancestors in the old days had lived
+      only by fighting and plundering, so these people still had the
+      idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs.
+
+      Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for
+      the common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days
+      when he was Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress
+      had refused to vote to raise certain moneys through taxes that
+      Bismarck advised, because he wanted to spend all of it in
+      preparations for war. In spite of the vote of the representatives
+      of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the money and
+      spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had
+      won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the
+      Austrians, and lastly over the French, the Prussian people,
+      swollen with pride at what their armies had accomplished, forgave
+      Bismarck for riding rough-shod over their liberties. But Bismarck
+      was able to do what he did because he had the backing of the king
+      and the great land-owning Junker class.
+
+      In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By
+      1914, however, a change had come about. The wonderful development
+      of Germany’s trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power
+      to the merchant class and these had to be considered when plans
+      for war were being formed.
+
+Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially
+trade with foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce,
+carried on with Great Britain, the United States, South America, and
+far distant colonies, had to travel over the ocean. German merchants
+would never support a war cheerfully if they thought that their trade
+would be interrupted for any length of time. So the Junkers, when they
+made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of France and Russia,
+persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been conquered
+they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which would
+more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians
+would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only
+with German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany
+would be much richer.[6]
+
+ [6] When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very
+ down-hearted, for they saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a
+ blow. But the Junkers called together the leading merchants and bribed
+ them with promises. In the year 1918 one of the prominent
+ manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out and was
+ published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame
+ for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military
+ class, he confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the
+ war by the promise of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which
+ was to be given to him after Germany had conquered the world. This, of
+ course, was pure piracy; the motto of Prussia for some time had been
+ that piracy pays.
+
+      There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but
+      gained it through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns
+      and munitions. They were clamorously back of the Junkers in their
+      demands for war. These people profited by preparation for war.
+      They kept inventing newer and stronger guns so that the weapons
+      which they had sold the governments one year would be out-of-date
+      the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap. In this way, the
+      factories were kept working over-time and their profits were
+      enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the
+      common people.
+
+      Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in
+      newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that
+      the great gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper
+      writers to keep up threats of war. They paid certain papers in
+      Paris to print articles to make the French people think that the
+      Germans were about to attack them. These same gun-makers in
+      Berlin tried to persuade the German people that the French were
+      on the point of attacking them.
+
+      All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people
+      all over Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the
+      Junkers were ready to strike and the great war broke out, people
+      would say, “At last it has come, the war that we knew was
+      inevitable.”
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Germany decline to take a “naval holiday”?
+
+          What is meant by “strategic railroads”?
+
+          Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the
+          Socialist Party?
+
+          What was the fate of popular government in Russia?
+
+          How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system?
+
+          How were the German merchants won over to war?
+
+          What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVII.
+The Spark that Exploded the Magazine
+
+      The year 1914.—England’s troubles.—Plots for a “Greater
+      Serbia.”—The hated archduke.—The shot whose echoes shook the
+      whole world.—Austria’s extreme demands.—Russia threatens.—Frantic
+      attempts to prevent war.—Mobilizing on both sides.—Germany’s
+      tiger-like spring.—The forts of the Vosges Mountains.—The other
+      path to Paris.—The neutrality of Belgium.—Belgium defends
+      herself.
+
+
+      The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her
+      parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to
+      be an Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish
+      wanted it governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of
+      Ireland, however, was very unhappy over this arrangement. Its
+      people were largely of English and Scotch descent, and they were
+      Protestants, while the other inhabitants of Ireland were Celts
+      and Catholics. The people of this province were so bitter against
+      home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled
+      regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England
+      compelled them to be governed by an Irish parliament.
+
+      There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and
+      threatened revolutions in India, where the English government was
+      none too popular. Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that
+      England had so many troubles of her own that she would never dare
+      to enter a general European war.
+
+      Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of
+      these provinces to revolt. The military leaders who really ruled
+      Austria, were in favor of crushing these attempted uprisings with
+      an iron hand.
+
+      One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by
+      the Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the
+      emperor and heir to the throne. He finally announced that he was
+      going in person to Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō) in Bosnia to look
+      into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not
+      to come, saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so
+      hated. Being a headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to
+      listen to this advice, but insisted on going. His devoted wife,
+      after doing her best to dissuade him, finally refused to let him
+      go without her.
+
+      When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian
+      revolutionists laid their plans. They found out just where his
+      carriage was to pass, and at almost every street corner, they had
+      some assassin with bomb or pistol. One bomb was thrown at him,
+      but it exploded too soon, and he escaped. Bursting with
+      indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax policing,
+      when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with
+      a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife.
+
+      Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the
+      great European war. As you have been shown, however, this was
+      simply the spark that exploded the magazine. With the whole
+      situation as highly charged as it was, any other little spark
+      would have been enough to set the war a-going.
+
+      The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had
+      been traced to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of
+      the government. It demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she
+      hunt out and punish the plotters at once. And because Austria did
+      not trust the Serbians to hold an honest investigation, she
+      demanded that her officers should sit in the Serbian courts as
+      judges.
+
+      Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the
+      United States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a
+      Japanese judge be sent to California to try the case because
+      Japan could not trust America to give her justice! The Serbians,
+      of course, were in no position to fight a great power like
+      Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they could not
+      submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian
+      demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian
+      courts. They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was
+      done them.
+
+      Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a
+      sharp warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and
+      that Austria and Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the
+      meantime, Serbia offered to lay the matter before the court of
+      arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at the invitation of the czar
+      of Russia, representatives of all the great powers of Europe met
+      at the Hague to found a lasting court which should decide
+      disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to
+      as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been
+      successful in averting trouble.)
+
+      Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and
+      Serbia should be judged by a court composed of representatives of
+      France, England, Italy, and Germany. Austria’s reply to the
+      proposals of England and Serbia was a notice to the latter
+      country that she had just forty-eight hours in which to give in
+      completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr.
+      Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly
+      pleading with England to declare what she would do in case the
+      Triple Alliance started a war with France and Russia.
+
+      Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent
+      the threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that
+      Russia was gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is
+      called. As Russia has so much more territory to draw from than
+      any other country, and as her railroads are not many and are
+      poorly served, it was figured that it would be six weeks before
+      the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody. Germany, on the
+      other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned
+      railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could
+      launch her forces across the frontier at two days’ notice. As
+      soon as the Germans began to hear that the Russians were
+      mobilizing their troops against Austria, Germany set in motion
+      the rapid machinery for gathering her own army. She sent a sharp
+      message to Russia, warning the latter that she must instantly
+      stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans
+      asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria
+      declared war on Russia. France replied that she would act in
+      accordance with what seemed to be her best interests. This answer
+      did not seem very reassuring, and without any declaration of war,
+      the German army rushed for the French frontier.
+
+      Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line
+      of great forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her
+      territory approached that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal,
+      Verdun, Longwy, they ranged through the mountains northeast of
+      France as guardians of their country against another German
+      attack. To rush an army into France over this rough country and
+      between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies
+      carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades.
+      Therefore, if Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at
+      France and get her armies back six weeks later to meet the
+      slow-moving Russians, it was plain that she must seek some other
+      approach than that through the Vosges Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns]
+
+      From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the
+      northern and western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat
+      plain, with level roads, easy to cross. (See map.) Now, years
+      before, Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England
+      that no one of them would disturb its neutrality. In other words
+      it was pledged that in case of a war, no armed force of any of
+      these three nations should enter Belgian territory, nor should
+      Belgium be involved in any trouble arising among them. In case
+      any one of the nations named or in fact any other hostile force,
+      invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to rush to
+      Belgium’s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her
+      small army any troops which might invade her country.
+
+      In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty,
+      the Germans started their rush toward France, not through the
+      line of forts in the mountains, but across the gently rolling
+      plain to the north. They first asked permission of the Belgians
+      to pass through their country. On being refused, they entered
+      Belgian territory just east of Liége (lï ĕzh′). The Belgians
+      telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The Germans replied that
+      they were sorry but it was necessary for them to invade Belgium
+      in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and to pay
+      the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might
+      seize. The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France,
+      England, and Germany they were bound on their honor to resist
+      just such an invasion as this. They asked the Germans how Germany
+      would regard them if they were to permit a French army to cross
+      Belgian territory to take Germany by surprise. The Germans again
+      said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium refused permission
+      to their army to cross, the army would go through without
+      permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make,
+      but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist
+      by all means the passage of the German troops. The great war had
+      begun.
+
+[Illustration: Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.]
+
+      As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the
+      blame, almost alone.
+
+      The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913,
+      thinking that this little country had grown too powerful, as a
+      result of her victories in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had
+      counted on “bluffing” Russia to keep out, as she had been bluffed
+      in 1908, and when she saw that this time the Russians meant
+      business, she became frightened and sent word that she might be
+      willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans
+      were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent
+      their warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a
+      ground for war.
+
+      Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia
+      was at its height, both Austria and Russia had their armies
+      mobilized and ready for war for weeks and months. Still no war
+      came out of it. It looked as if Germany was hard put to it to
+      find an excuse for launching her plan to conquer Europe.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Ulster object to home rule?
+
+          What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia?
+
+          Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia?
+
+          Why did Russia mobilize her troops?
+
+          Why was the road through Belgium chosen?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XVIII.
+Why England Came In
+
+      The question of Italy and England.—Italy’s position.—The war with
+      Turkey.—Italy declines to join her allies.—England is aware of
+      the German plans.—The treaty with Belgium.—The “defensive”
+      war.—The “scrap of paper.”—Germany’s rage at England’s
+      declaration of war.—England does the unexpected.
+
+
+      France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria
+      and Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her
+      neighbor and kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy
+      and England do. Italy, like Russia and Germany, had been having
+      trouble in holding down her people. A revolution had been
+      threatened which would overthrow the king and set up a republic.
+      The Socialist Party, representing the working class, had been
+      growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles was
+      that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by
+      the Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people.
+      Throughout the entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated.
+
+      You will remember that France had aroused the Italians’ anger in
+      1881 by seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province
+      for herself, for the Italian peninsula was crowded with people,
+      and as the population increased, it was thought necessary that
+      colonies be established to which the people could migrate to have
+      more room. Finally in 1911, in order to divert the minds of the
+      people from revolutionary thoughts, the government organized an
+      expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was
+      supposed to belong to Turkey.
+
+      This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany
+      and Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking
+      Turkey, with which the Austrians and Germans were trying to
+      establish a firm friendship. However, “self-preservation is the
+      first law of nature,” and the Italian king and nobles valued
+      their leadership in the nation much more than they dreaded the
+      dislike of Germany and Austria.
+
+      The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia
+      and France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their
+      people too well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been
+      growing up a friendship between the people of Italy and those of
+      France, and the Italian generals knew that it would be a
+      difficult task to induce their men to fire upon their kinsmen
+      from across the Alps. Therefore, when Austria and Germany
+      demanded their support in the war, they replied by pointing out
+      that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to their
+      help only _if they were attacked_. “In this case,” said the
+      Italians, “you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind
+      us to support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not
+      consulted before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands.
+      Expect no help from us.”
+
+      Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen
+      were not blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended
+      to crush France first, capturing Paris and dealing the French
+      army such an overwhelming blow that it would take it a long time
+      to recover. Then the German armies were to be rushed back over
+      their marvelous system of government-owned railroads to meet the
+      on-coming German tide of Russians.
+
+      The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and
+      all war supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful
+      guns which were large enough to batter down the strongest forts
+      in the world. They did not have very much respect for the ability
+      of the Russian generals. They had watched them bungle badly in
+      the Japanese war, ten years before. If once France were brought
+      to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after France and
+      Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later on,
+      to settle with Great Britain.
+
+      The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan.
+      They saw that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal
+      time. However, Great Britain, having a government which is more
+      in the hands of the people than even that of republican France,
+      did not have the system of forcing her young men to do military
+      service. Her little army in England was made up entirely of men
+      who enlisted in it because they wished to, and because they
+      received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with
+      Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so.
+      Otherwise, her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would
+      never enlist to fight against them. The question was, would
+      anything happen to make the English people feel that they were
+      justified in entering the war on the side of France and Russia.
+
+      You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised
+      each other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870,
+      France and Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops
+      upon Belgian soil. Now, however, with the German army invading
+      Belgium, the English statesmen had to decide their course. As
+      heads of one of the nations to guarantee Belgium’s freedom, they
+      called on Germany to explain this unprovoked invasion. The
+      Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city of
+      Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to
+      withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying
+      no attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her
+      stand alongside of Russia and France.
+
+      The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the
+      French. They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of
+      her alliance, to stand by Russia, but they had confidently
+      counted on keeping England out of the war. In fact, the German
+      ambassador to England had assured the German emperor that England
+      had so many troubles, with her uprising in Ireland and threatened
+      rebellions in India and South Africa that she would never dare
+      fight at this time.
+
+      The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly
+      aroused. If there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself
+      on, it is keeping his word. The word of the English had been
+      given, through their government, to Belgium that this little
+      country, if it should resist invasion, would be protected, and
+      this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made no
+      difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly
+      unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had
+      to make the day before, this was a crucial step for the British
+      to take, but to their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In
+      the case of Germany’s declaration of war the German laws say that
+      no war can be declared by the Kaiser alone unless it is a
+      defensive war. Therefore, as one American writer has pointed out,
+      this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever declares. The
+      German military group, having control of the newspapers, put in a
+      lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers
+      having crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd.
+      They told how French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German
+      cities. As a matter of fact, the French soldiers, by orders of
+      their government, were drawn back from the frontier a distance of
+      six miles in order to avoid any appearance of attacking the
+      Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities that
+      was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a
+      formal statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city
+      and no French aviators had been seen near it. But the German
+      government gave out this “news” and promptly declared a
+      “defensive” war, and the German people had to believe what they
+      were told.
+
+      Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people,
+      with free schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had
+      been taught in the schools of his country that Germany was
+      surrounded by a ring of jealous enemies and would one day have to
+      fight them all, so the people of England had been taught in their
+      schools that war between civilized peoples is a hateful thing and
+      must finally disappear from the earth.
+
+      The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the
+      war at first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the
+      same, were doomed to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany
+      the protests against war were still more feeble. The newspapers,
+      with few exceptions, as was previously pointed out, were under
+      the control of the military leaders and the manufacturers of war
+      materials. These papers persuaded the German people that England,
+      through her jealousy of Germany’s great growth in trade, had
+      egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and
+      Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext.
+      At first the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince
+      Lichnowsky, the former German ambassador to Great Britain,
+      published a story in which he told how the German government had
+      forced the war in spite of all that England could do to prevent
+      it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs told them, that the
+      war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies.
+
+      Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old
+      feudal nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the
+      English people.
+
+      When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor
+      (as the prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told
+      him that unless German troops were immediately withdrawn from
+      Belgium, England would declare war, for the Belgian government
+      had a treaty signed by England promising them protection, the
+      German chancellor exclaimed. “What! Would you plunge into this
+      terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!” The chancellor
+      was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were sure
+      that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to
+      go into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans
+      for the conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the
+      chancellor forgot his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He
+      showed the world that honor had no place in the minds of the
+      German war lords. To the English a treaty with Belgium was a
+      sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which could be
+      torn up at a moment’s notice if it stood in the way of their
+      interests.
+
+      There was a violent outburst against England in all of the
+      newspapers of Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called
+      “The Hymn of Hate,” in which he told how while they had no love
+      for the Frenchman or the Russian, they had no hate for them
+      either. One nation alone they hated—England! “Gott strafe
+      England” (may God punish England) became the war cry of the
+      Germans.
+
+      Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until
+      England decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first,
+      even before the terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That
+      any nation should put her honor before her comfort and profit,
+      had never occurred to the war leaders of Germany.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911?
+
+          Why did not Italy join in the attack on France?
+
+          What was Germany’s plan?
+
+          How is the English army different from others?
+
+          What reason had England for declaring war?
+
+          Had the German’s expected England to attack them? Give
+          reasons for your answer.
+
+          Why did the phrase “scrap of paper” make such a deep
+          impression on the world?
+
+          Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIX.
+Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition
+
+      Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.—The demands of
+      Italy.—She joins the Triple Entente.—The retreat of the
+      Russians.—The Balkans again.—Bulgaria’s bargaining.—German
+      princes on Balkan thrones.—The central empires bid the highest
+      for Bulgarian support.—The attitude of Greece.—Roumania’s hopes.
+
+
+      To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all
+      haste to put pressure upon the governments of the countries which
+      were not engaged in the struggle, in order to win them over.
+      Germany and Austria worked hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with
+      Bulgaria. The Turks were the first to plunge in. The party headed
+      by Enver Bey (the young minister of war) saw that a victory for
+      Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of the Turks from
+      Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this
+      faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of
+      October (1914) when Turkish warships, without any provocation,
+      sailed into some Russian ports on the Black Sea and blazed away
+      with their big guns.
+
+      Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their
+      best to get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all
+      responsibility for this act of their naval commanders. The “Young
+      Turks,” however, were all for war on the side of Germany. What is
+      more, Russia, always anxious for an excuse to seize
+      Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize for their
+      act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was
+      quickly followed by France and England.
+
+      Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the
+      sympathies of the Italian people were with France and England.
+      The six grandsons of Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and
+      volunteered for fighting on the French lines. Two of them were
+      killed, and at their funerals in Rome, nearly all the inhabitants
+      of the city turned out and showed plainly that they too would
+      like to be fighting on the side of France.
+
+      You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the
+      provinces of Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent,
+      Trieste (trï ĕs′te), Pola (pō′lä), and Fiume (fē ū′me), all
+      inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and
+      cities by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between
+      the two nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the
+      price of her keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her
+      this land inhabited by Italians. Germany urged Austria to do
+      this, and sent as her special ambassador, to keep Italy from
+      joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow, whose wife was an Italian
+      lady, and who was very popular with the Italian statesmen.
+
+      For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce
+      Italy to accept a small part of the disputed territory and then,
+      when he found this impossible, doing his best to induce Austria
+      to give it all. Austria was stubborn. She did not take kindly to
+      the plan of giving away her cities. She offered to cede some
+      territory if Italy should wait until the end of the war.
+
+      This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that
+      Austria and Germany were going to win the war and was even less
+      sure that Austria would be willing, in case of her victory, to
+      give up a foot of territory. It seemed to the Italian statesmen
+      that it was “now or never” if Italy wished to get within her
+      kingdom all of her own people. In the month of May 1915 Italy
+      threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria and
+      entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England.
+
+[Illustration: Russian peasants fleeing before the German army]
+
+      Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had
+      millions and millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them
+      all. They had plenty of food but very little ammunition for their
+      cannon. Austria and Germany, on the other hand, had been
+      manufacturing shot and shells in enormous quantities, and from
+      the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the Carpathian
+      Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and
+      Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October,
+      forcing them to retreat nearly three hundred miles.
+
+      In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble.
+      You will recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her
+      victory over Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it
+      came to a division of the conquered territory. Thus she brought
+      on a second war, in the course of which Greece and Serbia
+      defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of her territory and
+      the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of Russia
+      had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending
+      a personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King
+      Peter of Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race,
+      not to let their quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of
+      her ability to defeat Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the
+      Russians’ pleadings, and as a result Russia did not interfere to
+      save her when her neighbors were robbing her of part of the land
+      which she had taken from Turkey.
+
+It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had
+felt most sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in
+their blood, although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore,
+just as Italy strove by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her
+nation, so Bulgaria now saw her chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia.
+Accordingly, she asked the four great powers what they would give her
+in case she entered the war on their side, and attacked Turkey by way
+of Constantinople, while the French and English were hammering at the
+forts along the Dardanelles.[7]
+
+ [7] England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great
+ quantities at her ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and
+ England, by supplying Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike
+ a hard blow at Germany.
+
+      The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally
+      induced Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to
+      Bulgaria. They further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of
+      Adrianople and the territory around it which Turkey had
+      reconquered. But Bulgaria was not easily satisfied. She wanted
+      more than Serbia was willing to give; she wanted, too, the port
+      of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the allies could
+      not promise.
+
+      In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany,
+      and Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back
+      Serbia for the loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina in case they won the war from Austria. In like
+      fashion, Austria and Germany promised Bulgaria some Turkish
+      territory and also the southern part of the present kingdom of
+      Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side.
+
+      Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call
+      himself, is a German. (As these little countries won their
+      independence from Turkey, they almost always called in foreign
+      princes to be their kings. In this way it had come about that the
+      king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the king of Roumania was
+      a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar of Bulgaria
+      was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has
+      furnished England and Belgium with their kings.)
+
+      The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic
+      Church, and they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia,
+      as the head of that church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling,
+      however. He wanted to be the most powerful ruler in the Balkan
+      states, and it made no difference to him which side helped him to
+      gain his object.
+
+[Illustration: A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front]
+
+      About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a
+      line running south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern
+      boundary of Roumania. The French and English had been pounding at
+      the Dardanelles for some months, but the stubborn resistance of
+      the Turks seemed likely to hold them out of Constantinople for a
+      long time to come. The checked Italians had not been able to make
+      much headway against the Austrians through the mountainous Alpine
+      country where the fighting was taking place. In the west, the
+      Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British
+      and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that
+      the German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help,
+      flung their nation into its third war within four years. This
+      happened in Octoher, 1915.
+
+      Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece
+      defeated Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to
+      come to the help of the other in case either was attacked by
+      Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was friendly to Greece and Serbia,
+      rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the Roumanians knew that
+      Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory of which
+      Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way,
+      the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped
+      that the entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany
+      and Turkey, would bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side.
+
+      The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia’s aid and so was
+      the Greek prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a
+      sister of the German emperor, and through her influence with her
+      husband she was able to defeat the plans of Venizelos (vĕn ĭ
+      zĕl′ŏs), the prime minister, who was notified by the king that
+      Greece would not enter the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned,
+      but not until he had given permission to the French and English
+      to land troops at Salonika, for the purpose of rushing to the
+      help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that German and Austrian
+      armies might lay waste her territory, as they had Serbia’s,
+      before England and France could come to the rescue.)
+
+      Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan
+      wars had drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the
+      Austrians had invaded her kingdom in this war, and twice they had
+      been driven out. Then came a dreadful epidemic of typhus fever
+      which was the result of unhealthful conditions caused by the war.
+      Now the little kingdom, attacked by the Germans and Austrians on
+      two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was literally
+      fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to
+      stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria,
+      but we have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to
+      prevent this. Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her
+      help. However, as you have been told, the king of Roumania is a
+      German of the Hohenzollern family, a cousin of the emperor, and
+      in spite of the sympathy of his people for Italy, France, and
+      Serbia, he was able to keep them from joining in the defense of
+      the Serbs.
+
+      Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes ȧ
+      rȧ′bi ȧ), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the
+      greater part of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo kō vï′nȧ),
+      which are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for
+      a great part of the inhabitants of these three counties are
+      Roumanians by blood and language. They would like to be parts of
+      the kingdom of Roumania, and Roumania would like to possess them.
+      The Quadruple Entente would promise Roumania parts of
+      Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on their
+      side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her
+      Bessarabia. Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled
+      by colonists sent out from Rome, and in the eleventh century a
+      large number of people from the north of Italy settled there. On
+      this account, Roumania looks upon Italy as her mother country,
+      and it was thought that Italy’s attack upon Austria would
+      influence her to support the Entente.
+
+      Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order
+      to share in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the
+      Quadruple Entente did not need her help Roumania was eager to
+      offer it, at a price which seemed to the allies too high. When,
+      however, the tide turned the other way, she lost her enthusiasm
+      for the cause of her friends, fearing what the central empires
+      might do to her.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war?
+
+          Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on
+          them?
+
+          What were the feelings of the Italian people?
+
+          What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain?
+
+          What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the
+          Entente powers?
+
+          Why did Bulgaria join the central empires?
+
+          Why did Greece keep out of the conflict?
+
+          What were Roumania’s hopes?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XX.
+Back to the Balkans
+
+      The troubles of Crete.—The bigotry of the “Young
+      Turks.”—Venizelos in Greece.—The pro-German king.—The new
+      government at Salonika.—The downfall of Constantine.—The
+      ambitions of Roumania.—Pro-Germans in Russia.—Roumania declares
+      war.—Russian treachery and German trickery.—The defeat of
+      Roumania.
+
+
+      Greece
+
+      You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime
+      minister of Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her
+      bargain from Crete with Serbia (pages 239-240). Now Venizelos had
+      originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks,
+      but controlled by Turkey for many years (see map). In 1897 the
+      Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island,
+      and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they
+      forced their king to declare war on Turkey.
+
+      Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the
+      attention of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the
+      Turks, and they never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed
+      by them. For over a year Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy
+      had their warships in Cretan ports and the government of Crete
+      was under their protection.
+
+      Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince,
+      Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become
+      very unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics—on the wrong
+      side—and had to leave.
+
+      The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The
+      Cretan government was really independent, like a little kingdom
+      without a king, and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had
+      looked forward to the time when they might be united in one great
+      kingdom. The shores of Asia Minor and the cities along the Aegean
+      Sea and the Dardanelles were largely inhabited by Greeks. Crete
+      and the islands of the Aegean had once been part of Greece and
+      they never would be content until they were again joined to it.
+      The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be
+      annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the
+      “Young Turks” which drove the old Sultan from his throne (page
+      186).
+
+      The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the
+      government were tolerant to all the other races and religions in
+      their country. At first the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians,
+      the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in the Turkish Empire were very
+      happy over the result of the revolution. It looked as if a new
+      day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible for these
+      various races and different religions to live side by side in
+      peace.
+
+      No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government,
+      however, than they began to change. “Turkey for the Turks, and
+      for the Turks only” became their motto. With this in mind they
+      massacred Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia (page 85) and
+      Armenians in Asia Minor. The thought of the loss of Crete roused
+      their anger and they began scheming to get it back under Turkish
+      rule.
+
+      In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left
+      for Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the
+      Turks and annex Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his
+      single-hearted love for his country soon made him as prominent on
+      the mainland as he had been in his island home. Before long he
+      was chosen as prime minister of Greece.
+
+      He found the country in a very sad condition. The military
+      officers were poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know
+      this, but imagined that their army was the best in the world. The
+      politicians had plundered the people and there was graft and poor
+      management throughout the government.
+
+      Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic
+      for some of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over
+      the Greek army and taught the Greek officers the real science of
+      war.
+
+[Illustration: Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England]
+
+      Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be
+      frightened, controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent
+      officials and forced the others to attend to business. In fact he
+      reorganized the whole government service in a way to make every
+      department do better work. Few countries in Europe were as well
+      managed as was Greece with Venizelos as its prime minister.
+
+      Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no
+      man of Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You
+      have been told how the Russians have looked forward to the day
+      when Saint Sophia, the great mosque of the Turks, shall once more
+      become a Christian cathedral. In the same way the Greeks have
+      passionately desired to see Constantinople, which was for over a
+      thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the
+      control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the
+      Greeks first won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the
+      boundary of their kingdom has been pushed northward, freeing more
+      and more of their people from the rule of the Ottomans.
+      Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of Greece as many as
+      possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming night and day
+      for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have been
+      told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing
+      Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for
+      whom she had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many
+      people felt that this combination would never have been possible
+      without the far-seeing wisdom of of Venizelos. In fact, some
+      historians give him the credit of first planning the alliance.
+
+      His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as
+      you have been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of
+      their country, whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than
+      Greeks among its inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the
+      attack on Turkey that the greater part of Macedonia should be
+      given to Bulgaria, had hard work after the victory in convincing
+      his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the claims of the
+      three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in the
+      combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs
+      in the course of the first war against Turkey, while the
+      Bulgarians were defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of
+      Constantinople, brought on the second war. Bulgaria was not
+      willing to give up Macedonia to the Greeks and Serbs, and her
+      troops made a treacherous attack on her former allies (June,
+      1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to.
+
+      At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five
+      nations at once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks
+      took advantage of her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika
+      but also Kavala, which by all rights should have gone to the
+      Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be generous to Bulgaria, but
+      the Greeks had had their heads turned by the extraordinary
+      successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and as a
+      result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of
+      the conquered lands.
+
+      Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had
+      begun: In March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and
+      England made their violent attack on the forts of the
+      Dardanelles, intending to break through and bombard
+      Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the
+      conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end,
+      would lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be
+      divided up among the conquering nations. He wanted to get for
+      Greece the shores of the Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor,
+      where a great majority of the inhabitants were people of Greek
+      blood. The king of Greece, Constantine, as has been explained, is
+      a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has always been
+      friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends while
+      both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little
+      incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a
+      coolness between them.
+
+      King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a
+      banquet and told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine
+      work of the Greek soldiers in the two wars just fought had been
+      due to help which he had received from German military men. This
+      statement angered the French very much, for you will remember
+      that it was French generals who had trained the Greek army
+      officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip to
+      Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine
+      condition of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had
+      trained its officers before the war of 1912. This was a direct
+      “slap in the face” of the king but it was the truth and everyone
+      in Greece knew it. From this time on it was evident to everybody
+      that Venizelos was friendly to the French and English, while the
+      King was pro-German.
+
+      Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek
+      government to join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give
+      the order. Venizelos, who was prime minister, straightway
+      resigned, broke up the parliament, and ordered a general
+      election. This put the case squarely up to the people of Greece
+      and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred
+      eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as
+      against one hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war.
+
+      Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election,
+      ordered the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was
+      that Bulgaria, in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the
+      side of the Germans and Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In
+      order to keep peace with Bulgaria Venizelos was willing to give
+      to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had cheated her out of at
+      the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his country
+      would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule
+      of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose
+      population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this,
+      however, and the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted
+      as their prime minister, backed the king. When the attack by the
+      Central Powers on Serbia took place, as has been told, Venizelos
+      a second time tried to get the Greek government to join the war
+      on the side of France and England. He said plainly to the king
+      that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not a “scrap of
+      paper” as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with
+      Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a
+      full understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand,
+      insisted that the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that
+      it was not intended to drag Greece into a general European war.
+      As a result, he dismissed Venizelos a second time, in spite of
+      the fact that twice, by their votes, the Greeks had shown that
+      they approved of his policy.
+
+      Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the
+      constitution the king must obey the will of the people as shown
+      by the votes of a majority of the members of parliament. In spite
+      of the vote of parliament the king refused to stand by the
+      Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating the law of his
+      country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very
+      little power, as the Greek constitution had made him.
+
+      Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and
+      English had landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the
+      hard-pressed Serbs. You have already been told how Venizelos
+      arranged this. Their aid, however, had come too late. Before they
+      could reach the gallant little Serbian army it had been crushed
+      between the Austrians and Germans on one side and the Bulgarians
+      on the other, and its survivors had fled across the mountains to
+      the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments were not
+      strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany,
+      Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern
+      Serbia. King Constantine notified the Allied governments that if
+      these troops retreated upon Greek soil he would send his army to
+      surround them and hold them as prisoners for the rest of the war.
+      France and England replied by notifying him that if he did this
+      they would blockade the ports of Greece and prevent any ships
+      from entering her harbors. This act on the part of France and
+      England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the
+      proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The
+      king took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of
+      pro-Germans to important positions in the government. Constantine
+      allowed German submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases
+      of supply from which they got their oil and provisions. The Greek
+      army was still mobilized, and the small force of French and
+      English, which had retreated to Salonika, were afraid that at any
+      moment they might receive a stab in the back by order of the
+      Greek king.
+
+      In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek
+      frontier and demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When
+      the commander of one of them proposed to fight, the German
+      general told him to call up his government at Athens over the
+      long distance telephone. He did so and was ordered to give up the
+      fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already seen what the
+      answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be sure,
+      the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but
+      they had come there under permission of the prime minister of
+      Greece to do a thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised
+      that she would do, namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars.
+
+      This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too
+      much for Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people
+      in which he declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution
+      and was ruling as a tyrant; that he was betraying his country to
+      the Germans and Bulgars and that all loyal Greeks should refuse
+      to obey him. At Salonika, under the protection of the British and
+      French, together with the admiral of the Greek navy and one of
+      the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a new
+      government—a republic of Greece.
+
+      Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern
+      Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered
+      his men to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores,
+      and the equipment which had been furnished to them by the French
+      to defend themselves against the Germans! In the meantime, the
+      Bulgarians had seized Kavala.
+
+      The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy
+      between the Italians and Austrians even during the years when
+      they were partners in the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy
+      entered the war on the side of France and England, her
+      government, fearing the Austrians, had sent Italian troops to
+      seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was not
+      wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no
+      government at all there since the outbreak of the great war.
+      However, the presence of this Italian garrison prevented the
+      forces of the central powers from advancing southward along the
+      Adriatic coast.
+
+      Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika.
+      The gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to
+      command the joint army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came
+      there to join the French and British. A hundred thousand hardy
+      young veterans, survivors of the Serbian army, picked up by
+      allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were refitted and
+      carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined
+      General Sarrail’s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for
+      revenge on the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the
+      Greek troops, following the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the
+      king and joined the allies.
+
+      Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to
+      steer the ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil.
+      The great majority of them were warm friends of France and
+      England—all of them hated the Turks. The pro-German acts of the
+      king, however, provoked the French and English to such an extent
+      that they frequently had to interfere in Athens. The Greek people
+      resented this interference and on one or two occasions fights
+      broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets of the
+      capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments
+      of France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the
+      treacherous conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that
+      he was assisting Germany in every possible way. They knew that
+      their camp was full of spies who were reporting all their
+      movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that at the first chance
+      he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear. They
+      finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the
+      throne to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince,
+      having been educated in Germany and sharing King Constantine’s
+      pro-German sentiments, was barred from succeeding his father.
+      This seemed a high-handed thing to do but there was no other way
+      out of a difficult situation. Constantine had allowed his
+      sympathies with his wife’s brother to prevent his country from
+      carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute
+      monarch; had plotted with all his power for the overthrow of
+      Russia, France, and England, the three countries which had won
+      Greece its independence in the first place and which still
+      desired its people to have the right to rule themselves.
+
+The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of
+the Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king
+and Germany. A second[8] time within four months a European monarch who
+was out of sympathy with his subjects was forced to resign his crown.
+
+ [8] The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter.
+
+      With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the
+      return to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people
+      hailed his coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the
+      members of parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control
+      of the government.
+
+      In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that,
+      henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of
+      France, Great Britain, and the other nations of the Entente.
+
+      Roumania
+
+      You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs
+      hoped for help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a
+      grudge against Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory
+      which she had been compelled to give up to her neighbor on the
+      north at the close of the second Balkan war. They expected this
+      fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring the Roumanians to the rescue.
+
+      You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as
+      well as in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a
+      long time the government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to
+      plunge into the war before the time was ripe, and dreading the
+      danger of choosing the wrong side.
+
+      The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to
+      war she would have to count strongly on the help of her great
+      neighbor to the north.
+
+Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember
+that there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian
+domain which borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and
+Courland were ruled in the olden times by the “Teutonic knights.”)
+These Germans are much better educated, on the whole, than the
+Russians; they are descendants of old feudal warriors and as such are
+men of force and influence in the Russian government. It was a common
+thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve, Rennenkampf, and
+Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in Russia. In
+this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian
+government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were
+actively plotting with this in view. “There is a secret wire from the
+czar’s palace to Berlin,” said one of the most patriotic Russian
+generals, explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance.
+Graft and bad management, as well as treachery, were all through the
+nation. Train-loads of ammunition intended for the Russian army were
+left piled up on the wharves at the northern ports. Guns sent by
+England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food that was badly needed by
+the men at the front was hoarded by government officials in order to
+raise prices for their friends who were growing rich through
+“cornering” food supplies.[9]
+
+ [9] When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so
+ as to keep it from being sold in great quantities and make it appear
+ that there is not enough to go around, they are said to “corner” the
+ market. Three or four men in America at various times have been able
+ to corner the wheat market or the corn market or the market for
+ cotton.
+
+      The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On
+      the other hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German
+      princess whose brothers were fighting in the German army, and she
+      had little love for her adopted country. The poor little
+      Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in the war, “When
+      the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are beaten,
+      mamma weeps.” In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had
+      great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who
+      were secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use
+      this influence in many ways.
+
+      In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia—a man named
+      Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians,
+      after their long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their
+      strength, and had piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new
+      attack. This began early in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff
+      attacked the Austro-Hungarians in Galicia and Bukowina and drove
+      them back for miles and miles, capturing hundreds of thousands of
+      prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians, although
+      subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the
+      Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of
+      Bohemian troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in
+      a body and afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army.
+
+      In northern France, the British and French had at last gained
+      more guns and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer
+      weight of metal were pushing the latter out of the trenches which
+      they had held for over two years. It seemed to Roumania that the
+      turning point of the war had come. With the Russians winning big
+      victories over Austria, and the French and English pushing back
+      the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as though the end
+      were in sight.
+
+Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a
+distant cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from
+the case in Greece and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and
+she was able to help the party that was friendly to France and Great
+Britain. The man who had and worked early and late to get his
+countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the wisest of the
+Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the second
+Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within
+fourteen months.[10]
+
+ [10] As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months
+ between wars.
+
+[Illustration: What The Allies Wished]
+
+      By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if
+      they wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the
+      province of Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the
+      war on the side of the Entente. It is claimed by some that they
+      had planned to wait until the following winter in order to get
+      their army into the best of condition and training, but that the
+      treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when he found that
+      they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria,
+      persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were
+      unprepared and that their inexperienced troops would be no match
+      for the veterans of the central powers. At any rate, about the
+      first of September Roumania declared war on Austria and joined
+      the Entente.
+
+      The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war
+      first on Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north
+      while General Sarrail attacked it from the south, crush it before
+      help could arrive from Germany, much in the fashion in which poor
+      Serbia had been caught between Austria and Bulgaria a year
+      previously. The Roumanians, however, were eager to “liberate”
+      their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by bad advice
+      from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest
+      instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the
+      conquest of Bulgaria. (See maps.)
+
+[Illustration: Messen How Roumania was crushed]
+
+      Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania.
+      The battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet
+      weather, had become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it
+      was impossible to drag the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia
+      had pushed back the Austrians for many miles but a lack of
+      ammunition and the arrival of strong German re-inforcements had
+      prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian generals on the
+      north, under the influence of the pro-German prime minister, were
+      doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a deadlock.
+      The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that
+      neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow
+      advance of General Sarrail. His great problem was to get
+      sufficient shells for his guns and food for his men. All the
+      time, too, he had to keep a watchful eye on King Constantine,
+      lest the latter launch the Greek army in a treacherous attack on
+      his rear. For the time being, then, the central powers were free
+      to give their whole attention to Roumania.
+
+      Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the
+      Russians to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand
+      men from France and Poland and hurled them all together upon the
+      Roumanians. At the same time, another force composed of Turks,
+      Bulgarians, and some Germans marched north through the Dobrudja
+      to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the very trick that the
+      French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now worked upon
+      her by the central powers. France and England were helpless. They
+      sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the
+      Roumanians the latest science of war, but men and guns they could
+      not send. Look at the map and see how Roumania was shut off from
+      all help except what came from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his
+      part to help Germany. Ammunition and troops which were intended
+      to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The Germans had spies in
+      the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew exactly where the
+      Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to do.
+
+      The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each
+      gun was a delicate sight with a spirit level—a little glass tube
+      supposed to be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly
+      the Germans had filled these tubes with water, intending, in case
+      Roumania entered the war on their side, to warn them about the
+      “mistake.” When the guns were hauled up into the mountains and
+      freezing weather came, these sights burst, making the guns almost
+      useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and the south, the
+      Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile after
+      mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by
+      the Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil
+      wells are, fell into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest,
+      the capital.
+
+      Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost
+      beaten, now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat,
+      Roumanian oil, and above all, the glory of the victories, the
+      central powers were now in better shape to fight than if Roumania
+      had kept out of the war. The German comic papers were full of
+      pictures which declared that as England and France had always
+      wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now take a long
+      look at King Ferdinand of Roumania.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to
+          power of the “young Turks”?
+
+          What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos
+          in Greece?
+
+          What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of
+          1913?
+
+          What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and
+          King Constantine?
+
+          Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as
+          prisoners the French and British troops who were driven back
+          upon Greek soil?
+
+          What right had Venizelos to set up a republic?
+
+          Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King
+          Constantine?
+
+          What made Roumania decide to join the Entente?
+
+          How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central
+          Powers?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXI.
+The War Under the Sea
+
+      Britannia rules the waves.—Enter the submarine.—The blockade of
+      Germany.—The sinking of the _Lusitania_ and other ships.—The
+      trade in munitions of war.—The voyages of the
+      _Deutschland_.—Germany ready for peace (on her own terms).—The
+      reply of the allies.—Germany’s amazing announcement.—The United
+      States breaks off friendly relations.
+
+
+      You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building
+      warships, with the hope that one day their navy might be the
+      strongest in the world. At the outbreak of the great war in 1914
+      they were still far behind England in naval power. On the other
+      hand, it was necessary for the English to keep their navy
+      scattered all over the world. English battleships were guarding
+      trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the
+      Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of
+      Malta—all were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed
+      to defend them.
+
+      The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few
+      cruisers in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the
+      Mediterranean, was gathered in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern
+      part of the North Sea, and the great Kiel Canal which connected
+      these two bodies of water. It was quite possible that this fleet,
+      by making a quick dash for the ports of England, might find there
+      only a portion of the English ships and be able to overwhelm them
+      before the rest of the English navy should assemble from the far
+      parts of the earth.
+
+      Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the
+      foresight to assemble enough English vessels in home waters in
+      the latter part of the month of July, 1914, to give England the
+      upper hand over the fleet of Germany. As a result, finding the
+      British too strong, the Germans did not venture out into the high
+      seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were fought between
+      cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash across the
+      North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns,
+      killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting
+      back to the Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any
+      number.
+
+      A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time
+      the British were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers
+      were sunk and the others barely escaped the fire of the avengers.
+
+      About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German
+      fleet sailed out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were
+      successful in sinking several large ships, but when the main
+      British fleet arrived they began in turn to suffer great losses,
+      and were obliged to retire. With the exception of these two
+      fights and two other battles fought off the coast of South
+      America (in the first of which a small English fleet was
+      destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British
+      fleet took revenge), there have been no battles between the sea
+      forces.
+
+      The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels
+      were either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral
+      nations. German commerce was swept from the seas, while ships
+      carrying supplies to France and the British Isles sailed
+      unmolested—for a time. Only in the Baltic Sea was Germany
+      mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark was kept up
+      as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came
+      great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries
+      bought, in the markets of the world, apparently for themselves,
+      but really for Germany.
+
+      However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new
+      and terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat,
+      the invention of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and
+      enlarged by the Germans. In one of the early months of the war
+      three British warships, the _Hogue_, the _Cressy_, and the
+      _Aboukir_, were cruising about, guarding the waters of the North
+      Sea. There was the explosion of a torpedo, and the _Hogue_ began
+      to sink. One of her sister ships rushed in to pick up the crew as
+      they struggled in the water. A second torpedo struck and a second
+      ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate of the other two,
+      the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster—the German
+      submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant
+      ships with a thousand men had gone down.
+
+      This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and
+      cruisers were not enough. While England controlled the surface of
+      the sea, there was no way to prevent the coming and going of the
+      German submarine beneath the waters. All naval warfare was
+      changed in a moment; new methods and new weapons had to be
+      employed.
+
+      At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up
+      a strict blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which
+      were called “contraband of war” and which, according to the law
+      of nations, might be seized by one country if they were the
+      property of her enemy. On the list of contraband were all kinds
+      of ammunition and guns, as well as materials for making these.
+      England and France, however, added to the list which all nations
+      before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like
+      cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton
+      and other high explosives, gasoline—fuel for the thousands of
+      automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for
+      their tires. Soon other substances were added to the list.
+
+      An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The
+      central empires, in ordinary years, raise only about
+      three-fourths of the food that they eat. With the great supply of
+      Russian wheat shut off and vessels from North America and South
+      America not allowed to pass the British blockade, Germany’s
+      imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland, and the
+      Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about
+      four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not
+      take a detective to discover that she was secretly selling to
+      Germany the great bulk of what she was buying apparently for
+      herself. In a like manner Switzerland and the Scandinavian
+      countries suddenly developed a much greater appetite than before
+      the war! The British blockade grew stricter. It was agreed to
+      allow these countries to import just enough food for their own
+      purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the food
+      themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The
+      Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had
+      slaughtered many of their cows for beef and as a result grew
+      short of milk and butter.
+
+      To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use
+      her submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles.
+      This happened in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest
+      from the world in general, but Germany agreed that her submarine
+      commanders should warn each ship of its danger and allow the
+      captain time to get the passengers and crew into boats before the
+      deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the danger of
+      the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore,
+      were in serious danger.
+
+      The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars
+      up to this time, have said that a blockade, in order to be
+      recognized by all nations, had to be successful in doing the work
+      for which it was intended. If England really was able to stop
+      every boat sailing for German shores, then all nations would have
+      to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the Germans were able
+      to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed into
+      English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a
+      real blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral
+      nations who were peaceably trying to trade with all the countries
+      at war, this sinking of merchantmen by submarines went on.
+
+      In May, 1915, the great steamship _Lusitania_ was due to sail
+      from New York for England. A few days before her departure
+      notices signed by the German ambassador were put into New York
+      papers, warning people that Germany would not be responsible for
+      what happened to them if they took passage on this boat. Very few
+      people paid any attention to these warnings. With over a thousand
+      persons on board the _Lusitania_ sailed, on schedule time.
+      Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to hear that a German
+      submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had sent two
+      torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending
+      her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the
+      boats, but over eight hundred men, women, and children were
+      drowned, of whom over one hundred were American citizens. Strange
+      as it may seem, this action caused a thrill of joy throughout
+      Germany. Some of the Germans were horrified, as were people in
+      neutral countries, but on the whole the action of the German navy
+      was approved by the voice of the German people. With a curiously
+      warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed that the
+      English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children
+      to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was
+      going to be sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which
+      one would speak of the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent
+      children and women to march in front of armies in order to
+      protect the troops from the fire of their enemies.
