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diff --git a/11200-0.txt b/11200-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cdbb1f --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7693 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 *** + +[Illustration] + + + + + The World War and What Was Behind It + + or + + The Story of the Map of Europe + + By + + L. P. Bénézet + + SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA + +[Illustration: The Peace Palace at the Hague] + + + + +Preface + + +This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils, +teachers, and the general public in a series of talks on the causes of +the great European war which were given by the author in the fall of +1914. The audiences were widely different in character. They included +pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students in high +school and normal school, teachers in the public schools, an +association of business men, and a convention of boards of education. +In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: “If there were only some +book which would give us these facts in simple language and illustrate +them by maps and charts as you have done!” After searching the market +for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put +the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to +write in a style which is well within the comprehension of the children +in the upper grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The +book deals with the remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made +the great war inevitable. Facts are revealed which, so far as the +author knows, have not been published in any history to date; facts +which had the strongest possible bearing on the outbreak of the war. +The average American, whether child or adult, has little conception of +conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of the +Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second +generations both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry +with Irish, Scotch with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech +and Teuton, Bulgar and Serb may live side by side for centuries without +mixing or losing their distinct racial characteristics. In order that +the American reader may understand the complicated problem of European +peace, a study of races and languages is given in the text, showing the +relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin, and Teuton, and the various +sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of these facts is very +essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe. The author +has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely +king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the +natural division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the +mass of the population. + +The chapter, entitled “Europe as it Should Be,” with its accompanying +map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would look if +the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single +political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to +draw sharp lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into +Skipetar and Serb on the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is +one-third German in its population. There are large islands of Germans +and Magyars in the midst of the Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a +few examples out of many which could be cited. However, the general aim +of the chapter has been to divide the continent into nations, in each +of which the leading race would vastly predominate in population. + +It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw +light upon the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its +cruelty and its needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe +from the time of the great invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a +continuous story of government without the consent of the governed. + +A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many +countries have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem +as though after this terrible demonstration of the results of armed +peace, the governments of the world would be ready to listen to some +plan which would forever forbid the possibility of another war. Just as +individuals in the majority of civilized countries discovered, a +hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for them to carry +weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy protection, +so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable to +the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after +years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war, +at last learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will +have to learn it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of +feudal government in Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of +the common people in many countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with +the advance of education, and we trust that feudalism will not long +survive its last terrible crime, the world war of 1914. + +Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very +essential that our people understand the events that led up to our +participation in the war. So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving +nature, we are so far removed from the militarism of continental +Europe, and the whole war seems so needless and so profitless to those +who have not studied carefully its causes, that there is danger of a +want of harmony with the program of the government if all are not +taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel +through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With +this in mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to +demonstrating why no other course was open to this country than to +accept the war which was forced upon her. + +In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many +helpful suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to +Professor A. G. Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H. +Sanford of the Wisconsin State Normal School at La Crosse, who were +kind enough to read through and correct the manuscript before its final +revision. The author is especially indebted to the Committee on Public +Information at Washington, D. C., for furnishing to him authoritative +data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment is also made to Row, +Peterson and Company for kind permission to use illustrations from +_History Stories of Other Lands_; also to the International Film +Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable copyright +illustrations of scenes relating to the great war. + +L. P. BÉNÉZET. + +_Evansville, Indiana, +January 2, 1918_ + + + + +Contents + + + Preface + + I. The Great War + II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes + III. From Chiefs to Kings + IV. Master and Man + V. A Babel of Tongues + VI. “The Terrible Turk” + VII. The Rise of Modern Nations + VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms + IX. The Little Man from the Common People + X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs + XI. Italy a Nation at Last + XII. The Man of Blood and Iron + XIII. The Balance of Power + XIV. The “Entente Cordiale” + XV. The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth + XVI. Who Profits? + XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine + XVIII. Why England Came In + XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition + XX. Back to the Balkans + XXI. The War under the Sea + XXII. Another Crown Topples + XXIII. The United States at War—Why? + XXIV. Europe As It Should Be + XXV. The Cost of It All + XXVI. What Germany Must Learn + + Pronouncing Glossary + Index + + +List of Maps + + I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship + II. Distribution of Languages + III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C. + IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D. + V. Southeastern Europe 1690 + VI. The Empire of Charlemagne + VII. Europe in 1540 + VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806 + IX. Italy in 525 + X. Italy in 650 + XI. Italy in 1175 + XII. Europe in 1796 + XIII. Europe in 1810 + XIV. Europe in 1815 + XV. Italy Made One Nation—1914— + XVI. Formation of the German Empire + XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796 + XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century + XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It + XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913 + XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France + XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It + XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out + XXIV. Europe as It Should Be + + +List of Illustrations + + I. The Peace Palace at the Hague + II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging + III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe + IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago + V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators + VI. Germans Going into Battle + VII. A Hun Warrior + VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar + IX. A Frankish Chief + X. Movable Huts of Early Germans + XI. Goths on the March + XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine + XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England + XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians + XV. A Knight in Armor + XVI. A Norman Castle in England + XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord + XVIII. William the Conqueror + XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family + XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople + XXI. A Scene in Salonika + XXII. Louis XIV + XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough + XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg + XXV. Frederick the Great + XXVI. Catharine II + XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV + XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille + XXIX. The Palace of Versailles + XXX. The Reign of Terror + XXXI. The First Singing of “The Marseillaise” + XXXII. Charles the Fifth + XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814 + XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow + XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo + XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna + XXXVII. Prince Metternich + XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel + XXXIX. Bismarck + XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War + XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany + XLII. Peter the Great + XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia + XLIV. The Congress of Berlin + XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff + XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople + XLVII. Durazzo + XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught + XLIX. Submarine + L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns + LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army + LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front + LIII. Venizelos + LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay + LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution + LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma + LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops + LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner + LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message + LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents + LXI. Polish Children + LXII. The Price of War + LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War + LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden + + + + +The Story of the Map of Europe + + + + +Chapter I. +The Great War + + The call from Europe.—Friend against friend.—Why?—Death and + devastation.—No private quarrel.—Ordered by government.—What + makes government?—The influence of the past.—Four causes of war. + + + Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being + erected in a great American city during the summer of 1914 were + two men who had not yet become citizens of the United States. + Born abroad, they still owed allegiance, one to the Emperor of + Austria, the other to the Czar of Russia. + +Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a +chance to understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They +were members of the same labor union, and had worked side by side on +several different jobs. In the course of time, a firm friendship had +sprung up between them. Suddenly, on the same day, each was notified to +call at the office of the agent of his government in the city. Next +morning the Russian came to his boss to explain that he must quit work, +that he had been called home to fight for the “Little Father” of the +Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian, there ahead of him, telling +that he had to go, for the Russians had declared war on Austria and the +good Kaiser,[1] Franz Josef, had need of all his young men. + + [1] In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor. + + The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The + pitiless arm of the god of war had reached across the broad + Atlantic, plucking them back from peace and security. With + weapons put into their hands they would be ordered to kill each + other on sight. + + A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful “Good luck to you,” and they + parted. + + Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong + enough to separate the two friends and drag them back five + thousand miles for the purpose of killing each other? To answer + these two questions is the purpose of this little volume. + + Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and + Africa were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the + world has ever seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions + were maimed, blinded, or disfigured for life. Still other + millions were herded into prison camps or forced to work like + convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with grief. + Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the + war had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children + were left fatherless. What had been the richest and most + productive farming land in Europe was made a barren waste. + Thousands of villages and towns were utterly destroyed and their + inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the sick, and the + infants alike. + + In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and + Serbia, the wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally + starving, because all food had been seized for the use of + fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which cannot exist where people + have the chance to bathe and keep themselves clean, once more + appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims. The + strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations + were shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable + existence, sick or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in + many factories which once turned out the comforts and luxuries of + civilization. There were no men to make toys for the children, or + to work for mankind’s happiness. The only mills and factories + which were running full time were those that turned out the tools + of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations poured + out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of + killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What + was the reason for it all? + +[Illustration: Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging] + + In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in + Germany freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with + intercourse Russians, and happy to have Englishmen spend their + money in Germany. France and Austria exchanged goods and their + inhabitants traveled within each other’s boundaries. A Frenchman + might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed. There was + nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman or + Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could + meet and find plenty of ground for friendship. + + We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred. + One can imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each + other every day might have trouble and grow to hate each other, + but in this great war soldiers were shooting down other soldiers + whom they had never seen before, with whom they had never + exchanged a word, and it would not profit them if they killed a + whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the soldiers did + not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a + telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling + and telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a + trifle for his next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed + and fired the gun. Once in a while, a shell from the invisible + enemy, two, three, or four miles away, fell among them, killing + and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians were ordered to charge + the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the Russians + because they were told to do so by their officers, and the + Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so + ordered them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders + received from their generals. The generals were only obeying + orders from the government. + + In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder + what has caused these nations to fly at each other’s throats. The + question arises as to what makes up a government or why a + government has the right to rule its people. + + In the United States, the government officials are simply the + servants of the people. Practically every man in our country, + unless he is a citizen of some foreign nation, has a right to + vote, and in many of the states women, too, have a voice in the + government. We, the people of the United States, can choose our + own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and, in some states, + can vote out of existence any law that they the people have made + which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval + of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the + next election. Such is the government of a republic, a + “government of the people, by the people, and for the people,” as + Abraham Lincoln called it. In the leading British colonies, the + people rule. Australian citizens voted against forcing men to + serve in the army. The result was very close and the vote of the + women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary, voted to + compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of + Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted + before their governments called them to arms and sent them to + fight each other? It is plain that in order to understand what + this war is about, we must look into the story of how the + different governments of Europe came to be and learn why their + peoples obey them so unquestioningly. + + We must remember that government by the people is a very new + thing. One hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United + States only about one-fourth of the men had the right to vote. + These were citizens of property and wealth. They did not think a + poor man was worth considering. In England, a country which + allows its people more voice in the government than almost any + other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty years + that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like + Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and + others, like Austria, where they have very little voice in how + they shall be governed. + + For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without + thinking when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up + their weapons and go to war. In many instances they have known + nothing of the causes of the conflict or of what they were + fighting for. A famous English writer has written a poem which + illustrates how little the average citizen has ever known + concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the + way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in + which one should regard it. The poem runs as follows: + +The Battle of Blenheim + +It was a summer evening, + Old Kaspar’s work was done, +And he before his cottage door + Was sitting in the sun, +And by him sported on the green +His little grandchild Wilhelmine. + +She saw her brother Peterkin + Roll something large and round, +Which he beside the rivulet + In playing there had found, +He came to ask what he had found +That was so large and smooth and round. + +Old Kaspar took it from the boy, + Who stood expectant by; +And then the old man shook his head, + And, with a natural sigh— +“’Tis some poor fellow’s skull,” said he, +“Who fell in the great victory. + +“I find them in the garden, + For there’s many hereabout; +And often when I go to plow, + The plowshare turns them out! +For many a thousand men,” said he, +“Were slain in the great victory.” + +“Now tell us what ’twas all about,” + Young Peterkin he cries; +And little Wilhelmine looks up + With wonder-waiting eyes— +“Now tell us all about the war, +And what they fought each other for.” + +“It was the English,” Kaspar cried, + “Who put the French to rout; +But what they fought each other for + I could not well make out; +But everybody said,” quoth he, +“That ’twas a famous victory. + +“My father lived at Blenheim then, + Yon little stream hard by; +They burnt his dwelling to the ground, + And he was forced to fly; +So with his wife and child he fled, +Nor had he where to rest his head. + +“They say it was a shocking sight + After the field was won— +For many thousand bodies here + Lay rotting in the sun; +But things like that, you know, must be +After a famous victory. + +“Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won, + And our good Prince Eugene.” +“Why, ’twas a very wicked thing!” + Said little Wilhelmine. +“Nay, nay, my little girl,” quoth he, +“It was a famous victory. + +“And everybody praised the duke + Who this great fight did win.” +“But what good came of it at last?” + Quoth little Peterkin. +“Why, that I cannot tell,” said he; +“But ’twas a famous victory.” + +—_Robert Southey_. + + Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot + feel the wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on + the other hand, have a different idea of war. They are not + satisfied until they know what it was all about and what good + came of it, and they feel that “it was a very wicked thing.” If + the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why they were + killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the + truth, the history of the world would have been very different. + + One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for + themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead + ancestors think for them and to keep up customs which should have + been changed ages ago. People in Europe have lived in the midst + of wars or preparation for wars all their lives. There never has + been a time when Europe was not either a battlefield or a great + drill-ground for armies. + + There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in + Europe and not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong + to take human life. Today it is not considered wrong to kill, + provided a man is ordered to do so by his general or his king. + When two kings go to war, each claiming his quarrel to be a just + one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made by its + government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in + its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help + to bring about lasting peace among all the nations. + +[Illustration: A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.] + + In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the + wars of the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all + wars can be traced to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among + barbarous tribes to fight with and plunder their neighbors; (2) + the ambition of kings to enlarge their kingdoms; (3) the desire + of the traders of one nation to increase their commerce at the + expense of some other nation; (4) a people’s wish to be free from + the control of some other country and to become a nation by + itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause + for war, and this cause has been brought about only when kings + have sent their armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other + peoples who wished to govern themselves. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why must foreigners in the United States return to their + native lands when summoned by their governments? + + How is it that war helps to breed diseases? + + Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it? + + Whom do we mean by the government in the United States? + + Who controls the government in Russia? + + Who in England? + + Who in Germany? + + Who in France? + + In Southey’s poem, how does the children’s idea of the battle + differ from that of their grandfather? Why? + + Are people less likely to protest against war if their + forefathers have fought many wars? + + What have been the four main causes of war? + + + + +Chapter II. +Rome and the Barbarian Tribes + + New governments in Europe.—Earliest times.—How civilization + began.—The rise of Rome.—Roman civilization.—Roman cruelty.—The + German tribes.—The Slavic tribes.—The Celtic tribes.—The Huns and + Moors.—The great Germanic invasions of the Roman world. + + + To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe + in 1914, we must go far back into history. It should be + remembered that many of the governments of today have not lived + as long as that of our own country. This is, perhaps, a new + thought to some of us, who rather think that, as America is a new + country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one hundred + and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed, + there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know + by that name was cut up among nine or ten little governments. + There was no nation known as Germany; the land which is in the + present German empire was then divided among some thirty or + thirty-five different rulers. There was no Republic of France; + instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the French + people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium, + no kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of + Norway was part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now + know it, dates back only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the + United Kingdom of Italy to about the same time. The kingdoms of + Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have been independent of Turkey + only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not exist before + 1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are + very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however, + originated in the dim twilight of history. + + In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or + kingdoms. Men gathered together in little bands, each of which + had its leader. This leader was generally chosen because of his + bodily strength and courage. He was the best fighter of the + tribe. The people did not have any lasting homes. They moved + around from place to place, wherever they could find the best + hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting + grounds, they fought, and the weaker party had to give way. + Selfishness was supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged + to his weaker neighbor, he simply beat this neighbor over the + head with his club, and took it. The stronger tribe attacked the + weaker, without any thought of whether or not its quarrel was + just. + + Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes + began to be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built. + Trade came to be one of the occupations. The fighting men needed + weapons and armor; so there grew up artisans who were skilled in + working metals. In Egypt and Syria there were people who had + reached quite a high degree of civilization, and gradually the + Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the + Greeks, then the Etruscans (Ē-trŭs′cans), a people who lived in + Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern + Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without + hunting and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of + animals) came to be the occupation of many. The owners of sheep + or cattle drove their flocks from place to place, as grass and + water failed them where they were. There was no separate + ownership of land. + + At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as + the stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule + gradually over all the surrounding country. By this time, the + barbarians of northern Europe had gotten past the use of clubs as + weapons. They, too, had learned to make tools and arms of bronze, + and those living near civilized countries had obtained swords of + iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign of authority. + The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe as a + sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king + sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right + hand. It is interesting to think that this scepter, which the + present king of England carries on state occasions to remind his + people of his power, is a relic of the old, old days when his + grandfather, many times removed, broke the head of his rival for + leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club for his + awestruck people to worship. + + The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire) + spread its rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the + Mediterranean Sea, and finally over all the countries of Europe + south and west of the rivers Danube and Rhine. One of the + emperors planted a colony north of the Danube near its mouth, and + the descendants of these colonists are living in that same + country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they + still call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro͞o-mä′ni]), and talk a + language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue + spoken by the Romans of old. With the exception of this country, + which is now Roumania, the part of Europe north and east of the + Danube and Rhine was practically free from the Romans. In this + territory, roving bands wandered around, driving their cattle + with them and clearing the woods of game. + +[Illustration: The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years +ago.] + + In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had + schools where their children were taught to read and write, to + speak Greek, and to work problems in geometry. They had + magnificent public buildings, fine temples and palaces. They + built excellent paved roads all over the southern part of Europe, + and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which supplied their + cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away. Their + dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass, + and steel. + + On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people. + Their favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators + fought, either with each other or with wild beasts. These + gladiators were generally men from tribes which had fought + against Rome. They had been captured and brought to that city, + where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on holidays, + with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these + unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until + one man of each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that + one gladiator might be wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The + spectators would then shout to the victorious fighter to take his + knife and finish what he had begun. In this way what would seem + to us like cold-blooded murder was committed hundreds of times + each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of Rome sat + and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had + all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages + at heart, and had no sympathy for any people who were not of + their own race. + +[Illustration: The Last Combat of the Gladiators] + + In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor. + They scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or + deceive. They lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves + luxuries. They rather despised the Greeks, because the latter + surrounded themselves with comforts in life. The early Romans + were fighters by nature. They had a certain god named Janus (our + month January is named after him) and his temple was open only + when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of history that + during the twelve hundred years from the first building of Rome + to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on + but three occasions and then only for a short time. + + About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came + several disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her + sturdy fighters. Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but + she won them at tremendous cost to herself. With the killing off + of her best and bravest men, a great deal of the old time honesty + was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of Roman governors who, + when put in charge of conquered states, used their offices only + to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome after + their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman + morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax, + and in general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay. + + To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were + to become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were + the free German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe + bounded, roughly, by the rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, + and the Carpathian Mountains. In many ways they were much less + civilized than the Romans. They were clad in skins and furs + instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in caves + dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held + human life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among + them. As a rule, the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor + there was, largely to the women, while they busied themselves in + fighting and hunting, or, during their idle times, in gambling. + Nevertheless, these people, about the time that the Roman honesty + began to disappear, had virtues more like those of the early + Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful + husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy. + They were barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken + to Rome and learned the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men + than Rome was producing about the time of which we speak. + +[Illustration: Germans Going Into Battle] + + To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no + better civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the + Germans, in later years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in + turn, moved westward and occupied much of the land which had been + left vacant by the Germans. + +[Illustration: A Hun Warrior] + + The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and + the British Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could + be said to be divided up among four great peoples: There were the + Latins in Italy, the Celts in western Europe, the Germans in + central Europe, and the Slavs to the east. All of these four + families were distantly related, as can be proved by the + languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to + any one of the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans + and Latins. Probably all five peoples are descended from one big + family of tribes. + + In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of + Europe by other nations which did not have any connection by + blood with Celts, Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For + instance, the ferocious Huns, a people of the yellow race, rushed + into Europe about 400 A.D., but were beaten in a big battle by + the Romans and Germans and finally went back to Asia. Three + hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from Africa + crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and + at one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian + nations. For several hundred years after this, they held the + southern part of Spain, but were finally driven out. + + Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe + after the Romans had conquered all the country south and west of + the Danube and Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were + restlessly roaming through the central part of Europe. They were + not at peace with each other. In fact, constant war was going on. + Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who conquered what is now + France and added it to the Roman world, tells us that one great + tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swē′vī), made it their boast that + they would let no other tribe live anywhere near them. About a + hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and the + Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands + in countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at + last they were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman + general, who was Caesar’s uncle by marriage. After this time, the + Romans tried to conquer the country of the Germans and they might + have been successful but for a young German chief named Arminius. + He had lived in Rome as a young man and had learned the Romans’ + method of war; so when an army came against his tribe, he taught + the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman army + was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man. + +[Illustration: Gaius Julius Caesar. From a bust in the British Museum] + + This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of + conquering all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years, + Germans and Romans lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then + came a time when the Germans again became the attacking party. + Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like the Huns, were assailing + them in the east and pushing them forward. They finally broke + over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman Empire + in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals, + Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went + to pieces under their savage attacks. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need + less land to live on? + + Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than + civilized peoples? + + Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more + civilized tribes were better armed than the barbarians. + + Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy + bloodshed and are not moved by the sufferings of others? + + What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic? + + In what way were the Germans better men than the later + Romans? + + What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs? + + Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire? + + + + +Chapter III. +From Chiefs to Kings + + The early chief a fighter.—The club the sign of power.—Free men + led by a chief of their own choosing.—The first + slaves.—Barbarians conquer civilized nations.—A ruling class + among conquered people.—All men no longer free and equal.—The + value of arms and armor.—The robber chiefs.—How kings first + came.—Treaties between tribes follow constant wars.—Tribes unite + for protection against enemies.—A king is chosen for the time + being.—Some kings refuse to resign their office when the danger + is past.—New generations grow up which never knew a kingless + state.—The word “king” becomes sacred. + + + The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of + the sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it. + Rich cities were plundered at will. They did not admit any man’s + ownership of anything. In the old days when the tribes were + roaming around, there was no private ownership of land. + Everything belonged to the tribe in common. Each man had a vote + in the council of the tribe. + + Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no + such thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the + greater part of his people considered him the best leader in war. + Often, no doubt, when a chief had lost a battle and the majority + of the tribe had lost confidence in him, he resigned and let them + choose a new chief. (For the same reason we frequently hear today + that the prime minister, or leader of the government, of some + European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact, then, that + the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the + majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another + man in his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in + its beginning, was based upon the consent of the governed. All + men in the primitive tribe were equal in rank, except as one was + a better fighter than another, and the chief held the leadership + in war only because the members of his tribe allowed him to keep + it. + +[Illustration: A Frankish Chief.] + + It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no + fixed place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they + could put up or tear down at very short notice; and so when they + heard of more fertile lands or a warmer climate across the + mountains to the south they used to pull up stakes and migrate in + a body, never to return. It was always the more savage and + uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The lands + which they wished to seize they generally found already settled + by other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied + in trade and agriculture, having gradually turned to these + pursuits from their former habits of hunting and fighting. + Sometimes these more civilized and peace-loving people were able, + by their better weapons and superior knowledge of the art of + fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the immigrating + barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were the + victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to + rule them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered + ones to feed and clothe them. + +[Illustration: Movable Huts of Early Germans] + + History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were + taking place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our + earliest records date. The best examples, however, are to be + found in the invasions of the Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes + to which we have referred above. The country between the Rhine + River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been called Gaul when + the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks conquered + the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two + German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians + came down from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name + to their new home in the fertile valley of the Saône (Sōn); the + Vandals came out of Germany to roam through Spain, finally + founding a kingdom in Africa; while the Lombards crossed the Alps + to become the masters of the Valley of the Po, whither the Gauls + had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier. + +[Illustration: Goths on the March] + +[Illustration: Franks Crossing the Rhine] + + The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two + thousand years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was + overrun and conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and + Angles, Germanic tribes, after whom part of the island was called + Angleland. (The men from the south of England are of the same + blood as the Saxons in the German army, against whom they had to + fight in the great war.) Then came Danes, who partially conquered + the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066 A.D., the country + was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some Norsemen, + who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from + Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part + of France. + +[Illustration: Men of Normandy Landing in England.] + + In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands, + leaving their former homes to their conquerors. In this way the + Britons and Gaels gave up the greater part of their land to the + Angles and Saxons and withdrew to the hills and mountains of + Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In other cases, the + conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same lands + side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the + Anglo-Saxons. + + In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a + raid upon another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some + captives who became slaves, working without pay for their + conquerors and possessing no more rights than beasts of burden. + (This custom exists today in the interior of Africa, and was + responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black captives + were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors, + who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried + off and sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.) + + When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors, + their number was very small as compared with that of their + masters. When, on the other hand, a tribe settled among a people + whom they had conquered, they often found themselves fewer in + numbers, and kept their leadership only by their greater strength + and fighting ability. + + Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer + equal, led by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the + greater part of them now had no voice in the government. They had + become subjects, working to earn their own living and also, as + has been said, to support in idleness their conquerors. + + This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to + support their masters was increased as certain peoples learned + better than others how to make strong armor and effective + weapons. Nearly five hundred years before the time of Christ, at + the battle of Marathon (Măr′ȧ thŏn), the Greeks discovered + that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a long spear, + was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and + arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a + small army of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that + wonderful general, Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty + times its number of Persians in a great battle in Asia and + conquered a vast empire. + +[Illustration: Alexander Defeating the Persians] + + In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question + of wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the + best arms for his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force + him to pay money as to a ruler. Finally, in the so-called “Middle + Ages,” before the invention of gunpowder, one knight, armed from + crown to sole in steel, was worth in battle as much as one + hundred poorly-armed farmers or “peasants” as they are called in + Europe. + +In the “Dark Ages,”[2] after all these barbarians that we have named +had swarmed over Europe, and before the governments of modern times +were fully grown, there were hundreds of robber chiefs, who, scattered +throughout a country, were in the habit of collecting tribute at the +point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who lived near. This +tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed amount each +month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a +government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. +The robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good +weapons and armor to their men, who lived either in the chief’s castle +or in small houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any +travelers who came by, unless their numbers and weapons made them look +too dangerous to be attacked. But the regular tribute forced from the +peaceful farmers was the chief source of their income. The robber chief +and his men lived a life of idleness when they were not out upon some +raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious peasants worked hard +enough to support both their own families and those of the robbers. + + [2] The “Dark Ages” came before the “Middle Ages.” They were called + “dark” because the barbarians had extinguished nearly all civilization + and learning. + +[Illustration: A Knight in Armor] + + These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws, + and lived either in a country which had no government and laws, + or in one whose government was too weak to protect its people. + They were no worse, however, than the so-called feudal barons who + came after them, who oppressed the people even more, because they + had on their side whatever law and government existed in those + days. + + Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In + the early days of the human race and also in later days among + barbarous peoples, the land was very sparsely settled. The reason + lay in the chief occupations of the men. A small tribe might + inhabit a great stretch of territory through which they wandered + to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went on, however, + the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place of + hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves + living in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to + their neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just + as Caesar tells us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the + Germans fought almost daily battles back and forth across the + Rhine. In other cases, the tribes found it better for all + concerned to make treaties of peace with their neighbors, and if + they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms, at least + they did not attack each other. + + Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had + treaties with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by + some horde of another race or nation. Common interest would drive + them together for mutual protection, and the chief of some one of + them would be chosen to lead their joint army. In this way, we + find the fifteen tribes of the Belgians uniting against the Roman + army led by Julius Caesar, and electing as king over them the + chief of one of the tribes “on account of his justice and + wisdom.” Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find + practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into + a nation under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Vẽr sin jet′ō + riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five + hundred years later, the Romans themselves were driven to join + forces with two of the Germanic tribes to check the swift + invasion of the terrible Huns. + + In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the + kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that + drove the tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted + for years or even centuries, so that new generations grew up who + had never lived under any other government than that of a king. + Thus when the wars were ended, the tribes continued to be ruled + by the one man, although the reason for the kingship had ceased + to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to 100 B.C., + when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders, + appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator + ruled like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then, + like the famous Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired + to private life. The first lasting kingships, then, began, as it + were, by the refusal of some dictator to resign when the need for + his rule was ended. + + By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king + to take his father’s place was fairly well settled, and it did + not take long to have it understood as a regular thing that at a + king’s death he should be followed by his oldest son. Often there + were quarrels and even civil wars caused by ambitious younger + sons, who did not submit to their elder brothers without a + struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and + peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked + upon as the rightful heir to the kingship. + + As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be + busied in agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in + manufacture, the warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people + began to forget that the king was originally only a war leader, + and that the office was created through military need. They came + to regard the rule of the king as a matter of course and stopped + thinking of themselves as having any right to say how they should + be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling. For the + purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the + habit of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a + divine institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was + made by the gods, or in Christian nations, by God, and that it + was the divine will that the people of the nations should be + ruled by kings. The great Roman orator, Cicero (Sĭs′erō), in a + speech delivered in the year 66 B.C., referring to people who + lived in kingdoms, says that the name of king “seems to them a + great and sacred thing.” This same feeling has lasted through all + the ages down to the present time, and the majority of the people + in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still look + upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if + they ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private + ownership of land? + + What is meant by saying that government was based upon the + consent of the governed? + + Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the + German tribes to move southward? + + Explain the beginnings of slavery. + + Explain the value of armor in early times. + + What is meant by the “Dark Ages”? + + What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites? + + When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they + should be rulers for life? + + Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power? + + Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king? + + + + +Chapter IV. +Master and Man + + The land is the king’s.—He lends it to barons.—Barons lend it to + knights and smaller barons.—Smaller barons collect rent for it + from the peasants.—A father’s lands are lent to his son.—Barons + pay for the land by furnishing men for the king’s wars.—No + account is taken of the rights of the peasant.—The peasant, the + only producer, is despised by the fighting men.—If a baron + rebels, his men must rebel also.—Dukes against kings.—What killed + the feudal system.—Feudal wrongs alive today. + + + When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country, + as the Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the + Normans entered England in 1066, their king at once took it for + granted that he owned all the conquered land. In some cases, he + might divide the kingdom up among his chiefs, giving a county to + each of forty or fifty leaders. These great leaders (dukes or + barons, as they were called in the Norman-French language, or + earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide up + his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call + lesser or little barons. Each little baron might have several + knights and squires, who lived in or near his castle and had + received from him tracts of land corresponding in size, perhaps, + to the American township and who, therefore, fought under his + banner in war. + +[Illustration: A Norman Castle in England] + + Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men, + “men-at-arms,” as they were called, or “retainers,” who in return + for their “keep,” that is, their food and lodging, and a chance + to share the plunder gained in war, swore to be faithful to him, + became his men, and gave him the service called homage. (This + word comes from _hōmō_, the Latin for “man.”) The lesser baron, + in turn, swore homage to, and was the “man” of the great baron or + earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser chiefs to gather + their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey, serving + him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed + them. The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had + received his land. + + This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word + _feudum_, which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which + was given to a man in return for his services in war), a system + which reversed the natural laws of society, and stood it on its + apex, like a cone balanced on its point. For instead of saying + that the land was the property of the people of the tribe or + nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all + belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the + land, outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in + return for their faithful support and service in war, the _use_ + of the land during their lifetime, or so long as they remained + true to him. In _Macbeth_, we read how, for his treason, the + lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were taken from him by the + Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The lands thus + lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went + back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place, + and he at once gave them to some other one of his followers upon + the same terms. It often happened that upon the death of an earl + or baron his son was granted the lands which his father had held, + Finally, in many counties, it grew into a custom, and the oldest + son took possession of his father’s fief, but not without first + going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity to him. + + Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the + system fully. In the first place, in the division of the lands + among the barons of the conquering nation, no account was taken + of the peasants. As they were of the defeated people, their + rights to the land were not once considered. In many countries, + the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the conquered + territory. They “went with” the land and were considered by the + lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned + over a farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If + any of them tried to run away, they were brought back and + whipped. They tilled the land and raised live stock, giving a + certain share of their yearly crop and a certain number of + beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent for the land, + much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to the + robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned + their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and + robbed by all the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs + existing today that are due to the fact that the feudal system is + not wholly stamped out in some countries. + +[Illustration: A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord] + + In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the + direct master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn + homage to him. He was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The + less important barons swore homage to the great barons, and the + knights, squires, retainers, and yeomen swore homage to the + lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided his fief among + certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance, not to + him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a + “man” rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers, + etc., must rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to + obey his king and broke his oath of allegiance, all his little + barons and knights must turn disloyal too, or rather, must remain + loyal, for their oaths had been taken to support the duke, and + not the king. History is full of such cases. In many instances, + dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war on even + terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the + kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland + in 1403 raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of + England; the Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the + throne of England and became king in his place. + +[Illustration: William the Conqueror] + + A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of + Normandy had sworn homage to the king of France, became, through + conquest, king of England. His sons, great-grandsons, and + great-great-grandsons continued for one hundred and fifty years + to be obliged to swear allegiance to the French kings in order to + keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the Governor of Texas + had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become Emperor of + that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up his + American citizenship. + + Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring + more power to the common people were, first, the invention of + gunpowder, and, second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket + could bring down a knight in armor as easily as he could the most + poorly armored peasant. Kings, in fighting to control their great + lords, gave more freedom to citizens of towns in return for their + help. The king’s armies came to be recruited largely from + townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the feudal + lords. + + The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain + amount of military service to his ruler has lasted to the present + day and is responsible for much of the misery that now exists. + Kings went to war with each other simply to increase their + territories. The more land a king had under his control, the more + people who owed him taxes, and the greater number he could get + into his army, the greater became his ambition to spread his + kingdom still farther. + + + Questions for Review + + + How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all + the land in the country which he had invaded? + + Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to + the welfare of the working classes? + + Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting + men, lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed? + + Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns + his living is looked down upon by the nobles? + + What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society + upside down? + + Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men? + + Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break + up the feudal system. + + How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the + feudal system? + + + + +Chapter V. +A Babel of Tongues + + The great family of languages.—Few languages in Europe not + belonging to the family.—The dying Celtic languages.—The three + branches of the Germanic family.—The influence of the Latin + tongue on the south of Europe.—The many Slavic peoples.—The map + as divided by kings without regard to peoples and languages.—The + strange mixture in Austria-Hungary.—The southeast of Europe.—The + Greeks and Dacians.—The Roman colonists.—The Slavs.—The + Volgars.—The Skipetars.—A hopeless mixture. + + + In Chapter II it was pointed out that almost all the peoples of + Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely + that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the + Greeks, and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its + home back in the highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule, + the relationship of peoples to each other can be told by the + languages which they speak. If two tribes are related because + their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it is almost + certain that they will show this relationship in their languages. + + The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like + the language of the Germans, for the English were originally + German tribes. Even today, it is easy to see that English is a + Germanic language. Take the English words house, father, mother, + brother, water, here, is, etc. The German words which mean the + same are _haus, vater, mutter, bruder, wasser, hier, ist_. It is + very plain that the two languages must have come from the same + source. + + There are professors in European colleges who have spent their + whole lives studying this relationship of languages. These men + have proved not only that almost all the languages of Europe are + related, but that the language of the Persians, and that of some + of the old tribes in Hindustan also belong to one great family of + tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In one of the ancient + languages of Hindustan it was _matr_; in the Greek, it was + _mātār_; in the Latin _mater_ (mätār); in the Bohemian + _matka_; in the German _mu̠tter_; in the Spanish mädre; in the + Norwegian _mōder_, etc. This great family of languages is called + “the Indo-European group,” because the tribes which spoke them, + originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered all over India and + Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do not belong + to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques + (Bȧsks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies, + and the Turks. + + The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the + Celtic languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that + first the Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of + the lands where the Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal, + France, and Belgium now talk languages that have grown from the + Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts in the British Isles now + all talk English, because the English, who were a Germanic + people, conquered them and forced them to use their language. + Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the + Celtic tribes) are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh + languages, but all of the young people in the British Isles learn + English, and they are generally content to talk only one + language. The other Celtic languages which have existed within + the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of + Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the + southwestern corner of England. + + The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in + three parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, + Norwegian, and Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria + and Germany form, with Holland and Western Belgium, a second + group of German-speaking nations. (The people of eastern Belgium + are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The third part of Europe + which uses a Germanic language is England. + + In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain, + and Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin. + Latin languages today are found also in the southern and western + parts of Switzerland, all over Italy, and in Roumania. + + We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the + Germanic tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs + followed them and occupied the lands which had just been left + vacant. In this way, we find Slavic peoples talking Slavic + (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the parts of Europe to + the east and south of the Germans. More than half of the + inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians + proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to + the Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins + are Slavs. The Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak + a Slavic language and have some Slavic blood in them, although, + as will be pointed out later, originally they did not belong to + the Slavic family. + +[Illustration: Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship] + + The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family + of tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of + the four great branches. + +[Illustration: Distribution Of Languages] + + The two maps on pages 65 and 66 are very much alike and yet in + some respects very different. The first shows how Europe is + largely inhabited by peoples of the great Indo-European family. + Those who are descended from the Celts are marked Celtic even + though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have + the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France, + eastern Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians + are marked as not belonging to the great family, although they + speak a Slavic language. + + In the second map, the distribution of languages is shown. You + will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in small + parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of + France. The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their + language belongs to that branch. One of the most curious things + about the two maps is the presence of little spots like islands, + particularly made up of German-speaking peoples. There are + several of these little islands in Russia. They have been there + for nearly two hundred years. A traveler crossing the southern + part of Russia is astonished to find districts as large as an + American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. The people + are all of Germanic blood, although they live under the + government of Russia. In the same way, there is a large German + island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania and another + between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian + Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania + also, entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on + the opposite page shows the main branches of the Indo-European + family that are found in Europe. + + + The Indo-European Family of Languages + + (_a_) Hindu branch + + (_b_) Persian branch + + (_c_) Celtic branch + Gāe′lic (northern Scotland) Welsh Cornish (dead) + Erse (Irish) Brē′ton (western France) + + (_d_) Latin branch + Portuguese Spanish French Romansh (southeastern Switzerland) + Italian Roumanian + + (_e_) Germanic branch + Norwegian Danish Swedish Dutch Flemish (Belgium) + Low German High German English + + (_f_) Slavonic branch + Russian Polish Lettish Lithuanian Old Prussian (dead) Czech + (Bohemian [pronounced Chĕck]) Slō vak′ (northern Hungary) + Serbian Bulgarian Slove′nian (southwestern Austria) + Crōa′tian (southern Austria) + Ruthē′nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern + Russia) + + } } Baltic states of Russia } + + (_g_) Greek + + (_h_) Albā′nian + + The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings + and their ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the + feudal lords, never considered the wishes of the people when they + changed the boundaries of kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good + example. The Austrians and Hungarians were two very different + peoples. They had nothing in common and did not wish to be joined + under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no son to + succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of + Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of + Hapsburg) was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, + although the Bohemian people had not chosen him as their ruler. + The Hungarians, before their union with Austria, had conquered + certain Slavic tribes and part of the Roumanians. Later Austria + annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire became a jumble + of languages and nationalities. When its congress is called + together, the official announcement is read in eleven different + languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not + as large as that of the state of Texas. + + We must remember that besides the literary or written languages + of each country there are several spoken dialects. A man from + Devonshire, England, meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of + the same country, has difficulty in understanding many words in + his speech. The language of the south of Scotland also is + English, although it is very different from the English that we + in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees Mountains + was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we + find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is + talked by the country people around him, that can not be + understood by the peasants from the north of France near the + Flemish border. The man who lives in the east of France can + understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of Italy + much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic + coast. + + In America, with people moving around from place to place by + means of stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no + great chance to develop dialects, although we can instantly tell + the New Englander, the southerner, or the westerner by his + speech. It should be remembered that in Europe, for centuries, + the people were kept on their own farms or in their own towns. + The result of this was that each little village or city has its + own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied + such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from + Europe, can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in + the old country. There are no sharply marked boundaries of + languages. The dialects of France shade off into those of Spain + on the one hand and into those of the Flemish and the Italian on + the other. + +[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.] + + The British Isles furnish us with four or five different + nationalities. The people of the north of Ireland are really + lowland Scotch of Germanic descent, while the other three-fourths + of Ireland is inhabited by Celts. To make the difference all the + greater, the Celts are almost universally Catholics, while the + Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north of Scotland + are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or + blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The + Welsh are a Celtic people, having no relationship with the + English, who are a Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of + Cornwall and the people of highland Scotland are the descendants + of the ancient Britons and Gaels who inhabited the island when + Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there. Then five + hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great + swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the + Britons to the west and north, and settled the country now known + as England. After these, you will recall, came a number of Danes, + another Germanic people, who settled the east coast of England. + Two hundred years later, the Normans came from France. These + Normans had been living in France for a century or two, but had + come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes, Angles, and Saxons + all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they fought the + Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them, + oppressed them harshly for many centuries. + +[Illustration: Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.] + + But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the + worst jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ, + the Greeks and their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians, + and Dacians inhabited this district. When one of the Roman + Emperors conquered the Dacians about 100 A.D., he planted a large + Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then came the West Goths, + who swept into this country, but soon left it for the west of + Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the + modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not + belong to the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to + the Finns and the Turks. These people were called the Volgars, + for they came from the country around the River Volga. Before + long, we find them called the Bulgars. (The letters B and V are + often interchanged in the languages of south-eastern Europe. The + people of western Europe used to call the country of the Serbs + Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word _servio_, in + Latin, means “to be a slave,” and that as they were not slaves, + they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia. + The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though + it were V.) + + A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They + completely gave up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one, + which became in time the purest of the Slavic tongues. They + intermarried with the Slavs around them and adopted Slavic names. + They founded a flourishing nation which lay between the kingdom + of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople. + + North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro͞o + mä′nï). These people claimed to be descended from the Roman + Emperor’s colonists, as was previously told, but the reason their + language is so much like the Italian is that a large number of + people from the north of Italy moved into the country nearly a + thousand years after the first Roman colonists settled there. + From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited by + Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks. + +[Illustration: A Typical Bulgarian Family] + + A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians. + (See map) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians, who + inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the + time of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a + branch of the Indo-European family which is neither Latin, + Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic. They are distant cousins of the + Italians and are also slightly related to the Greeks. They are a + wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never known the + meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each + village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring + towns. The Albanians, or Skipetars (skïp′ĕtars) as they call + themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the + Turks about 1460. Since that time, the great majority of them + have been staunch believers in the Mohammedan religion. + + + Questions for Review + + + Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have + its beginning? + + Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out? + + What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France? + + What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages + are spoken? + + In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are + descended from the Latin? + + Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different + peoples? + + Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people? + + + + +Chapter VI. +“The Terrible Turk” + + The Greek Empire at Constantinople.—The invading Mohammedans.—The + Ottoman Turks.—The fall of Constantinople.—The enslaving of the + Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.—One little + part of Serbia unconquered.—The further conquests of the + Turks.—The attack on Vienna.—John Sobieski to the rescue.—The + waning of the Turkish empire.—The Spanish Jews.—The jumble of + languages and peoples in southeastern Europe. + + + In the last chapter, we referred briefly to the Greek empire at + Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and + was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years + before Christ. Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor + named Constantine decided that he liked Byzantium better than + Rome. Accordingly, he moved the capital of the empire to the + Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis (the word _polis_ + means “city” in Greek). Before long, we find the Roman empire + divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the other + at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the + Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the + western empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes. + +[Illustration: The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople] + + For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged + to fight hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across + the fertile plains of Mesopotamia (mĕs′ō pō tā′ mĭ ā) and + Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the Tigris + (tī′grĭs) and Euphrates (ūfrā′tēz) Rivers. Its name in Greek + means “between the rivers.”) The fiercest of the Mohammedan + tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For + several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople, + while the Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler. + + At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls, + and the Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the + past, and all of southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the + invading Moslems (another name for “Mohammedans”). The Turks did + not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Albanians, + but settled down among them as the ruling, military class. They + strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity and turn + Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the + Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, + Greeks, and Roumanians remained where they had been, but were + oppressed by the newcomers. + + For more than two hundred years after the capture of + Constantinople, the Turks pushed their conquests farther and + farther into Europe. The entire coast of the Black Sea fell into + their hands. All of Greece, all of Bulgaria, and all of Roumania + became part of their empire. Of the kingdom of Serbia, one small + province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains near the coast + of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the Serbian + kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and + higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the + invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that + “the game was not worth the candle.” Thus the little nation of + Montenegro was formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted + to the Ottoman rule. (The inhabitants of this small country call + it Tzernagorah (tzẽr nä gō′ra); the Italians call it + Montenegro. Both of these names mean “Dark Mountain.”) + + Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining + control of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About + 1682, they were pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic + king of Poland, John Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ), came to the + rescue of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans + and completely defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any + further advance of the Turkish rule into Europe. (The map on page + 82 shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.) + + It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the + conquered lands were still living where they always had lived. + The Turks were very few in number compared with the millions of + people who inhabited their empire and paid them tribute. Many + wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two hundred and + thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their + territory. + +[Illustration: Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.] + + By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of + their kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania + was free from Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain + Count of Hapsburg had become Emperor of Germany, and when we say + Germany, we include Austria, which had become the home of the + Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that the Hapsburg family + came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage of one of + their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that + country. (See page 69.) + + In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory + known as the Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is + now Roumania, were reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint + kingdom to which they were attached. (Bukowina has never been a + part of Hungary. It is still a crown land, or county subject to + the emperor of Austria personally.) + + During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to + be inhabited by a still different people. Not long after + Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had + conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada (see Chapter II) that + used to stretch across the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards + decided to drive out of their country all “unbelievers,” that is, + all who were not Christians of the Catholic faith. (This happened + in 1492, the same year that they sent Columbus to America.) The + Moors retreated into Africa, which was their former home, but the + millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to return. In + the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them + to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter + his land. They did so by hundreds of thousands. + + The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout + the Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are + so numerous in Constantinople that four newspapers are published + there in the Spanish language, but printed in Hebrew characters. + The city of Salonika, a prosperous seaport of 140,000 people, + which used to belong to Turkey but now is part of Greece, has + over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn other tongues, and + many of them can talk in four or five languages besides their + native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle. + + Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city, + that is, a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, + Jews, Italians are all found mingled together. + + +[Illustration: A Scene in Salonicka] + + The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the + races and nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost + impossible to say which land should belong to which nation. Take + the case of Macedonia (the district just northwest of the Aegean + Sea). It is inhabited largely by Bulgarians, and yet there are so + many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the former that at the close + of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia both claimed it + as belonging to them because of the “prevailing nationality of + its inhabitants!” In other words, the Serbians claimed that the + inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were + positive that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is + very resentful today because the land was not given to her, on + the ground that almost all its inhabitants are Bulgarians! + + Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with + making the Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right + in the center of Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same + language, dressing exactly alike, doing business with each other + on an equal footing, are to be found the native Bulgarian and the + descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one goes to the Greek + Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the Mohammedan + Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and + oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise + each other with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan + states, with their seething pot of racial and religious hatred, + and turn to other causes of European wars. + + + Questions for Review + + + What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured + Constantinople? + + Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks? + + How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks + threatening Vienna? + + Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different + nationalities. + + Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly? + + + + +Chapter VII. +The Rise of Modern Nations + + How the peasants looked upon war.—War the opportunity of the + fighting men.—The decreasing power of barons.—The growth of royal + power.—How four little kingdoms became Spain.—Other kingdoms of + Europe.—The rise of Russia.—The Holy Roman Empire.—The + electors.—The rise of Brandenburg.—The elector of Brandenburg + becomes King of Prussia.—Frederick the Great.—The seizure of + Silesia and the consequent wars. + + + You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal + system, the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men + made up a class of the population whose only trade was war, and + how the poor peasants were compelled to raise crops and live + stock enough to feed both themselves and the fighting men. These + peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only in their + losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the + enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do + unless war was going on, and as those who were not killed + returned from a war with rich plunder in case they were + victorious, they were always looking for a chance to start + trouble with some neighboring country. + + In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long + as the nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war. + As a result, one county in a certain kingdom would often be at + war with a neighboring county. The fighting man either was killed + in battle or he came out of it with increased glory and plunder, + but the peasants and the common people had nothing to gain by war + and everything to lose. As we have seen, force ruled the world, + and the common people had no voice in their government. The + workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting + class, who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered + honest toil as degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the + only respectable trade in Europe in those days was what we today + would call highway robbery. + + France and England in the 15th Century + + Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to + put down the power of his nobles and make himself master over the + whole nation. In this way a strong central power grew up in + France. After the death of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in + 1477, no noble dared to question the leadership of the king of + France. The same thing was true in England after the battle of + Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King Richard III + and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne. + + Spain and Other Kingdoms + + Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile, + Aragon, and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation + marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon + joined the three Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492, + when the Moors were defeated and Granada annexed to the realm of + Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became one kingdom. About this + time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of Hungary, a + kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark. + Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom. + In Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong + power which was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the + Great (1690-1725). + + The Holy Roman Empire + + The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the + Turkish Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a + rule which had been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great + Frankish monarch, who had been crowned in Rome by the pope as + ruler of the western world. (The name “Holy Roman Empire” was not + used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it under Otto I, the Saxon + emperor, who was crowned in 962.) + +[Illustration: The Empire of Charlemagne] + + This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany + (except the eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now + Bohemia, Austria (but not Hungary), and all of Italy except the + part south of Naples. There were times when part of France and + all of the low countries (now Belgium and Holland) also belonged + to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won their + independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and + formed a little republic.) See map “Europe in 1540.” + + +[Illustration: Europe in 1540] + + In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not + necessarily succeed his father as ruler. There were seven + (afterwards nine) “electors” who, at the death of the ruling + monarch, met to elect his successor. Three of these electors were + archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the others were counts + of large counties in Germany like Hanover and Brandenburg. It + frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member of the + family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families + which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most + famous of these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from + whom the present emperor of Austria is descended. + +[Illustration: Louis XIV] + + This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the + kingdoms of England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, + Saxony, and Bavaria all were subjects of the emperor, as were + many powerful counts. These men were jealous of the emperor’s + power, and he did not dare govern them as strictly as the king of + France ruled his nobles. + + France in the 18th Century + +[Illustration: John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough] + + During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by + the ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to + increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up + a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals + spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and + Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany + between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vōzh) Mountains. + Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman + Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at + the battle of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough, + aided by the emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion + of the French. + +[Illustration: The Great Elector of Brandenburg] + + Prussia + + The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. + You will recall that there was a county in Germany named + Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose + the emperor. The capital of this county was Berlin. It so + happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of + Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little + county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of + these counts, called “the Great Elector,” had added to + Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of + Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but + was a very proud and vain man. He happened to visit King William + III of England, and was very much offended because during the + interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the + elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which + was straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, + as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should + be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He + could not call himself “King of Brandenburg,” for Brandenburg was + part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had + happened some one hundred years before, that, through his + marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of + Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as + East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic + Sea. Between this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the + district known as West Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of + Poland. However, Prussia lay outside the boundaries of the + Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say about what went on + there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the kings and + princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the “King + of Prussia.” It was a situation somewhat like the one we have + already referred to, when the kings of England were independent + monarchs and yet subjects of the kings of France because they + were also dukes of Normandy. + +[Illustration: Frederick The Great] + + The son of this elector who first called himself king had more + energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country + with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He + was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over + Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in + his famous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of + the Prussian kingdom. + + His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most + remarkable fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had + been brought up under strict discipline by his father. The old + king had been insistent that his son should be no weakling. It is + told that one day, finding Frederick playing upon a flute, he + seized the instrument and snapped it in twain over his son’s + shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh training, became + a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died and left + him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was + fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as + has been said, was made up of a great many little counties, each + ruled by its petty prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general + way, to the ruler of Austria, who still was supposed to be the + head of the Holy Roman Empire. + +[Illustration: The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806] + + This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many + different nationalities which had little sympathy with each + other. The ruler of Austria was also king of Bohemia and of + Hungary, but neither country was happy at being governed by a + German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians, Serbs, Slovenes, and + Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the Hungarians and + then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished their + independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick + became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the + House of Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria + Theresa, to rule the big empire. Frederick decided that he could + easily defeat the disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced + to the world that the rich province of Silesia was henceforth to + be his and that he proposed to take it by force of arms. + Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria, but in the + end, Frederick’s well-trained troops, his store of money, and + above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians + victorious, and at the close of the fighting, almost all of + Silesia remained a part of the kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians, + however, were not satisfied, and two more wars were fought before + they finally gave up trying to recover the stolen state. + Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his + victories. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss + to a nation in general? + + How was it that Spain became one nation? + + What did Peter the Great do for Russia? + + Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings? + + What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France? + + What effect had the training of his father upon the character + of Frederick the Great? + + Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia? + + + + +Chapter VIII. +The Fall of the Two Kingdoms + + The Poles, a divided nation.—The three partitions.—Wars and + revolts as a result.—The disappearance of Lithuania.—The growing + power of the king of France.—An extravagant and corrupt + court.—Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.—Bankruptcy at + last.—The meeting of the three estates.—The third estate defies + the king.—The fall of the Bastille.—The flight and capture of the + king.—The king beheaded.—Other kings alarmed.—Valmy saves the + revolution.—The reign of terror. + + + In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east + of Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in + Europe with the exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said + before, were a Slavic people, distant cousins of the Russians and + Bohemians. They had a strong nobility or upper class, but these + nobles were jealous of each other, and as a result, the country + was torn apart by many warring factions. The condition of the + working class was very miserable. The nobles did not allow them + any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically + slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of + the crops that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles, + no law could be passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a + result of this jealousy between factions, the Poles could not be + induced to obey any one leader, and thus, divided, were easy to + conquer. + + Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated + from his land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia, + which was part of Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria + Theresa of Austria, and to the Empress Catharine II of Russia + that they each take a slice of Poland. This was accordingly done, + in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist the three + great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had + been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by + without a protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia + each again annexed a large part of the remainder of Poland, and + two years after this, the three powers divided up among them all + that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The Poles fought violently + against this last partition, but they were not united and were + greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers. + + This great crime against a nation was the result of the military + system; and this in turn was the result of the feudal system, + which made the king, as commander-in-chief of the army, the + supreme ruler of his country. The men in the Prussian and + Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer the poor + Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage + from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply + meant an enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes + to them, and more men to draw on for their armies. + +[Illustration: Catharine II] + + Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country, + this wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all + the stronger. There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by + Polish uprisings, time and time again, and the Poles will never + be satisfied until their unhappy country is once more united. + + To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country + had been annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had + married the daughter of the king of Poland, followed his + father-in-law on the Polish throne. Lithuania fell to Russia’s + share in the division, so that its people only changed masters. + They are a distinct nation, however, possessing a language and + literature of their own, and having no desire to be ruled by + either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice, they + would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and + Russia proper. + + The Downfall of the French Monarchy + +[Illustration: Courtier of time of Louis XIV] + + In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There, + for hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing + greater, until by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the + country who could oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons + where he sent those who had offended him, shutting them up + without a trial and not even letting their families know where + they had been taken. The peasants and working classes had been + ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier. The king + spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his + courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest + capital in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and + the poor peasants paid the bills. + +[Illustration: The Taking of The Bastille] + + For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a + revolt, but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead + them. At last, came a time when there was no money in the royal + treasury. After all the waste and corruption, nothing was left to + pay the army and keep up the expenses of the government. One + minister of finance after another tried to devise some scheme + whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success. + The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred + years were at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king + summoned a meeting of representative men from all over the + kingdom. There were three classes represented, the nobles, the + clergy, and what was called “the third estate,” which meant + merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A great statesman + appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the third + estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such + that the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst + of these exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison, + the Bastille. They took it by storm, and tore it to the ground. + This happened on the fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the + French still celebrate as the birthday of their nation’s liberty. + All over France the common people rose in revolt. The soldiers in + the army would no longer obey their officers. The king was + closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was + brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in + terror, fled from the country. Thus began what is known as the + French Revolution. + +[Illustration: The Palace of Versailles] + + As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of + France took charge of their government, a panic arose throughout + the courts of Europe. Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the + king of France, began to fear for themselves. They, too, had + taxed and oppressed their subjects. They felt that this revolt of + the French people must be put down, and the king of France set + back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt might + take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of + Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made + war on the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the + French by force of arms and compel them to put back their king + upon his throne. + + Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known + what the object of this war was, they would have had very little + sympathy with it, but for years they had been trained to obey + their officers, who in turn obeyed their generals, who in turn + obeyed the orders of the kings. The common soldiers were like + sheep, in that they did not think for themselves, but followed + their leaders. They were not allowed to know the truth concerning + this attack on France. They did not know the French language, and + had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were no + public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how + to read the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled + by the governments, and were allowed to print only what favored + the cause of the kings. + + The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French + poet from Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song + which was first sung in Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus + has come to be called “La Marseillaise.” It is the cry of a + crushed and oppressed people against foreign tyrants who would + again enslave them. It fired the French army with a wonderful + enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back the + invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French + Republic. + +[Illustration: The Reign of Terror] + + The period known as “the reign of terror” now began in earnest. A + faction of the extreme republican party got control of the + government, and kept it by terrorizing the more peaceable + citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles had put upon the lower + classes for so many hundred years were brutally avenged. The king + was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not fled from + the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the + principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the + nation came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly + good government was organized, and the executions ceased. Still + the kings of Europe would not recognize the new republic. There + was war against France for the next twenty years on the part of + England, and generally two or three other countries as well. + +[Illustration: The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’] + + + Questions for Review + + + Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors? + + Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent + the partition of Poland? + + How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland? + + What things could the king of France do which would not be + tolerated in the United States today? + + Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king? + + Why did the king call together the three “estates”? + + Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July? + + Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of + France? + + What was the cause of the reign of terror? + + + + +Chapter IX. +The Little Man from the Common People + + The young Corsican.—The war in Italy.—Italy a battlefield for + centuries.—The victories of Bonaparte.—The first consul.—The + empire.—The French sweep over Europe.—Kings and emperors beaten + and deposed.—The fatal Russian campaign.—The first + abdication.—The return from Elba.—The battle of Waterloo.—The + feudal lords once more triumphant. + + + And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable + characters in all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little + man from the island of Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a + French citizen, for the island had been forcibly The annexed to + France shortly before his birth. As a young lieutenant in the + army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later on, being + in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament, + he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this + period. A Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they + had the castle of the king. As a reward, he had been put in + charge of the French army in Italy, which was engaged in fighting + the Austrians. + + In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this + point to devote some attention to the past history of the Italian + peninsula. + + Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman + Empire. The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with + Sicily, a small nation called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. + The northern part had belonged to the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, + the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in turn. The Italian people + wanted to become one nation, but they were divided up among many + little princes, each with his separate dominions. The cities of + Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was strong on + the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired + practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople, + Egypt, and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the + control of northern Italy except the lands around the city of + Venice and the county of Piedmont. The latter formed a separate + kingdom with the island of Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined + with the southern end of the peninsula. + + Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns, + Lombards, Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought + their battles for the control of the civilized world. (See the + following maps.) At one time, the Austrian House of Hapsburg + controlled the greater part of the peninsula. This was especially + true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. + As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of + Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low + Countries (what is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of + Spain, being the oldest living grandson of Ferdinand and + Isabella. When he became ruler of the two Sicilies, and defeated + the French king for the control of northern Italy, there were + only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway: Russia, + Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.) + +[Illustration: Italy in 525 A.D.] + +[Illustration: Italy in 650 A.D.] + +[Illustration: Italy in 1175 A.D.] + +[Illustration: Charles the Fifth] + + Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading + Italy, and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had + overrun and controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of + the war was still the deposing of the French monarch. The + Austrian armies were fighting to force the people of France to + take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies of France, on + the other hand, represented the rights of the people to choose + their own form of government. + + Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the + Revolution, were eager to spread the republican form of + government all over Europe. There was a real possibility that + they might do so, and the kings were fighting in defense of their + thrones. (The map shows the conquests of the new republic up to + this time.) + + +[Illustration: Europe in 1796] + + Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of + age, went down into Italy to take command of the French army. The + generals, many of them as old as his father, began offering him + advice, but he impatiently waved them aside and announced that he + was going to wage war on a plan hitherto unheard of. He made good + his boast, and after a short campaign in which he inspired his + ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting, he had driven + the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic of + Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a + brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte + returned to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had + little difficulty in overthrowing the five Directors of the + French government and having himself elected “First Consul” or + president of France. + + A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but + Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time + compelled his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the + French people elect him “emperor of the French” for life, and by + an overwhelming vote they did so. The empire was very different + from the other empires and kingships of Europe, since it was + created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs held their + thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the + plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By + this time, the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to + the swords of their fighting men, and there had grown up a + doctrine called “The Divine Right of Kings.” In other words, the + kings claimed that God in his wisdom had seen fit to make them + rulers over these lands, and that they were responsible to God + alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that any one who + attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the will + of Heaven. + + The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from + the tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in + the wonderful victories gained by their armies under the + brilliant leadership of Napoleon. (He dropped his last name, + Bonaparte, when he was elected emperor.) They swept over the + greater part of Europe and helped to spread the idea that the + people had rights that all kings were bound to respect, and that + it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber + chiefs. + + For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the + Austrians and Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two + fierce battles, he crushed the wonderful Prussian army, which had + been trained in the military school of Frederick the Great. He + drove out the king of Spain, the king of the Two Sicilies, the + kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made one of his + brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king of + Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law + on the throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of + Rome. He took away from Prussia all of her territory except + Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania. and East and West Prussia. He + reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings called it the Grand + Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all claim to + northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now + Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See + map entitled “Europe in 1810.”) + + +[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1810] + + All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to + understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old + feudal kings and princes driven from their thrones and their + places taken by men sprung from the common people. The father of + the Bonapartes had been a poor lawyer. Murat, Napoleon’s + brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son of an innkeeper. + Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s generals, whom the Swedes chose as + their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In + nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing + the rulers there sprang up a new hope. + +[Illustration: The Emperor Napoleon in 1814] + + Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a + million men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters + in Moscow. The Russian people, however, set fire themselves to + their beautiful city, and the French had to retreat a thousand + miles through snow and ice, while bands of Russian Cossacks + swooped down on them from the rear and took a hundred thousand + prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the French, the + allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to drive + the little Corsican from the throne of France. + + For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack + of soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the + enthusiasm which he never failed to arouse in his troops. In + 1814, however, surrounded by the troops of Austria, Prussia, + Russia, and England, he had to confess himself beaten. Even + Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops against + him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the + brother of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years + before, and set him on the throne of France. Napoleon was + banished to the little island of Elba to the west of Italy, and + the monarchs flattered themselves that their troubles were ended. + +[Illustration: The Retreat from Moscow] + + In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped + from his island prison and landed on the southern coast of + France. The king ordered his soldiers to capture their former + emperor. But the magic of his presence was too much for them, and + the men who had been sent to put him into chains shed tears of + joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at his feet. One + week later, the king of France had fled a second time from his + country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the + head of the government. + + All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four + large armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not + wait for them to come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly + north into the low countries, where he met and defeated an army + of Prussians. Another army of English was advancing from + Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French were defeated in + one of the great battles of the world’s history. The defeated + Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to + the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon + had sent to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the + emperor from being crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give + up his crown, and a second time King Louis XVIII was brought back + into Paris and put upon the French throne by the bayonets of + foreign troops. The people had been crushed, apparently, and the + old feudal lords were once more in control. + +[Illustration: Napoleon at Waterloo] + + + Questions for Review + + + Had Italy ever been a nation? + + What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See map.) + + What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See map.) + + What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire? + (See map.) + + What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul + and afterward Emperor? + + What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers? + + What was Napoleon’s great mistake? + + Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba? + + What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo? + + + + +Chapter X. +A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs + + A meeting of kings and diplomats.—Austrians and English vs. + Prussians and Russians.—Talleyrand the subtle.—Carving a new + map.—The people are ignored.—Sowing the seeds of trouble.—Unhappy + Poland.—Divided Italy.—Revolts of the people.—The outbreaks of + 1848. + + + And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and + diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of + Europe. In past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion + and jealousy among these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by + without finding two of them flying at each other’s throats in + some unjust war or other. Only their great fear of uprisings + similar to the French Revolution had driven them to act together + in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by the + people, which had followed it. This famous “Congress of Vienna,” + which took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which + European lands have been cut up and parceled out to various + monarchs without any regard for the wishes of the people. + +[Illustration: The Congress of Vienna] + + Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies + had had in crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide + the map of Europe as suited them, and it was only by a great deal + of diplomacy that they were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is + frequently a polite name for some very cunning deception, + involving lying and cheating, in which kings and their ministers + take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the Russian-Prussian + combination, and they induced England to side with them. England + did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The + English minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the + Austrians, Prussians, and Russians, to allow the French diplomat, + Talleyrand, to take part in their final meetings. Now Talleyrand + was probably the most slippery and tricky diplomat of all Europe. + He had grown to power during the troublous days of the latter + part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which party would + remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the + strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served + Napoleon during the first years of the empire, he was shrewd + enough to remain true to King Louis XVIII during the latter’s + second exile. The Prussian-Russian combination was finally + obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of Austria, England, + and France. Compare this map with the one given in the preceding + chapter, and you will see most of the important changes. + + Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by + Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a + great deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part + of the kingdom of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It + is needless to say that its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy + over this arrangement. Austria kept part of her Polish territory, + and gave the rest of it to Russia. + + The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called + Belgium, had belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of + Austria. As was previously said, it was conquered by the French + and remained part of France until the fall of Napoleon. It was + now joined with Holland to make the kingdom of the Netherlands. + Its people were Walloons and Flemish, almost entirely Catholic in + their religion, and they very much disliked to be joined with the + Protestant Dutch of Holland. + + +[Illustration: Messen Europe in 1815] + + The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend + itself against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had + been fought over by these two powers for more than a century. It + was finally transferred to Russia, and in order to appease + Sweden, Norway, which had been ruled by the Danes, was torn away + from Denmark and made part of the kingdom of Sweden. The + Norwegians desired to remain an independent country, and they + loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes. Therefore, + this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of the + kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia. + + Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and + in addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and + Austria. In order to pay back Austria for the loss of part of + Poland, she was given all of northern Italy except the counties + of Piedmont and Savoy near France. + + The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia) + were formed into a loose alliance called the German + Confederation. England’s share of the plunder consisted largely + of distant colonies, such as South Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc. + France shrank back to the boundaries which she had had at the + beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of the Two + Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon + family) who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon + their thrones. + + This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten + different parts, although its people desired to be one nation. It + left Austria a government over twelve different nationalities, + each one of which was dissatisfied. It joined Belgium to Holland + in a combination displeasing to both. It gave Norway and Finland + as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It left the + Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all + subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once + vacant, kings who were hated by their subjects. It divided the + Poles up among four different governments—for, strange as it may + seem, the powers could not decide who should own the city of + Cracow and the territory around it, and they ended by making this + district a little republic, under the joint protection of + Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in their + lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who + were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the + foundation for future revolutions and wars without number. + + At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but + after two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland, + which, as one of the states of the Russian Empire, was still + called a kingdom, was deprived of all its rights, and its people + were forced to give up the use of their language in their + schools, their courts, and even their churches. In the same + fashion, the Poles in Prussia were “not even allowed to think in + Polish,” as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the + first half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and + struggles among these people. As a result of one of them, in + 1846, the little Republic of Cracow was abolished, and its + territory forcibly annexed to Austria. + + The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their + object the uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from + foreign rulers. All through Germany there were mutterings of + discontent. The people wanted more freedom from their lords. + Greece broke out into insurrection against the Turks, and fifteen + years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to independence. + Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands broke + itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world + that it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of + Belgium. About the same time, the people of France rose up + against the Bourbon kings, and threw them out “for good.” A + distant cousin of the king was elected, not “king of France” but + “citizen king of the French,” and the people were allowed to + elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at Paris. + In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time, + Spain was a republic, but the people were not well enough + educated to govern themselves, and the kingdom was restored. + +[Illustration: Prince Metternich] + + The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory + in 1815 than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood + for the “divine right of kings,” and did not believe in allowing + the common people any liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising + occurred in Austria, and crowds in Vienna, crying, “down with + Metternich,” forced the aged diplomat to flee. During the same + year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people everywhere were + revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and princes, + and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France, + also, grew tired of her “citizen king,” and that country a second + time became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of + electing as their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of + the great Napoleon, and in time he did exactly what his uncle had + done,—persuaded the French people to elect him emperor. + + + Questions for Review + + + What were the motives of each of the nations represented at + the Congress of Vienna? + + Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the + meeting at first? + + Why did the English and Austrians assist each other? + + What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See last chapter.) + + What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their + thrones? + + What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress? + + How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the + Congress? + + What did the Belgians do about it? + + What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings? + + + + +Chapter XI. +Italy a Nation at Last + + The Crimean War curbs Russia.—Cavour plans a United Italy.—War + against Austria.—Garibaldi, the patriot.—The Kingdom of Sardinia + becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.—Venice and Rome are + added.—Some Italians still outside the kingdom. + + + Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named + Mazzini and Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the + Italian princes who were subject to them were constantly crushing + some attempted revolution. + + One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great + powers were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia + attacked Turkey in 1853, but France and England were afraid that + if Russia conquered the Turks and took Constantinople, she would + become too powerful for them. Therefore, both countries rushed + troops to aid Turkey, and in the end, Russia was defeated, + although thousands of soldiers were killed on both sides before + the struggle was over. + + You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in + western Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a + little kingdom known as the “Kingdom of Sardinia.” This country + had for its prime minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who, + like all Italians, strongly hoped for the day when all the people + living on the Italian peninsula should be one nation. At the time + of the Crimean War (as the war between Russia on the one side and + Turkey, France, and England on the other was called) he caused + his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a tiny army + to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later, + he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what + President Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been + elected emperor.) The French agreed to make war with his country + against the Austrians. If they won, the Sardinians were to + receive all north Italy, and in return for France’s help were to + give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of Nice. + + When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not + hard to find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on + Sardinia, and, as had been arranged, France rushed to the aid of + the Italians. Austria was speedily beaten, but no sooner was the + war finished than the French emperor repented of his bargain. He + was afraid that it would make trouble for him with his Catholic + subjects if the Italians were allowed to take all the northern + half of the peninsula, including the pope’s lands, into their + kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in + return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the + Austrians kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled, + however, is hard to put out. No sooner did the people of the + other states of northern Italy see the success of Sardinia, than, + one after another, they revolted against their Austrian princes + and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this way, Parma, + Modena, Tuscany, and part of the “States of the Church” were + added. All of this happened in the year 1859. + + These “States of the Church” came to be formed in the following + way: The father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who + had been crowned western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had + rescued northern Italy from the rule of the Lombards. He had made + the pope lord of a stretch of territory extending across Italy + from the Adriatic Sea to the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of + this country had no ruler but the pope. They paid their taxes to + him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord. It was part of + this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of + Italy. + + You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who + with Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They + finally pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He + came to America and set up a fruit store in New York City, where + there were quite a number of his countrymen. By 1854, he had made + a great deal of money in the fruit business, but had not + forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be rich only in + order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold out + his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for + Italy. When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought + throughout the campaign. + + But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not + satisfied with a country only half free. In the region around + Genoa, he enrolled a thousand men to go on what looked like a + desperate enterprise. Garibaldi had talked with Cavour, and + between them, they had schemed to overthrow the kingdom of the + Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern country. Of + course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi, + for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of + the king of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi + all the help that he dared, and urged men to enroll with him. + +[Illustration: The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel] + + With his thousand “red-shirts,” as they were called, Garibaldi + landed on the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose + to welcome him, and everywhere they drove out the officers who + had been appointed by their king to rule them. In a short time, + all Sicily had risen in rebellion against the king. (You will + remember that this family of kings had been driven out by + Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. They + were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain + and the last kings of France. They stood for “the divine right of + kings,” and had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing + over to the mainland, Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen + to ten times its former size, swept everything before him as he + marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the people rose against their + former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The king fled in + haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over the + southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people + wanted to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom + of Italy. It was so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel, + king of Sardinia, thus became the first king of United Italy. He + made Florence his capital at first, as the country around Rome + still belonged to the pope. The pope had few soldiers, but was + protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten years later, + in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the + French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly + in and took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the + capital, not only of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world, + became once more the chief city of the peninsula. The pope was + granted a liberal pension by the Italian government in order to + make up to him for the loss of the money from his former lands. + The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had finally come to + pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular Victor + Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to + elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the + worst blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by + the patriotism of the people of Italy. + + It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who + are not part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the + extreme northeast of Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as + the result of a war which will be told about more fully in the + next chapter, but the territory around the city of Trent, called + by the Italians Trentino, and the county of Istria at the head of + the Adriatic Sea, containing the important seaports of Trieste, + Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost entirely by people of + Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of Dalmatia also + are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule of + Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and + was the chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria + in the great war of 1914. + + +[Illustration: Messen Italy Made One Nation, 1914] + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia? + + What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III? + + How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia? + + Explain the origin of the “States of the Church.” + + Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king? + + What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy? + + + + +Chapter XII. +The Man of Blood and Iron + + The people demand their rights—Bismarck, the chief prop of the + Prussian monarchy—The question of the leadership of the German + states—The wonderful Prussian army—The war on Denmark—Preparing + to crush Austria—The battle of Sadowa—Easy terms to the defeated + nation—Preparing to defeat France—A good example of a war caused + by diplomats—Prussia’s easy victory—The new German empire—Harsh + terms of peace—The triumph of feudal government. + + + All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in + contests with their own people. The overthrow of the French king + at the time of the revolution taught the people of the other + countries of Europe that they too could obtain their liberties. + You have already been told how the people of Austria drove out + Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the party which refused + any rights to the working classes. + + That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of + France, had witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had + found many German princes in trouble with their subjects, who + were demanding a share in the government, the right of free + speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury. The empires of + Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia in a + combination which was known as the “Holy Alliance.” This was + meant to stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb + the growing power of the common people. + +[Illustration: Bismarck] + + Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a + remarkable man, who for the next forty years was perhaps the most + prominent statesman in Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard + Leopold von Bismarck-Schönausen, but we generally know him under + the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian nobleman, a believer in + the divine right of kings, the man who more than anybody else is + responsible for the establishing of the present empire of + Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in + which he said that “blood and iron,” not speeches and treaties, + would unite Germany into a nation. His one object was a united + Germany, which should be the strongest nation in Europe. He + wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia, Prussia to be ruled by its + king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled by Bismarck. It is + marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through his whole + plan. + + After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the + powers of Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia, + England, or France. The German states, some 35 in number, had + united in a loose alliance called the German Confederation. (This + union was somewhat similar to the United States of America + between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these states, + and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group. + Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and + much smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and + Wurtemburg. Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a + wonderfully strong army. He did this by means of a military + system which at first made him very unpopular with the people. + Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was obliged to serve a + certain number of years in the army and be ready at a moment’s + notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war. + + Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern + weapon, Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose. + There were two counties named Schleswig (shlĕs′vig) and Holstein + (hōl′stīn) which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet + contained a great many German people. The inhabitants of + Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while those of Holstein were + more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had protested against + certain actions of the Danish government, and were threatening to + revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and Austria, as + the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on + little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed + by the armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn + away from Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria + and Prussia. + + This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there + was bound to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now + Bismarck had a chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up + his mind to crush Austria and put Prussia in her place as the + leader of the German states. He first negotiated with Napoleon + III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that this monarch would + not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of Venetia, + Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians + had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck + induced Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia + and the other provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria, + and Hanover were friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear + them. He knew that his army, under the leadership of its + celebrated general, von Moltke, was more than a match for the + Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined. + + When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians + were successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in + Bohemia, their armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the + Prussians. Austria was put down from her place as the leader of + the German Confederation, and Prussia took the leadership. + Hanover, whose king had sided with the Austrians, was annexed to + Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his generals were + anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been the + custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war. + Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making + Prussia the leading military state in Europe, he saw that his + next opponent would be France, and he did not propose, on + attacking France, to find his army assailed in the rear by the + revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck compelled the king to + let Austria off without any loss of territory except Venetia, + which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to + retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large + indemnity to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the + middle ages, when cities which were captured had been obliged to + pay great sums of money, in order to get rid of the conquering + armies, was the payment of a war indemnity by the defeated + nation. This was a sum of money as large as the conquerors + thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The + Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which + Bismarck had provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact + that he was generous in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he + could have done had he wanted to. + + The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle + between Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible + for two men like Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in + power very long without coming to blows. It was Bismarck’s + ambition, as was previously said, to make Prussia the leading + military nation of Europe, and he knew that this meant a struggle + with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a united + Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would + bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was + extremely jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had + won over Austria. He had been proud of the French army, and + wanted it to remain the greatest fighting force in Europe. He was + just as anxious for an excuse to attack Prussia as Bismarck was + for a pretext to attack him. + + It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no + ill-feeling between the French people and the Germans. In fact, + the Germans of the Rhine country were very friendly to France, + and during Napoleon’s time had been given more liberties and had + been governed better than under the rule of their former feudal + lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between the military + chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no + feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their + military power should be crushed and his program must be carried + through. Europe, to his mind, was too small to contain more than + one master military power. + + The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to + gain friends for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to + make enemies for France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria, + Baden, and Wurtemburg), which had sided with Austria during the + late war, were friendly to France and hostile to Prussia. + Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing to Bismarck + that France should be given a slice of this south German + territory in return for some other land which France was to allow + Prussia to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal, + but was careful to keep the original copy, in the French + ambassador’s own handwriting. (Each nation sends a man to + represent her at the capital of each other nation. These men are + called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements for + their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little + south German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon + and to make secret treaties with these states by which they bound + themselves to fight on the side of Prussia in case a war broke + out with France. In similar fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians + angry against the French by letting it be known that Napoleon was + trying to annex their country also. + + Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (rōn), + Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in + Prussia had been trained a certain number of years in the army + and was ready at a moment’s notice to join his regiment. The + whole campaign against France had been planned months in advance. + In France on the other hand, the illness and irritability of + Napoleon III had resulted in poor organization. Men who did not + wish to serve their time in the army were allowed to pay money to + the government instead. Yet their names were carried on the + rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the strength in + actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain + government officials had taken advantage of the emperor’s + weakness and lack of system and had put into their own pockets + money that should have been spent in buying guns and ammunition. + + When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard + to find an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven + from her throne, and the Spanish army under General Prim offered + the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king + of Prussia. This alarmed Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia + attacked him on the east, this Prussian prince, as king of Spain, + would lead the Spanish army over the Pyrenees against him on the + south. France made so vigorous a protest that the prince asked + the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was not enough + for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The + incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent + his ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter + to assure France that never again should Prince Leopold be + considered for the position of king of Spain. The king answered + that he could not guarantee this, for he was merely the head of + the Hohenzollern family. Prince Leopold, whose lands lay outside + of Prussia, was not even one of his subjects. The interview + between the king and the French ambassador had been a friendly + one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king, and the + king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on + good terms. + +[Illustration: An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.] + + In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war + would come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von + Moltke and Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the + king, telling of his interview with the French ambassador. In the + story of his life written by himself, Bismarck tells how, as he + read the telegram both Roon and Moltke groaned in disappointment. + He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older in a minute. Both + had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took the + dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message + polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had + been a friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two + hundred words to one of twenty. When he had finished, the message + sounded as if the French ambassador had bullied and threatened + the king of Prussia, while the latter had snubbed and insulted + the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered telegram to Roon and + Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt better. “How is + that?” he asked. “That will do it,” they answered. “War is + assured.” + + The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four + hours, the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. + Napoleon III hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals + and his wife who urged him to “avenge the insult to the French + nation.” + +[Illustration: The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of +Germany] + + We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of + 1870 just to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck + did was no worse than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have + done, or the Austrian, Metternich, or several of the Turkish or + Russian diplomats. It simply proves how helpless the people of + European countries are, when the military class which rules them + has decided, for its own power and glory, on war with some other + nation. + + The war was short. The forces of France were miserably + unprepared. The first great defeat of the French army resulted in + the capture of the emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing + of the government in Paris, where a third republic was started. + One of the French generals turned traitor, thinking that if he + surrendered his army and cut short the war the Prussians would + force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor. Paris was + besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even + on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at + last they were starved out, and peace was made. + +[Illustration: Formation of the German Empire] + + In the meantime, another of Bismarck’s plans had been successful. + In January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he + induced the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with + Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and all the other little German states to + join Prussia in forming a new empire of Germany. The king of + Prussia was to be “German Emperor,” and the people of Germany + were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or Imperial + Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom + of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was + signed by the republic of France and the empire of Germany. + + Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was + condemned to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one + billion dollars) and certain parts of France were to be occupied + by the German troops until this money was fully paid. Two + counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine, were to be annexed to + Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of German + descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the + whole province had belonged to France so long that its people + felt themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few + Germans, and was taken, contrary to Bismarck’s best judgment, + because it contained the important city of Metz, which was + strongly fortified. Here the military chiefs overruled Bismarck. + The desire among the French for revenge on Germany for taking + this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck was right. + It was a blunder of the worst kind. + + The policy of “blood and iron” had been successful. From a second + rate power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck’s leadership, to + become the strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been + torn from Danish, Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had + been forcibly annexed, and Alsace and Lorraine wrested from + France. The greater part of the inhabitants of these countries + were bitterly unhappy at being placed under the Prussian military + rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great deal of this + growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the + common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech, + free newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to + a congress or parliament, and while some of these rights had been + granted, still the whole country was under the control of the war + department. The emperor, as commander-in-chief of the army, could + suppress any newspaper and dismiss the congress whenever he might + think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it has been called, a + big debating society, whose members had the right to talk, but + were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the + wishes of the military leaders. + + + Questions for Review + + + What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe? + + What was the object of the “Holy Alliance”? + + What was Bismarck’s purpose in building up a strong army? + + How did Bismarck defeat Austria? + + What is a war indemnity? + + Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III. + + Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to + Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern? + + What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France? + + Was Prussia’s victory a good thing for her people? + + + + +Chapter XIII. +The Balance of Power + + The recovery of France.—The jealousy of the powers.—The policy of + uniting against the strongest.—The dream of Russia.—A war of + liberation.—The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.—The + Congress of Berlin.—Bismarck’s Triple Alliance.—France and Russia + are driven together.—The race for war preparation.—The growth of + big navies. + +Under the third republic,[3] France recovered very rapidly from the +terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her people worked hard and saved +their money. In less than two years, they had paid off the last cent of +the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops were obliged to +go home. France had adopted the same military system that Germany had, +and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army and be +ready at a moment’s notice to rush to arms. She began also to build up +a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of +the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed +Bismarck, who thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would +she become a strong power. He had tried to renew the old “Holy +Alliance” between Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of +preventing the spread of republics. These were the three nations which +gave their people very few rights, and which stood for the “divine +right of kings” and for the crushing of all republics. Bismarck called +this new combination the “Drei-kaiser-bund” or three-emperor-bond. He +himself says that the proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the +lies and treachery of Prince Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of +Foreign Affairs. + + [3] The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was + beheaded, the second in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the “citizen king,” + was driven out. + + An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany + from Russia. As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and + alarmed when he saw how quickly France was getting over the + effects of the war. In 1875, some trouble came up again between + France and Germany, and Bismarck a second time planned to make + war on the republic and—complete the task that he had left + unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of a + second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time, + however, England and Russia growled ominously. They notified + Bismarck that they would not stand by and see France crushed—not + from any love of France, but because they were jealous of Prussia + and afraid that the Germans might become too powerful in Europe. + Accordingly, Bismarck had to give up his idea of war. Prussia was + strong, but she could not fight England, Russia, and France + combined. However, he remembered that England and Russia had + spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge. + +[Illustration: Peter the Great] + + The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what + they called “the balance of power.” By this they meant that no + one country was to be allowed to grow so strong that she could + defy the rest of Europe. Whenever one nation grew too powerful, + the others combined to pull her down. + + In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan + nations, which were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had + broken out among the Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and + Bulgaria. As has already been told, these nations are Slavic, + cousins of the Russians, and they have always looked upon Russia + as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared, intelligent + Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so much + like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word “grad” means + “city” in both languages.) + +Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were +oppressing the little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for +wanting to see Turkey overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the +Great, Russia had had her eye upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered +the district east of the Gulf of Finland, and had founded St. +Petersburg[4] there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice. +In the same way, other czars who followed him had fought their way +southward to the Black Sea, seeking for a chance to trade with the +Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like a bottle, and the Turks +at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade at any time they +might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and must ship +her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange it +for their manufactures. + + [4] Now called Petrograd. + +[Illustration: Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia] + + Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one + day Russia might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient + days, was the home of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital + of the western Catholic church. The Russians are all Greek + Catholics, and every Russian looks forward to the day when the + great church of St. Sophia, which is now a Mohammedan mosque, + shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With this plan + in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up trouble + for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as + Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at + the two following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey + had been reduced in size during the two hundred years which + followed the Turkish defeat at the gates of Vienna by John + Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of Bessarabia had changed + hands two or three times, remaining finally in the hands of + Russia. + + The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed + with joy among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg + lost no time in rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and + declaring war on Turkey. After a short but stubbornly contested + conflict, Russia and the little countries were victors. A treaty + of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which Roumania, Serbia, + and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as independent + states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean + Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from + her county of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it + will help you to understand Russia’s later feeling when Bulgaria + in 1915 joined the ranks of her enemies. + +[Illustration: Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706] + +[Illustration: Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century] + +[Illustration: The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated). +Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.] + + The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms, + when once more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will + be remembered that Russia three years before had prevented a + second war against France planned by Bismarck. It was very easy + for him to persuade Austria and England that if Russia were + allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new kingdoms which + would be under her control, she would speedily become the + strongest nation in Europe. The “balance of power” would be + disturbed. England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting + of statesmen and diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide + once more what should be the map of Europe. Representatives were + present from all the leading European countries. Even Turkey had + two men at the meeting, but the three men who really controlled + were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and Lord Beaconsfield + (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a great part + of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under + the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum + of money each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her + territory was made much smaller than had been agreed to by the + treaty of San Stephano. In fact less than one-third of the + Bulgarians were living within the boundaries finally agreed upon + by the congress. A great part of the Serbians were still left + under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of Thessaly and Epirus. + The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still to belong + to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to + keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run + their government, although their taxes were still to be paid to + Turkey. Austria solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey. + Russia, naturally, was very unhappy over this arrangement, and so + were the inhabitants of the Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped + that now they were at last to be freed from the oppression of + their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress of Berlin, + like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars + and revolutions. + + Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances + with other European states. He first made up with his old enemy, + Austria. Thanks to the liberal treatment that he had given this + country after her disastrous war of 1866, he was able to get the + Austrians to join Germany in an alliance which states that if two + countries of Europe should ever attack one of the two allies, the + other would rush to her help. + + The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that + they had gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the + Prussians, but they had always looked upon the Austrians as their + worst enemies. It was a wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck + finally induced Italy to join with Austria and Germany in a + “Dreibund” or “Triple Alliance.” + + The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this + going over to their enemies would never have been possible but + for an act of France which greatly angered Italy. For many years, + France had been in control of Algeria on the north coast of + Africa. This country had once been a nest of pirates, and the + French had gone there originally to clean them out. Next to + Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as you will + see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians + had been looking longingly at this district for some time, + intending to organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to + their kingdom. They waited too long, however, and one fine day in + 1881 they found the prize gone,—France had seized this county for + herself. It was Italy’s anger over this act of France more than + anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an alliance + with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria. + + France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of + enemies. It looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the + republic at any time, and be perfectly safe from interference, + with Austria and Italy to protect him. Russia, smarting under the + treatment which she had been given by the Congress of Berlin, was + full of resentment against Germany. Both the French and the + Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck’s Dreibund, and + so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other. + The result was the “Dual Alliance” between France and Russia, + which bound either country to come to the aid of the other in + case of an attack by two powers at once. + + In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck’s + “Dreibund,” was again restored. Many people thought the forming + of the two alliances a fine thing, “for,” said they, “each party + is now too strong to be attacked by the other. Therefore, we + shall never again have war among the great powers.” + + England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her + position on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did + not feel obliged to keep a large standing army such as the great + powers on the continent maintained. + + These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as + France equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria + had to do the same. As soon as the Germans invented a new + magazine rifle, the Russians and French had to invent similar + arms for their soldiers. If Germany passed a law compelling all + men up to the age of forty-five to report for two weeks’ military + training once every year, France and Russia had to do the same. + If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to + build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships + built by Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one + hundred torpedo boats, the Triple Alliance had to “go her one + better” by building one hundred and fifty. If Germany equipped + her army with war balloons, Russia and France had to do the same. + If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery, Germany and + Austria built a still bigger gun. + +This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only +with the five nations in the two alliances about which you have been +told. However, the death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought +to the throne his grandson, the present Kaiser,[5] and he formed a plan +for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as Bismarck had made +her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant colonies and +dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that Germany, +too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from +which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to +protect these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as +Germany built some new battleships, England built still others, larger +and with heavier guns. The next year, Germany would build still larger +ships, and the next England would come back with still heavier guns. As +fast as England built ships, Germany built them. Now, each battleship +costs from five to fifteen million dollars, and it does not take long +before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high for people to +stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of discontent +were heard among the working classes. + + [5] The present Kaiser’s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he + was a very sick man at the time of the old emperor’s death. + + + Questions for Review + + + How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly? + + Why did Bismarck’s three-emperor-alliance fail? + + What is meant by “the balance of power”? + + What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before + 1878? + + Why did Russia covet Constantinople? + + Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from + being carried out? + + What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin? + + Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance? + + How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy, + Austria? + + What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance + on France and Russia? + + What result had the formation of the two alliances on the + gun-industry? + + How was England brought into the race for war equipment? + + + + +Chapter XIV. +The “Entente Cordiale” + + Ancient enemies.—England and France in Africa.—A collision at + Fashoda.—Germany offers to help France.—Delcassé the + peacemaker.—A French-English agreement.—Friendship takes the + place of hostility.—England’s relations with Italy, Russia, and + Germany.—Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of + Turkey.—The Morocco-Algeciras incident.—The question of Bosnia + and Herzegovina.—England joins France and Russia to form the + “Triple Entente.”—The Agadir incident. + + + England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars + between them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time + that they had fought on the same side was in the campaign against + Russia in 1855, but even then there was no real sympathy between + them. + + In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an + excuse for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt + was a part of the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a + certain amount of money to Constantinople, the Turks did not care + very much how it was governed. But now a wild chief of the desert + had announced himself as the prophet Mohammed come to earth + again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had joined him. + They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and killed + General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the + English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally + beat them and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom + on the Nile. + +[Illustration: An Arab Sheik and His Staff] + + In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had + formed a plan for a railroad which should run the entire length + of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England’s + ambition to control all the territory through which this road + should run. But the French, too, were spreading out over Africa. + Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had joined their + colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of + Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year, + 1898, while Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French + expedition under Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and + reached the Nile at Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom. + Marchand planted the French flag and announced that he took + possession of this territory for the republic of France. + + The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand + had done. If France held Fashoda, their “Cape to Cairo” railroad + was cut right in the middle, and they could advance their + territory no farther up the valley of the Nile. They notified + France that this was English land. Marchand retorted that no + Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the French flag + would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on the + Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for + England, and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The + English newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which + had already begun its campaign to wrest from England the leading + place on the ocean, was delighted at the prospect of a war + between France and the British. The German diplomats patted + France on the back, and practically assured her of German help in + case it came to a war with England. + + Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France. + The French population was not increasing, while Germany was + steadily growing in numbers. It was England whom Germany saw + across her path toward control of the sea. + + There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making + up with Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost + provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was very strong with him. This + was Théophile Delcassé, a little man with a large head and a + great brain. He refused to be tempted by the offers of German + help, thinking that England, with its free government, was a much + better friend for the republic than the military empire of + Germany could be. + + Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador + came to see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the + French foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is + to say, a final notice to France that she must give in or England + would declare war on her. As he walked into Delcassé’s presence, + he began fumbling with the top button of his coat. “Don’t touch + that button,” said Delcassé quickly. “Drop your hand. You have + something in your pocket which must not be taken out. It is a + threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit down. Let us talk + this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves all right + in the end.” And they did. Delcassé was finally able to quiet the + French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade + France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was + given a free hand in Egypt, without any interference from the + French. Naturally the English were very grateful to Delcassé for + having refused to profit by German help and declare war. In + return for the French agreement to stay out of Egypt, the English + promised to help France get control of Morocco. + + Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her + son, Edward VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time + in France, and was very fond of the French and was popular with + them. He saw the growing power of Germany, and knew that England + could not afford to be without a friend in Europe. He did his + best to bring about a feeling of friendship between the English + and the French, and was very successful in doing so. He made + frequent visits to France, where he was received with great + cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of + France in London in a princely fashion. French warships paid + friendly visits to English waters, and the sailors mingled with + each other and did their best to understand each other’s + language. All France, and England as well, welcomed the beginning + of the “Entente Cordiale,” or friendly understanding between the + two nations. + + England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly + understanding with Italy. With the other nations of Europe + England had no great friendship. Between England and Russia, + there had been a hostile feeling for a long time, for the British + felt that the Russians would like nothing better than to stretch + their empire from Siberia, down to include British India, or at + least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in + control. + + The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the + future growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to + the throne, Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction + of manufactures. She had become one of the leading nations of the + world. One of her chief questions was, where to market these + goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a visit to Syria and Turkey. He + was received with great enthusiasm by the Turks, who were glad to + have one strong friend among the powers of Europe. Soon + afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of + the Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the + Turks to build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf + through Bagdad. German railways ran through Austria-Hungary, + which was Germany’s ally, to Constantinople and Salonika, the two + greatest ports of Turkey in Europe. This short overland route to + Persia was looked upon with suspicion and distrust by the + English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost all of + Europe’s commerce with India and the neighboring countries. + +[Illustration: A Scene In Constantinople] + + Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the + west coast of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in + the corner of the Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands + in the Pacific Ocean were seized. Her foreign trade was growing + by leaps and bounds, and she threatened to take away from England + a great deal of the latter’s commerce. + + The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted + whenever any changes of territory took place, no matter in what + part of the earth. Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help + of Great Britain and Spain, told the sultan of Morocco that he + had to behave himself, the German emperor in person made a visit + to Morocco and assured the sultan that he didn’t have to pay any + attention to France. + + There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a + meeting was held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of + all the great powers came together. In the end, France and + England were upheld, for even Italy, Germany’s ally, voted + against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé, the Frenchman + who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his + position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans + objected to him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated + them. + + In 1908, the “young Turk” party in Constantinople (the party + which stood for progress and for more popular government) drove + the old sultan off his throne, and announced that there should be + a Turkish parliament, or congress, to which all parts of the + empire should send representatives. + + You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia + and Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the + Congress of Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised + that she would never try to annex these provinces. In 1908, + however, she forgot all about her promise. When Bosnia and + Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them in the new + Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this they + should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they + belonged to Turkey no longer. + + The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia + had looked forward to the day when they should once more be + joined to herself. These states, like Montenegro, had been part + of the ancient kingdom of Serbia. As long as they were in dispute + between Austria and Turkey, Serbia had hopes of regaining them, + but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them, it seemed to the + Serbs that they were lost forever. + + Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states + look upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly + indignant at this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the + czar talked of war. His generals and war ministers, however, + dissuaded him. “Oh, no, your majesty,” said they, “we are in no + shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our army was badly + disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we shall + not be ready for another fight for some time to come.” Russia + protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by + Austria, and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and + France were not ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but + did so with a bitter feeling toward the “central empires,” as + Germany and Austria are called. + + It has already been shown that England for a long time had been + suspicious of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming + at control of India. Of late this hostile feeling had been dying + out, especially as the friendship between France and Great + Britain grew stronger. It was impossible for Russia, France’s + partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain unfriendly to England, + France’s ally in the “Entente Cordiale.” Both England and Russia + felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her war + chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each + other. + + In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they + marked off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each + agreeing to stay in her own portion, and not disturb the traders + of the other country in theirs. After this Russia, England, and + France were usually found acting together in European diplomacy, + under the name of the “Triple Entente.” The “balance of power” + had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but the English + navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than balanced + the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance. + + Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with + England’s backing and Spain’s friendship, sent her troops among + the Moors to enforce law and order. Any one could see that with + Tunis and Algeria already in French hands, it was only a question + of a little while before Morocco would be theirs also. + + This time Germany rushed her warship _Panther_ to the Moorish + port of Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French + appealed to England to know whether they could look to her for + support. Russia was now in much better shape for war than she had + been three years before, and notified France that she was ready + to give her support. Therefore, when Mr. Lloyd-George, the little + Welshman who was really the leader of the British government, + stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and told the world + that “to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,” England + would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to + back down or else start a tremendous European war. + + It was now Germany’s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did + not propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So, + although the French gave Germany a few square miles of land in + central Africa in return for the Kaiser’s agreement to let France + have her way in Morocco, the result was a backdown for Germany, + and it left scars which would not heal. + + During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents + happening, any one of which might have started the world war. + Fashoda, Algeciras, Bosnia, Agadir—each time it seemed as if only + a miracle could avert the conflict. Europe was like a powder + magazine. No man knew when the spark might fall that would bring + on the explosion. + + + Questions for Review + + + What were the plans of the English regarding Africa? + + How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe? + + Why was Germany ready to help France? + + Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England? + + Why was England suspicious of Russia? + + Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks? + + Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by + Austria start a general European war? + + Why did England and Russia become friendly? + + Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war? + + + + +Chapter XV. +The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth + + The growth of German trade.—Balkan hatreds.—The wonderful + alliance against Turkey.—The sympathies of the big nations.—Their + interference and its results.—A new kingdom.—The second war.—The + work of diplomacy.—The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria. + + + Germany’s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her + ships, in order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the + Mediterranean, had to go a great deal farther than those of + France or England. As a result, the Germans had been looking + toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as the part of the + world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was Germany’s + plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip + of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and + Turkey through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia, + and India. + + The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already + been explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they + had fought a bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the + Bulgarians. The Albanians had no love for either nation, while + the Greeks looked down on all the others. Montenegro and Serbia + were friends, naturally, since they were inhabited by the same + kind of people and had once been parts of the original kingdom of + Serbia. + +[Illustration: Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it. +(1912-13)] + + Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no + more tribute to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of + the independent nations of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so + strong and the Turks so weak, that Turkey did not dare go to war, + so permitted the matter to go unnoticed. The only thing on which + all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was their bitter + hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them cruelly + for the last three hundred and fifty years. + + Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished + a wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia, + Montenegro, and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each + other, for the time being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In + order that there should not be any quarreling over the spoils + when the war was over, the four little nations agreed, in a + secret treaty, that when they got through with Turkey, they would + divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The head, + including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course. + Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body, + Greece was to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest + of the body was to go to Serbia with the exception of the very + tail, including the city of Scutari, which was to be given to + Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a seacoast and a chance to + trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs had a grudge + against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of the + fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their + country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured + goods and paid them very little for their own products in return. + Bulgaria was to have Kavala (kȧ va′lȧ) as a seaport on the + Aegean and all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli + (găl ĭ′po li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city + of Salonika (sȧlōni′kȧ), southern Macedonia, and southern + Albania. + + With this secret agreement between them, the four little states + went to war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship + sprung up between Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and + generals were sent to Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops. + Cannon and machine guns were sent them from German factories, and + their rifles were fed with German bullets. The four little + countries, accordingly, turned to France and Russia for + assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and + machine guns, and their military advisers were French and + Russians. While the big nations managed to keep out of the war + themselves, all were strongly interested in one side or the + other. + + The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To + their consternation and disgust, the four little nations made + short work of the Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was + thoroughly beaten, and the allies were ready to put through their + program of dividing up the spoils. + + And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their + interference laid the foundation for future wars and misery. + Austria and Germany saw their path to Constantinople and the east + cut right in two. Their railroads, instead of passing through a + series of countries under German control, now were to be cut + asunder by an arm of Slavic states under Russian protection, + which would certainly stop German progress toward Asia. + + With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one + little strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar, + between Serbia and Montenegro, which connected Turkey with + Austria. To be sure, this country was inhabited almost entirely + by Serbians, but so long as it was under the military control of + Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for the east + could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide + this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her + seaport on the Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to + find new markets in Italy, Spain, and France. + +[Illustration: Durazzo] + + The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They + longed for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be + turned over to them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (dū + rȧt′zō) and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many + Italians, and Italy had always cherished the hope that they might + belong to her. Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the + Serbian program of seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as + the four little countries announced their intention of dividing + up Turkey in Europe among themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy + raised a great clamor. + + Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held, + and once more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead + of allowing the four little countries to divide up the conquered + land between them, the powers made a fifth small country, the + kingdom of Albania, and brought down from Germany a little prince + to rule over these wild mountaineers. Notice that the Albanians + were not consulted. The great powers simply took a map, drew a + certain line on it and said, “This shall be the kingdom of + Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.” Again we + have a king-made map with the usual trail of grievances. + + This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of + its seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country + west of Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ). France and Russia did not like this + program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance + to prevent its being put into effect. + +[Illustration: Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13] + + The three little countries, separated from a great part of their + new territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to + her, “Since we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to + divide up all over again. You must give us part of your plunder + in order to ‘make it square.’” Now was the time for the ancient + ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their neighbors to show + itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in so many + words, “Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight. + It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a + very insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we + dare you to come and take it.” And the Bulgarians made a + treacherous night attack on their recent allies, which brought a + declaration of war from the three little nations. + + This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria + wanted. It accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan + alliance under the protection of Russia. So with Austria and + Germany egging on Bulgaria, and Russia and France doing their + best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and surrender some land + to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in 1913 almost + before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled. + + Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who + had been mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went + down to defeat before the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field + of Bregalnitza (brĕg′ȧl nĭt zȧ). To add to Bulgaria’s + troubles, the Turks, taking advantage of the discord among their + late opponents, suddenly attacked the Bulgarians in the rear and + stole back the city of Adrianople, which had cost the Bulgarians + so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania, which up + to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of + her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The + Roumanian statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the + spoils, and moved simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their + kingdom, declared war on Bulgaria also. + + Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at + the best price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving + to her a strip of land in the country called the Dobrudja (dō + brood′jȧ) between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to + agree to a new boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept + Adrianople. She had to give Kavala and the surrounding country to + Greece and the territory around Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′) to + Serbia, although these districts were inhabited largely by her + own people. + + Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and + protector, Russia. The Russians were disgusted to think that the + Bulgarians had refused to listen to them when they urged them to + grant some small pieces of land to Greece and Serbia at the close + of the first war. They felt that the Bulgarians had been + headstrong and richly deserved what they got. Therefore, Russia + refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from humiliation. In + the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal of + mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was + badly broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria, + which had been buried for the time being during the first Balkan + war, now broke out with greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked, + feeling revengeful against all of her neighbors, but especially + angry at Russia, who had always been her friend before. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did the Germans desire a road to the east? + + What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were + united? + + What was Russia’s purpose in helping to form the Balkan + Alliance? + + Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little + countries from carrying out their secret agreement? + + What was the cause of the second Balkan war? + + Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin? + + Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors? + +[Illustration: A Modern Dreadnaught] + + + + +Chapter XVI. +Who Profits? + + The race for power on the sea.—The “naval holiday” declined.—The + declining birth-rate.—The growth of the Socialists.—The + militarists of Germany.—How wars cure labor troubles.—The forces + behind the war game.—Profits and press agents. + + + Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their + mad race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships + than its neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other + munitions of war. The German navy had been growing by leaps and + bounds. From being the sixth largest navy in the world, within + ten years it had grown to second place. But, fast as the Germans + built ships, the English built them more rapidly still. England + built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which was + twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly + replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and + England came back with some still larger vessels which are known + as super-dreadnaughts. + + At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston + Churchill, proposed to Germany that each country take a “naval + holiday.” In other words, he practically said to Germany, “If you + people will stop building warships for a year, we will also. Then + at the end of the year, we shall be no worse off or better off + than we were at the beginning.” + +[Illustration: Submarine] + + Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England + could not stand the strain very much longer. “Besides,” said the + Germans, “it is all very well for England to be satisfied with + her present navy, which is half again as large as ours. If our + navy were the strongest in the world, we too would be glad to + have all nations stop building warships,” and they laid down the + keels of four new super-dreadnaughts. + + But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German + militarists. For a long time, the population of France had not + been increasing, while Germany almost doubled her numbers from + 1860 to 1900. Now, to their dismay, the German birth-rate began + to grow less and they saw the population of Russia growing larger + by 20% every ten years. Again, they learned that Russia was about + to build a series of railroads near the German frontier which + would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany at very short + notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own + country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have + this advantage also. + + Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man + to put three years in military service instead of two. This would + increase France’s standing army by 50 per cent. The German + people, who up to this time had been very docile and very + obedient to the military rule, were showing signs of discontent. + The Socialists, a party who represented the working people + largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been growing + very fast. In the last election, they had gained many + representatives in the German congress, and had cast over + 4,000,000 votes. The only thing that kept them from having a + majority in the Reichstag (the German congress) was the fact that + in some districts, the voters of the other parties combined + against them. In this way, the military class still held control + of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not be + for long. + + With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending + their time drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the + population had to earn money enough to support their own families + and also the families of the men in the army. As one writer has + put it, “Every workingman in Europe carried a soldier on his back + who reached down and took the bread out of his platter.” + + The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military + leaders of Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia + must rule Germany, and Germany must be the greatest power in + Europe. To their minds, war between Germany and her allies and + the rest of Europe must come. Being warriors by trade and having + nothing else to do, they saw that, if the great war were + postponed much longer, the chances of Germany’s winning it would + grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and + Germany was unable to catch up to England’s navy. It should be + remembered that this class made up a small part only of the + German nation. Their influence was all out of proportion to their + numbers. They controlled the government, and the government + controlled the schools and the newspapers. The people believed + what they were told. They were simply parts of the war machine. + Bismarck’s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He + never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to + win it. In like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped + to conquer France and Russia before England was ready. It was the + old story as told by Shakespeare. “Our legions are brim full, our + cause is ripe. The enemy increaseth every day. We, at the height, + are ready to decline.” + + Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised + the nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or + parliament to be called together, the military class, who were + trying to keep the common people under control and in ignorance + as much as possible had been able to prevent the duma from + obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than the German + Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to pass + laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia + for life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor + troubles and strikes. The people of Russia, especially those + living in cities, were learning how little freedom they had, + compared with citizens of other countries, and the time seemed + ripe for a revolution. + + It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their + people off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to + think about. Although the Russian government did all that it + could to prevent the war without completely betraying Serbia, + still the war probably put off the Russian Revolution for two + years. + + It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia + there was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were + the so-called Junkers (Yo͝onkers), direct descendants of the old + feudal barons. They were owners of rich tracts of land which had + been handed down to them by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to + them by the people who lived on their farms supported them richly + in idleness. Just as their ancestors in the old days had lived + only by fighting and plundering, so these people still had the + idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs. + + Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for + the common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days + when he was Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress + had refused to vote to raise certain moneys through taxes that + Bismarck advised, because he wanted to spend all of it in + preparations for war. In spite of the vote of the representatives + of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the money and + spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had + won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the + Austrians, and lastly over the French, the Prussian people, + swollen with pride at what their armies had accomplished, forgave + Bismarck for riding rough-shod over their liberties. But Bismarck + was able to do what he did because he had the backing of the king + and the great land-owning Junker class. + + In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By + 1914, however, a change had come about. The wonderful development + of Germany’s trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power + to the merchant class and these had to be considered when plans + for war were being formed. + +Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially +trade with foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce, +carried on with Great Britain, the United States, South America, and +far distant colonies, had to travel over the ocean. German merchants +would never support a war cheerfully if they thought that their trade +would be interrupted for any length of time. So the Junkers, when they +made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of France and Russia, +persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been conquered +they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which would +more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians +would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only +with German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany +would be much richer.[6] + + [6] When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very + down-hearted, for they saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a + blow. But the Junkers called together the leading merchants and bribed + them with promises. In the year 1918 one of the prominent + manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out and was + published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame + for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military + class, he confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the + war by the promise of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which + was to be given to him after Germany had conquered the world. This, of + course, was pure piracy; the motto of Prussia for some time had been + that piracy pays. + + There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but + gained it through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns + and munitions. They were clamorously back of the Junkers in their + demands for war. These people profited by preparation for war. + They kept inventing newer and stronger guns so that the weapons + which they had sold the governments one year would be out-of-date + the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap. In this way, the + factories were kept working over-time and their profits were + enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the + common people. + + Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in + newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that + the great gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper + writers to keep up threats of war. They paid certain papers in + Paris to print articles to make the French people think that the + Germans were about to attack them. These same gun-makers in + Berlin tried to persuade the German people that the French were + on the point of attacking them. + + All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people + all over Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the + Junkers were ready to strike and the great war broke out, people + would say, “At last it has come, the war that we knew was + inevitable.” + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did Germany decline to take a “naval holiday”? + + What is meant by “strategic railroads”? + + Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the + Socialist Party? + + What was the fate of popular government in Russia? + + How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system? + + How were the German merchants won over to war? + + What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war? + + + + +Chapter XVII. +The Spark that Exploded the Magazine + + The year 1914.—England’s troubles.—Plots for a “Greater + Serbia.”—The hated archduke.—The shot whose echoes shook the + whole world.—Austria’s extreme demands.—Russia threatens.—Frantic + attempts to prevent war.—Mobilizing on both sides.—Germany’s + tiger-like spring.—The forts of the Vosges Mountains.—The other + path to Paris.—The neutrality of Belgium.—Belgium defends + herself. + + + The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her + parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to + be an Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish + wanted it governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of + Ireland, however, was very unhappy over this arrangement. Its + people were largely of English and Scotch descent, and they were + Protestants, while the other inhabitants of Ireland were Celts + and Catholics. The people of this province were so bitter against + home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled + regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England + compelled them to be governed by an Irish parliament. + + There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and + threatened revolutions in India, where the English government was + none too popular. Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that + England had so many troubles of her own that she would never dare + to enter a general European war. + + Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and + Herzegovina to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of + these provinces to revolt. The military leaders who really ruled + Austria, were in favor of crushing these attempted uprisings with + an iron hand. + + One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by + the Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the + emperor and heir to the throne. He finally announced that he was + going in person to Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō) in Bosnia to look + into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not + to come, saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so + hated. Being a headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to + listen to this advice, but insisted on going. His devoted wife, + after doing her best to dissuade him, finally refused to let him + go without her. + + When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian + revolutionists laid their plans. They found out just where his + carriage was to pass, and at almost every street corner, they had + some assassin with bomb or pistol. One bomb was thrown at him, + but it exploded too soon, and he escaped. Bursting with + indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax policing, + when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with + a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife. + + Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the + great European war. As you have been shown, however, this was + simply the spark that exploded the magazine. With the whole + situation as highly charged as it was, any other little spark + would have been enough to set the war a-going. + + The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had + been traced to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of + the government. It demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she + hunt out and punish the plotters at once. And because Austria did + not trust the Serbians to hold an honest investigation, she + demanded that her officers should sit in the Serbian courts as + judges. + + Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the + United States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a + Japanese judge be sent to California to try the case because + Japan could not trust America to give her justice! The Serbians, + of course, were in no position to fight a great power like + Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they could not + submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian + demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian + courts. They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was + done them. + + Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a + sharp warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and + that Austria and Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the + meantime, Serbia offered to lay the matter before the court of + arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at the invitation of the czar + of Russia, representatives of all the great powers of Europe met + at the Hague to found a lasting court which should decide + disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to + as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been + successful in averting trouble.) + + Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and + Serbia should be judged by a court composed of representatives of + France, England, Italy, and Germany. Austria’s reply to the + proposals of England and Serbia was a notice to the latter + country that she had just forty-eight hours in which to give in + completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr. + Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly + pleading with England to declare what she would do in case the + Triple Alliance started a war with France and Russia. + + Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent + the threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that + Russia was gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is + called. As Russia has so much more territory to draw from than + any other country, and as her railroads are not many and are + poorly served, it was figured that it would be six weeks before + the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody. Germany, on the + other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned + railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could + launch her forces across the frontier at two days’ notice. As + soon as the Germans began to hear that the Russians were + mobilizing their troops against Austria, Germany set in motion + the rapid machinery for gathering her own army. She sent a sharp + message to Russia, warning the latter that she must instantly + stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans + asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria + declared war on Russia. France replied that she would act in + accordance with what seemed to be her best interests. This answer + did not seem very reassuring, and without any declaration of war, + the German army rushed for the French frontier. + + Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line + of great forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her + territory approached that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal, + Verdun, Longwy, they ranged through the mountains northeast of + France as guardians of their country against another German + attack. To rush an army into France over this rough country and + between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies + carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades. + Therefore, if Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at + France and get her armies back six weeks later to meet the + slow-moving Russians, it was plain that she must seek some other + approach than that through the Vosges Mountains. + +[Illustration: A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns] + + From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the + northern and western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat + plain, with level roads, easy to cross. (See map.) Now, years + before, Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England + that no one of them would disturb its neutrality. In other words + it was pledged that in case of a war, no armed force of any of + these three nations should enter Belgian territory, nor should + Belgium be involved in any trouble arising among them. In case + any one of the nations named or in fact any other hostile force, + invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to rush to + Belgium’s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her + small army any troops which might invade her country. + + In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty, + the Germans started their rush toward France, not through the + line of forts in the mountains, but across the gently rolling + plain to the north. They first asked permission of the Belgians + to pass through their country. On being refused, they entered + Belgian territory just east of Liége (lï ĕzh′). The Belgians + telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The Germans replied that + they were sorry but it was necessary for them to invade Belgium + in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and to pay + the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might + seize. The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France, + England, and Germany they were bound on their honor to resist + just such an invasion as this. They asked the Germans how Germany + would regard them if they were to permit a French army to cross + Belgian territory to take Germany by surprise. The Germans again + said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium refused permission + to their army to cross, the army would go through without + permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make, + but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist + by all means the passage of the German troops. The great war had + begun. + +[Illustration: Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.] + + As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the + blame, almost alone. + + The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913, + thinking that this little country had grown too powerful, as a + result of her victories in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had + counted on “bluffing” Russia to keep out, as she had been bluffed + in 1908, and when she saw that this time the Russians meant + business, she became frightened and sent word that she might be + willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans + were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent + their warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a + ground for war. + + Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia + was at its height, both Austria and Russia had their armies + mobilized and ready for war for weeks and months. Still no war + came out of it. It looked as if Germany was hard put to it to + find an excuse for launching her plan to conquer Europe. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did Ulster object to home rule? + + What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia? + + Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia? + + Why did Russia mobilize her troops? + + Why was the road through Belgium chosen? + + + + +Chapter XVIII. +Why England Came In + + The question of Italy and England.—Italy’s position.—The war with + Turkey.—Italy declines to join her allies.—England is aware of + the German plans.—The treaty with Belgium.—The “defensive” + war.—The “scrap of paper.”—Germany’s rage at England’s + declaration of war.—England does the unexpected. + + + France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria + and Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her + neighbor and kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy + and England do. Italy, like Russia and Germany, had been having + trouble in holding down her people. A revolution had been + threatened which would overthrow the king and set up a republic. + The Socialist Party, representing the working class, had been + growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles was + that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by + the Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people. + Throughout the entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated. + + You will remember that France had aroused the Italians’ anger in + 1881 by seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province + for herself, for the Italian peninsula was crowded with people, + and as the population increased, it was thought necessary that + colonies be established to which the people could migrate to have + more room. Finally in 1911, in order to divert the minds of the + people from revolutionary thoughts, the government organized an + expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was + supposed to belong to Turkey. + + This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany + and Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking + Turkey, with which the Austrians and Germans were trying to + establish a firm friendship. However, “self-preservation is the + first law of nature,” and the Italian king and nobles valued + their leadership in the nation much more than they dreaded the + dislike of Germany and Austria. + + The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia + and France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their + people too well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been + growing up a friendship between the people of Italy and those of + France, and the Italian generals knew that it would be a + difficult task to induce their men to fire upon their kinsmen + from across the Alps. Therefore, when Austria and Germany + demanded their support in the war, they replied by pointing out + that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to their + help only _if they were attacked_. “In this case,” said the + Italians, “you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind + us to support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not + consulted before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands. + Expect no help from us.” + + Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen + were not blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended + to crush France first, capturing Paris and dealing the French + army such an overwhelming blow that it would take it a long time + to recover. Then the German armies were to be rushed back over + their marvelous system of government-owned railroads to meet the + on-coming German tide of Russians. + + The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and + all war supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful + guns which were large enough to batter down the strongest forts + in the world. They did not have very much respect for the ability + of the Russian generals. They had watched them bungle badly in + the Japanese war, ten years before. If once France were brought + to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after France and + Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later on, + to settle with Great Britain. + + The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan. + They saw that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal + time. However, Great Britain, having a government which is more + in the hands of the people than even that of republican France, + did not have the system of forcing her young men to do military + service. Her little army in England was made up entirely of men + who enlisted in it because they wished to, and because they + received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with + Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so. + Otherwise, her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would + never enlist to fight against them. The question was, would + anything happen to make the English people feel that they were + justified in entering the war on the side of France and Russia. + + You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised + each other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, + France and Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops + upon Belgian soil. Now, however, with the German army invading + Belgium, the English statesmen had to decide their course. As + heads of one of the nations to guarantee Belgium’s freedom, they + called on Germany to explain this unprovoked invasion. The + Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city of + Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to + withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying + no attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her + stand alongside of Russia and France. + + The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the + French. They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of + her alliance, to stand by Russia, but they had confidently + counted on keeping England out of the war. In fact, the German + ambassador to England had assured the German emperor that England + had so many troubles, with her uprising in Ireland and threatened + rebellions in India and South Africa that she would never dare + fight at this time. + + The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly + aroused. If there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself + on, it is keeping his word. The word of the English had been + given, through their government, to Belgium that this little + country, if it should resist invasion, would be protected, and + this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made no + difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly + unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had + to make the day before, this was a crucial step for the British + to take, but to their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In + the case of Germany’s declaration of war the German laws say that + no war can be declared by the Kaiser alone unless it is a + defensive war. Therefore, as one American writer has pointed out, + this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever declares. The + German military group, having control of the newspapers, put in a + lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers + having crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd. + They told how French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German + cities. As a matter of fact, the French soldiers, by orders of + their government, were drawn back from the frontier a distance of + six miles in order to avoid any appearance of attacking the + Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities that + was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a + formal statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city + and no French aviators had been seen near it. But the German + government gave out this “news” and promptly declared a + “defensive” war, and the German people had to believe what they + were told. + + Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people, + with free schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had + been taught in the schools of his country that Germany was + surrounded by a ring of jealous enemies and would one day have to + fight them all, so the people of England had been taught in their + schools that war between civilized peoples is a hateful thing and + must finally disappear from the earth. + + The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the + war at first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the + same, were doomed to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany + the protests against war were still more feeble. The newspapers, + with few exceptions, as was previously pointed out, were under + the control of the military leaders and the manufacturers of war + materials. These papers persuaded the German people that England, + through her jealousy of Germany’s great growth in trade, had + egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and + Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext. + At first the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince + Lichnowsky, the former German ambassador to Great Britain, + published a story in which he told how the German government had + forced the war in spite of all that England could do to prevent + it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs told them, that the + war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies. + + Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old + feudal nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the + English people. + + When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor + (as the prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told + him that unless German troops were immediately withdrawn from + Belgium, England would declare war, for the Belgian government + had a treaty signed by England promising them protection, the + German chancellor exclaimed. “What! Would you plunge into this + terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!” The chancellor + was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were sure + that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to + go into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans + for the conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the + chancellor forgot his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He + showed the world that honor had no place in the minds of the + German war lords. To the English a treaty with Belgium was a + sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which could be + torn up at a moment’s notice if it stood in the way of their + interests. + + There was a violent outburst against England in all of the + newspapers of Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called + “The Hymn of Hate,” in which he told how while they had no love + for the Frenchman or the Russian, they had no hate for them + either. One nation alone they hated—England! “Gott strafe + England” (may God punish England) became the war cry of the + Germans. + + Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until + England decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first, + even before the terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That + any nation should put her honor before her comfort and profit, + had never occurred to the war leaders of Germany. + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911? + + Why did not Italy join in the attack on France? + + What was Germany’s plan? + + How is the English army different from others? + + What reason had England for declaring war? + + Had the German’s expected England to attack them? Give + reasons for your answer. + + Why did the phrase “scrap of paper” make such a deep + impression on the world? + + Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply? + + + + +Chapter XIX. +Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition + + Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.—The demands of + Italy.—She joins the Triple Entente.—The retreat of the + Russians.—The Balkans again.—Bulgaria’s bargaining.—German + princes on Balkan thrones.—The central empires bid the highest + for Bulgarian support.—The attitude of Greece.—Roumania’s hopes. + + + To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all + haste to put pressure upon the governments of the countries which + were not engaged in the struggle, in order to win them over. + Germany and Austria worked hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with + Bulgaria. The Turks were the first to plunge in. The party headed + by Enver Bey (the young minister of war) saw that a victory for + Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of the Turks from + Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this + faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of + October (1914) when Turkish warships, without any provocation, + sailed into some Russian ports on the Black Sea and blazed away + with their big guns. + + Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their + best to get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all + responsibility for this act of their naval commanders. The “Young + Turks,” however, were all for war on the side of Germany. What is + more, Russia, always anxious for an excuse to seize + Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize for their + act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was + quickly followed by France and England. + + Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the + sympathies of the Italian people were with France and England. + The six grandsons of Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and + volunteered for fighting on the French lines. Two of them were + killed, and at their funerals in Rome, nearly all the inhabitants + of the city turned out and showed plainly that they too would + like to be fighting on the side of France. + + You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the + provinces of Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent, + Trieste (trï ĕs′te), Pola (pō′lä), and Fiume (fē ū′me), all + inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and + cities by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between + the two nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the + price of her keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her + this land inhabited by Italians. Germany urged Austria to do + this, and sent as her special ambassador, to keep Italy from + joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow, whose wife was an Italian + lady, and who was very popular with the Italian statesmen. + + For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce + Italy to accept a small part of the disputed territory and then, + when he found this impossible, doing his best to induce Austria + to give it all. Austria was stubborn. She did not take kindly to + the plan of giving away her cities. She offered to cede some + territory if Italy should wait until the end of the war. + + This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that + Austria and Germany were going to win the war and was even less + sure that Austria would be willing, in case of her victory, to + give up a foot of territory. It seemed to the Italian statesmen + that it was “now or never” if Italy wished to get within her + kingdom all of her own people. In the month of May 1915 Italy + threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria and + entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England. + +[Illustration: Russian peasants fleeing before the German army] + + Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had + millions and millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them + all. They had plenty of food but very little ammunition for their + cannon. Austria and Germany, on the other hand, had been + manufacturing shot and shells in enormous quantities, and from + the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the Carpathian + Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and + Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October, + forcing them to retreat nearly three hundred miles. + + In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble. + You will recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her + victory over Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it + came to a division of the conquered territory. Thus she brought + on a second war, in the course of which Greece and Serbia + defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of her territory and + the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of Russia + had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending + a personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King + Peter of Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race, + not to let their quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of + her ability to defeat Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the + Russians’ pleadings, and as a result Russia did not interfere to + save her when her neighbors were robbing her of part of the land + which she had taken from Turkey. + +It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had +felt most sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in +their blood, although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore, +just as Italy strove by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her +nation, so Bulgaria now saw her chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia. +Accordingly, she asked the four great powers what they would give her +in case she entered the war on their side, and attacked Turkey by way +of Constantinople, while the French and English were hammering at the +forts along the Dardanelles.[7] + + [7] England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great + quantities at her ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and + England, by supplying Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike + a hard blow at Germany. + + The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally + induced Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to + Bulgaria. They further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of + Adrianople and the territory around it which Turkey had + reconquered. But Bulgaria was not easily satisfied. She wanted + more than Serbia was willing to give; she wanted, too, the port + of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the allies could + not promise. + + In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany, + and Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back + Serbia for the loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and + Herzegovina in case they won the war from Austria. In like + fashion, Austria and Germany promised Bulgaria some Turkish + territory and also the southern part of the present kingdom of + Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side. + + Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call + himself, is a German. (As these little countries won their + independence from Turkey, they almost always called in foreign + princes to be their kings. In this way it had come about that the + king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the king of Roumania was + a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar of Bulgaria + was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has + furnished England and Belgium with their kings.) + + The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic + Church, and they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia, + as the head of that church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling, + however. He wanted to be the most powerful ruler in the Balkan + states, and it made no difference to him which side helped him to + gain his object. + +[Illustration: A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front] + + About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a + line running south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern + boundary of Roumania. The French and English had been pounding at + the Dardanelles for some months, but the stubborn resistance of + the Turks seemed likely to hold them out of Constantinople for a + long time to come. The checked Italians had not been able to make + much headway against the Austrians through the mountainous Alpine + country where the fighting was taking place. In the west, the + Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British + and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that + the German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help, + flung their nation into its third war within four years. This + happened in Octoher, 1915. + + Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece + defeated Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to + come to the help of the other in case either was attacked by + Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was friendly to Greece and Serbia, + rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the Roumanians knew that + Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory of which + Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way, + the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped + that the entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany + and Turkey, would bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side. + + The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia’s aid and so was + the Greek prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a + sister of the German emperor, and through her influence with her + husband she was able to defeat the plans of Venizelos (vĕn ĭ + zĕl′ŏs), the prime minister, who was notified by the king that + Greece would not enter the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned, + but not until he had given permission to the French and English + to land troops at Salonika, for the purpose of rushing to the + help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that German and Austrian + armies might lay waste her territory, as they had Serbia’s, + before England and France could come to the rescue.) + + Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan + wars had drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the + Austrians had invaded her kingdom in this war, and twice they had + been driven out. Then came a dreadful epidemic of typhus fever + which was the result of unhealthful conditions caused by the war. + Now the little kingdom, attacked by the Germans and Austrians on + two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was literally + fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to + stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria, + but we have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to + prevent this. Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her + help. However, as you have been told, the king of Roumania is a + German of the Hohenzollern family, a cousin of the emperor, and + in spite of the sympathy of his people for Italy, France, and + Serbia, he was able to keep them from joining in the defense of + the Serbs. + + Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes ȧ + rȧ′bi ȧ), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the + greater part of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo kō vï′nȧ), + which are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for + a great part of the inhabitants of these three counties are + Roumanians by blood and language. They would like to be parts of + the kingdom of Roumania, and Roumania would like to possess them. + The Quadruple Entente would promise Roumania parts of + Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on their + side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her + Bessarabia. Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled + by colonists sent out from Rome, and in the eleventh century a + large number of people from the north of Italy settled there. On + this account, Roumania looks upon Italy as her mother country, + and it was thought that Italy’s attack upon Austria would + influence her to support the Entente. + + Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order + to share in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the + Quadruple Entente did not need her help Roumania was eager to + offer it, at a price which seemed to the allies too high. When, + however, the tide turned the other way, she lost her enthusiasm + for the cause of her friends, fearing what the central empires + might do to her. + + + Questions for Review + + + What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war? + + Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on + them? + + What were the feelings of the Italian people? + + What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain? + + What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the + Entente powers? + + Why did Bulgaria join the central empires? + + Why did Greece keep out of the conflict? + + What were Roumania’s hopes? + + + + +Chapter XX. +Back to the Balkans + + The troubles of Crete.—The bigotry of the “Young + Turks.”—Venizelos in Greece.—The pro-German king.—The new + government at Salonika.—The downfall of Constantine.—The + ambitions of Roumania.—Pro-Germans in Russia.—Roumania declares + war.—Russian treachery and German trickery.—The defeat of + Roumania. + + + Greece + + You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime + minister of Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her + bargain from Crete with Serbia (pages 239-240). Now Venizelos had + originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks, + but controlled by Turkey for many years (see map). In 1897 the + Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island, + and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they + forced their king to declare war on Turkey. + + Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the + attention of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the + Turks, and they never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed + by them. For over a year Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy + had their warships in Cretan ports and the government of Crete + was under their protection. + + Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince, + Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become + very unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics—on the wrong + side—and had to leave. + + The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The + Cretan government was really independent, like a little kingdom + without a king, and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had + looked forward to the time when they might be united in one great + kingdom. The shores of Asia Minor and the cities along the Aegean + Sea and the Dardanelles were largely inhabited by Greeks. Crete + and the islands of the Aegean had once been part of Greece and + they never would be content until they were again joined to it. + The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be + annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the + “Young Turks” which drove the old Sultan from his throne (page + 186). + + The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the + government were tolerant to all the other races and religions in + their country. At first the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians, + the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in the Turkish Empire were very + happy over the result of the revolution. It looked as if a new + day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible for these + various races and different religions to live side by side in + peace. + + No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government, + however, than they began to change. “Turkey for the Turks, and + for the Turks only” became their motto. With this in mind they + massacred Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia (page 85) and + Armenians in Asia Minor. The thought of the loss of Crete roused + their anger and they began scheming to get it back under Turkish + rule. + + In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left + for Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the + Turks and annex Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his + single-hearted love for his country soon made him as prominent on + the mainland as he had been in his island home. Before long he + was chosen as prime minister of Greece. + + He found the country in a very sad condition. The military + officers were poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know + this, but imagined that their army was the best in the world. The + politicians had plundered the people and there was graft and poor + management throughout the government. + + Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic + for some of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over + the Greek army and taught the Greek officers the real science of + war. + +[Illustration: Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England] + + Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be + frightened, controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent + officials and forced the others to attend to business. In fact he + reorganized the whole government service in a way to make every + department do better work. Few countries in Europe were as well + managed as was Greece with Venizelos as its prime minister. + + Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no + man of Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You + have been told how the Russians have looked forward to the day + when Saint Sophia, the great mosque of the Turks, shall once more + become a Christian cathedral. In the same way the Greeks have + passionately desired to see Constantinople, which was for over a + thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the + control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the + Greeks first won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the + boundary of their kingdom has been pushed northward, freeing more + and more of their people from the rule of the Ottomans. + Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of Greece as many as + possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming night and day + for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have been + told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing + Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for + whom she had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many + people felt that this combination would never have been possible + without the far-seeing wisdom of of Venizelos. In fact, some + historians give him the credit of first planning the alliance. + + His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as + you have been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of + their country, whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than + Greeks among its inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the + attack on Turkey that the greater part of Macedonia should be + given to Bulgaria, had hard work after the victory in convincing + his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the claims of the + three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in the + combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs + in the course of the first war against Turkey, while the + Bulgarians were defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of + Constantinople, brought on the second war. Bulgaria was not + willing to give up Macedonia to the Greeks and Serbs, and her + troops made a treacherous attack on her former allies (June, + 1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to. + + At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five + nations at once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks + took advantage of her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika + but also Kavala, which by all rights should have gone to the + Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be generous to Bulgaria, but + the Greeks had had their heads turned by the extraordinary + successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and as a + result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of + the conquered lands. + + Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had + begun: In March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and + England made their violent attack on the forts of the + Dardanelles, intending to break through and bombard + Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the + conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end, + would lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be + divided up among the conquering nations. He wanted to get for + Greece the shores of the Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor, + where a great majority of the inhabitants were people of Greek + blood. The king of Greece, Constantine, as has been explained, is + a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has always been + friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends while + both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little + incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a + coolness between them. + + King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a + banquet and told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine + work of the Greek soldiers in the two wars just fought had been + due to help which he had received from German military men. This + statement angered the French very much, for you will remember + that it was French generals who had trained the Greek army + officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip to + Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine + condition of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had + trained its officers before the war of 1912. This was a direct + “slap in the face” of the king but it was the truth and everyone + in Greece knew it. From this time on it was evident to everybody + that Venizelos was friendly to the French and English, while the + King was pro-German. + + Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek + government to join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give + the order. Venizelos, who was prime minister, straightway + resigned, broke up the parliament, and ordered a general + election. This put the case squarely up to the people of Greece + and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred + eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as + against one hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war. + + Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election, + ordered the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was + that Bulgaria, in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the + side of the Germans and Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In + order to keep peace with Bulgaria Venizelos was willing to give + to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had cheated her out of at + the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his country + would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule + of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose + population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this, + however, and the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted + as their prime minister, backed the king. When the attack by the + Central Powers on Serbia took place, as has been told, Venizelos + a second time tried to get the Greek government to join the war + on the side of France and England. He said plainly to the king + that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not a “scrap of + paper” as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with + Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a + full understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand, + insisted that the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that + it was not intended to drag Greece into a general European war. + As a result, he dismissed Venizelos a second time, in spite of + the fact that twice, by their votes, the Greeks had shown that + they approved of his policy. + + Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the + constitution the king must obey the will of the people as shown + by the votes of a majority of the members of parliament. In spite + of the vote of parliament the king refused to stand by the + Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating the law of his + country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very + little power, as the Greek constitution had made him. + + Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and + English had landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the + hard-pressed Serbs. You have already been told how Venizelos + arranged this. Their aid, however, had come too late. Before they + could reach the gallant little Serbian army it had been crushed + between the Austrians and Germans on one side and the Bulgarians + on the other, and its survivors had fled across the mountains to + the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments were not + strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany, + Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern + Serbia. King Constantine notified the Allied governments that if + these troops retreated upon Greek soil he would send his army to + surround them and hold them as prisoners for the rest of the war. + France and England replied by notifying him that if he did this + they would blockade the ports of Greece and prevent any ships + from entering her harbors. This act on the part of France and + England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the + proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The + king took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of + pro-Germans to important positions in the government. Constantine + allowed German submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases + of supply from which they got their oil and provisions. The Greek + army was still mobilized, and the small force of French and + English, which had retreated to Salonika, were afraid that at any + moment they might receive a stab in the back by order of the + Greek king. + + In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek + frontier and demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When + the commander of one of them proposed to fight, the German + general told him to call up his government at Athens over the + long distance telephone. He did so and was ordered to give up the + fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already seen what the + answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be sure, + the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but + they had come there under permission of the prime minister of + Greece to do a thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised + that she would do, namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars. + + This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too + much for Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people + in which he declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution + and was ruling as a tyrant; that he was betraying his country to + the Germans and Bulgars and that all loyal Greeks should refuse + to obey him. At Salonika, under the protection of the British and + French, together with the admiral of the Greek navy and one of + the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a new + government—a republic of Greece. + + Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern + Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered + his men to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores, + and the equipment which had been furnished to them by the French + to defend themselves against the Germans! In the meantime, the + Bulgarians had seized Kavala. + + The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy + between the Italians and Austrians even during the years when + they were partners in the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy + entered the war on the side of France and England, her + government, fearing the Austrians, had sent Italian troops to + seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was not + wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no + government at all there since the outbreak of the great war. + However, the presence of this Italian garrison prevented the + forces of the central powers from advancing southward along the + Adriatic coast. + + Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika. + The gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to + command the joint army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came + there to join the French and British. A hundred thousand hardy + young veterans, survivors of the Serbian army, picked up by + allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were refitted and + carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined + General Sarrail’s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for + revenge on the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the + Greek troops, following the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the + king and joined the allies. + + Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to + steer the ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil. + The great majority of them were warm friends of France and + England—all of them hated the Turks. The pro-German acts of the + king, however, provoked the French and English to such an extent + that they frequently had to interfere in Athens. The Greek people + resented this interference and on one or two occasions fights + broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets of the + capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments + of France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the + treacherous conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that + he was assisting Germany in every possible way. They knew that + their camp was full of spies who were reporting all their + movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that at the first chance + he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear. They + finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the + throne to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince, + having been educated in Germany and sharing King Constantine’s + pro-German sentiments, was barred from succeeding his father. + This seemed a high-handed thing to do but there was no other way + out of a difficult situation. Constantine had allowed his + sympathies with his wife’s brother to prevent his country from + carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute + monarch; had plotted with all his power for the overthrow of + Russia, France, and England, the three countries which had won + Greece its independence in the first place and which still + desired its people to have the right to rule themselves. + +The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of +the Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king +and Germany. A second[8] time within four months a European monarch who +was out of sympathy with his subjects was forced to resign his crown. + + [8] The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter. + + With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the + return to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people + hailed his coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the + members of parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control + of the government. + + In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that, + henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of + France, Great Britain, and the other nations of the Entente. + + Roumania + + You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs + hoped for help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a + grudge against Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory + which she had been compelled to give up to her neighbor on the + north at the close of the second Balkan war. They expected this + fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring the Roumanians to the rescue. + + You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as + well as in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a + long time the government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to + plunge into the war before the time was ripe, and dreading the + danger of choosing the wrong side. + + The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to + war she would have to count strongly on the help of her great + neighbor to the north. + +Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember +that there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian +domain which borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and +Courland were ruled in the olden times by the “Teutonic knights.”) +These Germans are much better educated, on the whole, than the +Russians; they are descendants of old feudal warriors and as such are +men of force and influence in the Russian government. It was a common +thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve, Rennenkampf, and +Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in Russia. In +this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian +government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were +actively plotting with this in view. “There is a secret wire from the +czar’s palace to Berlin,” said one of the most patriotic Russian +generals, explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance. +Graft and bad management, as well as treachery, were all through the +nation. Train-loads of ammunition intended for the Russian army were +left piled up on the wharves at the northern ports. Guns sent by +England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food that was badly needed by +the men at the front was hoarded by government officials in order to +raise prices for their friends who were growing rich through +“cornering” food supplies.[9] + + [9] When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so + as to keep it from being sold in great quantities and make it appear + that there is not enough to go around, they are said to “corner” the + market. Three or four men in America at various times have been able + to corner the wheat market or the corn market or the market for + cotton. + + The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On + the other hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German + princess whose brothers were fighting in the German army, and she + had little love for her adopted country. The poor little + Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in the war, “When + the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are beaten, + mamma weeps.” In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had + great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who + were secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use + this influence in many ways. + + In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia—a man named + Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians, + after their long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their + strength, and had piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new + attack. This began early in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff + attacked the Austro-Hungarians in Galicia and Bukowina and drove + them back for miles and miles, capturing hundreds of thousands of + prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians, although + subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the + Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of + Bohemian troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in + a body and afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army. + + In northern France, the British and French had at last gained + more guns and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer + weight of metal were pushing the latter out of the trenches which + they had held for over two years. It seemed to Roumania that the + turning point of the war had come. With the Russians winning big + victories over Austria, and the French and English pushing back + the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as though the end + were in sight. + +Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a +distant cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from +the case in Greece and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and +she was able to help the party that was friendly to France and Great +Britain. The man who had and worked early and late to get his +countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the wisest of the +Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the second +Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within +fourteen months.[10] + + [10] As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months + between wars. + +[Illustration: What The Allies Wished] + + By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if + they wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the + province of Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the + war on the side of the Entente. It is claimed by some that they + had planned to wait until the following winter in order to get + their army into the best of condition and training, but that the + treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when he found that + they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria, + persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were + unprepared and that their inexperienced troops would be no match + for the veterans of the central powers. At any rate, about the + first of September Roumania declared war on Austria and joined + the Entente. + + The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war + first on Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north + while General Sarrail attacked it from the south, crush it before + help could arrive from Germany, much in the fashion in which poor + Serbia had been caught between Austria and Bulgaria a year + previously. The Roumanians, however, were eager to “liberate” + their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by bad advice + from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest + instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the + conquest of Bulgaria. (See maps.) + +[Illustration: Messen How Roumania was crushed] + + Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania. + The battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet + weather, had become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it + was impossible to drag the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia + had pushed back the Austrians for many miles but a lack of + ammunition and the arrival of strong German re-inforcements had + prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian generals on the + north, under the influence of the pro-German prime minister, were + doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a deadlock. + The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that + neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow + advance of General Sarrail. His great problem was to get + sufficient shells for his guns and food for his men. All the + time, too, he had to keep a watchful eye on King Constantine, + lest the latter launch the Greek army in a treacherous attack on + his rear. For the time being, then, the central powers were free + to give their whole attention to Roumania. + + Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the + Russians to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand + men from France and Poland and hurled them all together upon the + Roumanians. At the same time, another force composed of Turks, + Bulgarians, and some Germans marched north through the Dobrudja + to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the very trick that the + French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now worked upon + her by the central powers. France and England were helpless. They + sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the + Roumanians the latest science of war, but men and guns they could + not send. Look at the map and see how Roumania was shut off from + all help except what came from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his + part to help Germany. Ammunition and troops which were intended + to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The Germans had spies in + the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew exactly where the + Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to do. + + The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each + gun was a delicate sight with a spirit level—a little glass tube + supposed to be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly + the Germans had filled these tubes with water, intending, in case + Roumania entered the war on their side, to warn them about the + “mistake.” When the guns were hauled up into the mountains and + freezing weather came, these sights burst, making the guns almost + useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and the south, the + Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile after + mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by + the Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil + wells are, fell into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest, + the capital. + + Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost + beaten, now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat, + Roumanian oil, and above all, the glory of the victories, the + central powers were now in better shape to fight than if Roumania + had kept out of the war. The German comic papers were full of + pictures which declared that as England and France had always + wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now take a long + look at King Ferdinand of Roumania. + + + Questions for Review + + + What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to + power of the “young Turks”? + + What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos + in Greece? + + What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of + 1913? + + What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and + King Constantine? + + Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as + prisoners the French and British troops who were driven back + upon Greek soil? + + What right had Venizelos to set up a republic? + + Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King + Constantine? + + What made Roumania decide to join the Entente? + + How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central + Powers? + + + + +Chapter XXI. +The War Under the Sea + + Britannia rules the waves.—Enter the submarine.—The blockade of + Germany.—The sinking of the _Lusitania_ and other ships.—The + trade in munitions of war.—The voyages of the + _Deutschland_.—Germany ready for peace (on her own terms).—The + reply of the allies.—Germany’s amazing announcement.—The United + States breaks off friendly relations. + + + You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building + warships, with the hope that one day their navy might be the + strongest in the world. At the outbreak of the great war in 1914 + they were still far behind England in naval power. On the other + hand, it was necessary for the English to keep their navy + scattered all over the world. English battleships were guarding + trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the + Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of + Malta—all were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed + to defend them. + + The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few + cruisers in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the + Mediterranean, was gathered in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern + part of the North Sea, and the great Kiel Canal which connected + these two bodies of water. It was quite possible that this fleet, + by making a quick dash for the ports of England, might find there + only a portion of the English ships and be able to overwhelm them + before the rest of the English navy should assemble from the far + parts of the earth. + + Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the + foresight to assemble enough English vessels in home waters in + the latter part of the month of July, 1914, to give England the + upper hand over the fleet of Germany. As a result, finding the + British too strong, the Germans did not venture out into the high + seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were fought between + cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash across the + North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns, + killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting + back to the Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any + number. + + A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time + the British were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers + were sunk and the others barely escaped the fire of the avengers. + + About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German + fleet sailed out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were + successful in sinking several large ships, but when the main + British fleet arrived they began in turn to suffer great losses, + and were obliged to retire. With the exception of these two + fights and two other battles fought off the coast of South + America (in the first of which a small English fleet was + destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British + fleet took revenge), there have been no battles between the sea + forces. + + The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels + were either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral + nations. German commerce was swept from the seas, while ships + carrying supplies to France and the British Isles sailed + unmolested—for a time. Only in the Baltic Sea was Germany + mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark was kept up + as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came + great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries + bought, in the markets of the world, apparently for themselves, + but really for Germany. + + However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new + and terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat, + the invention of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and + enlarged by the Germans. In one of the early months of the war + three British warships, the _Hogue_, the _Cressy_, and the + _Aboukir_, were cruising about, guarding the waters of the North + Sea. There was the explosion of a torpedo, and the _Hogue_ began + to sink. One of her sister ships rushed in to pick up the crew as + they struggled in the water. A second torpedo struck and a second + ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate of the other two, + the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster—the German + submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant + ships with a thousand men had gone down. + + This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and + cruisers were not enough. While England controlled the surface of + the sea, there was no way to prevent the coming and going of the + German submarine beneath the waters. All naval warfare was + changed in a moment; new methods and new weapons had to be + employed. + + At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up + a strict blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which + were called “contraband of war” and which, according to the law + of nations, might be seized by one country if they were the + property of her enemy. On the list of contraband were all kinds + of ammunition and guns, as well as materials for making these. + England and France, however, added to the list which all nations + before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like + cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton + and other high explosives, gasoline—fuel for the thousands of + automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for + their tires. Soon other substances were added to the list. + + An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The + central empires, in ordinary years, raise only about + three-fourths of the food that they eat. With the great supply of + Russian wheat shut off and vessels from North America and South + America not allowed to pass the British blockade, Germany’s + imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland, and the + Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about + four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not + take a detective to discover that she was secretly selling to + Germany the great bulk of what she was buying apparently for + herself. In a like manner Switzerland and the Scandinavian + countries suddenly developed a much greater appetite than before + the war! The British blockade grew stricter. It was agreed to + allow these countries to import just enough food for their own + purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the food + themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The + Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had + slaughtered many of their cows for beef and as a result grew + short of milk and butter. + + To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use + her submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles. + This happened in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest + from the world in general, but Germany agreed that her submarine + commanders should warn each ship of its danger and allow the + captain time to get the passengers and crew into boats before the + deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the danger of + the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore, + were in serious danger. + + The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars + up to this time, have said that a blockade, in order to be + recognized by all nations, had to be successful in doing the work + for which it was intended. If England really was able to stop + every boat sailing for German shores, then all nations would have + to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the Germans were able + to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed into + English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a + real blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral + nations who were peaceably trying to trade with all the countries + at war, this sinking of merchantmen by submarines went on. + + In May, 1915, the great steamship _Lusitania_ was due to sail + from New York for England. A few days before her departure + notices signed by the German ambassador were put into New York + papers, warning people that Germany would not be responsible for + what happened to them if they took passage on this boat. Very few + people paid any attention to these warnings. With over a thousand + persons on board the _Lusitania_ sailed, on schedule time. + Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to hear that a German + submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had sent two + torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending + her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the + boats, but over eight hundred men, women, and children were + drowned, of whom over one hundred were American citizens. Strange + as it may seem, this action caused a thrill of joy throughout + Germany. Some of the Germans were horrified, as were people in + neutral countries, but on the whole the action of the German navy + was approved by the voice of the German people. With a curiously + warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed that the + English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children + to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was + going to be sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which + one would speak of the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent + children and women to march in front of armies in order to + protect the troops from the fire of their enemies. + + A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the + United States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans, + however, prevailed, and the upshot of the matter was that a stern + note was sent to Berlin notifying the Kaiser that the United + States could not permit vessels carrying Americans to be + torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The German papers + proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured every + French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two + Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the + boat might be under the protection of the United States. + + However, in spite of Germany’s solemn promise that nothing of the + sort would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring, + although on a smaller scale. The American steamers _Falaba_ and + _Gulflight_ were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the + loss of one or two lives. Finally, the steamer _Sussex_, crossing + the English Channel, was hit by a torpedo which killed many of + the passengers. As several Americans lost their lives, once more + the United States warned Germany that this must not be repeated. + Germany acknowledged that her submarine commander had gone + further than his orders allowed him and promised that the act + should not be repeated—provided that the United States should + force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal + blockade. The United States in reply made it plain that while the + English blockade was unpleasant to American citizens, still it + was very different from the brutal murder of women and children + on the high seas. England, when convinced that an American ship + was carrying supplies which would be sold in the end to Germany, + merely took this vessel into an English port, where a court + decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British + government to pay that sum to the (American) owners. + + This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not + anything to go to war over. The United States gave warning that + she would hold Germany responsible for any damage to American + ships or loss of American lives. + + All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of + favoring the nations of the Entente because they were selling + munitions of war to them and none to Germany. They said that it + was grossly unfair for neutral nations to sell to one side when, + owing to the blockade, they could not sell to the other also. + When a protest was made by Austria, the United States pointed out + that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time the empire + of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in + South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy + munitions in the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not + prevent both Austria and Germany from selling guns and ammunition + to Great Britain. (It must be made plain that the United States + _government_ was not selling munitions of war to any of the + warring nations. What Germany wanted and Austria asked was that + our government should prevent our private companies, as, for + example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which would + eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it + plain that our people had no feeling in the matter—that they were + in business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it + was not our fault that the British navy, being larger than the + German, prevented Germany from trading with us.) + + In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition + factories in the United States that were turning out shells and + guns for the Allies. Several hundred Americans were killed in + these explosions, and property to the value of millions of + dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the Austrian ambassador + and several of the German diplomats had been hiring men to commit + these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the fact + that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the + President insisted that their governments recall them. + + The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English + blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany, + who were being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English. + As a matter of fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber, + cotton, gasoline, and above all, nickel and cobalt, two metals + which were needed in the manufacture of guns and shells. + + Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large + German submarine, the _Deutschland_, made the voyage across the + Atlantic Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of + Baltimore. In spite of all the trouble that the United States had + had with Germany over the sinking of ships by submarines, the + crew of this vessel was warmly received, and the cargo of dyes + which she brought was eagerly purchased. The Germans, in return, + loaded their ship with the metals and other products of which + Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said, the + _Deutschland_ took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the + starving babies of Germany. Once more the _Deutschland_ came, + this time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with + every sign of hospitality. + +[Illustration: The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay] + + In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign + against Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning + to feel the pinch of starvation and the drain on their young men, + made it known that as they had won the war they were now ready to + treat for peace. This message carried with it a threat to all + countries not at war that if they did not help to force the + Entente to accept the Kaiser’s peace terms, Germany could not be + held responsible for anything that might happen to them in the + future. + + President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw + the United States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this + opportunity, and in a public message he asked both sides to state + to the world on what terms they would stop the war. + + The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite + proposal. On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no + uncertain terms, declared that no peace would be made unless the + central powers restored what they had wrongfully seized, paid the + victims of their unprovoked attack for the damage they had done, + and guaranteed that no such act should ever be committed in the + future. They also declared that the Poles, Danes, Czechs, + Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed from the + tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language + this meant that the central powers must give back part of + Schleswig to Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored + as it once had been; permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an + independent nation in the midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the + people of Alsace and Lorraine the right of returning to France; + annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to Italy, and permit the + Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their cousins to the + southeast in one great Serbian nation. + + When these terms were published the German government exclaimed + that while they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even + give back the conquered portions of Belgium and northern France + in return for the captured German colonies in Africa and the + Pacific Ocean, with the payment of indemnities to Germany, now it + was plain that the nations of the Entente intended to wipe out + utterly the German nation and dismember the empire of + Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies + an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for + the central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and _use + any means whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace_. + + In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany + said, “We have won the war. Don’t you recognize the fact that you + have been beaten? Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom + of Poland, out of the part of Russian Poland which we have + conquered, as a separate kingdom under our protection, but don’t + expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or Prussian + Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are _ours_. You wouldn’t + expect _us_ to give up any part of _them_, would you?) Allow us + to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the + Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of + Belgium, and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we + are making!” + + The Allied nations replied, in effect: “You now have gotten + three-fourths of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we + make peace now, allowing you to keep the greater part of what you + have conquered, you will be magnanimous and give back a small + portion of it if we in turn surrender all your lost colonies. + Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you recompense, as far + as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack for the + death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things + back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it + plain to us that never again will we have to be on guard against + the possibility of a ruthless invasion by your army; that you + give to the peoples whom you and your allies have forcibly + annexed or retained under your rule a chance to choose their own + form of government.” + + Then said the Germans to the world, “You see! They want to wipe + us out of existence and cut the empire of our allies into small + bits. Nothing is left but to fight for our existence, and, as we + are fighting for our existence, all rules hitherto observed in + civilized warfare are now called off!” + + In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government + announced that, inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an + honorable peace (which would have left them still in possession + of three-fourths the plunder they had gained in the war) and this + peace offer had been rejected by the Entente, all responsibility + for anything which might happen hereafter in the war would have + to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It was + stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when + one’s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible. + Germany proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink + _without warning_ all merchant ships sailing toward English or + French ports. + + In a special note to the United States, the German government + said that once a week, at a certain time, the United States would + be permitted to send a passenger vessel to England, provided that + this boat were duly inspected and proved to have no munitions of + war or supplies for England on board. It must be painted all over + with red, white, and blue stripes and must be marked in other + ways so that the German submarine commanders would know it. (It + must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was fighting + for the freedom of the seas!) + + Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are + free to all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to + sink without warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of + effrontery that few had imagined even the German government was + capable of. + + President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In + fact, a great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in + the country had criticized him for being too patient. The great + majority of the people of the United States were for peace, + ardently. The government at Washington knew this. Nevertheless, + this last announcement by Germany that she proposed to kill any + American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in the + neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a + self-respecting nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent + notice to Count Von Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave + this country. Friendly relations between the imperial government + of Germany and the United States of America were at an end. + + + Questions for Review + + + How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare? + + What is contraband of war? + + Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany? + + Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war + material object to the sale of such material to fighting + nations by nations at peace? + + Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to + make all nations devote too much work to the preparation of + war supplies. + + Show the difference between the British blockade and the + sinking of ships by German submarines. + + Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of + the German government have been a good enough reason for the + United States to have declared war? + + How did the voyages of the _Deutschland_ prove that the + United States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war? + + What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in + December 1916? + + Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state + their aims in the war? + + How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without + warning? + + + + +Chapter XXII. +Another Crown Topples + + The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.—The + first Duma and the revolt of 1905.—The Zemptsvos and the people + against the pro-German officials.—The death of Rasputin and other + signs of unrest.—The revolution of March 1917.—The Czar becomes + Mr. Romanoff.—Four different governments within eight + months.—Civil war and a German effort for peace. + + + It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first + place by the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the + unwillingness of Russia to stand by and see her little neighbor + crushed, and that England came in to make good her word, pledged + to Belgium, to defend that small country from all hostile + attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the world + as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights + of peoples to live under the form of government which they might + choose. You will remember that when the central powers said that + they were ready to talk peace terms the nations of the Entente + replied that there could be no peace as long as the Danes, Poles, + and Alsatians were forcibly held by Germany in her empire and as + long as Austria denied the Ruthenians, Roumanians, Czechs, + Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right either to + rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of + blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond + of saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those + enslaved by military rule—a conflict between self-governed + nations and those which were oppressing their foreign subjects. + Replying to this the central powers would always point to Russia. + Russia, said they, oppressed the Poles and Lithuanians, the + Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well as + Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within + her territories. Her people had even less political freedom than + the inhabitants of Austria and Germany. + + The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the + Germans. There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact + there is no doubt that French and British statesmen were afraid + of a Russian victory. They did not want the war to be won by the + one nation in their group which had a despotic form of + government. On the other hand the high officials in Russia were + not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the free + peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a + country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you + have been told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of + German blood and secretly desired the victory of their + fatherland, while many Russians of the party who wanted to keep + all power out of the hands of the common people were afraid of + seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people would rise up + and demand more liberty. + + You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time + of the outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were + threatened, so that many people thought the Czar had not been at + all sorry to see the war break out, in order to turn the minds of + his people away from their own wrongs. + + At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the + cry from the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of + elective government, had been so strong that the Czar had to give + in. So he called the first Duma. This body of men, as has been + explained, could talk and could complain, but could pass no laws. + The first Duma had had so many grievances and had talked so + bitterly against the government, that it had been forced to break + up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down riots among the + people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great ferocity. All + this time there had been growing, among the Russian people, a + feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand + dukes and high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that + the Czar was well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere + puppet in the hands of his German wife, his cousins the grand + dukes, and above all a notorious monk, called Rasputin. This + strange man, a son of the common people, had risen to great power + in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone could + keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince, + the Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of + the ladies in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy’s food + whenever Rasputin was away from the court for more than a few + days. The poor little prince, of course, was made sick; + whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for Rasputin, upon + whose arrival the Czarevitch “miraculously” got well. In this + manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and + Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put + bishops out of their places, and even change prime ministers. + There is no doubt that the Germans bribed him to use his + influence in their behalf. It is a sad illustration of the + ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such a man could + have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses. + + The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos. + These were little assemblies, one in each county in Russia, + elected by the people to decide all local matters, like the + building of roads, helping feed the poor, etc. They had been + started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although the court was + rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true to + the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and + when the world war broke out, this body, really the only + patriotic part of the Russian government, kept the grand dukes + and the pro-Germans from betraying the nation into the hands of + the enemy. + + It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the + representatives that they elected to these little county + assemblies were patriotically carrying out the war, while the + grand dukes and the court nobles, who had gotten Russia into this + trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the soldiers, either + through grafting off the supplies and speculating in food, or + traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans. + With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain + stored away by men who were holding it in order to get still + higher prices, there was not enough for the people of Petrograd + to eat. + + As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was + made prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk, + Rasputin. Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was + crushed between the armies of the Germans on the one side and the + Turks and Bulgars on the other, while trainload after trainload + of the guns and munitions which would have enabled her armies to + stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on Russian railroads. + “Your Majesty, we are betrayed,” said the French general who had + been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the king of + Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise + after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken. + + Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of + Turkey, Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the + people had had no schooling and were unable to read and write. It + was easier for the grand dukes and nobles to keep down the + peasants and to remain undisturbed in the ownership of their + great estates if the people knew nothing more than to labor and + suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however, the + most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were + working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then + too, the Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by + throwing bombs) for the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their + teachings throughout the country. Students of the universities, + writers, musicians, and artists, had preached the doctrines of + the rights of man. While outwardly the government appeared as + strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose trunk has rotted + through and through, and which needs only one vigorous push to + send it crashing to the ground. + + It is generally in large cities that protests against the + government are begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob + of people, to pick out the ones who are responsible for starting + the trouble. Then again it is natural for people to make their + protests in capital cities where the government cannot fail to + hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that in large cities + there are always a great number of persons who are poor and who + are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard + times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of + causing the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people + desperate—they do not care whether they live or not—and, as a + result, they dare to oppose themselves to the police and the + soldiers. + + There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long + time. This was felt not only among the common people, but also + among the more patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of + the winter of 1916-17, the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot, + was invited to the home of a grand duke, a cousin of the Czar. + There a young prince, determined to free Russia of this pest, + shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the ice of the + frozen Neva. + + About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely + of speculation and “cornering the market,” had become so serious + that the government thought it wise to call in several regiments + of Cossacks to reinforce the police. + + These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a + freedom not shared by any other class in Russia. They are + warriors by trade and their sole duty consists in offering + themselves, fully equipped, whenever the government has need of + their services in war. They were of a different race, originally, + than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying they now + have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the + streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people. + Enjoying freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the + practice of their trade—fighting—they had had little or no + sympathy with the wrongs of the populace, and so were the + strongest supporters of the despotic rule of the Czar. At times + when the Czar did not dare to trust his regular soldiers to + enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the men would + refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks + could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly + through the people, sabering to right and left those who refused + to disperse. + +[Illustration: Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution] + + The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd + protesting against the high prices of food and forming in long + lines to demand grain of the government. As day succeeded day, + the crowds grew larger and bolder in their murmurings. Cossacks + were sent into the city, but for some strange reason they did not + cause fear as they had in times past. Their manner was different. + Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly joked with + the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and were + actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger + and more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called + in. The police fired upon the people when the latter refused to + go home. Then a strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes + flashing fire, rode at full tilt up the street toward a policeman + who was firing on the mob, and shot him dead on the spot. A shout + went up from the people: “The Cossacks are with us!” New + regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed them + knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own + kind of people—their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that + they were hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned + upon its officers, refusing to obey them, and made them + prisoners. Another and another joined the revolting forces. It + was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July, 1789. The + people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they + did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments + loyal to the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their + revolting comrades. They hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed + over to them, pleading with them not to fire. A few scattering + volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with a shout of joy, + the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and rushed + across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the + mob a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call + upon the Duma and ask this body to form a temporary government. + Another group was appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him + that henceforth he was not the Czar of all the Russias, but plain + Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were sent to the fighting fronts to + inform the generals that they were no longer to take orders from + the Czar, but from the representatives of the free people of + Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the new + situation. Within two days a new government had been formed, + composed of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar + signed a paper giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his + young son and nominating his brother Michael to take his place. + Michael, however, was too wise. He notified the people that he + would accept the crown only if they should vote to give it to + him; and this the people would not do. + +[Illustration: Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma] + + The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of + different departments like the American cabinet, was composed of + citizens of the middle classes—lawyers, professors of the + universities, land-owners, merchants were represented—and at the + head of the ministry was a prince. This arrangement did not + satisfy the rabble. The radical socialists, most of whom owned no + property and wanted all wealth divided up among all the people, + were not much happier to be ruled by the moderately well-to-do + than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles. The council + of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which had + formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the + powers of government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian + people should have peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign + minister for the new government, assured France and England that + Russia would stick by them to the last, a howling crowd of + workingmen threatened to mob him. “No annexations and no + indemnities,” was the cry of the socialists. “Let us go back to + conditions as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the + burden of its own losses and let us have peace.” After a stormy + session, the new government agreed to include in its numbers + several representatives of the soldiers and workingmen. Prof. + Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a radical young + lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government. + +[Illustration: Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian +troops] + + Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage + offered by Russia’s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered + to make friends with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They + played eagerly upon the new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of + man and freedom and equality, to do away with fighting on the + east, thus being able to transfer to the western front some of + their best regiments. As a result the French and English, after + driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France were + at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole + war seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies + in the west. Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the + central powers grew stronger and stronger. The Russian troops + felt that they had been fighting the battles of the Czar and the + grand dukes and they saw no reason why they should go on shooting + their brother workingmen in Germany. + + At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set + out to visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle + grounds of eastern Galicia he made rousing speeches to the + soldiers and actually led them in person toward the German + trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all along the line + under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the Germans + and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to + recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace + party were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a + certain division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to + the rear, begun by these troops, carried others with it, and for + a time it seemed as though the whole Russian army was going to + pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to the soldiers. The + situation was serious and called for a strong hand. Kerensky was + made prime minister and the members of the government and the + council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of + a Czar. He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or + traitors be shot, if need be, without trial. Under his rule the + Russian army began to re-form, and the situation improved. + + In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the + Bolsheviki (Bŏl-shĕ-vï′kï) won over the garrisons of + Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government, forcing + Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany. + These people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large + cities. They have few followers outside of the city population, + for the average Russian in the country is a land owner, and he + does not take kindly to the idea of losing his property or + dividing it with some landless beggar from Petrograd. + + The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion + in the realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by + the fights of the different factions. Finland demanded its + independence, and German spies and agents encouraged the + Ruthenians living in a great province called the Ukraine, to do + the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north of + the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on + fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered + largely from the states between the Black and Caspian Seas. + Having suffered persecution in the old days, they had hated the + Turks for ages and needed no orders from Petrograd to induce them + to take revenge. + + Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the + central powers which gave Germany and Austria everything that + they wanted. The Russian armies were disbanded and the Germans + and Austrians were free to turn their fighting men back to the + western front. In the meantime, the Ruthenian republic, now + called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki to make a + separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the + Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and + the Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the + central empires. However, for a whole year hardly anybody in + Russia had been willing to do a stroke of work. The fields had + gone untilled while the peasants, drunk with their new freedom, + and without a care for the morrow, lived off the grain that had + been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever grain + the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to + hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished + and as food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater. + + The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy—a government + where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny + of the lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the + middle classes were not allowed any voice in the government. When + the first National Assembly or Congress was elected and called + together, the Bolsheviki finding that they did not control a + majority of its members, disbanded it by force. + + Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected + to being robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by + the Czar. + + When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops + that refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the + regiments of Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against + their will, to serve in the Austrian army. They were from the + northern part of the Austrian empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They + were Slavs, related to the Russians, speaking a language very + much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria and anxious to + free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When General + Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had + deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They + could not get back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them + as deserters. Of course, the Austrian and the German generals + would make no peace with them. Therefore, this army, 200,000 + strong, kept their own officers and their order and their arms + and refused to have anything to do with the cowardly peace made + by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their way across + Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the + Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the + thousands in the armies of the Entente. The main body of them, + however, are still in Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great + Siberian railway, fully ready to renew the war against the + central powers at any time when the patriotic Russians will rise + and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the Czechs + without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied + statesmen. + + The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the + result of this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and + tricksters, that would never deceive an educated man. + + + Questions for Review + + + Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany? + + Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente? + + Why was Rasputin killed? + + Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks? + + What classes fought after the Czar’s downfall? + + How did the central powers take advantage of Russia’s + troubles? + + How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany? + + Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from. + + + + +Chapter XXIII. +The United States at War—Why? + + Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.—Dr. + Zimmermann’s famous note.—Congress declares war.—Other nations + follow our example.—The plight of Holland, Denmark, and + Norway.—German arguments for submarine warfare shown to be + groundless.—German agents blow up American factories.—German + threats against the United States.—Germany and the Monroe + Doctrine.—A government whose deeds its people cannot + question.—Why American troops were sent to Europe.—Why the war + lords wanted peace in January, 1918. + + + In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the + German ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by + the United States. The Germans, true to their word, had begun + their campaign of attacking and sinking without warning ships of + all kinds in the waters surrounding Great Britain and France. + Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red cross, and + boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were + torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in + Germany is well illustrated by an incident which happened at this + time. It so happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the + channel, was laden with about as many German wounded as British. + These men had been left helpless on the field of battle after the + Germans had retreated, and had been picked up and cared for by + the British, along with their own troops. A German submarine with + its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom. The wounded + men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest chance + for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over + Germany against the “unspeakable brutality” of the British who + dared to expose German wounded men to the danger of travel on the + open sea! The British were warned that if this happened again the + Germans would make reprisals upon British prisoners in their + hands. + +[Illustration: Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner] + + Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war + between the United States and Germany. But in the latter part of + February, the United States government made public a note which + its secret agents had stopped from being delivered to the German + ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by Dr. Zimmermann, German + minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the ambassador as + soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of war + with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships + without warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with + Germany. “Together we will make war on the United States,” said + Dr. Zimmermann, “and together we will make peace. Mexico will + receive as her reward her lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and + New Mexico.” “Ask the Mexican government,” said Dr. Zimmermann, + “to propose to the Japanese that Japan break away from her + alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in an attack + upon the United States.” + + The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling + in the United States. Up to this time a great portion of the + people had felt that perhaps we were hasty in breaking off + relations with Germany, and in their earnest desire for peace had + been willing to put up with injury and even insults on the part + of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their military + necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann’s note, however, + showed the people of the United States the true temper of the + government at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords + had no respect for anything but brute force, that the language of + cannon was the only language which they could understand, and + that any further patience on the part of this country would be + looked upon as weakness and treated with scorn and contempt. + + On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the + President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war + existed between the United States of America and the Imperial + Government of Germany. + + At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought + the United States into the great war. These causes may be given + under two heads: (1) the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2) + the German plots and threats against our country at a time when + we were at peace with them. The latter, as given in pages to + follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser’s threat, (b) Admiral Von + Tirpitz’s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and + death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war + with Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German + government’s money in an attempt to make our congressmen vote as + Germany wished. + +[Illustration: President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress] + + The Submarine War + + Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred + and twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their + death through the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning, + under orders of the German government. These people were + peaceable travelers, going about their business on the high seas + in passenger steamers owned by private companies. According to + the law observed by all nations up to this time there was no more + reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if they had + been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other + country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing + about the brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without + warning, was an act of war on the part of Germany against any + country whose citizens happened to be traveling on these ocean + steamers. That the action of the United States in calling the + submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved by the + fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going + to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same + stand. Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American + republics found that they could not maintain their honor without + declaring war on Germany. German ambassadors and ministers have + been dismissed from practically every capital in Spanish America. + + In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and + Norway saw their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite + of their wrongs, however, the first two did not dare to declare + war on Germany, as the Germans would be able to throw a strong + army across the border and overrun each of these two little + countries before the allies could come to their help. With the + fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the Dutch + swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed + their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of + the Entente to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame + Denmark and Holland. + + Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet. + Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the + Kiel Canal connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities + on the Norwegian coast or even land an army to invade the + country. The three little countries together do not have an army + any larger than that of Roumania, and it would have been out of + the question for them to declare war on Germany without seeing + their whole territory overrun and laid waste. + + Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against + Germany that the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917 + sent a vigorous protest to Berlin, closing with these words: + + “The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it + has already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of + the principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the + proclamation of large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by + the sinking of neutral merchant ships not carrying contraband. + + “It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that + not only have German submarines continued to sink peaceful + neutral merchant ships, paying no attention to the fate of their + crews, but that even German warships adopted the same tactics. + The Norwegian government decided to send this note in order to + bring to the attention of the German government the impression + these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.” + + The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify + themselves for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1) + that on these ships which were sunk were supplies for the French + and British armies, the arrival of which would aid them in + killing Germans, and (2) that the English, by their blockade of + Germany, were doing something which was contrary to the laws of + nations and starving German women and children, and, therefore, + since England was breaking some rules of the war game, Germany + had the right to go ahead and break others. + + The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France + and England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the + United States was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to + them. Of course, this was foolish, as has been pointed out, for + the United States was just as ready to sell to Germany as to the + Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of the _Deutschland_. If + our government had forbidden our people to sell war supplies at + all, and if other neutral countries had done the same thing, then + the result would be that all wars would be won by the country + which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A + law passed by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from + selling munitions would leave a non-military nation, which had + not been getting ready for war, absolutely at the mercy of a + neighbor who for years had been storing up shells and guns for + the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was this right to + sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but ordered + Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to + point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to + Great Britain during the Boer War as you have already been told, + and Austria had no answer to give. + + What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of + different nations at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying + to prevent future wars, if possible, or at least to make them + more humane and less brutal to the women and children and others + who were not actually fighting, Germany had always upheld the + right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her + representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to + settle disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time + when many European nations signed treaties with the United States + agreeing to allow one year to elapse between a dispute which + might lead to war and the actual declaring of war itself, Germany + positively refused to consider such an agreement. + + As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany + than Germany or any other country would have done to England if + the English navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the + North kept up a like blockade of the South and no nation + protested against it, for it was recognized as an entirely legal + act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, the Germans were + blockading the city of Paris and the country around it. The + Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the + lines to be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the + bayonet, and told them that they might “fry in their own fat.” + According to the laws of war they were perfectly justified in + what they did. Then, too, the English blockade, which stopped + ships which were found to be loaded with supplies for Germany and + took them peaceably to an English port, where it was decided how + much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very + different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women, + and children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the + goods were caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances + did not get their money promptly. On the other side, there was + murder of the most fiendish kind, an act of war against neutral + states. + + Plots and Threats Against the United States + +[Illustration: American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents] + + Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United + States had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who + sympathized with Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for + the relief of the German wounded, it is strongly suspected that + this was the very money, which, collected by the German + government’s own agents, was being spent in plots involving the + destroying of the property of some American citizens and the + death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were + hiring men to blow up American factories, to destroy railroad + bridges, and to kill Americans who were making war supplies for + the armies of Europe. Factory after factory was blown up with + considerable loss of life. Bombs, with clock work attachment to + explode them at a certain time, were found on ships sailing for + Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to influence + members of the United States Congress to vote against the + shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for + by German money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the + West Indies. For a long time there had been a series of stories + and newspaper and magazine articles trying to prove to the + American people that Japan was planning to make war on us. The + same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the Japanese + that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States. + It now appears that the great part of these stories were started + by the Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and + profit by the ill will which must follow between the two + countries. + + At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these + things could be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their + Fatherland caused them to go too far. But it has been proved + beyond a doubt that all of these acts, which were really acts of + war against the United States, were ordered by the government at + Berlin and paid for by German money, or by American money which + had been contributed for the benefit of the German Red Cross + service. + + In addition to these facts there were threats against the United + States which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our + ambassador at Berlin, Mr. Gerard, that “America had better beware + after this war” for he “would stand no nonsense from her.” + Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of the Navy, also told + Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as a place + from which to start her “future war on England and America.” + + American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this + kind, for they knew that the government in power at Berlin could + absolutely command its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of + news and substituting other things in the German newspapers could + make the German people think anything which the war lords wished + them to think. Thus there was great danger that, having won the + war from the Entente or having stood them off successfully until + the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next attack the + United States with the idea of collecting from this comparatively + defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which she + had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and + with the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set + up a great empire in South America which would make her almost as + powerful as she would have been had her first plans for crushing + France and Russia been successful. + + You will recall, from your study of United States history, that + President Monroe had warned European governments to keep their + hands off South America, for the United States would act as big + brother to any of the little republics there who might be + attacked by a European foe. Germany in recent years has resented + this very vigorously. There were nearly half a million Germans in + the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine Republic + also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were + out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a + footing in these countries in which she had colonists and + gradually to gain control of the entire country. In the fall of + 1917 there was uncovered a plot among the German residents of + certain states in the southern part of Brazil to make this + territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This discovery, + along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove + Brazil into war with Germany. + + To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because + German submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping + her lawful trade; second, because paid agents of the German + government were destroying American property in the United + States, killing American citizens, and creating discord in our + political life; they were pretending to be friendly and yet were + trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war against us; third, for + the reason that because of Germany’s threats and her well-known + policy in South America there was grave danger that it would be + our turn next if the central powers should come out of the + European war uncrushed. + + The American government has made it plain that we are not moved + by any desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win + through the war except the assurance that our nation will be + safe. If Germany had a government which the people controlled, + then the United States could trust promises of that government. + But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no one can trust the + present government of Germany, for it is responsible to no one + for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its + Chancellor called “scraps of paper”; it has broken its word; it + has ordered “acts of frightfulness” in the lands which it has + conquered and on the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing + its will upon enemies and neutral countries alike. It has + deceived its own people, persuading them that they were attacked + by France and Russia, while all the time it was plotting to rule + the world through force of arms. + + President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in + this war is “to make the world safe for democracy.” This means + that a free people, who have no desire to interfere with any of + their neighbors or to make conquests by force of arms, shall be + allowed to live their lives without preparation for war and + without fear that they may be attacked by a nation with military + rulers. + + We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by + Germany in 1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun + for gun and ship for ship with her warlike neighbor to the east. + The dread of an attack by the military party of Germany hung over + France like a shadow throughout forty-three years of a peace + which was only a little better than war, because of the vast + amount of money that had to be spent and the attention that had + to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one + day come. + + When once the German people have a controlling voice in the + government, then, and not till then, can other governments + believe the word of the statesmen at Berlin. But at present the + citizens of Germany have little real power. For, while they can + elect members of the Reichstag, the Reichstag can pass no laws, + for above this body is the national council, whose members are + appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand dukes. The + power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the + hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any + of Germany’s laws, under the plea that “military necessity” calls + for certain things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into + prison those who dared to speak against the war, and has either + suppressed newspapers or ordered them to print only what he + wished printed; thus the German people have let him do their + thinking for them. + + They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German + baby is taught to say is “Kaiser,” and all of the schools, which + are run by the government, have taught nothing but respect for + the present form of government, and almost a worship of the + Kaiser himself. What it is hoped that this war will bring about + is the freeing of the German people from their blind obedience to + the military power, which for its own glory and pride has hurled + them by the millions to death. + + The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very + different from any hitherto used. With the exception of some + troops raised for a few months during the dark days of the War of + the Rebellion, all of our armies have been recruited from men who + enlisted of their own free will. In this great conflict in which + we are now engaged, the government has drawn its soldiers by lot + from a list of all the young men in the country between the ages + of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are + fighting in our ranks. + + For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to + fight on another continent. Many persons have felt that we should + keep our young men at home and wait for Germany to cross the + Atlantic in order to attack us. Our statesmen, on the other hand, + saw that the peace of the world was at stake. If Germany, + Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose people have no + voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this conflict + victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad + race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the + other hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true + today, as in the olden times, that those people who take up the + sword shall perish by the sword, they will overthrow their + leaders and agree to disarm and live at peace in future with + their neighbors. + + The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only + way by which these people can be convinced is by brute force. + When they realize that they have not gained by war, but have + lost, not only a great deal of their wealth, through the terrific + cost of the war, but the friendship and respect of the whole + world, when they realize that the nations allied against them + will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs + confess that they never want to hear the word “war” again, then, + and only then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and + agree to join a league of the nations whose object shall be to + prevent any future wars. + + As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that + they were going to come out of the conflict with added territory + and big money indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower + of their young men slain, and the prospect of conquest and + plunder growing smaller and smaller with each passing month, the + Germans, too, are beginning to hate the thought of war. + + The American army can give the finishing touch to the German + downfall along the western front, and the sooner the Germans + realize that they cannot win from the rapidly growing number of + their enemies, the sooner will come the the end of this greatest + tragedy in the civilized world. + + The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must + be defeated and they were striving hard all through the years + 1916 and 1917 to make peace while they had possession of enough + of the enemy’s lands so that they could show their own people + some gain in territory to pay them back for their terrible + sufferings. The German war debt was so great that the war lords + dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized that + they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had + told them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war + upon Germany, (2) that the German armies would win the war in + short order, and (3) that a huge sum of money would be collected + from France, Belgium, and Russia to pay the expenses of the war. + The war lords dreaded to think of the time when their people, + knowing that they themselves will have to bear the fearful burden + of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced upon + the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By + Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was + ready to talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been + made then it would have left Germany absolute mistress of all of + middle Europe. Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the + control of the Kaiser and his war lords than were parts of his + own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In Belgium, Serbia, Poland, + Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the central powers had + over forty millions of people who were compelled to work for them + like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran into + billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the + results of the second Balkan war (see map), had been forced open + by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and + Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory. + With the drain on the man power of the central powers, with + dissatisfaction growing among their people, with the steady + increase in the armies of the United States, time was fighting on + the side of the allies. + + + Questions for Review + + + Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government + understood conditions in Mexico and the United States? + + Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon + American public opinion? + + What were the steps by which the United States was forced + into war? + + Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also? + + What was the main difference between the English blockade of + Germany and the German submarine war on England? + + Was the German government responsible for the acts of its + agents in this country? + + What is the Monroe Doctrine? + + Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted? + + How was this war different for the United States from any + previous conflict? + + What was the greatest obstacle to peace? + + + + +Chapter XXIV. +Europe as it Should Be + + Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.—Peoples outside of the + nations with whom they belong.—The mixture of peoples in + Austria-Hungary, and Russia.—The British Isles.—The Balkan + states.—Recent changes in the map.—The wrongs done by mighty + nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness. + + + We have several times shown you, in the course of this little + history, maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and + through bloodshed. Let us now examine a map of Europe divided + according to the race and language of its various peoples. It + often happens that the boundaries set by nature, like seas, high + mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people from another. It + is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed in by + the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should + grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language. + + In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, + Great Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by + nature. On this account, it is not surprising that the map of + “Europe as it should be” which unites people of the same blood + under the same government, agrees rather closely in some places + with the map of Europe as it is. + + The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom + of Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish + and Portuguese peoples. + + There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and + Flemish. Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French + people are found in Switzerland and others in that part of the + German Empire which was taken away from France after the + Franco-Prussian war of 1870. + + The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them + inhabit the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were + torn away from Denmark by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of + the Scandinavian peninsula separate the Norwegians from the + Swedes about as well as they divide the countries geographically. + + The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the + northwestern corner of the German Empire is also peopled by + Dutch. The territory around Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the + German Empire, is inhabited by Walloons, a Celtic people who + speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it is, contains two + different types of population, the Walloons and the Flemish. + + The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great + many of these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria + (sty̆′rĭȧ), and the northern Tyrol (ty̆′rol) (western counties + of the Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of + Switzerland and the edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be + found in parts of Hungary; and in the Baltic provinces of Russia + there are over two million of them. + + All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island + of Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians. + The province of Trentino (trĕn ti′nō) (the southern half of the + Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is + also Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and + Fiume. Certain islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely + Italian in their population. + + The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and + Germans. Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth + tongue is spoken there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner + of Switzerland are found people who talk a corruption of the old + Latin, which they call Romaunsch or Romansh. + + Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of + languages and nationalities. This empire includes nearly a + million Italians in its southwestern corner, and three million + Roumanians in Transylvania. It has as its subjects in Bosnia and + Herzegovina several million Serbians. In Slavonia (slȧ vō′nĭ + ȧ), Croatia (crō a′tia), and Dalmatia (dăl mā tia), it has + two or three million Slavs, who are closely related to the + Serbians. In the north, its government rules over several million + Czechs (chĕcks) (Bohemians and Moravians) who strongly desire to + have a country of their own. It controls also two million + Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their + independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni ō′lȧ), there + are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people + belonging either by themselves or with their cousins, the + Croatians and Serbs. + + The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen, + who want to get back under French control, a million or two + Danes, who want once more to belong to Denmark, and several + million Poles, who desire to see their country again united. + +[Illustration: Messen Europe as It Should Be] + + Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as + those composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not + one people. The Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different + from the people of Little Russia, and they in turn are different + from the people of Great Russia, to the north. The Baltic + provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two million + Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number + of Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians, + cousins of the Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose + people, with the Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European + family, and who would dearly love to have a separate government + of their own. + +[Illustration: Polish children] + + You have already been told in Chapter V that the country of the + English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or + the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern + part of Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish + kingdom. + + Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the + reason that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly + mixed and jumbled. There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the + Roumanians and Bulgarians in the Dobrudja. Parts of southern + Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia are inhabited by people + of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the exception of the two + little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited by + Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of + Bukowina also ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater + part of the Russian state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has + a population of 7,000,000, there are between five and six million + of her people who live outside her present boundaries. + + The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece. + Greek people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The + Albanians are a separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia + should be joined to Serbia. + + Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will + see that most of the changes that have been made of late years + are bringing boundaries nearer where they should be. You will + also note that wherever there have been recent changes contrary + to this plan, they have always resulted in more bloodshed. The + partition of Poland, the annexation of Schleswig, Alsace, and + Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian Macedonia between + Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by + Austria are good examples. + + + Questions for Review + + + What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural + boundaries? + + Who are the Walloons? + + Who are the Romansh people? + + To what other people are the Esthonians related? + +[Illustration: The price of the war] + + + + +Chapter XXV. +The Cost of It All + + What war debts mean—The devastation of farms and + villages—Diseases which travel with war—The men picked to die + first—The survivors and their children—The effect on France of + Napoleon’s wars—What Hannibal did to Rome—What happened to the + Franks—Sweden before and after the wars of Charles XII—Europe at + the close of the Great War + + + In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly + rushing toward bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day; + France, Germany, and Austria nearly as much apiece. Thus in the + course of a year, a debt of $300 was piled upon every man, woman, + and child in the British kingdom. The average family consists of + five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per family for + each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family + in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of + money that they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the + British people are obliged to add this tremendous debt to the + already very large amount that they owe, and will have to go on + paying interest on it for hundreds of years. + + In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France, + Germany, Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In + spite of what we have said above of the average income of English + families, Great Britain is rich when compared with Austria and + Russia. What is more, Great Britain is practically unscarred, + while on the continent great tracts of land which used to be well + cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless abandon. East + Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary, Alsace, + Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary, + and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to + one-fifth of the whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and + devastated. + + It will be years and years before these countries recover from + the effects of war’s invasion. For every man killed on the field + of battle, it is estimated that two people die among the + noncombatants. Children whose fathers are at the front, frail + women trying to do the work of men, aged inhabitants of destroyed + villages die by the thousands from want of food and shelter. + + In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to + look after their health or even to keep clean. As a result, + diseases like the plagues of olden times, which civilization + thought it had killed, come to life again and destroy whole + cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off one-fifth of the + population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera raged + among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every + soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die + from disease or wounds or lack of proper care. + +[Illustration: Rendered Homeless by War] + + In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the + country, the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of + men who ought to be carefully saved as the fathers of the people + to come. As these are killed or disabled, governments draw on the + older men who are still vigorous and hardy. Then finally they + call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the aged, and the young + boys. As a general rule, the members of this last class make up + the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of the + strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of + children. + + In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on + the coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like + Rome, owned lands far and near. Carthage would have been + satisfied to “live and let live,” but Rome would not have it so. + As a result, the two cities engaged in three terrible wars which + ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before Carthage was + finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal, dealt + Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near + destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000 + men apiece, he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these + 150,000 men was a loss from which Rome never recovered. From this + time on, her citizens were made of poorer stuff, and the old + Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free government began to + decline. + + The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who + swarmed into the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although + they were barbarians, nevertheless had many excellent qualities. + They were brave, hardy men and stood for freedom from tyrants. + However, they fought so many wars that they were gradually killed + off. Take the Franks, for example; the three grandsons of + Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a + disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle + that almost wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about + 840 A.D. + + Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about + 1700 A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer + Russia and Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in + the southern part of Russia nearly a thousand miles away from + home, and his great army was wiped out. After his time, Sweden + sank to the level of a second class nation. The bodies of her + best men had been strewn on battlefields reaching from the Gulf + of Bothnia to the Black Sea. + +[Illustration: Charles XII of Sweden] + + For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation + showed a lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men + than it had one hundred years previously. The reason for this is + easily found. During the twenty-three years of terrible fighting + which followed the execution of the king, France left her finest + young men dead all over the face of Europe. They died by the + thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in Germany, and above + all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within the last + twenty years have the French, through their new interest in + out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a + hardy, vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war + to set France back where she was one hundred years ago. + + Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her + young manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will + keep them in poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at + a standstill; but worst of all, the feeling of friendship between + nations, of world brotherhood, postponed one hundred years. + Hatred of nation for nation is stronger than ever. + + + Questions for Review + + + How does a nation at war increase its debts? + + Why do diseases thrive in war time? + + What became of the Goths and Franks? + + Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden? + + What was the effect of Napoleon’s many wars upon the strength + of the French nation? + + Is war growing more humane? + + + + +Chapter XXVI. +What Germany Must Learn + + The German plot.—What the Czar’s prohibition order did.—Where + Germany miscalculated.—Where England and America failed to + understand.—An appeal to force must be answered by force.—Effect + of the Russian revolution.—“It never must happen again.”—The + league to enforce peace.—The final lesson. + + + Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in + English speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be + a real war between civilized nations. + + Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was + unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would + deliberately plot, in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the + world through military force, as we now know that the war lords + of Prussia and Austria planned it. However, the plot was not only + made but was almost successful. They made, though, a great + mistake in the case of England. They were sure that she would not + enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France and + Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in + calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her + troops. In 1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the + Russian soldiers had become so drunk that it was many weeks + before they could be gotten into any kind of military shape. But + at the outbreak of the great “world-war” the order of the Czar + which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all of Prussia’s + plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her + army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through + the German province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had + opened. The result was that the German soldiers had to be sent + back from northern France to stop the victorious march of the + Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in the first week of + September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung in the + balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces + on either side might have made all the difference in the world in + the final outcome. The little British army, which was less than + one-eighth of the force of the Allied side, probably furnished + the factor that defeated the Germans. The presence in the battle + of the German troops who had been withdrawn to stop the Russians, + might have given victory to the invaders. + + Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the + attack on France. Any one of these three factors might have won + the war in short order for the forces of Austria and Germany. + With France crushed, as she might have been, in spite of her + heroic resistance, without the help of the tiny British army, or + with the intervention of Italy on the side of her former allies, + it would have been no difficult task for the combined forces of + Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into + confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia, + and be back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves + fell from the trees. + + As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations + where the people rule, could not believe that in this day and age + the rulers of any civilized country would deliberately plot + robbery and piracy on so grand a scale. They had looked forward + to the time when all nations might disarm and live in peace with + their neighbors. In France alone, of all the western nations, was + there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France, having learned + the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France, burdened by + a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by the + Germans in ’71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to + arms at the first rattling of the Prussian saber. + + Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians, + and thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the + doctrine that military force is the only power in the world worth + considering. Some of the German people still cling to the high + ideals of their ancestors, but the majority had drunk deeply of + the wine of conquest and were intoxicated with the idea that + Germany’s mission in life was to conquer all the other nations of + the world and rule them for their own good by German thoroughness + and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp this + feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force + and appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they + will listen to reason only after they have been thoroughly + crushed by a superior force. The sufferings brought upon the + German nation by the war have had a great effect in making them + doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As long as the + people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful + victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the + Roumanians, they were contented to endure all manner of + hardships. + + Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in + a despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the + German people, although they were governed strictly by the + military rule, nevertheless, were contented as long as they were + prosperous and victorious in war. With the rumors and fears of + defeat, however, they began to doubt their government. There are + indications that sweeping reforms in the election of + representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body + itself will take place before long. + + The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central + powers. In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for + a ruler while England, France, and Italy were countries where the + people elected their law makers, made it impossible that there + should be the best of understanding between the allies. Then, + again, the various peoples of Austria-Hungary, while they were + not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg family, were afraid + lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be “jumping + from the frying pan into the fire.” They would rather bear the + evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand + dukes might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to + Germany to the end, because of her fear that Russia would seize + Constantinople. When the new government of Russia, then, + announced that they did not desire to annex by force any + territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were in + bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital + city was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs + of Austria that they were in no danger of being swallowed up in + the Russian empire, but that, on the other hand, the Russians + wanted them to be free, like themselves; it showed the German + people how easily a whole nation, when united, could get rid of + its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who had never favored + the military rule. + + The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now + united in an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in + Austria and in Germany—a curse which has disappeared from all + other parts of the civilized world. They are united to crush the + military spirit of conquest which exists among the war leaders of + the Prussians. They are pledged “to make the world safe for + democracy” as President Wilson has said; to do away with the rule + of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and + Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil + power, so long will it be necessary to police the world. There + must be no repetition of the savage attack of August, 1914. There + was a time when many of us believed that some one nation, by + disbanding its army and refusing to build warships, might set an + example of disarming which all the world would finally follow. It + now is plain that there must be a “League to Enforce Peace” as + Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have declared. The + United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy, Belgium, + Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway, + Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the + will of the people is the law, must unite in an alliance which + will insist on arbitration as a means of settling disputes. + + In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which + might well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however, + they laid their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an + Italian, a Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court, + by a vote of four to one, decided against England, and England + accepted the decision as final, although it cost her many + millions of dollars. + + The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the + world maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as + police for its own affairs, and there must be an international + police to settle all differences between nations and to enforce + the orders of the court of arbitration. In time (no one knows how + soon) the people of Germany and Austria will be freed from the + military rule which now has the power to hurl them into war. When + that day arrives and they learn that they have been led astray by + Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a blessing to + a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to + survive, they will know that “Thou shalt not kill” is just as + strong a commandment today as when it first was uttered. + + Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to + live, and that no country can wrong another through force of arms + without suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in + the loss of the sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening + of the Christ-spirit of doing good to others, the nation which + resorts to force to gratify its own selfish ends, like the + individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds. It, was a + great American who said, “The world is my country and mankind are + my brothers.” + + + Questions for Review + + + Why did England and the United States fail to understand + Germany? + + What right would Germany have had to an indemnity? + + What great change took place in Germany after 1866? + + Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed? + + What lesson must Germany learn? + + Why have the South American republics fought so many wars? + + Suggest some solution for the problem of war. + + What is meant by arbitration? + + What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war? + + How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente? + + What is the greatest lesson taught by the war? + + + +Pronouncing Glossary + + In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the + English pronunciation is given for names that have become at all + familiar in history or geography. Thus the English Crā′cōw is + given instead of the Polish Krȧ′ko͝of or the German Krä′kau. + + On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given + as the natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no + recognized English pronunciation. + + In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations, + the author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus + a seaport in Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no + less than five names. Its Greek name is pronounced + Thĕssȧlōnyi′ki, while other nations term it variously + Sȧlōni′kā, Sĕlȧnïk′, Sō′lōn, Sȧlōni′ki or Salō′nicȧ. + + Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking + people to reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables + which approximate them as nearly as possible. + + Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found + pronounced in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as + Austria, Bismarck, etc., can hardly be mispronounced. + + +Aboukir (ä′bö̈ kïr) +Aegean (ē jē′ăn) +Agadir (ȧ gȧ dïr′) +Aix-la-Chapelle (āks lä shȧpĕl′) +Albania (ăl bā′nï ȧ) +Algeciras (ăl jĕ si′rȧs) or (ȧljĕ sï′rȧs) +Alsace (ȧl sȧs′) +Andrassy (ȧn drȧs′sy̆) +Aragon (ă′rȧ gŏn) +Armada (är mä′dȧ) +Armenians (är mē′nï ȧns) +Arminius (är mĭn′ï ŭs) +Avlona (ȧv lō′ṅa) +Baden (bä′dĕn) +Balkan (bȧl kän′) or (bôl′kän) +Banat (bȧn′ȧt) +Basques (bȧsks) +Bastille (bȧ stïl′) +Bavaria (bȧ vā′rï ȧ) +Belfort (bĕl′fôr) +Bernadotte (bēr′nȧ dŏt) +Bessarabia (bĕs sȧ rā′bï ȧ) or (bĕs sȧ rä′bï ȧ) +Bismarck-Schönausen (shẽn how′zĕn) +Blenheim (blĕn′ĕm) or (blĕn′hīm) +Boer (bo͞or) +Bohemia (bōhē′mīȧ) +Bonaparte (bō′nȧ pärt) +Bosnia (bŏz′ni̇ ȧ) +Bourbon (bo͞or′bŭn) +Brandenburg (brăn′dĕn bûrg) +Breton (brē′ton) or (brĕt′ŭn) +Brusiloff (brū si′lŏff) +Bukowina (bo͝o kō vï′nȧ) +Bulgaria (bŭl gā′ri̇ ȧ) +Burgundians (bûr′gŭn’dï ȧns) +Burgundy (bûr′gŭn dy) +Byzantium (by̆ zăn′tï ̆um) +Caesar (sēz′ēr) +Carniola (cȧr nï ō′lȧ) +Carpathian (cãr pā′thï ȧn) +Carthage (cȧr′thāj) +Castile (cȧs til′) +Castlereagh (căs′l rā) +Cavour (cȧ vo͞or′) +Charlemagne (shär lĕ mān′) +Chauvinists (shō′vĭn ĭsts) +Cicero (sĭs′ē rō) +Cimbri (sĭm′brï) +Cincinnatus (sĭn sĭn nä′tŭs) +Constantine (cŏn′stăn tïn) +Cracow (crā′cō) +Crimea (crĭ mē′ȧ) +Croatia (crō ä′tï ȧ) or (crōä′shȧ) +Czech (chĕk) +Dacians (dā′shŭnz) +Dalmatia (dăl mā′shï ȧ) +Théophile Delcassé (tā′ō fïl dĕl cȧ sä′) +Deutschland (doitsh′lȧnd) +Devonshire (dĕv′ŏn shïr) +Disraeli (dĭz rā′lĭ) +Dobrudja (dō bro͝od′jȧ) +Dreibund (drī′bo͝ond) +Durazzo (dū rȧt′zö) +Emmanuel (ĕm măn′ū ĕl) +Entente Cordiale (ȧn tȧnt′côr dyȧl′) +Enver Bey (ĕn′vẽr bā′) +Epinal (ĕp′ï nȧl) +Epirus (ĕp ī′rŭs) +Erse (ērs) +Esthonians (ĕs thō′nï ănz) +Etruscans (ē trŭs′cănz) +Euphrates (ū frā′tēz) +Fashoda (fȧ shō′dȧ) +Fiume (fï ū′me) +Gaelic (gā′lĭc) +Galicia (găl ĭ′shȧ) +Gallipoli (găl ĭ′pōlï) +Garibaldi (gȧr ï bȧl′dï) +Gerard (jĕr ärd′) +Germanic (jẽr măn′ĭc) +Glamis (glăm′ĭs) +Gortchakoff (gôr′chȧ kŏf) +Goths (gŏths) +Granada (grȧ nä′dȧ) +Hannibal (hăn′nĭ bl) +Hanover (hăn′ō vẽr) +Herzegovina (hārt′sĕ gō vï′nȧ) +Hesse-Darmstadt (hĕs sĕ därm′stȧt) +Hindustan (hĭn do͞o stän′) +Hohenzollern (hō ĕn tsŏl′ẽrn) +Holstein (hōl′stīn) +Illyrians (ĭ ly̆r′ĭ ȧns) +Istria (ĭs′trï ȧ) +Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ) +Janus (jā′nŭs) +Jonescu (jō nĕs′ko͞o) +Jutes (jūts) +Kaiser (kī′zẽr) +Kaspar (kăs′pär) +Kavala (kȧ vä′ lȧ) +Kerensky (kĕ rĕn′skĭ) +Khartoom (kär to͞om′) +Korea (kō rē′ȧ) +Kȯrniloff (kor nï′lŏff) +Koumanova (ko͞o mä′nō vȧ) +Lamar (lȧ mär′) +Leon (lē′ŏn) +Liege (lï ĕzh′) +Lithuania (lĭth o͞o ā′nīȧ) +Longwy (lŏng′vy̆) +Lorraine (lôr rān′) +Macedonia (mă sē dō′nï ȧ) +Magyar (mŏd′yär) +Manchuria (măn chū′rï ȧ) +Marathon (măr′ȧ thŏn) +Marchand (mär shän′) +Maria Theresa (mä rī′ä tĕr ēs′ä) +Marlborough (märl′bō rō) +Marsala (mär sä′lȧ) +Marseillaise (mär sĕl yāz′) +Mazzini (mȧt sï′nï) +Mesopotamia (mĕs ō pō tā′mĭ ä) +Metternich (mĕt′tẽr nĭkh) +Milioukoff (mĭl yo͞o′kŏff) +Mirabeau (mĭr′ȧ bō) +Modena (mō dē′nȧ) or (mō′dā nȧ) +Mohammedan (mō hăm′mĕd ȧn) +Moltke (mōlt′kȧ) +Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′) +Montenegrin (mŏn tē nē′grĭn) +Montenegro (mŏn tē nē′grō) +Moslems (mŏz′lĕmz) +Murat (mü′rä) +Napoleon (nȧ pō′lē ŏn) +Nice (nïs) +Northumberland (nôrth ŭm′bẽr lănd) +Novibazar (nō′vĭ bȧ zär′) +Ostrogoths (ŏs′trō gŏths) +Ottoman (ŏt′tō mȧn) +Parma (pär′mȧ) +Piedmont (pēd′mŏnt) +Pola (pō′lä) +Poland (pō′lănd) +Pomerania (pŏm ĕr ā′nï ȧ) +Pyrenees (pĭr′ĕn ēēz) +Rasputin (räs po͞o′tïn) +Reichstag (rīkhs′tägh) +Riga (rï′gȧ) +Romansh (rō mȧnsh′) +Roon (rōn) +Roumani (ro͞o mä′nï) +Roumania (ro͞o mā′nï ȧ) +Ruthenian (ro͝o thē′nï ȧn) +Sadowa (sä′dō vȧ) +Salonika (sȧ′lō nï′kȧ) +Sanjak (sȧn jȧk′) +San Stephano (sȧn stĕ fä′nö) +Saône (sōn) +Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō) +Sardinia (sär dĭn′i̇ ȧ) +Sarrail (sȧr rī′) +Savoy (sȧ voy′) +Saxony (săx′ōn y̆) +Sazanof (sä′zä nŏff) +Scandinavian (scăn dĭ nā′vĭ ȧn) +Schleswig (shlĕs′vĭg) +Scutari (sko͞o′tä rï) +Serbia (sẽr′bĭ ȧ) +Silesia (sĭl ē′shȧ) +Skipetars (skïp′ĕ tarz) +Slavic (slä′vĭc) +Slavonia (slȧ vō′nï ȧ) +Slavonic (slȧ vŏn′ĭc) +Slavs (slävz) +Slovak (slō väk′) +Slovenes (slō vēnz′) +Slovenian (slō vē′nï ȧn) +Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ) +Stoessel (stēs′sĕl) +Strasbourg (strȧs′bo͝org) +Styria (sty̆′rĭ ȧ) +Suevi (swē′vï) +Syria (sy̆r′ï ȧ) +Take (tä kā) +Talleyrand (tȧl′lā rȧn) +Teutones (tū tō′nēz) +Teutonic (tū tŏn′ĭc) +Thessaly (thĕs′sȧ ly̆) +Thracians (thrā′shŭnz) +Tigris (tī′grĭs) +Toul (to͞ol) +Transylvania (trăn sy̆l vā′nï ȧ) +Trentino (trĕn tī′nō) +Trieste (trï ĕst′) or (trï ĕs′tā) +Tripoli (trĭp′ō lĭ) +Tuscany (tŭs′cȧ ny̆) +Tyrol (ty̆′rōl) +Tzernagorah (tzēr nä′gō′rȧ) +Vandals (văn′dlz) +Venetia (vĕn ē′shȧ) +Venizelos (vĕn ĭ zĕl′ŏs) +Vercingetorix (vēr sĭn jĕt′ö rĭks) +Verdun (vār dŭn′) +Volgars (vŏl′gärz) +Von Bernstorff (fŏn bārns′torf) +Von Plehve (fŏn plā′vē) +Von Tirpitz (fŏn tïr′pĭts) +Vosges (vōzh) +Walloon (wäl lo͞on′) +Westphalia (wĕst fā′lï ȧ) +Wied (we͞ed) +Wilhelmine (wĭl′hĕl mïn) +Yorkshire (yôrk′shīr) + + +Index + + Adriatic Sea, question of the control of. Agadir incident. + Albania, formation of the kingdom of. Albanians, language of; + habits of. Alexander the Great. Algeciras incident. Alliance, + the Holy. Alliance, the Triple. + Alliance, the Dual. Alliance, the Balkan. Alsace. + Ambassador. Angles, the, invade Britain. Arbitration of + national disputes. Arminius. Armor, value of. + Austria-Hungary, origin of; helps to divide Poland; at war with + France; at war with Sardinia and France; at war with Prussia + and Italy; refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble. + Austrians in Italy. + + Balance of Power. Balkan problem. Barons. Bastille, fall of + the. Belgium, joined to Holland to form the Netherlands; + independent; guaranteed its freedom by three powers. + Bernadotte. Bismarck-Schönausen. + Blenheim, battle of (poem). Blockade of Germany. Bohemia, + part of the Holy Roman Empire; part of the Hapsburg domains. + Bolsheviki, revolt of the. Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon. + Bonaparte, Napoleon. Bosnian problem. Bourbon family. + Brandenburg; rise of. Brazil declares war on Germany. + Britons. Bulgaria, freed by Russia; left partially under the + control of Turkey; + independent; at war; with five nations; plunges into world + war; treacherously orders an attack on Greece and Serbia. + Bulgars, origin of; in Macedonia. Bulow, Prince von. + Burgundians. Byzantium becomes Constantinople. + + Caesar, Julius. Cape to Cairo Railroad. Catharine II of Russia. + Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia. Celtic languages, + disappearance of. Celts. Charlemagne. Charles V. Charles XII of + Sweden. Chauvinists. Churchill, Winston. Cincinnatus. + Constantine, prince in Crete; king of Greece. Constantinople. + Contraband of war. Cracow, Republic of. Crete. Czechs. + + Danes, in Schleswig. Dark Ages. Delcassé. + Denmark, loses Norway; defeated by Prussia and Austria; injured + by submarine campaign. + _Deutschland_, voyages of the. Dialects. Dictator, Roman. + Divine right of kings. Dukes vs. Kings. Duma, the Russian; + asked to form a government. + + Edward VII. Elba, Napoleon’s return from. Elector, the Great. + Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. England, power of the king + of; in Egypt; troubles of, in 1914. Entente Cordiale. Entente, + the Triple. + Esthonians. Etruscans. + + Fashoda incident. Ferdinand of Bulgaria; enters war on side of + Germany and Austria; attacks Serbia; + ambitions of. Feudal system. Finland annexed to Russia. + Finns; conquered by the Swedes. + Flemish. France, power of king of; execution of king of; in + Africa; wars of. + Franks. Franz Ferdinand. Frederick the Great. French + Revolution. + + Gaelic language. Gaels. Garibaldi. Gauls. German Confederation. + German secret agents set fire to American property and kill + Americans; try to stir up war between the U. S. and Japan; stir + up trouble in Russia. German tribes. Germanic languages. + Germany, the Holy Roman Empire of. Germany, the modern Empire + of; encourages France to declare war on England; + makes friends with Turkey; policy toward Balkan nations; + warns Russia; attacks France through Belgium. Goths. + Government, by the people; based on the consent of the + governed; + limited to the ruling class. Governments, newness of + European. Great Britain offers to judge Serbian trouble; + declares war on Germany. Greece, + treaty of, with Serbia; Greek Empire, origin of; fall of. + Greeks; ungenerous to Bulgarians, desert to Venizelos; join + the Entente. + + Hague, court of the. Hannibal’s war against Rome. Hapsburgs, + the. Hohenzollern family. Holstein. Homage. + Hungarians. Huns. + + Indemnity. Indo-European family of languages. Istria. + Italy, a battle ground of nations; becomes a nation; makes war + on Turkey; declines to support Austria and Germany; declares + war on Austria. + + Kavala. Kent, William, on Mexican intervention. Kerensky, + leader of the Russian government. Kings, origin of. Koumanova, + battle of. + + Labor troubles, in England; in Russia. + Language, relationship shown by. Latin tongues. Lithuania. + Lombards. Lorraine. Louis XIV of France. _Lusitania_, sinking + of the. + + Macedonia. Magyars. Marathon, battle of. Marchand, Major. + Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria; helps to divide Poland. + Marlborough, Duke of. Mazzini. + Metternich. Middle Ages. Military service, owed to rulers; in + Prussia; in France. + Mirabeau. Moltke. Montenegro, origin of; + declares war on Austria. Monroe Doctrine. Moors. + Murat. + + Napoleon III. Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of. + Newspapers, control of. Normans. Norway, joined to Sweden; + danger from Germany; vigorously protests submarine warfare. + Novibazar, the Sanjak of. + + Ostrogoths. + + Paris, siege of. Peace, German offer of; + Allies’ terms of; United States’ desire for; Russo-German + conference toward; German desire for. Peasants, attached to + the land; + support fighting classes. Peter the Great. Poland, + kingdom of; partition of; given largely to Russia; + revolutions in. Preparation for war Prussia, origin of + kingdom of; crushed by Napoleon; dominated by Bismarck. + + Rasputin; assists Sturmer; is killed. + Reichstag. Reign of Terror. Republic, first French; second + French; third French. + Robber chiefs. Roman Empire, beginnings of. Romansh people. + Rome, wars of, with Carthage. Roon. Rothschild, the banking + house of. Roumani. Roumania; hopes of; + population of; declares war on Austria; + is crushed between two armies. Russia, rise of; attacks + Turkey; policy of; + relations with Bulgaria; defends Serbia; + ignorance of the people of; revolution in; + controlled by the Bolsheviki. Ruthenians. + + Sarrail, sent to Salonika; watching Bulgars and Greeks. Saxons. + Saxony, annexed in part to Prussia; allied to Austria. + Salonika, Spanish Jews in. Sardinia, kingdom of. Schleswig. + Scutari. Serbia, trade with Austria; relations with Bulgaria; + trouble with Austria; attacked on three sides. Serbs, origin + of; lands of; language of. Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two. + Silesia, seizure of. Slavic tribes. Slovaks. Slovenes. + Sobieski, John, king of Poland. Socialists, in Germany; in + Italy. Spain, origin of; drives out “unbelievers,”; becomes a + republic. Submarine boats sink British warships; + sink merchant ships; sink the _Lusitania_; + cross the Atlantic; begin to sink all ships without warning; + kill Americans; sink Norwegian ships. Suevi. Sturmer chosen + prime minister of Russia. Sweden, decline of. + + Talleyrand. Trentino. Tunis, seized by France. Turkey, + defended by France and England; attacks Russia. Turks; + capture Constantinople; driven back from Vienna; the young + Turks; tolerance of the young; bigotry of the young. + + Ulster trouble, the. United States, indignant over the + _Lusitania_; warns Germany; defends munitions trade in reply to + Austria; receives _Deutschland_ hospitably; sends the German + Ambassador home; + declares war; desires nothing but to be safe from attack; + sends an army to Europe. + + Vandals. Venice, Republic of. Venizelos, prime minister of + Greece; comes from Crete; opposes King Constantine; once more + prime minister. + Vercingetorix. Victor Emmanuel. Vienna, Congress of. + + Walloons. War, four causes of; cost of; diseases caused by; + increasing horror of. Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of. Waterloo, battle + of. + William of Normandy. Wilson, President, patient with Germany; + asks both sides to name their terms; + calls Congress to declare war. + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 *** |