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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:15 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:15 -0700 |
| commit | b16eaf0108b4e64a4a5e696dae6d99590d2c109b (patch) | |
| tree | 5d513f827f15194d047f5cec2167bfb6365701c7 /11200-h | |
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diff --git a/11200-h/11200-h.htm b/11200-h/11200-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..44eceaa --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-h/11200-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9306 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The World War and What Was Behind It, by L. P. Bénézet</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + +body { margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify; } + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight: +normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 300%; + margin-top: 0.6em; + margin-bottom: 0.6em; + letter-spacing: 0.12em; + word-spacing: 0.2em; + text-indent: 0em;} +h2 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +h3 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em;} +h4 {font-size: 120%;} +h5 {font-size: 110%;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +p.center {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.right {text-align: right; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.footnote {font-size: 90%; + text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.6em; } + +.review {font-size: .9em; + margin-left: 5%; } + +.review ol {list-style-type: lower-alpha; } + +.review li {margin-bottom: 1em; } + +div.fig { display:block; + margin:0 auto; + text-align:center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em;} + +p.caption {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:55%;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" style="width:100%;" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + + <h1> + The World War and What Was Behind It + </h1> + <p class="center"> + or + </p> + <h3> + The Story of the Map of Europe + </h3> + <p class="center"> + By + </p> + <h2> + L. P. Bénézet + </h2> + <p class="center"> + SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus01"></a> +<img src="images/01.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Peace Palace at the Hague</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="pref01"></a>Preface</h2> + +<p> +This little volume is the result of the interest shown by pupils, teachers, and +the general public in a series of talks on the causes of the great European war +which were given by the author in the fall of 1914. The audiences were widely +different in character. They included pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth +grades, students in high school and normal school, teachers in the public +schools, an association of business men, and a convention of boards of +education. In every case, the same sentiment was voiced: “If there were +only some book which would give us these facts in simple language and +illustrate them by maps and charts as you have done!” After searching the +market for a book of this sort without success, the author determined to put +the subject of his talks into manuscript form. It has been his aim to write in +a style which is well within the comprehension of the children in the upper +grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult readers. The book deals with the +remarkable sequence of events in Europe which made the great war inevitable. +Facts are revealed which, so far as the author knows, have not been published +in any history to date; facts which had the strongest possible bearing on the +outbreak of the war. The average American, whether child or adult, has little +conception of conditions in Europe. In America all races mix. The children of +the Polish Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the second generations +both peoples have become Americans. Bohemians intermarry with Irish, Scotch +with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other hand, Czech and Teuton, Bulgar and +Serb may live side by side for centuries without mixing or losing their +distinct racial characteristics. In order that the American reader may +understand the complicated problem of European peace, a study of races and +languages is given in the text, showing the relationship of Slav, Celt, Latin, +and Teuton, and the various sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge of +these facts is very essential to any understanding of the situation in Europe. +The author has pointed out the fact that political boundaries are largely +king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn with regard to the natural +division of Europe by nationalities, or to the wishes of the mass of the +population. +</p> + +<p> +The chapter, entitled “Europe as it Should Be,” with its +accompanying map, shows the boundaries of the various nations as they would +look if the bulk of the people of each nationality were included in a single +political division. In many places, it is, of course, impossible to draw sharp +lines. Greek shades off into Bulgar on one side and into Skipetar and Serb on +the other. Prague, the capital of the Czechs, is one-third German in its +population. There are large islands of Germans and Magyars in the midst of the +Roumanians of Transylvania. These are a few examples out of many which could be +cited. However, the general aim of the chapter has been to divide the continent +into nations, in each of which the leading race would vastly predominate in +population. +</p> + +<p> +It is hoped that the study of this little work will not only throw light upon +the causes of war in general, but will also reveal its cruelty and its +needlessness. It is shown that the history of Europe from the time of the great +invasions by the Germanic tribes has been a continuous story of government +without the consent of the governed. +</p> + +<p> +A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and philanthropists in many countries +have urged, is outlined in the closing chapter. It would seem as though after +this terrible demonstration of the results of armed peace, the governments of +the world would be ready to listen to some plan which would forever forbid the +possibility of another war. Just as individuals in the majority of civilized +countries discovered, a hundred years ago, that it was no longer necessary for +them to carry weapons in order to insure their right to live and to enjoy +protection, so nations may learn at last that peace and security are preferable +to the fruits of brigandage and aggression. The colonies of America, after +years of jealousy and small differences, followed by a tremendous war, at last +learned this lesson. In the same way the states of Europe will have to learn +it. The stumbling blocks in the way are the remains of feudal government in +Europe and the ignorance and short-sightedness of the common people in many +countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with the advance of education, and we +trust that feudalism will not long survive its last terrible crime, the world +war of 1914. +</p> + +<p> +Now that the United States has become a belligerent, it is very essential that +our people understand the events that led up to our participation in the war. +So many of our citizens are of a peace-loving nature, we are so far removed +from the militarism of continental Europe, and the whole war seems so needless +and so profitless to those who have not studied carefully its causes, that +there is danger of a want of harmony with the program of the government if all +are not taught the simple truth of the matter. There is no quicker channel +through which to reach all the people than the public schools. With this in +mind, two entire chapters and part of a third are devoted to demonstrating why +no other course was open to this country than to accept the war which was +forced upon her. +</p> + +<p> +In the preparation of this little work, the author has received many helpful +suggestions from co-workers. His thanks are especially due to Professor A. G. +Terry of Northwestern University and Professor A. H. Sanford of the Wisconsin +State Normal School at La Crosse, who were kind enough to read through and +correct the manuscript before its final revision. The author is especially +indebted to the Committee on Public Information at Washington, D. C., for +furnishing to him authoritative data on many phases of the war. Acknowledgment +is also made to Row, Peterson and Company for kind permission to use +illustrations from <i>History Stories of Other Lands</i>; also to the +International Film Service, Inc., of New York City for the use of many valuable +copyright illustrations of scenes relating to the great war. +</p> + +<p class="right"> +L. P. BÉNÉZET. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<i>Evansville, Indiana,<br /> +January 2, 1918</i> +</p> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#pref01">Preface</a><br/><br/></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap01">I. The Great War</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap02">II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap03">III. From Chiefs to Kings</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap04">IV. Master and Man</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap05">V. A Babel of Tongues</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap06">VI. “The Terrible Turk”</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap07">VII. The Rise of Modern Nations</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap08">VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap09">IX. The Little Man from the Common People</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap10">X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap11">XI. Italy a Nation at Last</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap12">XII. The Man of Blood and Iron</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap13">XIII. The Balance of Power</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap14">XIV. The “Entente Cordiale”</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap15">XV. The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap16">XVI. Who Profits?</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap17">XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap18">XVIII. Why England Came In</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap19">XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap20">XX. Back to the Balkans</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap21">XXI. The War under the Sea</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap22">XXII. Another Crown Topples</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap23">XXIII. The United States at War—Why?</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap24">XXIV. Europe As It Should Be</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap25">XXV. The Cost of It All</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap26">XXVI. What Germany Must Learn</a><br/><br/></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap27">Pronouncing Glossary</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap28">Index</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<h2>List of Maps</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map01">I. Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map02">II. Distribution of Languages</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map03">III. Southeastern Europe in 600 B.C.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map04">IV. Southeastern Europe 975 A.D.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map05">V. Southeastern Europe 1690</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map06">VI. The Empire of Charlemagne</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map07">VII. Europe in 1540</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map08">VIII. The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map09">IX. Italy in 525</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map10">X. Italy in 650</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map11">XI. Italy in 1175</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map12">XII. Europe in 1796</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map13">XIII. Europe in 1810</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map14">XIV. Europe in 1815</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map15">XV. Italy Made One Nation—1914—</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map16">XVI. Formation of the German Empire</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map17">XVII. Southeastern and Central Europe 1796</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map18">XVIII. Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map19">XIX. Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map20">XX. Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map21">XXI. The Two Routes from Germany into France</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map22">XXII. The Roumanian Campaign as the Allies Wished It</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map23">XXIII. The Roumanian Campaign as It Turned Out</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#map24">XXIV. Europe as It Should Be</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<h2>List of Illustrations</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus01">I. The Peace Palace at the Hague</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus02">II. Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is Raging</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus03">III. A Drill Ground in Modern Europe</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus04">IV. The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus05">V. The Last Combat of the Gladiators</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus06">VI. Germans Going into Battle</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus07">VII. A Hun Warrior</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus08">VIII. Gaius Julius Caesar</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus09">IX. A Frankish Chief</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus10">X. Movable Huts of Early Germans</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus11">XI. Goths on the March</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus12">XII. Franks Crossing the Rhine</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus13">XIII. Men of Normandy Landing in England</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus14">XIV. Alexander Defeating the Persians</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus15">XV. A Knight in Armor</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus16">XVI. A Norman Castle in England</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus17">XVII. A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus18">XVIII. William the Conqueror</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus19">XIX. A Typical Bulgarian Family</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus20">XX. Mohammed II Before Constantinople</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus21">XXI. A Scene in Salonika</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus22">XXII. Louis XIV</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus23">XXIII. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus24">XXIV. The Great Elector of Brandenburg</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus25">XXV. Frederick the Great</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus26">XXVI. Catharine II</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus27">XXVII. Courtier of Time of Louis XIV</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus28">XXVIII. The Taking of the Bastille</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus29">XXIX. The Palace of Versailles</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus30">XXX. The Reign of Terror</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus31">XXXI. The First Singing of “The Marseillaise”</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus32">XXXII. Charles the Fifth</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus33">XXXIII. The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus34">XXXIV. The Retreat from Moscow</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus35">XXXV. Napoleon at Waterloo</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus36">XXXVI. The Congress of Vienna</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus37">XXXVII. Prince Metternich</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus38">XXXVIII. The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus39">XXXIX. Bismarck</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus40">XL. An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus41">XLI. The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus42">XLII. Peter the Great</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus43">XLIII. Entrance to the Mosque of St. Sophia</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus44">XLIV. The Congress of Berlin</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus45">XLV. An Arab Sheik and His Staff</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus46">XLVI. A Scene in Constantinople</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus47">XLVII. Durazzo</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus48">XLVIII. A Modern Dreadnaught</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus49">XLIX. Submarine</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus50">L. A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus51">LI. Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus52">LII. A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus53">LIII. Venizelos</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus54">LIV. The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus55">LV. Crowd in Petrograd During the Revolution</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus56">LVI. Revolutionary Soldiers in the Duma</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus57">LVII. Kerensky Reviewing Russian Troops</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus58">LVIII. Flight from a Torpedoed Liner</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus59">LIX. President Wilson Reading the War Message</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus60">LX. American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus61">LXI. Polish Children</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus62">LXII. The Price of War</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus63">LXIII. Rendered Homeless by War</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#illus64">LXIV. Charles XII of Sweden</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>The Story of the Map of Europe</h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap01"></a>Chapter I.<br/> +The Great War</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The call from Europe.—Friend against friend.—Why?—Death + and devastation.—No private quarrel.—Ordered by government.—What + makes government?—The influence of the past.—Four causes of + war. + </p> + + <p> + Among the bricklayers at work on a building which was being erected in a + great American city during the summer of 1914 were two men who had not yet + become citizens of the United States. Born abroad, they still owed + allegiance, one to the Emperor of Austria, the other to the Czar of + Russia. + </p> + + <p> +Meeting in a new country, and using a new language which gave them a chance to +understand each other, they had become well acquainted. They were members of +the same labor union, and had worked side by side on several different jobs. In +the course of time, a firm friendship had sprung up between them. Suddenly, on +the same day, each was notified to call at the office of the agent of his +government in the city. Next morning the Russian came to his boss to explain +that he must quit work, that he had been called home to fight for the +“Little Father” of the Russians. He found his chum, the Austrian, +there ahead of him, telling that he had to go, for the Russians had declared +war on Austria and the good Kaiser,<a href="#fn-1" name="fnref-1" id="fnref-1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +Franz Josef, had need of all his young men. + </p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1" id="fn-1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1">[1]</a> +In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor. +</p> + + <p> + The two chums stared at each other in sorrow and dismay. The pitiless arm + of the god of war had reached across the broad Atlantic, plucking them + back from peace and security. With weapons put into their hands they would + be ordered to kill each other on sight. + </p> + + <p> + A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful “Good luck to you,” and they parted. + </p> + + <p> + Why was this necessary? What was this irresistible force, strong enough to + separate the two friends and drag them back five thousand miles for the + purpose of killing each other? To answer these two questions is the + purpose of this little volume. + </p> + + <p> + Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe and parts of Asia and Africa + were torn and racked with the most tremendous war that the world has ever + seen. Millions of men were killed. Other millions were maimed, blinded, or + disfigured for life. Still other millions were herded into prison camps or + forced to work like convict laborers. Millions of homes were filled with + grief. Millions of women were forced to do hard work which before the war + had been considered beyond their power. Millions of children were left + fatherless. What had been the richest and most productive farming land in + Europe was made a barren waste. Thousands of villages and towns were + utterly destroyed and their inhabitants were forced to flee, the aged, the + sick, and the infants alike. + </p> + + <p> + In many cases, as victorious armies swept through Poland and Serbia, the + wretched inhabitants fled before them, literally starving, because all + food had been seized for the use of fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which + cannot exist where people have the chance to bathe and keep themselves + clean, once more appeared, sweeping away hundreds of thousands of victims. + The strongest, healthiest, bravest men of a dozen different nations were + shot down by the millions or left to drag out a miserable existence, sick + or crippled for life. Silent were the wheels in many factories which once + turned out the comforts and luxuries of civilization. There were no men to + make toys for the children, or to work for mankind’s happiness. The only + mills and factories which were running full time were those that turned + out the tools of destruction and shot and shell for the guns. Nations + poured out one hundred fifty million dollars a day for the purpose of + killing off the best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? What was the + reason for it all? + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus02"></a> +<img src="images/02.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Fleeing from their Homes, around which a Battle is Raging</p> +</div> + + <p> + In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and Englishmen traveled in Germany + freely and safely. Germans were glad to trade with intercourse Russians, + and happy to have Englishmen spend their money in Germany. France and + Austria exchanged goods and their inhabitants traveled within each other’s + boundaries. A Frenchman might go anywhere through Germany and be welcomed. + There was nothing to make the average German hate the average Englishman + or Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the citizen of Russia could meet + and find plenty of ground for friendship. + </p> + + <p> + We cannot explain this war, then, on the grounds of race hatred. One can + imagine that two men living side by side and seeing each other every day + might have trouble and grow to hate each other, but in this great war + soldiers were shooting down other soldiers whom they had never seen + before, with whom they had never exchanged a word, and it would not profit + them if they killed a whole army of their opponents. In many cases, the + soldiers did not see the men whom they were killing. An officer with a + telescope watched where the shells from the cannon were falling and + telephoned to the captain in charge to change the aim a trifle for his + next shots. The men put in the projectile, closed and fired the gun. Once + in a while, a shell from the invisible enemy, two, three, or four miles + away, fell among them, killing and wounding. When a regiment of Austrians + were ordered to charge the Russian trenches, they shot and bayoneted the + Russians because they were told to do so by their officers, and the + Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because their captains so ordered + them. The officers on each side were only obeying orders received from + their generals. The generals were only obeying orders from the government. + </p> + + <p> + In the end, then, we come back to the governments, and we wonder what has + caused these nations to fly at each other’s throats. The question arises + as to what makes up a government or why a government has the right to rule + its people. + </p> + + <p> + In the United States, the government officials are simply the servants of + the people. Practically every man in our country, unless he is a citizen + of some foreign nation, has a right to vote, and in many of the states + women, too, have a voice in the government. We, the people of the United + States, can choose our own lawmakers, can instruct them how to vote and, + in some states, can vote out of existence any law that they the people + have made which we do not like. In all states, we can show our disapproval + of what our law-makers have done by voting against them at the next + election. Such is the government of a republic, a “government of the + people, by the people, and for the people,” as Abraham Lincoln called it. + In the leading British colonies, the people rule. Australian citizens + voted against forcing men to serve in the army. The result was very close + and the vote of the women helped to decide it. Canada, on the contrary, + voted to compel her men to go. How is it in Europe? Have the people of + Germany or Austria the right to vote on war? Were they consulted before + their governments called them to arms and sent them to fight each other? + It is plain that in order to understand what this war is about, we must + look into the story of how the different governments of Europe came to be + and learn why their peoples obey them so unquestioningly. + </p> + + <p> + We must remember that government by the people is a very new thing. One + hundred and thirty years ago, even in the United States only about + one-fourth of the men had the right to vote. These were citizens of + property and wealth. They did not think a poor man was worth considering. + In England, a country which allows its people more voice in the government + than almost any other nation in Europe, it is only within the last thirty + years that all men could vote. There are some European countries, like + Turkey, where the people have practically no power at all and others, like + Austria, where they have very little voice in how they shall be governed. + </p> + + <p> + For over a thousand years, the men of Europe have obeyed without thinking + when their lords and kings have ordered them to pick up their weapons and + go to war. In many instances they have known nothing of the causes of the + conflict or of what they were fighting for. A famous English writer has + written a poem which illustrates how little the average citizen has ever + known concerning the cause of war, and shows the difference between the + way in which war was looked upon by the men of old and the way in which + one should regard it. The poem runs as follows: + </p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The Battle of Blenheim</b> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +It was a summer evening,<br/> + Old Kaspar’s work was done,<br/> +And he before his cottage door<br/> + Was sitting in the sun,<br/> +And by him sported on the green<br/> +His little grandchild Wilhelmine.<br/> +<br/> +She saw her brother Peterkin<br/> + Roll something large and round,<br/> +Which he beside the rivulet<br/> + In playing there had found,<br/> +He came to ask what he had found<br/> +That was so large and smooth and round.<br/> +<br/> +Old Kaspar took it from the boy,<br/> + Who stood expectant by;<br/> +And then the old man shook his head,<br/> + And, with a natural sigh—<br/> +“’Tis some poor fellow’s skull,” said he,<br/> +“Who fell in the great victory.<br/> +<br/> +“I find them in the garden,<br/> + For there’s many hereabout;<br/> +And often when I go to plow,<br/> + The plowshare turns them out!<br/> +For many a thousand men,” said he,<br/> +“Were slain in the great victory.”<br/> +<br/> +“Now tell us what ’twas all about,”<br/> + Young Peterkin he cries;<br/> +And little Wilhelmine looks up<br/> + With wonder-waiting eyes—<br/> +“Now tell us all about the war,<br/> +And what they fought each other for.”<br/> +<br/> +“It was the English,” Kaspar cried,<br/> + “Who put the French to rout;<br/> +But what they fought each other for<br/> + I could not well make out;<br/> +But everybody said,” quoth he,<br/> +“That ’twas a famous victory.<br/> +<br/> +“My father lived at Blenheim then,<br/> + Yon little stream hard by;<br/> +They burnt his dwelling to the ground,<br/> + And he was forced to fly;<br/> +So with his wife and child he fled,<br/> +Nor had he where to rest his head.<br/> +<br/> +“They say it was a shocking sight<br/> + After the field was won—<br/> +For many thousand bodies here<br/> + Lay rotting in the sun;<br/> +But things like that, you know, must be<br/> +After a famous victory.<br/> +<br/> +“Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won,<br/> + And our good Prince Eugene.”<br/> +“Why, ’twas a very wicked thing!”<br/> + Said little Wilhelmine.<br/> +“Nay, nay, my little girl,” quoth he,<br/> +“It was a famous victory.<br/> +<br/> +“And everybody praised the duke<br/> + Who this great fight did win.”<br/> +“But what good came of it at last?”<br/> + Quoth little Peterkin.<br/> +“Why, that I cannot tell,” said he;<br/> +“But ’twas a famous victory.” +</p> + +<p class="right"> +—<i>Robert Southey</i>. +</p> + + <p> + Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things all his life, cannot feel the + wickedness and horror Of the battle. The children, on the other hand, have + a different idea of war. They are not satisfied until they know what it + was all about and what good came of it, and they feel that “it was a very + wicked thing.” If the men in the armies had stopped to ask the reason why + they were killing each other and had refused to fight until they knew the + truth, the history of the world would have been very different. + </p> + + <p> + One reason why we still have wars is that men refuse to think for + themselves, because it is so much easier to let their dead ancestors think + for them and to keep up customs which should have been changed ages ago. + People in Europe have lived in the midst of wars or preparation for wars + all their lives. There never has been a time when Europe was not either a + battlefield or a great drill-ground for armies. + </p> + + <p> + There was a time, long ago, when any man might kill another in Europe and + not be punished for his deed. It was not thought wrong to take human life. + Today it is not considered wrong to kill, provided a man is ordered to do + so by his general or his king. When two kings go to war, each claiming his + quarrel to be a just one, wholesale murder is done, and each side is made + by its government to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified in + its killing. It should be the great aim of everyone today to help to bring + about lasting peace among all the nations. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus03"></a> +<img src="images/03.jpg" width="400" height="226" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Drill Ground in Modern Europe.</p> +</div> + + <p> + In order to know how to do this, we must study the causes of the wars of + the past. We shall find, as we do so, that almost all wars can be traced + to one of four causes: (1) the instinct among barbarous tribes to fight + with and plunder their neighbors; (2) the ambition of kings to enlarge + their kingdoms; (3) the desire of the traders of one nation to increase + their commerce at the expense of some other nation; (4) a people’s wish to + be free from the control of some other country and to become a nation by + itself. Of the four reasons, only the last furnishes a just cause for war, + and this cause has been brought about only when kings have sent their + armies out, and forced into their kingdoms other peoples who wished to + govern themselves. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why must foreigners in the United States return to their native lands + when summoned by their governments? + </li> + <li> + How is it that war helps to breed diseases? + </li> + <li> + Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it? + </li> + <li> + Whom do we mean by the government in the United States? + </li> + <li> + Who controls the government in Russia? + </li> + <li> + Who in England? + </li> + <li> + Who in Germany? + </li> + <li> + Who in France? + </li> + <li> + In Southey’s poem, how does the children’s idea of the battle differ + from that of their grandfather? Why? + </li> + <li> + Are people less likely to protest against war if their forefathers + have fought many wars? + </li> + <li> + What have been the four main causes of war? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap02"></a>Chapter II.<br/> +Rome and the Barbarian Tribes</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + New governments in Europe.—Earliest times.—How civilization + began.—The rise of Rome.—Roman civilization.—Roman + cruelty.—The German tribes.—The Slavic tribes.—The + Celtic tribes.—The Huns and Moors.—The great Germanic + invasions of the Roman world. + </p> + + <p> + To search for the causes of the great war which began in Europe in 1914, + we must go far back into history. It should be remembered that many of the + governments of today have not lived as long as that of our own country. + This is, perhaps, a new thought to some of us, who rather think that, as + America is a new country, it is the baby among the great nations. But, one + hundred and thirty years ago, when the United States was being formed, + there was no nation called Italy; the peninsula which we now know by that + name was cut up among nine or ten little governments. There was no nation + known as Germany; the land which is in the present German empire was then + divided among some thirty or thirty-five different rulers. There was no + Republic of France; instead, France had a king whose will was law, and the + French people were cruelly oppressed. There was no kingdom of Belgium, no + kingdom of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The kingdom of Norway was + part of Denmark. The Republic of France, as we now know it, dates back + only to 1871; the Empire of Germany and the United Kingdom of Italy to + about the same time. The kingdoms of Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria have + been independent of Turkey only since 1878. The kingdom of Albania did not + exist before 1913. Most of the present nations of modern Europe, then, are + very new. The troubles which led to the great war, however, originated in + the dim twilight of history. + </p> + + <p> + In the earliest days, there were no separate countries or kingdoms. Men + gathered together in little bands, each of which had its leader. This + leader was generally chosen because of his bodily strength and courage. He + was the best fighter of the tribe. The people did not have any lasting + homes. They moved around from place to place, wherever they could find the + best hunting and fishing. When two tribes wanted the same hunting grounds, + they fought, and the weaker party had to give way. Selfishness was + supreme. If a man wanted anything which belonged to his weaker neighbor, + he simply beat this neighbor over the head with his club, and took it. The + stronger tribe attacked the weaker, without any thought of whether or not + its quarrel was just. + </p> + + <p> + Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts of Europe, the tribes began to + be more civilized. Towns sprang up. Ships were built. Trade came to be one + of the occupations. The fighting men needed weapons and armor; so there + grew up artisans who were skilled in working metals. In Egypt and Syria + there were people who had reached quite a high degree of civilization, and + gradually the Europeans learned from them better ways of living. First the + Greeks, then the Etruscans (Ē-trŭs′cans), a people who + lived in Italy just north of where Rome now is, and finally the southern + Italians learned that it was possible to live in cities, without hunting + and plundering. Grazing (the tending of flocks of animals) came to be the + occupation of many. The owners of sheep or cattle drove their flocks from + place to place, as grass and water failed them where they were. There was + no separate ownership of land. + </p> + + <p> + At last came the rise of the city of Rome, which, starting out as the + stronghold of a little gang of robbers, spread its rule gradually over all + the surrounding country. By this time, the barbarians of northern Europe + had gotten past the use of clubs as weapons. They, too, had learned to + make tools and arms of bronze, and those living near civilized countries + had obtained swords of iron. The club, however, still remained as the sign + of authority. The large bludgeon of the chief was carried before the tribe + as a sign of his power over them. You have all seen pictures of a king + sitting on his throne and holding a wand or stick in his right hand. It is + interesting to think that this scepter, which the present king of England + carries on state occasions to remind his people of his power, is a relic + of the old, old days when his grandfather, many times removed, broke the + head of his rival for leadership in the tribe and set up his mighty club + for his awestruck people to worship. + </p> + + <p> + The city of Rome (at first a republic, afterwards an empire) spread its + rule over all of Italy, over all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and + finally over all the countries of Europe south and west of the rivers + Danube and Rhine. One of the emperors planted a colony north of the Danube + near its mouth, and the descendants of these colonists are living in that + same country today. They have not forgotten their origin, for they still + call themselves Romans (Roumani [Ro͞o-mä′ni]), and talk a + language greatly resembling the Latin, which was the tongue spoken by the + Romans of old. With the exception of this country, which is now Roumania, + the part of Europe north and east of the Danube and Rhine was practically + free from the Romans. In this territory, roving bands wandered around, + driving their cattle with them and clearing the woods of game. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus04"></a> +<img src="images/04.jpg" width="401" height="264" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Forum (public square) of Rome as it was 1600 years ago.</p> +</div> + + <p> + In some ways, the Romans were a highly civilized people. They had schools + where their children were taught to read and write, to speak Greek, and to + work problems in geometry. They had magnificent public buildings, fine + temples and palaces. They built excellent paved roads all over the + southern part of Europe, and had wonderful systems of aqueducts which + supplied their cities with pure water from springs and lakes miles away. + Their dress was made of fine cloth. They knew how to make paper, glass, + and steel. + </p> + + <p> + On the other hand, they were a cruel and bloodthirsty people. Their + favorite amusement was to go to shows where gladiators fought, either with + each other or with wild beasts. These gladiators were generally men from + tribes which had fought against Rome. They had been captured and brought + to that city, where they were trained to use certain weapons. Then on + holidays, with all the people of Rome packed into big amphitheaters, these + unfortunate captives were forced to fight with each other until one man of + each pair was killed. It occasionally happened that one gladiator might be + wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, The spectators would then shout to + the victorious fighter to take his knife and finish what he had begun. In + this way what would seem to us like cold-blooded murder was committed + hundreds of times each year, while the fairest ladies and young girls of + Rome sat and watched with eager interest. Thus, although the Romans had + all the outward appearance of being civilized, they were savages at heart, + and had no sympathy for any people who were not of their own race. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus05"></a> +<img src="images/05.jpg" width="282" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Last Combat of the Gladiators</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the early days, the Romans prided themselves on their honor. They + scorned a lie and looked down on anyone who would cheat or deceive. They + lived hardy lives and would not allow themselves luxuries. They rather + despised the Greeks, because the latter surrounded themselves with + comforts in life. The early Romans were fighters by nature. They had a + certain god named Janus (our month January is named after him) and his + temple was open only when they were engaged in war. It is a matter of + history that during the twelve hundred years from the first building of + Rome to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of Janus was closed on but + three occasions and then only for a short time. + </p> + + <p> + About five or six hundred years after the founding of Rome came several + disastrous wars which killed off a great majority of her sturdy fighters. + Rome was the victor in all of these wars, but she won them at tremendous + cost to herself. With the killing off of her best and bravest men, a great + deal of the old time honesty was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of + Roman governors who, when put in charge of conquered states, used their + offices only to plunder the helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome + after their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten gains. Roman + morals, which formerly were very strict, began to grow more lax, and in + general the Roman civilization showed signs of decay. + </p> + + <p> + To the north and east of the Roman Empire dwelt a people who were to + become the leaders of the new nations of Europe. These were the free + German tribes, which occupied the part of Europe bounded, roughly, by the + rivers Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, and the Carpathian Mountains. In + many ways they were much less civilized than the Romans. They were clad in + skins and furs instead of cloth. They lived in rough huts and tents or in + caves dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the Romans, held human + life cheap, and bloodshed and murder were common among them. As a rule, + the men scorned to work, leaving whatever labor there was, largely to the + women, while they busied themselves in fighting and hunting, or, during + their idle times, in gambling. Nevertheless, these people, about the time + that the Roman honesty began to disappear, had virtues more like those of + the early Romans. They were frank and honorable. The men were faithful + husbands and kind fathers, and their family life was very happy. They were + barbarous and rough, but those of them who were taken to Rome and learned + the Roman civilization made finer, nobler men than Rome was producing + about the time of which we speak. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus06"></a> +<img src="images/06.jpg" width="400" height="199" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Germans Going Into Battle</p> +</div> + + <p> + To the east of these German tribes were the Slavs, a people no better + civilized, but not so warlike in their nature. As the Germans, in later + years, moved on to the west, the Slavs, in turn, moved westward and + occupied much of the land which had been left vacant by the Germans. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus07"></a> +<img src="images/07.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Hun Warrior</p> +</div> + + <p> + The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, France, Spain, and the British + Isles, were largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could be said to be divided + up among four great peoples: There were the Latins in Italy, the Celts in + western Europe, the Germans in central Europe, and the Slavs to the east. + All of these four families were distantly related, as can be proved by the + languages which they spoke. The Greeks, while not belonging to any one of + the four, were also distant cousins of both Germans and Latins. Probably + all five peoples are descended from one big family of tribes. + </p> + + <p> + In addition to these, there were, from time to time invasions of Europe by + other nations which did not have any connection by blood with Celts, + Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. For instance, the ferocious Huns, a + people of the yellow race, rushed into Europe about 400 A.D., but were + beaten in a big battle by the Romans and Germans and finally went back to + Asia. Three hundred years later, a great horde of Moors and Arabs from + Africa crossed over into Europe by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and at + one time threatened to sweep before them all the Christian nations. For + several hundred years after this, they held the southern part of Spain, + but were finally driven out. + </p> + + <p> + Let us now come back to the story of what happened in Europe after the + Romans had conquered all the country south and west of the Danube and + Rhine. The wild tribes of the Germans were restlessly roaming through the + central part of Europe. They were not at peace with each other. In fact, + constant war was going on. Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, who + conquered what is now France and added it to the Roman world, tells us + that one great tribe of Germans, the Suevi (Swē′vī), + made it their boast that they would let no other tribe live anywhere near + them. About a hundred years B.C., two great German tribes. the Cimbri and + the Teutones, broke across the Rhine and poured into the Roman lands in + countless numbers. For seven years they roamed about until at last they + were conquered in two bloody battles by a Roman general, who was Caesar’s + uncle by marriage. After this time, the Romans tried to conquer the + country of the Germans and they might have been successful but for a young + German chief named Arminius. He had lived in Rome as a young man and had + learned the Romans’ method of war; so when an army came against his tribe, + he taught the Germans how to defend themselves. As a result, the Roman + army was trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost to a man. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus08"></a> +<img src="images/08.jpg" width="267" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Gaius Julius Caesar. From a bust in the British Museum</p> +</div> + + <p> + This defeat ended any thought that the Romans may have had of conquering + all Germany. For the next one hundred and fifty years, Germans and Romans + lived apart, each afraid of the other. Then came a time when the Germans + again became the attacking party. Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like + the Huns, were assailing them in the east and pushing them forward. They + finally broke over the Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the Roman + Empire in wave after wave. Some of these tribes were the Vandals, + Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman Empire went to pieces + under their savage attacks. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why is it that after nations become civilized, people need less land + to live on? + </li> + <li> + Are barbarous tribes more likely to engage in war than civilized + peoples? + </li> + <li> + Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why the more civilized + tribes were better armed than the barbarians. + </li> + <li> + Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy bloodshed and are + not moved by the sufferings of others? + </li> + <li> + What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman republic? + </li> + <li> + In what way were the Germans better men than the later Romans? + </li> + <li> + What was the religion of the Moors and the Arabs? + </li> + <li> + Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap03"></a>Chapter III.<br/> +From Chiefs to Kings</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The early chief a fighter.—The club the sign of power.—Free + men led by a chief of their own choosing.—The first slaves.—Barbarians + conquer civilized nations.—A ruling class among conquered people.—All + men no longer free and equal.—The value of arms and armor.—The + robber chiefs.—How kings first came.—Treaties between tribes + follow constant wars.—Tribes unite for protection against enemies.—A + king is chosen for the time being.—Some kings refuse to resign their + office when the danger is past.—New generations grow up which never + knew a kingless state.—The word “king” becomes sacred. + </p> + + <p> + The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no law except the rule of the + sword. If they saw anything which they wanted, they took it. Rich cities + were plundered at will. They did not admit any man’s ownership of + anything. In the old days when the tribes were roaming around, there was + no private ownership of land. Everything belonged to the tribe in common. + Each man had a vote in the council of the tribe. + </p> + + <p> + Among these invaders, as with all barbarous tribes, there was no such + thing as an absolute rule. A chief was obeyed because the greater part of + his people considered him the best leader in war. Often, no doubt, when a + chief had lost a battle and the majority of the tribe had lost confidence + in him, he resigned and let them choose a new chief. (For the same reason + we frequently hear today that the prime minister, or leader of the + government, of some European country has resigned.) In spite of the fact, + then, that the chief was stronger than any other man in the tribe, if the + majority of his warriors had combined against him to put another man in + his place he could not have withstood them. Government, in its beginning, + was based upon the consent of the governed. All men in the primitive tribe + were equal in rank, except as one was a better fighter than another, and + the chief held the leadership in war only because the members of his tribe + allowed him to keep it. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus09"></a> +<img src="images/09.jpg" width="116" height="300" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Frankish Chief.</p> +</div> + + <p> + It must be remembered that in these early days, the people had no fixed + place of abode. Their only homes were rude huts which they could put up or + tear down at very short notice; and so when they heard of more fertile + lands or a warmer climate across the mountains to the south they used to + pull up stakes and migrate in a body, never to return. It was always the + more savage and uncivilized peoples who were most likely to migrate. The + lands which they wished to seize they generally found already settled by + other tribes, more civilized and hence more peaceful, occupied in trade + and agriculture, having gradually turned to these pursuits from their + former habits of hunting and fighting. Sometimes these more civilized and + peace-loving people were able, by their better weapons and superior + knowledge of the art of fortifying, to beat back the invasion of the + immigrating barbarians. Oftener, though, the rougher, ruder tribes were + the victors, and settled down among the people they had conquered, to rule + them, doing no work themselves, but forcing the conquered ones to feed and + clothe them. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus10"></a> +<img src="images/10.jpg" width="400" height="258" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Movable Huts of Early Germans</p> +</div> + + <p> + History is full of instances of such conquests, and they were taking + place, no doubt, ages before the times from which our earliest records + date. The best examples, however, are to be found in the invasions of the + Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes to which we have referred above. The + country between the Rhine River and the Pyrenees Mountains, which had been + called Gaul when the Gauls lived there, became France when the Franks + conquered the Gauls and stayed to live among them. In like manner, two + German tribes became the master races in Spain. The Burgundians came down + from the shores of the Baltic Sea and gave their name to their new home in + the fertile valley of the Saône (Sōn); the Vandals came out of + Germany to roam through Spain, finally founding a kingdom in Africa; while + the Lombards crossed the Alps to become the masters of the Valley of the + Po, whither the Gauls had gone before them, seven hundred years earlier. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus11"></a> +<img src="images/11.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Goths on the March</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus12"></a> +<img src="images/12.jpg" width="401" height="227" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Franks Crossing the Rhine</p> +</div> + + <p> + The island now known as Great Britain, which was inhabited two thousand + years ago by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was overrun and + conquered in part about 450 A.D. by the Saxons and Angles, Germanic + tribes, after whom part of the island was called Angleland. (The men from + the south of England are of the same blood as the Saxons in the German + army, against whom they had to fight in the great war.) Then came Danes, + who partially conquered the Angles and Saxons, and after them, in 1066 + A.D., the country was again conquered by the Normans, descendants of some + Norsemen, who, one hundred and fifty years before, had come down from + Norway and conquered a large territory in the northwestern part of France. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus13"></a> +<img src="images/13.jpg" width="400" height="230" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Men of Normandy Landing in England.</p> +</div> + + <p> + In some cases, the conquered tribes moved on to other lands, leaving their + former homes to their conquerors. In this way the Britons and Gaels gave + up the greater part of their land to the Angles and Saxons and withdrew to + the hills and mountains of Wales, Cornwall, and northern Scotland. In + other cases, the conquered people and their conquerors inhabited the same + lands side by side, as the Normans settled down in England among the + Anglo-Saxons. + </p> + + <p> + In the early days of savagery, one tribe would frequently make a raid upon + another neighboring tribe and bring home with it some captives who became + slaves, working without pay for their conquerors and possessing no more + rights than beasts of burden. (This custom exists today in the interior of + Africa, and was responsible for the infamous African slave trade. Black + captives were sold to white traders through the greed of their captors, + who forgot that their own relatives and friends might be carried off and + sold across the seas by some other tribe of blacks.) + </p> + + <p> + When these slaves were kept as the servants of their conquerors, their + number was very small as compared with that of their masters. When, on the + other hand, a tribe settled among a people whom they had conquered, they + often found themselves fewer in numbers, and kept their leadership only by + their greater strength and fighting ability. + </p> + + <p> + Here there had arisen a new situation: all men were no longer equal, led + by a chief of their own choosing, but instead, the greater part of them + now had no voice in the government. They had become subjects, working to + earn their own living and also, as has been said, to support in idleness + their conquerors. + </p> + + <p> + This ability of the few to rule the many and force them to support their + masters was increased as certain peoples learned better than others how to + make strong armor and effective weapons. Nearly five hundred years before + the time of Christ, at the battle of Marathon (Măr′ȧ thŏn), + the Greeks discovered that one Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a + long spear, was worth ten Persians wearing leather and carrying a bow and + arrows or a short sword. One hundred and sixty years later, a small army + of well-equipped Macedonian Greeks, led by that wonderful general, + Alexander the Great, defeated nearly forty times its number of Persians in + a great battle in Asia and conquered a vast empire. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus14"></a> +<img src="images/14.jpg" width="381" height="184" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Alexander Defeating the Persians</p> +</div> + + <p> + In later times, as better and better armor was made, the question of + wealth entered in. The chief who had money enough to buy the best arms for + his men could defeat his poorer neighbor and force him to pay money as to + a ruler. Finally, in the so-called “Middle Ages,” before the invention of + gunpowder, one knight, armed from crown to sole in steel, was worth in + battle as much as one hundred poorly-armed farmers or “peasants” as they + are called in Europe. + </p> + +<p> +In the “Dark Ages,”<a href="#fn-2" name="fnref-2" id="fnref-2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +after all these barbarians that we have named had swarmed over Europe, and +before the governments of modern times were fully grown, there were hundreds of +robber chiefs, who, scattered throughout a country, were in the habit of +collecting tribute at the point of the sword from the peaceful peasants who +lived near. This tribute they collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed +amount each month or year, just as if they had a right to collect it, like a +government tax collector. It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. The +robber chiefs were well armed themselves and were able to give good weapons and +armor to their men, who lived either in the chief’s castle or in small +houses built very near it. They likewise plundered any travelers who came by, +unless their numbers and weapons made them look too dangerous to be attacked. +But the regular tribute forced from the peaceful farmers was the chief source +of their income. The robber chief and his men lived a life of idleness when +they were not out upon some raid for plunder, and the honest, industrious +peasants worked hard enough to support both their own families and those of the +robbers. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2" id="fn-2"></a> <a href="#fnref-2">[2]</a> +The “Dark Ages” came before the “Middle Ages.” They +were called “dark” because the barbarians had extinguished nearly +all civilization and learning. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus15"></a> +<img src="images/15.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Knight in Armor</p> +</div> + + <p> + These robber chiefs had no right but might. They were outlaws, and lived + either in a country which had no government and laws, or in one whose + government was too weak to protect its people. They were no worse, + however, than the so-called feudal barons who came after them, who + oppressed the people even more, because they had on their side whatever + law and government existed in those days. + </p> + + <p> + Now let us stop to consider how first there came to be kings. In the early + days of the human race and also in later days among barbarous peoples, the + land was very sparsely settled. The reason lay in the chief occupations of + the men. A small tribe might inhabit a great stretch of territory through + which they wandered to keep within reach of plenty of game. As time went + on, however, the population increased, and, as agriculture took the place + of hunting, and homes became more lasting, tribes found themselves living + in smaller and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to their + neighbors. In some cases, constant fighting went on, just as Caesar tells + us that two thousand years ago, the Swiss and the Germans fought almost + daily battles back and forth across the Rhine. In other cases, the tribes + found it better for all concerned to make treaties of peace with their + neighbors, and if they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly terms, + at least they did not attack each other. + </p> + + <p> + Finally, one day there would come to several tribes which had treaties + with each other a common danger, such as an invasion by some horde of + another race or nation. Common interest would drive them together for + mutual protection, and the chief of some one of them would be chosen to + lead their joint army. In this way, we find the fifteen tribes of the + Belgians uniting against the Roman army led by Julius Caesar, and electing + as king over them the chief of one of the tribes “on account of his + justice and wisdom.” Five years later, in the year 52 B.C., we find + practically all the inhabitants of what is now France united into a nation + under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Vẽr sin jet′ō + riks) in one last effort to free themselves from Rome. Five hundred years + later, the Romans themselves were driven to join forces with two of the + Germanic tribes to check the swift invasion of the terrible Huns. + </p> + + <p> + In some cases, these alliances were only for a short time and the + kingships were merely temporary. In other cases, the wars that drove the + tribes to unite under one great chief or king lasted for years or even + centuries, so that new generations grew up who had never lived under any + other government than that of a king. Thus when the wars were ended, the + tribes continued to be ruled by the one man, although the reason for the + kingship had ceased to be. In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to + 100 B.C., when grave danger arose, the senate, or council of elders, + appointed one man who was called the dictator, and this dictator ruled + like an absolute monarch until the danger was past. Then, like the famous + Cincinnatus, he gave up the position and retired to private life. The + first lasting kingships, then, began, as it were, by the refusal of some + dictator to resign when the need for his rule was ended. + </p> + + <p> + By this time, the custom of choosing the son of a chief or king to take + his father’s place was fairly well settled, and it did not take long to + have it understood as a regular thing that at a king’s death he should be + followed by his oldest son. Often there were quarrels and even civil wars + caused by ambitious younger sons, who did not submit to their elder + brothers without a struggle, but as people grew to be more civilized and + peace-loving, they found it better to have the oldest son looked upon as + the rightful heir to the kingship. + </p> + + <p> + As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more people came to be busied in + agriculture, trade, and even, on a small scale, in manufacture, the + warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people began to forget that the + king was originally only a war leader, and that the office was created + through military need. They came to regard the rule of the king as a + matter of course and stopped thinking of themselves as having any right to + say how they should be governed. Kings were quick to foster this feeling. + For the purpose of making their own positions sure, they were in the habit + of impressing it upon their people that the kingship was a divine + institution. They proclaimed that the office of king was made by the gods, + or in Christian nations, by God, and that it was the divine will that the + people of the nations should be ruled by kings. The great Roman orator, + Cicero (Sĭs′erō), in a speech delivered in the year 66 + B.C., referring to people who lived in kingdoms, says that the name of + king “seems to them a great and sacred thing.” This same feeling has + lasted through all the ages down to the present time, and the majority of + the people in European kingdoms, even among the educated classes, still + look upon a king as a superior being, and are made happy and proud if they + ever have a chance to do him a service of any sort. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no private ownership of + land? + </li> + <li> + What is meant by saying that government was based upon the consent of + the governed? + </li> + <li> + Was there anything besides love of plunder that induced the German + tribes to move southward? + </li> + <li> + Explain the beginnings of slavery. + </li> + <li> + Explain the value of armor in early times. + </li> + <li> + What is meant by the “Dark Ages”? + </li> + <li> + What is meant by saying that the fighting men were parasites? + </li> + <li> + When the first kings were chosen was it intended that they should be + rulers for life? + </li> + <li> + Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power? + </li> + <li> + Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap04"></a>Chapter IV.<br/> +Master and Man</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The land is the king’s.—He lends it to barons.—Barons lend it + to knights and smaller barons.—Smaller barons collect rent for it + from the peasants.—A father’s lands are lent to his son.—Barons + pay for the land by furnishing men for the king’s wars.—No account + is taken of the rights of the peasant.—The peasant, the only + producer, is despised by the fighting men.—If a baron rebels, his + men must rebel also.—Dukes against kings.—What killed the + feudal system.—Feudal wrongs alive today. + </p> + + <p> + When one great tribe or nation invaded and conquered a country, as the + Ostrogoths came into Italy in the year 489 A.D., or as the Normans entered + England in 1066, their king at once took it for granted that he owned all + the conquered land. In some cases, he might divide the kingdom up among + his chiefs, giving a county to each of forty or fifty leaders. These great + leaders (dukes or barons, as they were called in the Norman-French + language, or earls, as the English named them) would in turn each divide + up his county among several less important chiefs, whom we may call lesser + or little barons. Each little baron might have several knights and + squires, who lived in or near his castle and had received from him tracts + of land corresponding in size, perhaps, to the American township and who, + therefore, fought under his banner in war. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus16"></a> +<img src="images/16.jpg" width="356" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Norman Castle in England</p> +</div> + + <p> + Each baron had under him a strong body of fighting men, “men-at-arms,” as + they were called, or “retainers,” who in return for their “keep,” that is, + their food and lodging, and a chance to share the plunder gained in war, + swore to be faithful to him, became his men, and gave him the service + called homage. (This word comes from <i>hōmō</i>, the Latin + for “man.”) The lesser baron, in turn, swore homage to, and was the “man” + of the great baron or earl. Whenever the earl called on these lesser + chiefs to gather their fighting men and report to him, they had to obey, + serving him as unquestioningly as their squires and retainers obeyed them. + The earl or duke swore homage to the king, from whom he had received his + land. + </p> + + <p> + This, then, was the feudal system (so named from the word <i>feudum</i>, + which, in Latin, meant a piece of land the use of which was given to a man + in return for his services in war), a system which reversed the natural + laws of society, and stood it on its apex, like a cone balanced on its + point. For instead of saying that the land was the property of the people + of the tribe or nation, it started by taking for granted that the land all + belonged to the king. The idea was that the king did not give the land, + outright, to his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in return for + their faithful support and service in war, the <i>use</i> of the land + during their lifetime, or so long as they remained true to him. In <i>Macbeth</i>, + we read how, for his treason, the lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were + taken from him by the Scottish king and given to the thane of Glamis. The + lands thus lent were called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, they went + back to the king or duke who had given them in the first place, and he at + once gave them to some other one of his followers upon the same terms. It + often happened that upon the death of an earl or baron his son was granted + the lands which his father had held, Finally, in many counties, it grew + into a custom, and the oldest son took possession of his father’s fief, + but not without first going to the king and swearing homage and fidelity + to him. + </p> + + <p> + Two things must be kept in mind if we are to understand the system fully. + In the first place, in the division of the lands among the barons of the + conquering nation, no account was taken of the peasants. As they were of + the defeated people, their rights to the land were not once considered. In + many countries, the victors thought of them as part and parcel of the + conquered territory. They “went with” the land and were considered by the + lord of the county as merely his servants. When one lord turned over a + farm to another, the farmers were part of the bargain. If any of them + tried to run away, they were brought back and whipped. They tilled the + land and raised live stock, giving a certain share of their yearly crop + and a certain number of beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to the lord, as rent + for the land, much as the free farmers in other countries paid tribute to + the robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people who really earned + their right to live, by producing wealth, were oppressed and robbed by all + the others. Note this point, for there are wrongs existing today that are + due to the fact that the feudal system is not wholly stamped out in some + countries. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus17"></a> +<img src="images/17.jpg" width="401" height="234" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Vassal doing Homage to his Lord</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the second place, it must be noted that the king was not the direct + master of all the people. Only the great lords had sworn homage to him. He + was lord of the dukes, earls, and barons. The less important barons swore + homage to the great barons, and the knights, squires, retainers, and + yeomen swore homage to the lesser barons. If a lesser baron had subdivided + his fief among certain knights and squires, the peasants owed allegiance, + not to him, but to the squire to whom they had been assigned. Thus, if a + “man” rebelled against his lord, all of his knights, retainers, etc., must + rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused to obey his king and + broke his oath of allegiance, all his little barons and knights must turn + disloyal too, or rather, must remain loyal, for their oaths had been taken + to support the duke, and not the king. History is full of such cases. In + many instances, dukes became so powerful that they were able to make war + on even terms with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy for a time kept the + kings of France in awe of their power; the Duke of Northumberland in 1403 + raised an army that almost overthrew King Henry Fourth of England; the + Duke of York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the throne of England and + became king in his place. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus18"></a> +<img src="images/18.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">William the Conqueror</p> +</div> + + <p> + A strange case arose when, in 1066, William, who as duke of Normandy had + sworn homage to the king of France, became, through conquest, king of + England. His sons, great-grandsons, and great-great-grandsons continued + for one hundred and fifty years to be obliged to swear allegiance to the + French kings in order to keep the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the + Governor of Texas had led an army into Mexico, conquered it, and become + Emperor of that country, without resigning his governorship or giving up + his American citizenship. + </p> + + <p> + Two things which tended to break down the feudal system and bring more + power to the common people were, first, the invention of gunpowder, and, + second, the rise of towns. A man with a musket could bring down a knight + in armor as easily as he could the most poorly armored peasant. Kings, in + fighting to control their great lords, gave more freedom to citizens of + towns in return for their help. The king’s armies came to be recruited + largely from townspeople, who were made correspondingly free from the + feudal lords. + </p> + + <p> + The rule of the feudal system, that each man owed a certain amount of + military service to his ruler has lasted to the present day and is + responsible for much of the misery that now exists. Kings went to war with + each other simply to increase their territories. The more land a king had + under his control, the more people who owed him taxes, and the greater + number he could get into his army, the greater became his ambition to + spread his kingdom still farther. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own all the land in + the country which he had invaded? + </li> + <li> + Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute anything to the + welfare of the working classes? + </li> + <li> + Would the peasants have been better off if all the fighting men, + lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed? + </li> + <li> + Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who earns his living + is looked down upon by the nobles? + </li> + <li> + What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns society upside + down? + </li> + <li> + Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men? + </li> + <li> + Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to break up the + feudal system. + </li> + <li> + How did the rise of cities also help to do away with the feudal + system? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap05"></a>Chapter V.<br/> +A Babel of Tongues</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The great family of languages.—Few languages in Europe not belonging + to the family.—The dying Celtic languages.—The three branches + of the Germanic family.—The influence of the Latin tongue on the + south of Europe.—The many Slavic peoples.—The map as divided + by kings without regard to peoples and languages.—The strange + mixture in Austria-Hungary.—The southeast of Europe.—The + Greeks and Dacians.—The Roman colonists.—The Slavs.—The + Volgars.—The Skipetars.—A hopeless mixture. + </p> + + <p> + In <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a> it was pointed out that almost all the + peoples of Europe were related, in one big family of tribes. It is likely + that the forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Germans, the Greeks, + and the Slavs belonged to one big tribe which had its home back in the + highlands of Central Asia. As a general rule, the relationship of peoples + to each other can be told by the languages which they speak. If two tribes + are related because their forefathers once belonged to the same tribe, it + is almost certain that they will show this relationship in their + languages. + </p> + + <p> + The language of England a thousand years ago was very much like the + language of the Germans, for the English were originally German tribes. + Even today, it is easy to see that English is a Germanic language. Take + the English words house, father, mother, brother, water, here, is, etc. + The German words which mean the same are <i>haus, vater, mutter, bruder, + wasser, hier, ist</i>. It is very plain that the two languages must have + come from the same source. + </p> + + <p> + There are professors in European colleges who have spent their whole lives + studying this relationship of languages. These men have proved not only + that almost all the languages of Europe are related, but that the language + of the Persians, and that of some of the old tribes in Hindustan also + belong to one great family of tongues. Let us take the word for mother. In + one of the ancient languages of Hindustan it was <i>matr</i>; in the + Greek, it was <i>mātār</i>; in the Latin <i>mater</i> (mätār); + in the Bohemian <i>matka</i>; in the German <i>mu̠tter</i>; in the + Spanish mädre; in the Norwegian <i>mōder</i>, etc. This great + family of languages is called “the Indo-European group,” because the + tribes which spoke them, originally inhabitants of Asia, have scattered + all over India and Europe. The only peoples in Europe whose languages do + not belong to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, the Basques + (Bȧsks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, the Hungarians, the Gypsies, and + the Turks. + </p> + + <p> + The descendants of the old Celtic peoples have not kept up the Celtic + languages to any great extent. The reason for this is that first the + Romans and then the Germanic tribes conquered most of the lands where the + Celts lived. In this way, Spain, Portugal, France, and Belgium now talk + languages that have grown from the Latin, the language of Rome. The Celts + in the British Isles now all talk English, because the English, who were a + Germanic people, conquered them and forced them to use their language. + Patriotic Irishmen and Welshmen (who are descendants of the Celtic tribes) + are trying to keep alive the Irish and Welsh languages, but all of the + young people in the British Isles learn English, and they are generally + content to talk only one language. The other Celtic languages which have + existed within the last one hundred years are the Gaelic of the north of + Scotland, the Breton of western France, and the Cornish of the + southwestern corner of England. + </p> + + <p> + The Germanic languages (sometimes called Teutonic) are found in three + parts of Europe today. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian, and + Swedish, belong to this family. Western Austria and Germany form, with + Holland and Western Belgium, a second group of German-speaking nations. + (The people of eastern Belgium are Celts and talk a kind of French.) The + third part of Europe which uses a Germanic language is England. + </p> + + <p> + In an earlier chapter we learned how the Celts in France, Spain, and + Portugal gave up their own languages and used the Latin. Latin languages + today are found also in the southern and western parts of Switzerland, all + over Italy, and in Roumania. + </p> + + <p> + We learned also about the Slavs who lived to the eastward of the Germanic + tribes. When the Germans moved west, these Slavs followed them and + occupied the lands which had just been left vacant. In this way, we find + Slavic peoples talking Slavic (sometimes called Slavonic) languages in the + parts of Europe to the east and south of the Germans. More than half of + the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary are Slavs, although the Austrians + proper are a Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not belong to the + Indo-European family at all. The Serbians and Montenegrins are Slavs. The + Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians speak a Slavic language and + have some Slavic blood in them, although, as will be pointed out later, + originally they did not belong to the Slavic family. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map01"></a> +<img src="images/map01.jpg" width="700" height="468" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Map: Distribution Of Peoples According to Relationship</p> +</div> + + <p> + The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great Indo-European family of + tribes, but their languages are not closely related to any of the four + great branches. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map02"></a> +<img src="images/map02.jpg" width="699" height="467" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Distribution Of Languages</p> +</div> + + <p> + The two maps on pages <a href="#map01">65</a> and <a href="#map02">66</a> + are very much alike and yet in some respects very different. The first + shows how Europe is largely inhabited by peoples of the great + Indo-European family. Those who are descended from the Celts are marked + Celtic even though today they have given up their Celtic language, as have + the Cornish in England and the inhabitants of Spain, France, eastern + Belgium, and the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians are marked as not + belonging to the great family, although they speak a Slavic language. + </p> + + <p> + In the <a href="#map02">second map</a>, the distribution of languages + is shown. You will notice that the Celtic languages are found only in + small parts of the British Isles, and in the westernmost point of France. + The Bulgarians are here marked Slavic because their language belongs to + that branch. One of the most curious things about the two maps is the + presence of little spots like islands, particularly made up of + German-speaking peoples. There are several of these little islands in + Russia. They have been there for nearly two hundred years. A traveler + crossing the southern part of Russia is astonished to find districts as + large as an American county where not a word of Russian is spoken. <a + name="page69" id="page69"></a>The people are all of Germanic blood, + although they live under the government of Russia. In the same way, there + is a large German island in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania + and another between the Slovaks and Poles at the foot of the Carpathian + Mountains. There is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania also, + entirely surrounded by Germans and Roumanians. The table on the opposite + page shows the main branches of the Indo-European family that are found in + Europe.