+
+      A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the
+      United States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans,
+      however, prevailed, and the upshot of the matter was that a stern
+      note was sent to Berlin notifying the Kaiser that the United
+      States could not permit vessels carrying Americans to be
+      torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The German papers
+      proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured every
+      French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two
+      Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the
+      boat might be under the protection of the United States.
+
+      However, in spite of Germany’s solemn promise that nothing of the
+      sort would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring,
+      although on a smaller scale. The American steamers _Falaba_ and
+      _Gulflight_ were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the
+      loss of one or two lives. Finally, the steamer _Sussex_, crossing
+      the English Channel, was hit by a torpedo which killed many of
+      the passengers. As several Americans lost their lives, once more
+      the United States warned Germany that this must not be repeated.
+      Germany acknowledged that her submarine commander had gone
+      further than his orders allowed him and promised that the act
+      should not be repeated—provided that the United States should
+      force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal
+      blockade. The United States in reply made it plain that while the
+      English blockade was unpleasant to American citizens, still it
+      was very different from the brutal murder of women and children
+      on the high seas. England, when convinced that an American ship
+      was carrying supplies which would be sold in the end to Germany,
+      merely took this vessel into an English port, where a court
+      decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British
+      government to pay that sum to the (American) owners.
+
+      This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not
+      anything to go to war over. The United States gave warning that
+      she would hold Germany responsible for any damage to American
+      ships or loss of American lives.
+
+      All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of
+      favoring the nations of the Entente because they were selling
+      munitions of war to them and none to Germany. They said that it
+      was grossly unfair for neutral nations to sell to one side when,
+      owing to the blockade, they could not sell to the other also.
+      When a protest was made by Austria, the United States pointed out
+      that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time the empire
+      of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in
+      South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy
+      munitions in the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not
+      prevent both Austria and Germany from selling guns and ammunition
+      to Great Britain. (It must be made plain that the United States
+      _government_ was not selling munitions of war to any of the
+      warring nations. What Germany wanted and Austria asked was that
+      our government should prevent our private companies, as, for
+      example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which would
+      eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it
+      plain that our people had no feeling in the matter—that they were
+      in business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it
+      was not our fault that the British navy, being larger than the
+      German, prevented Germany from trading with us.)
+
+      In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition
+      factories in the United States that were turning out shells and
+      guns for the Allies. Several hundred Americans were killed in
+      these explosions, and property to the value of millions of
+      dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the Austrian ambassador
+      and several of the German diplomats had been hiring men to commit
+      these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the fact
+      that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the
+      President insisted that their governments recall them.
+
+      The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English
+      blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany,
+      who were being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English.
+      As a matter of fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber,
+      cotton, gasoline, and above all, nickel and cobalt, two metals
+      which were needed in the manufacture of guns and shells.
+
+      Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large
+      German submarine, the _Deutschland_, made the voyage across the
+      Atlantic Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of
+      Baltimore. In spite of all the trouble that the United States had
+      had with Germany over the sinking of ships by submarines, the
+      crew of this vessel was warmly received, and the cargo of dyes
+      which she brought was eagerly purchased. The Germans, in return,
+      loaded their ship with the metals and other products of which
+      Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said, the
+      _Deutschland_ took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the
+      starving babies of Germany. Once more the _Deutschland_ came,
+      this time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with
+      every sign of hospitality.
+
+[Illustration: The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay]
+
+      In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign
+      against Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning
+      to feel the pinch of starvation and the drain on their young men,
+      made it known that as they had won the war they were now ready to
+      treat for peace. This message carried with it a threat to all
+      countries not at war that if they did not help to force the
+      Entente to accept the Kaiser’s peace terms, Germany could not be
+      held responsible for anything that might happen to them in the
+      future.
+
+      President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw
+      the United States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this
+      opportunity, and in a public message he asked both sides to state
+      to the world on what terms they would stop the war.
+
+      The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite
+      proposal. On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no
+      uncertain terms, declared that no peace would be made unless the
+      central powers restored what they had wrongfully seized, paid the
+      victims of their unprovoked attack for the damage they had done,
+      and guaranteed that no such act should ever be committed in the
+      future. They also declared that the Poles, Danes, Czechs,
+      Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed from the
+      tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language
+      this meant that the central powers must give back part of
+      Schleswig to Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored
+      as it once had been; permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an
+      independent nation in the midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the
+      people of Alsace and Lorraine the right of returning to France;
+      annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to Italy, and permit the
+      Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their cousins to the
+      southeast in one great Serbian nation.
+
+      When these terms were published the German government exclaimed
+      that while they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even
+      give back the conquered portions of Belgium and northern France
+      in return for the captured German colonies in Africa and the
+      Pacific Ocean, with the payment of indemnities to Germany, now it
+      was plain that the nations of the Entente intended to wipe out
+      utterly the German nation and dismember the empire of
+      Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies
+      an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for
+      the central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and _use
+      any means whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace_.
+
+      In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany
+      said, “We have won the war. Don’t you recognize the fact that you
+      have been beaten? Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom
+      of Poland, out of the part of Russian Poland which we have
+      conquered, as a separate kingdom under our protection, but don’t
+      expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or Prussian
+      Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are _ours_. You wouldn’t
+      expect _us_ to give up any part of _them_, would you?) Allow us
+      to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the
+      Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of
+      Belgium, and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we
+      are making!”
+
+      The Allied nations replied, in effect: “You now have gotten
+      three-fourths of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we
+      make peace now, allowing you to keep the greater part of what you
+      have conquered, you will be magnanimous and give back a small
+      portion of it if we in turn surrender all your lost colonies.
+      Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you recompense, as far
+      as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack for the
+      death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things
+      back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it
+      plain to us that never again will we have to be on guard against
+      the possibility of a ruthless invasion by your army; that you
+      give to the peoples whom you and your allies have forcibly
+      annexed or retained under your rule a chance to choose their own
+      form of government.”
+
+      Then said the Germans to the world, “You see! They want to wipe
+      us out of existence and cut the empire of our allies into small
+      bits. Nothing is left but to fight for our existence, and, as we
+      are fighting for our existence, all rules hitherto observed in
+      civilized warfare are now called off!”
+
+      In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government
+      announced that, inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an
+      honorable peace (which would have left them still in possession
+      of three-fourths the plunder they had gained in the war) and this
+      peace offer had been rejected by the Entente, all responsibility
+      for anything which might happen hereafter in the war would have
+      to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It was
+      stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when
+      one’s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible.
+      Germany proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink
+      _without warning_ all merchant ships sailing toward English or
+      French ports.
+
+      In a special note to the United States, the German government
+      said that once a week, at a certain time, the United States would
+      be permitted to send a passenger vessel to England, provided that
+      this boat were duly inspected and proved to have no munitions of
+      war or supplies for England on board. It must be painted all over
+      with red, white, and blue stripes and must be marked in other
+      ways so that the German submarine commanders would know it. (It
+      must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was fighting
+      for the freedom of the seas!)
+
+      Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are
+      free to all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to
+      sink without warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of
+      effrontery that few had imagined even the German government was
+      capable of.
+
+      President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In
+      fact, a great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in
+      the country had criticized him for being too patient. The great
+      majority of the people of the United States were for peace,
+      ardently. The government at Washington knew this. Nevertheless,
+      this last announcement by Germany that she proposed to kill any
+      American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in the
+      neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a
+      self-respecting nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent
+      notice to Count Von Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave
+      this country. Friendly relations between the imperial government
+      of Germany and the United States of America were at an end.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare?
+
+          What is contraband of war?
+
+          Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany?
+
+          Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war
+          material object to the sale of such material to fighting
+          nations by nations at peace?
+
+          Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to
+          make all nations devote too much work to the preparation of
+          war supplies.
+
+          Show the difference between the British blockade and the
+          sinking of ships by German submarines.
+
+          Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of
+          the German government have been a good enough reason for the
+          United States to have declared war?
+
+          How did the voyages of the _Deutschland_ prove that the
+          United States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war?
+
+          What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in
+          December 1916?
+
+          Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state
+          their aims in the war?
+
+          How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without
+          warning?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXII.
+Another Crown Topples
+
+      The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.—The
+      first Duma and the revolt of 1905.—The Zemptsvos and the people
+      against the pro-German officials.—The death of Rasputin and other
+      signs of unrest.—The revolution of March 1917.—The Czar becomes
+      Mr. Romanoff.—Four different governments within eight
+      months.—Civil war and a German effort for peace.
+
+
+      It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first
+      place by the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the
+      unwillingness of Russia to stand by and see her little neighbor
+      crushed, and that England came in to make good her word, pledged
+      to Belgium, to defend that small country from all hostile
+      attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the world
+      as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights
+      of peoples to live under the form of government which they might
+      choose. You will remember that when the central powers said that
+      they were ready to talk peace terms the nations of the Entente
+      replied that there could be no peace as long as the Danes, Poles,
+      and Alsatians were forcibly held by Germany in her empire and as
+      long as Austria denied the Ruthenians, Roumanians, Czechs,
+      Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right either to
+      rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of
+      blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond
+      of saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those
+      enslaved by military rule—a conflict between self-governed
+      nations and those which were oppressing their foreign subjects.
+      Replying to this the central powers would always point to Russia.
+      Russia, said they, oppressed the Poles and Lithuanians, the
+      Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well as
+      Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within
+      her territories. Her people had even less political freedom than
+      the inhabitants of Austria and Germany.
+
+      The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the
+      Germans. There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact
+      there is no doubt that French and British statesmen were afraid
+      of a Russian victory. They did not want the war to be won by the
+      one nation in their group which had a despotic form of
+      government. On the other hand the high officials in Russia were
+      not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the free
+      peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a
+      country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you
+      have been told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of
+      German blood and secretly desired the victory of their
+      fatherland, while many Russians of the party who wanted to keep
+      all power out of the hands of the common people were afraid of
+      seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people would rise up
+      and demand more liberty.
+
+      You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time
+      of the outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were
+      threatened, so that many people thought the Czar had not been at
+      all sorry to see the war break out, in order to turn the minds of
+      his people away from their own wrongs.
+
+      At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the
+      cry from the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of
+      elective government, had been so strong that the Czar had to give
+      in. So he called the first Duma. This body of men, as has been
+      explained, could talk and could complain, but could pass no laws.
+      The first Duma had had so many grievances and had talked so
+      bitterly against the government, that it had been forced to break
+      up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down riots among the
+      people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great ferocity. All
+      this time there had been growing, among the Russian people, a
+      feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand
+      dukes and high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that
+      the Czar was well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere
+      puppet in the hands of his German wife, his cousins the grand
+      dukes, and above all a notorious monk, called Rasputin. This
+      strange man, a son of the common people, had risen to great power
+      in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone could
+      keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince,
+      the Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of
+      the ladies in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy’s food
+      whenever Rasputin was away from the court for more than a few
+      days. The poor little prince, of course, was made sick;
+      whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for Rasputin, upon
+      whose arrival the Czarevitch “miraculously” got well. In this
+      manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and
+      Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put
+      bishops out of their places, and even change prime ministers.
+      There is no doubt that the Germans bribed him to use his
+      influence in their behalf. It is a sad illustration of the
+      ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such a man could
+      have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses.
+
+      The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos.
+      These were little assemblies, one in each county in Russia,
+      elected by the people to decide all local matters, like the
+      building of roads, helping feed the poor, etc. They had been
+      started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although the court was
+      rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true to
+      the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and
+      when the world war broke out, this body, really the only
+      patriotic part of the Russian government, kept the grand dukes
+      and the pro-Germans from betraying the nation into the hands of
+      the enemy.
+
+      It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the
+      representatives that they elected to these little county
+      assemblies were patriotically carrying out the war, while the
+      grand dukes and the court nobles, who had gotten Russia into this
+      trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the soldiers, either
+      through grafting off the supplies and speculating in food, or
+      traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans.
+      With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain
+      stored away by men who were holding it in order to get still
+      higher prices, there was not enough for the people of Petrograd
+      to eat.
+
+      As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was
+      made prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk,
+      Rasputin. Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was
+      crushed between the armies of the Germans on the one side and the
+      Turks and Bulgars on the other, while trainload after trainload
+      of the guns and munitions which would have enabled her armies to
+      stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on Russian railroads.
+      “Your Majesty, we are betrayed,” said the French general who had
+      been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the king of
+      Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise
+      after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken.
+
+      Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of
+      Turkey, Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the
+      people had had no schooling and were unable to read and write. It
+      was easier for the grand dukes and nobles to keep down the
+      peasants and to remain undisturbed in the ownership of their
+      great estates if the people knew nothing more than to labor and
+      suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however, the
+      most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were
+      working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then
+      too, the Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by
+      throwing bombs) for the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their
+      teachings throughout the country. Students of the universities,
+      writers, musicians, and artists, had preached the doctrines of
+      the rights of man. While outwardly the government appeared as
+      strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose trunk has rotted
+      through and through, and which needs only one vigorous push to
+      send it crashing to the ground.
+
+      It is generally in large cities that protests against the
+      government are begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob
+      of people, to pick out the ones who are responsible for starting
+      the trouble. Then again it is natural for people to make their
+      protests in capital cities where the government cannot fail to
+      hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that in large cities
+      there are always a great number of persons who are poor and who
+      are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard
+      times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of
+      causing the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people
+      desperate—they do not care whether they live or not—and, as a
+      result, they dare to oppose themselves to the police and the
+      soldiers.
+
+      There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long
+      time. This was felt not only among the common people, but also
+      among the more patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of
+      the winter of 1916-17, the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot,
+      was invited to the home of a grand duke, a cousin of the Czar.
+      There a young prince, determined to free Russia of this pest,
+      shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the ice of the
+      frozen Neva.
+
+      About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely
+      of speculation and “cornering the market,” had become so serious
+      that the government thought it wise to call in several regiments
+      of Cossacks to reinforce the police.
+
+      These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a
+      freedom not shared by any other class in Russia. They are
+      warriors by trade and their sole duty consists in offering
+      themselves, fully equipped, whenever the government has need of
+      their services in war. They were of a different race, originally,
+      than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying they now
+      have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the
+      streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people.
+      Enjoying freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the
+      practice of their trade—fighting—they had had little or no
+      sympathy with the wrongs of the populace, and so were the
+      strongest supporters of the despotic rule of the Czar. At times
+      when the Czar did not dare to trust his regular soldiers to
+      enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the men would
+      refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks
+      could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly
+      through the people, sabering to right and left those who refused
+      to disperse.
+
+[Illustration: Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution]
+
+      The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd
+      protesting against the high prices of food and forming in long
+      lines to demand grain of the government. As day succeeded day,
+      the crowds grew larger and bolder in their murmurings. Cossacks
+      were sent into the city, but for some strange reason they did not
+      cause fear as they had in times past. Their manner was different.
+      Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly joked with
+      the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and were
+      actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger
+      and more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called
+      in. The police fired upon the people when the latter refused to
+      go home. Then a strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes
+      flashing fire, rode at full tilt up the street toward a policeman
+      who was firing on the mob, and shot him dead on the spot. A shout
+      went up from the people: “The Cossacks are with us!” New
+      regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed them
+      knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own
+      kind of people—their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that
+      they were hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned
+      upon its officers, refusing to obey them, and made them
+      prisoners. Another and another joined the revolting forces. It
+      was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July, 1789. The
+      people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they
+      did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments
+      loyal to the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their
+      revolting comrades. They hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed
+      over to them, pleading with them not to fire. A few scattering
+      volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with a shout of joy,
+      the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and rushed
+      across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the
+      mob a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call
+      upon the Duma and ask this body to form a temporary government.
+      Another group was appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him
+      that henceforth he was not the Czar of all the Russias, but plain
+      Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were sent to the fighting fronts to
+      inform the generals that they were no longer to take orders from
+      the Czar, but from the representatives of the free people of
+      Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the new
+      situation. Within two days a new government had been formed,
+      composed of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar
+      signed a paper giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his
+      young son and nominating his brother Michael to take his place.
+      Michael, however, was too wise. He notified the people that he
+      would accept the crown only if they should vote to give it to
+      him; and this the people would not do.
+
+[Illustration: Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma]
+
+      The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of
+      different departments like the American cabinet, was composed of
+      citizens of the middle classes—lawyers, professors of the
+      universities, land-owners, merchants were represented—and at the
+      head of the ministry was a prince. This arrangement did not
+      satisfy the rabble. The radical socialists, most of whom owned no
+      property and wanted all wealth divided up among all the people,
+      were not much happier to be ruled by the moderately well-to-do
+      than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles. The council
+      of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which had
+      formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the
+      powers of government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian
+      people should have peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign
+      minister for the new government, assured France and England that
+      Russia would stick by them to the last, a howling crowd of
+      workingmen threatened to mob him. “No annexations and no
+      indemnities,” was the cry of the socialists. “Let us go back to
+      conditions as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the
+      burden of its own losses and let us have peace.” After a stormy
+      session, the new government agreed to include in its numbers
+      several representatives of the soldiers and workingmen. Prof.
+      Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a radical young
+      lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government.
+
+[Illustration: Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian
+troops]
+
+      Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage
+      offered by Russia’s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered
+      to make friends with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They
+      played eagerly upon the new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of
+      man and freedom and equality, to do away with fighting on the
+      east, thus being able to transfer to the western front some of
+      their best regiments. As a result the French and English, after
+      driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France were
+      at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole
+      war seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies
+      in the west. Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the
+      central powers grew stronger and stronger. The Russian troops
+      felt that they had been fighting the battles of the Czar and the
+      grand dukes and they saw no reason why they should go on shooting
+      their brother workingmen in Germany.
+
+      At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set
+      out to visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle
+      grounds of eastern Galicia he made rousing speeches to the
+      soldiers and actually led them in person toward the German
+      trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all along the line
+      under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the Germans
+      and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to
+      recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace
+      party were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a
+      certain division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to
+      the rear, begun by these troops, carried others with it, and for
+      a time it seemed as though the whole Russian army was going to
+      pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to the soldiers. The
+      situation was serious and called for a strong hand. Kerensky was
+      made prime minister and the members of the government and the
+      council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of
+      a Czar. He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or
+      traitors be shot, if need be, without trial. Under his rule the
+      Russian army began to re-form, and the situation improved.
+
+      In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the
+      Bolsheviki (Bŏl-shĕ-vï′kï) won over the garrisons of
+      Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government, forcing
+      Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany.
+      These people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large
+      cities. They have few followers outside of the city population,
+      for the average Russian in the country is a land owner, and he
+      does not take kindly to the idea of losing his property or
+      dividing it with some landless beggar from Petrograd.
+
+      The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion
+      in the realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by
+      the fights of the different factions. Finland demanded its
+      independence, and German spies and agents encouraged the
+      Ruthenians living in a great province called the Ukraine, to do
+      the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north of
+      the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on
+      fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered
+      largely from the states between the Black and Caspian Seas.
+      Having suffered persecution in the old days, they had hated the
+      Turks for ages and needed no orders from Petrograd to induce them
+      to take revenge.
+
+      Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the
+      central powers which gave Germany and Austria everything that
+      they wanted. The Russian armies were disbanded and the Germans
+      and Austrians were free to turn their fighting men back to the
+      western front. In the meantime, the Ruthenian republic, now
+      called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki to make a
+      separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the
+      Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and
+      the Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the
+      central empires. However, for a whole year hardly anybody in
+      Russia had been willing to do a stroke of work. The fields had
+      gone untilled while the peasants, drunk with their new freedom,
+      and without a care for the morrow, lived off the grain that had
+      been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever grain
+      the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to
+      hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished
+      and as food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater.
+
+      The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy—a government
+      where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny
+      of the lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the
+      middle classes were not allowed any voice in the government. When
+      the first National Assembly or Congress was elected and called
+      together, the Bolsheviki finding that they did not control a
+      majority of its members, disbanded it by force.
+
+      Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected
+      to being robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by
+      the Czar.
+
+      When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops
+      that refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the
+      regiments of Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against
+      their will, to serve in the Austrian army. They were from the
+      northern part of the Austrian empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They
+      were Slavs, related to the Russians, speaking a language very
+      much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria and anxious to
+      free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When General
+      Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had
+      deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They
+      could not get back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them
+      as deserters. Of course, the Austrian and the German generals
+      would make no peace with them. Therefore, this army, 200,000
+      strong, kept their own officers and their order and their arms
+      and refused to have anything to do with the cowardly peace made
+      by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their way across
+      Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the
+      Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the
+      thousands in the armies of the Entente. The main body of them,
+      however, are still in Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great
+      Siberian railway, fully ready to renew the war against the
+      central powers at any time when the patriotic Russians will rise
+      and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the Czechs
+      without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied
+      statesmen.
+
+      The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the
+      result of this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and
+      tricksters, that would never deceive an educated man.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany?
+
+          Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente?
+
+          Why was Rasputin killed?
+
+          Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks?
+
+          What classes fought after the Czar’s downfall?
+
+          How did the central powers take advantage of Russia’s
+          troubles?
+
+          How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany?
+
+          Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXIII.
+The United States at War—Why?
+
+      Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.—Dr.
+      Zimmermann’s famous note.—Congress declares war.—Other nations
+      follow our example.—The plight of Holland, Denmark, and
+      Norway.—German arguments for submarine warfare shown to be
+      groundless.—German agents blow up American factories.—German
+      threats against the United States.—Germany and the Monroe
+      Doctrine.—A government whose deeds its people cannot
+      question.—Why American troops were sent to Europe.—Why the war
+      lords wanted peace in January, 1918.
+
+
+      In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the
+      German ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by
+      the United States. The Germans, true to their word, had begun
+      their campaign of attacking and sinking without warning ships of
+      all kinds in the waters surrounding Great Britain and France.
+      Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red cross, and
+      boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were
+      torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in
+      Germany is well illustrated by an incident which happened at this
+      time. It so happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the
+      channel, was laden with about as many German wounded as British.
+      These men had been left helpless on the field of battle after the
+      Germans had retreated, and had been picked up and cared for by
+      the British, along with their own troops. A German submarine with
+      its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom. The wounded
+      men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest chance
+      for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over
+      Germany against the “unspeakable brutality” of the British who
+      dared to expose German wounded men to the danger of travel on the
+      open sea! The British were warned that if this happened again the
+      Germans would make reprisals upon British prisoners in their
+      hands.
+
+[Illustration: Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner]
+
+      Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war
+      between the United States and Germany. But in the latter part of
+      February, the United States government made public a note which
+      its secret agents had stopped from being delivered to the German
+      ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by Dr. Zimmermann, German
+      minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the ambassador as
+      soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of war
+      with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships
+      without warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with
+      Germany. “Together we will make war on the United States,” said
+      Dr. Zimmermann, “and together we will make peace. Mexico will
+      receive as her reward her lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and
+      New Mexico.” “Ask the Mexican government,” said Dr. Zimmermann,
+      “to propose to the Japanese that Japan break away from her
+      alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in an attack
+      upon the United States.”
+
+      The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling
+      in the United States. Up to this time a great portion of the
+      people had felt that perhaps we were hasty in breaking off
+      relations with Germany, and in their earnest desire for peace had
+      been willing to put up with injury and even insults on the part
+      of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their military
+      necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann’s note, however,
+      showed the people of the United States the true temper of the
+      government at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords
+      had no respect for anything but brute force, that the language of
+      cannon was the only language which they could understand, and
+      that any further patience on the part of this country would be
+      looked upon as weakness and treated with scorn and contempt.
+
+      On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the
+      President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war
+      existed between the United States of America and the Imperial
+      Government of Germany.
+
+      At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought
+      the United States into the great war. These causes may be given
+      under two heads: (1) the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2)
+      the German plots and threats against our country at a time when
+      we were at peace with them. The latter, as given in pages to
+      follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser’s threat, (b) Admiral Von
+      Tirpitz’s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and
+      death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war
+      with Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German
+      government’s money in an attempt to make our congressmen vote as
+      Germany wished.
+
+[Illustration: President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress]
+
+      The Submarine War
+
+      Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred
+      and twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their
+      death through the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning,
+      under orders of the German government. These people were
+      peaceable travelers, going about their business on the high seas
+      in passenger steamers owned by private companies. According to
+      the law observed by all nations up to this time there was no more
+      reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if they had
+      been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other
+      country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing
+      about the brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without
+      warning, was an act of war on the part of Germany against any
+      country whose citizens happened to be traveling on these ocean
+      steamers. That the action of the United States in calling the
+      submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved by the
+      fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going
+      to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same
+      stand. Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American
+      republics found that they could not maintain their honor without
+      declaring war on Germany. German ambassadors and ministers have
+      been dismissed from practically every capital in Spanish America.
+
+      In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and
+      Norway saw their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite
+      of their wrongs, however, the first two did not dare to declare
+      war on Germany, as the Germans would be able to throw a strong
+      army across the border and overrun each of these two little
+      countries before the allies could come to their help. With the
+      fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the Dutch
+      swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed
+      their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of
+      the Entente to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame
+      Denmark and Holland.
+
+      Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet.
+      Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the
+      Kiel Canal connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities
+      on the Norwegian coast or even land an army to invade the
+      country. The three little countries together do not have an army
+      any larger than that of Roumania, and it would have been out of
+      the question for them to declare war on Germany without seeing
+      their whole territory overrun and laid waste.
+
+      Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against
+      Germany that the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917
+      sent a vigorous protest to Berlin, closing with these words:
+
+      “The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it
+      has already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of
+      the principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the
+      proclamation of large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by
+      the sinking of neutral merchant ships not carrying contraband.
+
+      “It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that
+      not only have German submarines continued to sink peaceful
+      neutral merchant ships, paying no attention to the fate of their
+      crews, but that even German warships adopted the same tactics.
+      The Norwegian government decided to send this note in order to
+      bring to the attention of the German government the impression
+      these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.”
+
+      The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify
+      themselves for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1)
+      that on these ships which were sunk were supplies for the French
+      and British armies, the arrival of which would aid them in
+      killing Germans, and (2) that the English, by their blockade of
+      Germany, were doing something which was contrary to the laws of
+      nations and starving German women and children, and, therefore,
+      since England was breaking some rules of the war game, Germany
+      had the right to go ahead and break others.
+
+      The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France
+      and England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the
+      United States was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to
+      them. Of course, this was foolish, as has been pointed out, for
+      the United States was just as ready to sell to Germany as to the
+      Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of the _Deutschland_. If
+      our government had forbidden our people to sell war supplies at
+      all, and if other neutral countries had done the same thing, then
+      the result would be that all wars would be won by the country
+      which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A
+      law passed by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from
+      selling munitions would leave a non-military nation, which had
+      not been getting ready for war, absolutely at the mercy of a
+      neighbor who for years had been storing up shells and guns for
+      the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was this right to
+      sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but ordered
+      Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to
+      point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to
+      Great Britain during the Boer War as you have already been told,
+      and Austria had no answer to give.
+
+      What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of
+      different nations at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying
+      to prevent future wars, if possible, or at least to make them
+      more humane and less brutal to the women and children and others
+      who were not actually fighting, Germany had always upheld the
+      right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her
+      representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to
+      settle disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time
+      when many European nations signed treaties with the United States
+      agreeing to allow one year to elapse between a dispute which
+      might lead to war and the actual declaring of war itself, Germany
+      positively refused to consider such an agreement.
+
+      As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany
+      than Germany or any other country would have done to England if
+      the English navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the
+      North kept up a like blockade of the South and no nation
+      protested against it, for it was recognized as an entirely legal
+      act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, the Germans were
+      blockading the city of Paris and the country around it. The
+      Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the
+      lines to be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the
+      bayonet, and told them that they might “fry in their own fat.”
+      According to the laws of war they were perfectly justified in
+      what they did. Then, too, the English blockade, which stopped
+      ships which were found to be loaded with supplies for Germany and
+      took them peaceably to an English port, where it was decided how
+      much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very
+      different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women,
+      and children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the
+      goods were caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances
+      did not get their money promptly. On the other side, there was
+      murder of the most fiendish kind, an act of war against neutral
+      states.
+
+      Plots and Threats Against the United States
+
+[Illustration: American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents]
+
+      Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United
+      States had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who
+      sympathized with Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for
+      the relief of the German wounded, it is strongly suspected that
+      this was the very money, which, collected by the German
+      government’s own agents, was being spent in plots involving the
+      destroying of the property of some American citizens and the
+      death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were
+      hiring men to blow up American factories, to destroy railroad
+      bridges, and to kill Americans who were making war supplies for
+      the armies of Europe. Factory after factory was blown up with
+      considerable loss of life. Bombs, with clock work attachment to
+      explode them at a certain time, were found on ships sailing for
+      Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to influence
+      members of the United States Congress to vote against the
+      shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for
+      by German money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the
+      West Indies. For a long time there had been a series of stories
+      and newspaper and magazine articles trying to prove to the
+      American people that Japan was planning to make war on us. The
+      same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the Japanese
+      that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States.
+      It now appears that the great part of these stories were started
+      by the Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and
+      profit by the ill will which must follow between the two
+      countries.
+
+      At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these
+      things could be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their
+      Fatherland caused them to go too far. But it has been proved
+      beyond a doubt that all of these acts, which were really acts of
+      war against the United States, were ordered by the government at
+      Berlin and paid for by German money, or by American money which
+      had been contributed for the benefit of the German Red Cross
+      service.
+
+      In addition to these facts there were threats against the United
+      States which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our
+      ambassador at Berlin, Mr. Gerard, that “America had better beware
+      after this war” for he “would stand no nonsense from her.”
+      Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of the Navy, also told
+      Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as a place
+      from which to start her “future war on England and America.”
+
+      American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this
+      kind, for they knew that the government in power at Berlin could
+      absolutely command its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of
+      news and substituting other things in the German newspapers could
+      make the German people think anything which the war lords wished
+      them to think. Thus there was great danger that, having won the
+      war from the Entente or having stood them off successfully until
+      the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next attack the
+      United States with the idea of collecting from this comparatively
+      defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which she
+      had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and
+      with the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set
+      up a great empire in South America which would make her almost as
+      powerful as she would have been had her first plans for crushing
+      France and Russia been successful.
+
+      You will recall, from your study of United States history, that
+      President Monroe had warned European governments to keep their
+      hands off South America, for the United States would act as big
+      brother to any of the little republics there who might be
+      attacked by a European foe. Germany in recent years has resented
+      this very vigorously. There were nearly half a million Germans in
+      the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine Republic
+      also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were
+      out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a
+      footing in these countries in which she had colonists and
+      gradually to gain control of the entire country. In the fall of
+      1917 there was uncovered a plot among the German residents of
+      certain states in the southern part of Brazil to make this
+      territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This discovery,
+      along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove
+      Brazil into war with Germany.
+
+      To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because
+      German submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping
+      her lawful trade; second, because paid agents of the German
+      government were destroying American property in the United
+      States, killing American citizens, and creating discord in our
+      political life; they were pretending to be friendly and yet were
+      trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war against us; third, for
+      the reason that because of Germany’s threats and her well-known
+      policy in South America there was grave danger that it would be
+      our turn next if the central powers should come out of the
+      European war uncrushed.
+
+      The American government has made it plain that we are not moved
+      by any desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win
+      through the war except the assurance that our nation will be
+      safe. If Germany had a government which the people controlled,
+      then the United States could trust promises of that government.
+      But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no one can trust the
+      present government of Germany, for it is responsible to no one
+      for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its
+      Chancellor called “scraps of paper”; it has broken its word; it
+      has ordered “acts of frightfulness” in the lands which it has
+      conquered and on the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing
+      its will upon enemies and neutral countries alike. It has
+      deceived its own people, persuading them that they were attacked
+      by France and Russia, while all the time it was plotting to rule
+      the world through force of arms.
+
+      President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in
+      this war is “to make the world safe for democracy.” This means
+      that a free people, who have no desire to interfere with any of
+      their neighbors or to make conquests by force of arms, shall be
+      allowed to live their lives without preparation for war and
+      without fear that they may be attacked by a nation with military
+      rulers.
+
+      We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by
+      Germany in 1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun
+      for gun and ship for ship with her warlike neighbor to the east.
+      The dread of an attack by the military party of Germany hung over
+      France like a shadow throughout forty-three years of a peace
+      which was only a little better than war, because of the vast
+      amount of money that had to be spent and the attention that had
+      to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one
+      day come.
+
+      When once the German people have a controlling voice in the
+      government, then, and not till then, can other governments
+      believe the word of the statesmen at Berlin. But at present the
+      citizens of Germany have little real power. For, while they can
+      elect members of the Reichstag, the Reichstag can pass no laws,
+      for above this body is the national council, whose members are
+      appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand dukes. The
+      power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the
+      hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any
+      of Germany’s laws, under the plea that “military necessity” calls
+      for certain things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into
+      prison those who dared to speak against the war, and has either
+      suppressed newspapers or ordered them to print only what he
+      wished printed; thus the German people have let him do their
+      thinking for them.
+
+      They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German
+      baby is taught to say is “Kaiser,” and all of the schools, which
+      are run by the government, have taught nothing but respect for
+      the present form of government, and almost a worship of the
+      Kaiser himself. What it is hoped that this war will bring about
+      is the freeing of the German people from their blind obedience to
+      the military power, which for its own glory and pride has hurled
+      them by the millions to death.
+
+      The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very
+      different from any hitherto used. With the exception of some
+      troops raised for a few months during the dark days of the War of
+      the Rebellion, all of our armies have been recruited from men who
+      enlisted of their own free will. In this great conflict in which
+      we are now engaged, the government has drawn its soldiers by lot
+      from a list of all the young men in the country between the ages
+      of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are
+      fighting in our ranks.
+
+      For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to
+      fight on another continent. Many persons have felt that we should
+      keep our young men at home and wait for Germany to cross the
+      Atlantic in order to attack us. Our statesmen, on the other hand,
+      saw that the peace of the world was at stake. If Germany,
+      Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose people have no
+      voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this conflict
+      victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad
+      race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the
+      other hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true
+      today, as in the olden times, that those people who take up the
+      sword shall perish by the sword, they will overthrow their
+      leaders and agree to disarm and live at peace in future with
+      their neighbors.
+
+      The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only
+      way by which these people can be convinced is by brute force.
+      When they realize that they have not gained by war, but have
+      lost, not only a great deal of their wealth, through the terrific
+      cost of the war, but the friendship and respect of the whole
+      world, when they realize that the nations allied against them
+      will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs
+      confess that they never want to hear the word “war” again, then,
+      and only then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and
+      agree to join a league of the nations whose object shall be to
+      prevent any future wars.
+
+      As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that
+      they were going to come out of the conflict with added territory
+      and big money indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower
+      of their young men slain, and the prospect of conquest and
+      plunder growing smaller and smaller with each passing month, the
+      Germans, too, are beginning to hate the thought of war.
+
+      The American army can give the finishing touch to the German
+      downfall along the western front, and the sooner the Germans
+      realize that they cannot win from the rapidly growing number of
+      their enemies, the sooner will come the the end of this greatest
+      tragedy in the civilized world.
+
+      The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must
+      be defeated and they were striving hard all through the years
+      1916 and 1917 to make peace while they had possession of enough
+      of the enemy’s lands so that they could show their own people
+      some gain in territory to pay them back for their terrible
+      sufferings. The German war debt was so great that the war lords
+      dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized that
+      they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had
+      told them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war
+      upon Germany, (2) that the German armies would win the war in
+      short order, and (3) that a huge sum of money would be collected
+      from France, Belgium, and Russia to pay the expenses of the war.
+      The war lords dreaded to think of the time when their people,
+      knowing that they themselves will have to bear the fearful burden
+      of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced upon
+      the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By
+      Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was
+      ready to talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been
+      made then it would have left Germany absolute mistress of all of
+      middle Europe. Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the
+      control of the Kaiser and his war lords than were parts of his
+      own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In Belgium, Serbia, Poland,
+      Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the central powers had
+      over forty millions of people who were compelled to work for them
+      like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran into
+      billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the
+      results of the second Balkan war (see map), had been forced open
+      by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and
+      Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory.
+      With the drain on the man power of the central powers, with
+      dissatisfaction growing among their people, with the steady
+      increase in the armies of the United States, time was fighting on
+      the side of the allies.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government
+          understood conditions in Mexico and the United States?
+
+          Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon
+          American public opinion?
+
+          What were the steps by which the United States was forced
+          into war?
+
+          Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also?
+
+          What was the main difference between the English blockade of
+          Germany and the German submarine war on England?
+
+          Was the German government responsible for the acts of its
+          agents in this country?
+
+          What is the Monroe Doctrine?
+
+          Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted?
+
+          How was this war different for the United States from any
+          previous conflict?
+
+          What was the greatest obstacle to peace?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXIV.
+Europe as it Should Be
+
+      Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.—Peoples outside of the
+      nations with whom they belong.—The mixture of peoples in
+      Austria-Hungary, and Russia.—The British Isles.—The Balkan
+      states.—Recent changes in the map.—The wrongs done by mighty
+      nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness.
+
+
+      We have several times shown you, in the course of this little
+      history, maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and
+      through bloodshed. Let us now examine a map of Europe divided
+      according to the race and language of its various peoples. It
+      often happens that the boundaries set by nature, like seas, high
+      mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people from another. It
+      is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed in by
+      the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should
+      grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language.
+
+      In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France,
+      Great Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by
+      nature. On this account, it is not surprising that the map of
+      “Europe as it should be” which unites people of the same blood
+      under the same government, agrees rather closely in some places
+      with the map of Europe as it is.
+
+      The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom
+      of Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish
+      and Portuguese peoples.
+
+      There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and
+      Flemish. Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French
+      people are found in Switzerland and others in that part of the
+      German Empire which was taken away from France after the
+      Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
+
+      The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them
+      inhabit the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were
+      torn away from Denmark by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of
+      the Scandinavian peninsula separate the Norwegians from the
+      Swedes about as well as they divide the countries geographically.
+
+      The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the
+      northwestern corner of the German Empire is also peopled by
+      Dutch. The territory around Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the
+      German Empire, is inhabited by Walloons, a Celtic people who
+      speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it is, contains two
+      different types of population, the Walloons and the Flemish.
+
+      The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great
+      many of these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria
+      (sty̆′rĭȧ), and the northern Tyrol (ty̆′rol) (western counties
+      of the Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of
+      Switzerland and the edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be
+      found in parts of Hungary; and in the Baltic provinces of Russia
+      there are over two million of them.
+
+      All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island
+      of Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians.
+      The province of Trentino (trĕn ti′nō) (the southern half of the
+      Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is
+      also Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and
+      Fiume. Certain islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely
+      Italian in their population.
+
+      The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and
+      Germans. Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth
+      tongue is spoken there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner
+      of Switzerland are found people who talk a corruption of the old
+      Latin, which they call Romaunsch or Romansh.
+
+      Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of
+      languages and nationalities. This empire includes nearly a
+      million Italians in its southwestern corner, and three million
+      Roumanians in Transylvania. It has as its subjects in Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina several million Serbians. In Slavonia (slȧ vō′nĭ
+      ȧ), Croatia (crō a′tia), and Dalmatia (dăl mā tia), it has
+      two or three million Slavs, who are closely related to the
+      Serbians. In the north, its government rules over several million
+      Czechs (chĕcks) (Bohemians and Moravians) who strongly desire to
+      have a country of their own. It controls also two million
+      Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their
+      independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni ō′lȧ), there
+      are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people
+      belonging either by themselves or with their cousins, the
+      Croatians and Serbs.
+
+      The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen,
+      who want to get back under French control, a million or two
+      Danes, who want once more to belong to Denmark, and several
+      million Poles, who desire to see their country again united.
+
+[Illustration: Messen Europe as It Should Be]
+
+      Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as
+      those composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not
+      one people. The Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different
+      from the people of Little Russia, and they in turn are different
+      from the people of Great Russia, to the north. The Baltic
+      provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two million
+      Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number
+      of Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians,
+      cousins of the Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose
+      people, with the Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European
+      family, and who would dearly love to have a separate government
+      of their own.
+
+[Illustration: Polish children]
+
+      You have already been told in Chapter V that the country of the
+      English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or
+      the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern
+      part of Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish
+      kingdom.
+
+      Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the
+      reason that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly
+      mixed and jumbled. There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the
+      Roumanians and Bulgarians in the Dobrudja. Parts of southern
+      Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia are inhabited by people
+      of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the exception of the two
+      little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited by
+      Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of
+      Bukowina also ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater
+      part of the Russian state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has
+      a population of 7,000,000, there are between five and six million
+      of her people who live outside her present boundaries.
+
+      The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece.
+      Greek people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The
+      Albanians are a separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia
+      should be joined to Serbia.
+
+      Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will
+      see that most of the changes that have been made of late years
+      are bringing boundaries nearer where they should be. You will
+      also note that wherever there have been recent changes contrary
+      to this plan, they have always resulted in more bloodshed. The
+      partition of Poland, the annexation of Schleswig, Alsace, and
+      Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian Macedonia between
+      Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+      Austria are good examples.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural
+          boundaries?
+
+          Who are the Walloons?
+
+          Who are the Romansh people?
+
+          To what other people are the Esthonians related?
+
+[Illustration: The price of the war]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXV.
+The Cost of It All
+
+      What war debts mean—The devastation of farms and
+      villages—Diseases which travel with war—The men picked to die
+      first—The survivors and their children—The effect on France of
+      Napoleon’s wars—What Hannibal did to Rome—What happened to the
+      Franks—Sweden before and after the wars of Charles XII—Europe at
+      the close of the Great War
+
+
+      In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly
+      rushing toward bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day;
+      France, Germany, and Austria nearly as much apiece. Thus in the
+      course of a year, a debt of $300 was piled upon every man, woman,
+      and child in the British kingdom. The average family consists of
+      five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per family for
+      each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family
+      in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of
+      money that they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the
+      British people are obliged to add this tremendous debt to the
+      already very large amount that they owe, and will have to go on
+      paying interest on it for hundreds of years.
+
+      In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France,
+      Germany, Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In
+      spite of what we have said above of the average income of English
+      families, Great Britain is rich when compared with Austria and
+      Russia. What is more, Great Britain is practically unscarred,
+      while on the continent great tracts of land which used to be well
+      cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless abandon. East
+      Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary, Alsace,
+      Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary,
+      and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to
+      one-fifth of the whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and
+      devastated.
+
+      It will be years and years before these countries recover from
+      the effects of war’s invasion. For every man killed on the field
+      of battle, it is estimated that two people die among the
+      noncombatants. Children whose fathers are at the front, frail
+      women trying to do the work of men, aged inhabitants of destroyed
+      villages die by the thousands from want of food and shelter.
+
+      In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to
+      look after their health or even to keep clean. As a result,
+      diseases like the plagues of olden times, which civilization
+      thought it had killed, come to life again and destroy whole
+      cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off one-fifth of the
+      population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera raged
+      among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every
+      soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die
+      from disease or wounds or lack of proper care.
+
+[Illustration: Rendered Homeless by War]
+
+      In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the
+      country, the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of
+      men who ought to be carefully saved as the fathers of the people
+      to come. As these are killed or disabled, governments draw on the
+      older men who are still vigorous and hardy. Then finally they
+      call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the aged, and the young
+      boys. As a general rule, the members of this last class make up
+      the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of the
+      strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of
+      children.
+
+      In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on
+      the coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like
+      Rome, owned lands far and near. Carthage would have been
+      satisfied to “live and let live,” but Rome would not have it so.
+      As a result, the two cities engaged in three terrible wars which
+      ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before Carthage was
+      finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal, dealt
+      Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near
+      destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000
+      men apiece, he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these
+      150,000 men was a loss from which Rome never recovered. From this
+      time on, her citizens were made of poorer stuff, and the old
+      Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free government began to
+      decline.
+
+      The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who
+      swarmed into the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although
+      they were barbarians, nevertheless had many excellent qualities.
+      They were brave, hardy men and stood for freedom from tyrants.
+      However, they fought so many wars that they were gradually killed
+      off. Take the Franks, for example; the three grandsons of
+      Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a
+      disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle
+      that almost wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about
+      840 A.D.
+
+      Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about
+      1700 A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer
+      Russia and Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in
+      the southern part of Russia nearly a thousand miles away from
+      home, and his great army was wiped out. After his time, Sweden
+      sank to the level of a second class nation. The bodies of her
+      best men had been strewn on battlefields reaching from the Gulf
+      of Bothnia to the Black Sea.
+
+[Illustration: Charles XII of Sweden]
+
+      For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation
+      showed a lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men
+      than it had one hundred years previously. The reason for this is
+      easily found. During the twenty-three years of terrible fighting
+      which followed the execution of the king, France left her finest
+      young men dead all over the face of Europe. They died by the
+      thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in Germany, and above
+      all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within the last
+      twenty years have the French, through their new interest in
+      out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a
+      hardy, vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war
+      to set France back where she was one hundred years ago.
+
+      Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her
+      young manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will
+      keep them in poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at
+      a standstill; but worst of all, the feeling of friendship between
+      nations, of world brotherhood, postponed one hundred years.
+      Hatred of nation for nation is stronger than ever.
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          How does a nation at war increase its debts?
+
+          Why do diseases thrive in war time?
+
+          What became of the Goths and Franks?
+
+          Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden?
+
+          What was the effect of Napoleon’s many wars upon the strength
+          of the French nation?
+
+          Is war growing more humane?
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XXVI.
+What Germany Must Learn
+
+      The German plot.—What the Czar’s prohibition order did.—Where
+      Germany miscalculated.—Where England and America failed to
+      understand.—An appeal to force must be answered by force.—Effect
+      of the Russian revolution.—“It never must happen again.”—The
+      league to enforce peace.—The final lesson.
+
+
+      Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in
+      English speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be
+      a real war between civilized nations.
+
+      Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was
+      unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would
+      deliberately plot, in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the
+      world through military force, as we now know that the war lords
+      of Prussia and Austria planned it. However, the plot was not only
+      made but was almost successful. They made, though, a great
+      mistake in the case of England. They were sure that she would not
+      enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France and
+      Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in
+      calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her
+      troops. In 1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the
+      Russian soldiers had become so drunk that it was many weeks
+      before they could be gotten into any kind of military shape. But
+      at the outbreak of the great “world-war” the order of the Czar
+      which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all of Prussia’s
+      plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her
+      army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through
+      the German province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had
+      opened. The result was that the German soldiers had to be sent
+      back from northern France to stop the victorious march of the
+      Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in the first week of
+      September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung in the
+      balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces
+      on either side might have made all the difference in the world in
+      the final outcome. The little British army, which was less than
+      one-eighth of the force of the Allied side, probably furnished
+      the factor that defeated the Germans. The presence in the battle
+      of the German troops who had been withdrawn to stop the Russians,
+      might have given victory to the invaders.
+
+      Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the
+      attack on France. Any one of these three factors might have won
+      the war in short order for the forces of Austria and Germany.
+      With France crushed, as she might have been, in spite of her
+      heroic resistance, without the help of the tiny British army, or
+      with the intervention of Italy on the side of her former allies,
+      it would have been no difficult task for the combined forces of
+      Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into
+      confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia,
+      and be back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves
+      fell from the trees.
+
+      As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations
+      where the people rule, could not believe that in this day and age
+      the rulers of any civilized country would deliberately plot
+      robbery and piracy on so grand a scale. They had looked forward
+      to the time when all nations might disarm and live in peace with
+      their neighbors. In France alone, of all the western nations, was
+      there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France, having learned
+      the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France, burdened by
+      a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by the
+      Germans in ’71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to
+      arms at the first rattling of the Prussian saber.
+
+      Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians,
+      and thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the
+      doctrine that military force is the only power in the world worth
+      considering. Some of the German people still cling to the high
+      ideals of their ancestors, but the majority had drunk deeply of
+      the wine of conquest and were intoxicated with the idea that
+      Germany’s mission in life was to conquer all the other nations of
+      the world and rule them for their own good by German thoroughness
+      and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp this
+      feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force
+      and appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they
+      will listen to reason only after they have been thoroughly
+      crushed by a superior force. The sufferings brought upon the
+      German nation by the war have had a great effect in making them
+      doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As long as the
+      people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful
+      victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the
+      Roumanians, they were contented to endure all manner of
+      hardships.
+
+      Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in
+      a despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the
+      German people, although they were governed strictly by the
+      military rule, nevertheless, were contented as long as they were
+      prosperous and victorious in war. With the rumors and fears of
+      defeat, however, they began to doubt their government. There are
+      indications that sweeping reforms in the election of
+      representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body
+      itself will take place before long.
+
+      The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central
+      powers. In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for
+      a ruler while England, France, and Italy were countries where the
+      people elected their law makers, made it impossible that there
+      should be the best of understanding between the allies. Then,
+      again, the various peoples of Austria-Hungary, while they were
+      not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg family, were afraid
+      lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be “jumping
+      from the frying pan into the fire.” They would rather bear the
+      evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand
+      dukes might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to
+      Germany to the end, because of her fear that Russia would seize
+      Constantinople. When the new government of Russia, then,
+      announced that they did not desire to annex by force any
+      territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were in
+      bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital
+      city was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs
+      of Austria that they were in no danger of being swallowed up in
+      the Russian empire, but that, on the other hand, the Russians
+      wanted them to be free, like themselves; it showed the German
+      people how easily a whole nation, when united, could get rid of
+      its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who had never favored
+      the military rule.
+
+      The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now
+      united in an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in
+      Austria and in Germany—a curse which has disappeared from all
+      other parts of the civilized world. They are united to crush the
+      military spirit of conquest which exists among the war leaders of
+      the Prussians. They are pledged “to make the world safe for
+      democracy” as President Wilson has said; to do away with the rule
+      of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and
+      Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil
+      power, so long will it be necessary to police the world. There
+      must be no repetition of the savage attack of August, 1914. There
+      was a time when many of us believed that some one nation, by
+      disbanding its army and refusing to build warships, might set an
+      example of disarming which all the world would finally follow. It
+      now is plain that there must be a “League to Enforce Peace” as
+      Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have declared. The
+      United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy, Belgium,
+      Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway,
+      Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the
+      will of the people is the law, must unite in an alliance which
+      will insist on arbitration as a means of settling disputes.
+
+      In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which
+      might well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however,
+      they laid their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an
+      Italian, a Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court,
+      by a vote of four to one, decided against England, and England
+      accepted the decision as final, although it cost her many
+      millions of dollars.
+
+      The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the
+      world maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as
+      police for its own affairs, and there must be an international
+      police to settle all differences between nations and to enforce
+      the orders of the court of arbitration. In time (no one knows how
+      soon) the people of Germany and Austria will be freed from the
+      military rule which now has the power to hurl them into war. When
+      that day arrives and they learn that they have been led astray by
+      Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a blessing to
+      a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to
+      survive, they will know that “Thou shalt not kill” is just as
+      strong a commandment today as when it first was uttered.
+
+      Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to
+      live, and that no country can wrong another through force of arms
+      without suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in
+      the loss of the sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening
+      of the Christ-spirit of doing good to others, the nation which
+      resorts to force to gratify its own selfish ends, like the
+      individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds. It, was a
+      great American who said, “The world is my country and mankind are
+      my brothers.”
+
+
+        Questions for Review
+
+
+          Why did England and the United States fail to understand
+          Germany?
+
+          What right would Germany have had to an indemnity?
+
+          What great change took place in Germany after 1866?
+
+          Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed?
+
+          What lesson must Germany learn?
+
+          Why have the South American republics fought so many wars?
+
+          Suggest some solution for the problem of war.
+
+          What is meant by arbitration?
+
+          What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war?
+
+          How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente?
+
+          What is the greatest lesson taught by the war?
+
+
+
+Pronouncing Glossary
+
+      In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the
+      English pronunciation is given for names that have become at all
+      familiar in history or geography. Thus the English Crā′cōw is
+      given instead of the Polish Krȧ′ko͝of or the German Krä′kau.
+
+      On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given
+      as the natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no
+      recognized English pronunciation.
+
+      In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations,
+      the author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus
+      a seaport in Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no
+      less than five names. Its Greek name is pronounced
+      Thĕssȧlōnyi′ki, while other nations term it variously
+      Sȧlōni′kā, Sĕlȧnïk′, Sō′lōn, Sȧlōni′ki or Salō′nicȧ.
+
+      Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking
+      people to reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables
+      which approximate them as nearly as possible.
+
+      Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found
+      pronounced in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as
+      Austria, Bismarck, etc., can hardly be mispronounced.
+
+
+Aboukir (ä′bö̈ kïr)
+Aegean (ē jē′ăn)
+Agadir (ȧ gȧ dïr′)
+Aix-la-Chapelle (āks lä shȧpĕl′)
+Albania (ăl bā′nï ȧ)
+Algeciras (ăl jĕ si′rȧs) or (ȧljĕ sï′rȧs)
+Alsace (ȧl sȧs′)
+Andrassy (ȧn drȧs′sy̆)
+Aragon (ă′rȧ gŏn)
+Armada (är mä′dȧ)
+Armenians (är mē′nï ȧns)
+Arminius (är mĭn′ï ŭs)
+Avlona (ȧv lō′ṅa)
+Baden (bä′dĕn)
+Balkan (bȧl kän′) or (bôl′kän)
+Banat (bȧn′ȧt)
+Basques (bȧsks)
+Bastille (bȧ stïl′)
+Bavaria (bȧ vā′rï ȧ)
+Belfort (bĕl′fôr)
+Bernadotte (bēr′nȧ dŏt)
+Bessarabia (bĕs sȧ rā′bï ȧ) or (bĕs sȧ rä′bï ȧ)
+Bismarck-Schönausen (shẽn how′zĕn)
+Blenheim (blĕn′ĕm) or (blĕn′hīm)
+Boer (bo͞or)
+Bohemia (bōhē′mīȧ)
+Bonaparte (bō′nȧ pärt)
+Bosnia (bŏz′ni̇ ȧ)
+Bourbon (bo͞or′bŭn)
+Brandenburg (brăn′dĕn bûrg)
+Breton (brē′ton) or (brĕt′ŭn)
+Brusiloff (brū si′lŏff)
+Bukowina (bo͝o kō vï′nȧ)
+Bulgaria (bŭl gā′ri̇ ȧ)
+Burgundians (bûr′gŭn’dï ȧns)
+Burgundy (bûr′gŭn dy)
+Byzantium (by̆ zăn′tï ̆um)
+Caesar (sēz′ēr)
+Carniola (cȧr nï ō′lȧ)
+Carpathian (cãr pā′thï ȧn)
+Carthage (cȧr′thāj)
+Castile (cȧs til′)
+Castlereagh (căs′l rā)
+Cavour (cȧ vo͞or′)
+Charlemagne (shär lĕ mān′)
+Chauvinists (shō′vĭn ĭsts)
+Cicero (sĭs′ē rō)
+Cimbri (sĭm′brï)
+Cincinnatus (sĭn sĭn nä′tŭs)
+Constantine (cŏn′stăn tïn)
+Cracow (crā′cō)
+Crimea (crĭ mē′ȧ)
+Croatia (crō ä′tï ȧ) or (crōä′shȧ)
+Czech (chĕk)
+Dacians (dā′shŭnz)
+Dalmatia (dăl mā′shï ȧ)
+Théophile Delcassé (tā′ō fïl dĕl cȧ sä′)
+Deutschland (doitsh′lȧnd)
+Devonshire (dĕv′ŏn shïr)
+Disraeli (dĭz rā′lĭ)
+Dobrudja (dō bro͝od′jȧ)
+Dreibund (drī′bo͝ond)
+Durazzo (dū rȧt′zö)
+Emmanuel (ĕm măn′ū ĕl)
+Entente Cordiale (ȧn tȧnt′côr dyȧl′)
+Enver Bey (ĕn′vẽr bā′)
+Epinal (ĕp′ï nȧl)
+Epirus (ĕp ī′rŭs)
+Erse (ērs)
+Esthonians (ĕs thō′nï ănz)
+Etruscans (ē trŭs′cănz)
+Euphrates (ū frā′tēz)
+Fashoda (fȧ shō′dȧ)
+Fiume (fï ū′me)
+Gaelic (gā′lĭc)
+Galicia (găl ĭ′shȧ)
+Gallipoli (găl ĭ′pōlï)
+Garibaldi (gȧr ï bȧl′dï)
+Gerard (jĕr ärd′)
+Germanic (jẽr măn′ĭc)
+Glamis (glăm′ĭs)
+Gortchakoff (gôr′chȧ kŏf)
+Goths (gŏths)
+Granada (grȧ nä′dȧ)
+Hannibal (hăn′nĭ bl)
+Hanover (hăn′ō vẽr)
+Herzegovina (hārt′sĕ gō vï′nȧ)
+Hesse-Darmstadt (hĕs sĕ därm′stȧt)
+Hindustan (hĭn do͞o stän′)
+Hohenzollern (hō ĕn tsŏl′ẽrn)
+Holstein (hōl′stīn)
+Illyrians (ĭ ly̆r′ĭ ȧns)
+Istria (ĭs′trï ȧ)
+Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ)
+Janus (jā′nŭs)
+Jonescu (jō nĕs′ko͞o)
+Jutes (jūts)
+Kaiser (kī′zẽr)
+Kaspar (kăs′pär)
+Kavala (kȧ vä′ lȧ)
+Kerensky (kĕ rĕn′skĭ)
+Khartoom (kär to͞om′)
+Korea (kō rē′ȧ)
+Kȯrniloff (kor nï′lŏff)
+Koumanova (ko͞o mä′nō vȧ)
+Lamar (lȧ mär′)
+Leon (lē′ŏn)
+Liege (lï ĕzh′)
+Lithuania (lĭth o͞o ā′nīȧ)
+Longwy (lŏng′vy̆)
+Lorraine (lôr rān′)
+Macedonia (mă sē dō′nï ȧ)
+Magyar (mŏd′yär)
+Manchuria (măn chū′rï ȧ)
+Marathon (măr′ȧ thŏn)
+Marchand (mär shän′)
+Maria Theresa (mä rī′ä tĕr ēs′ä)
+Marlborough (märl′bō rō)
+Marsala (mär sä′lȧ)
+Marseillaise (mär sĕl yāz′)
+Mazzini (mȧt sï′nï)
+Mesopotamia (mĕs ō pō tā′mĭ ä)
+Metternich (mĕt′tẽr nĭkh)
+Milioukoff (mĭl yo͞o′kŏff)
+Mirabeau (mĭr′ȧ bō)
+Modena (mō dē′nȧ) or (mō′dā nȧ)
+Mohammedan (mō hăm′mĕd ȧn)
+Moltke (mōlt′kȧ)
+Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′)
+Montenegrin (mŏn tē nē′grĭn)
+Montenegro (mŏn tē nē′grō)
+Moslems (mŏz′lĕmz)
+Murat (mü′rä)
+Napoleon (nȧ pō′lē ŏn)
+Nice (nïs)
+Northumberland (nôrth ŭm′bẽr lănd)
+Novibazar (nō′vĭ bȧ zär′)
+Ostrogoths (ŏs′trō gŏths)
+Ottoman (ŏt′tō mȧn)
+Parma (pär′mȧ)
+Piedmont (pēd′mŏnt)
+Pola (pō′lä)
+Poland (pō′lănd)
+Pomerania (pŏm ĕr ā′nï ȧ)
+Pyrenees (pĭr′ĕn ēēz)
+Rasputin (räs po͞o′tïn)
+Reichstag (rīkhs′tägh)
+Riga (rï′gȧ)
+Romansh (rō mȧnsh′)
+Roon (rōn)
+Roumani (ro͞o mä′nï)
+Roumania (ro͞o mā′nï ȧ)
+Ruthenian (ro͝o thē′nï ȧn)
+Sadowa (sä′dō vȧ)
+Salonika (sȧ′lō nï′kȧ)
+Sanjak (sȧn jȧk′)
+San Stephano (sȧn stĕ fä′nö)
+Saône (sōn)
+Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō)
+Sardinia (sär dĭn′i̇ ȧ)
+Sarrail (sȧr rī′)
+Savoy (sȧ voy′)
+Saxony (săx′ōn y̆)
+Sazanof (sä′zä nŏff)
+Scandinavian (scăn dĭ nā′vĭ ȧn)
+Schleswig (shlĕs′vĭg)
+Scutari (sko͞o′tä rï)
+Serbia (sẽr′bĭ ȧ)
+Silesia (sĭl ē′shȧ)
+Skipetars (skïp′ĕ tarz)
+Slavic (slä′vĭc)
+Slavonia (slȧ vō′nï ȧ)
+Slavonic (slȧ vŏn′ĭc)
+Slavs (slävz)
+Slovak (slō väk′)
+Slovenes (slō vēnz′)
+Slovenian (slō vē′nï ȧn)
+Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ)
+Stoessel (stēs′sĕl)
+Strasbourg (strȧs′bo͝org)
+Styria (sty̆′rĭ ȧ)
+Suevi (swē′vï)
+Syria (sy̆r′ï ȧ)
+Take (tä kā)
+Talleyrand (tȧl′lā rȧn)
+Teutones (tū tō′nēz)
+Teutonic (tū tŏn′ĭc)
+Thessaly (thĕs′sȧ ly̆)
+Thracians (thrā′shŭnz)
+Tigris (tī′grĭs)
+Toul (to͞ol)
+Transylvania (trăn sy̆l vā′nï ȧ)
+Trentino (trĕn tī′nō)
+Trieste (trï ĕst′) or (trï ĕs′tā)
+Tripoli (trĭp′ō lĭ)
+Tuscany (tŭs′cȧ ny̆)
+Tyrol (ty̆′rōl)
+Tzernagorah (tzēr nä′gō′rȧ)
+Vandals (văn′dlz)
+Venetia (vĕn ē′shȧ)
+Venizelos (vĕn ĭ zĕl′ŏs)
+Vercingetorix (vēr sĭn jĕt′ö rĭks)
+Verdun (vār dŭn′)
+Volgars (vŏl′gärz)
+Von Bernstorff (fŏn bārns′torf)
+Von Plehve (fŏn plā′vē)
+Von Tirpitz (fŏn tïr′pĭts)
+Vosges (vōzh)
+Walloon (wäl lo͞on′)
+Westphalia (wĕst fā′lï ȧ)
+Wied (we͞ed)
+Wilhelmine (wĭl′hĕl mïn)
+Yorkshire (yôrk′shīr)
+
+
+Index
+
+        Adriatic Sea, question of the control of. Agadir incident.
+        Albania, formation of the kingdom of. Albanians, language of;
+        habits of. Alexander the Great. Algeciras incident. Alliance,
+        the Holy. Alliance, the Triple.
+        Alliance, the Dual. Alliance, the Balkan. Alsace.
+        Ambassador. Angles, the, invade Britain. Arbitration of
+        national disputes. Arminius. Armor, value of.
+        Austria-Hungary, origin of; helps to divide Poland; at war with
+        France; at war with Sardinia and France; at war with Prussia
+        and Italy; refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble.
+        Austrians in Italy.
+
+        Balance of Power. Balkan problem. Barons. Bastille, fall of
+        the. Belgium, joined to Holland to form the Netherlands;
+        independent; guaranteed its freedom by three powers.
+        Bernadotte. Bismarck-Schönausen.
+        Blenheim, battle of (poem). Blockade of Germany. Bohemia,
+          part of the Holy Roman Empire; part of the Hapsburg domains.
+          Bolsheviki, revolt of the. Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon.
+          Bonaparte, Napoleon. Bosnian problem. Bourbon family.
+          Brandenburg; rise of. Brazil declares war on Germany.
+          Britons. Bulgaria, freed by Russia; left partially under the
+          control of Turkey;
+          independent; at war; with five nations; plunges into world
+          war; treacherously orders an attack on Greece and Serbia.
+          Bulgars, origin of; in Macedonia. Bulow, Prince von.
+        Burgundians. Byzantium becomes Constantinople.
+
+        Caesar, Julius. Cape to Cairo Railroad. Catharine II of Russia.
+        Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia. Celtic languages,
+        disappearance of. Celts. Charlemagne. Charles V. Charles XII of
+        Sweden. Chauvinists. Churchill, Winston. Cincinnatus.
+        Constantine, prince in Crete; king of Greece. Constantinople.
+        Contraband of war. Cracow, Republic of. Crete. Czechs.
+
+        Danes, in Schleswig. Dark Ages. Delcassé.
+        Denmark, loses Norway; defeated by Prussia and Austria; injured
+        by submarine campaign.
+        _Deutschland_, voyages of the. Dialects. Dictator, Roman.
+        Divine right of kings. Dukes vs. Kings. Duma, the Russian;
+          asked to form a government.
+
+        Edward VII. Elba, Napoleon’s return from. Elector, the Great.
+        Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. England, power of the king
+        of; in Egypt; troubles of, in 1914. Entente Cordiale. Entente,
+        the Triple.
+        Esthonians. Etruscans.
+
+        Fashoda incident. Ferdinand of Bulgaria; enters war on side of
+        Germany and Austria; attacks Serbia;
+          ambitions of. Feudal system. Finland annexed to Russia.
+          Finns; conquered by the Swedes.
+        Flemish. France, power of king of; execution of king of; in
+        Africa; wars of.
+        Franks. Franz Ferdinand. Frederick the Great. French
+        Revolution.
+
+        Gaelic language. Gaels. Garibaldi. Gauls. German Confederation.
+        German secret agents set fire to American property and kill
+        Americans; try to stir up war between the U. S. and Japan; stir
+        up trouble in Russia. German tribes. Germanic languages.
+        Germany, the Holy Roman Empire of. Germany, the modern Empire
+        of; encourages France to declare war on England;
+          makes friends with Turkey; policy toward Balkan nations;
+          warns Russia; attacks France through Belgium. Goths.
+          Government, by the people; based on the consent of the
+          governed;
+          limited to the ruling class. Governments, newness of
+          European. Great Britain offers to judge Serbian trouble;
+          declares war on Germany. Greece,
+          treaty of, with Serbia; Greek Empire, origin of; fall of.
+          Greeks; ungenerous to Bulgarians, desert to Venizelos; join
+          the Entente.
+
+        Hague, court of the. Hannibal’s war against Rome. Hapsburgs,
+        the. Hohenzollern family. Holstein. Homage.
+        Hungarians. Huns.
+
+        Indemnity. Indo-European family of languages. Istria.
+        Italy, a battle ground of nations; becomes a nation; makes war
+        on Turkey; declines to support Austria and Germany; declares
+        war on Austria.
+
+        Kavala. Kent, William, on Mexican intervention. Kerensky,
+        leader of the Russian government. Kings, origin of. Koumanova,
+        battle of.
+
+        Labor troubles, in England; in Russia.
+        Language, relationship shown by. Latin tongues. Lithuania.
+        Lombards. Lorraine. Louis XIV of France. _Lusitania_, sinking
+        of the.
+
+        Macedonia. Magyars. Marathon, battle of. Marchand, Major.
+        Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria; helps to divide Poland.
+        Marlborough, Duke of. Mazzini.
+        Metternich. Middle Ages. Military service, owed to rulers; in
+        Prussia; in France.
+        Mirabeau. Moltke. Montenegro, origin of;
+          declares war on Austria. Monroe Doctrine. Moors.
+        Murat.
+
+        Napoleon III. Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of.
+        Newspapers, control of. Normans. Norway, joined to Sweden;
+        danger from Germany; vigorously protests submarine warfare.
+        Novibazar, the Sanjak of.
+
+        Ostrogoths.
+
+        Paris, siege of. Peace, German offer of;
+          Allies’ terms of; United States’ desire for; Russo-German
+          conference toward; German desire for. Peasants, attached to
+          the land;
+          support fighting classes. Peter the Great. Poland,
+          kingdom of; partition of; given largely to Russia;
+          revolutions in. Preparation for war Prussia, origin of
+          kingdom of; crushed by Napoleon; dominated by Bismarck.
+
+        Rasputin; assists Sturmer; is killed.
+        Reichstag. Reign of Terror. Republic, first French; second
+        French; third French.
+        Robber chiefs. Roman Empire, beginnings of. Romansh people.
+        Rome, wars of, with Carthage. Roon. Rothschild, the banking
+        house of. Roumani. Roumania; hopes of;
+          population of; declares war on Austria;
+          is crushed between two armies. Russia, rise of; attacks
+          Turkey; policy of;
+          relations with Bulgaria; defends Serbia;
+          ignorance of the people of; revolution in;
+          controlled by the Bolsheviki. Ruthenians.
+
+        Sarrail, sent to Salonika; watching Bulgars and Greeks. Saxons.
+        Saxony, annexed in part to Prussia; allied to Austria.
+        Salonika, Spanish Jews in. Sardinia, kingdom of. Schleswig.
+        Scutari. Serbia, trade with Austria; relations with Bulgaria;
+        trouble with Austria; attacked on three sides. Serbs, origin
+        of; lands of; language of. Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two.
+        Silesia, seizure of. Slavic tribes. Slovaks. Slovenes.
+        Sobieski, John, king of Poland. Socialists, in Germany; in
+        Italy. Spain, origin of; drives out “unbelievers,”; becomes a
+        republic. Submarine boats sink British warships;
+          sink merchant ships; sink the _Lusitania_;
+          cross the Atlantic; begin to sink all ships without warning;
+          kill Americans; sink Norwegian ships. Suevi. Sturmer chosen
+          prime minister of Russia. Sweden, decline of.
+
+        Talleyrand. Trentino. Tunis, seized by France. Turkey,
+          defended by France and England; attacks Russia. Turks;
+          capture Constantinople; driven back from Vienna; the young
+          Turks; tolerance of the young; bigotry of the young.
+
+        Ulster trouble, the. United States, indignant over the
+        _Lusitania_; warns Germany; defends munitions trade in reply to
+        Austria; receives _Deutschland_ hospitably; sends the German
+        Ambassador home;
+          declares war; desires nothing but to be safe from attack;
+          sends an army to Europe.
+
+        Vandals. Venice, Republic of. Venizelos, prime minister of
+        Greece; comes from Crete; opposes King Constantine; once more
+        prime minister.
+        Vercingetorix. Victor Emmanuel. Vienna, Congress of.
+
+        Walloons. War, four causes of; cost of; diseases caused by;
+        increasing horror of. Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of. Waterloo, battle
+        of.
+        William of Normandy. Wilson, President, patient with Germany;
+        asks both sides to name their terms;
+          calls Congress to declare war.
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
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+<title>The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet</title>
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+<pre>
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The World War and What Was Behind It
+       The Story of the Map of Europe
+
+Author: L. P. Bénézet
+
+Release Date: February 20, 2004 [EBook #11200]
+[Most recently updated: June 22, 2020]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD WAR AND WHAT WAS BEHIND IT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:55%;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" style="width:100%;" alt="[Illustration]" />
+</div>
+
+      <h1>
+        The World War and What Was Behind It
+      </h1>
+      <p class="center">
+        or
+      </p>
+      <h3>
+        The Story of the Map of Europe
+      </h3>
+      <p class="center">
+        By
+      </p>
+      <h2>
+        L. P. Bénézet
+      </h2>
+      <p class="center">
+        SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA
+      </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus01"></a>
+<img src="images/01.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Peace Palace at the Hague</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="pref01"></a>Preface</h2>
+
+<p>
+This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils, teachers, and
+the general public in a series of talks on the causes of the great European war
+which were given by the author in the fall of 1914. The audiences were widely
+different in character. They included pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth
+grades, students in high school and normal school, teachers in the public
+schools, an association of business men, and a convention of boards of
+education. In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: &ldquo;If there were
+only some book which would give us these facts in simple language and
+illustrate them by maps and charts as you have done!&rdquo; After searching the
+market for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put
+the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to write in
+a style which is well within the comprehension of the children in the upper
+grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The book deals with the
+remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made the great war inevitable.
+Facts are revealed which, so far as the author knows, have not been published
+in any history to date; facts which had the strongest possible bearing on the
+outbreak of the war. The average American, whether child or adult, has little
+conception of conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of
+the Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second generations
+both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry with Irish, Scotch
+with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech and Teuton, Bulgar and
+Serb may live side by side for centuries without mixing or losing their
+distinct racial characteristics. In order that the American reader may
+understand the complicated problem of European peace, a study of races and
+languages is given in the text, showing the relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin,
+and Teuton, and the various sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of
+these facts is very essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe.
+The author has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely
+king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the natural
+division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the mass of the
+population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chapter, entitled &ldquo;Europe as it Should Be,&rdquo; with its
+accompanying map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would
+look if the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single
+political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to draw sharp
+lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into Skipetar and Serb on
+the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is one-third German in its
+population. There are large islands of Germans and Magyars in the midst of the
+Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a few examples out of many which could be
+cited. However, the general aim of the chapter has been to divide the continent
+into nations, in each of which the leading race would vastly predominate in
+population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw light upon
+the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its cruelty and its
+needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe from the time of the great
+invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a continuous story of government
+without the consent of the governed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many countries
+have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem as though after
+this terrible demonstration of the results of armed peace, the governments of
+the world would be ready to listen to some plan which would forever forbid the
+possibility of another war. Just as individuals in the majority of civilized
+countries discovered, a hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for
+them to carry weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy
+protection, so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable
+to the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after
+years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war, at last
+learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will have to learn
+it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of feudal government in
+Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of the common people in many
+countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with the advance of education, and we
+trust that feudalism will not long survive its last terrible crime, the world
+war of 1914.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very essential that
+our people understand the events that led up to our participation in the war.
+So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving nature, we are so far removed
+from the militarism of continental Europe, and the whole war seems so needless
+and so profitless to those who have not studied carefully its causes, that
+there is danger of a want of harmony with the program of the government if all
+are not taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel
+through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With this in
+mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to demonstrating why
+no other course was open to this country than to accept the war which was
+forced upon her.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many helpful
+suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to Professor A. G.
+Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H. Sanford of the Wisconsin
+State Normal School at La Crosse, who were kind enough to read through and
+correct the manuscript before its final revision. The author is especially
+indebted to the Committee on Public Information at Washington, D. C., for
+furnishing to him authoritative data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment
+is also made to Row, Peterson and Company for kind permission to use
+illustrations from <i>History Stories of Other Lands</i>; also to the
+International Film Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable
+copyright illustrations of scenes relating to the great war.
+</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+L. P. BÉNÉZET.
+</p>
+
+<p class="letter">
+<i>Evansville, Indiana,<br />
+January 2, 1918</i>
+</p>
+
+<h2>Contents</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#pref01">Preface</a><br/><br/></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap01">I. The Great War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap02">II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap03">III. From Chiefs to Kings</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap04">IV. Master and Man</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap05">V. A Babel of Tongues</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap06">VI. &ldquo;The Terrible Turk&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap07">VII. The Rise of Modern Nations</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap08">VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap09">IX. The Little Man from the Common People</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap10">X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap11">XI. Italy a Nation at Last</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap12">XII. The Man of Blood and Iron</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap13">XIII. The Balance of Power</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap14">XIV. The &ldquo;Entente Cordiale&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap15">XV. The Sowing of the Dragon&rsquo;s Teeth</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap16">XVI. Who Profits?</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap17">XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap18">XVIII. Why England Came In</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap19">XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap20">XX. Back to the Balkans</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap21">XXI. The War under the Sea</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap22">XXII. Another Crown Topples</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap23">XXIII. The United States at War&mdash;Why?</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap24">XXIV. Europe As It Should Be</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap25">XXV. The Cost of It All</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap26">XXVI. What Germany Must Learn</a><br/><br/></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap27">Pronouncing Glossary</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#chap28">Index</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2>List of Maps</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map01">I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map02">II. Distribution of Languages</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map03">III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map04">IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map05">V. Southeastern Europe 1690</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map06">VI. The Empire of Charlemagne</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map07">VII. Europe in 1540</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map08">VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map09">IX. Italy in 525</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map10">X. Italy in 650</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map11">XI. Italy in 1175</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map12">XII. Europe in 1796</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map13">XIII. Europe in 1810</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map14">XIV. Europe in 1815</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map15">XV. Italy Made One Nation&mdash;1914&mdash;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map16">XVI. Formation of the German Empire</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map17">XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map18">XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map19">XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map20">XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map21">XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map22">XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map23">XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#map24">XXIV. Europe as It Should Be</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2>List of Illustrations</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus01">I. The Peace Palace at the Hague</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus02">II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus03">III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus04">IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus05">V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus06">VI. Germans Going into Battle</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus07">VII. A Hun Warrior</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus08">VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus09">IX. A Frankish Chief</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus10">X. Movable Huts of Early Germans</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus11">XI. Goths on the March</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus12">XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus13">XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus14">XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus15">XV. A Knight in Armor</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus16">XVI. A Norman Castle in England</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus17">XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus18">XVIII. William the Conqueror</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus19">XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus20">XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus21">XXI. A Scene in Salonika</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus22">XXII. Louis XIV</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus23">XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus24">XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus25">XXV. Frederick the Great</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus26">XXVI. Catharine II</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus27">XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus28">XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus29">XXIX. The Palace of Versailles</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus30">XXX. The Reign of Terror</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus31">XXXI. The First Singing of &ldquo;The Marseillaise&rdquo;</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus32">XXXII. Charles the Fifth</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus33">XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus34">XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus35">XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus36">XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus37">XXXVII. Prince Metternich</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus38">XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus39">XXXIX. Bismarck</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus40">XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus41">XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus42">XLII. Peter the Great</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus43">XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus44">XLIV. The Congress of Berlin</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus45">XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus46">XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus47">XLVII. Durazzo</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus48">XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus49">XLIX. Submarine</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus50">L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus51">LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus52">LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus53">LIII. Venizelos</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus54">LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus55">LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus56">LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus57">LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus58">LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus59">LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus60">LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus61">LXI. Polish Children</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus62">LXII. The Price of War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus63">LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> <a href="#illus64">LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>The Story of the Map of Europe</h2>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap01"></a>Chapter I.<br/>
+The Great War</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The call from Europe.&mdash;Friend against friend.&mdash;Why?&mdash;Death
+      and devastation.&mdash;No private quarrel.&mdash;Ordered by government.&mdash;What
+      makes government?&mdash;The influence of the past.&mdash;Four causes of
+      war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being erected in a
+      great American city during the summer of 1914 were two men who had not yet
+      become citizens of the United States. Born abroad, they still owed
+      allegiance, one to the Emperor of Austria, the other to the Czar of
+      Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a chance to
+understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They were members of
+the same labor union, and had worked side by side on several different jobs. In
+the course of time, a firm friendship had sprung up between them. Suddenly, on
+the same day, each was notified to call at the office of the agent of his
+government in the city. Next morning the Russian came to his boss to explain
+that he must quit work, that he had been called home to fight for the
+&ldquo;Little Father&rdquo; of the Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian,
+there ahead of him, telling that he had to go, for the Russians had declared
+war on Austria and the good Kaiser,<a href="#fn-1" name="fnref-1" id="fnref-1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
+Franz Josef, had need of all his young men.
+    </p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-1" id="fn-1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1">[1]</a>
+In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The pitiless arm
+      of the god of war had reached across the broad Atlantic, plucking them
+      back from peace and security. With weapons put into their hands they would
+      be ordered to kill each other on sight.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful &ldquo;Good luck to you,&rdquo; and they parted.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong enough to
+      separate the two friends and drag them back five thousand miles for the
+      purpose of killing each other? To answer these two questions is the
+      purpose of this little volume.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and Africa
+      were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the world has ever
+      seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions were maimed, blinded, or
+      disfigured for life. Still other millions were herded into prison camps or
+      forced to work like convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with
+      grief. Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the war
+      had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children were left
+      fatherless. What had been the richest and most productive farming land in
+      Europe was made a barren waste. Thousands of villages and towns were
+      utterly destroyed and their inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the
+      sick, and the infants alike.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and Serbia, the
+      wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally starving, because all
+      food had been seized for the use of fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which
+      cannot exist where people have the chance to bathe and keep themselves
+      clean, once more appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims.
+      The strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations were
+      shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable existence, sick
+      or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in many factories which once
+      turned out the comforts and luxuries of civilization. There were no men to
+      make toys for the children, or to work for mankind&rsquo;s happiness. The only
+      mills and factories which were running full time were those that turned
+      out the tools of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations
+      poured out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of
+      killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What was the
+      reason for it all?
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus02"></a>
+<img src="images/02.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in Germany
+      freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with intercourse Russians,
+      and happy to have Englishmen spend their money in Germany. France and
+      Austria exchanged goods and their inhabitants traveled within each other&rsquo;s
+      boundaries. A Frenchman might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed.
+      There was nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman
+      or Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could meet
+      and find plenty of ground for friendship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred. One can
+      imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each other every day
+      might have trouble and grow to hate each other, but in this great war
+      soldiers were shooting down other soldiers whom they had never seen
+      before, with whom they had never exchanged a word, and it would not profit
+      them if they killed a whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the
+      soldiers did not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a
+      telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling and
+      telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a trifle for his
+      next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed and fired the gun. Once
+      in a while, a shell from the invisible enemy, two, three, or four miles
+      away, fell among them, killing and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians
+      were ordered to charge the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the
+      Russians because they were told to do so by their officers, and the
+      Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so ordered
+      them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders received from
+      their generals. The generals were only obeying orders from the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder what has
+      caused these nations to fly at each other&rsquo;s throats. The question arises
+      as to what makes up a government or why a government has the right to rule
+      its people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the United States, the government officials are simply the servants of
+      the people. Practically every man in our country, unless he is a citizen
+      of some foreign nation, has a right to vote, and in many of the states
+      women, too, have a voice in the government. We, the people of the United
+      States, can choose our own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and,
+      in some states, can vote out of existence any law that they the people
+      have made which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval
+      of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the next
+      election. Such is the government of a republic, a &ldquo;government of the
+      people, by the people, and for the people,&rdquo; as Abraham Lincoln called it.
+      In the leading British colonies, the people rule. Australian citizens
+      voted against forcing men to serve in the army. The result was very close
+      and the vote of the women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary,
+      voted to compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of
+      Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted before
+      their governments called them to arms and sent them to fight each other?
+      It is plain that in order to understand what this war is about, we must
+      look into the story of how the different governments of Europe came to be
+      and learn why their peoples obey them so unquestioningly.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We must remember that government by the people is a very new thing. One
+      hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United States only about
+      one-fourth of the men had the right to vote. These were citizens of
+      property and wealth. They did not think a poor man was worth considering.
+      In England, a country which allows its people more voice in the government
+      than almost any other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty
+      years that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like
+      Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and others, like
+      Austria, where they have very little voice in how they shall be governed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without thinking
+      when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up their weapons and
+      go to war. In many instances they have known nothing of the causes of the
+      conflict or of what they were fighting for. A famous English writer has
+      written a poem which illustrates how little the average citizen has ever
+      known concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the
+      way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in which
+      one should regard it. The poem runs as follows:
+    </p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>The Battle of Blenheim</b>
+</p>
+
+<p class="letter">
+It was a summer evening,<br/>
+    Old Kaspar&rsquo;s work was done,<br/>
+And he before his cottage door<br/>
+    Was sitting in the sun,<br/>
+And by him sported on the green<br/>
+His little grandchild Wilhelmine.<br/>
+<br/>
+She saw her brother Peterkin<br/>
+    Roll something large and round,<br/>
+Which he beside the rivulet<br/>
+    In playing there had found,<br/>
+He came to ask what he had found<br/>
+That was so large and smooth and round.<br/>
+<br/>
+Old Kaspar took it from the boy,<br/>
+    Who stood expectant by;<br/>
+And then the old man shook his head,<br/>
+    And, with a natural sigh&mdash;<br/>
+&ldquo;&rsquo;Tis some poor fellow&rsquo;s skull,&rdquo; said he,<br/>
+&ldquo;Who fell in the great victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;I find them in the garden,<br/>
+    For there&rsquo;s many hereabout;<br/>
+And often when I go to plow,<br/>
+    The plowshare turns them out!<br/>
+For many a thousand men,&rdquo; said he,<br/>
+&ldquo;Were slain in the great victory.&rdquo;<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;Now tell us what &rsquo;twas all about,&rdquo;<br/>
+    Young Peterkin he cries;<br/>
+And little Wilhelmine looks up<br/>
+    With wonder-waiting eyes&mdash;<br/>
+&ldquo;Now tell us all about the war,<br/>
+And what they fought each other for.&rdquo;<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;It was the English,&rdquo; Kaspar cried,<br/>
+    &ldquo;Who put the French to rout;<br/>
+But what they fought each other for<br/>
+    I could not well make out;<br/>
+But everybody said,&rdquo; quoth he,<br/>
+&ldquo;That &rsquo;twas a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;My father lived at Blenheim then,<br/>
+    Yon little stream hard by;<br/>
+They burnt his dwelling to the ground,<br/>
+    And he was forced to fly;<br/>
+So with his wife and child he fled,<br/>
+Nor had he where to rest his head.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;They say it was a shocking sight<br/>
+    After the field was won&mdash;<br/>
+For many thousand bodies here<br/>
+    Lay rotting in the sun;<br/>
+But things like that, you know, must be<br/>
+After a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won,<br/>
+    And our good Prince Eugene.&rdquo;<br/>
+&ldquo;Why, &rsquo;twas a very wicked thing!&rdquo;<br/>
+    Said little Wilhelmine.<br/>
+&ldquo;Nay, nay, my little girl,&rdquo; quoth he,<br/>
+&ldquo;It was a famous victory.<br/>
+<br/>
+&ldquo;And everybody praised the duke<br/>
+    Who this great fight did win.&rdquo;<br/>
+&ldquo;But what good came of it at last?&rdquo;<br/>
+    Quoth little Peterkin.<br/>
+&ldquo;Why, that I cannot tell,&rdquo; said he;<br/>
+&ldquo;But &rsquo;twas a famous victory.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+&mdash;<i>Robert Southey</i>.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot feel the
+      wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on the other hand, have
+      a different idea of war. They are not satisfied until they know what it
+      was all about and what good came of it, and they feel that &ldquo;it was a very
+      wicked thing.&rdquo; If the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why
+      they were killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the
+      truth, the history of the world would have been very different.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for
+      themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead ancestors think
+      for them and to keep up customs which should have been changed ages ago.
+      People in Europe have lived in the midst of wars or preparation for wars
+      all their lives. There never has been a time when Europe was not either a
+      battlefield or a great drill-ground for armies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in Europe and
+      not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong to take human life.
+      Today it is not considered wrong to kill, provided a man is ordered to do
+      so by his general or his king. When two kings go to war, each claiming his
+      quarrel to be a just one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made
+      by its government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in
+      its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help to bring
+      about lasting peace among all the nations.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus03"></a>
+<img src="images/03.jpg" width="400" height="226" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the wars of
+      the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all wars can be traced
+      to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among barbarous tribes to fight
+      with and plunder their neighbors; (2) the ambition of kings to enlarge
+      their kingdoms; (3) the desire of the traders of one nation to increase
+      their commerce at the expense of some other nation; (4) a people&rsquo;s wish to
+      be free from the control of some other country and to become a nation by
+      itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause for war,
+      and this cause has been brought about only when kings have sent their
+      armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other peoples who wished to
+      govern themselves.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why must foreigners in the United States return to their native lands
+          when summoned by their governments?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How is it that war helps to breed diseases?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Whom do we mean by the government in the United States?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who controls the government in Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who in France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In Southey&rsquo;s poem, how does the children&rsquo;s idea of the battle differ
+          from that of their grandfather? Why?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are people less likely to protest against war if their forefathers
+          have fought many wars?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What have been the four main causes of war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap02"></a>Chapter II.<br/>
+Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      New governments in Europe.&mdash;Earliest times.&mdash;How civilization
+      began.&mdash;The rise of Rome.&mdash;Roman civilization.&mdash;Roman
+      cruelty.&mdash;The German tribes.&mdash;The Slavic tribes.&mdash;The
+      Celtic tribes.&mdash;The Huns and Moors.&mdash;The great Germanic
+      invasions of the Roman world.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe in 1914,
+      we must go far back into history. It should be remembered that many of the
+      governments of today have not lived as long as that of our own country.
+      This is, perhaps, a new thought to some of us, who rather think that, as
+      America is a new country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one
+      hundred and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed,
+      there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know by that
+      name was cut up among nine or ten little governments. There was no nation
+      known as Germany; the land which is in the present German empire was then
+      divided among some thirty or thirty-five different rulers. There was no
+      Republic of France; instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the
+      French people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium, no
+      kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of Norway was
+      part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now know it, dates back
+      only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the United Kingdom of Italy to
+      about the same time. The kingdoms of Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have
+      been independent of Turkey only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not
+      exist before 1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are
+      very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however, originated in
+      the dim twilight of history.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or kingdoms. Men
+      gathered together in little bands, each of which had its leader. This
+      leader was generally chosen because of his bodily strength and courage. He
+      was the best fighter of the tribe. The people did not have any lasting
+      homes. They moved around from place to place, wherever they could find the
+      best hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting grounds,
+      they fought, and the weaker party had to give way. Selfishness was
+      supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged to his weaker neighbor,
+      he simply beat this neighbor over the head with his club, and took it. The
+      stronger tribe attacked the weaker, without any thought of whether or not
+      its quarrel was just.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes began to
+      be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built. Trade came to be one
+      of the occupations. The fighting men needed weapons and armor; so there
+      grew up artisans who were skilled in working metals. In Egypt and Syria
+      there were people who had reached quite a high degree of civilization, and
+      gradually the Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the
+      Greeks, then the Etruscans (E&#772;-tru&#774;s&#8242;cans), a people who
+      lived in Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern
+      Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without hunting
+      and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of animals) came to be the
+      occupation of many. The owners of sheep or cattle drove their flocks from
+      place to place, as grass and water failed them where they were. There was
+      no separate ownership of land.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as the
+      stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule gradually over all
+      the surrounding country. By this time, the barbarians of northern Europe
+      had gotten past the use of clubs as weapons. They, too, had learned to
+      make tools and arms of bronze, and those living near civilized countries
+      had obtained swords of iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign
+      of authority. The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe
+      as a sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king
+      sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right hand. It is
+      interesting to think that this scepter, which the present king of England
+      carries on state occasions to remind his people of his power, is a relic
+      of the old, old days when his grandfather, many times removed, broke the
+      head of his rival for leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club
+      for his awestruck people to worship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire) spread its
+      rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and
+      finally over all the countries of Europe south and west of the rivers
+      Danube and Rhine. One of the emperors planted a colony north of the Danube
+      near its mouth, and the descendants of these colonists are living in that
+      same country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they still
+      call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro&#862;o-ma&#776;&#8242;ni]), and talk a
+      language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue spoken by the
+      Romans of old. With the exception of this country, which is now Roumania,
+      the part of Europe north and east of the Danube and Rhine was practically
+      free from the Romans. In this territory, roving bands wandered around,
+      driving their cattle with them and clearing the woods of game.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus04"></a>
+<img src="images/04.jpg" width="401" height="264" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years ago.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had schools
+      where their children were taught to read and write, to speak Greek, and to
+      work problems in geometry. They had magnificent public buildings, fine
+      temples and palaces. They built excellent paved roads all over the
+      southern part of Europe, and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which
+      supplied their cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away.
+      Their dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass,
+      and steel.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people. Their
+      favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators fought, either with
+      each other or with wild beasts. These gladiators were generally men from
+      tribes which had fought against Rome. They had been captured and brought
+      to that city, where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on
+      holidays, with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these
+      unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until one man of
+      each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that one gladiator might be
+      wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The spectators would then shout to
+      the victorious fighter to take his knife and finish what he had begun. In
+      this way what would seem to us like cold-blooded murder was committed
+      hundreds of times each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of
+      Rome sat and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had
+      all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages at heart,
+      and had no sympathy for any people who were not of their own race.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus05"></a>
+<img src="images/05.jpg" width="282" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Last Combat of the Gladiators</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor. They
+      scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or deceive. They
+      lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves luxuries. They rather
+      despised the Greeks, because the latter surrounded themselves with
+      comforts in life. The early Romans were fighters by nature. They had a
+      certain god named Janus (our month January is named after him) and his
+      temple was open only when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of
+      history that during the twelve hundred years from the first building of
+      Rome to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on but
+      three occasions and then only for a short time.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came several
+      disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her sturdy fighters.