<br/><br/> + </p> + + <table summary="A tree diagram of languages by family"> + <caption> + The Indo-European Family of Languages + </caption> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>a</i>) Hindu branch + </td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>b</i>) Persian branch + </td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>c</i>) Celtic branch + </td> + <td> + Gāe′lic (northern Scotland)<br /> Welsh<br /> Cornish (dead)<br /> + Erse (Irish)<br /> Brē′ton (western France) + </td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>d</i>) Latin branch + </td> + <td> + Portuguese<br /> Spanish<br /> French<br /> Romansh (southeastern + Switzerland)<br /> Italian<br /> Roumanian + </td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>e</i>) Germanic branch + </td> + <td> + Norwegian<br /> Danish<br /> Swedish<br /> Dutch<br /> Flemish (Belgium)<br /> + Low German<br /> High German<br /> English + </td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>f</i>) Slavonic branch + </td> + <td> + Russian<br /> Polish<br /> Lettish<br /> Lithuanian<br /> Old Prussian + (dead)<br /> Czech (Bohemian [pronounced Chĕck])<br /> Slō + vak′ (northern Hungary)<br /> Serbian<br /> Bulgarian<br /> Slove′nian + (southwestern Austria)<br /> Crōa′tian (southern Austria)<br /> + Ruthē′nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, and southwestern + Russia) + </td> + <td> + <br /> }<br /> } Baltic states of Russia<br /> }<br /> + </td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>g</i>) Greek + </td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td> + (<i>h</i>) Albā′nian + </td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p class="p2"> + The main source of the present trouble in Europe is that kings and their + ministers and generals, like their ancestors, the feudal lords, never + considered the wishes of the people when they changed the boundaries of + kingdoms. Austria-Hungary is a good example. The Austrians and Hungarians + were two very different peoples. They had nothing in common and did not + wish to be joined under one ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no + son to succeed him, and his only daughter was married to the archduke of + Austria. This archduke of Austria (a descendant of the counts of Hapsburg) + was also emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, although the Bohemian + people had not chosen him as their ruler. The Hungarians, before their + union with Austria, had conquered certain Slavic tribes and part of the + Roumanians. Later Austria annexed part of Poland. In this way, the empire + became a jumble of languages and nationalities. When its congress is + called together, the official announcement is read in eleven different + languages. Forty-one different dialects are talked in an area not as large + as that of the state of Texas. + </p> + + <p> + We must remember that besides the literary or written languages of each + country there are several spoken dialects. A man from Devonshire, England, + meeting a man from Yorkshire in the north of the same country, has + difficulty in understanding many words in his speech. The language of the + south of Scotland also is English, although it is very different from the + English that we in America are taught. A Frenchman from the Pyrenees + Mountains was taught in school to speak and read the French language as we + find it in books. Yet besides this, he knows a dialect that is talked by + the country people around him, that can not be understood by the peasants + from the north of France near the Flemish border. The man who lives in the + east of France can understand the dialect of the Italians from the west of + Italy much better than he can that of the Frenchman from the Atlantic + coast. + </p> + + <p> + In America, with people moving around from place to place by means of + stage coach, steamboat, and railroad, there has been no great chance to + develop dialects, although we can instantly tell the New Englander, the + southerner, or the westerner by his speech. It should be remembered that + in Europe, for centuries, the people were kept on their own farms or in + their own towns. The result of this was that each little village or city + has its own peculiar language. It is said that persons who have studied + such language matters carefully, after conversing with a man from Europe, + can tell within thirty miles where his home used to be in the old country. + There are no sharply marked boundaries of languages. The dialects of + France shade off into those of Spain on the one hand and into those of the + Flemish and the Italian on the other. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map03"></a> +<img src="images/map03.jpg" width="701" height="469" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 600 B.C.</p> +</div> + + <p> + The British Isles furnish us with four or five different nationalities. + The people of the north of Ireland are really lowland Scotch of Germanic + descent, while the other three-fourths of Ireland is inhabited by Celts. + To make the difference all the greater, the Celts are almost universally + Catholics, while the Scotch-Irish are Protestants. The people of the north + of Scotland are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection in language or + blood with the people of the southern half of that country. The Welsh are + a Celtic people, having no relationship with the English, who are a + Germanic people. The Welsh and the Cornish of Cornwall and the people of + highland Scotland are the descendants of the ancient Britons and Gaels who + inhabited the island when Julius Caesar and the Romans first landed there. + Then five hundred years afterwards, as has already been told, came great + swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), who drove the Britons to + the west and north, and settled the country now known as England. After + these, you will recall, came a number of Danes, another Germanic people, + who settled the east coast of England. Two hundred years later, the + Normans came from France. These Normans had been living in France for a + century or two, but had come originally from Norway. Normans, Danes, + Angles, and Saxons all mixed to make the modern English. Together, they + fought the Scotch, the Welsh and the Irish, and having conquered them, + oppressed them harshly for many centuries. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map04"></a> +<img src="images/map04.jpg" width="700" height="466" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe, 975 A.D.</p> +</div> + + <p> + But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe that one finds the worst + jumble of nationalities. Six hundred years before Christ, the Greeks and + their rougher cousins, the Thracians, Macedonians, and Dacians inhabited + this district. When one of the Roman Emperors conquered the Dacians about + 100 A.D., he planted a large Roman colony north of the Danube River. Then + came the West Goths, who swept into this country, but soon left it for the + west of Europe. Next came the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the + modern Serbs. Following these, came a large tribe which did not belong to + the Indo-European family, but was distantly related to the Finns and the + Turks. These people were called the Volgars, for they came from the + country around the River Volga. Before long, we find them called the + Bulgars. (The letters B and V are often interchanged in the languages of + south-eastern Europe. The people of western Europe used to call the + country of the Serbs Servia, but the Serbs objected, saying that the word + <i>servio</i>, in Latin, means “to be a slave,” and that as they were not + slaves, they wanted their country to be called by its true name, Serbia. + The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the letter B as though it were + V.) + </p> + + <p> + A strange thing happened to the Volgars or Bulgars. They completely gave + up their Asiatic language and adopted a new one, which became in time the + purest of the Slavic tongues. They intermarried with the Slavs around them + and adopted Slavic names. They founded a flourishing nation which lay + between the kingdom of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Constantinople. + </p> + + <p> + North of the Bulgars lay the country of the Roumani (ro͞o mä′nï). + These people claimed to be descended from the Roman Emperor’s colonists, + as was previously told, but the reason their language is so much like the + Italian is that a large number of people from the north of Italy moved + into the country nearly a thousand years after the first Roman colonists + settled there. From 900 to 1300 A.D., south-eastern Europe was inhabited + by Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus19"></a> +<img src="images/19.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Typical Bulgarian Family</p> +</div> + + <p> + A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted here, the Albanians. (<a + href="#map04">See map</a>) This tribe is descended from the Illyrians, + who inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even before the time + of the Roman Empire. Their language, like the Greek, is a branch of the + Indo-European family which is neither Latin, Celtic, Germanic, nor Slavic. + They are distant cousins of the Italians and are also slightly related to + the Greeks. They are a wild, fierce, uncivilized people, and have never + known the meaning of law and order. Robbery and warfare are common. Each + village is always fighting with the people of the neighboring towns. The + Albanians, or Skipetars (skïp′ĕtars) as they call + themselves, were Christians until they were conquered by the Turks about + 1460. Since that time, the great majority of them have been staunch + believers in the Mohammedan religion. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Where did the great Indo-European family of languages have its + beginning? + </li> + <li> + Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out? + </li> + <li> + What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France? + </li> + <li> + What are the three parts of Europe where Germanic languages are + spoken? + </li> + <li> + In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are descended from + the Latin? + </li> + <li> + Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven different peoples? + </li> + <li> + Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap06"></a>Chapter VI.<br/> +“The Terrible Turk”</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The Greek Empire at Constantinople.—The invading Mohammedans.—The + Ottoman Turks.—The fall of Constantinople.—The enslaving of + the Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and Roumanians.—One little + part of Serbia unconquered.—The further conquests of the Turks.—The + attack on Vienna.—John Sobieski to the rescue.—The waning of + the Turkish empire.—The Spanish Jews.—The jumble of languages + and peoples in southeastern Europe. + </p> + + <p> + In the <a href="#chap05">last chapter</a>, we referred briefly to the Greek + empire at Constantinople. This city was originally called Byzantium, and + was a flourishing Greek commercial center six hundred years before Christ. + Eleven hundred years after this, a Roman emperor named Constantine decided + that he liked Byzantium better than Rome. Accordingly, he moved the + capital of the empire to the Greek city, and renamed it Constantinopolis + (the word <i>polis</i> means “city” in Greek). Before long, we find the + Roman empire divided into two parts, the capital of one at Rome, of the + other at Constantinople. This eastern government was continued by the + Greeks nearly one thousand years after the government of the western + empire had been seized by the invading Germanic tribes. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus20"></a> +<img src="images/20.jpg" width="337" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Turkish Sultan before Constantinople</p> +</div> + + <p> + For years, this Greek empire at Constantinople had been obliged to fight + hard against the Mohammedans who came swarming across the fertile plains + of Mesopotamia (mĕs′ō pō tā′ mĭ + ā) and Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the district lying between the + Tigris (tī′grĭs) and Euphrates (ūfrā′tēz) + Rivers. Its name in Greek means “between the rivers.”) The fiercest of the + Mohammedan tribes, the warlike Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For + several years, they thundered at the gates of Constantinople, while the + Greek Empire grew feebler and feebler. + </p> + + <p> + At last in 1453, their great cannon made a breach in the walls, and the + Turks poured through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the past, and all of + southeastern Europe lay at the mercy of the invading Moslems (another name + for “Mohammedans”). The Turks did not drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, + Serbians, and Albanians, but settled down among them as the ruling, + military class. They strove to force these peoples to give up Christianity + and turn Mohammedans, but were successful only in the case of the + Skipetars of Albania. The Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and + Roumanians remained where they had been, but were oppressed by the + newcomers. + </p> + + <p> + For more than two hundred years after the capture of Constantinople, the + Turks pushed their conquests farther and farther into Europe. The entire + coast of the Black Sea fell into their hands. All of Greece, all of + Bulgaria, and all of Roumania became part of their empire. Of the kingdom + of Serbia, one small province remained unconquered. Up in the mountains + near the coast of the Adriatic gathered the people of one county of the + Serbian kingdom. As the Turks attacked them, they retreated higher and + higher up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones down upon the + invaders. Finally, the Turk became disgusted, and concluded that “the game + was not worth the candle.” Thus the little nation of Montenegro was + formed, composed of Serbians who never submitted to the Ottoman rule. (The + inhabitants of this small country call it Tzernagorah (tzẽr nä + gō′ra); the Italians call it Montenegro. Both of these names + mean “Dark Mountain.”) + </p> + + <p> + Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks pushed on, gaining control + of the greater part of the kingdom of Hungary. About 1682, they were + pounding at the forts around Vienna. The heroic king of Poland, John + Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ), came to the rescue + of the Austrian emperor with an army of Poles and Germans and completely + defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and ended any further advance of the + Turkish rule into Europe. (The <a href="#map05">map on page 82</a> + shows the high water mark of the Turkish conquests.) + </p> + + <p> + It must be remembered that the original inhabitants of the conquered lands + were still living where they always had lived. The Turks were very few in + number compared with the millions of people who inhabited their empire and + paid them tribute. Many wars were caused by this conquest, but it was two + hundred and thirty years before the Christian peoples won back their + territory. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map05"></a> +<img src="images/map05.jpg" width="700" height="465" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Southeastern Europe 1690 A.D.</p> +</div> + + <p> + By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun to win back part of their + kingdom. By 1698, almost all of Hungary and Transylvania was free from + Turkish rule. It will be recalled that a certain Count of Hapsburg had + become Emperor of Germany, and when we say Germany, we include Austria, + which had become the home of the Hapsburgs. It was shortly after this that + the Hapsburg family came to be lords of Hungary also, through the marriage + of one of their emperors with the only daughter of the king of that + country. (See <a href="#page69">page 69</a>.) + </p> + + <p> + In this way, when the province of Bukowina and the territory known as the + Banat, just north of the Danube and west of what is now Roumania, were + reconquered from the Turks, it was the joint kingdom to which they were + attached. (Bukowina has never been a part of Hungary. It is still a crown + land, or county subject to the emperor of Austria personally.) + </p> + + <p> + During the 15th century, the southeastern part of Europe came to be + inhabited by a still different people. Not long after Ferdinand and + Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had conquered the Moorish kingdom + of Granada (see <a href="#chap02">Chapter II</a>) that used to stretch across + the southern half of Spain, the Spaniards decided to drive out of their + country all “unbelievers,” that is, all who were not Christians of the + Catholic faith. (This happened in 1492, the same year that they sent + Columbus to America.) The Moors retreated into Africa, which was their + former home, but the millions of Spanish Jews had no homeland to which to + return. In the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, knowing them + to be prosperous and well-behaved citizens, invited them to enter his + land. They did so by hundreds of thousands. + </p> + + <p> + The descendants of these people are to be found today throughout the + Balkan peninsula, though mainly in the large cities. They are so numerous + in Constantinople that four newspapers are published there in the Spanish + language, but printed in Hebrew characters. The city of Salonika, a + prosperous seaport of 140,000 people, which used to belong to Turkey but + now is part of Greece, has over 50,000 of these Jews. They readily learn + other tongues, and many of them can talk in four or five languages besides + their native Spanish, which they still use in the family circle. + </p> + + <p> + Constantinople (called Stamboul by the Turks) is a polyglot city, that is, + a place of many languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, Italians are + all found mingled together. + </p> + + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus21"></a> +<img src="images/21.jpg" width="401" height="261" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Scene in Salonicka</p> +</div> + + <p id="page85"> + The main source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula is that the races and + nationalities are so jumbled together that it is almost impossible to say + which land should belong to which nation. Take the case of Macedonia (the + district just northwest of the Aegean Sea). It is inhabited largely by + Bulgarians, and yet there are so many Greeks and Serbs mixed in with the + former that at the close of the last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia + both claimed it as belonging to them because of the “prevailing + nationality of its inhabitants!” In other words, the Serbians claimed that + the inhabitants of Macedonia were largely Serbs, the Greeks were positive + that its people were largely Greeks, while Bulgaria is very resentful + today because the land was not given to her, on the ground that almost all + its inhabitants are Bulgarians! + </p> + + <p> + Religious and racial hatreds have had a great deal to do with making the + Balkan peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right in the center of + Bulgaria, for example, speaking the same language, dressing exactly alike, + doing business with each other on an equal footing, are to be found the + native Bulgarian and the descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one + goes to the Greek Orthodox Church to worship and the other to the + Mohammedan Mosque. With memories of hundreds of years of wrong and + oppression behind them, Bulgarians and Turks hate and despise each other + with a fierce intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan states, with their + seething pot of racial and religious hatred, and turn to other causes of + European wars. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What became of the Greeks when the Turks captured Constantinople? + </li> + <li> + Why could one county of Serbia resist the Turks? + </li> + <li> + How long after the fall of Constantinople were the Turks threatening + Vienna? + </li> + <li> + Explain how Constantinople has people of so many different + nationalities. + </li> + <li> + Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap07"></a>Chapter VII.<br/> +The Rise of Modern Nations</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + How the peasants looked upon war.—War the opportunity of the + fighting men.—The decreasing power of barons.—The growth of + royal power.—How four little kingdoms became Spain.—Other + kingdoms of Europe.—The rise of Russia.—The Holy Roman Empire.—The + electors.—The rise of Brandenburg.—The elector of Brandenburg + becomes King of Prussia.—Frederick the Great.—The seizure of + Silesia and the consequent wars. + </p> + + <p> + You have already been shown how in the early days of the feudal system, + the lords, with their squires, knights, and fighting men made up a class + of the population whose only trade was war, and how the poor peasants were + compelled to raise crops and live stock enough to feed both themselves and + the fighting men. These peasants had no love for war, as war resulted only + in their losing their possessions in case their country was invaded by the + enemy. The fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing to do unless war + was going on, and as those who were not killed returned from a war with + rich plunder in case they were victorious, they were always looking for a + chance to start trouble with some neighboring country. + </p> + + <p> + In those days, kings cared little what their nobles did, so long as the + nobles furnished them with fighting men in times of war. As a result, one + county in a certain kingdom would often be at war with a neighboring + county. The fighting man either was killed in battle or he came out of it + with increased glory and plunder, but the peasants and the common people + had nothing to gain by war and everything to lose. As we have seen, force + ruled the world, and the common people had no voice in their government. + The workers were looked down upon by the members of the fighting class, + who never did a stroke of work themselves and considered honest toil as + degrading. In fact, as one writer has said, the only respectable trade in + Europe in those days was what we today would call highway robbery. + </p> + + <h3> + France and England in the 15th Century + </h3> + + <p> + Gradually in most of the European countries the king was able to put down + the power of his nobles and make himself master over the whole nation. In + this way a strong central power grew up in France. After the death of + Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1477, no noble dared to question + the leadership of the king of France. The same thing was true in England + after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, which resulted in the death of King + Richard III and the setting of the Tudor family on the throne. + </p> + + <h3> + Spain and Other Kingdoms + </h3> + + <p> + Spain had been divided into four little kingdoms: Leon, Castile, Aragon, + and Granada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation marriage of + Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile and Leon joined the three + Christian kingdoms into one, and after 1492, when the Moors were defeated + and Granada annexed to the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain became + one kingdom. About this time, also, there had grown up a strong kingdom of + Hungary, a kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of Poland, and one of Denmark. + Norway was ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate kingdom. In + Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had built up a strong power which + was still further strengthened by Czar Peter the Great (1690-1725). + </p> + + <h3> + The Holy Roman Empire + </h3> + + <p> + The rest of the continent of Europe, with the exception of the Turkish + Empire, formed what was called the Holy Roman Empire, a rule which had + been founded by Charlemagne (A.D. 800), the great Frankish monarch, who + had been crowned in Rome by the pope as ruler of the western world. (The + name “Holy Roman Empire” was not used by Charlemagne. We first hear of it + under Otto I, the Saxon emperor, who was crowned in 962.) + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map06"></a> +<img src="images/map06.jpg" width="701" height="442" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Empire of Charlemagne</p> +</div> + + <p> + This Holy Roman Empire included all of what is now Germany (except the + eastern third of Prussia), all of what is now Bohemia, Austria (but not + Hungary), and all of Italy except the part south of Naples. There were + times when part of France and all of the low countries (now Belgium and + Holland) also belonged to the Empire. (The mountaineers of Switzerland won + their independence from the Empire in the fourteenth century, and formed a + little republic.) See <a href="#map07">map “Europe in 1540.”</a> + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map07"></a> +<a href="images/map07.jpg"> +<img src="images/map07.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration: " /></a> +<p class="caption">Europe in 1540</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the emperor did not necessarily + succeed his father as ruler. There were seven (afterwards nine) “electors” + who, at the death of the ruling monarch, met to elect his successor. Three + of these electors were archbishops, one was king of Bohemia, and the + others were counts of large counties in Germany like Hanover and + Brandenburg. It frequently happened that the candidate chosen was a member + of the family of the dead emperor, and there were three or four families + which had many rulers chosen from among their number. The most famous of + these families was that of the Counts of Hapsburg, from whom the present + emperor of Austria is descended. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus22"></a> +<img src="images/22.jpg" width="340" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Louis XIV</p> +</div> + + <p> + This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong government, as the kingdoms of + England and France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, Saxony, and Bavaria + all were subjects of the emperor, as were many powerful counts. These men + were jealous of the emperor’s power, and he did not dare govern them as + strictly as the king of France ruled his nobles. + </p> + + <h3> + France in the 18th Century + </h3> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus23"></a> +<img src="images/23.jpg" width="300" height="391" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough</p> +</div> + + <p> + During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by the + ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to increase + their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful + kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great + part of what is Belgium and Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom + the part of Germany between the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vōzh) + Mountains. Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman + Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle + of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough, aided by the + emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion of the French. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus24"></a> +<img src="images/24.jpg" width="275" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Great Elector of Brandenburg</p> +</div> + + <h3> + Prussia + </h3> + + <p> + The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will + recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count + was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this + county was Berlin. It so happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, + of the family of Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The + little county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of + these counts, called “the Great Elector,” had added to Brandenburg the + greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have + the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man. He happened + to visit King William III of England, and was very much offended because + during the interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the + elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was + straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed + to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The + question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself “King of + Brandenburg,” for Brandenburg was part of the Empire, and the emperor + would not allow it. It had happened some one hundred years before, that, + through his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of + Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as East + Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea. Between + this and the territory of Brandenburg lay the district known as West + Prussia, which was part of the Kingdom of Poland. However, Prussia lay + outside the boundaries of the Empire, and the emperor had nothing to say + about what went on there. Therefore, the elector sent notice to all the + kings and princes of Europe that after this he was to be known as the + “King of Prussia.” It was a situation somewhat like the one we have + already referred to, when the kings of England were independent monarchs + and yet subjects of the kings of France because they were also dukes of + Normandy. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus25"></a> +<img src="images/25.jpg" width="284" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Frederick The Great</p> +</div> + + <p> + The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and + more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron, + and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall + soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over + six feet tall to serve in his famous regiment of Guards. He further + increased the size of the Prussian kingdom. + </p> + + <p> + His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most remarkable + fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had been brought up + under strict discipline by his father. The old king had been insistent + that his son should be no weakling. It is told that one day, finding + Frederick playing upon a flute, he seized the instrument and snapped it in + twain over his son’s shoulder. The young Frederick, under this harsh + training, became a fit leader of a military nation. When his father died + and left him a well-filled treasury and a wonderfully drilled army, he was + fired with the ambition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, as has been + said, was made up of a great many little counties, each ruled by its petty + prince or duke, all owing homage, in a general way, to the ruler of + Austria, who still was supposed to be the head of the Holy Roman Empire. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map08"></a> +<img src="images/map08.jpg" width="700" height="471" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia, 1400-1806</p> +</div> + + <p> + This empire was not a real nation, but a collection of many different + nationalities which had little sympathy with each other. The ruler of + Austria was also king of Bohemia and of Hungary, but neither country was + happy at being governed by a German ruler. Then, too, the Croatians, + Serbs, Slovenes, and Slovaks were unhappy at being ruled, first by the + Hungarians and then by the emperor, as they were Slavic peoples who wished + their independence. It so happened that about the time that Frederick + became king of Prussia in place of his father, the head of the House of + Austria died, leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria Theresa, to rule + the big empire. Frederick decided that he could easily defeat the + disorganized armies of Austria, so he announced to the world that the rich + province of Silesia was henceforth to be his and that he proposed to take + it by force of arms. Naturally, this brought on a fierce war with Austria, + but in the end, Frederick’s well-trained troops, his store of money, and + above all, his expert military ability made the Prussians victorious, and + at the close of the fighting, almost all of Silesia remained a part of the + kingdom of Prussia. The Austrians, however, were not satisfied, and two + more wars were fought before they finally gave up trying to recover the + stolen state. Frederick remained stronger than ever as a result of his + victories. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source of loss to a + nation in general? + </li> + <li> + How was it that Spain became one nation? + </li> + <li> + What did Peter the Great do for Russia? + </li> + <li> + Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings? + </li> + <li> + What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France? + </li> + <li> + What effect had the training of his father upon the character of + Frederick the Great? + </li> + <li> + Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap08"></a>Chapter VIII.<br/> +The Fall of the Two Kingdoms</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The Poles, a divided nation.—The three partitions.—Wars and + revolts as a result.—The disappearance of Lithuania.—The + growing power of the king of France.—An extravagant and corrupt + court.—Peasants cruelly taxed and oppressed.—Bankruptcy at + last.—The meeting of the three estates.—The third estate + defies the king.—The fall of the Bastille.—The flight and + capture of the king.—The king beheaded.—Other kings alarmed.—Valmy + saves the revolution.—The reign of terror. + </p> + + <p> + In the flat country to the northeast of Austria-Hungary and east of + Prussia lay the kingdom of Poland, the largest country in Europe with the + exception of Russia. The Poles, as has been said before, were a Slavic + people, distant cousins of the Russians and Bohemians. They had a strong + nobility or upper class, but these nobles were jealous of each other, and + as a result, the country was torn apart by many warring factions. The + condition of the working class was very miserable. The nobles did not + allow them any privileges. They were serfs, that is to say, practically + slaves, who had to give up to their masters the greater part of the crops + that they raised. In the council of the Polish nobles, no law could be + passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a result of this jealousy + between factions, the Poles could not be induced to obey any one leader, + and thus, divided, were easy to conquer. + </p> + + <p> + Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that he was separated from his + land in East Prussia by the county of West Prussia, which was part of + Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria Theresa of Austria, and to the + Empress Catharine II of Russia that they each take a slice of Poland. This + was accordingly done, in the year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist + the three great powers around her, and the other kings of Europe, who had + been greedily annexing land wherever they could get it, stood by without a + protest. Some twenty years later, Prussia and Russia each again annexed a + large part of the remainder of Poland, and two years after this, the three + powers divided up among them all that was left of the unhappy kingdom. The + Poles fought violently against this last partition, but they were not + united and were greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three powers. + </p> + + <p> + This great crime against a nation was the result of the military system; + and this in turn was the result of the feudal system, which made the king, + as commander-in-chief of the army, the supreme ruler of his country. The + men in the Prussian and Austrian armies had no desire to fight and conquer + the poor Poles. Victory meant nothing to them. They gained no advantage + from it. To the kings who divided up the countries it simply meant an + enlargement of their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes to them, and more + men to draw on for their armies. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus26"></a> +<img src="images/26.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Catharine II</p> +</div> + + <p> + Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles for their country, this + wrongful tearing apart has made their national spirit all the stronger. + There have been revolts and bloody wars, caused by Polish uprisings, time + and time again, and the Poles will never be satisfied until their unhappy + country is once more united. + </p> + + <p> + To the northeast of the Poles live the Lithuanians, whose country had been + annexed to the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had married the + daughter of the king of Poland, followed his father-in-law on the Polish + throne. Lithuania fell to Russia’s share in the division, so that its + people only changed masters. They are a distinct nation, however, + possessing a language and literature of their own, and having no desire to + be ruled by either Poles or Russians. If they were to receive justice, + they would form a country by themselves, lying between Poland and Russia + proper. + </p> + + <h3> + The Downfall of the French Monarchy + </h3> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus27"></a> +<img src="images/27.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Courtier of time of Louis XIV</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the meantime, a great change had come about in France. There, for + hundreds of years, the power of the king had been growing greater, until + by the eighteenth century, there was no one in the country who could + oppose him. He had great fortresses and prisons where he sent those who + had offended him, shutting them up without a trial and not even letting + their families know where they had been taken. The peasants and working + classes had been ground down under taxes which grew heavier and heavier. + The king spent millions of dollars on his palaces, on his armies, on his + courts. Money was stolen by court officials. Paris was the gayest capital + in the world, the home of fashion, art, and frivolity and the poor + peasants paid the bills. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus28"></a> +<img src="images/28.jpg" width="400" height="317" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Taking of The Bastille</p> +</div> + + <p> + For years, there had been mutterings. The people were ripe for a revolt, + but they had no weapons, and there was no one to lead them. At last, came + a time when there was no money in the royal treasury. After all the waste + and corruption, nothing was left to pay the army and keep up the expenses + of the government. One minister of finance after another tried to devise + some scheme whereby the country might meet its debts, but without success. + The costly wars and wasteful extravagances of the past hundred years were + at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, the king summoned a meeting + of representative men from all over the kingdom. There were three classes + represented, the nobles, the clergy, and what was called “the third + estate,” which meant merchants, shopkeepers, and the poor gentlemen. A + great statesman appeared, a man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, the + third estate defied the king, and the temper of the people was such that + the king dared not force them to do his will. In the midst of these + exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris prison, the Bastille. They + took it by storm, and tore it to the ground. This happened on the + fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the French still celebrate as the + birthday of their nation’s liberty. All over France the common people rose + in revolt. The soldiers in the army would no longer obey their officers. + The king was closely watched, and when he attempted to flee to Germany was + brought back and thrown into prison. Many of the nobles, in terror, fled + from the country. Thus began what is known as the French Revolution. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus29"></a> +<img src="images/29.