+      Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but she won them at tremendous
+      cost to herself. With the killing off of her best and bravest men, a great
+      deal of the old time honesty was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of
+      Roman governors who, when put in charge of conquered states, used their
+      offices only to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome
+      after their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman
+      morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax, and in
+      general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were to
+      become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were the free
+      German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe bounded, roughly, by the
+      rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, and the Carpathian Mountains. In
+      many ways they were much less civilized than the Romans. They were clad in
+      skins and furs instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in
+      caves dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held human
+      life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among them. As a rule,
+      the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor there was, largely to the
+      women, while they busied themselves in fighting and hunting, or, during
+      their idle times, in gambling. Nevertheless, these people, about the time
+      that the Roman honesty began to disappear, had virtues more like those of
+      the early Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful
+      husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy. They were
+      barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken to Rome and learned
+      the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men than Rome was producing
+      about the time of which we speak.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus06"></a>
+<img src="images/06.jpg" width="400" height="199" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Germans Going Into Battle</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no better
+      civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the Germans, in later
+      years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in turn, moved westward and
+      occupied much of the land which had been left vacant by the Germans.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus07"></a>
+<img src="images/07.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Hun Warrior</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and the British
+      Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could be said to be divided
+      up among four great peoples: There were the Latins in Italy, the Celts in
+      western Europe, the Germans in central Europe, and the Slavs to the east.
+      All of these four families were distantly related, as can be proved by the
+      languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to any one of
+      the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans and Latins. Probably
+      all five peoples are descended from one big family of tribes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of Europe by
+      other nations which did not have any connection by blood with Celts,
+      Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For instance, the ferocious Huns, a
+      people of the yellow race, rushed into Europe about 400 A.D., but were
+      beaten in a big battle by the Romans and Germans and finally went back to
+      Asia. Three hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from
+      Africa crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and at
+      one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian nations. For
+      several hundred years after this, they held the southern part of Spain,
+      but were finally driven out.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe after the
+      Romans had conquered all the country south and west of the Danube and
+      Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were restlessly roaming through the
+      central part of Europe. They were not at peace with each other. In fact,
+      constant war was going on. Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who
+      conquered what is now France and added it to the Roman world, tells us
+      that one great tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swe&#772;&#8242;vi&#772;),
+      made it their boast that they would let no other tribe live anywhere near
+      them. About a hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and
+      the Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands in
+      countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at last they
+      were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman general, who was Caesar&rsquo;s
+      uncle by marriage. After this time, the Romans tried to conquer the
+      country of the Germans and they might have been successful but for a young
+      German chief named Arminius. He had lived in Rome as a young man and had
+      learned the Romans&rsquo; method of war; so when an army came against his tribe,
+      he taught the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman
+      army was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus08"></a>
+<img src="images/08.jpg" width="267" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Gaius Julius Caesar.  From a bust in the British Museum</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of conquering
+      all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years, Germans and Romans
+      lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then came a time when the Germans
+      again became the attacking party. Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like
+      the Huns, were assailing them in the east and pushing them forward. They
+      finally broke over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman
+      Empire in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals,
+      Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went to pieces
+      under their savage attacks.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need less land
+          to live on?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than civilized
+          peoples?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more civilized
+          tribes were better armed than the barbarians.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy bloodshed and are
+          not moved by the sufferings of others?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In what way were the Germans better men than the later Romans?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap03"></a>Chapter III.<br/>
+From Chiefs to Kings</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The early chief a fighter.&mdash;The club the sign of power.&mdash;Free
+      men led by a chief of their own choosing.&mdash;The first slaves.&mdash;Barbarians
+      conquer civilized nations.&mdash;A ruling class among conquered people.&mdash;All
+      men no longer free and equal.&mdash;The value of arms and armor.&mdash;The
+      robber chiefs.&mdash;How kings first came.&mdash;Treaties between tribes
+      follow constant wars.&mdash;Tribes unite for protection against enemies.&mdash;A
+      king is chosen for the time being.&mdash;Some kings refuse to resign their
+      office when the danger is past.&mdash;New generations grow up which never
+      knew a kingless state.&mdash;The word &ldquo;king&rdquo; becomes sacred.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of the
+      sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it. Rich cities
+      were plundered at will. They did not admit any man&rsquo;s ownership of
+      anything. In the old days when the tribes were roaming around, there was
+      no private ownership of land. Everything belonged to the tribe in common.
+      Each man had a vote in the council of the tribe.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no such
+      thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the greater part of
+      his people considered him the best leader in war. Often, no doubt, when a
+      chief had lost a battle and the majority of the tribe had lost confidence
+      in him, he resigned and let them choose a new chief. (For the same reason
+      we frequently hear today that the prime minister, or leader of the
+      government, of some European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact,
+      then, that the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the
+      majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another man in
+      his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in its beginning,
+      was based upon the consent of the governed. All men in the primitive tribe
+      were equal in rank, except as one was a better fighter than another, and
+      the chief held the leadership in war only because the members of his tribe
+      allowed him to keep it.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus09"></a>
+<img src="images/09.jpg" width="116" height="300" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Frankish Chief.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no fixed
+      place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they could put up or
+      tear down at very short notice; and so when they heard of more fertile
+      lands or a warmer climate across the mountains to the south they used to
+      pull up stakes and migrate in a body, never to return. It was always the
+      more savage and uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The
+      lands which they wished to seize they generally found already settled by
+      other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied in trade
+      and agriculture, having gradually turned to these pursuits from their
+      former habits of hunting and fighting. Sometimes these more civilized and
+      peace-loving people were able, by their better weapons and superior
+      knowledge of the art of fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the
+      immigrating barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were
+      the victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to rule
+      them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered ones to feed and
+      clothe them.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus10"></a>
+<img src="images/10.jpg" width="400" height="258" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Movable Huts of Early Germans</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were taking
+      place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our earliest records
+      date. The best examples, however, are to be found in the invasions of the
+      Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes to which we have referred above. The
+      country between the Rhine River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been
+      called Gaul when the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks
+      conquered the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two
+      German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians came down
+      from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name to their new home in
+      the fertile valley of the Sa&#244;ne (So&#772;n); the Vandals came out of
+      Germany to roam through Spain, finally founding a kingdom in Africa; while
+      the Lombards crossed the Alps to become the masters of the Valley of the
+      Po, whither the Gauls had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus11"></a>
+<img src="images/11.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Goths on the March</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus12"></a>
+<img src="images/12.jpg" width="401" height="227" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Franks Crossing the Rhine</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two thousand
+      years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was overrun and
+      conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and Angles, Germanic
+      tribes, after whom part of the island was called Angleland. (The men from
+      the south of England are of the same blood as the Saxons in the German
+      army, against whom they had to fight in the great war.) Then came Danes,
+      who partially conquered the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066
+      A.D., the country was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some
+      Norsemen, who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from
+      Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part of France.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus13"></a>
+<img src="images/13.jpg" width="400" height="230" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Men of Normandy Landing in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands, leaving their
+      former homes to their conquerors. In this way the Britons and Gaels gave
+      up the greater part of their land to the Angles and Saxons and withdrew to
+      the hills and mountains of Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In
+      other cases, the conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same
+      lands side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the
+      Anglo-Saxons.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a raid upon
+      another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some captives who became
+      slaves, working without pay for their conquerors and possessing no more
+      rights than beasts of burden. (This custom exists today in the interior of
+      Africa, and was responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black
+      captives were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors,
+      who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried off and
+      sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors, their
+      number was very small as compared with that of their masters. When, on the
+      other hand, a tribe settled among a people whom they had conquered, they
+      often found themselves fewer in numbers, and kept their leadership only by
+      their greater strength and fighting ability.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer equal, led
+      by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the greater part of them
+      now had no voice in the government. They had become subjects, working to
+      earn their own living and also, as has been said, to support in idleness
+      their conquerors.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to support their
+      masters was increased as certain peoples learned better than others how to
+      make strong armor and effective weapons. Nearly five hundred years before
+      the time of Christ, at the battle of Marathon (Ma&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; tho&#774;n),
+      the Greeks discovered that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a
+      long spear, was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and
+      arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a small army
+      of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that wonderful general,
+      Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty times its number of Persians in
+      a great battle in Asia and conquered a vast empire.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus14"></a>
+<img src="images/14.jpg" width="381" height="184" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Alexander Defeating the Persians</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question of
+      wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the best arms for
+      his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force him to pay money as to
+      a ruler. Finally, in the so-called &ldquo;Middle Ages,&rdquo; before the invention of
+      gunpowder, one knight, armed from crown to sole in steel, was worth in
+      battle as much as one hundred poorly-armed farmers or &ldquo;peasants&rdquo; as they
+      are called in Europe.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+In the &ldquo;Dark Ages,&rdquo;<a href="#fn-2" name="fnref-2" id="fnref-2"><sup>[2]</sup></a>
+after all these barbarians that we have named had swarmed over Europe, and
+before the governments of modern times were fully grown, there were hundreds of
+robber chiefs, who, scattered throughout a country, were in the habit of
+collecting tribute at the point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who
+lived near. This tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed
+amount each month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a
+government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. The
+robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good weapons and
+armor to their men, who lived either in the chief&rsquo;s castle or in small
+houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any travelers who came by,
+unless their numbers and weapons made them look too dangerous to be attacked.
+But the regular tribute forced from the peaceful farmers was the chief source
+of their income. The robber chief and his men lived a life of idleness when
+they were not out upon some raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious
+peasants worked hard enough to support both their own families and those of the
+robbers.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-2" id="fn-2"></a> <a href="#fnref-2">[2]</a>
+The &ldquo;Dark Ages&rdquo; came before the &ldquo;Middle Ages.&rdquo; They
+were called &ldquo;dark&rdquo; because the barbarians had extinguished nearly
+all civilization and learning.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus15"></a>
+<img src="images/15.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Knight in Armor</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws, and lived
+      either in a country which had no government and laws, or in one whose
+      government was too weak to protect its people. They were no worse,
+      however, than the so-called feudal barons who came after them, who
+      oppressed the people even more, because they had on their side whatever
+      law and government existed in those days.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In the early
+      days of the human race and also in later days among barbarous peoples, the
+      land was very sparsely settled. The reason lay in the chief occupations of
+      the men. A small tribe might inhabit a great stretch of territory through
+      which they wandered to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went
+      on, however, the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place
+      of hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves living
+      in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to their
+      neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just as Caesar tells
+      us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the Germans fought almost
+      daily battles back and forth across the Rhine. In other cases, the tribes
+      found it better for all concerned to make treaties of peace with their
+      neighbors, and if they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms,
+      at least they did not attack each other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had treaties
+      with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by some horde of
+      another race or nation. Common interest would drive them together for
+      mutual protection, and the chief of some one of them would be chosen to
+      lead their joint army. In this way, we find the fifteen tribes of the
+      Belgians uniting against the Roman army led by Julius Caesar, and electing
+      as king over them the chief of one of the tribes &ldquo;on account of his
+      justice and wisdom.&rdquo; Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find
+      practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into a nation
+      under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Ve&#771;r sin jet&#8242;o&#772;
+      riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five hundred years
+      later, the Romans themselves were driven to join forces with two of the
+      Germanic tribes to check the swift invasion of the terrible Huns.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the
+      kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that drove the
+      tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted for years or even
+      centuries, so that new generations grew up who had never lived under any
+      other government than that of a king. Thus when the wars were ended, the
+      tribes continued to be ruled by the one man, although the reason for the
+      kingship had ceased to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to
+      100 B.C., when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders,
+      appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator ruled
+      like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then, like the famous
+      Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired to private life. The
+      first lasting kingships, then, began, as it were, by the refusal of some
+      dictator to resign when the need for his rule was ended.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king to take
+      his father&rsquo;s place was fairly well settled, and it did not take long to
+      have it understood as a regular thing that at a king&rsquo;s death he should be
+      followed by his oldest son. Often there were quarrels and even civil wars
+      caused by ambitious younger sons, who did not submit to their elder
+      brothers without a struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and
+      peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked upon as
+      the rightful heir to the kingship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be busied in
+      agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in manufacture, the
+      warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people began to forget that the
+      king was originally only a war leader, and that the office was created
+      through military need. They came to regard the rule of the king as a
+      matter of course and stopped thinking of themselves as having any right to
+      say how they should be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling.
+      For the purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the habit
+      of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a divine
+      institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was made by the gods,
+      or in Christian nations, by God, and that it was the divine will that the
+      people of the nations should be ruled by kings. The great Roman orator,
+      Cicero (Si&#774;s&#8242;ero&#772;), in a speech delivered in the year 66
+      B.C., referring to people who lived in kingdoms, says that the name of
+      king &ldquo;seems to them a great and sacred thing.&rdquo; This same feeling has
+      lasted through all the ages down to the present time, and the majority of
+      the people in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still
+      look upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if they
+      ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private ownership of
+          land?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that government was based upon the consent of
+          the governed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the German
+          tribes to move southward?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the beginnings of slavery.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the value of armor in early times.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by the &ldquo;Dark Ages&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they should be
+          rulers for life?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap04"></a>Chapter IV.<br/>
+Master and Man</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The land is the king&rsquo;s.&mdash;He lends it to barons.&mdash;Barons lend it
+      to knights and smaller barons.&mdash;Smaller barons collect rent for it
+      from the peasants.&mdash;A father&rsquo;s lands are lent to his son.&mdash;Barons
+      pay for the land by furnishing men for the king&rsquo;s wars.&mdash;No account
+      is taken of the rights of the peasant.&mdash;The peasant, the only
+      producer, is despised by the fighting men.&mdash;If a baron rebels, his
+      men must rebel also.&mdash;Dukes against kings.&mdash;What killed the
+      feudal system.&mdash;Feudal wrongs alive today.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country, as the
+      Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the Normans entered
+      England in 1066, their king at once took it for granted that he owned all
+      the conquered land. In some cases, he might divide the kingdom up among
+      his chiefs, giving a county to each of forty or fifty leaders. These great
+      leaders (dukes or barons, as they were called in the Norman-French
+      language, or earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide
+      up his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call lesser
+      or little barons. Each little baron might have several knights and
+      squires, who lived in or near his castle and had received from him tracts
+      of land corresponding in size, perhaps, to the American township and who,
+      therefore, fought under his banner in war.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus16"></a>
+<img src="images/16.jpg" width="356" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Norman Castle in England</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men, &ldquo;men-at-arms,&rdquo; as
+      they were called, or &ldquo;retainers,&rdquo; who in return for their &ldquo;keep,&rdquo; that is,
+      their food and lodging, and a chance to share the plunder gained in war,
+      swore to be faithful to him, became his men, and gave him the service
+      called homage. (This word comes from <i>ho&#772;mo&#772;</i>, the Latin
+      for &ldquo;man.&rdquo;) The lesser baron, in turn, swore homage to, and was the &ldquo;man&rdquo;
+      of the great baron or earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser
+      chiefs to gather their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey,
+      serving him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed them.
+      The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had received his
+      land.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word <i>feudum</i>,
+      which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which was given to a man
+      in return for his services in war), a system which reversed the natural
+      laws of society, and stood it on its apex, like a cone balanced on its
+      point. For instead of saying that the land was the property of the people
+      of the tribe or nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all
+      belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the land,
+      outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in return for
+      their faithful support and service in war, the <i>use</i> of the land
+      during their lifetime, or so long as they remained true to him. In <i>Macbeth</i>,
+      we read how, for his treason, the lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were
+      taken from him by the Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The
+      lands thus lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went
+      back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place, and he at
+      once gave them to some other one of his followers upon the same terms. It
+      often happened that upon the death of an earl or baron his son was granted
+      the lands which his father had held, Finally, in many counties, it grew
+      into a custom, and the oldest son took possession of his father&rsquo;s fief,
+      but not without first going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity
+      to him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the system fully.
+      In the first place, in the division of the lands among the barons of the
+      conquering nation, no account was taken of the peasants. As they were of
+      the defeated people, their rights to the land were not once considered. In
+      many countries, the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the
+      conquered territory. They &ldquo;went with&rdquo; the land and were considered by the
+      lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned over a
+      farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If any of them
+      tried to run away, they were brought back and whipped. They tilled the
+      land and raised live stock, giving a certain share of their yearly crop
+      and a certain number of beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent
+      for the land, much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to
+      the robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned
+      their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and robbed by all
+      the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs existing today that are
+      due to the fact that the feudal system is not wholly stamped out in some
+      countries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus17"></a>
+<img src="images/17.jpg" width="401" height="234" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the direct
+      master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn homage to him. He
+      was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The less important barons swore
+      homage to the great barons, and the knights, squires, retainers, and
+      yeomen swore homage to the lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided
+      his fief among certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance,
+      not to him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a
+      &ldquo;man&rdquo; rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers, etc., must
+      rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to obey his king and
+      broke his oath of allegiance, all his little barons and knights must turn
+      disloyal too, or rather, must remain loyal, for their oaths had been taken
+      to support the duke, and not the king. History is full of such cases. In
+      many instances, dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war
+      on even terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the
+      kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland in 1403
+      raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of England; the
+      Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the throne of England and
+      became king in his place.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus18"></a>
+<img src="images/18.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">William the Conqueror</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of Normandy had
+      sworn homage to the king of France, became, through conquest, king of
+      England. His sons, great-grandsons, and great-great-grandsons continued
+      for one hundred and fifty years to be obliged to swear allegiance to the
+      French kings in order to keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the
+      Governor of Texas had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become
+      Emperor of that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up
+      his American citizenship.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring more
+      power to the common people were, first, the invention of gunpowder, and,
+      second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket could bring down a knight
+      in armor as easily as he could the most poorly armored peasant. Kings, in
+      fighting to control their great lords, gave more freedom to citizens of
+      towns in return for their help. The king&rsquo;s armies came to be recruited
+      largely from townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the
+      feudal lords.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain amount of
+      military service to his ruler has lasted to the present day and is
+      responsible for much of the misery that now exists. Kings went to war with
+      each other simply to increase their territories. The more land a king had
+      under his control, the more people who owed him taxes, and the greater
+      number he could get into his army, the greater became his ambition to
+      spread his kingdom still farther.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all the land in
+          the country which he had invaded?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to the
+          welfare of the working classes?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting men,
+          lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns his living
+          is looked down upon by the nobles?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society upside
+          down?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break up the
+          feudal system.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the feudal
+          system?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap05"></a>Chapter V.<br/>
+A Babel of Tongues</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The great family of languages.&mdash;Few languages in Europe not belonging
+      to the family.&mdash;The dying Celtic languages.&mdash;The three branches
+      of the Germanic family.&mdash;The influence of the Latin tongue on the
+      south of Europe.&mdash;The many Slavic peoples.&mdash;The map as divided
+      by kings without regard to peoples and languages.&mdash;The strange
+      mixture in Austria-Hungary.&mdash;The southeast of Europe.&mdash;The
+      Greeks and Dacians.&mdash;The Roman colonists.&mdash;The Slavs.&mdash;The
+      Volgars.&mdash;The Skipetars.&mdash;A hopeless mixture.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a> it was pointed out that almost all the
+      peoples of Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely
+      that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the Greeks,
+      and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its home back in the
+      highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule, the relationship of peoples
+      to each other can be told by the languages which they speak. If two tribes
+      are related because their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it
+      is almost certain that they will show this relationship in their
+      languages.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like the
+      language of the Germans, for the English were originally German tribes.
+      Even today, it is easy to see that English is a Germanic language. Take
+      the English words house, father, mother, brother, water, here, is, etc.
+      The German words which mean the same are <i>haus, vater, mutter, bruder,
+      wasser, hier, ist</i>. It is very plain that the two languages must have
+      come from the same source.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There are professors in European colleges who have spent their whole lives
+      studying this relationship of languages. These men have proved not only
+      that almost all the languages of Europe are related, but that the language
+      of the Persians, and that of some of the old tribes in Hindustan also
+      belong to one great family of tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In
+      one of the ancient languages of Hindustan it was <i>matr</i>; in the
+      Greek, it was <i>ma&#772;ta&#772;r</i>; in the Latin <i>mater</i> (ma&#776;ta&#772;r);
+      in the Bohemian <i>matka</i>; in the German <i>mu&#800;tter</i>; in the
+      Spanish m&#228;dre; in the Norwegian <i>mo&#772;der</i>, etc. This great
+      family of languages is called &ldquo;the Indo-European group,&rdquo; because the
+      tribes which spoke them, originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered
+      all over India and Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do
+      not belong to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques
+      (Ba&#775;sks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies, and
+      the Turks.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the Celtic
+      languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that first the
+      Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of the lands where the
+      Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal, France, and Belgium now talk
+      languages that have grown from the Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts
+      in the British Isles now all talk English, because the English, who were a
+      Germanic people, conquered them and forced them to use their language.
+      Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the Celtic tribes)
+      are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh languages, but all of the
+      young people in the British Isles learn English, and they are generally
+      content to talk only one language. The other Celtic languages which have
+      existed within the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of
+      Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the
+      southwestern corner of England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in three
+      parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian, and
+      Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria and Germany form, with
+      Holland and Western Belgium, a second group of German-speaking nations.
+      (The people of eastern Belgium are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The
+      third part of Europe which uses a Germanic language is England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain, and
+      Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin. Latin languages
+      today are found also in the southern and western parts of Switzerland, all
+      over Italy, and in Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the Germanic
+      tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs followed them and
+      occupied the lands which had just been left vacant. In this way, we find
+      Slavic peoples talking Slavic (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the
+      parts of Europe to the east and south of the Germans. More than half of
+      the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians
+      proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to the
+      Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins are Slavs. The
+      Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak a Slavic language and
+      have some Slavic blood in them, although, as will be pointed out later,
+      originally they did not belong to the Slavic family.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map01"></a>
+<img src="images/map01.jpg" width="700" height="468" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family of
+      tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of the four
+      great branches.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map02"></a>
+<img src="images/map02.jpg" width="699" height="467" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Distribution Of Languages</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The two maps on pages <a href="#map01">65</a> and <a href="#map02">66</a>
+      are very much alike and yet in some respects very different. The first
+      shows how Europe is largely inhabited by peoples of the great
+      Indo-European family. Those who are descended from the Celts are marked
+      Celtic even though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have
+      the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France, eastern
+      Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians are marked as not
+      belonging to the great family, although they speak a Slavic language.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the <a href="#map02">second map</a>, the distribution of languages
+      is shown. You will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in
+      small parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of France.
+      The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their language belongs to
+      that branch. One of the most curious things about the two maps is the
+      presence of little spots like islands, particularly made up of
+      German-speaking peoples. There are several of these little islands in
+      Russia. They have been there for nearly two hundred years. A traveler
+      crossing the southern part of Russia is astonished to find districts as
+      large as an American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. <a
+      name="page69" id="page69"></a>The people are all of Germanic blood,
+      although they live under the government of Russia. In the same way, there
+      is a large German island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania
+      and another between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian
+      Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania also,
+      entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on the opposite
+      page shows the main branches of the Indo-European family that are found in
+      Europe.<br/><br/>
+    </p>
+
+    <table summary="A tree diagram of languages by family">
+      <caption>
+        The Indo-European Family of Languages
+      </caption>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>a</i>) Hindu branch
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>b</i>) Persian branch
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>c</i>) Celtic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Ga&#772;e&#8242;lic (northern Scotland)<br /> Welsh<br /> Cornish (dead)<br />
+          Erse (Irish)<br /> Bre&#772;&#8242;ton (western France)
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>d</i>) Latin branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Portuguese<br /> Spanish<br /> French<br /> Romansh (southeastern
+          Switzerland)<br /> Italian<br /> Roumanian
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>e</i>) Germanic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Norwegian<br /> Danish<br /> Swedish<br /> Dutch<br /> Flemish (Belgium)<br />
+          Low German<br /> High German<br /> English
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>f</i>) Slavonic branch
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          Russian<br /> Polish<br /> Lettish<br /> Lithuanian<br /> Old Prussian
+          (dead)<br /> Czech (Bohemian [pronounced Che&#774;ck])<br /> Slo&#772;
+          vak&#8242; (northern Hungary)<br /> Serbian<br /> Bulgarian<br /> Slove&#8242;nian
+          (southwestern Austria)<br /> Cro&#772;a&#8242;tian (southern Austria)<br />
+          Ruthe&#772;&#8242;nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern
+          Russia)
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          <br /> }<br /> } Baltic states of Russia<br /> }<br />
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>g</i>) Greek
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr valign="top">
+        <td>
+          (<i>h</i>) Alba&#772;&#8242;nian
+        </td>
+        <td></td>
+        <td></td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+
+    <p class="p2">
+      The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings and their
+      ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the feudal lords, never
+      considered the wishes of the people when they changed the boundaries of
+      kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good example. The Austrians and Hungarians
+      were two very different peoples. They had nothing in common and did not
+      wish to be joined under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no
+      son to succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of
+      Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of Hapsburg)
+      was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, although the Bohemian
+      people had not chosen him as their ruler. The Hungarians, before their
+      union with Austria, had conquered certain Slavic tribes and part of the
+      Roumanians. Later Austria annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire
+      became a jumble of languages and nationalities. When its congress is
+      called together, the official announcement is read in eleven different
+      languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not as large
+      as that of the state of Texas.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We must remember that besides the literary or written languages of each
+      country there are several spoken dialects. A man from Devonshire, England,
+      meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of the same country, has
+      difficulty in understanding many words in his speech. The language of the
+      south of Scotland also is English, although it is very different from the
+      English that we in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees
+      Mountains was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we
+      find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is talked by
+      the country people around him, that can not be understood by the peasants
+      from the north of France near the Flemish border. The man who lives in the
+      east of France can understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of
+      Italy much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic
+      coast.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In America, with people moving around from place to place by means of
+      stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no great chance to
+      develop dialects, although we can instantly tell the New Englander, the
+      southerner, or the westerner by his speech. It should be remembered that
+      in Europe, for centuries, the people were kept on their own farms or in
+      their own towns. The result of this was that each little village or city
+      has its own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied
+      such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from Europe,
+      can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in the old country.
+      There are no sharply marked boundaries of languages. The dialects of
+      France shade off into those of Spain on the one hand and into those of the
+      Flemish and the Italian on the other.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map03"></a>
+<img src="images/map03.jpg" width="701" height="469" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The British Isles furnish us with four or five different nationalities.
+      The people of the north of Ireland are really lowland Scotch of Germanic
+      descent, while the other three-fourths of Ireland is inhabited by Celts.
+      To make the difference all the greater, the Celts are almost universally
+      Catholics, while the Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north
+      of Scotland are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or
+      blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The Welsh are
+      a Celtic people, having no relationship with the English, who are a
+      Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of Cornwall and the people of
+      highland Scotland are the descendants of the ancient Britons and Gaels who
+      inhabited the island when Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there.
+      Then five hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great
+      swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the Britons to
+      the west and north, and settled the country now known as England. After
+      these, you will recall, came a number of Danes, another Germanic people,
+      who settled the east coast of England. Two hundred years later, the
+      Normans came from France. These Normans had been living in France for a
+      century or two, but had come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes,
+      Angles, and Saxons all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they
+      fought the Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them,
+      oppressed them harshly for many centuries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map04"></a>
+<img src="images/map04.jpg" width="700" height="466" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the worst
+      jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ, the Greeks and
+      their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians, and Dacians inhabited
+      this district. When one of the Roman Emperors conquered the Dacians about
+      100 A.D., he planted a large Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then
+      came the West Goths, who swept into this country, but soon left it for the
+      west of Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the
+      modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not belong to
+      the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to the Finns and the
+      Turks. These people were called the Volgars, for they came from the
+      country around the River Volga. Before long, we find them called the
+      Bulgars. (The letters B and V are often interchanged in the languages of
+      south-eastern Europe. The people of western Europe used to call the
+      country of the Serbs Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word
+      <i>servio</i>, in Latin, means &ldquo;to be a slave,&rdquo; and that as they were not
+      slaves, they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia.
+      The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though it were
+      V.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They completely gave
+      up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one, which became in time the
+      purest of the Slavic tongues. They intermarried with the Slavs around them
+      and adopted Slavic names. They founded a flourishing nation which lay
+      between the kingdom of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;).
+      These people claimed to be descended from the Roman Emperor&rsquo;s colonists,
+      as was previously told, but the reason their language is so much like the
+      Italian is that a large number of people from the north of Italy moved
+      into the country nearly a thousand years after the first Roman colonists
+      settled there. From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited
+      by Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus19"></a>
+<img src="images/19.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Typical Bulgarian Family</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians. (<a
+      href="#map04">See map</a>) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians,
+      who inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the time
+      of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a branch of the
+      Indo-European family which is neither Latin, Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic.
+      They are distant cousins of the Italians and are also slightly related to
+      the Greeks. They are a wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never
+      known the meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each
+      village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring towns. The
+      Albanians, or Skipetars (ski&#776;p&#8242;e&#774;tars) as they call
+      themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the Turks about
+      1460. Since that time, the great majority of them have been staunch
+      believers in the Mohammedan religion.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have its
+          beginning?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages are
+          spoken?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are descended from
+          the Latin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different peoples?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap06"></a>Chapter VI.<br/>
+&ldquo;The Terrible Turk&rdquo;</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Greek Empire at Constantinople.&mdash;The invading Mohammedans.&mdash;The
+      Ottoman Turks.&mdash;The fall of Constantinople.&mdash;The enslaving of
+      the Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.&mdash;One little
+      part of Serbia unconquered.&mdash;The further conquests of the Turks.&mdash;The
+      attack on Vienna.&mdash;John Sobieski to the rescue.&mdash;The waning of
+      the Turkish empire.&mdash;The Spanish Jews.&mdash;The jumble of languages
+      and peoples in southeastern Europe.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the <a href="#chap05">last chapter</a>, we referred briefly to the Greek
+      empire at Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and
+      was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years before Christ.
+      Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor named Constantine decided
+      that he liked Byzantium better than Rome. Accordingly, he moved the
+      capital of the empire to the Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis
+      (the word <i>polis</i> means &ldquo;city&rdquo; in Greek). Before long, we find the
+      Roman empire divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the
+      other at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the
+      Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the western
+      empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus20"></a>
+<img src="images/20.jpg" width="337" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged to fight
+      hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across the fertile plains
+      of Mesopotamia (me&#774;s&#8242;o&#772; po&#772; ta&#772;&#8242; mi&#774;
+      a&#772;) and Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the
+      Tigris (ti&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;s) and Euphrates (u&#772;fra&#772;&#8242;te&#772;z)
+      Rivers. Its name in Greek means &ldquo;between the rivers.&rdquo;) The fiercest of the
+      Mohammedan tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For
+      several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople, while the
+      Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls, and the
+      Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the past, and all of
+      southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the invading Moslems (another name
+      for &ldquo;Mohammedans&rdquo;). The Turks did not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians,
+      Serbians, and Albanians, but settled down among them as the ruling,
+      military class. They strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity
+      and turn Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the
+      Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and
+      Roumanians remained where they had been, but were oppressed by the
+      newcomers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For more than two hundred years after the capture of Constantinople, the
+      Turks pushed their conquests farther and farther into Europe. The entire
+      coast of the Black Sea fell into their hands. All of Greece, all of
+      Bulgaria, and all of Roumania became part of their empire. Of the kingdom
+      of Serbia, one small province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains
+      near the coast of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the
+      Serbian kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and
+      higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the
+      invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that &ldquo;the game
+      was not worth the candle.&rdquo; Thus the little nation of Montenegro was
+      formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted to the Ottoman rule. (The
+      inhabitants of this small country call it Tzernagorah (tze&#771;r na&#776;
+      go&#772;&#8242;ra); the Italians call it Montenegro. Both of these names
+      mean &ldquo;Dark Mountain.&rdquo;)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining control
+      of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About 1682, they were
+      pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic king of Poland, John
+      Sobieski (so&#772; bi&#774; e&#774;s&#8242;ki&#774;), came to the rescue
+      of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans and completely
+      defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any further advance of the
+      Turkish rule into Europe. (The <a href="#map05">map on page 82</a>
+      shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the conquered lands
+      were still living where they always had lived. The Turks were very few in
+      number compared with the millions of people who inhabited their empire and
+      paid them tribute. Many wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two
+      hundred and thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their
+      territory.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map05"></a>
+<img src="images/map05.jpg" width="700" height="465" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of their
+      kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania was free from
+      Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain Count of Hapsburg had
+      become Emperor of Germany, and when we say Germany, we include Austria,
+      which had become the home of the Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that
+      the Hapsburg family came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage
+      of one of their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that
+      country. (See <a href="#page69">page 69</a>.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory known as the
+      Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is now Roumania, were
+      reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint kingdom to which they were
+      attached. (Bukowina has never been a part of Hungary. It is still a crown
+      land, or county subject to the emperor of Austria personally.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to be
+      inhabited by a still different people. Not long after Ferdinand and
+      Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had conquered the Moorish kingdom
+      of Granada (see <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a>) that used to stretch across
+      the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards decided to drive out of their
+      country all &ldquo;unbelievers,&rdquo; that is, all who were not Christians of the
+      Catholic faith. (This happened in 1492, the same year that they sent
+      Columbus to America.) The Moors retreated into Africa, which was their
+      former home, but the millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to
+      return. In the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them
+      to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter his
+      land. They did so by hundreds of thousands.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout the
+      Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are so numerous
+      in Constantinople that four newspapers are published there in the Spanish
+      language, but printed in Hebrew characters. The city of Salonika, a
+      prosperous seaport of 140,000 people, which used to belong to Turkey but
+      now is part of Greece, has over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn
+      other tongues, and many of them can talk in four or five languages besides
+      their native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city, that is,
+      a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, Italians are
+      all found mingled together.
+    </p>
+
+  
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus21"></a>
+<img src="images/21.jpg" width="401" height="261" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Scene in Salonicka</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p id="page85">
+      The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the races and
+      nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost impossible to say
+      which land should belong to which nation. Take the case of Macedonia (the
+      district just northwest of the Aegean Sea). It is inhabited largely by
+      Bulgarians, and yet there are so many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the
+      former that at the close of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia
+      both claimed it as belonging to them because of the &ldquo;prevailing
+      nationality of its inhabitants!&rdquo; In other words, the Serbians claimed that
+      the inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were positive
+      that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is very resentful
+      today because the land was not given to her, on the ground that almost all
+      its inhabitants are Bulgarians!
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with making the
+      Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right in the center of
+      Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same language, dressing exactly alike,
+      doing business with each other on an equal footing, are to be found the
+      native Bulgarian and the descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one
+      goes to the Greek Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the
+      Mohammedan Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and
+      oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise each other
+      with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan states, with their
+      seething pot of racial and religious hatred, and turn to other causes of
+      European wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured Constantinople?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks threatening
+          Vienna?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different
+          nationalities.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap07"></a>Chapter VII.<br/>
+The Rise of Modern Nations</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      How the peasants looked upon war.&mdash;War the opportunity of the
+      fighting men.&mdash;The decreasing power of barons.&mdash;The growth of
+      royal power.&mdash;How four little kingdoms became Spain.&mdash;Other
+      kingdoms of Europe.&mdash;The rise of Russia.&mdash;The Holy Roman Empire.&mdash;The
+      electors.&mdash;The rise of Brandenburg.&mdash;The elector of Brandenburg
+      becomes King of Prussia.&mdash;Frederick the Great.&mdash;The seizure of
+      Silesia and the consequent wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal system,
+      the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men made up a class
+      of the population whose only trade was war, and how the poor peasants were
+      compelled to raise crops and live stock enough to feed both themselves and
+      the fighting men. These peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only
+      in their losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the
+      enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do unless war
+      was going on, and as those who were not killed returned from a war with
+      rich plunder in case they were victorious, they were always looking for a
+      chance to start trouble with some neighboring country.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long as the
+      nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war. As a result, one
+      county in a certain kingdom would often be at war with a neighboring
+      county. The fighting man either was killed in battle or he came out of it
+      with increased glory and plunder, but the peasants and the common people
+      had nothing to gain by war and everything to lose. As we have seen, force
+      ruled the world, and the common people had no voice in their government.
+      The workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting class,
+      who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered honest toil as
+      degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the only respectable trade in
+      Europe in those days was what we today would call highway robbery.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      France and England in the 15th Century
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to put down
+      the power of his nobles and make himself master over the whole nation. In
+      this way a strong central power grew up in France. After the death of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1477, no noble dared to question
+      the leadership of the king of France. The same thing was true in England
+      after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King
+      Richard III and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Spain and Other Kingdoms
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile, Aragon,
+      and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation marriage of
+      Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon joined the three
+      Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492, when the Moors were defeated
+      and Granada annexed to the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became
+      one kingdom. About this time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of
+      Hungary, a kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark.
+      Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom. In
+      Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong power which
+      was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the Great (1690-1725).
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Holy Roman Empire
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the Turkish
+      Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a rule which had
+      been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great Frankish monarch, who
+      had been crowned in Rome by the pope as ruler of the western world. (The
+      name &ldquo;Holy Roman Empire&rdquo; was not used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it
+      under Otto I, the Saxon emperor, who was crowned in 962.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map06"></a>
+<img src="images/map06.jpg" width="701" height="442" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Empire of Charlemagne</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany (except the
+      eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now Bohemia, Austria (but not
+      Hungary), and all of Italy except the part south of Naples. There were
+      times when part of France and all of the low countries (now Belgium and
+      Holland) also belonged to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won
+      their independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and formed a
+      little republic.) See <a href="#map07">map &ldquo;Europe in 1540.&rdquo;</a>
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map07"></a>
+<a href="images/map07.jpg">
+<img src="images/map07.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1540</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not necessarily
+      succeed his father as ruler. There were seven (afterwards nine) &ldquo;electors&rdquo;
+      who, at the death of the ruling monarch, met to elect his successor. Three
+      of these electors were archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the
+      others were counts of large counties in Germany like Hanover and
+      Brandenburg. It frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member
+      of the family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families
+      which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most famous of
+      these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from whom the present
+      emperor of Austria is descended.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus22"></a>
+<img src="images/22.jpg" width="340" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Louis XIV</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the kingdoms of
+      England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, Saxony, and Bavaria
+      all were subjects of the emperor, as were many powerful counts. These men
+      were jealous of the emperor&rsquo;s power, and he did not dare govern them as
+      strictly as the king of France ruled his nobles.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      France in the 18th Century
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus23"></a>
+<img src="images/23.jpg" width="300" height="391" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by the
+      ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to increase
+      their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful
+      kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great
+      part of what is Belgium and Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom
+      the part of Germany between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vo&#772;zh)
+      Mountains. Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman
+      Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle
+      of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough, aided by the
+      emperor&rsquo;s army, put an end to the further expansion of the French.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus24"></a>
+<img src="images/24.jpg" width="275" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Great Elector of Brandenburg</p>
+</div>
+
+    <h3>
+      Prussia
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will
+      recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count
+      was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this
+      county was Berlin. It so happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg,
+      of the family of Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The
+      little county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of
+      these counts, called &ldquo;the Great Elector,&rdquo; had added to Brandenburg the
+      greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have
+      the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man. He happened
+      to visit King William III of England, and was very much offended because
+      during the interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the
+      elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was
+      straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed
+      to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The
+      question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself &ldquo;King of
+      Brandenburg,&rdquo; for Brandenburg was part of the Empire, and the emperor
+      would not allow it. It had happened some one hundred years before, that,
+      through his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of
+      Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as East
+      Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea. Between
+      this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the district known as West
+      Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of Poland. However, Prussia lay
+      outside the boundaries of the Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say
+      about what went on there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the
+      kings and princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the
+      &ldquo;King of Prussia.&rdquo; It was a situation somewhat like the one we have
+      already referred to, when the kings of England were independent monarchs
+      and yet subjects of the kings of France because they were also dukes of
+      Normandy.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus25"></a>
+<img src="images/25.jpg" width="284" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Frederick The Great</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and
+      more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron,
+      and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall
+      soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over
+      six feet tall to serve in his famous regiment of Guards. He further
+      increased the size of the Prussian kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most remarkable
+      fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had been brought up
+      under strict discipline by his father. The old king had been insistent
+      that his son should be no weakling. It is told that one day, finding
+      Frederick playing upon a flute, he seized the instrument and snapped it in
+      twain over his son&rsquo;s shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh
+      training, became a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died
+      and left him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was
+      fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as has been
+      said, was made up of a great many little counties, each ruled by its petty
+      prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general way, to the ruler of
+      Austria, who still was supposed to be the head of the Holy Roman Empire.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map08"></a>
+<img src="images/map08.jpg" width="700" height="471" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many different
+      nationalities which had little sympathy with each other. The ruler of
+      Austria was also king of Bohemia and of Hungary, but neither country was
+      happy at being governed by a German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians,
+      Serbs, Slovenes, and Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the
+      Hungarians and then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished
+      their independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick
+      became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the House of
+      Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria Theresa, to rule
+      the big empire. Frederick decided that he could easily defeat the
+      disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced to the world that the rich
+      province of Silesia was henceforth to be his and that he proposed to take
+      it by force of arms. Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria,
+      but in the end, Frederick&rsquo;s well-trained troops, his store of money, and
+      above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians victorious, and
+      at the close of the fighting, almost all of Silesia remained a part of the
+      kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians, however, were not satisfied, and two
+      more wars were fought before they finally gave up trying to recover the
+      stolen state. Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his
+      victories.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss to a
+          nation in general?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was it that Spain became one nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did Peter the Great do for Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What effect had the training of his father upon the character of
+          Frederick the Great?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap08"></a>Chapter VIII.<br/>
+The Fall of the Two Kingdoms</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Poles, a divided nation.&mdash;The three partitions.&mdash;Wars and
+      revolts as a result.&mdash;The disappearance of Lithuania.&mdash;The
+      growing power of the king of France.&mdash;An extravagant and corrupt
+      court.&mdash;Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.&mdash;Bankruptcy at
+      last.&mdash;The meeting of the three estates.&mdash;The third estate
+      defies the king.&mdash;The fall of the Bastille.&mdash;The flight and
+      capture of the king.&mdash;The king beheaded.&mdash;Other kings alarmed.&mdash;Valmy
+      saves the revolution.&mdash;The reign of terror.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east of
+      Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in Europe with the
+      exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said before, were a Slavic
+      people, distant cousins of the Russians and Bohemians. They had a strong
+      nobility or upper class, but these nobles were jealous of each other, and
+      as a result, the country was torn apart by many warring factions. The
+      condition of the working class was very miserable. The nobles did not
+      allow them any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically
+      slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of the crops
+      that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles, no law could be
+      passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a result of this jealousy
+      between factions, the Poles could not be induced to obey any one leader,
+      and thus, divided, were easy to conquer.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated from his
+      land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia, which was part of
+      Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria Theresa of Austria, and to the
+      Empress Catharine II of Russia that they each take a slice of Poland. This
+      was accordingly done, in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist
+      the three great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had
+      been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by without a
+      protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia each again annexed a
+      large part of the remainder of Poland, and two years after this, the three
+      powers divided up among them all that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The
+      Poles fought violently against this last partition, but they were not
+      united and were greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This great crime against a nation was the result of the military system;
+      and this in turn was the result of the feudal system, which made the king,
+      as commander-in-chief of the army, the supreme ruler of his country. The
+      men in the Prussian and Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer
+      the poor Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage
+      from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply meant an
+      enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes to them, and more
+      men to draw on for their armies.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus26"></a>
+<img src="images/26.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Catharine II</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country, this
+      wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all the stronger.
+      There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by Polish uprisings, time
+      and time again, and the Poles will never be satisfied until their unhappy
+      country is once more united.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country had been
+      annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had married the
+      daughter of the king of Poland, followed his father-in-law on the Polish
+      throne. Lithuania fell to Russia&rsquo;s share in the division, so that its
+      people only changed masters. They are a distinct nation, however,
+      possessing a language and literature of their own, and having no desire to
+      be ruled by either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice,
+      they would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and Russia
+      proper.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Downfall of the French Monarchy
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus27"></a>
+<img src="images/27.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Courtier of time of Louis XIV</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There, for
+      hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing greater, until
+      by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the country who could
+      oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons where he sent those who
+      had offended him, shutting them up without a trial and not even letting
+      their families know where they had been taken. The peasants and working
+      classes had been ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier.
+      The king spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his
+      courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest capital
+      in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and the poor
+      peasants paid the bills.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus28"></a>
+<img src="images/28.jpg" width="400" height="317" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Taking of The Bastille</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a revolt,
+      but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead them. At last, came
+      a time when there was no money in the royal treasury. After all the waste
+      and corruption, nothing was left to pay the army and keep up the expenses
+      of the government. One minister of finance after another tried to devise
+      some scheme whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success.
+      The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred years were
+      at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king summoned a meeting
+      of representative men from all over the kingdom. There were three classes
+      represented, the nobles, the clergy, and what was called &ldquo;the third
+      estate,&rdquo; which meant merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A
+      great statesman appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the
+      third estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such that
+      the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst of these
+      exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison, the Bastille. They
+      took it by storm, and tore it to the ground. This happened on the
+      fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the French still celebrate as the
+      birthday of their nation&rsquo;s liberty. All over France the common people rose
+      in revolt. The soldiers in the army would no longer obey their officers.
+      The king was closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was
+      brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in terror, fled
+      from the country. Thus began what is known as the French Revolution.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus29"></a>
+<img src="images/29.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Palace of Versailles</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of France took
+      charge of their government, a panic arose throughout the courts of Europe.
+      Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the king of France, began to fear
+      for themselves. They, too, had taxed and oppressed their subjects. They
+      felt that this revolt of the French people must be put down, and the king
+      of France set back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt
+      might take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of
+      Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made war on
+      the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the French by force of
+      arms and compel them to put back their king upon his throne.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known what the
+      object of this war was, they would have had very little sympathy with it,
+      but for years they had been trained to obey their officers, who in turn
+      obeyed their generals, who in turn obeyed the orders of the kings. The
+      common soldiers were like sheep, in that they did not think for
+      themselves, but followed their leaders. They were not allowed to know the
+      truth concerning this attack on France. They did not know the French
+      language, and had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were
+      no public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how to read
+      the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled by the
+      governments, and were allowed to print only what favored the cause of the
+      kings.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French poet from
+      Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song which was first sung in
+      Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus has come to be called &ldquo;La
+      Marseillaise.&rdquo; It is the cry of a crushed and oppressed people against
+      foreign tyrants who would again enslave them. It fired the French army
+      with a wonderful enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back
+      the invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French
+      Republic.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus30"></a>
+<img src="images/30.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Reign of Terror</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The period known as &ldquo;the reign of terror&rdquo; now began in earnest. A faction
+      of the extreme republican party got control of the government, and kept it
+      by terrorizing the more peaceable citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles
+      had put upon the lower classes for so many hundred years were brutally
+      avenged. The king was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not
+      fled from the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the
+      principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the nation
+      came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly good government
+      was organized, and the executions ceased. Still the kings of Europe would
+      not recognize the new republic. There was war against France for the next
+      twenty years on the part of England, and generally two or three other
+      countries as well.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus31"></a>
+<img src="images/31.jpg" width="399" height="266" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent the
+          partition of Poland?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What things could the king of France do which would not be tolerated
+          in the United States today?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the king call together the three &ldquo;estates&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the cause of the reign of terror?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap09"></a>Chapter IX.<br/>
+The Little Man from the Common People</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The young Corsican.&mdash;The war in Italy.&mdash;Italy a battlefield for
+      centuries.&mdash;The victories of Bonaparte.&mdash;The first consul.&mdash;The
+      empire.&mdash;The French sweep over Europe.&mdash;Kings and emperors
+      beaten and deposed.&mdash;The fatal Russian campaign.&mdash;The first
+      abdication.&mdash;The return from Elba.&mdash;The battle of Waterloo.&mdash;The
+      feudal lords once more triumphant.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable characters in
+      all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little man from the island of
+      Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a French citizen, for the island had
+      been forcibly The annexed to France shortly before his birth. As a young
+      lieutenant in the army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later
+      on, being in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament,
+      he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this period. A
+      Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they had the castle of the
+      king. As a reward, he had been put in charge of the French army in Italy,
+      which was engaged in fighting the Austrians.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this point to
+      devote some attention to the past history of the Italian peninsula.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman Empire.
+      The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with Sicily, a small nation
+      called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The northern part had belonged to
+      the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in
+      turn. The Italian people wanted to become one nation, but they were
+      divided up among many little princes, each with his separate dominions.
+      The cities of Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was
+      strong on the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired
+      practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople, Egypt,
+      and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the control of northern
+      Italy except the lands around the city of Venice and the county of
+      Piedmont. The latter formed a separate kingdom with the island of
+      Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined with the southern end of the
+      peninsula.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns, Lombards,
+      Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought their battles for the
+      control of the civilized world. (See the following maps.) At one time, the
+      Austrian House of Hapsburg controlled the greater part of the peninsula.
+      This was especially true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy
+      Roman Empire. As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of
+      Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low Countries (what
+      is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of Spain, being the oldest
+      living grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. When he became ruler of the two
+      Sicilies, and defeated the French king for the control of northern Italy,
+      there were only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway:
+      Russia, Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map09"></a>
+<img src="images/map09.jpg" width="477" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 525 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map10"></a>
+<img src="images/map10.jpg" width="471" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 650 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map11"></a>
+<img src="images/map11.jpg" width="472" height="700" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Italy in 1175 A.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus32"></a>
+<img src="images/32.jpg" width="338" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Charles the Fifth</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading Italy,
+      and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had overrun and
+      controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of the war was still the
+      deposing of the French monarch. The Austrian armies were fighting to force
+      the people of France to take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies
+      of France, on the other hand, represented the rights of the people to
+      choose their own form of government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the Revolution, were
+      eager to spread the republican form of government all over Europe. There
+      was a real possibility that they might do so, and the kings were fighting
+      in defense of their thrones. (The <a href="#map12">map</a> shows the
+      conquests of the new republic up to this time.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map12"></a>
+<a href="images/map12.jpg">
+<img src="images/map12.jpg" width="700" height="480" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1796</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of age, went
+      down into Italy to take command of the French army. The generals, many of
+      them as old as his father, began offering him advice, but he impatiently
+      waved them aside and announced that he was going to wage war on a plan
+      hitherto unheard of. He made good his boast, and after a short campaign in
+      which he inspired his ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting,
+      he had driven the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic
+      of Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a
+      brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte returned
+      to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had little difficulty
+      in overthrowing the five Directors of the French government and having
+      himself elected &ldquo;First Consul&rdquo; or president of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but
+      Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time compelled
+      his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the French people elect
+      him &ldquo;emperor of the French&rdquo; for life, and by an overwhelming vote they did
+      so. The empire was very different from the other empires and kingships of
+      Europe, since it was created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs
+      held their thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the
+      plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By this time,
+      the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to the swords of their
+      fighting men, and there had grown up a doctrine called &ldquo;The Divine Right
+      of Kings.&rdquo; In other words, the kings claimed that God in his wisdom had
+      seen fit to make them rulers over these lands, and that they were
+      responsible to God alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that
+      any one who attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the
+      will of Heaven.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from the
+      tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in the wonderful
+      victories gained by their armies under the brilliant leadership of
+      Napoleon. (He dropped his last name, Bonaparte, when he was elected
+      emperor.) They swept over the greater part of Europe and helped to spread
+      the idea that the people had rights that all kings were bound to respect,
+      and that it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber
+      chiefs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the Austrians and
+      Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two fierce battles, he crushed
+      the wonderful Prussian army, which had been trained in the military school
+      of Frederick the Great. He drove out the king of Spain, the king of the
+      Two Sicilies, the kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made
+      one of his brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king
+      of Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law on the
+      throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of Rome. He took away
+      from Prussia all of her territory except Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania.
+      and East and West Prussia. He reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings
+      called it the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all
+      claim to northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now
+      Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See <a
+      href="#map13">map entitled &ldquo;Europe in 1810.&rdquo;</a>)
+    </p>
+    
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map13"></a>
+<a href="images/map13.jpg">
+<img src="images/map13.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1810</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to
+      understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old feudal kings
+      and princes driven from their thrones and their places taken by men sprung
+      from the common people. The father of the Bonapartes had been a poor
+      lawyer. Murat, Napoleon&rsquo;s brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son
+      of an innkeeper. Bernadotte, one of Napoleon&rsquo;s generals, whom the Swedes
+      chose as their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In
+      nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing the rulers
+      there sprang up a new hope.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus33"></a>
+<img src="images/33.jpg" width="254" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a million
+      men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters in Moscow. The
+      Russian people, however, set fire themselves to their beautiful city, and
+      the French had to retreat a thousand miles through snow and ice, while
+      bands of Russian Cossacks swooped down on them from the rear and took a
+      hundred thousand prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the
+      French, the allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to
+      drive the little Corsican from the throne of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack of
+      soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the enthusiasm which he
+      never failed to arouse in his troops. In 1814, however, surrounded by the
+      troops of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England, he had to confess himself
+      beaten. Even Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops
+      against him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the brother
+      of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years before, and set
+      him on the throne of France. Napoleon was banished to the little island of
+      Elba to the west of Italy, and the monarchs flattered themselves that
+      their troubles were ended.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus34"></a>
+<img src="images/34.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Retreat from Moscow</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped from his
+      island prison and landed on the southern coast of France. The king ordered
+      his soldiers to capture their former emperor. But the magic of his
+      presence was too much for them, and the men who had been sent to put him
+      into chains shed tears of joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at
+      his feet. One week later, the king of France had fled a second time from
+      his country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the head of
+      the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four large
+      armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not wait for them to
+      come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly north into the low
+      countries, where he met and defeated an army of Prussians. Another army of
+      English was advancing from Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French
+      were defeated in one of the great battles of the world&rsquo;s history. The
+      defeated Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to
+      the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon had sent
+      to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the emperor from being
+      crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give up his crown, and a second
+      time King Louis XVIII was brought back into Paris and put upon the French
+      throne by the bayonets of foreign troops. The people had been crushed,
+      apparently, and the old feudal lords were once more in control.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus35"></a>
+<img src="images/35.jpg" width="400" height="305" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Napoleon at Waterloo</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Had Italy ever been a nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See <a href="#map09">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See <a href="#map10">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire? (See <a
+          href="#map11">map</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul and
+          afterward Emperor?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Napoleon&rsquo;s great mistake?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap10"></a>Chapter X.<br/>
+A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      A meeting of kings and diplomats.&mdash;Austrians and English vs.
+      Prussians and Russians.&mdash;Talleyrand the subtle.&mdash;Carving a new
+      map.&mdash;The people are ignored.&mdash;Sowing the seeds of trouble.&mdash;Unhappy
+      Poland.&mdash;Divided Italy.&mdash;Revolts of the people.&mdash;The
+      outbreaks of 1848.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and
+      diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of Europe. In
+      past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion and jealousy among
+      these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by without finding two of them
+      flying at each other&rsquo;s throats in some unjust war or other. Only their
+      great fear of uprisings similar to the French Revolution had driven them
+      to act together in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by
+      the people, which had followed it. This famous &ldquo;Congress of Vienna,&rdquo; which
+      took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which European lands have
+      been cut up and parceled out to various monarchs without any regard for
+      the wishes of the people.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus36"></a>
+<img src="images/36.jpg" width="400" height="271" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Congress of Vienna</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies had had in
+      crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide the map of Europe
+      as suited them, and it was only by a great deal of diplomacy that they
+      were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is frequently a polite name for some
+      very cunning deception, involving lying and cheating, in which kings and
+      their ministers take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the
+      Russian-Prussian combination, and they induced England to side with them.
+      England did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The English
+      minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the Austrians, Prussians,
+      and Russians, to allow the French diplomat, Talleyrand, to take part in
+      their final meetings. Now Talleyrand was probably the most slippery and
+      tricky diplomat of all Europe. He had grown to power during the troublous
+      days of the latter part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which
+      party would remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the
+      strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served Napoleon during
+      the first years of the empire, he was shrewd enough to remain true to King
+      Louis XVIII during the latter&rsquo;s second exile. The Prussian-Russian
+      combination was finally obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of
+      Austria, England, and France. Compare this map with the one given in the
+      preceding chapter, and you will see most of the important changes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by
+      Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a great
+      deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part of the kingdom
+      of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It is needless to say that
+      its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy over this arrangement. Austria kept
+      part of her Polish territory, and gave the rest of it to Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called Belgium, had
+      belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of Austria. As was
+      previously said, it was conquered by the French and remained part of
+      France until the fall of Napoleon. It was now joined with Holland to make
+      the kingdom of the Netherlands. Its people were Walloons and Flemish,
+      almost entirely Catholic in their religion, and they very much disliked to
+      be joined with the Protestant Dutch of Holland.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map14"></a>
+<a href="images/map14.jpg">
+<img src="images/map14.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe in 1815</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend itself
+      against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had been fought
+      over by these two powers for more than a century. It was finally
+      transferred to Russia, and in order to appease Sweden, Norway, which had
+      been ruled by the Danes, was torn away from Denmark and made part of the
+      kingdom of Sweden. The Norwegians desired to remain an independent
+      country, and they loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes.
+      Therefore, this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of
+      the kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and in
+      addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and Austria. In order
+      to pay back Austria for the loss of part of Poland, she was given all of
+      northern Italy except the counties of Piedmont and Savoy near France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia) were
+      formed into a loose alliance called the German Confederation. England&rsquo;s
+      share of the plunder consisted largely of distant colonies, such as South
+      Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc. France shrank back to the boundaries which
+      she had had at the beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of
+      the Two Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon family)
+      who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon their thrones.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten different parts,
+      although its people desired to be one nation. It left Austria a government
+      over twelve different nationalities, each one of which was dissatisfied.
+      It joined Belgium to Holland in a combination displeasing to both. It gave
+      Norway and Finland as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It
+      left the Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all
+      subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once vacant, kings
+      who were hated by their subjects. It divided the Poles up among four
+      different governments&mdash;for, strange as it may seem, the powers could
+      not decide who should own the city of Cracow and the territory around it,
+      and they ended by making this district a little republic, under the joint
+      protection of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in
+      their lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who
+      were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the foundation for
+      future revolutions and wars without number.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but after
+      two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland, which, as one
+      of the states of the Russian Empire, was still called a kingdom, was
+      deprived of all its rights, and its people were forced to give up the use
+      of their language in their schools, their courts, and even their churches.
+      In the same fashion, the Poles in Prussia were &ldquo;not even allowed to think
+      in Polish,&rdquo; as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the first
+      half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and struggles among these
+      people. As a result of one of them, in 1846, the little Republic of Cracow
+      was abolished, and its territory forcibly annexed to Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their object the
+      uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from foreign rulers. All
+      through Germany there were mutterings of discontent. The people wanted
+      more freedom from their lords. Greece broke out into insurrection against
+      the Turks, and fifteen years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to
+      independence. Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands
+      broke itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world that
+      it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of Belgium. About
+      the same time, the people of France rose up against the Bourbon kings, and
+      threw them out &ldquo;for good.&rdquo; A distant cousin of the king was elected, not
+      &ldquo;king of France&rdquo; but &ldquo;citizen king of the French,&rdquo; and the people were
+      allowed to elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at
+      Paris. In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time, Spain
+      was a republic, but the people were not well enough educated to govern
+      themselves, and the kingdom was restored.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus37"></a>
+<img src="images/37.jpg" width="200" height="205" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Prince Metternich</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory in 1815
+      than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood for the &ldquo;divine
+      right of kings,&rdquo; and did not believe in allowing the common people any
+      liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising occurred in Austria, and crowds
+      in Vienna, crying, &ldquo;down with Metternich,&rdquo; forced the aged diplomat to
+      flee. During the same year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people
+      everywhere were revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and
+      princes, and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France,
+      also, grew tired of her &ldquo;citizen king,&rdquo; and that country a second time
+      became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of electing as
+      their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Napoleon,
+      and in time he did exactly what his uncle had done,&mdash;persuaded the
+      French people to elect him emperor.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What were the motives of each of the nations represented at the
+          Congress of Vienna?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the meeting at
+          first?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the English and Austrians assist each other?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See <a href="#chap09">last chapter</a>.)
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their thrones?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the Congress?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did the Belgians do about it?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap11"></a>Chapter XI.<br/>
+Italy a Nation at Last</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The Crimean War curbs Russia.&mdash;Cavour plans a United Italy.&mdash;War
+      against Austria.&mdash;Garibaldi, the patriot.&mdash;The Kingdom of
+      Sardinia becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.&mdash;Venice and Rome
+      are added.&mdash;Some Italians still outside the kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named Mazzini and
+      Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the Italian princes who
+      were subject to them were constantly crushing some attempted revolution.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great powers
+      were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia attacked Turkey in
+      1853, but France and England were afraid that if Russia conquered the
+      Turks and took Constantinople, she would become too powerful for them.
+      Therefore, both countries rushed troops to aid Turkey, and in the end,
+      Russia was defeated, although thousands of soldiers were killed on both
+      sides before the struggle was over.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in western
+      Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a little kingdom
+      known as the &ldquo;Kingdom of Sardinia.&rdquo; This country had for its prime
+      minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who, like all Italians, strongly
+      hoped for the day when all the people living on the Italian peninsula
+      should be one nation. At the time of the Crimean War (as the war between
+      Russia on the one side and Turkey, France, and England on the other was
+      called) he caused his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a
+      tiny army to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later,
+      he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what President
+      Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been elected emperor.) The
+      French agreed to make war with his country against the Austrians. If they
+      won, the Sardinians were to receive all north Italy, and in return for
+      France&rsquo;s help were to give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of
+      Nice.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not hard to
+      find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on Sardinia, and, as had
+      been arranged, France rushed to the aid of the Italians. Austria was
+      speedily beaten, but no sooner was the war finished than the French
+      emperor repented of his bargain. He was afraid that it would make trouble
+      for him with his Catholic subjects if the Italians were allowed to take
+      all the northern half of the peninsula, including the pope&rsquo;s lands, into
+      their kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in
+      return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the Austrians
+      kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled, however, is hard to put
+      out. No sooner did the people of the other states of northern Italy see
+      the success of Sardinia, than, one after another, they revolted against
+      their Austrian princes and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this
+      way, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the &ldquo;States of the Church&rdquo; were
+      added. All of this happened in the year 1859.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These &ldquo;States of the Church&rdquo; came to be formed in the following way: The
+      father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who had been crowned
+      western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had rescued northern Italy
+      from the rule of the Lombards. He had made the pope lord of a stretch of
+      territory extending across Italy from the Adriatic Sea to the
+      Mediterranean. The inhabitants of this country had no ruler but the pope.
+      They paid their taxes to him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord.
+      It was part of this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of
+      Italy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who with
+      Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They finally
+      pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He came to America and
+      set up a fruit store in New York City, where there were quite a number of
+      his countrymen. By 1854, he had made a great deal of money in the fruit
+      business, but had not forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be
+      rich only in order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold
+      out his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for Italy.
+      When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought throughout the
+      campaign.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not satisfied
+      with a country only half free. In the region around Genoa, he enrolled a
+      thousand men to go on what looked like a desperate enterprise. Garibaldi
+      had talked with Cavour, and between them, they had schemed to overthrow
+      the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern
+      country. Of course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi,
+      for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of the king
+      of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi all the help that he
+      dared, and urged men to enroll with him.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus38"></a>
+<img src="images/38.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      With his thousand &ldquo;red-shirts,&rdquo; as they were called, Garibaldi landed on
+      the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose to welcome him, and
+      everywhere they drove out the officers who had been appointed by their
+      king to rule them. In a short time, all Sicily had risen in rebellion
+      against the king. (You will remember that this family of kings had been
+      driven out by Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
+      They were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain and
+      the last kings of France. They stood for &ldquo;the divine right of kings,&rdquo; and
+      had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing over to the mainland,
+      Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen to ten times its former size,
+      swept everything before him as he marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the
+      people rose against their former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The
+      king fled in haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over
+      the southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people wanted
+      to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom of Italy. It was
+      so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, thus
+      became the first king of United Italy. He made Florence his capital at
+      first, as the country around Rome still belonged to the pope. The pope had
+      few soldiers, but was protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten
+      years later, in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the
+      French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly in and
+      took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the capital, not only
+      of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world, became once more the chief
+      city of the peninsula. The pope was granted a liberal pension by the
+      Italian government in order to make up to him for the loss of the money
+      from his former lands. The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had
+      finally come to pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular
+      Victor Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to
+      elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the worst
+      blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by the patriotism of
+      the people of Italy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who are not
+      part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the extreme northeast of
+      Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as the result of a war which will
+      be told about more fully in the <a href="#chap12">next chapter</a>, but the
+      territory around the city of Trent, called by the Italians Trentino, and
+      the county of Istria at the head of the Adriatic Sea, containing the
+      important seaports of Trieste, Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost
+      entirely by people of Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of
+      Dalmatia also are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule
+      of Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and was the
+      chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria in the great war
+      of 1914.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map15"></a>
+<a href="images/map15.jpg">
+<img src="images/map15.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Italy Made One Nation, 1914</p>
+</div>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain the origin of the &ldquo;States of the Church.&rdquo;
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap12"></a>Chapter XII.<br/>
+The Man of Blood and Iron</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The people demand their rights&mdash;Bismarck, the chief prop of the
+      Prussian monarchy&mdash;The question of the leadership of the German
+      states&mdash;The wonderful Prussian army&mdash;The war on Denmark&mdash;Preparing
+      to crush Austria&mdash;The battle of Sadowa&mdash;Easy terms to the
+      defeated nation&mdash;Preparing to defeat France&mdash;A good example of a
+      war caused by diplomats&mdash;Prussia&rsquo;s easy victory&mdash;The new German
+      empire&mdash;Harsh terms of peace&mdash;The triumph of feudal government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in contests with
+      their own people. The overthrow of the French king at the time of the
+      revolution taught the people of the other countries of Europe that they
+      too could obtain their liberties. You have already been told how the
+      people of Austria drove out Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the
+      party which refused any rights to the working classes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of France, had
+      witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had found many German princes
+      in trouble with their subjects, who were demanding a share in the
+      government, the right of free speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury.
+      The empires of Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia
+      in a combination which was known as the &ldquo;Holy Alliance.&rdquo; This was meant to
+      stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb the growing power
+      of the common people.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus39"></a>
+<img src="images/39.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Bismarck</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a remarkable man,
+      who for the next forty years was perhaps the most prominent statesman in
+      Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen,
+      but we generally know him under the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian
+      nobleman, a believer in the divine right of kings, the man who more than
+      anybody else is responsible for the establishing of the present empire of
+      Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in which he
+      said that &ldquo;blood and iron,&rdquo; not speeches and treaties, would unite Germany
+      into a nation. His one object was a united Germany, which should be the
+      strongest nation in Europe. He wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia,
+      Prussia to be ruled by its king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled
+      by Bismarck. It is marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through
+      his whole plan.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the powers of
+      Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia, England, or France. The
+      German states, some 35 in number, had united in a loose alliance called
+      the German Confederation. (This union was somewhat similar to the United
+      States of America between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these
+      states, and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group.
+      Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and much
+      smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtemburg.
+      Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a wonderfully strong
+      army. He did this by means of a military system which at first made him
+      very unpopular with the people. Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was
+      obliged to serve a certain number of years in the army and be ready at a
+      moment&rsquo;s notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern weapon,
+      Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose. There were two
+      counties named Schleswig (shle&#774;s&#8242;vig) and Holstein (ho&#772;l&#8242;sti&#772;n)
+      which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet contained a great many
+      German people. The inhabitants of Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while
+      those of Holstein were more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had
+      protested against certain actions of the Danish government, and were
+      threatening to revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and
+      Austria, as the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on
+      little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed by the
+      armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn away from
+      Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria and Prussia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there was bound
+      to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now Bismarck had a
+      chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up his mind to crush Austria
+      and put Prussia in her place as the leader of the German states. He first
+      negotiated with Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that
+      this monarch would not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of
+      Venetia, Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians
+      had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck induced
+      Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia and the other
+      provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover were
+      friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear them. He knew that his
+      army, under the leadership of its celebrated general, von Moltke, was more
+      than a match for the Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians were
+      successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in Bohemia, their
+      armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the Prussians. Austria was
+      put down from her place as the leader of the German Confederation, and
+      Prussia took the leadership. Hanover, whose king had sided with the
+      Austrians, was annexed to Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his
+      generals were anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been
+      the custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war.
+      Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making Prussia the
+      leading military state in Europe, he saw that his next opponent would be
+      France, and he did not propose, on attacking France, to find his army
+      assailed in the rear by the revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck
+      compelled the king to let Austria off without any loss of territory except
+      Venetia, which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to
+      retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large indemnity
+      to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the middle ages, when
+      cities which were captured had been obliged to pay great sums of money, in
+      order to get rid of the conquering armies, was the payment of a war
+      indemnity by the defeated nation. This was a sum of money as large as the
+      conquerors thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The
+      Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which Bismarck had
+      provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact that he was generous
+      in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he could have done had he wanted
+      to.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle between
+      Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible for two men like
+      Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in power very long without
+      coming to blows. It was Bismarck&rsquo;s ambition, as was previously said, to
+      make Prussia the leading military nation of Europe, and he knew that this
+      meant a struggle with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a
+      united Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would
+      bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was extremely
+      jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had won over Austria.
+      He had been proud of the French army, and wanted it to remain the greatest
+      fighting force in Europe. He was just as anxious for an excuse to attack
+      Prussia as Bismarck was for a pretext to attack him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no ill-feeling
+      between the French people and the Germans. In fact, the Germans of the
+      Rhine country were very friendly to France, and during Napoleon&rsquo;s time had
+      been given more liberties and had been governed better than under the rule
+      of their former feudal lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between
+      the military chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no
+      feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their military
+      power should be crushed and his program must be carried through. Europe,
+      to his mind, was too small to contain more than one master military power.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to gain friends
+      for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to make enemies for
+      France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg),
+      which had sided with Austria during the late war, were friendly to France
+      and hostile to Prussia. Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing
+      to Bismarck that France should be given a slice of this south German
+      territory in return for some other land which France was to allow Prussia
+      to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal, but was careful to
+      keep the original copy, in the French ambassador&rsquo;s own handwriting. (Each
+      nation sends a man to represent her at the capital of each other nation.
+      These men are called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements
+      for their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little south
+      German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon and to make
+      secret treaties with these states by which they bound themselves to fight
+      on the side of Prussia in case a war broke out with France. In similar
+      fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians angry against the French by letting it
+      be known that Napoleon was trying to annex their country also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (ro&#772;n),
+      Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in Prussia had
+      been trained a certain number of years in the army and was ready at a
+      moment&rsquo;s notice to join his regiment. The whole campaign against France
+      had been planned months in advance. In France on the other hand, the
+      illness and irritability of Napoleon III had resulted in poor
+      organization. Men who did not wish to serve their time in the army were
+      allowed to pay money to the government instead. Yet their names were
+      carried on the rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the
+      strength in actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain
+      government officials had taken advantage of the emperor&rsquo;s weakness and
+      lack of system and had put into their own pockets money that should have
+      been spent in buying guns and ammunition.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard to find
+      an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven from her throne,
+      and the Spanish army under General Prim offered the crown to Prince
+      Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king of Prussia. This alarmed
+      Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia attacked him on the east, this
+      Prussian prince, as king of Spain, would lead the Spanish army over the
+      Pyrenees against him on the south. France made so vigorous a protest that
+      the prince asked the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was
+      not enough for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The
+      incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent his
+      ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter to assure
+      France that never again should Prince Leopold be considered for the
+      position of king of Spain. The king answered that he could not guarantee
+      this, for he was merely the head of the Hohenzollern family. Prince
+      Leopold, whose lands lay outside of Prussia, was not even one of his
+      subjects. The interview between the king and the French ambassador had
+      been a friendly one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king,
+      and the king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on
+      good terms.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus40"></a>
+<img src="images/40.jpg" width="400" height="248" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war would
+      come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von Moltke and
+      Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the king, telling of his
+      interview with the French ambassador. In the story of his life written by
+      himself, Bismarck tells how, as he read the telegram both Roon and Moltke
+      groaned in disappointment. He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older
+      in a minute. Both had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took
+      the dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message
+      polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had been a
+      friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two hundred words to
+      one of twenty. When he had finished, the message sounded as if the French
+      ambassador had bullied and threatened the king of Prussia, while the
+      latter had snubbed and insulted the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered
+      telegram to Roon and Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt
+      better. &ldquo;How is that?&rdquo; he asked. &ldquo;That will do it,&rdquo; they answered. &ldquo;War is
+      assured.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four hours,
+      the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. Napoleon III
+      hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals and his wife who urged
+      him to &ldquo;avenge the insult to the French nation.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus41"></a>
+<img src="images/41.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 just
+      to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck did was no worse
+      than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have done, or the Austrian,
+      Metternich, or several of the Turkish or Russian diplomats. It simply
+      proves how helpless the people of European countries are, when the
+      military class which rules them has decided, for its own power and glory,
+      on war with some other nation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The war was short. The forces of France were miserably unprepared. The
+      first great defeat of the French army resulted in the capture of the
+      emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing of the government in Paris,
+      where a third republic was started. One of the French generals turned
+      traitor, thinking that if he surrendered his army and cut short the war
+      the Prussians would force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor.
+      Paris was besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even
+      on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at last they
+      were starved out, and peace was made.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map16"></a>
+<img src="images/map16.jpg" width="699" height="471" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Formation of the German Empire</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, another of Bismarck&rsquo;s plans had been successful. In
+      January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he induced the
+      kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt,
+      and all the other little German states to join Prussia in forming a new
+      empire of Germany. The king of Prussia was to be &ldquo;German Emperor,&rdquo; and the
+      people of Germany were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or
+      Imperial Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom
+      of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was signed by the
+      republic of France and the empire of Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was condemned to pay
+      an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one billion dollars) and
+      certain parts of France were to be occupied by the German troops until
+      this money was fully paid. Two counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine,
+      were to be annexed to Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of
+      German descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the
+      whole province had belonged to France so long that its people felt
+      themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few Germans, and
+      was taken, contrary to Bismarck&rsquo;s best judgment, because it contained the
+      important city of Metz, which was strongly fortified. Here the military
+      chiefs overruled Bismarck. The desire among the French for revenge on
+      Germany for taking this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck
+      was right. It was a blunder of the worst kind.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The policy of &ldquo;blood and iron&rdquo; had been successful. From a second rate
+      power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck&rsquo;s leadership, to become the
+      strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been torn from Danish,
+      Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had been forcibly annexed, and
+      Alsace and Lorraine wrested from France. The greater part of the
+      inhabitants of these countries were bitterly unhappy at being placed under
+      the Prussian military rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great
+      deal of this growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the
+      common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech, free
+      newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to a congress or
+      parliament, and while some of these rights had been granted, still the
+      whole country was under the control of the war department. The emperor, as
+      commander-in-chief of the army, could suppress any newspaper and dismiss
+      the congress whenever he might think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it
+      has been called, a big debating society, whose members had the right to
+      talk, but were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the
+      wishes of the military leaders.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the object of the &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Bismarck&rsquo;s purpose in building up a strong army?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Bismarck defeat Austria?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is a war indemnity?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to Prince
+          Leopold of Hohenzollern?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was Prussia&rsquo;s victory a good thing for her people?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap13"></a>Chapter XIII.<br/>
+The Balance of Power</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The recovery of France.&mdash;The jealousy of the powers.&mdash;The policy
+      of uniting against the strongest.&mdash;The dream of Russia.&mdash;A war
+      of liberation.&mdash;The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.&mdash;The
+      Congress of Berlin.&mdash;Bismarck&rsquo;s Triple Alliance.&mdash;France and
+      Russia are driven together.&mdash;The race for war preparation.&mdash;The
+      growth of big navies.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Under the third republic,<a href="#fn-3" name="fnref-3" id="fnref-3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
+France recovered very rapidly from the terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her
+people worked hard and saved their money. In less than two years, they had paid
+off the last cent of the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops
+were obliged to go home. France had adopted the same military system that
+Germany had, and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army
+and be ready at a moment&rsquo;s notice to rush to arms. She began also to
+build up a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of
+the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed Bismarck, who
+thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would she become a strong
+power. He had tried to renew the old &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo; between
+Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of preventing the spread of
+republics. These were the three nations which gave their people very few
+rights, and which stood for the &ldquo;divine right of kings&rdquo; and for the
+crushing of all republics. Bismarck called this new combination the
+&ldquo;Drei-kaiser-bund&rdquo; or three-emperor-bond. He himself says that the
+proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the lies and treachery of Prince
+Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-3" id="fn-3"></a> <a href="#fnref-3">[3]</a>
+The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was beheaded, the second
+in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the &ldquo;citizen king,&rdquo; was driven out.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany from Russia.
+      As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and alarmed when he saw
+      how quickly France was getting over the effects of the war. In 1875, some
+      trouble came up again between France and Germany, and Bismarck a second
+      time planned to make war on the republic and&mdash;complete the task that
+      he had left unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of
+      a second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time, however,
+      England and Russia growled ominously. They notified Bismarck that they
+      would not stand by and see France crushed&mdash;not from any love of
+      France, but because they were jealous of Prussia and afraid that the
+      Germans might become too powerful in Europe. Accordingly, Bismarck had to
+      give up his idea of war. Prussia was strong, but she could not fight
+      England, Russia, and France combined. However, he remembered that England
+      and Russia had spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus42"></a>
+<img src="images/42.jpg" width="182" height="200" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Peter the Great</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what they
+      called &ldquo;the balance of power.&rdquo; By this they meant that no one country was
+      to be allowed to grow so strong that she could defy the rest of Europe.
+      Whenever one nation grew too powerful, the others combined to pull her
+      down.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan nations, which
+      were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had broken out among the
+      Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and Bulgaria. As has already been told,
+      these nations are Slavic, cousins of the Russians, and they have always
+      looked upon Russia as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared,
+      intelligent Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so
+      much like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word &ldquo;grad&rdquo; means
+      &ldquo;city&rdquo; in both languages.)
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were oppressing the
+little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for wanting to see Turkey
+overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had had her eye
+upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered the district east of the Gulf of
+Finland, and had founded St. Petersburg<a href="#fn-4" name="fnref-4" id="fnref-4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>
+there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice. In the same way, other
+czars who followed him had fought their way southward to the Black Sea, seeking
+for a chance to trade with the Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like
+a bottle, and the Turks at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade
+at any time they might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and
+must ship her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange
+it for their manufactures.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-4" id="fn-4"></a> <a href="#fnref-4">[4]</a>
+Now called Petrograd.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus43"></a>
+<img src="images/43.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one day Russia
+      might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient days, was the home
+      of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital of the western Catholic
+      church. The Russians are all Greek Catholics, and every Russian looks
+      forward to the day when the great church of St. Sophia, which is now a
+      Mohammedan mosque, shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With
+      this plan in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up
+      trouble for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as
+      Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at the two
+      following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey had been reduced
+      in size during the two hundred years which followed the Turkish defeat at
+      the gates of Vienna by John Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of
+      Bessarabia had changed hands two or three times, remaining finally in the
+      hands of Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed with joy
+      among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg lost no time in
+      rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and declaring war on Turkey. After
+      a short but stubbornly contested conflict, Russia and the little countries
+      were victors. A treaty of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which
+      Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as
+      independent states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean
+      Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from her county
+      of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it will help you to
+      understand Russia&rsquo;s later feeling when Bulgaria in 1915 joined the ranks
+      of her enemies.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map17"></a>
+<img src="images/map17.jpg" width="700" height="464" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map18"></a>
+<img src="images/map18.jpg" width="700" height="467" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus44"></a>
+<img src="images/44.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated).
+Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms, when once
+      more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will be remembered that
+      Russia three years before had prevented a second war against France
+      planned by Bismarck. It was very easy for him to persuade Austria and
+      England that if Russia were allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new
+      kingdoms which would be under her control, she would speedily become the
+      strongest nation in Europe. The &ldquo;balance of power&rdquo; would be disturbed.
+      England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting of statesmen and
+      diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide once more what should be
+      the map of Europe. Representatives were present from all the leading
+      European countries. Even Turkey had two men at the meeting, but the three
+      men who really controlled were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and
+      Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a
+      great part of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under
+      the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum of money
+      each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her territory was made
+      much smaller than had been agreed to by the treaty of San Stephano. In
+      fact less than one-third of the Bulgarians were living within the
+      boundaries finally agreed upon by the congress. A great part of the
+      Serbians were still left under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of
+      Thessaly and Epirus. The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still
+      to belong to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to
+      keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run their
+      government, although their taxes were still to be paid to Turkey. Austria
+      solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey. Russia, naturally, was
+      very unhappy over this arrangement, and so were the inhabitants of the
+      Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped that now they were at last to be freed
+      from the oppression of their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress
+      of Berlin, like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars
+      and revolutions.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances with other
+      European states. He first made up with his old enemy, Austria. Thanks to
+      the liberal treatment that he had given this country after her disastrous
+      war of 1866, he was able to get the Austrians to join Germany in an
+      alliance which states that if two countries of Europe should ever attack
+      one of the two allies, the other would rush to her help.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that they had
+      gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the Prussians, but they
+      had always looked upon the Austrians as their worst enemies. It was a
+      wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck finally induced Italy to join with
+      Austria and Germany in a &ldquo;Dreibund&rdquo; or &ldquo;Triple Alliance.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this going
+      over to their enemies would never have been possible but for an act of
+      France which greatly angered Italy. For many years, France had been in
+      control of Algeria on the north coast of Africa. This country had once
+      been a nest of pirates, and the French had gone there originally to clean
+      them out. Next to Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as
+      you will see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians
+      had been looking longingly at this district for some time, intending to
+      organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to their kingdom. They waited
+      too long, however, and one fine day in 1881 they found the prize gone,&mdash;France
+      had seized this county for herself. It was Italy&rsquo;s anger over this act of
+      France more than anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an
+      alliance with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of enemies. It
+      looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the republic at any time,
+      and be perfectly safe from interference, with Austria and Italy to protect
+      him. Russia, smarting under the treatment which she had been given by the
+      Congress of Berlin, was full of resentment against Germany. Both the
+      French and the Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck&rsquo;s Dreibund,
+      and so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other. The
+      result was the &ldquo;Dual Alliance&rdquo; between France and Russia, which bound
+      either country to come to the aid of the other in case of an attack by two
+      powers at once.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck&rsquo;s &ldquo;Dreibund,&rdquo; was
+      again restored. Many people thought the forming of the two alliances a
+      fine thing, &ldquo;for,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;each party is now too strong to be attacked
+      by the other. Therefore, we shall never again have war among the great
+      powers.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her position
+      on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did not feel obliged to
+      keep a large standing army such as the great powers on the continent
+      maintained.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as France
+      equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria had to do the
+      same. As soon as the Germans invented a new magazine rifle, the Russians
+      and French had to invent similar arms for their soldiers. If Germany
+      passed a law compelling all men up to the age of forty-five to report for
+      two weeks&rsquo; military training once every year, France and Russia had to do
+      the same. If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to
+      build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships built by
+      Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one hundred torpedo boats,
+      the Triple Alliance had to &ldquo;go her one better&rdquo; by building one hundred and
+      fifty. If Germany equipped her army with war balloons, Russia and France
+      had to do the same. If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery,
+      Germany and Austria built a still bigger gun.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only with the
+five nations in the two alliances about which you have been told. However, the
+death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought to the throne his grandson,
+the present Kaiser,<a href="#fn-5" name="fnref-5" id="fnref-5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
+and he formed a plan for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as
+Bismarck had made her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant
+colonies and dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that
+Germany, too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from
+which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to protect
+these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as Germany built some
+new battleships, England built still others, larger and with heavier guns. The
+next year, Germany would build still larger ships, and the next England would
+come back with still heavier guns. As fast as England built ships, Germany
+built them. Now, each battleship costs from five to fifteen million dollars,
+and it does not take long before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high
+for people to stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of
+discontent were heard among the working classes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-5" id="fn-5"></a> <a href="#fnref-5">[5]</a>
+The present Kaiser&rsquo;s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he was a
+very sick man at the time of the old emperor&rsquo;s death.
+</p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bismarck&rsquo;s three-emperor-alliance fail?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by &ldquo;the balance of power&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before 1878?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia covet Constantinople?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from being
+          carried out?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy, Austria?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance on France
+          and Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What result had the formation of the two alliances on the
+          gun-industry?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was England brought into the race for war equipment?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap14"></a>Chapter XIV.<br/>
+The &ldquo;Entente Cordiale&rdquo;</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Ancient enemies.&mdash;England and France in Africa.&mdash;A collision at
+      Fashoda.&mdash;Germany offers to help France.&mdash;Delcassé the
+      peacemaker.&mdash;A French-English agreement.&mdash;Friendship takes the
+      place of hostility.&mdash;England&rsquo;s relations with Italy, Russia, and
+      Germany.&mdash;Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of Turkey.&mdash;The
+      Morocco-Algeciras incident.&mdash;The question of Bosnia and Herzegovina.&mdash;England
+      joins France and Russia to form the &ldquo;Triple Entente.&rdquo;&mdash;The Agadir
+      incident.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars between
+      them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time that they had
+      fought on the same side was in the campaign against Russia in 1855, but
+      even then there was no real sympathy between them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an excuse
+      for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt was a part of
+      the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a certain amount of money to
+      Constantinople, the Turks did not care very much how it was governed. But
+      now a wild chief of the desert had announced himself as the prophet
+      Mohammed come to earth again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had
+      joined him. They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and
+      killed General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the
+      English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally beat them
+      and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom on the Nile.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus45"></a>
+<img src="images/45.jpg" width="401" height="216" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">An Arab Sheik and His Staff</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had formed a plan
+      for a railroad which should run the entire length of Africa from the Cape
+      of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England&rsquo;s ambition to control all the
+      territory through which this road should run. But the French, too, were
+      spreading out over Africa. Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had
+      joined their colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of
+      Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year, 1898, while
+      Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French expedition under
+      Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and reached the Nile at
+      Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom. Marchand planted the French flag
+      and announced that he took possession of this territory for the republic
+      of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand had done.
+      If France held Fashoda, their &ldquo;Cape to Cairo&rdquo; railroad was cut right in
+      the middle, and they could advance their territory no farther up the
+      valley of the Nile. They notified France that this was English land.
+      Marchand retorted that no Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the
+      French flag would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on
+      the Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for England,
+      and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The English
+      newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which had already begun
+      its campaign to wrest from England the leading place on the ocean, was
+      delighted at the prospect of a war between France and the British. The
+      German diplomats patted France on the back, and practically assured her of
+      German help in case it came to a war with England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France. The French
+      population was not increasing, while Germany was steadily growing in
+      numbers. It was England whom Germany saw across her path toward control of
+      the sea.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making up with
+      Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost provinces of Alsace
+      and Lorraine was very strong with him. This was Théophile Delcassé,
+      a little man with a large head and a great brain. He refused to be tempted
+      by the offers of German help, thinking that England, with its free
+      government, was a much better friend for the republic than the military
+      empire of Germany could be.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador came to
+      see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the French
+      foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is to say, a final
+      notice to France that she must give in or England would declare war on
+      her. As he walked into Delcassé&rsquo;s presence, he began fumbling with
+      the top button of his coat. &ldquo;Don&rsquo;t touch that button,&rdquo; said Delcassé
+      quickly. &ldquo;Drop your hand. You have something in your pocket which must not
+      be taken out. It is a threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit
+      down. Let us talk this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves
+      all right in the end.&rdquo; And they did. Delcassé was finally able to
+      quiet the French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade
+      France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was given a free
+      hand in Egypt, without any interference from the French. Naturally the
+      English were very grateful to Delcassé for having refused to profit
+      by German help and declare war. In return for the French agreement to stay
+      out of Egypt, the English promised to help France get control of Morocco.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her son, Edward
+      VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time in France, and was
+      very fond of the French and was popular with them. He saw the growing
+      power of Germany, and knew that England could not afford to be without a
+      friend in Europe. He did his best to bring about a feeling of friendship
+      between the English and the French, and was very successful in doing so.
+      He made frequent visits to France, where he was received with great
+      cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of France in
+      London in a princely fashion. French warships paid friendly visits to
+      English waters, and the sailors mingled with each other and did their best
+      to understand each other&rsquo;s language. All France, and England as well,
+      welcomed the beginning of the &ldquo;Entente Cordiale,&rdquo; or friendly
+      understanding between the two nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly understanding
+      with Italy. With the other nations of Europe England had no great
+      friendship. Between England and Russia, there had been a hostile feeling
+      for a long time, for the British felt that the Russians would like nothing
+      better than to stretch their empire from Siberia, down to include British
+      India, or at least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in
+      control.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the future
+      growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to the throne,
+      Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction of manufactures. She
+      had become one of the leading nations of the world. One of her chief
+      questions was, where to market these goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a
+      visit to Syria and Turkey. He was received with great enthusiasm by the
+      Turks, who were glad to have one strong friend among the powers of Europe.
+      Soon afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of the
+      Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the Turks to
+      build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf through Bagdad. German
+      railways ran through Austria-Hungary, which was Germany&rsquo;s ally, to
+      Constantinople and Salonika, the two greatest ports of Turkey in Europe.
+      This short overland route to Persia was looked upon with suspicion and
+      distrust by the English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost
+      all of Europe&rsquo;s commerce with India and the neighboring countries.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus46"></a>
+<img src="images/46.jpg" width="401" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Scene In Constantinople</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the west coast
+      of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in the corner of the
+      Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands in the Pacific Ocean were
+      seized. Her foreign trade was growing by leaps and bounds, and she
+      threatened to take away from England a great deal of the latter&rsquo;s
+      commerce.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted whenever any
+      changes of territory took place, no matter in what part of the earth.
+      Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help of Great Britain and Spain,
+      told the sultan of Morocco that he had to behave himself, the German
+      emperor in person made a visit to Morocco and assured the sultan that he
+      didn&rsquo;t have to pay any attention to France.
+    </p>
+    <p id="page186">
+      There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a meeting was
+      held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of all the great powers
+      came together. In the end, France and England were upheld, for even Italy,
+      Germany&rsquo;s ally, voted against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé,
+      the Frenchman who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his
+      position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans objected to
+      him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1908, the &ldquo;young Turk&rdquo; party in Constantinople (the party which stood
+      for progress and for more popular government) drove the old sultan off his
+      throne, and announced that there should be a Turkish parliament, or
+      congress, to which all parts of the empire should send representatives.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the Congress of
+      Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised that she would never
+      try to annex these provinces. In 1908, however, she forgot all about her
+      promise. When Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them
+      in the new Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this
+      they should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they
+      belonged to Turkey no longer.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia had
+      looked forward to the day when they should once more be joined to herself.
+      These states, like Montenegro, had been part of the ancient kingdom of
+      Serbia. As long as they were in dispute between Austria and Turkey, Serbia
+      had hopes of regaining them, but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them,
+      it seemed to the Serbs that they were lost forever.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states look
+      upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly indignant at
+      this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the czar talked of war. His
+      generals and war ministers, however, dissuaded him. &ldquo;Oh, no, your
+      majesty,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;we are in no shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our
+      army was badly disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we
+      shall not be ready for another fight for some time to come.&rdquo; Russia
+      protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by Austria,
+      and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and France were not
+      ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but did so with a bitter
+      feeling toward the &ldquo;central empires,&rdquo; as Germany and Austria are called.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It has already been shown that England for a long time had been suspicious
+      of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming at control of India.
+      Of late this hostile feeling had been dying out, especially as the
+      friendship between France and Great Britain grew stronger. It was
+      impossible for Russia, France&rsquo;s partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain
+      unfriendly to England, France&rsquo;s ally in the &ldquo;Entente Cordiale.&rdquo; Both
+      England and Russia felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her
+      war chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they marked
+      off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each agreeing to stay
+      in her own portion, and not disturb the traders of the other country in
+      theirs. After this Russia, England, and France were usually found acting
+      together in European diplomacy, under the name of the &ldquo;Triple Entente.&rdquo;
+      The &ldquo;balance of power&rdquo; had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but
+      the English navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than
+      balanced the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with England&rsquo;s
+      backing and Spain&rsquo;s friendship, sent her troops among the Moors to enforce
+      law and order. Any one could see that with Tunis and Algeria already in
+      French hands, it was only a question of a little while before Morocco
+      would be theirs also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This time Germany rushed her warship <i>Panther</i> to the Moorish port of
+      Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French appealed to
+      England to know whether they could look to her for support. Russia was now
+      in much better shape for war than she had been three years before, and
+      notified France that she was ready to give her support. Therefore, when
+      Mr. Lloyd-George, the little Welshman who was really the leader of the
+      British government, stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and
+      told the world that &ldquo;to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,&rdquo;
+      England would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to
+      back down or else start a tremendous European war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It was now Germany&rsquo;s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did not
+      propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So, although the
+      French gave Germany a few square miles of land in central Africa in return
+      for the Kaiser&rsquo;s agreement to let France have her way in Morocco, the
+      result was a backdown for Germany, and it left scars which would not heal.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents happening,
+      any one of which might have started the world war. Fashoda, Algeciras,
+      Bosnia, Agadir&mdash;each time it seemed as if only a miracle could avert
+      the conflict. Europe was like a powder magazine. No man knew when the
+      spark might fall that would bring on the explosion.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What were the plans of the English regarding Africa?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Germany ready to help France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was England suspicious of Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria start
+          a general European war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and Russia become friendly?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap15"></a>Chapter XV.<br/>
+The Sowing of the Dragon&rsquo;s Teeth</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The growth of German trade.&mdash;Balkan hatreds.&mdash;The wonderful
+      alliance against Turkey.&mdash;The sympathies of the big nations.&mdash;Their
+      interference and its results.&mdash;A new kingdom.&mdash;The second war.&mdash;The
+      work of diplomacy.&mdash;The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany&rsquo;s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her ships, in
+      order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the Mediterranean, had to
+      go a great deal farther than those of France or England. As a result, the
+      Germans had been looking toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as
+      the part of the world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was
+      Germany&rsquo;s plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip
+      of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and Turkey
+      through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia, and India.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already been
+      explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they had fought a
+      bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the Bulgarians. The Albanians
+      had no love for either nation, while the Greeks looked down on all the
+      others. Montenegro and Serbia were friends, naturally, since they were
+      inhabited by the same kind of people and had once been parts of the
+      original kingdom of Serbia.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map19"></a>
+<img src="images/map19.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it.
+(1912-13)</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no more tribute
+      to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of the independent nations
+      of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so strong and the Turks so weak, that
+      Turkey did not dare go to war, so permitted the matter to go unnoticed.
+      The only thing on which all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was
+      their bitter hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them
+      cruelly for the last three hundred and fifty years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished a
+      wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro,
+      and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each other, for the time
+      being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In order that there should not
+      be any quarreling over the spoils when the war was over, the four little
+      nations agreed, in a secret treaty, that when they got through with
+      Turkey, they would divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The
+      head, including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course.
+      Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body, Greece was
+      to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest of the body was to
+      go to Serbia with the exception of the very tail, including the city of
+      Scutari, which was to be given to Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a
+      seacoast and a chance to trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs
+      had a grudge against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of
+      the fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their
+      country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured goods and
+      paid them very little for their own products in return. Bulgaria was to
+      have Kavala (ka&#775; va&#8242;la&#775;) as a seaport on the Aegean and
+      all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;po
+      li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city of Salonika (sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ka&#775;),
+      southern Macedonia, and southern Albania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With this secret agreement between them, the four little states went to
+      war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship sprung up between
+      Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and generals were sent to
+      Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops. Cannon and machine guns were
+      sent them from German factories, and their rifles were fed with German
+      bullets. The four little countries, accordingly, turned to France and
+      Russia for assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and
+      machine guns, and their military advisers were French and Russians. While
+      the big nations managed to keep out of the war themselves, all were
+      strongly interested in one side or the other.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To their
+      consternation and disgust, the four little nations made short work of the
+      Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was thoroughly beaten, and the
+      allies were ready to put through their program of dividing up the spoils.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their interference
+      laid the foundation for future wars and misery. Austria and Germany saw
+      their path to Constantinople and the east cut right in two. Their
+      railroads, instead of passing through a series of countries under German
+      control, now were to be cut asunder by an arm of Slavic states under
+      Russian protection, which would certainly stop German progress toward
+      Asia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one little
+      strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar, between Serbia and
+      Montenegro, which connected Turkey with Austria. To be sure, this country
+      was inhabited almost entirely by Serbians, but so long as it was under the
+      military control of Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for
+      the east could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide
+      this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her seaport on the
+      Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to find new markets in
+      Italy, Spain, and France.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus47"></a>
+<img src="images/47.jpg" width="201" height="102" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Durazzo</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They longed
+      for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be turned over to
+      them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (du&#772; ra&#775;t&#8242;zo&#772;)
+      and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many Italians, and
+      Italy had always cherished the hope that they might belong to her.
+      Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the Serbian program of
+      seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as the four little countries
+      announced their intention of dividing up Turkey in Europe among
+      themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy raised a great clamor.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held, and once
+      more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead of allowing the
+      four little countries to divide up the conquered land between them, the
+      powers made a fifth small country, the kingdom of Albania, and brought
+      down from Germany a little prince to rule over these wild mountaineers.
+      Notice that the Albanians were not consulted. The great powers simply took
+      a map, drew a certain line on it and said, &ldquo;This shall be the kingdom of
+      Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.&rdquo; Again we have a
+      king-made map with the usual trail of grievances.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of its
+      seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country west of Janina
+      (ya&#775; ni&#776;&#8242;na&#775;). France and Russia did not like this
+      program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance to
+      prevent its being put into effect.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map20"></a>
+<img src="images/map20.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The three little countries, separated from a great part of their new
+      territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to her, &ldquo;Since
+      we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to divide up all over again.
+      You must give us part of your plunder in order to &lsquo;make it square.&rsquo;&rdquo; Now
+      was the time for the ancient ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their
+      neighbors to show itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in
+      so many words, &ldquo;Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight.
+      It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a very
+      insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we dare you to
+      come and take it.&rdquo; And the Bulgarians made a treacherous night attack on
+      their recent allies, which brought a declaration of war from the three
+      little nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria wanted. It
+      accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan alliance under the
+      protection of Russia. So with Austria and Germany egging on Bulgaria, and
+      Russia and France doing their best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and
+      surrender some land to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in
+      1913 almost before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who had been
+      mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went down to defeat before
+      the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field of Bregalnitza (bre&#774;g&#8242;a&#775;l
+      ni&#774;t za&#775;). To add to Bulgaria&rsquo;s troubles, the Turks, taking
+      advantage of the discord among their late opponents, suddenly attacked the
+      Bulgarians in the rear and stole back the city of Adrianople, which had
+      cost the Bulgarians so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania,
+      which up to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of
+      her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The Roumanian
+      statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the spoils, and moved
+      simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their kingdom, declared war on
+      Bulgaria also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at the best
+      price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving to her a strip of
+      land in the country called the Dobrudja (do&#772; brood&#8242;ja&#775;)
+      between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to agree to a new
+      boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept Adrianople. She had to
+      give Kavala and the surrounding country to Greece and the territory around
+      Monastir (mo&#772; na&#775; sti&#776;r&#8242;) to Serbia, although these
+      districts were inhabited largely by her own people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and protector, Russia.
+      The Russians were disgusted to think that the Bulgarians had refused to
+      listen to them when they urged them to grant some small pieces of land to
+      Greece and Serbia at the close of the first war. They felt that the
+      Bulgarians had been headstrong and richly deserved what they got.
+      Therefore, Russia refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from
+      humiliation. In the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal
+      of mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was badly
+      broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria, which had been
+      buried for the time being during the first Balkan war, now broke out with
+      greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked, feeling revengeful against all
+      of her neighbors, but especially angry at Russia, who had always been her
+      friend before.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Germans desire a road to the east?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were united?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Russia&rsquo;s purpose in helping to form the Balkan Alliance?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little
+          countries from carrying out their secret agreement?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the cause of the second Balkan war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus48"></a>
+<img src="images/48.jpg" width="400" height="268" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Modern Dreadnaught</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap16"></a>Chapter XVI.<br/>
+Who Profits?</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The race for power on the sea.&mdash;The &ldquo;naval holiday&rdquo; declined.&mdash;The
+      declining birth-rate.&mdash;The growth of the Socialists.&mdash;The
+      militarists of Germany.&mdash;How wars cure labor troubles.&mdash;The
+      forces behind the war game.&mdash;Profits and press agents.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their mad
+      race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships than its
+      neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other munitions of war. The
+      German navy had been growing by leaps and bounds. From being the sixth
+      largest navy in the world, within ten years it had grown to second place.
+      But, fast as the Germans built ships, the English built them more rapidly
+      still. England built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which
+      was twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly
+      replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and England came
+      back with some still larger vessels which are known as super-dreadnaughts.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston Churchill,
+      proposed to Germany that each country take a &ldquo;naval holiday.&rdquo; In other
+      words, he practically said to Germany, &ldquo;If you people will stop building
+      warships for a year, we will also. Then at the end of the year, we shall
+      be no worse off or better off than we were at the beginning.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus49"></a>
+<img src="images/49.jpg" width="201" height="105" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Submarine</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England could not
+      stand the strain very much longer. &ldquo;Besides,&rdquo; said the Germans, &ldquo;it is all
+      very well for England to be satisfied with her present navy, which is half
+      again as large as ours. If our navy were the strongest in the world, we
+      too would be glad to have all nations stop building warships,&rdquo; and they
+      laid down the keels of four new super-dreadnaughts.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German militarists.
+      For a long time, the population of France had not been increasing, while
+      Germany almost doubled her numbers from 1860 to 1900. Now, to their
+      dismay, the German birth-rate began to grow less and they saw the
+      population of Russia growing larger by 20% every ten years. Again, they
+      learned that Russia was about to build a series of railroads near the
+      German frontier which would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany
+      at very short notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own
+      country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have this
+      advantage also.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man to put
+      three years in military service instead of two. This would increase
+      France&rsquo;s standing army by 50 per cent. The German people, who up to this
+      time had been very docile and very obedient to the military rule, were
+      showing signs of discontent. The Socialists, a party who represented the
+      working people largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been
+      growing very fast. In the last election, they had gained many
+      representatives in the German congress, and had cast over 4,000,000 votes.
+      The only thing that kept them from having a majority in the Reichstag (the
+      German congress) was the fact that in some districts, the voters of the
+      other parties combined against them. In this way, the military class still
+      held control of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not
+      be for long.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending their time
+      drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the population had to
+      earn money enough to support their own families and also the families of
+      the men in the army. As one writer has put it, &ldquo;Every workingman in Europe
+      carried a soldier on his back who reached down and took the bread out of
+      his platter.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military leaders of
+      Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia must rule Germany,
+      and Germany must be the greatest power in Europe. To their minds, war
+      between Germany and her allies and the rest of Europe must come. Being
+      warriors by trade and having nothing else to do, they saw that, if the
+      great war were postponed much longer, the chances of Germany&rsquo;s winning it
+      would grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and
+      Germany was unable to catch up to England&rsquo;s navy. It should be remembered
+      that this class made up a small part only of the German nation. Their
+      influence was all out of proportion to their numbers. They controlled the
+      government, and the government controlled the schools and the newspapers.
+      The people believed what they were told. They were simply parts of the war
+      machine. Bismarck&rsquo;s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He
+      never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to win it. In
+      like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped to conquer France
+      and Russia before England was ready. It was the old story as told by
+      Shakespeare. &ldquo;Our legions are brim full, our cause is ripe. The enemy
+      increaseth every day. We, at the height, are ready to decline.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised the
+      nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or parliament to be
+      called together, the military class, who were trying to keep the common
+      people under control and in ignorance as much as possible had been able to
+      prevent the duma from obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than
+      the German Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to
+      pass laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia for
+      life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor troubles and
+      strikes. The people of Russia, especially those living in cities, were
+      learning how little freedom they had, compared with citizens of other
+      countries, and the time seemed ripe for a revolution.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their people
+      off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to think about.
+      Although the Russian government did all that it could to prevent the war
+      without completely betraying Serbia, still the war probably put off the
+      Russian Revolution for two years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia there
+      was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were the so-called
+      Junkers (Yo&#861;onkers), direct descendants of the old feudal barons.
+      They were owners of rich tracts of land which had been handed down to them
+      by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to them by the people who lived on
+      their farms supported them richly in idleness. Just as their ancestors in
+      the old days had lived only by fighting and plundering, so these people
+      still had the idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for the
+      common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days when he was
+      Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress had refused to vote
+      to raise certain moneys through taxes that Bismarck advised, because he
+      wanted to spend all of it in preparations for war. In spite of the vote of
+      the representatives of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the
+      money and spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had
+      won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the Austrians,
+      and lastly over the French, the Prussian people, swollen with pride at
+      what their armies had accomplished, forgave Bismarck for riding rough-shod
+      over their liberties. But Bismarck was able to do what he did because he
+      had the backing of the king and the great land-owning Junker class.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By 1914,
+      however, a change had come about. The wonderful development of Germany&rsquo;s
+      trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power to the merchant class
+      and these had to be considered when plans for war were being formed.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially trade with
+foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce, carried on with Great
+Britain, the United States, South America, and far distant colonies, had to
+travel over the ocean. German merchants would never support a war cheerfully if
+they thought that their trade would be interrupted for any length of time. So
+the Junkers, when they made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of
+France and Russia, persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been
+conquered they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which
+would more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians
+would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only with
+German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany would be much
+richer.<a href="#fn-6" name="fnref-6" id="fnref-6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-6" id="fn-6"></a> <a href="#fnref-6">[6]</a>
+When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very down-hearted, for they
+saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a blow. But the Junkers called
+together the leading merchants and bribed them with promises. In the year 1918
+one of the prominent manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out
+and was published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame
+for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military class, he
+confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the war by the promise
+of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which was to be given to him after
+Germany had conquered the world. This, of course, was pure piracy; the motto of
+Prussia for some time had been that piracy pays.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but gained it
+      through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns and munitions. They
+      were clamorously back of the Junkers in their demands for war. These
+      people profited by preparation for war. They kept inventing newer and
+      stronger guns so that the weapons which they had sold the governments one
+      year would be out-of-date the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap.
+      In this way, the factories were kept working over-time and their profits
+      were enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the common
+      people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in
+      newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that the great
+      gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper writers to keep up
+      threats of war. They paid certain papers in Paris to print articles to
+      make the French people think that the Germans were about to attack them.
+      These same gun-makers in Berlin tried to persuade the German people that
+      the French were on the point of attacking them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people all over
+      Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the Junkers were
+      ready to strike and the great war broke out, people would say, &ldquo;At last it
+      has come, the war that we knew was inevitable.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Germany decline to take a &ldquo;naval holiday&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by &ldquo;strategic railroads&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the Socialist
+          Party?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the fate of popular government in Russia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How were the German merchants won over to war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap17"></a>Chapter XVII.<br/>
+The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The year 1914.&mdash;England&rsquo;s troubles.&mdash;Plots for a &ldquo;Greater
+      Serbia.&rdquo;&mdash;The hated archduke.&mdash;The shot whose echoes shook the
+      whole world.&mdash;Austria&rsquo;s extreme demands.&mdash;Russia threatens.&mdash;Frantic
+      attempts to prevent war.&mdash;Mobilizing on both sides.&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s
+      tiger-like spring.&mdash;The forts of the Vosges Mountains.&mdash;The
+      other path to Paris.&mdash;The neutrality of Belgium.&mdash;Belgium
+      defends herself.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her
+      parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to be an
+      Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish wanted it
+      governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of Ireland, however, was
+      very unhappy over this arrangement. Its people were largely of English and
+      Scotch descent, and they were Protestants, while the other inhabitants of
+      Ireland were Celts and Catholics. The people of this province were so
+      bitter against home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled
+      regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England compelled
+      them to be governed by an Irish parliament.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and threatened
+      revolutions in India, where the English government was none too popular.
+      Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that England had so many
+      troubles of her own that she would never dare to enter a general European
+      war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina
+      to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of these provinces to
+      revolt. The military leaders who really ruled Austria, were in favor of
+      crushing these attempted uprisings with an iron hand.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by the
+      Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the emperor and heir
+      to the throne. He finally announced that he was going in person to
+      Sarajevo (sa&#776; ra&#776; ye&#774;&#8242;vo&#772;) in Bosnia to look
+      into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not to come,
+      saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so hated. Being a
+      headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to listen to this advice, but
+      insisted on going. His devoted wife, after doing her best to dissuade him,
+      finally refused to let him go without her.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian revolutionists
+      laid their plans. They found out just where his carriage was to pass, and
+      at almost every street corner, they had some assassin with bomb or pistol.
+      One bomb was thrown at him, but it exploded too soon, and he escaped.
+      Bursting with indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax
+      policing, when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with
+      a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the great
+      European war. As you have been shown, however, this was simply the spark
+      that exploded the magazine. With the whole situation as highly charged as
+      it was, any other little spark would have been enough to set the war
+      a-going.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had been traced
+      to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of the government. It
+      demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she hunt out and punish the
+      plotters at once. And because Austria did not trust the Serbians to hold
+      an honest investigation, she demanded that her officers should sit in the
+      Serbian courts as judges.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the United
+      States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a Japanese judge be
+      sent to California to try the case because Japan could not trust America
+      to give her justice! The Serbians, of course, were in no position to fight
+      a great power like Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they
+      could not submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian
+      demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian courts.
+      They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was done them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a sharp
+      warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and that Austria and
+      Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the meantime, Serbia offered to
+      lay the matter before the court of arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at
+      the invitation of the czar of Russia, representatives of all the great
+      powers of Europe met at the Hague to found a lasting court which should
+      decide disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to
+      as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been
+      successful in averting trouble.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and Serbia should
+      be judged by a court composed of representatives of France, England,
+      Italy, and Germany. Austria&rsquo;s reply to the proposals of England and Serbia
+      was a notice to the latter country that she had just forty-eight hours in
+      which to give in completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr.
+      Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly pleading
+      with England to declare what she would do in case the Triple Alliance
+      started a war with France and Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent the
+      threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that Russia was
+      gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is called. As Russia has so
+      much more territory to draw from than any other country, and as her
+      railroads are not many and are poorly served, it was figured that it would
+      be six weeks before the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody.
+      Germany, on the other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned
+      railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could launch her
+      forces across the frontier at two days&rsquo; notice. As soon as the Germans
+      began to hear that the Russians were mobilizing their troops against
+      Austria, Germany set in motion the rapid machinery for gathering her own
+      army. She sent a sharp message to Russia, warning the latter that she must
+      instantly stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans
+      asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria declared
+      war on Russia. France replied that she would act in accordance with what
+      seemed to be her best interests. This answer did not seem very reassuring,
+      and without any declaration of war, the German army rushed for the French
+      frontier.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line of great
+      forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her territory approached
+      that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal, Verdun, Longwy, they ranged
+      through the mountains northeast of France as guardians of their country
+      against another German attack. To rush an army into France over this rough
+      country and between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies
+      carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades. Therefore, if
+      Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at France and get her
+      armies back six weeks later to meet the slow-moving Russians, it was plain
+      that she must seek some other approach than that through the Vosges
+      Mountains.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus50"></a>
+<img src="images/50.jpg" width="399" height="265" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the northern and
+      western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat plain, with level roads,
+      easy to cross. (See <a href="#map21">map</a>.) Now, years before,
+      Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England that no one of
+      them would disturb its neutrality. In other words it was pledged that in
+      case of a war, no armed force of any of these three nations should enter
+      Belgian territory, nor should Belgium be involved in any trouble arising
+      among them. In case any one of the nations named or in fact any other
+      hostile force, invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to
+      rush to Belgium&rsquo;s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her
+      small army any troops which might invade her country.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty, the Germans
+      started their rush toward France, not through the line of forts in the
+      mountains, but across the gently rolling plain to the north. They first
+      asked permission of the Belgians to pass through their country. On being
+      refused, they entered Belgian territory just east of Liége (li&#776;
+      e&#774;zh&#8242;). The Belgians telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The
+      Germans replied that they were sorry but it was necessary for them to
+      invade Belgium in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and
+      to pay the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might seize.
+      The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France, England, and
+      Germany they were bound on their honor to resist just such an invasion as
+      this. They asked the Germans how Germany would regard them if they were to
+      permit a French army to cross Belgian territory to take Germany by
+      surprise. The Germans again said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium
+      refused permission to their army to cross, the army would go through
+      without permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make,
+      but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist by all
+      means the passage of the German troops. The great war had begun.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map21"></a>
+<img src="images/map21.jpg" width="400" height="389" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the blame,
+      almost alone.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913, thinking that
+      this little country had grown too powerful, as a result of her victories
+      in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had counted on &ldquo;bluffing&rdquo; Russia to
+      keep out, as she had been bluffed in 1908, and when she saw that this time
+      the Russians meant business, she became frightened and sent word that she
+      might be willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans
+      were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent their
+      warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a ground for war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia was at its
+      height, both Austria and Russia had their armies mobilized and ready for
+      war for weeks and months. Still no war came out of it. It looked as if
+      Germany was hard put to it to find an excuse for launching her plan to
+      conquer Europe.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Ulster object to home rule?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Russia mobilize her troops?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was the road through Belgium chosen?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap18"></a>Chapter XVIII.<br/>
+Why England Came In</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The question of Italy and England.&mdash;Italy&rsquo;s position.&mdash;The war
+      with Turkey.&mdash;Italy declines to join her allies.&mdash;England is
+      aware of the German plans.&mdash;The treaty with Belgium.&mdash;The
+      &ldquo;defensive&rdquo; war.&mdash;The &ldquo;scrap of paper.&rdquo;&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s rage at
+      England&rsquo;s declaration of war.&mdash;England does the unexpected.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria and
+      Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her neighbor and
+      kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy and England do. Italy,
+      like Russia and Germany, had been having trouble in holding down her
+      people. A revolution had been threatened which would overthrow the king
+      and set up a republic. The Socialist Party, representing the working
+      class, had been growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles
+      was that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by the
+      Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people. Throughout the
+      entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that France had aroused the Italians&rsquo; anger in 1881 by
+      seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province for herself, for
+      the Italian peninsula was crowded with people, and as the population
+      increased, it was thought necessary that colonies be established to which
+      the people could migrate to have more room. Finally in 1911, in order to
+      divert the minds of the people from revolutionary thoughts, the government
+      organized an expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was
+      supposed to belong to Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany and
+      Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking Turkey, with
+      which the Austrians and Germans were trying to establish a firm
+      friendship. However, &ldquo;self-preservation is the first law of nature,&rdquo; and
+      the Italian king and nobles valued their leadership in the nation much
+      more than they dreaded the dislike of Germany and Austria.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia and
+      France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their people too
+      well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been growing up a
+      friendship between the people of Italy and those of France, and the
+      Italian generals knew that it would be a difficult task to induce their
+      men to fire upon their kinsmen from across the Alps. Therefore, when
+      Austria and Germany demanded their support in the war, they replied by
+      pointing out that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to
+      their help only <i>if they were attacked</i>. &ldquo;In this case,&rdquo; said the
+      Italians, &ldquo;you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind us to
+      support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not consulted
+      before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands. Expect no help from
+      us.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen were not
+      blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended to crush France
+      first, capturing Paris and dealing the French army such an overwhelming
+      blow that it would take it a long time to recover. Then the German armies
+      were to be rushed back over their marvelous system of government-owned
+      railroads to meet the on-coming German tide of Russians.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and all war
+      supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful guns which were
+      large enough to batter down the strongest forts in the world. They did not
+      have very much respect for the ability of the Russian generals. They had
+      watched them bungle badly in the Japanese war, ten years before. If once
+      France were brought to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after
+      France and Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later
+      on, to settle with Great Britain.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan. They saw
+      that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal time. However,
+      Great Britain, having a government which is more in the hands of the
+      people than even that of republican France, did not have the system of
+      forcing her young men to do military service. Her little army in England
+      was made up entirely of men who enlisted in it because they wished to, and
+      because they received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with
+      Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so. Otherwise,
+      her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would never enlist to
+      fight against them. The question was, would anything happen to make the
+      English people feel that they were justified in entering the war on the
+      side of France and Russia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised each
+      other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, France and
+      Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops upon Belgian soil.
+      Now, however, with the German army invading Belgium, the English statesmen
+      had to decide their course. As heads of one of the nations to guarantee
+      Belgium&rsquo;s freedom, they called on Germany to explain this unprovoked
+      invasion. The Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city
+      of Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to
+      withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying no
+      attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her stand
+      alongside of Russia and France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the French.
+      They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of her alliance, to
+      stand by Russia, but they had confidently counted on keeping England out
+      of the war. In fact, the German ambassador to England had assured the
+      German emperor that England had so many troubles, with her uprising in
+      Ireland and threatened rebellions in India and South Africa that she would
+      never dare fight at this time.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly aroused. If
+      there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself on, it is keeping his
+      word. The word of the English had been given, through their government, to
+      Belgium that this little country, if it should resist invasion, would be
+      protected, and this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made
+      no difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly
+      unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had to make
+      the day before, this was a crucial step for the British to take, but to
+      their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In the case of Germany&rsquo;s
+      declaration of war the German laws say that no war can be declared by the
+      Kaiser alone unless it is a defensive war. Therefore, as one American
+      writer has pointed out, this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever
+      declares. The German military group, having control of the newspapers, put
+      in a lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers having
+      crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd. They told how
+      French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German cities. As a matter of
+      fact, the French soldiers, by orders of their government, were drawn back
+      from the frontier a distance of six miles in order to avoid any appearance
+      of attacking the Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities
+      that was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a formal
+      statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city and no French
+      aviators had been seen near it. But the German government gave out this
+      &ldquo;news&rdquo; and promptly declared a &ldquo;defensive&rdquo; war, and the German people had
+      to believe what they were told.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people, with free
+      schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had been taught in the
+      schools of his country that Germany was surrounded by a ring of jealous
+      enemies and would one day have to fight them all, so the people of England
+      had been taught in their schools that war between civilized peoples is a
+      hateful thing and must finally disappear from the earth.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the war at
+      first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the same, were doomed
+      to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany the protests against war
+      were still more feeble. The newspapers, with few exceptions, as was
+      previously pointed out, were under the control of the military leaders and
+      the manufacturers of war materials. These papers persuaded the German
+      people that England, through her jealousy of Germany&rsquo;s great growth in
+      trade, had egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and
+      Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext. At first
+      the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince Lichnowsky, the
+      former German ambassador to Great Britain, published a story in which he
+      told how the German government had forced the war in spite of all that
+      England could do to prevent it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs
+      told them, that the war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old feudal
+      nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the English people.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor (as the
+      prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told him that unless
+      German troops were immediately withdrawn from Belgium, England would
+      declare war, for the Belgian government had a treaty signed by England
+      promising them protection, the German chancellor exclaimed. &ldquo;What! Would
+      you plunge into this terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!&rdquo; The
+      chancellor was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were
+      sure that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to go
+      into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans for the
+      conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the chancellor forgot
+      his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He showed the world that honor
+      had no place in the minds of the German war lords. To the English a treaty
+      with Belgium was a sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which
+      could be torn up at a moment&rsquo;s notice if it stood in the way of their
+      interests.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There was a violent outburst against England in all of the newspapers of
+      Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called &ldquo;The Hymn of Hate,&rdquo; in
+      which he told how while they had no love for the Frenchman or the Russian,
+      they had no hate for them either. One nation alone they hated&mdash;England!
+      &ldquo;Gott strafe England&rdquo; (may God punish England) became the war cry of the
+      Germans.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until England
+      decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first, even before the
+      terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That any nation should put her
+      honor before her comfort and profit, had never occurred to the war leaders
+      of Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Italy join in the attack on France?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was Germany&rsquo;s plan?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How is the English army different from others?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What reason had England for declaring war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Had the German&rsquo;s expected England to attack them? Give reasons for
+          your answer.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the phrase &ldquo;scrap of paper&rdquo; make such a deep impression on the
+          world?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap19"></a>Chapter XIX.<br/>
+Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.&mdash;The demands of
+      Italy.&mdash;She joins the Triple Entente.&mdash;The retreat of the
+      Russians.&mdash;The Balkans again.&mdash;Bulgaria&rsquo;s bargaining.&mdash;German
+      princes on Balkan thrones.&mdash;The central empires bid the highest for
+      Bulgarian support.&mdash;The attitude of Greece.&mdash;Roumania&rsquo;s hopes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all haste to
+      put pressure upon the governments of the countries which were not engaged
+      in the struggle, in order to win them over. Germany and Austria worked
+      hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with Bulgaria. The Turks were the first
+      to plunge in. The party headed by Enver Bey (the young minister of war)
+      saw that a victory for Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of
+      the Turks from Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this
+      faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of October (1914)
+      when Turkish warships, without any provocation, sailed into some Russian
+      ports on the Black Sea and blazed away with their big guns.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their best to
+      get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all responsibility for
+      this act of their naval commanders. The &ldquo;Young Turks,&rdquo; however, were all
+      for war on the side of Germany. What is more, Russia, always anxious for
+      an excuse to seize Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize
+      for their act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was
+      quickly followed by France and England.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the sympathies
+      of the Italian people were with France and England. The six grandsons of
+      Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and volunteered for fighting on the
+      French lines. Two of them were killed, and at their funerals in Rome,
+      nearly all the inhabitants of the city turned out and showed plainly that
+      they too would like to be fighting on the side of France.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the provinces of
+      Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent, Trieste (tri&#776; e&#774;s&#8242;te),
+      Pola (po&#772;&#8242;la&#776;), and Fiume (fe&#772; u&#772;&#8242;me), all
+      inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and cities
+      by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between the two
+      nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the price of her
+      keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her this land inhabited by
+      Italians. Germany urged Austria to do this, and sent as her special
+      ambassador, to keep Italy from joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow,
+      whose wife was an Italian lady, and who was very popular with the Italian
+      statesmen.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce Italy to
+      accept a small part of the disputed territory and then, when he found this
+      impossible, doing his best to induce Austria to give it all. Austria was
+      stubborn. She did not take kindly to the plan of giving away her cities.
+      She offered to cede some territory if Italy should wait until the end of
+      the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that Austria and
+      Germany were going to win the war and was even less sure that Austria
+      would be willing, in case of her victory, to give up a foot of territory.
+      It seemed to the Italian statesmen that it was &ldquo;now or never&rdquo; if Italy
+      wished to get within her kingdom all of her own people. In the month of
+      May 1915 Italy threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria
+      and entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus51"></a>
+<img src="images/51.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Russian peasants fleeing before the German army</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had millions and
+      millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them all. They had plenty
+      of food but very little ammunition for their cannon. Austria and Germany,
+      on the other hand, had been manufacturing shot and shells in enormous
+      quantities, and from the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the
+      Carpathian Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and
+      Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October, forcing
+      them to retreat nearly three hundred miles.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble. You will
+      recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her victory over
+      Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it came to a division of
+      the conquered territory. Thus she brought on a second war, in the course
+      of which Greece and Serbia defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of
+      her territory and the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of
+      Russia had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending a
+      personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King Peter of
+      Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race, not to let their
+      quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of her ability to defeat
+      Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the Russians&rsquo; pleadings, and as a
+      result Russia did not interfere to save her when her neighbors were
+      robbing her of part of the land which she had taken from Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had felt most
+sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in their blood,
+although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore, just as Italy strove
+by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her nation, so Bulgaria now saw her
+chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia. Accordingly, she asked the four great
+powers what they would give her in case she entered the war on their side, and
+attacked Turkey by way of Constantinople, while the French and English were
+hammering at the forts along the Dardanelles.<a href="#fn-7" name="fnref-7" id="fnref-7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-7" id="fn-7"></a> <a href="#fnref-7">[7]</a>
+England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great quantities at her
+ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and England, by supplying
+Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike a hard blow at Germany.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally induced
+      Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to Bulgaria. They
+      further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of Adrianople and the
+      territory around it which Turkey had reconquered. But Bulgaria was not
+      easily satisfied. She wanted more than Serbia was willing to give; she
+      wanted, too, the port of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the
+      allies could not promise.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany, and
+      Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back Serbia for the
+      loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and Herzegovina in case they
+      won the war from Austria. In like fashion, Austria and Germany promised
+      Bulgaria some Turkish territory and also the southern part of the present
+      kingdom of Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call himself, is a
+      German. (As these little countries won their independence from Turkey,
+      they almost always called in foreign princes to be their kings. In this
+      way it had come about that the king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the
+      king of Roumania was a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar
+      of Bulgaria was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has
+      furnished England and Belgium with their kings.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic Church, and
+      they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia, as the head of that
+      church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling, however. He wanted to be the
+      most powerful ruler in the Balkan states, and it made no difference to him
+      which side helped him to gain his object.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus52"></a>
+<img src="images/52.jpg" width="294" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p id="page239">
+      About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a line running
+      south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern boundary of Roumania.
+      The French and English had been pounding at the Dardanelles for some
+      months, but the stubborn resistance of the Turks seemed likely to hold
+      them out of Constantinople for a long time to come. The checked Italians
+      had not been able to make much headway against the Austrians through the
+      mountainous Alpine country where the fighting was taking place. In the
+      west, the Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British
+      and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that the
+      German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help, flung their
+      nation into its third war within four years. This happened in Octoher,
+      1915.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece defeated
+      Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to come to the help
+      of the other in case either was attacked by Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was
+      friendly to Greece and Serbia, rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the
+      Roumanians knew that Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory
+      of which Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way,
+      the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped that the
+      entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany and Turkey, would
+      bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia&rsquo;s aid and so was the Greek
+      prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a sister of the German
+      emperor, and through her influence with her husband she was able to defeat
+      the plans of Venizelos (ve&#774;n i&#774; ze&#774;l&#8242;o&#774;s), the
+      prime minister, who was notified by the king that Greece would not enter
+      the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned, but not until he had given
+      permission to the French and English to land troops at Salonika, for the
+      purpose of rushing to the help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that
+      German and Austrian armies might lay waste her territory, as they had
+      Serbia&rsquo;s, before England and France could come to the rescue.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan wars had
+      drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the Austrians had invaded
+      her kingdom in this war, and twice they had been driven out. Then came a
+      dreadful epidemic of typhus fever which was the result of unhealthful
+      conditions caused by the war. Now the little kingdom, attacked by the
+      Germans and Austrians on two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was
+      literally fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to
+      stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria, but we
+      have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to prevent this.
+      Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her help. However, as you
+      have been told, the king of Roumania is a German of the Hohenzollern
+      family, a cousin of the emperor, and in spite of the sympathy of his
+      people for Italy, France, and Serbia, he was able to keep them from
+      joining in the defense of the Serbs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes a&#775; ra&#775;&#8242;bi
+      a&#775;), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the greater part
+      of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo ko&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;), which
+      are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for a great part of
+      the inhabitants of these three counties are Roumanians by blood and
+      language. They would like to be parts of the kingdom of Roumania, and
+      Roumania would like to possess them. The Quadruple Entente would promise
+      Roumania parts of Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on
+      their side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her Bessarabia.
+      Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled by colonists sent out
+      from Rome, and in the eleventh century a large number of people from the
+      north of Italy settled there. On this account, Roumania looks upon Italy
+      as her mother country, and it was thought that Italy&rsquo;s attack upon Austria
+      would influence her to support the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order to share
+      in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the Quadruple Entente
+      did not need her help Roumania was eager to offer it, at a price which
+      seemed to the allies too high. When, however, the tide turned the other
+      way, she lost her enthusiasm for the cause of her friends, fearing what
+      the central empires might do to her.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on them?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the feelings of the Italian people?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the Entente
+          powers?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Bulgaria join the central empires?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did Greece keep out of the conflict?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were Roumania&rsquo;s hopes?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap20"></a>Chapter XX.<br/>
+Back to the Balkans</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The troubles of Crete.&mdash;The bigotry of the &ldquo;Young Turks.&rdquo;&mdash;Venizelos
+      in Greece.&mdash;The pro-German king.&mdash;The new government at
+      Salonika.&mdash;The downfall of Constantine.&mdash;The ambitions of
+      Roumania.&mdash;Pro-Germans in Russia.&mdash;Roumania declares war.&mdash;Russian
+      treachery and German trickery.&mdash;The defeat of Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Greece
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime minister of
+      Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her bargain from Crete
+      with Serbia (<a href="#page239">pages 239-240</a>). Now Venizelos had
+      originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks, but
+      controlled by Turkey for many years (see <a href="#map20">map</a>). In
+      1897 the Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island,
+      and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they forced
+      their king to declare war on Turkey.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the attention
+      of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the Turks, and they
+      never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed by them. For over a year
+      Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy had their warships in Cretan
+      ports and the government of Crete was under their protection.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince,
+      Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become very
+      unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics&mdash;on the wrong side&mdash;and
+      had to leave.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The Cretan
+      government was really independent, like a little kingdom without a king,
+      and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had looked forward to the
+      time when they might be united in one great kingdom. The shores of Asia
+      Minor and the cities along the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles were largely
+      inhabited by Greeks. Crete and the islands of the Aegean had once been
+      part of Greece and they never would be content until they were again
+      joined to it. The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be
+      annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the &ldquo;Young
+      Turks&rdquo; which drove the old Sultan from his throne (<a href="#page186">page
+      186</a>).
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the government were
+      tolerant to all the other races and religions in their country. At first
+      the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians, the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in
+      the Turkish Empire were very happy over the result of the revolution. It
+      looked as if a new day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible
+      for these various races and different religions to live side by side in
+      peace.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government, however, than
+      they began to change. &ldquo;Turkey for the Turks, and for the Turks only&rdquo;
+      became their motto. With this in mind they massacred Bulgarians and Greeks
+      in Macedonia (<a href="#page85">page 85</a>) and Armenians in Asia Minor.
+      The thought of the loss of Crete roused their anger and they began
+      scheming to get it back under Turkish rule.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left for
+      Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the Turks and annex
+      Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his single-hearted love for his country
+      soon made him as prominent on the mainland as he had been in his island
+      home. Before long he was chosen as prime minister of Greece.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      He found the country in a very sad condition. The military officers were
+      poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know this, but imagined that
+      their army was the best in the world. The politicians had plundered the
+      people and there was graft and poor management throughout the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic for some
+      of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over the Greek army and
+      taught the Greek officers the real science of war.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus53"></a>
+<img src="images/53.jpg" width="401" height="308" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be frightened,
+      controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent officials and forced
+      the others to attend to business. In fact he reorganized the whole
+      government service in a way to make every department do better work. Few
+      countries in Europe were as well managed as was Greece with Venizelos as
+      its prime minister.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no man of
+      Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You have been told how
+      the Russians have looked forward to the day when Saint Sophia, the great
+      mosque of the Turks, shall once more become a Christian cathedral. In the
+      same way the Greeks have passionately desired to see Constantinople, which
+      was for over a thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the
+      control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the Greeks first
+      won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the boundary of their kingdom
+      has been pushed northward, freeing more and more of their people from the
+      rule of the Ottomans. Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of
+      Greece as many as possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming
+      night and day for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have
+      been told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing
+      Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for whom she
+      had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many people felt that this
+      combination would never have been possible without the far-seeing wisdom
+      of of Venizelos. In fact, some historians give him the credit of first
+      planning the alliance.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as you have
+      been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of their country,
+      whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than Greeks among its
+      inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the attack on Turkey that the
+      greater part of Macedonia should be given to Bulgaria, had hard work after
+      the victory in convincing his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the
+      claims of the three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in
+      the combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs in the
+      course of the first war against Turkey, while the Bulgarians were
+      defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of Constantinople, brought
+      on the second war. Bulgaria was not willing to give up Macedonia to the
+      Greeks and Serbs, and her troops made a treacherous attack on her former
+      allies (June, 1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five nations at
+      once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks took advantage of
+      her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika but also Kavala, which by
+      all rights should have gone to the Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be
+      generous to Bulgaria, but the Greeks had had their heads turned by the
+      extraordinary successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and
+      as a result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of the
+      conquered lands.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had begun: In
+      March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and England made their
+      violent attack on the forts of the Dardanelles, intending to break through
+      and bombard Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the
+      conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end, would
+      lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be divided up among
+      the conquering nations. He wanted to get for Greece the shores of the
+      Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor, where a great majority of the
+      inhabitants were people of Greek blood. The king of Greece, Constantine,
+      as has been explained, is a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has
+      always been friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends
+      while both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little
+      incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a coolness
+      between them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a banquet and
+      told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine work of the Greek
+      soldiers in the two wars just fought had been due to help which he had
+      received from German military men. This statement angered the French very
+      much, for you will remember that it was French generals who had trained
+      the Greek army officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip
+      to Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine condition
+      of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had trained its officers
+      before the war of 1912. This was a direct &ldquo;slap in the face&rdquo; of the king
+      but it was the truth and everyone in Greece knew it. From this time on it
+      was evident to everybody that Venizelos was friendly to the French and
+      English, while the King was pro-German.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek government to
+      join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give the order. Venizelos, who
+      was prime minister, straightway resigned, broke up the parliament, and
+      ordered a general election. This put the case squarely up to the people of
+      Greece and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred
+      eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as against one
+      hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election, ordered
+      the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was that Bulgaria,
+      in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the side of the Germans and
+      Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In order to keep peace with Bulgaria
+      Venizelos was willing to give to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had
+      cheated her out of at the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his
+      country would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule
+      of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose
+      population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this, however, and
+      the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted as their prime
+      minister, backed the king. When the attack by the Central Powers on Serbia
+      took place, as has been told, Venizelos a second time tried to get the
+      Greek government to join the war on the side of France and England. He
+      said plainly to the king that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not
+      a &ldquo;scrap of paper&rdquo; as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with
+      Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a full
+      understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand, insisted that
+      the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that it was not intended to
+      drag Greece into a general European war. As a result, he dismissed
+      Venizelos a second time, in spite of the fact that twice, by their votes,
+      the Greeks had shown that they approved of his policy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the constitution the
+      king must obey the will of the people as shown by the votes of a majority
+      of the members of parliament. In spite of the vote of parliament the king
+      refused to stand by the Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating
+      the law of his country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very
+      little power, as the Greek constitution had made him.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and English had
+      landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the hard-pressed Serbs.
+      You have already been told how Venizelos arranged this. Their aid,
+      however, had come too late. Before they could reach the gallant little
+      Serbian army it had been crushed between the Austrians and Germans on one
+      side and the Bulgarians on the other, and its survivors had fled across
+      the mountains to the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments
+      were not strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany,
+      Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern Serbia. King
+      Constantine notified the Allied governments that if these troops retreated
+      upon Greek soil he would send his army to surround them and hold them as
+      prisoners for the rest of the war. France and England replied by notifying
+      him that if he did this they would blockade the ports of Greece and
+      prevent any ships from entering her harbors. This act on the part of
+      France and England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the
+      proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The king
+      took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of pro-Germans to
+      important positions in the government. Constantine allowed German
+      submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases of supply from which
+      they got their oil and provisions. The Greek army was still mobilized, and
+      the small force of French and English, which had retreated to Salonika,
+      were afraid that at any moment they might receive a stab in the back by
+      order of the Greek king.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek frontier and
+      demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When the commander of one
+      of them proposed to fight, the German general told him to call up his
+      government at Athens over the long distance telephone. He did so and was
+      ordered to give up the fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already
+      seen what the answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be
+      sure, the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but they
+      had come there under permission of the prime minister of Greece to do a
+      thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised that she would do,
+      namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too much for
+      Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people in which he
+      declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution and was ruling as a
+      tyrant; that he was betraying his country to the Germans and Bulgars and
+      that all loyal Greeks should refuse to obey him. At Salonika, under the
+      protection of the British and French, together with the admiral of the
+      Greek navy and one of the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a
+      new government&mdash;a republic of Greece.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern
+      Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered his men
+      to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores, and the equipment
+      which had been furnished to them by the French to defend themselves
+      against the Germans! In the meantime, the Bulgarians had seized Kavala.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy between the
+      Italians and Austrians even during the years when they were partners in
+      the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy entered the war on the side of
+      France and England, her government, fearing the Austrians, had sent
+      Italian troops to seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was
+      not wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no government at
+      all there since the outbreak of the great war. However, the presence of
+      this Italian garrison prevented the forces of the central powers from
+      advancing southward along the Adriatic coast.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika. The
+      gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to command the joint
+      army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came there to join the French
+      and British. A hundred thousand hardy young veterans, survivors of the
+      Serbian army, picked up by allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were
+      refitted and carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined
+      General Sarrail&rsquo;s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for revenge on
+      the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the Greek troops, following
+      the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the king and joined the allies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to steer the
+      ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil. The great majority
+      of them were warm friends of France and England&mdash;all of them hated
+      the Turks. The pro-German acts of the king, however, provoked the French
+      and English to such an extent that they frequently had to interfere in
+      Athens. The Greek people resented this interference and on one or two
+      occasions fights broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets
+      of the capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments of
+      France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the treacherous
+      conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that he was assisting
+      Germany in every possible way. They knew that their camp was full of spies
+      who were reporting all their movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that
+      at the first chance he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear.
+      They finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the throne
+      to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince, having been educated
+      in Germany and sharing King Constantine&rsquo;s pro-German sentiments, was
+      barred from succeeding his father. This seemed a high-handed thing to do
+      but there was no other way out of a difficult situation. Constantine had
+      allowed his sympathies with his wife&rsquo;s brother to prevent his country from
+      carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute monarch; had
+      plotted with all his power for the overthrow of Russia, France, and
+      England, the three countries which had won Greece its independence in the
+      first place and which still desired its people to have the right to rule
+      themselves.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of the
+Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king and Germany.
+A second<a href="#fn-8" name="fnref-8" id="fnref-8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> time
+within four months a European monarch who was out of sympathy with his subjects
+was forced to resign his crown.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-8" id="fn-8"></a> <a href="#fnref-8">[8]</a>
+The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the return
+      to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people hailed his
+      coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the members of
+      parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control of the government.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that,
+      henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of France, Great
+      Britain, and the other nations of the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Roumania
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs hoped for
+      help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a grudge against
+      Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory which she had been
+      compelled to give up to her neighbor on the north at the close of the
+      second Balkan war. They expected this fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring
+      the Roumanians to the rescue.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as well as
+      in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a long time the
+      government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to plunge into the war before
+      the time was ripe, and dreading the danger of choosing the wrong side.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to war she
+      would have to count strongly on the help of her great neighbor to the
+      north.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember that
+there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian domain which
+borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and Courland were ruled in the
+olden times by the &ldquo;Teutonic knights.&rdquo;) These Germans are much
+better educated, on the whole, than the Russians; they are descendants of old
+feudal warriors and as such are men of force and influence in the Russian
+government. It was a common thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve,
+Rennenkampf, and Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in
+Russia. In this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian
+government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were actively
+plotting with this in view. &ldquo;There is a secret wire from the czar&rsquo;s
+palace to Berlin,&rdquo; said one of the most patriotic Russian generals,
+explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance. Graft and bad
+management, as well as treachery, were all through the nation. Train-loads of
+ammunition intended for the Russian army were left piled up on the wharves at
+the northern ports. Guns sent by England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food
+that was badly needed by the men at the front was hoarded by government
+officials in order to raise prices for their friends who were growing rich
+through &ldquo;cornering&rdquo; food supplies.<a href="#fn-9" name="fnref-9" id="fnref-9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-9" id="fn-9"></a> <a href="#fnref-9">[9]</a>
+When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so as to keep it
+from being sold in great quantities and make it appear that there is not enough
+to go around, they are said to &ldquo;corner&rdquo; the market. Three or four
+men in America at various times have been able to corner the wheat market or
+the corn market or the market for cotton.
+</p>
+
+    <p>
+      The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On the other
+      hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German princess whose brothers
+      were fighting in the German army, and she had little love for her adopted
+      country. The poor little Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in
+      the war, &ldquo;When the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are
+      beaten, mamma weeps.&rdquo; In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had
+      great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who were
+      secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use this influence
+      in many ways.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia&mdash;a man named
+      Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians, after their
+      long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their strength, and had
+      piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new attack. This began early
+      in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff attacked the Austro-Hungarians in
+      Galicia and Bukowina and drove them back for miles and miles, capturing
+      hundreds of thousands of prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians,
+      although subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the
+      Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of Bohemian
+      troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in a body and
+      afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In northern France, the British and French had at last gained more guns
+      and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer weight of metal were
+      pushing the latter out of the trenches which they had held for over two
+      years. It seemed to Roumania that the turning point of the war had come.
+      With the Russians winning big victories over Austria, and the French and
+      English pushing back the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as
+      though the end were in sight.
+    </p>
+
+<p>
+Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a distant
+cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from the case in Greece
+and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and she was able to help the
+party that was friendly to France and Great Britain. The man who had and worked
+early and late to get his countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the
+wisest of the Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the
+second Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within
+fourteen months.<a href="#fn-10" name="fnref-10" id="fnref-10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="fn-10" id="fn-10"></a> <a href="#fnref-10">[10]</a>
+As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months between wars.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map22"></a>
+<a href="images/map22.jpg">
+<img src="images/map22.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="Illustration: " /></a>
+<p class="caption">What The Allies Wished</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if they
+      wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the province of
+      Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the war on the side of the
+      Entente. It is claimed by some that they had planned to wait until the
+      following winter in order to get their army into the best of condition and
+      training, but that the treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when
+      he found that they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria,
+      persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were unprepared and
+      that their inexperienced troops would be no match for the veterans of the
+      central powers. At any rate, about the first of September Roumania
+      declared war on Austria and joined the Entente.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war first on
+      Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north while General Sarrail
+      attacked it from the south, crush it before help could arrive from
+      Germany, much in the fashion in which poor Serbia had been caught between
+      Austria and Bulgaria a year previously. The Roumanians, however, were
+      eager to &ldquo;liberate&rdquo; their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by
+      bad advice from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest
+      instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the conquest of
+      Bulgaria. (See maps.)
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map23"></a>
+<a href="images/map23.jpg">
+<img src="images/map23.jpg" width="397" height="600" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">How Roumania was crushed</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania. The
+      battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet weather, had
+      become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it was impossible to drag
+      the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia had pushed back the Austrians for
+      many miles but a lack of ammunition and the arrival of strong German
+      re-inforcements had prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian
+      generals on the north, under the influence of the pro-German prime
+      minister, were doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a
+      deadlock. The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that
+      neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow advance of
+      General Sarrail. His great problem was to get sufficient shells for his
+      guns and food for his men. All the time, too, he had to keep a watchful
+      eye on King Constantine, lest the latter launch the Greek army in a
+      treacherous attack on his rear. For the time being, then, the central
+      powers were free to give their whole attention to Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the Russians
+      to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand men from France and
+      Poland and hurled them all together upon the Roumanians. At the same time,
+      another force composed of Turks, Bulgarians, and some Germans marched
+      north through the Dobrudja to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the
+      very trick that the French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now
+      worked upon her by the central powers. France and England were helpless.
+      They sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the Roumanians
+      the latest science of war, but men and guns they could not send. Look at
+      the map and see how Roumania was shut off from all help except what came
+      from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his part to help Germany. Ammunition
+      and troops which were intended to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The
+      Germans had spies in the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew
+      exactly where the Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to
+      do.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each gun was
+      a delicate sight with a spirit level&mdash;a little glass tube supposed to
+      be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly the Germans had
+      filled these tubes with water, intending, in case Roumania entered the war
+      on their side, to warn them about the &ldquo;mistake.&rdquo; When the guns were hauled
+      up into the mountains and freezing weather came, these sights burst,
+      making the guns almost useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and
+      the south, the Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile
+      after mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by the
+      Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil wells are, fell
+      into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest, the capital.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost beaten,
+      now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat, Roumanian oil, and
+      above all, the glory of the victories, the central powers were now in
+      better shape to fight than if Roumania had kept out of the war. The German
+      comic papers were full of pictures which declared that as England and
+      France had always wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now
+      take a long look at King Ferdinand of Roumania.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to power of
+          the &ldquo;young Turks&rdquo;?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos in
+          Greece?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of 1913?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and King
+          Constantine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as prisoners the
+          French and British troops who were driven back upon Greek soil?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What right had Venizelos to set up a republic?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King
+          Constantine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What made Roumania decide to join the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central Powers?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap21"></a>Chapter XXI.<br/>
+The War Under the Sea</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Britannia rules the waves.&mdash;Enter the submarine.&mdash;The blockade
+      of Germany.&mdash;The sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i> and other ships.&mdash;The
+      trade in munitions of war.&mdash;The voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i>.&mdash;Germany
+      ready for peace (on her own terms).&mdash;The reply of the allies.&mdash;Germany&rsquo;s
+      amazing announcement.&mdash;The United States breaks off friendly
+      relations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building warships, with
+      the hope that one day their navy might be the strongest in the world. At
+      the outbreak of the great war in 1914 they were still far behind England
+      in naval power. On the other hand, it was necessary for the English to
+      keep their navy scattered all over the world. English battleships were
+      guarding trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the
+      Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of Malta&mdash;all
+      were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed to defend them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few cruisers
+      in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the Mediterranean, was gathered
+      in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern part of the North Sea, and the great
+      Kiel Canal which connected these two bodies of water. It was quite
+      possible that this fleet, by making a quick dash for the ports of England,
+      might find there only a portion of the English ships and be able to
+      overwhelm them before the rest of the English navy should assemble from
+      the far parts of the earth.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the foresight to
+      assemble enough English vessels in home waters in the latter part of the
+      month of July, 1914, to give England the upper hand over the fleet of
+      Germany. As a result, finding the British too strong, the Germans did not
+      venture out into the high seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were
+      fought between cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash
+      across the North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns,
+      killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting back to the
+      Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any number.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time the British
+      were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers were sunk and the
+      others barely escaped the fire of the avengers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German fleet sailed
+      out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were successful in sinking
+      several large ships, but when the main British fleet arrived they began in
+      turn to suffer great losses, and were obliged to retire. With the
+      exception of these two fights and two other battles fought off the coast
+      of South America (in the first of which a small English fleet was
+      destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British fleet took
+      revenge), there have been no battles between the sea forces.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels were
+      either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral nations. German
+      commerce was swept from the seas, while ships carrying supplies to France
+      and the British Isles sailed unmolested&mdash;for a time. Only in the
+      Baltic Sea was Germany mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
+      was kept up as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came
+      great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries bought, in
+      the markets of the world, apparently for themselves, but really for
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new and
+      terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat, the invention
+      of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and enlarged by the
+      Germans. In one of the early months of the war three British warships, the
+      <i>Hogue</i>, the <i>Cressy</i>, and the <i>Aboukir</i>, were cruising
+      about, guarding the waters of the North Sea. There was the explosion of a
+      torpedo, and the <i>Hogue</i> began to sink. One of her sister ships
+      rushed in to pick up the crew as they struggled in the water. A second
+      torpedo struck and a second ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate
+      of the other two, the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster&mdash;the
+      German submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant ships
+      with a thousand men had gone down.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and cruisers were
+      not enough. While England controlled the surface of the sea, there was no
+      way to prevent the coming and going of the German submarine beneath the
+      waters. All naval warfare was changed in a moment; new methods and new
+      weapons had to be employed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up a strict
+      blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which were called
+      &ldquo;contraband of war&rdquo; and which, according to the law of nations, might be
+      seized by one country if they were the property of her enemy. On the list
+      of contraband were all kinds of ammunition and guns, as well as materials
+      for making these. England and France, however, added to the list which all
+      nations before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like
+      cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton and
+      other high explosives, gasoline&mdash;fuel for the thousands of
+      automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for their tires.
+      Soon other substances were added to the list.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The central
+      empires, in ordinary years, raise only about three-fourths of the food
+      that they eat. With the great supply of Russian wheat shut off and vessels
+      from North America and South America not allowed to pass the British
+      blockade, Germany&rsquo;s imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland,
+      and the Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about
+      four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not take a
+      detective to discover that she was secretly selling to Germany the great
+      bulk of what she was buying apparently for herself. In a like manner
+      Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries suddenly developed a much
+      greater appetite than before the war! The British blockade grew stricter.
+      It was agreed to allow these countries to import just enough food for
+      their own purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the
+      food themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The
+      Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had slaughtered many
+      of their cows for beef and as a result grew short of milk and butter.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use her
+      submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles. This happened
+      in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest from the world in general,
+      but Germany agreed that her submarine commanders should warn each ship of
+      its danger and allow the captain time to get the passengers and crew into
+      boats before the deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the
+      danger of the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore,
+      were in serious danger.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars up to this
+      time, have said that a blockade, in order to be recognized by all nations,
+      had to be successful in doing the work for which it was intended. If
+      England really was able to stop every boat sailing for German shores, then
+      all nations would have to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the
+      Germans were able to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed
+      into English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a real
+      blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral nations who were
+      peaceably trying to trade with all the countries at war, this sinking of
+      merchantmen by submarines went on.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In May, 1915, the great steamship <i>Lusitania</i> was due to sail from
+      New York for England. A few days before her departure notices signed by
+      the German ambassador were put into New York papers, warning people that
+      Germany would not be responsible for what happened to them if they took
+      passage on this boat. Very few people paid any attention to these
+      warnings. With over a thousand persons on board the <i>Lusitania</i>
+      sailed, on schedule time. Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to
+      hear that a German submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had
+      sent two torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending
+      her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the boats,
+      but over eight hundred men, women, and children were drowned, of whom over
+      one hundred were American citizens. Strange as it may seem, this action
+      caused a thrill of joy throughout Germany. Some of the Germans were
+      horrified, as were people in neutral countries, but on the whole the
+      action of the German navy was approved by the voice of the German people.
+      With a curiously warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed
+      that the English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children
+      to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was going to be
+      sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which one would speak of
+      the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent children and women to march
+      in front of armies in order to protect the troops from the fire of their
+      enemies.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the United
+      States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans, however, prevailed, and
+      the upshot of the matter was that a stern note was sent to Berlin
+      notifying the Kaiser that the United States could not permit vessels
+      carrying Americans to be torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The
+      German papers proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured
+      every French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two
+      Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the boat might
+      be under the protection of the United States.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      However, in spite of Germany&rsquo;s solemn promise that nothing of the sort
+      would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring, although on a
+      smaller scale. The American steamers <i>Falaba</i> and <i>Gulflight</i>
+      were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the loss of one or two
+      lives. Finally, the steamer <i>Sussex</i>, crossing the English Channel,
+      was hit by a torpedo which killed many of the passengers. As several
+      Americans lost their lives, once more the United States warned Germany
+      that this must not be repeated. Germany acknowledged that her submarine
+      commander had gone further than his orders allowed him and promised that
+      the act should not be repeated&mdash;provided that the United States
+      should force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal blockade.
+      The United States in reply made it plain that while the English blockade
+      was unpleasant to American citizens, still it was very different from the
+      brutal murder of women and children on the high seas. England, when
+      convinced that an American ship was carrying supplies which would be sold
+      in the end to Germany, merely took this vessel into an English port, where
+      a court decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British
+      government to pay that sum to the (American) owners.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not anything to go
+      to war over. The United States gave warning that she would hold Germany
+      responsible for any damage to American ships or loss of American lives.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of favoring
+      the nations of the Entente because they were selling munitions of war to
+      them and none to Germany. They said that it was grossly unfair for neutral
+      nations to sell to one side when, owing to the blockade, they could not
+      sell to the other also. When a protest was made by Austria, the United
+      States pointed out that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time
+      the empire of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in
+      South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy munitions in
+      the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not prevent both Austria and
+      Germany from selling guns and ammunition to Great Britain. (It must be
+      made plain that the United States <i>government</i> was not selling
+      munitions of war to any of the warring nations. What Germany wanted and
+      Austria asked was that our government should prevent our private
+      companies, as, for example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which
+      would eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it plain
+      that our people had no feeling in the matter&mdash;that they were in
+      business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it was not our
+      fault that the British navy, being larger than the German, prevented
+      Germany from trading with us.)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition factories
+      in the United States that were turning out shells and guns for the Allies.
+      Several hundred Americans were killed in these explosions, and property to
+      the value of millions of dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the
+      Austrian ambassador and several of the German diplomats had been hiring
+      men to commit these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the
+      fact that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the President
+      insisted that their governments recall them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English
+      blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany, who were
+      being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English. As a matter of
+      fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber, cotton, gasoline, and above
+      all, nickel and cobalt, two metals which were needed in the manufacture of
+      guns and shells.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large German
+      submarine, the <i>Deutschland</i>, made the voyage across the Atlantic
+      Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of Baltimore. In spite of
+      all the trouble that the United States had had with Germany over the
+      sinking of ships by submarines, the crew of this vessel was warmly
+      received, and the cargo of dyes which she brought was eagerly purchased.
+      The Germans, in return, loaded their ship with the metals and other
+      products of which Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said,
+      the <i>Deutschland</i> took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the
+      starving babies of Germany. Once more the <i>Deutschland</i> came, this
+      time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with every sign of
+      hospitality.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus54"></a>
+<img src="images/54.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign against
+      Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning to feel the pinch
+      of starvation and the drain on their young men, made it known that as they
+      had won the war they were now ready to treat for peace. This message
+      carried with it a threat to all countries not at war that if they did not
+      help to force the Entente to accept the Kaiser&rsquo;s peace terms, Germany
+      could not be held responsible for anything that might happen to them in
+      the future.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw the United
+      States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this opportunity, and in a
+      public message he asked both sides to state to the world on what terms
+      they would stop the war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite proposal.
+      On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no uncertain terms,
+      declared that no peace would be made unless the central powers restored
+      what they had wrongfully seized, paid the victims of their unprovoked
+      attack for the damage they had done, and guaranteed that no such act
+      should ever be committed in the future. They also declared that the Poles,
+      Danes, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed
+      from the tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language
+      this meant that the central powers must give back part of Schleswig to
+      Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored as it once had been;
+      permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an independent nation in the
+      midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the people of Alsace and Lorraine the
+      right of returning to France; annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to
+      Italy, and permit the Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their
+      cousins to the southeast in one great Serbian nation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When these terms were published the German government exclaimed that while
+      they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even give back the
+      conquered portions of Belgium and northern France in return for the
+      captured German colonies in Africa and the Pacific Ocean, with the payment
+      of indemnities to Germany, now it was plain that the nations of the
+      Entente intended to wipe out utterly the German nation and dismember the
+      empire of Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies
+      an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for the
+      central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and <i>use any means
+      whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace</i>.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany said, &ldquo;We
+      have won the war. Don&rsquo;t you recognize the fact that you have been beaten?
+      Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom of Poland, out of the part
+      of Russian Poland which we have conquered, as a separate kingdom under our
+      protection, but don&rsquo;t expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or
+      Prussian Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are <i>ours</i>. You
+      wouldn&rsquo;t expect <i>us</i> to give up any part of <i>them</i>, would you?)
+      Allow us to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the
+      Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of Belgium,
+      and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we are making!&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Allied nations replied, in effect: &ldquo;You now have gotten three-fourths
+      of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we make peace now,
+      allowing you to keep the greater part of what you have conquered, you will
+      be magnanimous and give back a small portion of it if we in turn surrender
+      all your lost colonies. Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you
+      recompense, as far as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack
+      for the death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things
+      back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it plain to us
+      that never again will we have to be on guard against the possibility of a
+      ruthless invasion by your army; that you give to the peoples whom you and
+      your allies have forcibly annexed or retained under your rule a chance to
+      choose their own form of government.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Then said the Germans to the world, &ldquo;You see! They want to wipe us out of
+      existence and cut the empire of our allies into small bits. Nothing is
+      left but to fight for our existence, and, as we are fighting for our
+      existence, all rules hitherto observed in civilized warfare are now called
+      off!&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government announced that,
+      inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an honorable peace (which would
+      have left them still in possession of three-fourths the plunder they had
+      gained in the war) and this peace offer had been rejected by the Entente,
+      all responsibility for anything which might happen hereafter in the war
+      would have to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It
+      was stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when
+      one&rsquo;s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible. Germany
+      proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink <i>without
+      warning</i> all merchant ships sailing toward English or French ports.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In a special note to the United States, the German government said that
+      once a week, at a certain time, the United States would be permitted to
+      send a passenger vessel to England, provided that this boat were duly
+      inspected and proved to have no munitions of war or supplies for England
+      on board. It must be painted all over with red, white, and blue stripes
+      and must be marked in other ways so that the German submarine commanders
+      would know it. (It must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was
+      fighting for the freedom of the seas!)
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are free to
+      all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to sink without
+      warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of effrontery that few had
+      imagined even the German government was capable of.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In fact, a
+      great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in the country had
+      criticized him for being too patient. The great majority of the people of
+      the United States were for peace, ardently. The government at Washington
+      knew this. Nevertheless, this last announcement by Germany that she
+      proposed to kill any American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in
+      the neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a self-respecting
+      nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent notice to Count Von
+      Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave this country. Friendly
+      relations between the imperial government of Germany and the United States
+      of America were at an end.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is contraband of war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war material
+          object to the sale of such material to fighting nations by nations at
+          peace?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to make all
+          nations devote too much work to the preparation of war supplies.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Show the difference between the British blockade and the sinking of
+          ships by German submarines.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of the
+          German government have been a good enough reason for the United States
+          to have declared war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i> prove that the United
+          States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in December
+          1916?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state their aims
+          in the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without warning?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap22"></a>Chapter XXII.<br/>
+Another Crown Topples</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.&mdash;The first
+      Duma and the revolt of 1905.&mdash;The Zemptsvos and the people against
+      the pro-German officials.&mdash;The death of Rasputin and other signs of
+      unrest.&mdash;The revolution of March 1917.&mdash;The Czar becomes Mr.
+      Romanoff.&mdash;Four different governments within eight months.&mdash;Civil
+      war and a German effort for peace.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first place by
+      the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the unwillingness of Russia
+      to stand by and see her little neighbor crushed, and that England came in
+      to make good her word, pledged to Belgium, to defend that small country
+      from all hostile attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the
+      world as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights of
+      peoples to live under the form of government which they might choose. You
+      will remember that when the central powers said that they were ready to
+      talk peace terms the nations of the Entente replied that there could be no
+      peace as long as the Danes, Poles, and Alsatians were forcibly held by
+      Germany in her empire and as long as Austria denied the Ruthenians,
+      Roumanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right
+      either to rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of
+      blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond of
+      saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those enslaved by
+      military rule&mdash;a conflict between self-governed nations and those
+      which were oppressing their foreign subjects. Replying to this the central
+      powers would always point to Russia. Russia, said they, oppressed the
+      Poles and Lithuanians, the Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well
+      as Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within her
+      territories. Her people had even less political freedom than the
+      inhabitants of Austria and Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the Germans.
+      There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact there is no doubt
+      that French and British statesmen were afraid of a Russian victory. They
+      did not want the war to be won by the one nation in their group which had
+      a despotic form of government. On the other hand the high officials in
+      Russia were not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the
+      free peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a
+      country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you have been
+      told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of German blood and
+      secretly desired the victory of their fatherland, while many Russians of
+      the party who wanted to keep all power out of the hands of the common
+      people were afraid of seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people
+      would rise up and demand more liberty.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time of the
+      outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were threatened, so
+      that many people thought the Czar had not been at all sorry to see the war
+      break out, in order to turn the minds of his people away from their own
+      wrongs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the cry from
+      the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of elective government,
+      had been so strong that the Czar had to give in. So he called the first
+      Duma. This body of men, as has been explained, could talk and could
+      complain, but could pass no laws. The first Duma had had so many
+      grievances and had talked so bitterly against the government, that it had
+      been forced to break up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down
+      riots among the people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great
+      ferocity. All this time there had been growing, among the Russian people,
+      a feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand dukes and
+      high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that the Czar was
+      well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere puppet in the hands of his
+      German wife, his cousins the grand dukes, and above all a notorious monk,
+      called Rasputin. This strange man, a son of the common people, had risen
+      to great power in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone
+      could keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince, the
+      Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of the ladies
+      in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy&rsquo;s food whenever Rasputin was
+      away from the court for more than a few days. The poor little prince, of
+      course, was made sick; whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for
+      Rasputin, upon whose arrival the Czarevitch &ldquo;miraculously&rdquo; got well. In
+      this manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and
+      Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put bishops out
+      of their places, and even change prime ministers. There is no doubt that
+      the Germans bribed him to use his influence in their behalf. It is a sad
+      illustration of the ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such
+      a man could have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos. These were
+      little assemblies, one in each county in Russia, elected by the people to
+      decide all local matters, like the building of roads, helping feed the
+      poor, etc. They had been started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although
+      the court was rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true
+      to the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and when
+      the world war broke out, this body, really the only patriotic part of the
+      Russian government, kept the grand dukes and the pro-Germans from
+      betraying the nation into the hands of the enemy.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the representatives
+      that they elected to these little county assemblies were patriotically
+      carrying out the war, while the grand dukes and the court nobles, who had
+      gotten Russia into this trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the
+      soldiers, either through grafting off the supplies and speculating in
+      food, or traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans.
+      With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain stored
+      away by men who were holding it in order to get still higher prices, there
+      was not enough for the people of Petrograd to eat.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was made
+      prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk, Rasputin.
+      Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was crushed between the
+      armies of the Germans on the one side and the Turks and Bulgars on the
+      other, while trainload after trainload of the guns and munitions which
+      would have enabled her armies to stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on
+      Russian railroads. &ldquo;Your Majesty, we are betrayed,&rdquo; said the French
+      general who had been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the
+      king of Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise
+      after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of Turkey,
+      Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the people had had no
+      schooling and were unable to read and write. It was easier for the grand
+      dukes and nobles to keep down the peasants and to remain undisturbed in
+      the ownership of their great estates if the people knew nothing more than
+      to labor and suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however,
+      the most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were
+      working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then too, the
+      Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by throwing bombs) for
+      the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their teachings throughout the
+      country. Students of the universities, writers, musicians, and artists,
+      had preached the doctrines of the rights of man. While outwardly the
+      government appeared as strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose
+      trunk has rotted through and through, and which needs only one vigorous
+      push to send it crashing to the ground.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It is generally in large cities that protests against the government are
+      begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob of people, to pick out
+      the ones who are responsible for starting the trouble. Then again it is
+      natural for people to make their protests in capital cities where the
+      government cannot fail to hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that
+      in large cities there are always a great number of persons who are poor
+      and who are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard
+      times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of causing
+      the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people desperate&mdash;they do
+      not care whether they live or not&mdash;and, as a result, they dare to
+      oppose themselves to the police and the soldiers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long time. This
+      was felt not only among the common people, but also among the more
+      patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of the winter of 1916-17,
+      the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot, was invited to the home of a
+      grand duke, a cousin of the Czar. There a young prince, determined to free
+      Russia of this pest, shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the
+      ice of the frozen Neva.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely of
+      speculation and &ldquo;cornering the market,&rdquo; had become so serious that the
+      government thought it wise to call in several regiments of Cossacks to
+      reinforce the police.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a freedom not
+      shared by any other class in Russia. They are warriors by trade and their
+      sole duty consists in offering themselves, fully equipped, whenever the
+      government has need of their services in war. They were of a different
+      race, originally, than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying
+      they now have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the
+      streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people. Enjoying
+      freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the practice of their
+      trade&mdash;fighting&mdash;they had had little or no sympathy with the
+      wrongs of the populace, and so were the strongest supporters of the
+      despotic rule of the Czar. At times when the Czar did not dare to trust
+      his regular soldiers to enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the
+      men would refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks
+      could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly through the
+      people, sabering to right and left those who refused to disperse.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus55"></a>
+<img src="images/55.jpg" width="400" height="294" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd protesting
+      against the high prices of food and forming in long lines to demand grain
+      of the government. As day succeeded day, the crowds grew larger and bolder
+      in their murmurings. Cossacks were sent into the city, but for some
+      strange reason they did not cause fear as they had in times past. Their
+      manner was different. Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly
+      joked with the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and
+      were actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger and
+      more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called in. The
+      police fired upon the people when the latter refused to go home. Then a
+      strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes flashing fire, rode at full
+      tilt up the street toward a policeman who was firing on the mob, and shot
+      him dead on the spot. A shout went up from the people: &ldquo;The Cossacks are
+      with us!&rdquo; New regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed
+      them knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own kind
+      of people&mdash;their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that they were
+      hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned upon its officers,
+      refusing to obey them, and made them prisoners. Another and another joined
+      the revolting forces. It was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July,
+      1789. The people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they
+      did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments loyal to
+      the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their revolting comrades. They
+      hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed over to them, pleading with them not
+      to fire. A few scattering volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with
+      a shout of joy, the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and
+      rushed across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the mob
+      a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call upon the Duma
+      and ask this body to form a temporary government. Another group was
+      appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him that henceforth he was not
+      the Czar of all the Russias, but plain Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were
+      sent to the fighting fronts to inform the generals that they were no
+      longer to take orders from the Czar, but from the representatives of the
+      free people of Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the
+      new situation. Within two days a new government had been formed, composed
+      of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar signed a paper
+      giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his young son and nominating
+      his brother Michael to take his place. Michael, however, was too wise. He
+      notified the people that he would accept the crown only if they should
+      vote to give it to him; and this the people would not do.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus56"></a>
+<img src="images/56.jpg" width="399" height="324" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of different
+      departments like the American cabinet, was composed of citizens of the
+      middle classes&mdash;lawyers, professors of the universities, land-owners,
+      merchants were represented&mdash;and at the head of the ministry was a
+      prince. This arrangement did not satisfy the rabble. The radical
+      socialists, most of whom owned no property and wanted all wealth divided
+      up among all the people, were not much happier to be ruled by the
+      moderately well-to-do than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles.
+      The council of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which
+      had formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the powers of
+      government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian people should have
+      peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign minister for the new government,
+      assured France and England that Russia would stick by them to the last, a
+      howling crowd of workingmen threatened to mob him. &ldquo;No annexations and no
+      indemnities,&rdquo; was the cry of the socialists. &ldquo;Let us go back to conditions
+      as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the burden of its own
+      losses and let us have peace.&rdquo; After a stormy session, the new government
+      agreed to include in its numbers several representatives of the soldiers
+      and workingmen. Prof. Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a
+      radical young lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus57"></a>
+<img src="images/57.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian troops</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage offered
+      by Russia&rsquo;s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered to make friends
+      with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They played eagerly upon the
+      new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of man and freedom and equality, to
+      do away with fighting on the east, thus being able to transfer to the
+      western front some of their best regiments. As a result the French and
+      English, after driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France
+      were at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole war
+      seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies in the west.
+      Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the central powers grew
+      stronger and stronger. The Russian troops felt that they had been fighting
+      the battles of the Czar and the grand dukes and they saw no reason why
+      they should go on shooting their brother workingmen in Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set out to
+      visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle grounds of eastern
+      Galicia he made rousing speeches to the soldiers and actually led them in
+      person toward the German trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all
+      along the line under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the
+      Germans and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to
+      recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace party
+      were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a certain
+      division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to the rear, begun by
+      these troops, carried others with it, and for a time it seemed as though
+      the whole Russian army was going to pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to
+      the soldiers. The situation was serious and called for a strong hand.
+      Kerensky was made prime minister and the members of the government and the
+      council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of a Czar.
+      He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or traitors be shot,
+      if need be, without trial. Under his rule the Russian army began to
+      re-form, and the situation improved.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the
+      Bolsheviki (Bo&#774;l-she&#774;-vi&#776;&#8242;ki&#776;) won over the
+      garrisons of Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government,
+      forcing Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany. These
+      people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large cities. They
+      have few followers outside of the city population, for the average Russian
+      in the country is a land owner, and he does not take kindly to the idea of
+      losing his property or dividing it with some landless beggar from
+      Petrograd.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion in the
+      realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by the fights of the
+      different factions. Finland demanded its independence, and German spies
+      and agents encouraged the Ruthenians living in a great province called the
+      Ukraine, to do the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north
+      of the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on
+      fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered largely from
+      the states between the Black and Caspian Seas. Having suffered persecution
+      in the old days, they had hated the Turks for ages and needed no orders
+      from Petrograd to induce them to take revenge.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the central powers
+      which gave Germany and Austria everything that they wanted. The Russian
+      armies were disbanded and the Germans and Austrians were free to turn
+      their fighting men back to the western front. In the meantime, the
+      Ruthenian republic, now called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki
+      to make a separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the
+      Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and the
+      Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the central empires.
+      However, for a whole year hardly anybody in Russia had been willing to do
+      a stroke of work. The fields had gone untilled while the peasants, drunk
+      with their new freedom, and without a care for the morrow, lived off the
+      grain that had been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever
+      grain the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to
+      hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished and as
+      food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy&mdash;a government
+      where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny of the
+      lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the middle classes
+      were not allowed any voice in the government. When the first National
+      Assembly or Congress was elected and called together, the Bolsheviki
+      finding that they did not control a majority of its members, disbanded it
+      by force.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected to being
+      robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by the Czar.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops that
+      refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the regiments of
+      Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against their will, to serve in
+      the Austrian army. They were from the northern part of the Austrian
+      empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They were Slavs, related to the Russians,
+      speaking a language very much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria
+      and anxious to free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When
+      General Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had
+      deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They could not get
+      back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them as deserters. Of
+      course, the Austrian and the German generals would make no peace with
+      them. Therefore, this army, 200,000 strong, kept their own officers and
+      their order and their arms and refused to have anything to do with the
+      cowardly peace made by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their
+      way across Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the
+      Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the thousands in
+      the armies of the Entente. The main body of them, however, are still in
+      Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great Siberian railway, fully ready
+      to renew the war against the central powers at any time when the patriotic
+      Russians will rise and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the
+      Czechs without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied
+      statesmen.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the result of
+      this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and tricksters, that
+      would never deceive an educated man.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was Rasputin killed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What classes fought after the Czar&rsquo;s downfall?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the central powers take advantage of Russia&rsquo;s troubles?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from.
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap23"></a>Chapter XXIII.<br/>
+The United States at War&mdash;Why?</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.&mdash;Dr.
+      Zimmermann&rsquo;s famous note.&mdash;Congress declares war.&mdash;Other nations
+      follow our example.&mdash;The plight of Holland, Denmark, and Norway.&mdash;German
+      arguments for submarine warfare shown to be groundless.&mdash;German
+      agents blow up American factories.&mdash;German threats against the United
+      States.&mdash;Germany and the Monroe Doctrine.&mdash;A government whose
+      deeds its people cannot question.&mdash;Why American troops were sent to
+      Europe.&mdash;Why the war lords wanted peace in January, 1918.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the German
+      ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by the United States.
+      The Germans, true to their word, had begun their campaign of attacking and
+      sinking without warning ships of all kinds in the waters surrounding Great
+      Britain and France. Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red
+      cross, and boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were
+      torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in Germany is
+      well illustrated by an incident which happened at this time. It so
+      happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the channel, was laden
+      with about as many German wounded as British. These men had been left
+      helpless on the field of battle after the Germans had retreated, and had
+      been picked up and cared for by the British, along with their own troops.
+      A German submarine with its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom.
+      The wounded men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest
+      chance for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over Germany
+      against the &ldquo;unspeakable brutality&rdquo; of the British who dared to expose
+      German wounded men to the danger of travel on the open sea! The British
+      were warned that if this happened again the Germans would make reprisals
+      upon British prisoners in their hands.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus58"></a>
+<img src="images/58.jpg" width="400" height="330" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war between the
+      United States and Germany. But in the latter part of February, the United
+      States government made public a note which its secret agents had stopped
+      from being delivered to the German ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by
+      Dr. Zimmermann, German minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the
+      ambassador as soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of
+      war with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships without
+      warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with Germany.
+      &ldquo;Together we will make war on the United States,&rdquo; said Dr. Zimmermann,
+      &ldquo;and together we will make peace. Mexico will receive as her reward her
+      lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico.&rdquo; &ldquo;Ask the Mexican
+      government,&rdquo; said Dr. Zimmermann, &ldquo;to propose to the Japanese that Japan
+      break away from her alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in
+      an attack upon the United States.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling in the
+      United States. Up to this time a great portion of the people had felt that
+      perhaps we were hasty in breaking off relations with Germany, and in their
+      earnest desire for peace had been willing to put up with injury and even
+      insults on the part of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their
+      military necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann&rsquo;s note, however,
+      showed the people of the United States the true temper of the government
+      at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords had no respect for
+      anything but brute force, that the language of cannon was the only
+      language which they could understand, and that any further patience on the
+      part of this country would be looked upon as weakness and treated with
+      scorn and contempt.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the
+      President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war existed
+      between the United States of America and the Imperial Government of
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought the United
+      States into the great war. These causes may be given under two heads: (1)
+      the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2) the German plots and threats
+      against our country at a time when we were at peace with them. The latter,
+      as given in pages to follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser&rsquo;s threat, (b)
+      Admiral Von Tirpitz&rsquo;s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and
+      death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war with
+      Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German government&rsquo;s money in
+      an attempt to make our congressmen vote as Germany wished.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus59"></a>
+<img src="images/59.jpg" width="399" height="284" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress</p>
+</div>
+
+    <h3>
+      The Submarine War
+    </h3>
+
+    <p>
+      Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred and
+      twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their death through
+      the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning, under orders of the
+      German government. These people were peaceable travelers, going about
+      their business on the high seas in passenger steamers owned by private
+      companies. According to the law observed by all nations up to this time
+      there was no more reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if
+      they had been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other
+      country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing about the
+      brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without warning, was an act of
+      war on the part of Germany against any country whose citizens happened to
+      be traveling on these ocean steamers. That the action of the United States
+      in calling the submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved
+      by the fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going
+      to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same stand.
+      Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American republics found
+      that they could not maintain their honor without declaring war on Germany.
+      German ambassadors and ministers have been dismissed from practically
+      every capital in Spanish America.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and Norway saw
+      their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite of their wrongs,
+      however, the first two did not dare to declare war on Germany, as the
+      Germans would be able to throw a strong army across the border and overrun
+      each of these two little countries before the allies could come to their
+      help. With the fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the
+      Dutch swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed
+      their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of the Entente
+      to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame Denmark and Holland.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet.
+      Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the Kiel Canal
+      connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities on the Norwegian
+      coast or even land an army to invade the country. The three little
+      countries together do not have an army any larger than that of Roumania,
+      and it would have been out of the question for them to declare war on
+      Germany without seeing their whole territory overrun and laid waste.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against Germany that
+      the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917 sent a vigorous protest
+      to Berlin, closing with these words:
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it has
+      already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of the
+      principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the proclamation of
+      large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by the sinking of neutral
+      merchant ships not carrying contraband.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that not only
+      have German submarines continued to sink peaceful neutral merchant ships,
+      paying no attention to the fate of their crews, but that even German
+      warships adopted the same tactics. The Norwegian government decided to
+      send this note in order to bring to the attention of the German government
+      the impression these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify themselves
+      for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1) that on these ships
+      which were sunk were supplies for the French and British armies, the
+      arrival of which would aid them in killing Germans, and (2) that the
+      English, by their blockade of Germany, were doing something which was
+      contrary to the laws of nations and starving German women and children,
+      and, therefore, since England was breaking some rules of the war game,
+      Germany had the right to go ahead and break others.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France and
+      England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the United States
+      was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to them. Of course, this was
+      foolish, as has been pointed out, for the United States was just as ready
+      to sell to Germany as to the Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of
+      the <i>Deutschland</i>. If our government had forbidden our people to sell
+      war supplies at all, and if other neutral countries had done the same
+      thing, then the result would be that all wars would be won by the country
+      which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A law passed
+      by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from selling munitions
+      would leave a non-military nation, which had not been getting ready for
+      war, absolutely at the mercy of a neighbor who for years had been storing
+      up shells and guns for the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was
+      this right to sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but
+      ordered Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to
+      point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to Great Britain
+      during the Boer War as you have already been told, and Austria had no
+      answer to give.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of different nations
+      at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying to prevent future wars, if
+      possible, or at least to make them more humane and less brutal to the
+      women and children and others who were not actually fighting, Germany had
+      always upheld the right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her
+      representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to settle
+      disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time when many
+      European nations signed treaties with the United States agreeing to allow
+      one year to elapse between a dispute which might lead to war and the
+      actual declaring of war itself, Germany positively refused to consider
+      such an agreement.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany than
+      Germany or any other country would have done to England if the English
+      navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the North kept up a like
+      blockade of the South and no nation protested against it, for it was
+      recognized as an entirely legal act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871,
+      the Germans were blockading the city of Paris and the country around it.
+      The Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the lines to
+      be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the bayonet, and told
+      them that they might &ldquo;fry in their own fat.&rdquo; According to the laws of war
+      they were perfectly justified in what they did. Then, too, the English
+      blockade, which stopped ships which were found to be loaded with supplies
+      for Germany and took them peaceably to an English port, where it was
+      decided how much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very
+      different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women, and
+      children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the goods were
+      caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances did not get their
+      money promptly. On the other side, there was murder of the most fiendish
+      kind, an act of war against neutral states.
+    </p>
+
+    <h3>
+      Plots and Threats Against the United States
+    </h3>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus60"></a>
+<img src="images/60.jpg" width="400" height="285" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United States
+      had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who sympathized with
+      Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for the relief of the German
+      wounded, it is strongly suspected that this was the very money, which,
+      collected by the German government&rsquo;s own agents, was being spent in plots
+      involving the destroying of the property of some American citizens and the
+      death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were hiring men to
+      blow up American factories, to destroy railroad bridges, and to kill
+      Americans who were making war supplies for the armies of Europe. Factory
+      after factory was blown up with considerable loss of life. Bombs, with
+      clock work attachment to explode them at a certain time, were found on
+      ships sailing for Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to
+      influence members of the United States Congress to vote against the
+      shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for by German
+      money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the West Indies. For a
+      long time there had been a series of stories and newspaper and magazine
+      articles trying to prove to the American people that Japan was planning to
+      make war on us. The same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the
+      Japanese that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States.
+      It now appears that the great part of these stories were started by the
+      Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and profit by the ill
+      will which must follow between the two countries.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these things could
+      be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their Fatherland caused them
+      to go too far. But it has been proved beyond a doubt that all of these
+      acts, which were really acts of war against the United States, were
+      ordered by the government at Berlin and paid for by German money, or by
+      American money which had been contributed for the benefit of the German
+      Red Cross service.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In addition to these facts there were threats against the United States
+      which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our ambassador at Berlin,
+      Mr. Gerard, that &ldquo;America had better beware after this war&rdquo; for he &ldquo;would
+      stand no nonsense from her.&rdquo; Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of
+      the Navy, also told Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as
+      a place from which to start her &ldquo;future war on England and America.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this kind, for
+      they knew that the government in power at Berlin could absolutely command
+      its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of news and substituting other
+      things in the German newspapers could make the German people think
+      anything which the war lords wished them to think. Thus there was great
+      danger that, having won the war from the Entente or having stood them off
+      successfully until the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next
+      attack the United States with the idea of collecting from this
+      comparatively defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which
+      she had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and with
+      the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set up a great
+      empire in South America which would make her almost as powerful as she
+      would have been had her first plans for crushing France and Russia been
+      successful.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      You will recall, from your study of United States history, that President
+      Monroe had warned European governments to keep their hands off South
+      America, for the United States would act as big brother to any of the
+      little republics there who might be attacked by a European foe. Germany in
+      recent years has resented this very vigorously. There were nearly half a
+      million Germans in the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine
+      Republic also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were
+      out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a footing in
+      these countries in which she had colonists and gradually to gain control
+      of the entire country. In the fall of 1917 there was uncovered a plot
+      among the German residents of certain states in the southern part of
+      Brazil to make this territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This
+      discovery, along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove
+      Brazil into war with Germany.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because German
+      submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping her lawful
+      trade; second, because paid agents of the German government were
+      destroying American property in the United States, killing American
+      citizens, and creating discord in our political life; they were pretending
+      to be friendly and yet were trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war
+      against us; third, for the reason that because of Germany&rsquo;s threats and
+      her well-known policy in South America there was grave danger that it
+      would be our turn next if the central powers should come out of the
+      European war uncrushed.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The American government has made it plain that we are not moved by any
+      desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win through the war
+      except the assurance that our nation will be safe. If Germany had a
+      government which the people controlled, then the United States could trust
+      promises of that government. But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no
+      one can trust the present government of Germany, for it is responsible to
+      no one for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its
+      Chancellor called &ldquo;scraps of paper&rdquo;; it has broken its word; it has
+      ordered &ldquo;acts of frightfulness&rdquo; in the lands which it has conquered and on
+      the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing its will upon enemies and
+      neutral countries alike. It has deceived its own people, persuading them
+      that they were attacked by France and Russia, while all the time it was
+      plotting to rule the world through force of arms.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in this war
+      is &ldquo;to make the world safe for democracy.&rdquo; This means that a free people,
+      who have no desire to interfere with any of their neighbors or to make
+      conquests by force of arms, shall be allowed to live their lives without
+      preparation for war and without fear that they may be attacked by a nation
+      with military rulers.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by Germany in
+      1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun for gun and ship for
+      ship with her warlike neighbor to the east. The dread of an attack by the
+      military party of Germany hung over France like a shadow throughout
+      forty-three years of a peace which was only a little better than war,
+      because of the vast amount of money that had to be spent and the attention
+      that had to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one
+      day come.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      When once the German people have a controlling voice in the government,
+      then, and not till then, can other governments believe the word of the
+      statesmen at Berlin. But at present the citizens of Germany have little
+      real power. For, while they can elect members of the Reichstag, the
+      Reichstag can pass no laws, for above this body is the national council,
+      whose members are appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand
+      dukes. The power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the
+      hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any of
+      Germany&rsquo;s laws, under the plea that &ldquo;military necessity&rdquo; calls for certain
+      things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into prison those who dared
+      to speak against the war, and has either suppressed newspapers or ordered
+      them to print only what he wished printed; thus the German people have let
+      him do their thinking for them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German baby is
+      taught to say is &ldquo;Kaiser,&rdquo; and all of the schools, which are run by the
+      government, have taught nothing but respect for the present form of
+      government, and almost a worship of the Kaiser himself. What it is hoped
+      that this war will bring about is the freeing of the German people from
+      their blind obedience to the military power, which for its own glory and
+      pride has hurled them by the millions to death.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very different
+      from any hitherto used. With the exception of some troops raised for a few
+      months during the dark days of the War of the Rebellion, all of our armies
+      have been recruited from men who enlisted of their own free will. In this
+      great conflict in which we are now engaged, the government has drawn its
+      soldiers by lot from a list of all the young men in the country between
+      the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are
+      fighting in our ranks.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to fight on
+      another continent. Many persons have felt that we should keep our young
+      men at home and wait for Germany to cross the Atlantic in order to attack
+      us. Our statesmen, on the other hand, saw that the peace of the world was
+      at stake. If Germany, Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose
+      people have no voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this
+      conflict victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad
+      race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the other
+      hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true today, as in the
+      olden times, that those people who take up the sword shall perish by the
+      sword, they will overthrow their leaders and agree to disarm and live at
+      peace in future with their neighbors.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only way by
+      which these people can be convinced is by brute force. When they realize
+      that they have not gained by war, but have lost, not only a great deal of
+      their wealth, through the terrific cost of the war, but the friendship and
+      respect of the whole world, when they realize that the nations allied
+      against them will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs
+      confess that they never want to hear the word &ldquo;war&rdquo; again, then, and only
+      then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and agree to join a
+      league of the nations whose object shall be to prevent any future wars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that they were
+      going to come out of the conflict with added territory and big money
+      indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower of their young men
+      slain, and the prospect of conquest and plunder growing smaller and
+      smaller with each passing month, the Germans, too, are beginning to hate
+      the thought of war.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The American army can give the finishing touch to the German downfall
+      along the western front, and the sooner the Germans realize that they
+      cannot win from the rapidly growing number of their enemies, the sooner
+      will come the the end of this greatest tragedy in the civilized world.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must be
+      defeated and they were striving hard all through the years 1916 and 1917
+      to make peace while they had possession of enough of the enemy&rsquo;s lands so
+      that they could show their own people some gain in territory to pay them
+      back for their terrible sufferings. The German war debt was so great that
+      the war lords dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized
+      that they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had told
+      them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war upon Germany,
+      (2) that the German armies would win the war in short order, and (3) that
+      a huge sum of money would be collected from France, Belgium, and Russia to
+      pay the expenses of the war. The war lords dreaded to think of the time
+      when their people, knowing that they themselves will have to bear the
+      fearful burden of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced
+      upon the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By
+      Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was ready to
+      talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been made then it would
+      have left Germany absolute mistress of all of middle Europe. Austria,
+      Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the control of the Kaiser and his war
+      lords than were parts of his own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In
+      Belgium, Serbia, Poland, Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the
+      central powers had over forty millions of people who were compelled to
+      work for them like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran
+      into billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the results
+      of the second Balkan war (see <a href="#map20">map</a>), had been
+      forced open by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and
+      Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory. With the
+      drain on the man power of the central powers, with dissatisfaction growing
+      among their people, with the steady increase in the armies of the United
+      States, time was fighting on the side of the allies.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government understood
+          conditions in Mexico and the United States?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon American
+          public opinion?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What were the steps by which the United States was forced into war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the main difference between the English blockade of Germany
+          and the German submarine war on England?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Was the German government responsible for the acts of its agents in
+          this country?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is the Monroe Doctrine?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How was this war different for the United States from any previous
+          conflict?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the greatest obstacle to peace?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap24"></a>Chapter XXIV.<br/>
+Europe as it Should Be</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.&mdash;Peoples outside of the
+      nations with whom they belong.&mdash;The mixture of peoples in
+      Austria-Hungary, and Russia.&mdash;The British Isles.&mdash;The Balkan
+      states.&mdash;Recent changes in the map.&mdash;The wrongs done by mighty
+      nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      We have several times shown you, in the course of this little history,
+      maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and through bloodshed. Let
+      us now examine a map of Europe divided according to the race and language
+      of its various peoples. It often happens that the boundaries set by
+      nature, like seas, high mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people
+      from another. It is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed
+      in by the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should
+      grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, Great
+      Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by nature. On this
+      account, it is not surprising that the map of &ldquo;Europe as it should be&rdquo;
+      which unites people of the same blood under the same government, agrees
+      rather closely in some places with the map of Europe as it is.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom of
+      Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish and
+      Portuguese peoples.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and Flemish.
+      Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French people are found in
+      Switzerland and others in that part of the German Empire which was taken
+      away from France after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them inhabit the
+      two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were torn away from Denmark
+      by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula
+      separate the Norwegians from the Swedes about as well as they divide the
+      countries geographically.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the northwestern
+      corner of the German Empire is also peopled by Dutch. The territory around
+      Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the German Empire, is inhabited by
+      Walloons, a Celtic people who speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it
+      is, contains two different types of population, the Walloons and the
+      Flemish.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great many of
+      these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria (sty&#774;&#8242;ri&#774;a&#775;),
+      and the northern Tyrol (ty&#774;&#8242;rol) (western counties of the
+      Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of Switzerland and the
+      edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be found in parts of Hungary; and in
+      the Baltic provinces of Russia there are over two million of them.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island of
+      Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians. The province
+      of Trentino (tre&#774;n ti&#8242;no&#772;) (the southern half of the
+      Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is also
+      Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. Certain
+      islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely Italian in their
+      population.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and Germans.
+      Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth tongue is spoken
+      there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner of Switzerland are found
+      people who talk a corruption of the old Latin, which they call Romaunsch
+      or Romansh.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of languages and
+      nationalities. This empire includes nearly a million Italians in its
+      southwestern corner, and three million Roumanians in Transylvania. It has
+      as its subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina several million Serbians. In
+      Slavonia (sla&#775; vo&#772;&#8242;ni&#774; a&#775;), Croatia (cro&#772; a&#8242;tia),
+      and Dalmatia (da&#774;l ma&#772; tia), it has two or three million Slavs,
+      who are closely related to the Serbians. In the north, its government
+      rules over several million Czechs (che&#774;cks) (Bohemians and Moravians)
+      who strongly desire to have a country of their own. It controls also two
+      million Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their
+      independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni o&#772;&#8242;la&#775;),
+      there are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people belonging
+      either by themselves or with their cousins, the Croatians and Serbs.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen, who want to
+      get back under French control, a million or two Danes, who want once more
+      to belong to Denmark, and several million Poles, who desire to see their
+      country again united.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="map24"></a>
+<a href="images/map24.jpg">
+<img src="images/map24.jpg" width="700" height="484" alt="Illustration:
+Messen" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Europe as It Should Be</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as those
+      composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not one people. The
+      Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different from the people of Little
+      Russia, and they in turn are different from the people of Great Russia, to
+      the north. The Baltic provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two
+      million Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number of
+      Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians, cousins of the
+      Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose people, with the
+      Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European family, and who would
+      dearly love to have a separate government of their own.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus61"></a>
+<img src="images/61.jpg" width="401" height="310" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Polish children</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      You have already been told in <a href="#chap05">Chapter V</a> that the country
+      of the English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or
+      the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern part of
+      Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish kingdom.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the reason
+      that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly mixed and jumbled.
+      There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the Roumanians and Bulgarians in
+      the Dobrudja. Parts of southern Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia
+      are inhabited by people of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the
+      exception of the two little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited
+      by Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of Bukowina also
+      ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater part of the Russian
+      state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has a population of 7,000,000,
+      there are between five and six million of her people who live outside her
+      present boundaries.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece. Greek
+      people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The Albanians are a
+      separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia should be joined to Serbia.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will see that
+      most of the changes that have been made of late years are bringing
+      boundaries nearer where they should be. You will also note that wherever
+      there have been recent changes contrary to this plan, they have always
+      resulted in more bloodshed. The partition of Poland, the annexation of
+      Schleswig, Alsace, and Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian
+      Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and
+      Herzegovina by Austria are good examples.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural boundaries?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who are the Walloons?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Who are the Romansh people?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          To what other people are the Esthonians related?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus62"></a>
+<img src="images/62.jpg" width="399" height="270" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">The price of the war</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap25"></a>Chapter XXV.<br/>
+The Cost of It All</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      What war debts mean&mdash;The devastation of farms and villages&mdash;Diseases
+      which travel with war&mdash;The men picked to die first&mdash;The
+      survivors and their children&mdash;The effect on France of Napoleon&rsquo;s wars&mdash;What
+      Hannibal did to Rome&mdash;What happened to the Franks&mdash;Sweden before
+      and after the wars of Charles XII&mdash;Europe at the close of the Great
+      War
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly rushing toward
+      bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day; France, Germany, and Austria
+      nearly as much apiece. Thus in the course of a year, a debt of $300 was
+      piled upon every man, woman, and child in the British kingdom. The average
+      family consists of five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per
+      family for each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family
+      in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of money that
+      they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the British people are
+      obliged to add this tremendous debt to the already very large amount that
+      they owe, and will have to go on paying interest on it for hundreds of
+      years.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France, Germany,
+      Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In spite of what we have
+      said above of the average income of English families, Great Britain is
+      rich when compared with Austria and Russia. What is more, Great Britain is
+      practically unscarred, while on the continent great tracts of land which
+      used to be well cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless
+      abandon. East Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary,
+      Alsace, Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary,
+      and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to one-fifth of the
+      whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and devastated.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      It will be years and years before these countries recover from the effects
+      of war&rsquo;s invasion. For every man killed on the field of battle, it is
+      estimated that two people die among the noncombatants. Children whose
+      fathers are at the front, frail women trying to do the work of men, aged
+      inhabitants of destroyed villages die by the thousands from want of food
+      and shelter.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to look
+      after their health or even to keep clean. As a result, diseases like the
+      plagues of olden times, which civilization thought it had killed, come to
+      life again and destroy whole cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off
+      one-fifth of the population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera
+      raged among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every
+      soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die from
+      disease or wounds or lack of proper care.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus63"></a>
+<img src="images/63.jpg" width="399" height="268" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Rendered Homeless by War</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the country,
+      the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of men who ought to be
+      carefully saved as the fathers of the people to come. As these are killed
+      or disabled, governments draw on the older men who are still vigorous and
+      hardy. Then finally they call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the
+      aged, and the young boys. As a general rule, the members of this last
+      class make up the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of
+      the strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of
+      children.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on the
+      coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like Rome, owned lands
+      far and near. Carthage would have been satisfied to &ldquo;live and let live,&rdquo;
+      but Rome would not have it so. As a result, the two cities engaged in
+      three terrible wars which ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before
+      Carthage was finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal,
+      dealt Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near
+      destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000 men apiece,
+      he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these 150,000 men was a loss from
+      which Rome never recovered. From this time on, her citizens were made of
+      poorer stuff, and the old Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free
+      government began to decline.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who swarmed into
+      the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although they were barbarians,
+      nevertheless had many excellent qualities. They were brave, hardy men and
+      stood for freedom from tyrants. However, they fought so many wars that
+      they were gradually killed off. Take the Franks, for example; the three
+      grandsons of Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a
+      disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle that almost
+      wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about 840 A.D.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about 1700
+      A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer Russia and
+      Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in the southern part of
+      Russia nearly a thousand miles away from home, and his great army was
+      wiped out. After his time, Sweden sank to the level of a second class
+      nation. The bodies of her best men had been strewn on battlefields
+      reaching from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Black Sea.
+    </p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illus64"></a>
+<img src="images/64.jpg" width="268" height="400" alt="Illustration: " />
+<p class="caption">Charles XII of Sweden</p>
+</div>
+
+    <p>
+      For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation showed a
+      lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men than it had one
+      hundred years previously. The reason for this is easily found. During the
+      twenty-three years of terrible fighting which followed the execution of
+      the king, France left her finest young men dead all over the face of
+      Europe. They died by the thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in
+      Germany, and above all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within
+      the last twenty years have the French, through their new interest in
+      out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a hardy,
+      vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war to set France
+      back where she was one hundred years ago.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her young
+      manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will keep them in
+      poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at a standstill; but
+      worst of all, the feeling of friendship between nations, of world
+      brotherhood, postponed one hundred years. Hatred of nation for nation is
+      stronger than ever.
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          How does a nation at war increase its debts?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why do diseases thrive in war time?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What became of the Goths and Franks?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the effect of Napoleon&rsquo;s many wars upon the strength of the
+          French nation?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Is war growing more humane?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap26"></a>Chapter XXVI.<br/>
+What Germany Must Learn</h2>
+
+    <p class="letter">
+      The German plot.&mdash;What the Czar&rsquo;s prohibition order did.&mdash;Where
+      Germany miscalculated.&mdash;Where England and America failed to
+      understand.&mdash;An appeal to force must be answered by force.&mdash;Effect
+      of the Russian revolution.&mdash;&ldquo;It never must happen again.&rdquo;&mdash;The
+      league to enforce peace.&mdash;The final lesson.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in English
+      speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be a real war
+      between civilized nations.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was
+      unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would deliberately plot,
+      in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the world through military
+      force, as we now know that the war lords of Prussia and Austria planned
+      it. However, the plot was not only made but was almost successful. They
+      made, though, a great mistake in the case of England. They were sure that
+      she would not enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France
+      and Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in
+      calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her troops. In
+      1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the Russian soldiers had
+      become so drunk that it was many weeks before they could be gotten into
+      any kind of military shape. But at the outbreak of the great &ldquo;world-war&rdquo;
+      the order of the Czar which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all
+      of Prussia&rsquo;s plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her
+      army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through the German
+      province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had opened. The result
+      was that the German soldiers had to be sent back from northern France to
+      stop the victorious march of the Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in
+      the first week of September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung
+      in the balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces on
+      either side might have made all the difference in the world in the final
+      outcome. The little British army, which was less than one-eighth of the
+      force of the Allied side, probably furnished the factor that defeated the
+      Germans. The presence in the battle of the German troops who had been
+      withdrawn to stop the Russians, might have given victory to the invaders.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the attack on
+      France. Any one of these three factors might have won the war in short
+      order for the forces of Austria and Germany. With France crushed, as she
+      might have been, in spite of her heroic resistance, without the help of
+      the tiny British army, or with the intervention of Italy on the side of
+      her former allies, it would have been no difficult task for the combined
+      forces of Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into
+      confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia, and be
+      back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves fell from the
+      trees.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations where the
+      people rule, could not believe that in this day and age the rulers of any
+      civilized country would deliberately plot robbery and piracy on so grand a
+      scale. They had looked forward to the time when all nations might disarm
+      and live in peace with their neighbors. In France alone, of all the
+      western nations, was there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France,
+      having learned the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France,
+      burdened by a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by
+      the Germans in &rsquo;71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to arms
+      at the first rattling of the Prussian saber.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians, and
+      thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the doctrine that
+      military force is the only power in the world worth considering. Some of
+      the German people still cling to the high ideals of their ancestors, but
+      the majority had drunk deeply of the wine of conquest and were intoxicated
+      with the idea that Germany&rsquo;s mission in life was to conquer all the other
+      nations of the world and rule them for their own good by German
+      thoroughness and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp
+      this feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force and
+      appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they will listen to
+      reason only after they have been thoroughly crushed by a superior force.
+      The sufferings brought upon the German nation by the war have had a great
+      effect in making them doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As
+      long as the people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful
+      victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the Roumanians, they
+      were contented to endure all manner of hardships.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in a
+      despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the German people,
+      although they were governed strictly by the military rule, nevertheless,
+      were contented as long as they were prosperous and victorious in war. With
+      the rumors and fears of defeat, however, they began to doubt their
+      government. There are indications that sweeping reforms in the election of
+      representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body itself will
+      take place before long.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central powers.
+      In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for a ruler while
+      England, France, and Italy were countries where the people elected their
+      law makers, made it impossible that there should be the best of
+      understanding between the allies. Then, again, the various peoples of
+      Austria-Hungary, while they were not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg
+      family, were afraid lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be
+      &ldquo;jumping from the frying pan into the fire.&rdquo; They would rather bear the
+      evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand dukes
+      might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to Germany to the
+      end, because of her fear that Russia would seize Constantinople. When the
+      new government of Russia, then, announced that they did not desire to
+      annex by force any territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were
+      in bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital city
+      was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs of Austria that
+      they were in no danger of being swallowed up in the Russian empire, but
+      that, on the other hand, the Russians wanted them to be free, like
+      themselves; it showed the German people how easily a whole nation, when
+      united, could get rid of its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who
+      had never favored the military rule.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now united in
+      an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in Austria and in Germany&mdash;a
+      curse which has disappeared from all other parts of the civilized world.
+      They are united to crush the military spirit of conquest which exists
+      among the war leaders of the Prussians. They are pledged &ldquo;to make the
+      world safe for democracy&rdquo; as President Wilson has said; to do away with
+      the rule of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and
+      Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil power, so
+      long will it be necessary to police the world. There must be no repetition
+      of the savage attack of August, 1914. There was a time when many of us
+      believed that some one nation, by disbanding its army and refusing to
+      build warships, might set an example of disarming which all the world
+      would finally follow. It now is plain that there must be a &ldquo;League to
+      Enforce Peace&rdquo; as Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have
+      declared. The United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy,
+      Belgium, Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway,
+      Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the will of the
+      people is the law, must unite in an alliance which will insist on
+      arbitration as a means of settling disputes.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which might
+      well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however, they laid
+      their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an Italian, a
+      Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court, by a vote of four
+      to one, decided against England, and England accepted the decision as
+      final, although it cost her many millions of dollars.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the world
+      maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as police for its own
+      affairs, and there must be an international police to settle all
+      differences between nations and to enforce the orders of the court of
+      arbitration. In time (no one knows how soon) the people of Germany and
+      Austria will be freed from the military rule which now has the power to
+      hurl them into war. When that day arrives and they learn that they have
+      been led astray by Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a
+      blessing to a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to
+      survive, they will know that &ldquo;Thou shalt not kill&rdquo; is just as strong a
+      commandment today as when it first was uttered.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to live,
+      and that no country can wrong another through force of arms without
+      suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in the loss of the
+      sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening of the Christ-spirit of
+      doing good to others, the nation which resorts to force to gratify its own
+      selfish ends, like the individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds.
+      It, was a great American who said, &ldquo;The world is my country and mankind
+      are my brothers.&rdquo;
+    </p>
+
+    <div class="review">
+      <h5>
+        Questions for Review
+      </h5>
+      <ol>
+        <li>
+          Why did England and the United States fail to understand Germany?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What right would Germany have had to an indemnity?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What great change took place in Germany after 1866?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What lesson must Germany learn?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Why have the South American republics fought so many wars?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          Suggest some solution for the problem of war.
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is meant by arbitration?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente?
+        </li>
+        <li>
+          What is the greatest lesson taught by the war?
+        </li>
+      </ol>
+    </div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap27"></a>Pronouncing Glossary</h2>
+
+    <p>
+      In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the English
+      pronunciation is given for names that have become at all familiar in
+      history or geography. Thus the English Cra&#772;&#8242;co&#772;w is given
+      instead of the Polish Kra&#775;&#8242;ko&#861;of or the German Kra&#776;&#8242;kau.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given as the
+      natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no recognized English
+      pronunciation.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations, the
+      author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus a seaport in
+      Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no less than five names. Its
+      Greek name is pronounced The&#774;ssa&#775;lo&#772;nyi&#8242;ki, while
+      other nations term it variously Sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ka&#772;, Se&#774;la&#775;ni&#776;k&#8242;,
+      So&#772;&#8242;lo&#772;n, Sa&#775;lo&#772;ni&#8242;ki or Salo&#772;&#8242;nica&#775;.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking people to
+      reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables which approximate them
+      as nearly as possible.
+    </p>
+
+    <p>
+      Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found pronounced
+      in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as Austria, Bismarck, etc.,
+      can hardly be mispronounced.<br/><br/>
+    </p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+Aboukir (a&#776;&#8242;bo&#776;&#776; ki&#776;r)<br/>
+Aegean (e&#772; je&#772;&#8242;a&#774;n)<br/>
+Agadir (a&#775; ga&#775; di&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Aix-la-Chapelle (a&#772;ks la&#776; sha&#775;pe&#774;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Albania (a&#774;l ba&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Algeciras (a&#774;l je&#774; si&#8242;ra&#775;s) or (a&#775;lje&#774; si&#776;&#8242;ra&#775;s)<br/>
+Alsace (a&#775;l sa&#775;s&#8242;)<br/>
+Andrassy (a&#775;n dra&#775;s&#8242;sy&#774;)<br/>
+Aragon (a&#774;&#8242;ra&#775; go&#774;n)<br/>
+Armada (a&#776;r ma&#776;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Armenians (a&#776;r me&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Arminius (a&#776;r mi&#774;n&#8242;i&#776; u&#774;s)<br/>
+Avlona (a&#775;v lo&#772;&#8242;n&#775;a)<br/>
+Baden (ba&#776;&#8242;de&#774;n)<br/>
+Balkan (ba&#775;l ka&#776;n&#8242;) or (bo&#770;l&#8242;ka&#776;n)<br/>
+Banat (ba&#775;n&#8242;a&#775;t)<br/>
+Basques (ba&#775;sks)<br/>
+Bastille (ba&#775; sti&#776;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Bavaria (ba&#775; va&#772;&#8242;ri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Belfort (be&#774;l&#8242;fo&#770;r)<br/>
+Bernadotte (be&#772;r&#8242;na&#775; do&#774;t)<br/>
+Bessarabia (be&#774;s sa&#775; ra&#772;&#8242;bi&#776; a&#775;) or (be&#774;s
+sa&#775; ra&#776;&#8242;bi&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen (she&#771;n how&#8242;ze&#774;n)<br/>
+Blenheim (ble&#774;n&#8242;e&#774;m) or (ble&#774;n&#8242;hi&#772;m)<br/>
+Boer (bo&#862;or)<br/>
+Bohemia (bo&#772;he&#772;&#8242;mi&#772;a&#775;)<br/>
+Bonaparte (bo&#772;&#8242;na&#775; pa&#776;rt)<br/>
+Bosnia (bo&#774;z&#8242;ni&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Bourbon (bo&#862;or&#8242;bu&#774;n)<br/>
+Brandenburg (bra&#774;n&#8242;de&#774;n bu&#770;rg)<br/>
+Breton (bre&#772;&#8242;ton) or (bre&#774;t&#8242;u&#774;n)<br/>
+Brusiloff (bru&#772; si&#8242;lo&#774;ff)<br/>
+Bukowina (bo&#861;o ko&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Bulgaria (bu&#774;l ga&#772;&#8242;ri&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Burgundians (bu&#770;r&#8242;gu&#774;n&rsquo;di&#776; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Burgundy (bu&#770;r&#8242;gu&#774;n dy)<br/>
+Byzantium (by&#774; za&#774;n&#8242;ti&#776; &#774;um)<br/>
+Caesar (se&#772;z&#8242;e&#772;r)<br/>
+Carniola (ca&#775;r ni&#776; o&#772;&#8242;la&#775;)<br/>
+Carpathian (ca&#771;r pa&#772;&#8242;thi&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Carthage (ca&#775;r&#8242;tha&#772;j)<br/>
+Castile (ca&#775;s til&#8242;)<br/>
+Castlereagh (ca&#774;s&#8242;l ra&#772;)<br/>
+Cavour (ca&#775; vo&#862;or&#8242;)<br/>
+Charlemagne (sha&#776;r le&#774; ma&#772;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Chauvinists (sho&#772;&#8242;vi&#774;n i&#774;sts)<br/>
+Cicero (si&#774;s&#8242;e&#772; ro&#772;)<br/>
+Cimbri (si&#774;m&#8242;bri&#776;)<br/>
+Cincinnatus (si&#774;n si&#774;n na&#776;&#8242;tu&#774;s)<br/>
+Constantine (co&#774;n&#8242;sta&#774;n ti&#776;n)<br/>
+Cracow (cra&#772;&#8242;co&#772;)<br/>
+Crimea (cri&#774; me&#772;&#8242;a&#775;)<br/>
+Croatia (cro&#772; a&#776;&#8242;ti&#776; a&#775;) or (cro&#772;a&#776;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Czech (che&#774;k)<br/>
+Dacians (da&#772;&#8242;shu&#774;nz)<br/>
+Dalmatia (da&#774;l ma&#772;&#8242;shi&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Théophile Delcassé (ta&#772;&#8242;o&#772; fi&#776;l de&#774;l
+ca&#775; sa&#776;&#8242;)<br/>
+Deutschland (doitsh&#8242;la&#775;nd)<br/>
+Devonshire (de&#774;v&#8242;o&#774;n shi&#776;r)<br/>
+Disraeli (di&#774;z ra&#772;&#8242;li&#774;)<br/>
+Dobrudja (do&#772; bro&#861;od&#8242;ja&#775;)<br/>
+Dreibund (dri&#772;&#8242;bo&#861;ond)<br/>
+Durazzo (du&#772; ra&#775;t&#8242;zo&#776;)<br/>
+Emmanuel (e&#774;m ma&#774;n&#8242;u&#772; e&#774;l)<br/>
+Entente Cordiale (a&#775;n ta&#775;nt&#8242;co&#770;r dya&#775;l&#8242;)<br/>
+Enver Bey (e&#774;n&#8242;ve&#771;r ba&#772;&#8242;)<br/>
+Epinal (e&#774;p&#8242;i&#776; na&#775;l)<br/>
+Epirus (e&#774;p i&#772;&#8242;ru&#774;s)<br/>
+Erse (e&#772;rs)<br/>
+Esthonians (e&#774;s tho&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#774;nz)<br/>
+Etruscans (e&#772; tru&#774;s&#8242;ca&#774;nz)<br/>
+Euphrates (u&#772; fra&#772;&#8242;te&#772;z)<br/>
+Fashoda (fa&#775; sho&#772;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Fiume (fi&#776; u&#772;&#8242;me)<br/>
+Gaelic (ga&#772;&#8242;li&#774;c)<br/>
+Galicia (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Gallipoli (ga&#774;l i&#774;&#8242;po&#772;li&#776;)<br/>
+Garibaldi (ga&#775;r i&#776; ba&#775;l&#8242;di&#776;)<br/>
+Gerard (je&#774;r a&#776;rd&#8242;)<br/>
+Germanic (je&#771;r ma&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Glamis (gla&#774;m&#8242;i&#774;s)<br/>
+Gortchakoff (go&#770;r&#8242;cha&#775; ko&#774;f)<br/>
+Goths (go&#774;ths)<br/>
+Granada (gra&#775; na&#776;&#8242;da&#775;)<br/>
+Hannibal (ha&#774;n&#8242;ni&#774; bl)<br/>
+Hanover (ha&#774;n&#8242;o&#772; ve&#771;r)<br/>
+Herzegovina (ha&#772;rt&#8242;se&#774; go&#772; vi&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Hesse-Darmstadt (he&#774;s se&#774; da&#776;rm&#8242;sta&#775;t)<br/>
+Hindustan (hi&#774;n do&#862;o sta&#776;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Hohenzollern (ho&#772; e&#774;n tso&#774;l&#8242;e&#771;rn)<br/>
+Holstein (ho&#772;l&#8242;sti&#772;n)<br/>
+Illyrians (i&#774; ly&#774;r&#8242;i&#774; a&#775;ns)<br/>
+Istria (i&#774;s&#8242;tri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Janina (ya&#775; ni&#776;&#8242;na&#775;)<br/>
+Janus (ja&#772;&#8242;nu&#774;s)<br/>
+Jonescu (jo&#772; ne&#774;s&#8242;ko&#862;o)<br/>
+Jutes (ju&#772;ts)<br/>
+Kaiser (ki&#772;&#8242;ze&#771;r)<br/>
+Kaspar (ka&#774;s&#8242;pa&#776;r)<br/>
+Kavala (ka&#775; va&#776;&#8242; la&#775;)<br/>
+Kerensky (ke&#774; re&#774;n&#8242;ski&#774;)<br/>
+Khartoom (ka&#776;r to&#862;om&#8242;)<br/>
+Korea (ko&#772; re&#772;&#8242;a&#775;)<br/>
+Ko&#775;rniloff (kor ni&#776;&#8242;lo&#774;ff)<br/>
+Koumanova (ko&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;no&#772; va&#775;)<br/>
+Lamar (la&#775; ma&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Leon (le&#772;&#8242;o&#774;n)<br/>
+Liege (li&#776; e&#774;zh&#8242;)<br/>
+Lithuania (li&#774;th o&#862;o a&#772;&#8242;ni&#772;a&#775;)<br/>
+Longwy (lo&#774;ng&#8242;vy&#774;)<br/>
+Lorraine (lo&#770;r ra&#772;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Macedonia (ma&#774; se&#772; do&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Magyar (mo&#774;d&#8242;ya&#776;r)<br/>
+Manchuria (ma&#774;n chu&#772;&#8242;ri&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Marathon (ma&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; tho&#774;n)<br/>
+Marchand (ma&#776;r sha&#776;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Maria Theresa (ma&#776; ri&#772;&#8242;a&#776; te&#774;r e&#772;s&#8242;a&#776;)<br/>
+Marlborough (ma&#776;rl&#8242;bo&#772; ro&#772;)<br/>
+Marsala (ma&#776;r sa&#776;&#8242;la&#775;)<br/>
+Marseillaise (ma&#776;r se&#774;l ya&#772;z&#8242;)<br/>
+Mazzini (ma&#775;t si&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;)<br/>
+Mesopotamia (me&#774;s o&#772; po&#772; ta&#772;&#8242;mi&#774; a&#776;)<br/>
+Metternich (me&#774;t&#8242;te&#771;r ni&#774;kh)<br/>
+Milioukoff (mi&#774;l yo&#862;o&#8242;ko&#774;ff)<br/>
+Mirabeau (mi&#774;r&#8242;a&#775; bo&#772;)<br/>
+Modena (mo&#772; de&#772;&#8242;na&#775;) or (mo&#772;&#8242;da&#772; na&#775;)<br/>
+Mohammedan (mo&#772; ha&#774;m&#8242;me&#774;d a&#775;n)<br/>
+Moltke (mo&#772;lt&#8242;ka&#775;)<br/>
+Monastir (mo&#772; na&#775; sti&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Montenegrin (mo&#774;n te&#772; ne&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;n)<br/>
+Montenegro (mo&#774;n te&#772; ne&#772;&#8242;gro&#772;)<br/>
+Moslems (mo&#774;z&#8242;le&#774;mz)<br/>
+Murat (mu&#776;&#8242;ra&#776;)<br/>
+Napoleon (na&#775; po&#772;&#8242;le&#772; o&#774;n)<br/>
+Nice (ni&#776;s)<br/>
+Northumberland (no&#770;rth u&#774;m&#8242;be&#771;r la&#774;nd)<br/>
+Novibazar (no&#772;&#8242;vi&#774; ba&#775; za&#776;r&#8242;)<br/>
+Ostrogoths (o&#774;s&#8242;tro&#772; go&#774;ths)<br/>
+Ottoman (o&#774;t&#8242;to&#772; ma&#775;n)<br/>
+Parma (pa&#776;r&#8242;ma&#775;)<br/>
+Piedmont (pe&#772;d&#8242;mo&#774;nt)<br/>
+Pola (po&#772;&#8242;la&#776;)<br/>
+Poland (po&#772;&#8242;la&#774;nd)<br/>
+Pomerania (po&#774;m e&#774;r a&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Pyrenees (pi&#774;r&#8242;e&#774;n e&#772;e&#772;z)<br/>
+Rasputin (ra&#776;s po&#862;o&#8242;ti&#776;n)<br/>
+Reichstag (ri&#772;khs&#8242;ta&#776;gh)<br/>
+Riga (ri&#776;&#8242;ga&#775;)<br/>
+Romansh (ro&#772; ma&#775;nsh&#8242;)<br/>
+Roon (ro&#772;n)<br/>
+Roumani (ro&#862;o ma&#776;&#8242;ni&#776;)<br/>
+Roumania (ro&#862;o ma&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Ruthenian (ro&#861;o the&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Sadowa (sa&#776;&#8242;do&#772; va&#775;)<br/>
+Salonika (sa&#775;&#8242;lo&#772; ni&#776;&#8242;ka&#775;)<br/>
+Sanjak (sa&#775;n ja&#775;k&#8242;)<br/>
+San Stephano (sa&#775;n ste&#774; fa&#776;&#8242;no&#776;)<br/>
+Sa&ocirc;ne (so&#772;n)<br/>
+Sarajevo (sa&#776; ra&#776; ye&#774;&#8242;vo&#772;)<br/>
+Sardinia (sa&#776;r di&#774;n&#8242;i&#775; a&#775;)<br/>
+Sarrail (sa&#775;r ri&#772;&#8242;)<br/>
+Savoy (sa&#775; voy&#8242;)<br/>
+Saxony (sa&#774;x&#8242;o&#772;n y&#774;)<br/>
+Sazanof (sa&#776;&#8242;za&#776; no&#774;ff)<br/>
+Scandinavian (sca&#774;n di&#774; na&#772;&#8242;vi&#774; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Schleswig (shle&#774;s&#8242;vi&#774;g)<br/>
+Scutari (sko&#862;o&#8242;ta&#776; ri&#776;)<br/>
+Serbia (se&#771;r&#8242;bi&#774; a&#775;)<br/>
+Silesia (si&#774;l e&#772;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Skipetars (ski&#776;p&#8242;e&#774; tarz)<br/>
+Slavic (sla&#776;&#8242;vi&#774;c)<br/>
+Slavonia (sla&#775; vo&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Slavonic (sla&#775; vo&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Slavs (sla&#776;vz)<br/>
+Slovak (slo&#772; va&#776;k&#8242;)<br/>
+Slovenes (slo&#772; ve&#772;nz&#8242;)<br/>
+Slovenian (slo&#772; ve&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;n)<br/>
+Sobieski (so&#772; bi&#774; e&#774;s&#8242;ki&#774;)<br/>
+Stoessel (ste&#772;s&#8242;se&#774;l)<br/>
+Strasbourg (stra&#775;s&#8242;bo&#861;org)<br/>
+Styria (sty&#774;&#8242;ri&#774; a&#775;)<br/>
+Suevi (swe&#772;&#8242;vi&#776;)<br/>
+Syria (sy&#774;r&#8242;i&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Take (ta&#776; ka&#772;)<br/>
+Talleyrand (ta&#775;l&#8242;la&#772; ra&#775;n)<br/>
+Teutones (tu&#772; to&#772;&#8242;ne&#772;z)<br/>
+Teutonic (tu&#772; to&#774;n&#8242;i&#774;c)<br/>
+Thessaly (the&#774;s&#8242;sa&#775; ly&#774;)<br/>
+Thracians (thra&#772;&#8242;shu&#774;nz)<br/>
+Tigris (ti&#772;&#8242;gri&#774;s)<br/>
+Toul (to&#862;ol)<br/>
+Transylvania (tra&#774;n sy&#774;l va&#772;&#8242;ni&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Trentino (tre&#774;n ti&#772;&#8242;no&#772;)<br/>
+Trieste (tri&#776; e&#774;st&#8242;) or (tri&#776; e&#774;s&#8242;ta&#772;)<br/>
+Tripoli (tri&#774;p&#8242;o&#772; li&#774;)<br/>
+Tuscany (tu&#774;s&#8242;ca&#775; ny&#774;)<br/>
+Tyrol (ty&#774;&#8242;ro&#772;l)<br/>
+Tzernagorah (tze&#772;r na&#776;&#8242;go&#772;&#8242;ra&#775;)<br/>
+Vandals (va&#774;n&#8242;dlz)<br/>
+Venetia (ve&#774;n e&#772;&#8242;sha&#775;)<br/>
+Venizelos (ve&#774;n i&#774; ze&#774;l&#8242;o&#774;s)<br/>
+Vercingetorix (ve&#772;r si&#774;n je&#774;t&#8242;o&#776; ri&#774;ks)<br/>
+Verdun (va&#772;r du&#774;n&#8242;)<br/>
+Volgars (vo&#774;l&#8242;ga&#776;rz)<br/>
+Von Bernstorff (fo&#774;n ba&#772;rns&#8242;torf)<br/>
+Von Plehve (fo&#774;n pla&#772;&#8242;ve&#772;)<br/>
+Von Tirpitz (fo&#774;n ti&#776;r&#8242;pi&#774;ts)<br/>
+Vosges (vo&#772;zh)<br/>
+Walloon (wa&#776;l lo&#862;on&#8242;)<br/>
+Westphalia (we&#774;st fa&#772;&#8242;li&#776; a&#775;)<br/>
+Wied (we&#862;ed)<br/>
+Wilhelmine (wi&#774;l&#8242;he&#774;l mi&#776;n)<br/>
+Yorkshire (yo&#770;rk&#8242;shi&#772;r)
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap28"></a>Index</h2>
+
+      <p>
+        Adriatic Sea, question of the control of.<br /> Agadir incident.<br />
+        Albania, formation of the kingdom of.<br /> Albanians,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;language
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;habits of.<br /> Alexander the Great.<br /> Algeciras
+        incident.<br /> Alliance, the Holy.<br /> Alliance, the Triple.<br />
+        Alliance, the Dual.<br /> Alliance, the Balkan.<br /> Alsace.<br />
+        Ambassador.<br /> Angles, the, invade Britain.<br /> Arbitration of
+        national disputes.<br /> Arminius.<br /> Armor, value of.<br />
+        Austria-Hungary,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;helps to
+        divide Poland;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war with France;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at
+        war with Sardinia and France;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war with Prussia and
+        Italy;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble.<br />
+        Austrians in Italy.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Balance of Power.<br /> Balkan problem.<br /> Barons.<br /> Bastille, fall
+        of the.<br /> Belgium,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;joined to Holland to form the
+        Netherlands;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;independent;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;guaranteed
+        its freedom by three powers.<br /> Bernadotte.<br /> Bismarck-Scho&#776;nausen.<br />
+        Blenheim, battle of (poem).<br /> Blockade of Germany.<br /> Bohemia,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;part of the Holy Roman Empire;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;part of the
+        Hapsburg domains.<br /> Bolsheviki, revolt of the.<br /> Bonaparte, Louis
+        Napoleon.<br /> Bonaparte, Napoleon.<br /> Bosnian problem.<br /> Bourbon
+        family.<br /> Brandenburg;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp; rise of.<br /> Brazil
+        declares war on Germany.<br /> Britons.<br /> Bulgaria,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;freed
+        by Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;left partially under the control of Turkey;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;independent;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;at war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;with
+        five nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;plunges into world war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;treacherously
+        orders an attack on Greece and Serbia.<br /> Bulgars,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Macedonia.<br /> Bulow, Prince von.<br />
+        Burgundians.<br /> Byzantium becomes Constantinople.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Caesar, Julius.<br /> Cape to Cairo Railroad.<br /> Catharine II of
+        Russia.<br /> Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia.<br /> Celtic
+        languages, disappearance of.<br /> Celts.<br /> Charlemagne.<br /> Charles
+        V.<br /> Charles XII of Sweden.<br /> Chauvinists.<br /> Churchill,
+        Winston.<br /> Cincinnatus.<br /> Constantine,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;prince in
+        Crete;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;king of Greece.<br /> Constantinople.<br />
+        Contraband of war.<br /> Cracow, Republic of.<br /> Crete.<br /> Czechs.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Danes,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Schleswig.<br /> Dark Ages.<br /> Delcassé.<br />
+        Denmark,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;loses Norway;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defeated by
+        Prussia and Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;injured by submarine campaign.<br />
+        <i>Deutschland</i>, voyages of the.<br /> Dialects.<br /> Dictator, Roman.<br />
+        Divine right of kings.<br /> Dukes vs. Kings.<br /> Duma, the Russian;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;asked to form a government.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Edward VII.<br /> Elba, Napoleon&rsquo;s return from.<br /> Elector, the Great.<br />
+        Electors of the Holy Roman Empire.<br /> England,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;power
+        of the king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Egypt;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;troubles of,
+        in 1914.<br /> Entente Cordiale.<br /> Entente, the Triple.<br />
+        Esthonians.<br /> Etruscans.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fashoda incident.<br /> Ferdinand of Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;enters
+        war on side of Germany and Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks Serbia;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;ambitions of.<br /> Feudal system.<br /> Finland annexed to
+        Russia.<br /> Finns;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp; conquered by the Swedes.<br />
+        Flemish.<br /> France,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;power of king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;execution
+        of king of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Africa;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;wars of.<br />
+        Franks.<br /> Franz Ferdinand.<br /> Frederick the Great.<br /> French
+        Revolution.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gaelic language.<br /> Gaels.<br /> Garibaldi.<br /> Gauls.<br /> German
+        Confederation.<br /> German secret agents<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;set fire to
+        American property and kill Americans;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;try to stir up
+        war between the U. S. and Japan;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;stir up trouble in
+        Russia.<br /> German tribes.<br /> Germanic languages.<br /> Germany, the
+        Holy Roman Empire of.<br /> Germany,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;the modern Empire
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;encourages France to declare war on England;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;makes friends with Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;policy toward
+        Balkan nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;warns Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks
+        France through Belgium.<br /> Goths.<br /> Government,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;by
+        the people;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;based on the consent of the governed;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;limited to the ruling class.<br /> Governments, newness of
+        European.<br /> Great Britain<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;offers to judge Serbian
+        trouble;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Germany.<br /> Greece,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;treaty of, with Serbia;<br /> Greek Empire,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;fall of.<br /> Greeks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;ungenerous
+        to Bulgarians,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;desert to Venizelos;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;join
+        the Entente.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hague, court of the.<br /> Hannibal&rsquo;s war against Rome.<br /> Hapsburgs,
+        the.<br /> Hohenzollern family.<br /> Holstein.<br /> Homage.<br />
+        Hungarians.<br /> Huns.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Indemnity.<br /> Indo-European family of languages.<br /> Istria.<br />
+        Italy,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;a battle ground of nations;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;becomes
+        a nation;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;makes war on Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declines
+        to support Austria and Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on
+        Austria.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Kavala.<br /> Kent, William, on Mexican intervention.<br /> Kerensky,
+        leader of the Russian government.<br /> Kings, origin of.<br /> Koumanova,
+        battle of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Labor troubles,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in England;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Russia.<br />
+        Language, relationship shown by.<br /> Latin tongues.<br /> Lithuania.<br />
+        Lombards.<br /> Lorraine.<br /> Louis XIV of France.<br /> <i>Lusitania</i>,
+        sinking of the.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Macedonia.<br /> Magyars.<br /> Marathon, battle of.<br /> Marchand, Major.<br />
+        Maria Theresa,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;Empress of Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;helps
+        to divide Poland.<br /> Marlborough, Duke of.<br /> Mazzini.<br />
+        Metternich.<br /> Middle Ages.<br /> Military service,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;owed
+        to rulers;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Prussia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in France.<br />
+        Mirabeau.<br /> Moltke.<br /> Montenegro,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Austria.<br /> Monroe Doctrine.<br /> Moors.<br />
+        Murat.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Napoleon III.<br /> Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of.<br />
+        Newspapers, control of.<br /> Normans.<br /> Norway,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;joined
+        to Sweden;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;danger from Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;vigorously
+        protests submarine warfare.<br /> Novibazar, the Sanjak of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ostrogoths.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Paris, siege of.<br /> Peace,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;German offer of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;Allies&rsquo; terms of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;United States&rsquo; desire
+        for;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;Russo-German conference toward;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;German
+        desire for.<br /> Peasants,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attached to the land;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;support fighting classes.<br /> Peter the Great.<br /> Poland,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;kingdom of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;partition of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;given
+        largely to Russia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;revolutions in.<br /> Preparation for
+        war<br /> Prussia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of kingdom of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;crushed
+        by Napoleon;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;dominated by Bismarck.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rasputin;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;assists Sturmer;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;is killed.<br />
+        Reichstag.<br /> Reign of Terror.<br /> Republic,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;first
+        French;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;second French;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;third French.<br />
+        Robber chiefs.<br /> Roman Empire, beginnings of.<br /> Romansh people.<br />
+        Rome, wars of, with Carthage.<br /> Roon.<br /> Rothschild, the banking
+        house of.<br /> Roumani.<br /> Roumania;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;hopes of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;population of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war on Austria;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;is crushed between two armies.<br /> Russia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;rise
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks Turkey;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;policy of;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;relations with Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defends Serbia;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;ignorance of the people of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;revolution in;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;controlled by the Bolsheviki.<br /> Ruthenians.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sarrail,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sent to Salonika;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;watching
+        Bulgars and Greeks.<br /> Saxons.<br /> Saxony,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;annexed
+        in part to Prussia;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;allied to Austria.<br /> Salonika,
+        Spanish Jews in.<br /> Sardinia, kingdom of.<br /> Schleswig.<br />
+        Scutari.<br /> Serbia,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;trade with Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;relations
+        with Bulgaria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;trouble with Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacked
+        on three sides.<br /> Serbs,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;lands
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;language of.<br /> Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two.<br />
+        Silesia, seizure of.<br /> Slavic tribes.<br /> Slovaks.<br /> Slovenes.<br />
+        Sobieski, John, king of Poland.<br /> Socialists,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in
+        Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;in Italy.<br /> Spain,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;origin
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;drives out &ldquo;unbelievers,&rdquo;;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;becomes
+        a republic.<br /> Submarine boats<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink British warships;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;sink merchant ships;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;cross the Atlantic;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;begin to sink all ships
+        without warning;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;kill Americans;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sink
+        Norwegian ships.<br /> Suevi.<br /> Sturmer chosen prime minister of
+        Russia.<br /> Sweden, decline of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Talleyrand.<br /> Trentino.<br /> Tunis, seized by France.<br /> Turkey,<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;defended by France and England;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;attacks
+        Russia.<br /> Turks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;capture Constantinople;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;driven
+        back from Vienna;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;the young Turks;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;tolerance
+        of the young;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;bigotry of the young.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ulster trouble, the.<br /> United States,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;indignant over
+        the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;warns Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;defends
+        munitions trade in reply to Austria;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;receives <i>Deutschland</i>
+        hospitably;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sends the German Ambassador home;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;declares war;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;desires nothing but to be
+        safe from attack;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;sends an army to Europe.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vandals.<br /> Venice, Republic of.<br /> Venizelos,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;prime
+        minister of Greece;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;comes from Crete;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;opposes
+        King Constantine;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;once more prime minister.<br />
+        Vercingetorix.<br /> Victor Emmanuel.<br /> Vienna, Congress of.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Walloons.<br /> War,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;four causes of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;cost
+        of;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;diseases caused by;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;increasing
+        horror of.<br /> Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of.<br /> Waterloo, battle of.<br />
+        William of Normandy.<br /> Wilson, President,<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;patient
+        with Germany;<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;asks both sides to name their terms;<br />
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;calls Congress to declare war.
+      </p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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