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Palace of Versailles</p> +</div> + + <p> + As soon as the king was thrown into prison and the people of France took + charge of their government, a panic arose throughout the courts of Europe. + Other kings, alarmed over the fate of the king of France, began to fear + for themselves. They, too, had taxed and oppressed their subjects. They + felt that this revolt of the French people must be put down, and the king + of France set back upon his throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt + might take place in their countries as well. Accordingly, the king of + Prussia, the king of England, and the emperor of Austria all made war on + the new French Republic. They proposed to overwhelm the French by force of + arms and compel them to put back their king upon his throne. + </p> + + <p> + Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these kings had known what the + object of this war was, they would have had very little sympathy with it, + but for years they had been trained to obey their officers, who in turn + obeyed their generals, who in turn obeyed the orders of the kings. The + common soldiers were like sheep, in that they did not think for + themselves, but followed their leaders. They were not allowed to know the + truth concerning this attack on France. They did not know the French + language, and had no way of finding out the real situation, for there were + no public schools in these countries, and very few people knew how to read + the newspapers. The newspapers, moreover, were controlled by the + governments, and were allowed to print only what favored the cause of the + kings. + </p> + + <p> + The French, however, knew the meaning of the war. A young French poet from + Strasbourg on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song which was first sung in + Paris by the men of Marseilles, and thus has come to be called “La + Marseillaise.” It is the cry of a crushed and oppressed people against + foreign tyrants who would again enslave them. It fired the French army + with a wonderful enthusiasm, and untrained as they were, they beat back + the invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and saved the French + Republic. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus30"></a> +<img src="images/30.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Reign of Terror</p> +</div> + + <p> + The period known as “the reign of terror” now began in earnest. A faction + of the extreme republican party got control of the government, and kept it + by terrorizing the more peaceable citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles + had put upon the lower classes for so many hundred years were brutally + avenged. The king was executed, as were most of the nobles who had not + fled from the country. For three or four years, the gutters of the + principal French cities ran blood. Then the better sense of the nation + came to the front and the people settled down. A fairly good government + was organized, and the executions ceased. Still the kings of Europe would + not recognize the new republic. There was war against France for the next + twenty years on the part of England, and generally two or three other + countries as well. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus31"></a> +<img src="images/31.jpg" width="399" height="266" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The First Singing of ‘The Marseillaise’</p> +</div> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors? + </li> + <li> + Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to prevent the + partition of Poland? + </li> + <li> + How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland? + </li> + <li> + What things could the king of France do which would not be tolerated + in the United States today? + </li> + <li> + Why did the people of France submit to the rule of the king? + </li> + <li> + Why did the king call together the three “estates”? + </li> + <li> + Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July? + </li> + <li> + Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king of France? + </li> + <li> + What was the cause of the reign of terror? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap09"></a>Chapter IX.<br/> +The Little Man from the Common People</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The young Corsican.—The war in Italy.—Italy a battlefield for + centuries.—The victories of Bonaparte.—The first consul.—The + empire.—The French sweep over Europe.—Kings and emperors + beaten and deposed.—The fatal Russian campaign.—The first + abdication.—The return from Elba.—The battle of Waterloo.—The + feudal lords once more triumphant. + </p> + + <p> + And now there came to the front one of the most remarkable characters in + all history. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little man from the island of + Corsica, of Italian parentage, but a French citizen, for the island had + been forcibly The annexed to France shortly before his birth. As a young + lieutenant in the army, he had seen the storming of the Bastille. Later + on, being in charge of the cannon which defended the House of Parliament, + he had saved one of the numerous governments set up during this period. A + Paris mob was trying to storm this building, as they had the castle of the + king. As a reward, he had been put in charge of the French army in Italy, + which was engaged in fighting the Austrians. + </p> + + <p> + In order to understand the situation it is necessity at this point to + devote some attention to the past history of the Italian peninsula. + </p> + + <p> + Italy had not been a united country since the days of the Roman Empire. + The southern part of the peninsula had formed, with Sicily, a small nation + called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The northern part had belonged to + the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Franks, and the Holy Roman Empire in + turn. The Italian people wanted to become one nation, but they were + divided up among many little princes, each with his separate dominions. + The cities of Genoa and Venice had each formed a republic, which was + strong on the sea only, for both cities had large navies and had acquired + practically all their wealth by their trade with Constantinople, Egypt, + and the far East. In 1796 the Hapsburg family held the control of northern + Italy except the lands around the city of Venice and the county of + Piedmont. The latter formed a separate kingdom with the island of + Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined with the southern end of the + peninsula. + </p> + + <p> + Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, Franks, Huns, Lombards, + Germans, Austrians, French, and Spaniards had fought their battles for the + control of the civilized world. (See the following maps.) At one time, the + Austrian House of Hapsburg controlled the greater part of the peninsula. + This was especially true when Charles V was elected emperor of the Holy + Roman Empire. As a Hapsburg, he was ruler of Austria. As a descendant of + Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of the Low Countries (what + is now Holland and Belgium). He was also king of Spain, being the oldest + living grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. When he became ruler of the two + Sicilies, and defeated the French king for the control of northern Italy, + there were only four powers in Europe which were not under his sway: + Russia, Turkey, Poland, and England. (See map.) + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map09"></a> +<img src="images/map09.jpg" width="477" height="700" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Italy in 525 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map10"></a> +<img src="images/map10.jpg" width="471" height="700" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Italy in 650 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map11"></a> +<img src="images/map11.jpg" width="472" height="700" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Italy in 1175 A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus32"></a> +<img src="images/32.jpg" width="338" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Charles the Fifth</p> +</div> + + <p> + Three hundred years after this, the Austrians were again invading Italy, + and at the time when Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had overrun and + controlled the entire valley of the Po. The cause of the war was still the + deposing of the French monarch. The Austrian armies were fighting to force + the people of France to take back the rule of the hated kings. The armies + of France, on the other hand, represented the rights of the people to + choose their own form of government. + </p> + + <p> + Of course the French, intoxicated by the success of the Revolution, were + eager to spread the republican form of government all over Europe. There + was a real possibility that they might do so, and the kings were fighting + in defense of their thrones. (The <a href="#map12">map</a> shows the + conquests of the new republic up to this time.) + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map12"></a> +<a href="images/map12.jpg"> +<img src="images/map12.jpg" width="700" height="480" alt="Illustration: " /></a> +<p class="caption">Europe in 1796</p> +</div> + + <p> + Such was the situation when young Bonaparte, twenty-six years of age, went + down into Italy to take command of the French army. The generals, many of + them as old as his father, began offering him advice, but he impatiently + waved them aside and announced that he was going to wage war on a plan + hitherto unheard of. He made good his boast, and after a short campaign in + which he inspired his ragged, hungry army to perform wonders in fighting, + he had driven the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken up the Republic + of Venice, and forced the emperor to make peace with France. After a + brilliant but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, Bonaparte returned + to France, where, as the popular military hero, he had little difficulty + in overthrowing the five Directors of the French government and having + himself elected “First Consul” or president of France. + </p> + + <p> + A new combination of nations now united against the republic, but + Bonaparte cut to pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time compelled + his enemies to make peace. He now proposed that the French people elect + him “emperor of the French” for life, and by an overwhelming vote they did + so. The empire was very different from the other empires and kingships of + Europe, since it was created by the vote of the people. The other monarchs + held their thrones by reason of their descent from the chiefs of the + plundering tribes which invaded Europe during the Dark Ages. By this time, + the kings had forgotten that they owed their power to the swords of their + fighting men, and there had grown up a doctrine called “The Divine Right + of Kings.” In other words, the kings claimed that God in his wisdom had + seen fit to make them rulers over these lands, and that they were + responsible to God alone. In this way they tried to make it appear that + any one who attempted to drive a king from his throne was opposed to the + will of Heaven. + </p> + + <p> + The victorious French, exulting in their newly-won freedom from the + tyranny of kings and nobles, were full of warlike pride in the wonderful + victories gained by their armies under the brilliant leadership of + Napoleon. (He dropped his last name, Bonaparte, when he was elected + emperor.) They swept over the greater part of Europe and helped to spread + the idea that the people had rights that all kings were bound to respect, + and that it was not necessary to be ruled by descendants of the old robber + chiefs. + </p> + + <p> + For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet defeat. He beat the Austrians and + Russians singly; he beat them combined. In two fierce battles, he crushed + the wonderful Prussian army, which had been trained in the military school + of Frederick the Great. He drove out the king of Spain, the king of the + Two Sicilies, the kings of several of the small German kingdoms. He made + one of his brothers king of Spain, another king of Holland, a third king + of Westphalia (part of western Germany). He set his brother-in-law on the + throne of Naples. He had his small son crowned king of Rome. He took away + from Prussia all of her territory except Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania. + and East and West Prussia. He reorganized the old Polish kingdom and kings + called it the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He forced Austria to give up all + claim to northern Italy. He annexed to France the land which is now + Belgium and Holland, and parts of western Germany and Italy. (See <a + href="#map13">map entitled “Europe in 1810.”</a>) + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map13"></a> +<a href="images/map13.jpg"> +<img src="images/map13.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration: +Messen" /></a> +<p class="caption">Europe in 1810</p> +</div> + + <p> + All over Europe, those of the people who had education enough to + understand what was going on, were astonished to see the old feudal kings + and princes driven from their thrones and their places taken by men sprung + from the common people. The father of the Bonapartes had been a poor + lawyer. Murat, Napoleon’s brother-in-law, king of South Italy, was the son + of an innkeeper. Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s generals, whom the Swedes + chose as their king, was likewise descended from the lower classes. In + nations where the working classes had never dreamed of opposing the rulers + there sprang up a new hope. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus33"></a> +<img src="images/33.jpg" width="254" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Emperor Napoleon in 1814</p> +</div> + + <p> + Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake. With an army of half a million + men, he invaded Russia, and established his headquarters in Moscow. The + Russian people, however, set fire themselves to their beautiful city, and + the French had to retreat a thousand miles through snow and ice, while + bands of Russian Cossacks swooped down on them from the rear and took a + hundred thousand prisoners. Encouraged by this terrible blow dealt the + French, the allied kings of Europe again united in one last effort to + drive the little Corsican from the throne of France. + </p> + + <p> + For two years Napoleon held them at bay, making up for his lack of + soldiers by his marvelous military skill, and by the enthusiasm which he + never failed to arouse in his troops. In 1814, however, surrounded by the + troops of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England, he had to confess himself + beaten. Even Bernadotte, his former general, led the Swedish troops + against him. The allied kings brought back in triumph to Paris the brother + of the king who had been executed there twenty-two years before, and set + him on the throne of France. Napoleon was banished to the little island of + Elba to the west of Italy, and the monarchs flattered themselves that + their troubles were ended. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus34"></a> +<img src="images/34.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Retreat from Moscow</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the spring of the following year, however, Napoleon escaped from his + island prison and landed on the southern coast of France. The king ordered + his soldiers to capture their former emperor. But the magic of his + presence was too much for them, and the men who had been sent to put him + into chains shed tears of joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves at + his feet. One week later, the king of France had fled a second time from + his country, and the man chosen by the people was once more at the head of + the government. + </p> + + <p> + All the kingdoms of Europe declared war against France, and four large + armies were headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not wait for them to + come. Gathering a big force, he marched rapidly north into the low + countries, where he met and defeated an army of Prussians. Another army of + English was advancing from Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the French + were defeated in one of the great battles of the world’s history. The + defeated Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned to the field to + the aid of their English allies, while the general whom Napoleon had sent + to follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent the emperor from being + crushed. A second time, Napoleon had to give up his crown, and a second + time King Louis XVIII was brought back into Paris and put upon the French + throne by the bayonets of foreign troops. The people had been crushed, + apparently, and the old feudal lords were once more in control. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus35"></a> +<img src="images/35.jpg" width="400" height="305" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Napoleon at Waterloo</p> +</div> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Had Italy ever been a nation? + </li> + <li> + What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See <a href="#map09">map</a>.) + </li> + <li> + What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See <a href="#map10">map</a>.) + </li> + <li> + What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman Empire? (See <a + href="#map11">map</a>.) + </li> + <li> + What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First Consul and + afterward Emperor? + </li> + <li> + What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers? + </li> + <li> + What was Napoleon’s great mistake? + </li> + <li> + Why did the people welcome him upon his return from Elba? + </li> + <li> + What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap10"></a>Chapter X.<br/> +A King-Made Map and its Trail of Wrongs</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + A meeting of kings and diplomats.—Austrians and English vs. + Prussians and Russians.—Talleyrand the subtle.—Carving a new + map.—The people are ignored.—Sowing the seeds of trouble.—Unhappy + Poland.—Divided Italy.—Revolts of the people.—The + outbreaks of 1848. + </p> + + <p> + And now the kings and princes, with their ministers of state and + diplomats, met at Vienna to decide what should be the map of Europe. In + past years, there had been a great deal of suspicion and jealousy among + these monarchs. Hardly five years had gone by without finding two of them + flying at each other’s throats in some unjust war or other. Only their + great fear of uprisings similar to the French Revolution had driven them + to act together in crushing the French Republic, and the empire voted by + the people, which had followed it. This famous “Congress of Vienna,” which + took place 1815, is a fair example of the way in which European lands have + been cut up and parceled out to various monarchs without any regard for + the wishes of the people. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus36"></a> +<img src="images/36.jpg" width="400" height="271" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Congress of Vienna</p> +</div> + + <p> + Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that their mighty armies had had in + crushing Napoleon, were arrogantly intending to divide the map of Europe + as suited them, and it was only by a great deal of diplomacy that they + were beaten. (The game of diplomacy is frequently a polite name for some + very cunning deception, involving lying and cheating, in which kings and + their ministers take part.) The Austrians were afraid of the + Russian-Prussian combination, and they induced England to side with them. + England did not love Austria, but feared the other two powers. The English + minister, Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the Austrians, Prussians, + and Russians, to allow the French diplomat, Talleyrand, to take part in + their final meetings. Now Talleyrand was probably the most slippery and + tricky diplomat of all Europe. He had grown to power during the troublous + days of the latter part of the French Revolution, and had guessed which + party would remain in power so skillfully that he always appeared as the + strong friend of the winning side. Although he had served Napoleon during + the first years of the empire, he was shrewd enough to remain true to King + Louis XVIII during the latter’s second exile. The Prussian-Russian + combination was finally obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of + Austria, England, and France. Compare this map with the one given in the + preceding chapter, and you will see most of the important changes. + </p> + + <p> + Prussia, which had been cut down to about half its former size by + Napoleon, got back some of its Polish territory, and was given a great + deal of land in western Germany along the River Rhine. Part of the kingdom + of Saxony was forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It is needless to say that + its inhabitants were bitterly unhappy over this arrangement. Austria kept + part of her Polish territory, and gave the rest of it to Russia. + </p> + + <p> + The southern part of the Netherlands, which is today called Belgium, had + belonged to the Hapsburg family, the emperors of Austria. As was + previously said, it was conquered by the French and remained part of + France until the fall of Napoleon. It was now joined with Holland to make + the kingdom of the Netherlands. Its people were Walloons and Flemish, + almost entirely Catholic in their religion, and they very much disliked to + be joined with the Protestant Dutch of Holland. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map14"></a> +<a href="images/map14.jpg"> +<img src="images/map14.jpg" width="700" height="478" alt="Illustration: +Messen" /></a> +<p class="caption">Europe in 1815</p> +</div> + + <p> + The state of Finland, which had not been strong enough to defend itself + against its two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, had been fought + over by these two powers for more than a century. It was finally + transferred to Russia, and in order to appease Sweden, Norway, which had + been ruled by the Danes, was torn away from Denmark and made part of the + kingdom of Sweden. The Norwegians desired to remain an independent + country, and they loved the Swedes even less than they loved the Danes. + Therefore, this union was another source of trouble. The greater part of + the kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were joined to Russia. + </p> + + <p> + Russia got back all of the territory she had taken in 1795, and in + addition large parts of the former shares of Prussia and Austria. In order + to pay back Austria for the loss of part of Poland, she was given all of + northern Italy except the counties of Piedmont and Savoy near France. + </p> + + <p> + The German states (and these included both Austria and Prussia) were + formed into a loose alliance called the German Confederation. England’s + share of the plunder consisted largely of distant colonies, such as South + Africa, Ceylon, Trinidad, etc. France shrank back to the boundaries which + she had had at the beginning of the revolution. The kings of France, of + the Two Sicilies, and of Spain (all of them members of the Bourbon family) + who had been driven out by Napoleon, were set back upon their thrones. + </p> + + <p> + This arrangement left Italy all split up into nine or ten different parts, + although its people desired to be one nation. It left Austria a government + over twelve different nationalities, each one of which was dissatisfied. + It joined Belgium to Holland in a combination displeasing to both. It gave + Norway and Finland as subject states to Sweden and Russia respectively. It + left the Albanians, Serbians, Roumanians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all + subject to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, once vacant, kings + who were hated by their subjects. It divided the Poles up among four + different governments—for, strange as it may seem, the powers could + not decide who should own the city of Cracow and the territory around it, + and they ended by making this district a little republic, under the joint + protection of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the Swiss, serene in + their lofty mountains, were almost the only small people of Europe who + were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 had laid the foundation for + future revolutions and wars without number. + </p> + + <p> + At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by the Russians, but after + two or three unsuccessful attempts at a revolution, Poland, which, as one + of the states of the Russian Empire, was still called a kingdom, was + deprived of all its rights, and its people were forced to give up the use + of their language in their schools, their courts, and even their churches. + In the same fashion, the Poles in Prussia were “not even allowed to think + in Polish,” as one Polish patriot bitterly put it. All through the first + half of the 19th century, there were uprisings and struggles among these + people. As a result of one of them, in 1846, the little Republic of Cracow + was abolished, and its territory forcibly annexed to Austria. + </p> + + <p> + The Italian people formed secret societies which had for their object the + uniting of Italy, and the freeing of its people from foreign rulers. All + through Germany there were mutterings of discontent. The people wanted + more freedom from their lords. Greece broke out into insurrection against + the Turks, and fifteen years after the Congress of 1815 won its right to + independence. Not long afterwards, the southern half of the Netherlands + broke itself loose from the northern half, and declared to the world that + it should henceforth be a new kingdom, under the name of Belgium. About + the same time, the people of France rose up against the Bourbon kings, and + threw them out “for good.” A distant cousin of the king was elected, not + “king of France” but “citizen king of the French,” and the people were + allowed to elect men to represent them in a parliament or Congress at + Paris. In Spain, one revolution followed another. For a short time, Spain + was a republic, but the people were not well enough educated to govern + themselves, and the kingdom was restored. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus37"></a> +<img src="images/37.jpg" width="200" height="205" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Prince Metternich</p> +</div> + + <p> + The statesman who had more to do with the division of territory in 1815 + than any other was Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood for the “divine + right of kings,” and did not believe in allowing the common people any + liberty whatsoever. In 1848, an uprising occurred in Austria, and crowds + in Vienna, crying, “down with Metternich,” forced the aged diplomat to + flee. During the same year, there were outbreaks in Germany. The people + everywhere were revolting against the feudal rights of their kings and + princes, and gaining greater liberty for themselves. In 1848, France, + also, grew tired of her “citizen king,” and that country a second time + became a republic. The French made the mistake, however, of electing as + their president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Napoleon, + and in time he did exactly what his uncle had done,—persuaded the + French people to elect him emperor. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What were the motives of each of the nations represented at the + Congress of Vienna? + </li> + <li> + Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the meeting at + first? + </li> + <li> + Why did the English and Austrians assist each other? + </li> + <li> + What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See <a href="#chap09">last chapter</a>.) + </li> + <li> + What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their thrones? + </li> + <li> + What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress? + </li> + <li> + How did the Poles protest against the settlement made by the Congress? + </li> + <li> + What did the Belgians do about it? + </li> + <li> + What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap11"></a>Chapter XI.<br/> +Italy a Nation at Last</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The Crimean War curbs Russia.—Cavour plans a United Italy.—War + against Austria.—Garibaldi, the patriot.—The Kingdom of + Sardinia becomes part of the new Kingdom of Italy.—Venice and Rome + are added.—Some Italians still outside the kingdom. + </p> + + <p> + Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two patriots named Mazzini and + Garibaldi, was in a turmoil. The Austrians and the Italian princes who + were subject to them were constantly crushing some attempted revolution. + </p> + + <p> + One thing which helped the cause of the people was that the great powers + were all jealous of each other. For example, Russia attacked Turkey in + 1853, but France and England were afraid that if Russia conquered the + Turks and took Constantinople, she would become too powerful for them. + Therefore, both countries rushed troops to aid Turkey, and in the end, + Russia was defeated, although thousands of soldiers were killed on both + sides before the struggle was over. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember that the counties of Piedmont and Savoy in western + Italy, together with the island of Sardinia, made up a little kingdom + known as the “Kingdom of Sardinia.” This country had for its prime + minister, a statesman named Count Cavour, who, like all Italians, strongly + hoped for the day when all the people living on the Italian peninsula + should be one nation. At the time of the Crimean War (as the war between + Russia on the one side and Turkey, France, and England on the other was + called) he caused his country also to declare war on Russia, and sent a + tiny army to fight alongside of the English and French. A few years later, + he secretly made a bargain with Napoleon III. (This was what President + Bonaparte of France called himself after he had been elected emperor.) The + French agreed to make war with his country against the Austrians. If they + won, the Sardinians were to receive all north Italy, and in return for + France’s help were to give France the county of Savoy and the seaport of + Nice. + </p> + + <p> + When Cavour and the French were all ready to strike, it was not hard to + find an excuse for a war. Austria declared war on Sardinia, and, as had + been arranged, France rushed to the aid of the Italians. Austria was + speedily beaten, but no sooner was the war finished than the French + emperor repented of his bargain. He was afraid that it would make trouble + for him with his Catholic subjects if the Italians were allowed to take + all the northern half of the peninsula, including the pope’s lands, into + their kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians received only Lombardy in + return for Savoy and Nice, which they gave to France, and the Austrians + kept the county of Venetia. A fire once kindled, however, is hard to put + out. No sooner did the people of the other states of northern Italy see + the success of Sardinia, than, one after another, they revolted against + their Austrian princes and voted to join the new kingdom of Italy. In this + way, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the “States of the Church” were + added. All of this happened in the year 1859. + </p> + + <p> + These “States of the Church” came to be formed in the following way: The + father of the great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who had been crowned + western emperor by the pope in the year 800, had rescued northern Italy + from the rule of the Lombards. He had made the pope lord of a stretch of + territory extending across Italy from the Adriatic Sea to the + Mediterranean. The inhabitants of this country had no ruler but the pope. + They paid their taxes to him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord. + It was part of this territory which revolted and joined the new kingdom of + Italy. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember the name of Garibaldi, the Italian patriot, who with + Mazzini had been stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They finally + pursued him so closely that he had to leave Italy. He came to America and + set up a fruit store in New York City, where there were quite a number of + his countrymen. By 1854, he had made a great deal of money in the fruit + business, but had not forgotten his beloved country, and was anxious to be + rich only in order that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He sold + out his business in New York, and taking all his money, sailed for Italy. + When the war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and fought throughout the + campaign. + </p> + + <p> + But the compromising terms of peace galled him, and he was not satisfied + with a country only half free. In the region around Genoa, he enrolled a + thousand men to go on what looked like a desperate enterprise. Garibaldi + had talked with Cavour, and between them, they had schemed to overthrow + the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and join this land to the northern + country. Of course, Cavour pretended not to know anything about Garibaldi, + for the king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a friend of the king + of Sardinia. Nevertheless, he secretly gave Garibaldi all the help that he + dared, and urged men to enroll with him. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus38"></a> +<img src="images/38.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel</p> +</div> + + <p> + With his thousand “red-shirts,” as they were called, Garibaldi landed on + the island of Sicily, at Marsala. The inhabitants rose to welcome him, and + everywhere they drove out the officers who had been appointed by their + king to rule them. In a short time, all Sicily had risen in rebellion + against the king. (You will remember that this family of kings had been + driven out by Napoleon and restored by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. + They were Bourbons, the same family that furnished the kings of Spain and + the last kings of France. They stood for “the divine right of kings,” and + had no sympathy with the common people.) Crossing over to the mainland, + Garibaldi, with his little army now swollen to ten times its former size, + swept everything before him as he marched toward Naples. Everywhere, the + people rose against their former masters, and welcomed the liberator. The + king fled in haste from Naples, never to return. A vote was taken all over + the southern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether the people wanted + to join their brothers of the north to make a new kingdom of Italy. It was + so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, thus + became the first king of United Italy. He made Florence his capital at + first, as the country around Rome still belonged to the pope. The pope had + few soldiers, but was protected by a guard of French troops. However, ten + years later, in 1870, when war broke out between France and Prussia, the + French troops left Rome, and the troops of Italy marched quietly in and + took possession of the city. Rome, for so many years the capital, not only + of Italy but of the whole Mediterranean world, became once more the chief + city of the peninsula. The pope was granted a liberal pension by the + Italian government in order to make up to him for the loss of the money + from his former lands. The dream of Italians for the last 600 years had + finally come to pass. Italy was again one country, ruled by the popular + Victor Emmanuel, with a constitution which gave the people the right to + elect representatives to a parliament or congress. One of the worst + blunders of the Congress of Vienna had been set right by the patriotism of + the people of Italy. + </p> + + <p> + It should be noted, however, that there are still Italians who are not + part of this kingdom. The county of Venetia, at the extreme northeast of + Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 as the result of a war which will + be told about more fully in the <a href="#chap12">next chapter</a>, but the + territory around the city of Trent, called by the Italians Trentino, and + the county of Istria at the head of the Adriatic Sea, containing the + important seaports of Trieste, Fiume, and Pola, are inhabited almost + entirely by people of Italian blood. Certain islands along the coast of + Dalmatia also are full of Italians. To rescue these people from the rule + of Austria has been the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and was the + chief reason why Italy did not join Germany and Austria in the great war + of 1914. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map15"></a> +<a href="images/map15.jpg"> +<img src="images/map15.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="Illustration: +Messen" /></a> +<p class="caption">Italy Made One Nation, 1914</p> +</div> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did England and France side with Turkey against Russia? + </li> + <li> + What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III? + </li> + <li> + How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia? + </li> + <li> + Explain the origin of the “States of the Church.” + </li> + <li> + Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king? + </li> + <li> + What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of Italy? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap12"></a>Chapter XII.<br/> +The Man of Blood and Iron</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The people demand their rights—Bismarck, the chief prop of the + Prussian monarchy—The question of the leadership of the German + states—The wonderful Prussian army—The war on Denmark—Preparing + to crush Austria—The battle of Sadowa—Easy terms to the + defeated nation—Preparing to defeat France—A good example of a + war caused by diplomats—Prussia’s easy victory—The new German + empire—Harsh terms of peace—The triumph of feudal government. + </p> + + <p> + All of this time, the kings of Europe had been engaged in contests with + their own people. The overthrow of the French king at the time of the + revolution taught the people of the other countries of Europe that they + too could obtain their liberties. You have already been told how the + people of Austria drove out Prince Metternich, who was the leader of the + party which refused any rights to the working classes. + </p> + + <p> + That same year, 1848, had seen the last king driven out of France, had + witnessed revolts in all parts of Italy, and had found many German princes + in trouble with their subjects, who were demanding a share in the + government, the right of free speech, free newspapers, and trial by jury. + The empires of Austria and Russia had joined with the kingdom of Prussia + in a combination which was known as the “Holy Alliance.” This was meant to + stop the further spread of republican ideas and to curb the growing power + of the common people. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus39"></a> +<img src="images/39.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Bismarck</p> +</div> + + <p> + Not long after this, there came to the front in Prussia a remarkable man, + who for the next forty years was perhaps the most prominent statesman in + Europe. His full name was Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönausen, + but we generally know him under the name of Bismarck. He was a Prussian + nobleman, a believer in the divine right of kings, the man who more than + anybody else is responsible for the establishing of the present empire of + Germany. He once made a speech in the Prussian Diet or council in which he + said that “blood and iron,” not speeches and treaties, would unite Germany + into a nation. His one object was a united Germany, which should be the + strongest nation in Europe. He wanted Germany to be ruled by Prussia, + Prussia to be ruled by its king, and the king of Prussia to be controlled + by Bismarck. It is marvellous to see how near he came to carrying through + his whole plan. + </p> + + <p> + After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia remained among the powers of + Europe, but was not as great as Austria, Russia, England, or France. The + German states, some 35 in number, had united in a loose alliance called + the German Confederation. (This union was somewhat similar to the United + States of America between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the largest of these + states, and was naturally looked upon as the leader of the whole group. + Prussia was the second largest, while next after Prussia, and much + smaller, came the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtemburg. + Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built up a wonderfully strong + army. He did this by means of a military system which at first made him + very unpopular with the people. Every man in the nation, rich or poor, was + obliged to serve a certain number of years in the army and be ready at a + moment’s notice to join a certain regiment if there came a call to war. + </p> + + <p> + Having organized this army, and equipped it with every modern weapon, + Bismarck was anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose. There were two + counties named Schleswig (shlĕs′vig) and Holstein (hōl′stīn) + which belonged to the king of Denmark and yet contained a great many + German people. The inhabitants of Schleswig were perhaps half Danes, while + those of Holstein were more than two-thirds Germans. These Germans had + protested against certain actions of the Danish government, and were + threatening to revolt. Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and + Austria, as the leading states of the German Federation, declared war on + little Denmark. The Danes fought valiantly, but were overwhelmed by the + armies of their enemies. Schleswig and Holstein were torn away from + Denmark and put under the joint protection of Austria and Prussia. + </p> + + <p> + This sort of arrangement could not last. Sooner or later, there was bound + to be a quarrel over the division of the plunder. Now Bismarck had a + chance to show his crafty diplomacy. He made up his mind to crush Austria + and put Prussia in her place as the leader of the German states. He first + negotiated with Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, and made sure that + this monarch would not interfere. Next he remembered that the provinces of + Venetia, Trentino, and Istria still belonged to Austria, as the Italians + had failed to gain them in the war of 1859. Accordingly, Bismarck induced + Italy to declare war on Austria by promising her Venetia and the other + provinces in return for her aid. Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover were + friendly to Austria, but Bismarck did not fear them. He knew that his + army, under the leadership of its celebrated general, von Moltke, was more + than a match for the Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined. + </p> + + <p> + When Bismarck was ready, Prussia and Italy struck. The Austrians were + successful at first against the Italians, but at Sadowa in Bohemia, their + armies were beaten in a tremendous battle by the Prussians. Austria was + put down from her place as the leader of the German Confederation, and + Prussia took the leadership. Hanover, whose king had sided with the + Austrians, was annexed to Prussia. The king of Prussia and several of his + generals were anxious to rob Austria of some of her territory, as had been + the custom in the past whenever one nation defeated another in war. + Bismarck, however, restrained them. In his program of making Prussia the + leading military state in Europe, he saw that his next opponent would be + France, and he did not propose, on attacking France, to find his army + assailed in the rear by the revengeful Austrians. Accordingly, Bismarck + compelled the king to let Austria off without any loss of territory except + Venetia, which was given to the Italians. Austria was even allowed to + retain Trentino and Istria, and was not required to pay a large indemnity + to Prussia. (A custom which had come down from the middle ages, when + cities which were captured had been obliged to pay great sums of money, in + order to get rid of the conquering armies, was the payment of a war + indemnity by the defeated nation. This was a sum of money as large as the + conquerors thought they could safely force their victims to pay.) The + Austrians, although they were angry over the manner in which Bismarck had + provoked the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact that he was generous + in not forcing harsh terms upon them, as he could have done had he wanted + to. + </p> + + <p> + The eyes of all Europe now turned toward the coming struggle between + Prussia and France. It was plain that it was impossible for two men like + Bismarck and Emperor Napoleon to continue in power very long without + coming to blows. It was Bismarck’s ambition, as was previously said, to + make Prussia the leading military nation of Europe, and he knew that this + meant a struggle with Napoleon. You will remember also that he planned a + united Germany, led by Prussia, and he felt that the French war would + bring this about. On the other hand, the French emperor was extremely + jealous of the easy victory that Prussia and Italy had won over Austria. + He had been proud of the French army, and wanted it to remain the greatest + fighting force in Europe. He was just as anxious for an excuse to attack + Prussia as Bismarck was for a pretext to attack him. + </p> + + <p> + It should be kept in mind that all this time there was no ill-feeling + between the French people and the Germans. In fact, the Germans of the + Rhine country were very friendly to France, and during Napoleon’s time had + been given more liberties and had been governed better than under the rule + of their former feudal lords. All the hostility and jealousy was between + the military chiefs. Even Bismarck did not dislike the French. He had no + feeling toward them at all. It was part of his program that their military + power should be crushed and his program must be carried through. Europe, + to his mind, was too small to contain more than one master military power. + </p> + + <p> + The four years between 1866 and 1870 were used by Bismarck to gain friends + for Prussia among other countries of Europe, and to make enemies for + France. The kingdoms of south Germany (Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg), + which had sided with Austria during the late war, were friendly to France + and hostile to Prussia. Napoleon III, however, made a proposal in writing + to Bismarck that France should be given a slice of this south German + territory in return for some other land which France was to allow Prussia + to seize. Bismarck pretended to consider this proposal, but was careful to + keep the original copy, in the French ambassador’s own handwriting. (Each + nation sends a man to represent her at the capital of each other nation. + These men are called ambassadors. They are given power to sign agreements + for their governments.) By showing this to the rulers of the little south + German kingdoms, he was able to turn them against Napoleon and to make + secret treaties with these states by which they bound themselves to fight + on the side of Prussia in case a war broke out with France. In similar + fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians angry against the French by letting it + be known that Napoleon was trying to annex their country also. + </p> + + <p> + Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke and Count von Roon (rōn), + Bismarck had built up a wonderful military power. Every man in Prussia had + been trained a certain number of years in the army and was ready at a + moment’s notice to join his regiment. The whole campaign against France + had been planned months in advance. In France on the other hand, the + illness and irritability of Napoleon III had resulted in poor + organization. Men who did not wish to serve their time in the army were + allowed to pay money to the government instead. Yet their names were + carried on the rolls. In this way, the French army had not half the + strength in actual numbers that it had on paper. What is more, certain + government officials had taken advantage of the emperor’s weakness and + lack of system and had put into their own pockets money that should have + been spent in buying guns and ammunition. + </p> + + <p> + When at last Bismarck was all ready for the war, it was not hard to find + an excuse. Old Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven from her throne, + and the Spanish army under General Prim offered the crown to Prince + Leopold of Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king of Prussia. This alarmed + Napoleon, who imagined that if Prussia attacked him on the east, this + Prussian prince, as king of Spain, would lead the Spanish army over the + Pyrenees against him on the south. France made so vigorous a protest that + the prince asked the Spaniards not to think of him any longer. This was + not enough for Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal mistake. The + incident was closed, but he persisted in reopening it. He sent his + ambassador to see King William of Prussia to ask the latter to assure + France that never again should Prince Leopold be considered for the + position of king of Spain. The king answered that he could not guarantee + this, for he was merely the head of the Hohenzollern family. Prince + Leopold, whose lands lay outside of Prussia, was not even one of his + subjects. The interview between the king and the French ambassador had + been a friendly one. The ambassador had been very courteous to the king, + and the king had been very polite to the ambassador. They had parted on + good terms. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus40"></a> +<img src="images/40.jpg" width="400" height="248" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War.</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping that an excuse for war would + come from this incident. He was at dinner with General von Moltke and + Count von Roon when a long telegram came from the king, telling of his + interview with the French ambassador. In the story of his life written by + himself, Bismarck tells how, as he read the telegram both Roon and Moltke + groaned in disappointment. He says that Moltke seemed to have grown older + in a minute. Both had earnestly hoped that war would come. Bismarck took + the dispatch, sat down at a table, and began striking out the message + polite words and the phrases that showed that the meeting had been a + friendly one. He cut down the original telegram of two hundred words to + one of twenty. When he had finished, the message sounded as if the French + ambassador had bullied and threatened the king of Prussia, while the + latter had snubbed and insulted the Frenchman. Bismarck read the altered + telegram to Roon and Moltke. Instantly, they brightened up and felt + better. “How is that?” he asked. “That will do it,” they answered. “War is + assured.” + </p> + + <p> + The telegram was given to the newspapers, and within twenty-four hours, + the people of Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. Napoleon III + hesitated, but he finally gave in to his generals and his wife who urged + him to “avenge the insult to the French nation.” + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus41"></a> +<img src="images/41.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor of Germany</p> +</div> + + <p> + We give this story of the starting of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 just + to show the tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck did was no worse + than what the Frenchman, Talleyrand, would have done, or the Austrian, + Metternich, or several of the Turkish or Russian diplomats. It simply + proves how helpless the people of European countries are, when the + military class which rules them has decided, for its own power and glory, + on war with some other nation. + </p> + + <p> + The war was short. The forces of France were miserably unprepared. The + first great defeat of the French army resulted in the capture of the + emperor by the Prussians and the overthrowing of the government in Paris, + where a third republic was started. One of the French generals turned + traitor, thinking that if he surrendered his army and cut short the war + the Prussians would force the French to take Napoleon III back as emperor. + Paris was besieged for a long time. The people lived on mule meat and even + on rats and mice rather than surrender to the Germans, but at last they + were starved out, and peace was made. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map16"></a> +<img src="images/map16.jpg" width="699" height="471" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Formation of the German Empire</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the meantime, another of Bismarck’s plans had been successful. In + January, 1871, while the siege of Paris was yet going on, he induced the + kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, together with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, + and all the other little German states to join Prussia in forming a new + empire of Germany. The king of Prussia was to be “German Emperor,” and the + people of Germany were to elect representatives to the Reichstag or + Imperial Congress. Although at the outset, the war was between the kingdom + of Prussia and the empire of France, the treaty of peace was signed by the + republic of France and the empire of Germany. + </p> + + <p> + Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of peace. France was condemned to pay + an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one billion dollars) and + certain parts of France were to be occupied by the German troops until + this money was fully paid. Two counties of France, Alsace and Lorraine, + were to be annexed to Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by people of + German descent, but there were many French mingled with them, and the + whole province had belonged to France so long that its people felt + themselves to be wholly French. Lorraine contained very few Germans, and + was taken, contrary to Bismarck’s best judgment, because it contained the + important city of Metz, which was strongly fortified. Here the military + chiefs overruled Bismarck. The desire among the French for revenge on + Germany for taking this French-speaking province has proved that Bismarck + was right. It was a blunder of the worst kind. + </p> + + <p> + The policy of “blood and iron” had been successful. From a second rate + power, Prussia had risen, under Bismarck’s leadership, to become the + strongest military force in Europe. Schleswig had been torn from Danish, + Holstein from Austrian control. Hanover had been forcibly annexed, and + Alsace and Lorraine wrested from France. The greater part of the + inhabitants of these countries were bitterly unhappy at being placed under + the Prussian military rule. Moreover, it must be remembered that a great + deal of this growth in power had been at the expense of the liberty of the + common people. The revolution of 1848 had demanded free speech, free + newspapers, the right to vote, and the right to elect men to a congress or + parliament, and while some of these rights had been granted, still the + whole country was under the control of the war department. The emperor, as + commander-in-chief of the army, could suppress any newspaper and dismiss + the congress whenever he might think this proper. The Reichstag was, as it + has been called, a big debating society, whose members had the right to + talk, but were not allowed to pass any laws that were contrary to the + wishes of the military leaders. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over Europe? + </li> + <li> + What was the object of the “Holy Alliance”? + </li> + <li> + What was Bismarck’s purpose in building up a strong army? + </li> + <li> + How did Bismarck defeat Austria? + </li> + <li> + What is a war indemnity? + </li> + <li> + Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon III. + </li> + <li> + Why were the French alarmed when Spain offered its crown to Prince + Leopold of Hohenzollern? + </li> + <li> + What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with France? + </li> + <li> + Was Prussia’s victory a good thing for her people? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap13"></a>Chapter XIII.<br/> +The Balance of Power</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The recovery of France.—The jealousy of the powers.—The policy + of uniting against the strongest.—The dream of Russia.—A war + of liberation.—The powers interfere in favor of the Turk.—The + Congress of Berlin.—Bismarck’s Triple Alliance.—France and + Russia are driven together.—The race for war preparation.—The + growth of big navies. + </p> + +<p> +Under the third republic,<a href="#fn-3" name="fnref-3" id="fnref-3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +France recovered very rapidly from the terrible blow dealt her by Germany. Her +people worked hard and saved their money. In less than two years, they had paid +off the last cent of the one billion dollar indemnity, and the German troops +were obliged to go home. France had adopted the same military system that +Germany had, and required all of her young men to serve two years in the army +and be ready at a moment’s notice to rush to arms. She began also to +build up a strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa and other parts of +the world. This rapid recovery of France surprised and disturbed Bismarck, who +thought that never again, after the war of 1870, would she become a strong +power. He had tried to renew the old “Holy Alliance” between +Germany, Russia, and Austria with the idea of preventing the spread of +republics. These were the three nations which gave their people very few +rights, and which stood for the “divine right of kings” and for the +crushing of all republics. Bismarck called this new combination the +“Drei-kaiser-bund” or three-emperor-bond. He himself says that the +proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the lies and treachery of Prince +Gortchakoff, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3" id="fn-3"></a> <a href="#fnref-3">[3]</a> +The first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was beheaded, the second +in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the “citizen king,” was driven out. +</p> + + <p> + An incident which happened in 1875 helped to estrange Germany from Russia. + As was previously said, Bismarck was astonished and alarmed when he saw + how quickly France was getting over the effects of the war. In 1875, some + trouble came up again between France and Germany, and Bismarck a second + time planned to make war on the republic and—complete the task that + he had left unfinished in 1871. He wanted to reduce France to the rank of + a second class power, on a par with Spain and Denmark. This time, however, + England and Russia growled ominously. They notified Bismarck that they + would not stand by and see France crushed—not from any love of + France, but because they were jealous of Prussia and afraid that the + Germans might become too powerful in Europe. Accordingly, Bismarck had to + give up his idea of war. Prussia was strong, but she could not fight + England, Russia, and France combined. However, he remembered that England + and Russia had spoiled his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus42"></a> +<img src="images/42.jpg" width="182" height="200" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Peter the Great</p> +</div> + + <p> + The great object of all European diplomats was to maintain what they + called “the balance of power.” By this they meant that no one country was + to be allowed to grow so strong that she could defy the rest of Europe. + Whenever one nation grew too powerful, the others combined to pull her + down. + </p> + + <p> + In the meantime, trouble was again brewing among the Balkan nations, which + were still subject to the Turks. Revolts had broken out among the + Serbians, and the people of Bosnia and Bulgaria. As has already been told, + these nations are Slavic, cousins of the Russians, and they have always + looked upon Russia as their big brother and protector. Any keen-eared, + intelligent Russian can understand the language of the Serbs, it is so + much like his own tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word “grad” means + “city” in both languages.) + </p> + +<p> +Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks because they were oppressing the +little Slav states, but she had reasons of her own for wanting to see Turkey +overthrown. Ever since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had had her eye +upon Constantinople. Peter had conquered the district east of the Gulf of +Finland, and had founded St. Petersburg<a href="#fn-4" name="fnref-4" id="fnref-4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +there, just to give Russia a port which was free of ice. In the same way, other +czars who followed him had fought their way southward to the Black Sea, seeking +for a chance to trade with the Mediterranean world. But the Black Sea was like +a bottle, and the Turks at Constantinople were able to stop the Russian trade +at any time they might wish to do so. Russia is an agricultural country, and +must ship her grain to countries that are more densely inhabited, to exchange +it for their manufactures. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4" id="fn-4"></a> <a href="#fnref-4">[4]</a> +Now called Petrograd. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus43"></a> +<img src="images/43.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Entrance to the Mosque of St Sophia</p> +</div> + + <p> + Therefore, it has been the dream of every Russian czar that one day Russia + might own Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient days, was the home + of the Greek church, as Rome was the capital of the western Catholic + church. The Russians are all Greek Catholics, and every Russian looks + forward to the day when the great church of St. Sophia, which is now a + Mohammedan mosque, shall once more be the home of Christian worship. With + this plan in mind, Russian diplomats were only too happy to stir up + trouble for the Turks among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as + Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro are called. Glance at the two + following maps of southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey had been reduced + in size during the two hundred years which followed the Turkish defeat at + the gates of Vienna by John Sobieski and the Austrians. The state of + Bessarabia had changed hands two or three times, remaining finally in the + hands of Russia. + </p> + + <p> + The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 1876 were hailed with joy + among the Russians, and the government at St. Petersburg lost no time in + rushing to the aid of the Balkan states and declaring war on Turkey. After + a short but stubbornly contested conflict, Russia and the little countries + were victors. A treaty of peace was signed at San Stephano, by which + Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria were to be recognized by Turkey as + independent states. The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach to the Aegean + Sea, including most of Macedonia, thus cutting off Turkey from her county + of Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, for it will help you to + understand Russia’s later feeling when Bulgaria in 1915 joined the ranks + of her enemies. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map17"></a> +<img src="images/map17.jpg" width="700" height="464" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Southeastern and Central Europe, 1706</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map18"></a> +<img src="images/map18.jpg" width="700" height="467" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Losses of Turkey during the Nineteenth Century</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus44"></a> +<img src="images/44.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Congress of Berlin. Prince Gortchakoff (seated). +Disraeli (with cane). Count Andrassy. Bismarck.</p> +</div> + + <p> + The matter was all settled, and Turkey had accepted these terms, when once + more the diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will be remembered that + Russia three years before had prevented a second war against France + planned by Bismarck. It was very easy for him to persuade Austria and + England that if Russia were allowed to cripple Turkey and set up three new + kingdoms which would be under her control, she would speedily become the + strongest nation in Europe. The “balance of power” would be disturbed. + England and Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting of statesmen and + diplomats was called at Berlin in 1878 to decide once more what should be + the map of Europe. Representatives were present from all the leading + European countries. Even Turkey had two men at the meeting, but the three + men who really controlled were Bismarck, Count Andrassy of Austria, and + Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia was robbed of a + great part of the fruits of her victory. Bulgaria was left partially under + the control of Turkey, in that she had to pay Turkey a large sum of money + each year for the privilege of being left alone. Her territory was made + much smaller than had been agreed to by the treaty of San Stephano. In + fact less than one-third of the Bulgarians were living within the + boundaries finally agreed upon by the congress. A great part of the + Serbians were still left under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of + Thessaly and Epirus. The two counties of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still + to belong to Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be strong enough to + keep order there, Austria was to take control of them and run their + government, although their taxes were still to be paid to Turkey. Austria + solemnly agreed never to take them from Turkey. Russia, naturally, was + very unhappy over this arrangement, and so were the inhabitants of the + Balkan kingdoms, for they had hoped that now they were at last to be freed + from the oppression of their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the Congress + of Berlin, like that of Vienna in 1815 laid the foundation for future wars + and revolutions. + </p> + + <p> + Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany by making alliances with other + European states. He first made up with his old enemy, Austria. Thanks to + the liberal treatment that he had given this country after her disastrous + war of 1866, he was able to get the Austrians to join Germany in an + alliance which states that if two countries of Europe should ever attack + one of the two allies, the other would rush to her help. + </p> + + <p> + The Italians were friendly to Germany, for they remembered that they had + gotten Venetia from Austria through the help of the Prussians, but they + had always looked upon the Austrians as their worst enemies. It was a + wonderful thing, then, when Bismarck finally induced Italy to join with + Austria and Germany in a “Dreibund” or “Triple Alliance.” + </p> + + <p> + The Italian people had been very friendly to the French, and this going + over to their enemies would never have been possible but for an act of + France which greatly angered Italy. For many years, France had been in + control of Algeria on the north coast of Africa. This country had once + been a nest of pirates, and the French had gone there originally to clean + them out. Next to Algeria on the east is the county of Tunis, which, as + you will see by the map, is very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians + had been looking longingly at this district for some time, intending to + organize an expedition and forcibly annex it to their kingdom. They waited + too long, however, and one fine day in 1881 they found the prize gone,—France + had seized this county for herself. It was Italy’s anger over this act of + France more than anything else that enabled Bismarck to get her into an + alliance with Germany and her ancient enemy, Austria. + </p> + + <p> + France now saw herself hemmed in on the east by a chain of enemies. It + looked as though Bismarck might declare war upon the republic at any time, + and be perfectly safe from interference, with Austria and Italy to protect + him. Russia, smarting under the treatment which she had been given by the + Congress of Berlin, was full of resentment against Germany. Both the + French and the Russians felt themselves threatened by Bismarck’s Dreibund, + and so, in self-defense each country made advance toward the other. The + result was the “Dual Alliance” between France and Russia, which bound + either country to come to the aid of the other in case of an attack by two + powers at once. + </p> + + <p> + In this way, the balance of power, disturbed by Bismarck’s “Dreibund,” was + again restored. Many people thought the forming of the two alliances a + fine thing, “for,” said they, “each party is now too strong to be attacked + by the other. Therefore, we shall never again have war among the great + powers.” + </p> + + <p> + England was not tied up with either alliance. On account of her position + on an island, and because of her strong navy, she did not feel obliged to + keep a large standing army such as the great powers on the continent + maintained. + </p> + + <p> + These nations were kept in constant fear of war. As soon as France + equipped her army with machine guns, Germany and Austria had to do the + same. As soon as the Germans invented a new magazine rifle, the Russians + and French had to invent similar arms for their soldiers. If Germany + passed a law compelling all men up to the age of forty-five to report for + two weeks’ military training once every year, France and Russia had to do + the same. If Italy built some powerful warships, France and Russia had to + build still more powerful ones. This led to still larger ships built by + Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet of one hundred torpedo boats, + the Triple Alliance had to “go her one better” by building one hundred and + fifty. If Germany equipped her army with war balloons, Russia and France + had to do the same. If France invented a new kind of heavy artillery, + Germany and Austria built a still bigger gun. + </p> + +<p> +This mad race for war equipment was bad enough when it had to do only with the +five nations in the two alliances about which you have been told. However, the +death of the old emperor of Germany in 1888 brought to the throne his grandson, +the present Kaiser,<a href="#fn-5" name="fnref-5" id="fnref-5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +and he formed a plan for making Germany the leading nation on the sea as +Bismarck had made her on the land. He saw France and England seizing distant +colonies and dividing up Africa between them. He at once announced that +Germany, too, must have colonies to which to export her manufactures and from +which to bring back tropical products. This meant a strong navy to protect +these colonies, and the race with England was on. As soon as Germany built some +new battleships, England built still others, larger and with heavier guns. The +next year, Germany would build still larger ships, and the next England would +come back with still heavier guns. As fast as England built ships, Germany +built them. Now, each battleship costs from five to fifteen million dollars, +and it does not take long before a race of this kind sends the taxes too high +for people to stand. There was unrest throughout Europe and murmurs of +discontent were heard among the working classes. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5" id="fn-5"></a> <a href="#fnref-5">[5]</a> +The present Kaiser’s father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he was a +very sick man at the time of the old emperor’s death. +</p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly? + </li> + <li> + Why did Bismarck’s three-emperor-alliance fail? + </li> + <li> + What is meant by “the balance of power”? + </li> + <li> + What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. before 1878? + </li> + <li> + Why did Russia covet Constantinople? + </li> + <li> + Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano from being + carried out? + </li> + <li> + What wrongs were done by the Congress of Berlin? + </li> + <li> + Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alliance? + </li> + <li> + How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy, Austria? + </li> + <li> + What was the effect of the formation of the Triple Alliance on France + and Russia? + </li> + <li> + What result had the formation of the two alliances on the + gun-industry? + </li> + <li> + How was England brought into the race for war equipment? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap14"></a>Chapter XIV.<br/> +The “Entente Cordiale”</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + Ancient enemies.—England and France in Africa.—A collision at + Fashoda.—Germany offers to help France.—Delcassé the + peacemaker.—A French-English agreement.—Friendship takes the + place of hostility.—England’s relations with Italy, Russia, and + Germany.—Germans cultivate the friendship and trade of Turkey.—The + Morocco-Algeciras incident.—The question of Bosnia and Herzegovina.—England + joins France and Russia to form the “Triple Entente.”—The Agadir + incident. + </p> + + <p> + England and France had never been friendly. There had been wars between + them, off and on, for five hundred years. The only time that they had + fought on the same side was in the campaign against Russia in 1855, but + even then there was no real sympathy between them. + </p> + + <p> + In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt which gave England an excuse + for interfering with the government of that country. Egypt was a part of + the Turkish empire, but so long as it paid a certain amount of money to + Constantinople, the Turks did not care very much how it was governed. But + now a wild chief of the desert had announced himself as the prophet + Mohammed come to earth again, and a great many of the desert tribesmen had + joined him. They cut to pieces one or two English armies in Egypt, and + killed General Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 before the + English were able to defeat this horde. Lord Kitchener finally beat them + and extended the English power to the city of Khartoom on the Nile. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus45"></a> +<img src="images/45.jpg" width="401" height="216" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">An Arab Sheik and His Staff</p> +</div> + + <p> + In the meantime, the English millionaire, Cecil Rhodes, had formed a plan + for a railroad which should run the entire length of Africa from the Cape + of Good Hope to Cairo. It was England’s ambition to control all the + territory through which this road should run. But the French, too, were + spreading out over Africa. Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert had + joined their colonies of Algeria and Tunis to those on the west coast of + Africa and others along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year, 1898, while + Lord Kitchener was still fighting the Arabs, a French expedition under + Major Marchand struggled across the Sahara and reached the Nile at + Fashoda, several miles above Khartoom. Marchand planted the French flag + and announced that he took possession of this territory for the republic + of France. + </p> + + <p> + The English were very indignant when they heard of what Marchand had done. + If France held Fashoda, their “Cape to Cairo” railroad was cut right in + the middle, and they could advance their territory no farther up the + valley of the Nile. They notified France that this was English land. + Marchand retorted that no Englishman had ever set foot there, and that the + French flag would never be hauled down after it had once been planted on + the Nile. Excitement ran high. The French people had no love for England, + and they encouraged Marchand to remain where he was. The English + newspapers demanded that he be withdrawn. Germany, which had already begun + its campaign to wrest from England the leading place on the ocean, was + delighted at the prospect of a war between France and the British. The + German diplomats patted France on the back, and practically assured her of + German help in case it came to a war with England. + </p> + + <p> + Germany now felt that she had nothing more to fear from France. The French + population was not increasing, while Germany was steadily growing in + numbers. It was England whom Germany saw across her path toward control of + the sea. + </p> + + <p> + There was a man in France, however, who had no thought of making up with + Germany. The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost provinces of Alsace + and Lorraine was very strong with him. This was Théophile Delcassé, + a little man with a large head and a great brain. He refused to be tempted + by the offers of German help, thinking that England, with its free + government, was a much better friend for the republic than the military + empire of Germany could be. + </p> + + <p> + Just when the trouble was at its height, the English ambassador came to + see Mr. Delcassé, who at that time was in charge of the French + foreign office. He had in his pocket an ultimatum, that is to say, a final + notice to France that she must give in or England would declare war on + her. As he walked into Delcassé’s presence, he began fumbling with + the top button of his coat. “Don’t touch that button,” said Delcassé + quickly. “Drop your hand. You have something in your pocket which must not + be taken out. It is a threat, and if I see it, France will fight. Sit + down. Let us talk this matter over coolly. Matters will adjust themselves + all right in the end.” And they did. Delcassé was finally able to + quiet the French people, to recall Marchand from Fashoda and to persuade + France to refuse the offer of German friendship. England was given a free + hand in Egypt, without any interference from the French. Naturally the + English were very grateful to Delcassé for having refused to profit + by German help and declare war. In return for the French agreement to stay + out of Egypt, the English promised to help France get control of Morocco. + </p> + + <p> + Very soon after this, Queen Victoria of England died, and her son, Edward + VII, became king. He had spent a great deal of time in France, and was + very fond of the French and was popular with them. He saw the growing + power of Germany, and knew that England could not afford to be without a + friend in Europe. He did his best to bring about a feeling of friendship + between the English and the French, and was very successful in doing so. + He made frequent visits to France, where he was received with great + cordiality. In return the English entertained the president of France in + London in a princely fashion. French warships paid friendly visits to + English waters, and the sailors mingled with each other and did their best + to understand each other’s language. All France, and England as well, + welcomed the beginning of the “Entente Cordiale,” or friendly + understanding between the two nations. + </p> + + <p> + England also went out of her way to cultivate a friendly understanding + with Italy. With the other nations of Europe England had no great + friendship. Between England and Russia, there had been a hostile feeling + for a long time, for the British felt that the Russians would like nothing + better than to stretch their empire from Siberia, down to include British + India, or at least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the British were in + control. + </p> + + <p> + The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, was planning for the future + growth of the trade of his country. Since his coming to the throne, + Germany had made wonderful progress in the direction of manufactures. She + had become one of the leading nations of the world. One of her chief + questions was, where to market these goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a + visit to Syria and Turkey. He was received with great enthusiasm by the + Turks, who were glad to have one strong friend among the powers of Europe. + Soon afterwards the Germans began to get more and more of the trade of the + Ottoman Empire. A German company was given permission by the Turks to + build a railroad across Turkey to the Persian Gulf through Bagdad. German + railways ran through Austria-Hungary, which was Germany’s ally, to + Constantinople and Salonika, the two greatest ports of Turkey in Europe. + This short overland route to Persia was looked upon with suspicion and + distrust by the English, whose ships up to this time had carried on almost + all of Europe’s commerce with India and the neighboring countries. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus46"></a> +<img src="images/46.jpg" width="401" height="267" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Scene In Constantinople</p> +</div> + + <p> + Germany was reaching out for colonies. She secured land on the west coast + of Africa and, on the east as well. A tract of land in the corner of the + Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. Islands in the Pacific Ocean were + seized. Her foreign trade was growing by leaps and bounds, and she + threatened to take away from England a great deal of the latter’s + commerce. + </p> + + <p> + The German emperor announced that he must always be consulted whenever any + changes of territory took place, no matter in what part of the earth. + Therefore in 1905 when France, with the help of Great Britain and Spain, + told the sultan of Morocco that he had to behave himself, the German + emperor in person made a visit to Morocco and assured the sultan that he + didn’t have to pay any attention to France. + </p> + <p id="page186"> + There was a great deal of excitement over this incident, and a meeting was + held at Algeciras, Spain, where representatives of all the great powers + came together. In the end, France and England were upheld, for even Italy, + Germany’s ally, voted against the Germans. On the other hand, Delcassé, + the Frenchman who settled the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign his + position as minister of foreign affairs because the Germans objected to + him, and the French felt that Germany had humiliated them. + </p> + + <p> + In 1908, the “young Turk” party in Constantinople (the party which stood + for progress and for more popular government) drove the old sultan off his + throne, and announced that there should be a Turkish parliament, or + congress, to which all parts of the empire should send representatives. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember that two counties of the Turkish empire, Bosnia and + Herzegovina, had been turned over to Austria to rule by the Congress of + Berlin in 1878. Austria at the time solemnly promised that she would never + try to annex these provinces. In 1908, however, she forgot all about her + promise. When Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to elect men to represent them + in the new Turkish parliament, Austria calmly told them that after this + they should consider themselves part of the Austrian Empire, that they + belonged to Turkey no longer. + </p> + + <p> + The two provinces were inhabited largely by Serbs, and all Serbia had + looked forward to the day when they should once more be joined to herself. + These states, like Montenegro, had been part of the ancient kingdom of + Serbia. As long as they were in dispute between Austria and Turkey, Serbia + had hopes of regaining them, but when Austria thus forcibly annexed them, + it seemed to the Serbs that they were lost forever. + </p> + + <p> + Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, all the Slavic states look + upon Russia as their big brother. The Russians were highly indignant at + this breaking of her promises by Austria, and the czar talked of war. His + generals and war ministers, however, dissuaded him. “Oh, no, your + majesty,” said they, “we are in no shape to fight Austria and Germany. Our + army was badly disorganized in the Japanese war three years ago, and we + shall not be ready for another fight for some time to come.” Russia + protested, but the German emperor notified her that he stood by Austria, + and asked Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and France were not + ready, and so they were obliged to back down, but did so with a bitter + feeling toward the “central empires,” as Germany and Austria are called. + </p> + + <p> + It has already been shown that England for a long time had been suspicious + of Russia, fearing that the northern power was aiming at control of India. + Of late this hostile feeling had been dying out, especially as the + friendship between France and Great Britain grew stronger. It was + impossible for Russia, France’s partner in the Dual Alliance, to remain + unfriendly to England, France’s ally in the “Entente Cordiale.” Both + England and Russia felt that the growth of Germany and the ambition of her + war chiefs threatened them more than they had ever threatened each other. + </p> + + <p> + In 1907 Russia and England reached an understanding by which they marked + off two great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each agreeing to stay + in her own portion, and not disturb the traders of the other country in + theirs. After this Russia, England, and France were usually found acting + together in European diplomacy, under the name of the “Triple Entente.” + The “balance of power” had been leaning toward Germany and her allies, but + the English navy, added to the scales on the other side, more than + balanced the advantage in land forces of the Triple Alliance. + </p> + + <p> + Three years later, Morocco again gave trouble, and France, with England’s + backing and Spain’s friendship, sent her troops among the Moors to enforce + law and order. Any one could see that with Tunis and Algeria already in + French hands, it was only a question of a little while before Morocco + would be theirs also. + </p> + + <p> + This time Germany rushed her warship <i>Panther</i> to the Moorish port of + Agadir. This was a threat against France, and the French appealed to + England to know whether they could look to her for support. Russia was now + in much better shape for war than she had been three years before, and + notified France that she was ready to give her support. Therefore, when + Mr. Lloyd-George, the little Welshman who was really the leader of the + British government, stood up before a big crowd of English bankers and + told the world that “to the last ship, the last man, the last penny,” + England would support France, it was plain that somebody would have to + back down or else start a tremendous European war. + </p> + + <p> + It was now Germany’s turn to give way. Strong as she was, she did not + propose to fight France, Russia, and England combined. So, although the + French gave Germany a few square miles of land in central Africa in return + for the Kaiser’s agreement to let France have her way in Morocco, the + result was a backdown for Germany, and it left scars which would not heal. + </p> + + <p> + During all this period from 1898 to 1914 there were incidents happening, + any one of which might have started the world war. Fashoda, Algeciras, + Bosnia, Agadir—each time it seemed as if only a miracle could avert + the conflict. Europe was like a powder magazine. No man knew when the + spark might fall that would bring on the explosion. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What were the plans of the English regarding Africa? + </li> + <li> + How did Major Marchand threaten the peace of Europe? + </li> + <li> + Why was Germany ready to help France? + </li> + <li> + Why did Delcassé desire to keep peace with England? + </li> + <li> + Why was England suspicious of Russia? + </li> + <li> + Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the Turks? + </li> + <li> + Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria start + a general European war? + </li> + <li> + Why did England and Russia become friendly? + </li> + <li> + Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap15"></a>Chapter XV.<br/> +The Sowing of the Dragon’s Teeth</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The growth of German trade.—Balkan hatreds.—The wonderful + alliance against Turkey.—The sympathies of the big nations.—Their + interference and its results.—A new kingdom.—The second war.—The + work of diplomacy.—The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria. + </p> + + <p> + Germany’s position in Europe was not favorable to her trade. Her ships, in + order to carry on commerce with the peoples of the Mediterranean, had to + go a great deal farther than those of France or England. As a result, the + Germans had been looking toward Constantinople and southwestern Asia as + the part of the world with which their commerce ought to grow. It was + Germany’s plan to control the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip + of territory, including Germany, Austria, the Balkan states, and Turkey + through which her trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia, and India. + </p> + + <p> + The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each other has already been + explained. The Bulgarians hated the Serbians, with whom they had fought a + bloody war in 1885. The Serbians despised the Bulgarians. The Albanians + had no love for either nation, while the Greeks looked down on all the + others. Montenegro and Serbia were friends, naturally, since they were + inhabited by the same kind of people and had once been parts of the + original kingdom of Serbia. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map19"></a> +<img src="images/map19.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Turkey As the Four Balkan Allies intended to divide it. +(1912-13)</p> +</div> + + <p> + Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world that she would pay no more tribute + to Turkey, and after this was to be counted one of the independent nations + of Europe. The Bulgarians had grown so strong and the Turks so weak, that + Turkey did not dare go to war, so permitted the matter to go unnoticed. + The only thing on which all the Balkan nations and Greece could agree was + their bitter hatred of the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged them + cruelly for the last three hundred and fifty years. + </p> + + <p> + Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, at last accomplished a + wonderful bit of diplomacy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, + and Greece to forget their old time dislike of each other, for the time + being, and declare war jointly on Turkey. In order that there should not + be any quarreling over the spoils when the war was over, the four little + nations agreed, in a secret treaty, that when they got through with + Turkey, they would divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite map. The + head, including Constantinople, was to be left for Russia, of course. + Bulgaria was to take the back and the great part of the body, Greece was + to annex the drumsticks and the second joint. The rest of the body was to + go to Serbia with the exception of the very tail, including the city of + Scutari, which was to be given to Montenegro. Serbia was at last to have a + seacoast and a chance to trade with other nations than Austria. The Serbs + had a grudge against the Austrians, for the latter, taking advantage of + the fact that all Serbian trade with Europe had to go through their + country, had charged them exorbitant prices for manufactured goods and + paid them very little for their own products in return. Bulgaria was to + have Kavala (kȧ va′lȧ) as a seaport on the Aegean and + all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli (găl ĭ′po + li) peninsula. Greece was to have the important city of Salonika (sȧlōni′kȧ), + southern Macedonia, and southern Albania. + </p> + + <p> + With this secret agreement between them, the four little states went to + war with Turkey. In accordance with the new friendship sprung up between + Germany and the Ottomans, German officers and generals were sent to + Constantinople to drill the Turkish troops. Cannon and machine guns were + sent them from German factories, and their rifles were fed with German + bullets. The four little countries, accordingly, turned to France and + Russia for assistance. Their troops were armed with French cannon and + machine guns, and their military advisers were French and Russians. While + the big nations managed to keep out of the war themselves, all were + strongly interested in one side or the other. + </p> + + <p> + The result was a complete surprise to Austria and Germany. To their + consternation and disgust, the four little nations made short work of the + Turkish troops. In eight months, Turkey was thoroughly beaten, and the + allies were ready to put through their program of dividing up the spoils. + </p> + + <p> + And now, once more, the great powers meddled, and by their interference + laid the foundation for future wars and misery. Austria and Germany saw + their path to Constantinople and the east cut right in two. Their + railroads, instead of passing through a series of countries under German + control, now were to be cut asunder by an arm of Slavic states under + Russian protection, which would certainly stop German progress toward + Asia. + </p> + + <p> + With the map as it had been before the war of 1912, there was one little + strip of territory, called the Sanjak of Novibazar, between Serbia and + Montenegro, which connected Turkey with Austria. To be sure, this country + was inhabited almost entirely by Serbians, but so long as it was under the + military control of Austria and Turkey, German railway trains bound for + the east could traverse it. Now Serbia and Montenegro proposed to divide + this country up between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her seaport on the + Adriatic, could send her trade upon the water to find new markets in + Italy, Spain, and France. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus47"></a> +<img src="images/47.jpg" width="201" height="102" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Durazzo</p> +</div> + + <p> + The Italians had always wanted to control the Adriatic Sea. They longed + for the time when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be turned over to + them by Austria. The cities of Durazzo (dū rȧt′zō) + and Avlona on the Albanian coast were inhabited by many Italians, and + Italy had always cherished the hope that they might belong to her. + Therefore, the Italians did not take kindly to the Serbian program of + seizing this coast. At any rate, as soon as the four little countries + announced their intention of dividing up Turkey in Europe among + themselves, Austria, Germany, and Italy raised a great clamor. + </p> + + <p> + Another meeting of representatives of the great powers was held, and once + more the Germans were able to carry their point. Instead of allowing the + four little countries to divide up the conquered land between them, the + powers made a fifth small country, the kingdom of Albania, and brought + down from Germany a little prince to rule over these wild mountaineers. + Notice that the Albanians were not consulted. The great powers simply took + a map, drew a certain line on it and said, “This shall be the kingdom of + Albania, and its king shall be Prince William of Wied.” Again we have a + king-made map with the usual trail of grievances. + </p> + + <p> + This arrangement robbed Montenegro of Scutari, robbed Serbia of its + seaport on the Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country west of Janina + (yȧ nï′nȧ). France and Russia did not like this + program, but they did not feel like fighting the Triple Alliance to + prevent its being put into effect. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map20"></a> +<img src="images/map20.jpg" width="700" height="470" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Changes as a Result of the Two Balkan Wars 1912-13</p> +</div> + + <p> + The three little countries, separated from a great part of their new + territory, now turned to Bulgaria, and, practically, said to her, “Since + we have been robbed of Albania, we will have to divide up all over again. + You must give us part of your plunder in order to ‘make it square.’” Now + was the time for the ancient ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their + neighbors to show itself. In reply to this invitation, Bulgaria said, in + so many words, “Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of the fight. + It was really we who conquered Turkey. Your little armies had a very + insignificant part in the war. If you want any more land, we dare you to + come and take it.” And the Bulgarians made a treacherous night attack on + their recent allies, which brought a declaration of war from the three + little nations. + </p> + + <p> + This quarrel, of course, was exactly what Germany and Austria wanted. It + accomplished their purpose of breaking up this Balkan alliance under the + protection of Russia. So with Austria and Germany egging on Bulgaria, and + Russia and France doing their best to induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and + surrender some land to Greece and Serbia, the second Balkan war began in + 1913 almost before the last cannon discharged in the first war had cooled. + </p> + + <p> + Again, Europe was astonished, for the victorious Bulgarians, who had been + mainly responsible for the defeat of the Turks, went down to defeat before + the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody field of Bregalnitza (brĕg′ȧl + nĭt zȧ). To add to Bulgaria’s troubles, the Turks, taking + advantage of the discord among their late opponents, suddenly attacked the + Bulgarians in the rear and stole back the city of Adrianople, which had + cost the Bulgarians so much trouble to capture. In the meantime, Roumania, + which up to this point had had no part in any of the fighting, saw all of + her neighbors growing larger at the expense of Turkey. The Roumanian + statesmen, asking what was to be their share of the spoils, and moved + simply by a greedy desire to enlarge their kingdom, declared war on + Bulgaria also. + </p> + + <p> + Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, had to buy peace at the best + price she could make. She bought off Roumania by giving to her a strip of + land in the country called the Dobrudja (dō brood′jȧ) + between the Danube River and the Black Sea. She had to agree to a new + boundary line with Turkey by which the Turks kept Adrianople. She had to + give Kavala and the surrounding country to Greece and the territory around + Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′) to Serbia, although these + districts were inhabited largely by her own people. + </p> + + <p> + Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient friend and protector, Russia. + The Russians were disgusted to think that the Bulgarians had refused to + listen to them when they urged them to grant some small pieces of land to + Greece and Serbia at the close of the first war. They felt that the + Bulgarians had been headstrong and richly deserved what they got. + Therefore, Russia refused to interfere now and save Bulgaria from + humiliation. In the end, Austrian diplomacy had accomplished a great deal + of mischief. The Balkan alliance under the protection of Russia was badly + broken up. The old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria, which had been + buried for the time being during the first Balkan war, now broke out with + greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked, feeling revengeful against all + of her neighbors, but especially angry at Russia, who had always been her + friend before. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did the Germans desire a road to the east? + </li> + <li> + What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations were united? + </li> + <li> + What was Russia’s purpose in helping to form the Balkan Alliance? + </li> + <li> + Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four little + countries from carrying out their secret agreement? + </li> + <li> + What was the cause of the second Balkan war? + </li> + <li> + Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it begin? + </li> + <li> + Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus48"></a> +<img src="images/48.jpg" width="400" height="268" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Modern Dreadnaught</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap16"></a>Chapter XVI.<br/> +Who Profits?</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The race for power on the sea.—The “naval holiday” declined.—The + declining birth-rate.—The growth of the Socialists.—The + militarists of Germany.—How wars cure labor troubles.—The + forces behind the war game.—Profits and press agents. + </p> + + <p> + Let us turn back to the great powers of Europe. We spoke of their mad + race, each nation trying to build more ships and bigger ships than its + neighbors and to outstrip them in cannon and other munitions of war. The + German navy had been growing by leaps and bounds. From being the sixth + largest navy in the world, within ten years it had grown to second place. + But, fast as the Germans built ships, the English built them more rapidly + still. England built a monstrous battleship called the Dreadnaught, which + was twice as heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany promptly + replied by planning four ships of the dreadnaught class, and England came + back with some still larger vessels which are known as super-dreadnaughts. + </p> + + <p> + At last, the English first lord of the navy, Mr. Winston Churchill, + proposed to Germany that each country take a “naval holiday.” In other + words, he practically said to Germany, “If you people will stop building + warships for a year, we will also. Then at the end of the year, we shall + be no worse off or better off than we were at the beginning.” + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus49"></a> +<img src="images/49.jpg" width="201" height="105" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Submarine</p> +</div> + + <p> + Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, it showed that England could not + stand the strain very much longer. “Besides,” said the Germans, “it is all + very well for England to be satisfied with her present navy, which is half + again as large as ours. If our navy were the strongest in the world, we + too would be glad to have all nations stop building warships,” and they + laid down the keels of four new super-dreadnaughts. + </p> + + <p> + But other things disturbed the peace of mind of the German militarists. + For a long time, the population of France had not been increasing, while + Germany almost doubled her numbers from 1860 to 1900. Now, to their + dismay, the German birth-rate began to grow less and they saw the + population of Russia growing larger by 20% every ten years. Again, they + learned that Russia was about to build a series of railroads near the + German frontier which would enable them to rush an army to attack Germany + at very short notice. The Germans already had such railroads in their own + country, but they did not propose to let their neighbors have this + advantage also. + </p> + + <p> + Again, France had recently passed a law forcing every young man to put + three years in military service instead of two. This would increase + France’s standing army by 50 per cent. The German people, who up to this + time had been very docile and very obedient to the military rule, were + showing signs of discontent. The Socialists, a party who represented the + working people largely, and who were strongly opposed to war, had been + growing very fast. In the last election, they had gained many + representatives in the German congress, and had cast over 4,000,000 votes. + The only thing that kept them from having a majority in the Reichstag (the + German congress) was the fact that in some districts, the voters of the + other parties combined against them. In this way, the military class still + held control of the German government, but it was afraid that it would not + be for long. + </p> + + <p> + With nearly half the able-bodied men in the country spending their time + drilling and doing guard duty, the other half of the population had to + earn money enough to support their own families and also the families of + the men in the army. As one writer has put it, “Every workingman in Europe + carried a soldier on his back who reached down and took the bread out of + his platter.” + </p> + + <p> + The program of Bismarck was still in the minds of the military leaders of + Germany. The military class must rule Prussia, Prussia must rule Germany, + and Germany must be the greatest power in Europe. To their minds, war + between Germany and her allies and the rest of Europe must come. Being + warriors by trade and having nothing else to do, they saw that, if the + great war were postponed much longer, the chances of Germany’s winning it + would grow less and less. France and Russia were growing stronger and + Germany was unable to catch up to England’s navy. It should be remembered + that this class made up a small part only of the German nation. Their + influence was all out of proportion to their numbers. They controlled the + government, and the government controlled the schools and the newspapers. + The people believed what they were told. They were simply parts of the war + machine. Bismarck’s policy had been to crush his enemies one by one. He + never entered a war until he was sure that Prussia was bound to win it. In + like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 hoped to conquer France + and Russia before England was ready. It was the old story as told by + Shakespeare. “Our legions are brim full, our cause is ripe. The enemy + increaseth every day. We, at the height, are ready to decline.” + </p> + + <p> + Russia, too, was having her troubles. After the czar had promised the + nation a constitution and had agreed to allow a duma or parliament to be + called together, the military class, who were trying to keep the common + people under control and in ignorance as much as possible had been able to + prevent the duma from obtaining any power. It had much less freedom than + the German Reichstag. It was permitted to meet and to talk, but not to + pass laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he was sent to Siberia for + life. There were murmurs and threats. There were labor troubles and + strikes. The people of Russia, especially those living in cities, were + learning how little freedom they had, compared with citizens of other + countries, and the time seemed ripe for a revolution. + </p> + + <p> + It has always been the policy of kings to take the minds of their people + off their own wrongs by giving them some foreign war to think about. + Although the Russian government did all that it could to prevent the war + without completely betraying Serbia, still the war probably put off the + Russian Revolution for two years. + </p> + + <p> + It must be kept in mind that in Germany and especially in Prussia there + was a class of people who had no trade but war. These were the so-called + Junkers (Yo͝onkers), direct descendants of the old feudal barons. + They were owners of rich tracts of land which had been handed down to them + by their fore-fathers. The rent paid to them by the people who lived on + their farms supported them richly in idleness. Just as their ancestors in + the old days had lived only by fighting and plundering, so these people + still had the idea that anything that they could take by force was theirs. + </p> + + <p> + Bismarck was a Junker of Junkers. He had nothing but contempt for the + common people and their law-making bodies. In the early days when he was + Prime Minister of the Prussian kingdom, the Congress had refused to vote + to raise certain moneys through taxes that Bismarck advised, because he + wanted to spend all of it in preparations for war. In spite of the vote of + the representatives of the people, Bismarck went right on collecting the + money and spending it as he wished. Later on, after the Prussian army had + won its rapid victories, first over the Danes, then over the Austrians, + and lastly over the French, the Prussian people, swollen with pride at + what their armies had accomplished, forgave Bismarck for riding rough-shod + over their liberties. But Bismarck was able to do what he did because he + had the backing of the king and the great land-owning Junker class. + </p> + + <p> + In 1870 this was the only class in Prussia that had any power. By 1914, + however, a change had come about. The wonderful development of Germany’s + trade and manufacturing had brought wealth and power to the merchant class + and these had to be considered when plans for war were being formed. + </p> + +<p> +Naturally, the outbreak of war disturbs trade very much, especially trade with +foreign countries. A great deal of the German commerce, carried on with Great +Britain, the United States, South America, and far distant colonies, had to +travel over the ocean. German merchants would never support a war cheerfully if +they thought that their trade would be interrupted for any length of time. So +the Junkers, when they made up their minds to wage war for the conquest of +France and Russia, persuaded the merchants that after these countries had been +conquered they would be forced to give a big sum of money to Germany which +would more than pay her back for the full cost of the war. Then the Russians +would be compelled, as a result of the war, to promise to trade only with +German merchants and manufacturers, and thus everybody in Germany would be much +richer.<a href="#fn-6" name="fnref-6" id="fnref-6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6" id="fn-6"></a> <a href="#fnref-6">[6]</a> +When England came in, the merchants of Germany were very down-hearted, for they +saw all their over-seas trade cut off at a blow. But the Junkers called +together the leading merchants and bribed them with promises. In the year 1918 +one of the prominent manufacturers of Germany made a statement which got out +and was published in the countries of the Entente. After telling how the blame +for the war was to be laid at the door of the land-owning, military class, he +confessed that he personally had been bribed to support the war by the promise +of thirty thousand acres of Australian land, which was to be given to him after +Germany had conquered the world. This, of course, was pure piracy; the motto of +Prussia for some time had been that piracy pays. +</p> + + <p> + There was one class of manufacturers who did not lose trade, but gained it + through a war. This was composed of the makers of guns and munitions. They + were clamorously back of the Junkers in their demands for war. These + people profited by preparation for war. They kept inventing newer and + stronger guns so that the weapons which they had sold the governments one + year would be out-of-date the next, ready to be thrown on the scrap heap. + In this way, the factories were kept working over-time and their profits + were enormous. This money, of course, came out of the taxes of the common + people. + </p> + + <p> + Their surplus profits the munition makers invested sometimes in + newspapers. It was proved in the German Reichstag in 1913 that the great + gun-makers of Prussia had a force of hired newspaper writers to keep up + threats of war. They paid certain papers in Paris to print articles to + make the French people think that the Germans were about to attack them. + These same gun-makers in Berlin tried to persuade the German people that + the French were on the point of attacking them. + </p> + + <p> + All of this played into the hands of the Junkers by making people all over + Europe feel that war could not be avoided. Thus when the Junkers were + ready to strike and the great war broke out, people would say, “At last it + has come, the war that we knew was inevitable.” + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did Germany decline to take a “naval holiday”? + </li> + <li> + What is meant by “strategic railroads”? + </li> + <li> + Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth of the Socialist + Party? + </li> + <li> + What was the fate of popular government in Russia? + </li> + <li> + How did the Junkers owe their power to the feudal system? + </li> + <li> + How were the German merchants won over to war? + </li> + <li> + What part had the gun-makers in bringing on war? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap17"></a>Chapter XVII.<br/> +The Spark that Exploded the Magazine</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The year 1914.—England’s troubles.—Plots for a “Greater + Serbia.”—The hated archduke.—The shot whose echoes shook the + whole world.—Austria’s extreme demands.—Russia threatens.—Frantic + attempts to prevent war.—Mobilizing on both sides.—Germany’s + tiger-like spring.—The forts of the Vosges Mountains.—The + other path to Paris.—The neutrality of Belgium.—Belgium + defends herself. + </p> + + <p> + The year 1914 found England involved in serious difficulties. Her + parliament had voted to give home rule to Ireland. There was to be an + Irish parliament, which would govern Ireland as the Irish wanted it + governed. Ulster, a province in the northeast of Ireland, however, was + very unhappy over this arrangement. Its people were largely of English and + Scotch descent, and they were Protestants, while the other inhabitants of + Ireland were Celts and Catholics. The people of this province were so + bitter against home rule that they actually imported rifles and drilled + regiments, saying that they would start a civil war if England compelled + them to be governed by an Irish parliament. + </p> + + <p> + There were labor troubles and strikes, also, in England, and threatened + revolutions in India, where the English government was none too popular. + Altogether, the German war lords felt sure that England had so many + troubles of her own that she would never dare to enter a general European + war. + </p> + + <p> + Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina + to Austria, were busily stirring up the people of these provinces to + revolt. The military leaders who really ruled Austria, were in favor of + crushing these attempted uprisings with an iron hand. + </p> + + <p> + One of the leaders of this party, a man who was greatly hated by the + Bosnians, was the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the emperor and heir + to the throne. He finally announced that he was going in person to + Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō) in Bosnia to look + into the situation himself. The people of the city warned him not to come, + saying that his life would be in danger, as he was so hated. Being a + headstrong man of violent temper, he refused to listen to this advice, but + insisted on going. His devoted wife, after doing her best to dissuade him, + finally refused to let him go without her. + </p> + + <p> + When it was known that he was really coming, the Bosnian revolutionists + laid their plans. They found out just where his carriage was to pass, and + at almost every street corner, they had some assassin with bomb or pistol. + One bomb was thrown at him, but it exploded too soon, and he escaped. + Bursting with indignation, he was threatening the mayor for his lax + policing, when a second assassin, a nineteen year old boy, stepped up with + a pistol and shot to death the archduke and his wife. + </p> + + <p> + Many people have referred to this incident as the cause of the great + European war. As you have been shown, however, this was simply the spark + that exploded the magazine. With the whole situation as highly charged as + it was, any other little spark would have been enough to set the war + a-going. + </p> + + <p> + The Austrian government sent word to Serbia that the crime had been traced + to Serbian plotters, some of them in the employ of the government. It + demanded that Serbia apologize; also that she hunt out and punish the + plotters at once. And because Austria did not trust the Serbians to hold + an honest investigation, she demanded that her officers should sit in the + Serbian courts as judges. + </p> + + <p> + Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, and think what the United + States would say if the Tokio government insisted that a Japanese judge be + sent to California to try the case because Japan could not trust America + to give her justice! The Serbians, of course, were in no position to fight + a great power like Austria-Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, they + could not submit to such a demand as this. They agreed to all the Austrian + demands except the one concerning the Austrian judges in Serbian courts. + They appealed to the other powers to see that justice was done them. + </p> + + <p> + Russia growled ominously at Austria, whereupon Germany sent a sharp + warning to Russia that this was none of her affair, and that Austria and + Serbia must be left to fight it out. In the meantime, Serbia offered to + lay the matter before the court of arbitration at the Hague. (In 1899, at + the invitation of the czar of Russia, representatives of all the great + powers of Europe met at the Hague to found a lasting court which should + decide disputes between nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, to + as great an extent as possible. The court has several times been + successful in averting trouble.) + </p> + + <p> + Great Britain proposed that the dispute between Austria and Serbia should + be judged by a court composed of representatives of France, England, + Italy, and Germany. Austria’s reply to the proposals of England and Serbia + was a notice to the latter country that she had just forty-eight hours in + which to give in completely to the Austrian demands. In the mean-time, Mr. + Sazanoff, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, was vainly pleading + with England to declare what she would do in case the Triple Alliance + started a war with France and Russia. + </p> + + <p> + Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, trying to prevent the + threatened conflict. The story was sent out by Germany that Russia was + gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as it is called. As Russia has so + much more territory to draw from than any other country, and as her + railroads are not many and are poorly served, it was figured that it would + be six weeks before the Russian army would be ready to fight anybody. + Germany, on the other hand, with her wonderful system of government-owned + railroads, and the machine-like organization of her army, could launch her + forces across the frontier at two days’ notice. As soon as the Germans + began to hear that the Russians were mobilizing their troops against + Austria, Germany set in motion the rapid machinery for gathering her own + army. She sent a sharp message to Russia, warning the latter that she must + instantly stop mobilizing or Germany would declare war. Next the Germans + asked France what she intended to do in case Germany and Austria declared + war on Russia. France replied that she would act in accordance with what + seemed to be her best interests. This answer did not seem very reassuring, + and without any declaration of war, the German army rushed for the French + frontier. + </p> + + <p> + Now ever since the war of 1870, France had been building a line of great + forts across the narrow stretch of ground where her territory approached + that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, Epinal, Verdun, Longwy, they ranged + through the mountains northeast of France as guardians of their country + against another German attack. To rush an army into France over this rough + country and between these great fortresses was impossible. Modern armies + carry great guns with them which cannot climb steep grades. Therefore, if + Germany wanted to strike a quick, smashing blow at France and get her + armies back six weeks later to meet the slow-moving Russians, it was plain + that she must seek some other approach than that through the Vosges + Mountains. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus50"></a> +<img src="images/50.jpg" width="399" height="265" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns</p> +</div> + + <p> + From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in Germany, through the northern and + western part of Belgium, there stretches a flat plain, with level roads, + easy to cross. (See <a href="#map21">map</a>.) Now, years before, + Belgium had been promised by France, Prussia, and England that no one of + them would disturb its neutrality. In other words it was pledged that in + case of a war, no armed force of any of these three nations should enter + Belgian territory, nor should Belgium be involved in any trouble arising + among them. In case any one of the nations named or in fact any other + hostile force, invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were bound to + rush to Belgium’s aid. Belgium, in return, had agreed to resist with her + small army any troops which might invade her country. + </p> + + <p> + In spite of the fact that their nation had signed this treaty, the Germans + started their rush toward France, not through the line of forts in the + mountains, but across the gently rolling plain to the north. They first + asked permission of the Belgians to pass through their country. On being + refused, they entered Belgian territory just east of Liége (lï + ĕzh′). The Belgians telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The + Germans replied that they were sorry but it was necessary for them to + invade Belgium in order to attack France. They agreed to do no damage and + to pay the Belgians for any supplies or food which their army might seize. + The Belgians replied that by their treaty with France, England, and + Germany they were bound on their honor to resist just such an invasion as + this. They asked the Germans how Germany would regard them if they were to + permit a French army to cross Belgian territory to take Germany by + surprise. The Germans again said that they were sorry, but that if Belgium + refused permission to their army to cross, the army would go through + without permission. It was a dreadful decision that Belgium had to make, + but she did not hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to resist by all + means the passage of the German troops. The great war had begun. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map21"></a> +<img src="images/map21.jpg" width="400" height="389" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Map showing the Two Routes from Germany to Paris.</p> +</div> + + <p> + As we look over the evidence the German war lords must bear the blame, + almost alone. + </p> + + <p> + The Austrians had been eager to attack Serbia, even in 1913, thinking that + this little country had grown too powerful, as a result of her victories + in the two Balkan wars. But Austria had counted on “bluffing” Russia to + keep out, as she had been bluffed in 1908, and when she saw that this time + the Russians meant business, she became frightened and sent word that she + might be willing to settle the question without fighting. But the Germans + were bent on war, and as they saw their ally wavering, they sent their + warning that Russian mobilization would be considered a ground for war. + </p> + + <p> + Now this was ridiculous. In 1908, when the trouble over Bosnia was at its + height, both Austria and Russia had their armies mobilized and ready for + war for weeks and months. Still no war came out of it. It looked as if + Germany was hard put to it to find an excuse for launching her plan to + conquer Europe. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did Ulster object to home rule? + </li> + <li> + What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia? + </li> + <li> + Why did Russia interfere between Austria and Serbia? + </li> + <li> + Why did Russia mobilize her troops? + </li> + <li> + Why was the road through Belgium chosen? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap18"></a>Chapter XVIII.<br/> +Why England Came In</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The question of Italy and England.—Italy’s position.—The war + with Turkey.—Italy declines to join her allies.—England is + aware of the German plans.—The treaty with Belgium.—The + “defensive” war.—The “scrap of paper.”—Germany’s rage at + England’s declaration of war.—England does the unexpected. + </p> + + <p> + France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were combined against Austria and + Germany. Little Montenegro also rushed to the help of her neighbor and + kinsman, Serbia. The question was, what would Italy and England do. Italy, + like Russia and Germany, had been having trouble in holding down her + people. A revolution had been threatened which would overthrow the king + and set up a republic. The Socialist Party, representing the working + class, had been growing very strong, and one of their greatest principles + was that all war is wrong. They felt that the Triple Alliance made by the + Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian people. Throughout the + entire peninsula, the Austrians were hated. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember that France had aroused the Italians’ anger in 1881 by + seizing Tunis. Italy had hoped to snap up this province for herself, for + the Italian peninsula was crowded with people, and as the population + increased, it was thought necessary that colonies be established to which + the people could migrate to have more room. Finally in 1911, in order to + divert the minds of the people from revolutionary thoughts, the government + organized an expedition to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like Egypt, was + supposed to belong to Turkey. + </p> + + <p> + This meant war with the government at Constantinople, and Germany and + Austria were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attacking Turkey, with + which the Austrians and Germans were trying to establish a firm + friendship. However, “self-preservation is the first law of nature,” and + the Italian king and nobles valued their leadership in the nation much + more than they dreaded the dislike of Germany and Austria. + </p> + + <p> + The Germans had counted on Italy to join in the attack on Russia and + France, but the Italian statesmen knew the feelings of their people too + well to attempt this. Of late years, there had been growing up a + friendship between the people of Italy and those of France, and the + Italian generals knew that it would be a difficult task to induce their + men to fire upon their kinsmen from across the Alps. Therefore, when + Austria and Germany demanded their support in the war, they replied by + pointing out that the terms of the Triple Alliance bound Italy to go to + their help only <i>if they were attacked</i>. “In this case,” said the + Italians, “you are the attacking party. The treaty does not bind us to + support you in any war conquest. What is more, we were not consulted + before Austria sent to Serbia her impossible demands. Expect no help from + us.” + </p> + + <p> + Now the great question arose as to England. The English statesmen were not + blind to the German plan. They saw that Germany intended to crush France + first, capturing Paris and dealing the French army such an overwhelming + blow that it would take it a long time to recover. Then the German armies + were to be rushed back over their marvelous system of government-owned + railroads to meet the on-coming German tide of Russians. + </p> + + <p> + The Germans knew that they were well provided with ammunition and all war + supplies. They knew that they had invented some wonderful guns which were + large enough to batter down the strongest forts in the world. They did not + have very much respect for the ability of the Russian generals. They had + watched them bungle badly in the Japanese war, ten years before. If once + France were brought to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then after + France and Russia had been beaten, there would be plenty of time, later + on, to settle with Great Britain. + </p> + + <p> + The English statesmen, as we have said, were aware of this plan. They saw + that if they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal time. However, + Great Britain, having a government which is more in the hands of the + people than even that of republican France, did not have the system of + forcing her young men to do military service. Her little army in England + was made up entirely of men who enlisted in it because they wished to, and + because they received fair pay. If England were to enter a great war with + Germany, there must be some very good reason for her doing so. Otherwise, + her people, who really did not hate the Germans, would never enlist to + fight against them. The question was, would anything happen to make the + English people feel that they were justified in entering the war on the + side of France and Russia. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember that England, France, and Prussia had promised each + other to protect Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, France and + Prussia had carefully avoided bringing their troops upon Belgian soil. + Now, however, with the German army invading Belgium, the English statesmen + had to decide their course. As heads of one of the nations to guarantee + Belgium’s freedom, they called on Germany to explain this unprovoked + invasion. The Germans made no answer. They were busily attacking the city + of Liége. Great Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in which to + withdraw her troops. At the end of this time, with Germany paying no + attention still, England solemnly declared war and took her stand + alongside of Russia and France. + </p> + + <p> + The Germans were furious. They had no bitter feeling against the French. + They realized that France was obliged, by the terms of her alliance, to + stand by Russia, but they had confidently counted on keeping England out + of the war. In fact, the German ambassador to England had assured the + German emperor that England had so many troubles, with her uprising in + Ireland and threatened rebellions in India and South Africa that she would + never dare fight at this time. + </p> + + <p> + The English people, on the other hand, were now thoroughly aroused. If + there is one thing that an Englishman prides himself on, it is keeping his + word. The word of the English had been given, through their government, to + Belgium that this little country, if it should resist invasion, would be + protected, and this word they thought must be kept at all hazards. It made + no difference that, aside from her great navy, England was utterly + unprepared for the war. Like the decision which Belgium had had to make + the day before, this was a crucial step for the British to take, but to + their everlasting honor they did not hesitate. In the case of Germany’s + declaration of war the German laws say that no war can be declared by the + Kaiser alone unless it is a defensive war. Therefore, as one American + writer has pointed out, this is the only kind of war that the Kaiser ever + declares. The German military group, having control of the newspapers, put + in a lot of stories made up for the occasion about French soldiers having + crossed the border and shot down Germans on August 2nd. They told how + French aviators had dropped bombs on certain German cities. As a matter of + fact, the French soldiers, by orders of their government, were drawn back + from the frontier a distance of six miles in order to avoid any appearance + of attacking the Germans. The City Council of Nuremburg, one of the cities + that was said to have been bombed by the French, later gave out a formal + statement saying that no bombs had fallen on their city and no French + aviators had been seen near it. But the German government gave out this + “news” and promptly declared a “defensive” war, and the German people had + to believe what they were told. + </p> + + <p> + Very different was the case in England. Here was a free people, with free + schools and free newspapers. Just as every German had been taught in the + schools of his country that Germany was surrounded by a ring of jealous + enemies and would one day have to fight them all, so the people of England + had been taught in their schools that war between civilized peoples is a + hateful thing and must finally disappear from the earth. + </p> + + <p> + The English labor leaders who themselves protested against the war at + first, in hopes that the German Socialists would do the same, were doomed + to be grievously disappointed, for in Germany the protests against war + were still more feeble. The newspapers, with few exceptions, as was + previously pointed out, were under the control of the military leaders and + the manufacturers of war materials. These papers persuaded the German + people that England, through her jealousy of Germany’s great growth in + trade, had egged on Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany and + Austria, and then had declared war herself on a flimsy pretext. At first + the entire German nation believed this. Until Prince Lichnowsky, the + former German ambassador to Great Britain, published a story in which he + told how the German government had forced the war in spite of all that + England could do to prevent it, the Germans thought, as their war chiefs + told them, that the war was forced upon Germany by her jealous enemies. + </p> + + <p> + Thus the military leaders of Germany, descendants of the old feudal + nobles, were able to make the whole German nation hate the English people. + </p> + + <p> + When the English ambassador to Berlin went to see the chancellor (as the + prime-minister of the German Empire is called) and told him that unless + German troops were immediately withdrawn from Belgium, England would + declare war, for the Belgian government had a treaty signed by England + promising them protection, the German chancellor exclaimed. “What! Would + you plunge into this terrible war for the sake of a scrap of paper!” The + chancellor was excited. As you have been told before, the Germans were + sure that England, being unprepared for the war, would never dare to go + into it. This threatened to upset all their well-laid plans for the + conquest of France and then Russia. For the moment the chancellor forgot + his diplomacy. He blurted out the truth. He showed the world that honor + had no place in the minds of the German war lords. To the English a treaty + with Belgium was a sacred pledge; to the Germans it was something which + could be torn up at a moment’s notice if it stood in the way of their + interests. + </p> + + <p> + There was a violent outburst against England in all of the newspapers of + Germany. A German poet wrote a dreadful poem called “The Hymn of Hate,” in + which he told how while they had no love for the Frenchman or the Russian, + they had no hate for them either. One nation alone they hated—England! + “Gott strafe England” (may God punish England) became the war cry of the + Germans. + </p> + + <p> + Everything had gone according to their pre-arranged plans until England + decided that her promise given to Belgium stood first, even before the + terrible loss and suffering of a great war. That any nation should put her + honor before her comfort and profit, had never occurred to the war leaders + of Germany. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911? + </li> + <li> + Why did not Italy join in the attack on France? + </li> + <li> + What was Germany’s plan? + </li> + <li> + How is the English army different from others? + </li> + <li> + What reason had England for declaring war? + </li> + <li> + Had the German’s expected England to attack them? Give reasons for + your answer. + </li> + <li> + Why did the phrase “scrap of paper” make such a deep impression on the + world? + </li> + <li> + Why did the war lords hate the British so deeply? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap19"></a>Chapter XIX.<br/> +Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires.—The demands of + Italy.—She joins the Triple Entente.—The retreat of the + Russians.—The Balkans again.—Bulgaria’s bargaining.—German + princes on Balkan thrones.—The central empires bid the highest for + Bulgarian support.—The attitude of Greece.—Roumania’s hopes. + </p> + + <p> + To return to the great war. The diplomats of both sides made all haste to + put pressure upon the governments of the countries which were not engaged + in the struggle, in order to win them over. Germany and Austria worked + hard with Italy, with Turkey, and with Bulgaria. The Turks were the first + to plunge in. The party headed by Enver Bey (the young minister of war) + saw that a victory for Russia and her allies meant the final expulsion of + the Turks from Europe. Only in the victory of Germany and Austria did this + faction see any hope for Turkey. It was the latter part of October (1914) + when Turkish warships, without any provocation, sailed into some Russian + ports on the Black Sea and blazed away with their big guns. + </p> + + <p> + Some of the older Turkish statesmen were terrified, and did their best to + get the government at Constantinople to disclaim all responsibility for + this act of their naval commanders. The “Young Turks,” however, were all + for war on the side of Germany. What is more, Russia, always anxious for + an excuse to seize Constantinople, would not allow the Turks to apologize + for their act and keep out of trouble. She declared war on Turkey, and was + quickly followed by France and England. + </p> + + <p> + Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was plain that all the sympathies + of the Italian people were with France and England. The six grandsons of + Garibaldi formed an Italian regiment and volunteered for fighting on the + French lines. Two of them were killed, and at their funerals in Rome, + nearly all the inhabitants of the city turned out and showed plainly that + they too would like to be fighting on the side of France. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember that Italy wanted very much to gain the provinces of + Trentino and Istria, with the cities of Trent, Trieste (trï ĕs′te), + Pola (pō′lä), and Fiume (fē ū′me), all + inhabited by Italian people. The possession of these counties and cities + by Austria had been the greatest source of trouble between the two + nations. Italy now came out boldly, and demanded, as the price of her + keeping out of the war, that Austria give to her this land inhabited by + Italians. Germany urged Austria to do this, and sent as her special + ambassador, to keep Italy from joining her enemies, Prince von Bulow, + whose wife was an Italian lady, and who was very popular with the Italian + statesmen. + </p> + + <p> + For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, first trying to induce Italy to + accept a small part of the disputed territory and then, when he found this + impossible, doing his best to induce Austria to give it all. Austria was + stubborn. She did not take kindly to the plan of giving away her cities. + She offered to cede some territory if Italy should wait until the end of + the war. + </p> + + <p> + This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no means certain that Austria and + Germany were going to win the war and was even less sure that Austria + would be willing, in case of her victory, to give up a foot of territory. + It seemed to the Italian statesmen that it was “now or never” if Italy + wished to get within her kingdom all of her own people. In the month of + May 1915 Italy threw herself into the struggle by declaring war on Austria + and entering an alliance with Russia, France, and England. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus51"></a> +<img src="images/51.jpg" width="400" height="267" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Russian peasants fleeing before the German army</p> +</div> + + <p> + Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficulties. They had millions and + millions of men, but not enough rifles to equip them all. They had plenty + of food but very little ammunition for their cannon. Austria and Germany, + on the other hand, had been manufacturing shot and shells in enormous + quantities, and from the month of May, when the Russians had crossed the + Carpathian Mountains and were threatening to pour down on Buda-Pest and + Vienna, they drove them steadily back until the first of October, forcing + them to retreat nearly three hundred miles. + </p> + + <p> + In the meantime, the Balkans again became the seat of trouble. You will + recall that Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her victory over + Turkey in the war of 1912, was too grasping when it came to a division of + the conquered territory. Thus she brought on a second war, in the course + of which Greece and Serbia defeated her, while Roumania took a slice of + her territory and the Turks recaptured the city of Adrianople. The czar of + Russia had done his best to prevent this second Balkan war, even sending a + personal telegram to Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria and to King Peter of + Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic race, not to let their + quarrels come to blows. Bulgaria, confident of her ability to defeat + Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the Russians’ pleadings, and as a + result Russia did not interfere to save her when her neighbors were + robbing her of part of the land which she had taken from Turkey. + </p> + +<p> +It will be recalled that Macedonia was the country which Bulgaria had felt most +sorry to lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in their blood, +although many Greeks and Serbs were among them. Therefore, just as Italy strove +by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to her nation, so Bulgaria now saw her +chance to gain Macedonia from Serbia. Accordingly, she asked the four great +powers what they would give her in case she entered the war on their side, and +attacked Turkey by way of Constantinople, while the French and English were +hammering at the forts along the Dardanelles.<a href="#fn-7" name="fnref-7" id="fnref-7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7" id="fn-7"></a> <a href="#fnref-7">[7]</a> +England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great quantities at her +ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and England, by supplying +Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike a hard blow at Germany. +</p> + + <p> + The four powers, after much persuasion and brow-beating, finally induced + Serbia to agree to give up part of Serbian Macedonia to Bulgaria. They + further promised Bulgaria to give her the city of Adrianople and the + territory around it which Turkey had reconquered. But Bulgaria was not + easily satisfied. She wanted more than Serbia was willing to give; she + wanted, too, the port of Kavala, which Greece had taken from her. This the + allies could not promise. + </p> + + <p> + In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining with Austria, Germany, and + Turkey. France, England, and Russia were ready to pay back Serbia for the + loss of Macedonia, by promising her Bosnia and Herzegovina in case they + won the war from Austria. In like fashion, Austria and Germany promised + Bulgaria some Turkish territory and also the southern part of the present + kingdom of Serbia, in case she entered the war on their side. + </p> + + <p> + Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as he prefers to call himself, is a + German. (As these little countries won their independence from Turkey, + they almost always called in foreign princes to be their kings. In this + way it had come about that the king of Greece was a prince of Denmark, the + king of Roumania was a German of the Hohenzollern family, while the czar + of Bulgaria was a German of the Coburg family, the same family which has + furnished England and Belgium with their kings.) + </p> + + <p> + The Bulgarians themselves are members of the Greek Catholic Church, and + they have a very high regard for the czar of Russia, as the head of that + church. Czar Ferdinand had no such feeling, however. He wanted to be the + most powerful ruler in the Balkan states, and it made no difference to him + which side helped him to gain his object. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus52"></a> +<img src="images/52.jpg" width="294" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">A Bomb-Proof Trench in the Western War Front</p> +</div> + + <p id="page239"> + About this time, the Russians had been forced to retreat to a line running + south from Riga, on the Baltic Sea, to the northern boundary of Roumania. + The French and English had been pounding at the Dardanelles for some + months, but the stubborn resistance of the Turks seemed likely to hold + them out of Constantinople for a long time to come. The checked Italians + had not been able to make much headway against the Austrians through the + mountainous Alpine country where the fighting was taking place. In the + west, the Germans were holding firmly against the attacks of the British + and French. The czar of Bulgaria and his ministers, thinking that the + German-Austrian-Turkish alliance could win with their help, flung their + nation into its third war within four years. This happened in Octoher, + 1915. + </p> + + <p> + Now at the close of the second Balkan war, when Serbia and Greece defeated + Bulgaria, they made an alliance, by which each agreed to come to the help + of the other in case either was attacked by Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was + friendly to Greece and Serbia, rather than to treaty Bulgaria, for the + Roumanians knew that Bulgaria was very anxious to get back the territory + of which Roumania had robbed her, in the second Balkan war. In this way, + the Quadruple Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) hoped that the + entry of Bulgaria into the war, on the side of Germany and Turkey, would + bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side. + </p> + + <p> + The Greek people were ready to rush to Serbia’s aid and so was the Greek + prime minister. The queen of Greece, however, is a sister of the German + emperor, and through her influence with her husband she was able to defeat + the plans of Venizelos (vĕn ĭ zĕl′ŏs), the + prime minister, who was notified by the king that Greece would not enter + the war. Venizelos accordingly resigned, but not until he had given + permission to the French and English to land troops at Salonika, for the + purpose of rushing to the help of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that + German and Austrian armies might lay waste her territory, as they had + Serbia’s, before England and France could come to the rescue.) + </p> + + <p> + Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate state. The two Balkan wars had + drained her of some of her best soldiers. Twice the Austrians had invaded + her kingdom in this war, and twice they had been driven out. Then came a + dreadful epidemic of typhus fever which was the result of unhealthful + conditions caused by the war. Now the little kingdom, attacked by the + Germans and Austrians on two sides and by the Bulgarians on a third, was + literally fighting with her back to the wall. She had counted on Greece to + stand by her promise to help in case of an attack from Bulgaria, but we + have seen how the German queen of Greece had been able to prevent this. + Serbia hoped that Roumania, too, would come to her help. However, as you + have been told, the king of Roumania is a German of the Hohenzollern + family, a cousin of the emperor, and in spite of the sympathy of his + people for Italy, France, and Serbia, he was able to keep them from + joining in the defense of the Serbs. + </p> + + <p> + Now Roumania ought to include a great part of Bessarabia (bes ȧ rȧ′bi + ȧ), which is the nearest county of Russia, and also the greater part + of Transylvania and Bukowina (boo kō vï′nȧ), which + are the provinces of Austria-Hungary that lie nearest; for a great part of + the inhabitants of these three counties are Roumanians by blood and + language. They would like to be parts of the kingdom of Roumania, and + Roumania would like to possess them. The Quadruple Entente would promise + Roumania parts of Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined the war on + their side, while the Triple Alliance was ready to promise her Bessarabia. + Roumania, as was said before, was originally settled by colonists sent out + from Rome, and in the eleventh century a large number of people from the + north of Italy settled there. On this account, Roumania looks upon Italy + as her mother country, and it was thought that Italy’s attack upon Austria + would influence her to support the Entente. + </p> + + <p> + Each country wanted to be a friend of the winning side, in order to share + in the spoils. In this way, whenever it looked as if the Quadruple Entente + did not need her help Roumania was eager to offer it, at a price which + seemed to the allies too high. When, however, the tide turned the other + way, she lost her enthusiasm for the cause of her friends, fearing what + the central empires might do to her. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war? + </li> + <li> + Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey declare war on them? + </li> + <li> + What were the feelings of the Italian people? + </li> + <li> + What were the Italian diplomats anxious to gain? + </li> + <li> + What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria upon the Entente + powers? + </li> + <li> + Why did Bulgaria join the central empires? + </li> + <li> + Why did Greece keep out of the conflict? + </li> + <li> + What were Roumania’s hopes? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap20"></a>Chapter XX.<br/> +Back to the Balkans</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The troubles of Crete.—The bigotry of the “Young Turks.”—Venizelos + in Greece.—The pro-German king.—The new government at + Salonika.—The downfall of Constantine.—The ambitions of + Roumania.—Pro-Germans in Russia.—Roumania declares war.—Russian + treachery and German trickery.—The defeat of Roumania. + </p> + + <h3> + Greece + </h3> + + <p> + You will remember the name of Eleutherios Venizelos, the prime minister of + Greece, who tried to get that country to stand by her bargain from Crete + with Serbia (<a href="#page239">pages 239-240</a>). Now Venizelos had + originally come from Crete, a large island inhabited by Greeks, but + controlled by Turkey for many years (see <a href="#map20">map</a>). In + 1897 the Turks had massacred a number of Greek Christians on the island, + and this act had so enraged the inhabitants of Greece that they forced + their king to declare war on Turkey. + </p> + + <p> + Poor little Greece was quickly defeated, but the war called the attention + of the Great Powers of Europe to the cruelties of the Turks, and they + never again allowed Crete to be wholly governed by them. For over a year + Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy had their warships in Cretan + ports and the government of Crete was under their protection. + </p> + + <p> + Finally they called in, to rule over the island, a Greek prince, + Constantine, the son of the king. Eight years later he had become very + unpopular through meddling with Cretan politics—on the wrong side—and + had to leave. + </p> + + <p> + The It was at this time that Venizelos came to the front. The Cretan + government was really independent, like a little kingdom without a king, + and he was its true ruler. Now all the Greeks had looked forward to the + time when they might be united in one great kingdom. The shores of Asia + Minor and the cities along the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles were largely + inhabited by Greeks. Crete and the islands of the Aegean had once been + part of Greece and they never would be content until they were again + joined to it. The Cretan government was ready to vote that the island be + annexed to Greece, when in 1908 there came the revolution of the “Young + Turks” which drove the old Sultan from his throne (<a href="#page186">page + 186</a>). + </p> + + <p> + The Young Turks at the outset of their crusade against the government were + tolerant to all the other races and religions in their country. At first + the Armenians, the Jews, the Albanians, the Greeks, and the Bulgarians in + the Turkish Empire were very happy over the result of the revolution. It + looked as if a new day were dawning for Turkey, when it would be possible + for these various races and different religions to live side by side in + peace. + </p> + + <p> + No sooner were the young Turks in control of the government, however, than + they began to change. “Turkey for the Turks, and for the Turks only” + became their motto. With this in mind they massacred Bulgarians and Greeks + in Macedonia (<a href="#page85">page 85</a>) and Armenians in Asia Minor. + The thought of the loss of Crete roused their anger and they began + scheming to get it back under Turkish rule. + </p> + + <p> + In 1910 Venizelos, seeing the danger of his beloved island, left for + Greece, hoping there to stir up the people to oppose the Turks and annex + Crete. His wonderful eloquence and his single-hearted love for his country + soon made him as prominent on the mainland as he had been in his island + home. Before long he was chosen as prime minister of Greece. + </p> + + <p> + He found the country in a very sad condition. The military officers were + poorly trained. What was worse, they did not know this, but imagined that + their army was the best in the world. The politicians had plundered the + people and there was graft and poor management throughout the government. + </p> + + <p> + Venizelos made a wonderful change. He sent to the French republic for some + of their best generals. These men thoroughly made over the Greek army and + taught the Greek officers the real science of war. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus53"></a> +<img src="images/53.jpg" width="401" height="308" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Venizelos (left) with Greek ambassador to England</p> +</div> + + <p> + Venizelos soon showed the politicians that he could not be frightened, + controlled, or bribed. He discharged some incompetent officials and forced + the others to attend to business. In fact he reorganized the whole + government service in a way to make every department do better work. Few + countries in Europe were as well managed as was Greece with Venizelos as + its prime minister. + </p> + + <p> + Every Greek hates the Turks and looks forward to the time when no man of + Greek descent shall be subject to their cruel rule. You have been told how + the Russians have looked forward to the day when Saint Sophia, the great + mosque of the Turks, shall once more become a Christian cathedral. In the + same way the Greeks have passionately desired to see Constantinople, which + was for over a thousand years the capital of their empire, freed from the + control of the Turk. Little by little, from the time when the Greeks first + won their independence from Turkey in 1829, the boundary of their kingdom + has been pushed northward, freeing more and more of their people from the + rule of the Ottomans. Venizelos, aiming to include in the kingdom of + Greece as many as possible of the people of Greek blood, was scheming + night and day for the overthrow of the Turkish power in Europe. You have + been told how the Russian diplomats astonished the world by inducing + Bulgaria to unite with the Greeks and the Serbs, two nations for whom she + had no love, in an alliance against the Turks. Many people felt that this + combination would never have been possible without the far-seeing wisdom + of of Venizelos. In fact, some historians give him the credit of first + planning the alliance. + </p> + + <p> + His greatest trouble was with his own countrymen. The Greeks, as you have + been told, have always claimed Macedonia as part of their country, + whereas, in truth, there are more Bulgarians than Greeks among its + inhabitants. Venizelos, having agreed before the attack on Turkey that the + greater part of Macedonia should be given to Bulgaria, had hard work after + the victory in convincing his countrymen that this was fair. In fact, the + claims of the three allies to this district proved the one weak spot in + the combination. The occupation of this country by Greeks and Serbs in the + course of the first war against Turkey, while the Bulgarians were + defeating the main Turkish army just northwest of Constantinople, brought + on the second war. Bulgaria was not willing to give up Macedonia to the + Greeks and Serbs, and her troops made a treacherous attack on her former + allies (June, 1913) which brought on the declarations of war referred to. + </p> + + <p> + At the close of the second war, when Bulgaria, attacked by five nations at + once, had to make peace as best she could, the Greeks took advantage of + her by insisting on taking, not only Salonika but also Kavala, which by + all rights should have gone to the Bulgars. Venizelos was willing to be + generous to Bulgaria, but the Greeks had had their heads turned by the + extraordinary successes of their armies over the Turks and Bulgarians and + as a result insisted upon being greedy when it came to a division of the + conquered lands. + </p> + + <p> + Let us return now to events in Greece after the world war had begun: In + March, 1915, when the great fleets of France and England made their + violent attack on the forts of the Dardanelles, intending to break through + and bombard Constantinople, Venizelos was eager to have Greece join the + conflict against the Turks. He felt sure that Turkey, in the end, would + lose the war and that her territory in Europe would be divided up among + the conquering nations. He wanted to get for Greece the shores of the + Dardanelles and the coast of Asia Minor, where a great majority of the + inhabitants were people of Greek blood. The king of Greece, Constantine, + as has been explained, is a brother-in-law of the German Kaiser and has + always been friendly to Germany. He and Venizelos had been good friends + while both were working for the upbuilding of Greece, but a little + incident happened shortly after the Balkan wars which led to a coolness + between them. + </p> + + <p> + King Constantine, while on a visit to Berlin, stood up at a banquet and + told the Kaiser and the German generals that the fine work of the Greek + soldiers in the two wars just fought had been due to help which he had + received from German military men. This statement angered the French very + much, for you will remember that it was French generals who had trained + the Greek army officers. Venizelos, very shortly after this, made a trip + to Paris and there publicly stated that all credit for the fine condition + of the Greek army was due to the Frenchmen who had trained its officers + before the war of 1912. This was a direct “slap in the face” of the king + but it was the truth and everyone in Greece knew it. From this time on it + was evident to everybody that Venizelos was friendly to the French and + English, while the King was pro-German. + </p> + + <p> + Accordingly, in March, 1915, when Venizelos urged the Greek government to + join the war on Turkey, the king refused to give the order. Venizelos, who + was prime minister, straightway resigned, broke up the parliament, and + ordered a general election. This put the case squarely up to the people of + Greece and they answered by electing to the Greek parliament one hundred + eighty men friendly to Venizelos and the Triple Entente as against one + hundred forty who were opposed to entering the war. + </p> + + <p> + Venizelos, once more prime minister as a result of this election, ordered + the Greek army to be mobilized. At this time the fear was that Bulgaria, + in revenge for 1913, would join the war on the side of the Germans and + Turks and attack Greece in the rear. In order to keep peace with Bulgaria + Venizelos was willing to give to her the port of Kavala, which Greece had + cheated her out of at the close of the second Balkan war. He felt that his + country would gain so much by annexing Greek territory now under the rule + of the Turks that she could afford to give up this seaport, whose + population was largely Bulgarian. Constantine opposed this, however, and + the majority of the Greeks, not being as far-sighted as their prime + minister, backed the king. When the attack by the Central Powers on Serbia + took place, as has been told, Venizelos a second time tried to get the + Greek government to join the war on the side of France and England. He + said plainly to the king that the treaty between Greece and Serbia was not + a “scrap of paper” as the German Chancellor had called the treaty with + Belgium, but a solemn promise entered into by both sides with a full + understanding of what it meant. The king, on the other hand, insisted that + the treaty had to do with Bulgaria alone and that it was not intended to + drag Greece into a general European war. As a result, he dismissed + Venizelos a second time, in spite of the fact that twice, by their votes, + the Greeks had shown that they approved of his policy. + </p> + + <p> + Now Greece is a limited monarchy. By the terms of the constitution the + king must obey the will of the people as shown by the votes of a majority + of the members of parliament. In spite of the vote of parliament the king + refused to stand by the Serbian treaty. From this time on he was violating + the law of his country and ruling as a czar instead of a monarch with very + little power, as the Greek constitution had made him. + </p> + + <p> + Things went from bad to worse. In the meantime the French and English had + landed at Salonika in order to rush to the aid of the hard-pressed Serbs. + You have already been told how Venizelos arranged this. Their aid, + however, had come too late. Before they could reach the gallant little + Serbian army it had been crushed between the Austrians and Germans on one + side and the Bulgarians on the other, and its survivors had fled across + the mountains to the coast of Albania. The French and English detachments + were not strong enough to stand against the victorious armies of Germany, + Austria, and Bulgaria. They began to retreat through southern Serbia. King + Constantine notified the Allied governments that if these troops retreated + upon Greek soil he would send his army to surround them and hold them as + prisoners for the rest of the war. France and England replied by notifying + him that if he did this they would blockade the ports of Greece and + prevent any ships from entering her harbors. This act on the part of + France and England, while it seemed necessary, nevertheless angered the + proud Greeks and strengthened the pro-German party in Athens. The king + took advantage of this feeling to appoint a number of pro-Germans to + important positions in the government. Constantine allowed German + submarines to use certain ports in Greece as bases of supply from which + they got their oil and provisions. The Greek army was still mobilized, and + the small force of French and English, which had retreated to Salonika, + were afraid that at any moment they might receive a stab in the back by + order of the Greek king. + </p> + + <p> + In May, 1916, the Germans and Bulgarians crossed the Greek frontier and + demanded the surrender of several Greek forts. When the commander of one + of them proposed to fight, the German general told him to call up his + government at Athens over the long distance telephone. He did so and was + ordered to give up the fort peaceably to the invaders. We have already + seen what the answer of the Belgians had been on a like occasion. To be + sure, the French and English were already occupying Greek soil, but they + had come there under permission of the prime minister of Greece to do a + thing which Greece herself had solemnly promised that she would do, + namely, to defend Serbia from the Bulgars. + </p> + + <p> + This surrender of Greek territory to the hated Bulgarians was too much for + Venizelos. He gave out a statement to the Greek people in which he + declared that the king had disobeyed the constitution and was ruling as a + tyrant; that he was betraying his country to the Germans and Bulgars and + that all loyal Greeks should refuse to obey him. At Salonika, under the + protection of the British and French, together with the admiral of the + Greek navy and one of the chief generals in the army, Venizelos set up a + new government—a republic of Greece. + </p> + + <p> + Shortly after this the commander of a Greek army corps in eastern + Macedonia, acting under orders from King Constantine, surrendered his men + to the Germans, along with all their artillery, stores, and the equipment + which had been furnished to them by the French to defend themselves + against the Germans! In the meantime, the Bulgarians had seized Kavala. + </p> + + <p> + The control of the Adriatic Sea had been a matter of jealousy between the + Italians and Austrians even during the years when they were partners in + the Triple Alliance. Even before Italy entered the war on the side of + France and England, her government, fearing the Austrians, had sent + Italian troops to seize Avlona. The Prince of Albania, finding that he was + not wanted, had deserted that country, and there had been no government at + all there since the outbreak of the great war. However, the presence of + this Italian garrison prevented the forces of the central powers from + advancing southward along the Adriatic coast. + </p> + + <p> + Gradually, France and England increased their forces at Salonika. The + gallant defender of Verdun, General Sarrail, was sent to command the joint + army. During the summer of 1916, Italians came there to join the French + and British. A hundred thousand hardy young veterans, survivors of the + Serbian army, picked up by allied war ships on the coast of Albania, were + refitted and carried by ship around Greece to Salonika. Here they joined + General Sarrail’s army, rested and refreshed, and frantic for revenge on + the Germans and Bulgars. Several thousands of the Greek troops, following + the leadership of Venizelos, deserted the king and joined the allies. + </p> + + <p> + Meanwhile, in Athens one prime minister after another tried to steer the + ship of state. The people of Greece were in a turmoil. The great majority + of them were warm friends of France and England—all of them hated + the Turks. The pro-German acts of the king, however, provoked the French + and English to such an extent that they frequently had to interfere in + Athens. The Greek people resented this interference and on one or two + occasions fights broke out when allied sailors marched through the streets + of the capital. Matters reached a climax in June, 1917. The governments of + France, England, and Italy felt that they could stand the treacherous + conduct of King Constantine no longer. They knew that he was assisting + Germany in every possible way. They knew that their camp was full of spies + who were reporting all their movements to the Bulgarians. They felt that + at the first chance he would order his army to attack Sarrail in the rear. + They finally sent an ultimatum to him ordering him to give up the throne + to his second son. The oldest son, the crown prince, having been educated + in Germany and sharing King Constantine’s pro-German sentiments, was + barred from succeeding his father. This seemed a high-handed thing to do + but there was no other way out of a difficult situation. Constantine had + allowed his sympathies with his wife’s brother to prevent his country from + carrying out her solemn treaty; had ruled like an absolute monarch; had + plotted with all his power for the overthrow of Russia, France, and + England, the three countries which had won Greece its independence in the + first place and which still desired its people to have the right to rule + themselves. + </p> + +<p> +The guns of the allied fleet were pointed at Athens. More than half of the +Greek people favored Venizelos and the Entente as against the king and Germany. +A second<a href="#fn-8" name="fnref-8" id="fnref-8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> time +within four months a European monarch who was out of sympathy with his subjects +was forced to resign his crown. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8" id="fn-8"></a> <a href="#fnref-8">[8]</a> +The first was the Czar of Russia, as is told in a later chapter. +</p> + + <p> + With Constantine out of the way, there was nothing to prevent the return + to Athens of Venizelos. With great enthusiasm the people hailed his + coming, as, once more prime minister, he summoned the members of + parliament lawfully elected in 1915, and took control of the government. + </p> + + <p> + In July, 1917, the Greek government announced to the world that, + henceforth, Greece would be found in the war on the side of France, Great + Britain, and the other nations of the Entente. + </p> + + <h3> + Roumania + </h3> + + <p> + You will recall that when Bulgaria attacked Serbia the Serbs hoped for + help from Roumania. For they knew that Bulgaria had a grudge against + Roumania also, because of the Bulgarian territory which she had been + compelled to give up to her neighbor on the north at the close of the + second Balkan war. They expected this fear of Bulgarian revenge to bring + the Roumanians to the rescue. + </p> + + <p> + You have read how Roumania wished for certain lands in Russia as well as + in Hungary that are inhabited by her own people. For a long time the + government at Bukharest hesitated, fearing to plunge into the war before + the time was ripe, and dreading the danger of choosing the wrong side. + </p> + + <p> + The key to the situation was Russia. If Roumania were to go to war she + would have to count strongly on the help of her great neighbor to the + north. + </p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, strange things were happening in Russia. You will remember that +there are two million Germans living in that part of the Russian domain which +borders the Baltic Sea. (The states of Livonia and Courland were ruled in the +olden times by the “Teutonic knights.”) These Germans are much +better educated, on the whole, than the Russians; they are descendants of old +feudal warriors and as such are men of force and influence in the Russian +government. It was a common thing to find German names, like Witte, Von Plehve, +Rennenkampf, and Stoessel among the list of high officials and generals in +Russia. In this way there were a great many people prominent in the Russian +government, who secretly hoped that Germany would win the war and were actively +plotting with this in view. “There is a secret wire from the czar’s +palace to Berlin,” said one of the most patriotic Russian generals, +explaining why he refused to give out his plans in advance. Graft and bad +management, as well as treachery, were all through the nation. Train-loads of +ammunition intended for the Russian army were left piled up on the wharves at +the northern ports. Guns sent by England were lost in the Ural mountains. Food +that was badly needed by the men at the front was hoarded by government +officials in order to raise prices for their friends who were growing rich +through “cornering” food supplies.<a href="#fn-9" name="fnref-9" id="fnref-9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9" id="fn-9"></a> <a href="#fnref-9">[9]</a> +When a group of men buy a sufficient amount of any one article so as to keep it +from being sold in great quantities and make it appear that there is not enough +to go around, they are said to “corner” the market. Three or four +men in America at various times have been able to corner the wheat market or +the corn market or the market for cotton. +</p> + + <p> + The czar of Russia truly desired his country to win the war. On the other + hand his wife was a cousin of the Kaiser, a German princess whose brothers + were fighting in the German army, and she had little love for her adopted + country. The poor little Czarevitch, eleven years old, remarked, early in + the war, “When the Russians are beaten, papa weeps; when the Germans are + beaten, mamma weeps.” In spite of her German sympathies the Czarina had + great influence with her husband, and the scheming officials who were + secretly plotting the downfall of Russia were able to use this influence + in many ways. + </p> + + <p> + In 1916, a new prime minister was appointed in Russia—a man named + Sturmer, of German blood and German sympathies. The Russians, after their + long retreat in 1915 had gradually gotten back their strength, and had + piled up ammunition and gathered guns for a new attack. This began early + in June, 1916, when General Brusiloff attacked the Austro-Hungarians in + Galicia and Bukowina and drove them back for miles and miles, capturing + hundreds of thousands of prisoners. You will remember that the Bohemians, + although subjects of Austria- Hungary, are Slavs and have no love for the + Austrians of German blood who rule them. Two divisions made up of Bohemian + troops helped General Brusiloff greatly by deserting in a body and + afterwards re-enlisting in the Russian army. + </p> + + <p> + In northern France, the British and French had at last gained more guns + and bigger guns than the Germans had, and by sheer weight of metal were + pushing the latter out of the trenches which they had held for over two + years. It seemed to Roumania that the turning point of the war had come. + With the Russians winning big victories over Austria, and the French and + English pushing back the Germans in the west, it certainly looked as + though the end were in sight. + </p> + +<p> +Now the king of Roumania, as you have been told is a Hohenzollern, a distant +cousin of the Kaiser of Germany, but, just the opposite from the case in Greece +and Russia, his wife was an English princess, and she was able to help the +party that was friendly to France and Great Britain. The man who had and worked +early and late to get his countrymen to join the Entente was Take Jonescu, the +wisest of the Roumanian statesmen, the man who predicted at the close of the +second Balkan war that the peace of Europe would again be broken within +fourteen months.<a href="#fn-10" name="fnref-10" id="fnref-10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-10" id="fn-10"></a> <a href="#fnref-10">[10]</a> +As an actual fact, there was only twelve and a half months between wars. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map22"></a> +<a href="images/map22.jpg"> +<img src="images/map22.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="Illustration: " /></a> +<p class="caption">What The Allies Wished</p> +</div> + + <p> + By the summer of 1916, the Roumanians had at last decided that if they + wanted to get a slice of Bessarabia from Russia and the province of + Transylvania from Hungary, they must jump into the war on the side of the + Entente. It is claimed by some that they had planned to wait until the + following winter in order to get their army into the best of condition and + training, but that the treacherous prime minister of Russia, Sturmer, when + he found that they were determined to make war on Germany and Austria, + persuaded them to plunge in at once, knowing that they were unprepared and + that their inexperienced troops would be no match for the veterans of the + central powers. At any rate, about the first of September Roumania + declared war on Austria and joined the Entente. + </p> + + <p> + The French and English had wished the Roumanians to declare war first on + Bulgaria and, attacking that country from the north while General Sarrail + attacked it from the south, crush it before help could arrive from + Germany, much in the fashion in which poor Serbia had been caught between + Austria and Bulgaria a year previously. The Roumanians, however, were + eager to “liberate” their brothers in Transylvania, and so, urged on by + bad advice from Russia, they rushed across the mountains to the northwest + instead of taking the easier road which led them south to the conquest of + Bulgaria. (See maps.) + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map23"></a> +<a href="images/map23.jpg"> +<img src="images/map23.jpg" width="397" height="600" alt="Illustration: +Messen" /></a> +<p class="caption">How Roumania was crushed</p> +</div> + + <p> + Germania, Turkey, and Bulgaria at once declared war on Roumania. The + battle-field in France, owing to continued rains and wet weather, had + become one great sea of slimy mud, through which it was impossible to drag + the cannon. General Brusiloff in Galicia had pushed back the Austrians for + many miles but a lack of ammunition and the arrival of strong German + re-inforcements had prevented his re-capturing Lemberg. The Russian + generals on the north, under the influence of the pro-German prime + minister, were doing nothing. The Italians and Austrians had come to a + deadlock. The country where they were fighting was so mountainous that + neither side could advance. North from Salonika came the slow advance of + General Sarrail. His great problem was to get sufficient shells for his + guns and food for his men. All the time, too, he had to keep a watchful + eye on King Constantine, lest the latter launch the Greek army in a + treacherous attack on his rear. For the time being, then, the central + powers were free to give their whole attention to Roumania. + </p> + + <p> + Profiting by the mud along the western front and trusting to the Russians + to do nothing, they drew off several hundred thousand men from France and + Poland and hurled them all together upon the Roumanians. At the same time, + another force composed of Turks, Bulgarians, and some Germans marched + north through the Dobrudja to attack Roumania from the south. Thus, the + very trick that the French wished Roumania to work upon Bulgaria was now + worked upon her by the central powers. France and England were helpless. + They sent one of the best of the French generals to teach the Roumanians + the latest science of war, but men and guns they could not send. Look at + the map and see how Roumania was shut off from all help except what came + from Russia. Here Sturmer was doing his part to help Germany. Ammunition + and troops which were intended to rescue Roumania, never reached her. The + Germans had spies in the Roumanian army and before each battle, knew + exactly where the Roumanian troops would be and what they were going to + do. + </p> + + <p> + The German gun factories had sold to Roumania her cannon. On each gun was + a delicate sight with a spirit level—a little glass tube supposed to + be filled with a liquid which would not freeze. Slyly the Germans had + filled these tubes with water, intending, in case Roumania entered the war + on their side, to warn them about the “mistake.” When the guns were hauled + up into the mountains and freezing weather came, these sights burst, + making the guns almost useless. Overwhelmed from both the northwest and + the south, the Roumanian army, fighting gallantly, was beaten back mile + after mile. Great stores of grain were either destroyed or captured by the + Germans. The western part of Roumania where the great oil wells are, fell + into the hands of the invaders, as did Bukharest, the capital. + </p> + + <p> + Sturmer had done his work well. Germany, instead of being almost beaten, + now took on fresh courage. Thanks to Roumanian wheat, Roumanian oil, and + above all, the glory of the victories, the central powers were now in + better shape to fight than if Roumania had kept out of the war. The German + comic papers were full of pictures which declared that as England and + France had always wanted to see a defeated Hohenzollern they might now + take a long look at King Ferdinand of Roumania. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What was the great disappointment connected with the rise to power of + the “young Turks”? + </li> + <li> + What would you say was the secret of the success of Venizelos in + Greece? + </li> + <li> + What mistake did the Greeks make at the close of the war of 1913? + </li> + <li> + What was the real cause of the strife between Venizelos and King + Constantine? + </li> + <li> + Would King Constantine have been justified in holding as prisoners the + French and British troops who were driven back upon Greek soil? + </li> + <li> + What right had Venizelos to set up a republic? + </li> + <li> + Was it right for the Entente to force the resignation of King + Constantine? + </li> + <li> + What made Roumania decide to join the Entente? + </li> + <li> + How was the Roumanian campaign a great help to the Central Powers? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap21"></a>Chapter XXI.<br/> +The War Under the Sea</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + Britannia rules the waves.—Enter the submarine.—The blockade + of Germany.—The sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i> and other ships.—The + trade in munitions of war.—The voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i>.—Germany + ready for peace (on her own terms).—The reply of the allies.—Germany’s + amazing announcement.—The United States breaks off friendly + relations. + </p> + + <p> + You will remember how hard the Germans had worked, building warships, with + the hope that one day their navy might be the strongest in the world. At + the outbreak of the great war in 1914 they were still far behind England + in naval power. On the other hand, it was necessary for the English to + keep their navy scattered all over the world. English battleships were + guarding trade routes to Australia, to China, to the islands of the + Pacific. The Suez Canal, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Island of Malta—all + were in English hands, and ships and guns were needed to defend them. + </p> + + <p> + The German navy, on the other hand, with the exception of a few cruisers + in the Pacific Ocean and two warships in the Mediterranean, was gathered + in the Baltic Sea, the southeastern part of the North Sea, and the great + Kiel Canal which connected these two bodies of water. It was quite + possible that this fleet, by making a quick dash for the ports of England, + might find there only a portion of the English ships and be able to + overwhelm them before the rest of the English navy should assemble from + the far parts of the earth. + </p> + + <p> + Winston Churchill, whose name you have read before, had the foresight to + assemble enough English vessels in home waters in the latter part of the + month of July, 1914, to give England the upper hand over the fleet of + Germany. As a result, finding the British too strong, the Germans did not + venture out into the high seas to give battle. A few skirmishes were + fought between cruisers, then some speedy German warships made a dash + across the North Sea to the coast of England, shelled some small towns, + killed several men, women, and children and returned, getting back to the + Kiel Canal before the English vessels arrived in any number. + </p> + + <p> + A second raid was attempted a few weeks later but by this time the British + were on the watch. Two of the best German cruisers were sunk and the + others barely escaped the fire of the avengers. + </p> + + <p> + About the first of June, 1916, a goodly portion of the German fleet sailed + out, hoping to catch the British unawares. They were successful in sinking + several large ships, but when the main British fleet arrived they began in + turn to suffer great losses, and were obliged to retire. With the + exception of these two fights and two other battles fought off the coast + of South America (in the first of which a small English fleet was + destroyed by the Germans, and in the second a larger British fleet took + revenge), there have been no battles between the sea forces. + </p> + + <p> + The big navy of England ruled the ocean. German merchant vessels were + either captured or forced to remain in ports of neutral nations. German + commerce was swept from the seas, while ships carrying supplies to France + and the British Isles sailed unmolested—for a time. Only in the + Baltic Sea was Germany mistress. Commerce from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark + was kept up as usual. Across the borders of Holland and Switzerland came + great streams of imports. Merchants in these little countries bought, in + the markets of the world, apparently for themselves, but really for + Germany. + </p> + + <p> + However, not for long did British commerce sail unmolested. A new and + terrible menace was to appear. This was the submarine boat, the invention + of Mr. John Holland, an American, but improved and enlarged by the + Germans. In one of the early months of the war three British warships, the + <i>Hogue</i>, the <i>Cressy</i>, and the <i>Aboukir</i>, were cruising + about, guarding the waters of the North Sea. There was the explosion of a + torpedo, and the <i>Hogue</i> began to sink. One of her sister ships + rushed in to pick up the crew as they struggled in the water. A second + torpedo struck and a second ship was sinking. Nothing daunted by the fate + of the other two, the last survivor steamed to the scene of the disaster—the + German submarine once more shot its deadly weapon, and three gallant ships + with a thousand men had gone down. + </p> + + <p> + This startled the world. It was plain that battleships and cruisers were + not enough. While England controlled the surface of the sea, there was no + way to prevent the coming and going of the German submarine beneath the + waters. All naval warfare was changed in a moment; new methods and new + weapons had to be employed. + </p> + + <p> + At the outset of the war the English and French fleets had set up a strict + blockade of Germany. There were certain substances which were called + “contraband of war” and which, according to the law of nations, might be + seized by one country if they were the property of her enemy. On the list + of contraband were all kinds of ammunition and guns, as well as materials + for making these. England and France, however, added to the list which all + nations before the war had admitted to be contraband substances like + cotton, which was very necessary in the manufacture of gun-cotton and + other high explosives, gasoline—fuel for the thousands of + automobiles needed to transport army supplies, and rubber for their tires. + Soon other substances were added to the list. + </p> + + <p> + An attempt was made to starve Germany into making peace. The central + empires, in ordinary years, raise only about three-fourths of the food + that they eat. With the great supply of Russian wheat shut off and vessels + from North America and South America not allowed to pass the British + blockade, Germany’s imports had to come by way of Holland, Switzerland, + and the Scandinavian countries. When Holland in 1915 began to buy about + four times as much wheat as she had eaten in 1913, it did not take a + detective to discover that she was secretly selling to Germany the great + bulk of what she was buying apparently for herself. In a like manner + Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries suddenly developed a much + greater appetite than before the war! The British blockade grew stricter. + It was agreed to allow these countries to import just enough food for + their own purposes. The British trusted that they would rather eat the + food themselves than sell it to Germany even at very high prices. The + Germans soon began to feel the pinch of hunger. They had slaughtered many + of their cows for beef and as a result grew short of milk and butter. + </p> + + <p> + To strike back at England, Germany announced that she would use her + submarines to sink ships carrying food to the British Isles. This happened + in February, 1915. There was a storm of protest from the world in general, + but Germany agreed that her submarine commanders should warn each ship of + its danger and allow the captain time to get the passengers and crew into + boats before the deadly torpedo was shot. Still the crew, exposed to the + danger of the ocean in open boats, and often cast loose miles from shore, + were in serious danger. + </p> + + <p> + The laws of nations, as observed by civilized countries in wars up to this + time, have said that a blockade, in order to be recognized by all nations, + had to be successful in doing the work for which it was intended. If + England really was able to stop every boat sailing for German shores, then + all nations would have to admit that Germany was blockaded; but if the + Germans were able to sink only one ship out of every hundred that sailed + into English ports, Germany could hardly be said to be carrying on a real + blockade of England. In spite of protests from neutral nations who were + peaceably trying to trade with all the countries at war, this sinking of + merchantmen by submarines went on. + </p> + + <p> + In May, 1915, the great steamship <i>Lusitania</i> was due to sail from + New York for England. A few days before her departure notices signed by + the German ambassador were put into New York papers, warning people that + Germany would not be responsible for what happened to them if they took + passage on this boat. Very few people paid any attention to these + warnings. With over a thousand persons on board the <i>Lusitania</i> + sailed, on schedule time. Suddenly the civilized world was horrified to + hear that a German submarine, without giving the slightest warning, had + sent two torpedoes crashing through the hull of the great steamer, sending + her to the bottom in short order. A few had time to get into the boats, + but over eight hundred men, women, and children were drowned, of whom over + one hundred were American citizens. Strange as it may seem, this action + caused a thrill of joy throughout Germany. Some of the Germans were + horrified, as were people in neutral countries, but on the whole the + action of the German navy was approved by the voice of the German people. + With a curiously warped sense of right and wrong the Germans proclaimed + that the English and Americans were brutal in allowing women and children + to go on this boat when they had been warned that the boat was going to be + sunk! They spoke of this much in the manner in which one would speak of + the cruelty of a man who would drive innocent children and women to march + in front of armies in order to protect the troops from the fire of their + enemies. + </p> + + <p> + A storm of indignation against Germany burst out all over the United + States. Many were for immediate war. Calmer plans, however, prevailed, and + the upshot of the matter was that a stern note was sent to Berlin + notifying the Kaiser that the United States could not permit vessels + carrying Americans to be torpedoed without warning on the open seas. The + German papers proceeded to make jokes about this matter. They pictured + every French and English boat as refusing to sail until at least two + Americans had been persuaded to go as passengers, so that the boat might + be under the protection of the United States. + </p> + + <p> + However, in spite of Germany’s solemn promise that nothing of the sort + would happen again, similar incidents kept occurring, although on a + smaller scale. The American steamers <i>Falaba</i> and <i>Gulflight</i> + were torpedoed without warning, in each case with the loss of one or two + lives. Finally, the steamer <i>Sussex</i>, crossing the English Channel, + was hit by a torpedo which killed many of the passengers. As several + Americans lost their lives, once more the United States warned Germany + that this must not be repeated. Germany acknowledged that her submarine + commander had gone further than his orders allowed him and promised that + the act should not be repeated—provided that the United States + should force England to abandon what Germany called her illegal blockade. + The United States in reply made it plain that while the English blockade + was unpleasant to American citizens, still it was very different from the + brutal murder of women and children on the high seas. England, when + convinced that an American ship was carrying supplies which would be sold + in the end to Germany, merely took this vessel into an English port, where + a court decided what the cargo was worth and ordered the British + government to pay that sum to the (American) owners. + </p> + + <p> + This was resented by the American shippers, but it was not anything to go + to war over. The United States gave warning that she would hold Germany + responsible for any damage to American ships or loss of American lives. + </p> + + <p> + All of this time the Germans were accusing the United States of favoring + the nations of the Entente because they were selling munitions of war to + them and none to Germany. They said that it was grossly unfair for neutral + nations to sell to one side when, owing to the blockade, they could not + sell to the other also. When a protest was made by Austria, the United + States pointed out that a similar case had come up in 1899. At that time + the empire of Great Britain was at war with two little Dutch Republics in + South Africa. The Dutch, completely blockaded, could not buy munitions in + the open market. Nevertheless, this fact did not prevent both Austria and + Germany from selling guns and ammunition to Great Britain. (It must be + made plain that the United States <i>government</i> was not selling + munitions of war to any of the warring nations. What Germany wanted and + Austria asked was that our government should prevent our private + companies, as, for example our steel mills, from shipping any goods which + would eventually aid in killing Germans. The United States made it plain + that our people had no feeling in the matter—that they were in + business, and would sell to whomsoever came to buy; that it was not our + fault that the British navy, being larger than the German, prevented + Germany from trading with us.) + </p> + + <p> + In the meanwhile explosions kept occurring in the many munition factories + in the United States that were turning out shells and guns for the Allies. + Several hundred Americans were killed in these explosions, and property to + the value of millions of dollars was destroyed. It was proved that the + Austrian ambassador and several of the German diplomats had been hiring + men to commit these crimes. They were protected from our courts by the + fact that they were representatives of foreign nations, but the President + insisted that their governments recall them. + </p> + + <p> + The Germans made a great point about the brutality of the English + blockade. They told stories about the starving babies of Germany, who were + being denied milk because of the cruelty of the English. As a matter of + fact, what Germany really lacked was rubber, cotton, gasoline, and above + all, nickel and cobalt, two metals which were needed in the manufacture of + guns and shells. + </p> + + <p> + Finally, in the summer of 1916, came a world surprise. A large German + submarine, the <i>Deutschland</i>, made the voyage across the Atlantic + Ocean and bobbed up unexpectedly in the harbor of Baltimore. In spite of + all the trouble that the United States had had with Germany over the + sinking of ships by submarines, the crew of this vessel was warmly + received, and the cargo of dyes which she brought was eagerly purchased. + The Germans, in return, loaded their ship with the metals and other + products of which Germany was so short. As one American newspaper said, + the <i>Deutschland</i> took back a cargo of nickel and rubber to the + starving babies of Germany. Once more the <i>Deutschland</i> came, this + time to New London, and again her crew was welcomed with every sign of + hospitality. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus54"></a> +<img src="images/54.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The Deutschland in Chesapeake Bay</p> +</div> + + <p> + In December, 1916, at the close of the victorious German campaign against + Roumania, the central powers, weary of war and beginning to feel the pinch + of starvation and the drain on their young men, made it known that as they + had won the war they were now ready to treat for peace. This message + carried with it a threat to all countries not at war that if they did not + help to force the Entente to accept the Kaiser’s peace terms, Germany + could not be held responsible for anything that might happen to them in + the future. + </p> + + <p> + President Wilson, always apprehensive that something might draw the United + States into the conflict, grasped eagerly at this opportunity, and in a + public message he asked both sides to state to the world on what terms + they would stop the war. + </p> + + <p> + The Germans and their allies did not make a clear and definite proposal. + On the other hand, the nations of the Entente, in no uncertain terms, + declared that no peace would be made unless the central powers restored + what they had wrongfully seized, paid the victims of their unprovoked + attack for the damage they had done, and guaranteed that no such act + should ever be committed in the future. They also declared that the Poles, + Danes, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Alsatians, and Serbs should be freed + from the tyrannous governments which now enslaved them. In plain language + this meant that the central powers must give back part of Schleswig to + Denmark, allow the kingdom of Poland to be restored as it once had been; + permit the Bohemians and Slovaks to form an independent nation in the + midst of Austria-Hungary; allow the people of Alsace and Lorraine the + right of returning to France; annex the Italians in Austria-Hungary to + Italy, and permit the Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina to join their + cousins to the southeast in one great Serbian nation. + </p> + + <p> + When these terms were published the German government exclaimed that while + they had been willing to make peace and perhaps even give back the + conquered portions of Belgium and northern France in return for the + captured German colonies in Africa and the Pacific Ocean, with the payment + of indemnities to Germany, now it was plain that the nations of the + Entente intended to wipe out utterly the German nation and dismember the + empire of Austria-Hungary; and that since Germany had offered her enemies + an honorable peace and they had refused, the only thing left for the + central powers to do was to fight to the bitter end and <i>use any means + whatsoever to force their enemies to make peace</i>. + </p> + + <p> + In other words, here were the two conflicting claims: Germany said, “We + have won the war. Don’t you recognize the fact that you have been beaten? + Give us back our colonies, organize a kingdom of Poland, out of the part + of Russian Poland which we have conquered, as a separate kingdom under our + protection, but don’t expect us to join to this any part of Austrian or + Prussian Poland. (Prussian and Austrian Poland are <i>ours</i>. You + wouldn’t expect <i>us</i> to give up any part of <i>them</i>, would you?) + Allow us to keep the port of Antwerp and maintain our control over the + Balkan peninsula. We will restore to you northern France, most of Belgium, + and even part of Serbia. See what a generous offer we are making!” + </p> + + <p> + The Allied nations replied, in effect: “You now have gotten three-fourths + of what you aimed at when you began the war. If we make peace now, + allowing you to keep the greater part of what you have conquered, you will + be magnanimous and give back a small portion of it if we in turn surrender + all your lost colonies. Hardly! We demand, on the other hand, that you + recompense, as far as you can, the miserable victims of your savage attack + for the death and destruction that you have caused; that you put things + back as you found them as nearly as possible; that you make it plain to us + that never again will we have to be on guard against the possibility of a + ruthless invasion by your army; that you give to the peoples whom you and + your allies have forcibly annexed or retained under your rule a chance to + choose their own form of government.” + </p> + + <p> + Then said the Germans to the world, “You see! They want to wipe us out of + existence and cut the empire of our allies into small bits. Nothing is + left but to fight for our existence, and, as we are fighting for our + existence, all rules hitherto observed in civilized warfare are now called + off!” + </p> + + <p> + In the latter part of January, 1917, the German government announced that, + inasmuch as they had tried to bring about an honorable peace (which would + have left them still in possession of three-fourths the plunder they had + gained in the war) and this peace offer had been rejected by the Entente, + all responsibility for anything which might happen hereafter in the war + would have to be borne by France, England, etc., and not by Germany. It + was stated that Germany was fighting for her existence, and that when + one’s life is at stake all methods of fighting are permissible. Germany + proposed, therefore, to send out her submarines and sink <i>without + warning</i> all merchant ships sailing toward English or French ports. + </p> + + <p> + In a special note to the United States, the German government said that + once a week, at a certain time, the United States would be permitted to + send a passenger vessel to England, provided that this boat were duly + inspected and proved to have no munitions of war or supplies for England + on board. It must be painted all over with red, white, and blue stripes + and must be marked in other ways so that the German submarine commanders + would know it. (It must be remembered that Germany insisted that she was + fighting for the freedom of the seas!) + </p> + + <p> + Now, at all times, it has been recognized that the open seas are free to + all nations for travel and commerce. This proposal, to sink without + warning all ships on the ocean, was a bit of effrontery that few had + imagined even the German government was capable of. + </p> + + <p> + President Wilson had been exceedingly patient with Germany. In fact, a + great majority of the newspaper and magazine writers in the country had + criticized him for being too patient. The great majority of the people of + the United States were for peace, ardently. The government at Washington + knew this. Nevertheless, this last announcement by Germany that she + proposed to kill any American citizens who dared to travel on the sea in + the neighborhood of England and France seemed more than a self-respecting + nation could endure. The Secretary of State sent notice to Count Von + Bernstorff, the German ambassador, to leave this country. Friendly + relations between the imperial government of Germany and the United States + of America were at an end. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + How did the submarine boat change methods of warfare? + </li> + <li> + What is contraband of war? + </li> + <li> + Was it right to prevent the importation of food into Germany? + </li> + <li> + Why would a nation which manufactured a great deal of war material + object to the sale of such material to fighting nations by nations at + peace? + </li> + <li> + Show how this rule, if carried out, would have a tendency to make all + nations devote too much work to the preparation of war supplies. + </li> + <li> + Show the difference between the British blockade and the sinking of + ships by German submarines. + </li> + <li> + Would the blowing up of American factories by paid agents of the + German government have been a good enough reason for the United States + to have declared war? + </li> + <li> + How did the voyages of the <i>Deutschland</i> prove that the United + States wanted to be fair to both sides in the war? + </li> + <li> + What reasons had Austria and Germany for wishing peace in December + 1916? + </li> + <li> + Why did President Wilson ask the warring nations to state their aims + in the war? + </li> + <li> + How did Germany try to justify the sinking of ships without warning? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap22"></a>Chapter XXII.<br/> +Another Crown Topples</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The unnatural alliance of the Czar and the free peoples.—The first + Duma and the revolt of 1905.—The Zemptsvos and the people against + the pro-German officials.—The death of Rasputin and other signs of + unrest.—The revolution of March 1917.—The Czar becomes Mr. + Romanoff.—Four different governments within eight months.—Civil + war and a German effort for peace. + </p> + + <p> + It will be recalled that the great war was caused in the first place by + the unprovoked attack of Austria on Serbia and the unwillingness of Russia + to stand by and see her little neighbor crushed, and that England came in + to make good her word, pledged to Belgium, to defend that small country + from all hostile attacks. Thus the nations of the Entente posed before the + world as the defenders of small nations and as champions of the rights of + peoples to live under the form of government which they might choose. You + will remember that when the central powers said that they were ready to + talk peace terms the nations of the Entente replied that there could be no + peace as long as the Danes, Poles, and Alsatians were forcibly held by + Germany in her empire and as long as Austria denied the Ruthenians, + Roumanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians in their empire the right + either to rule themselves or to join the nations united to them by ties of + blood and language. France and Great Britain especially were fond of + saying that it was a war of the free peoples against those enslaved by + military rule—a conflict between self-governed nations and those + which were oppressing their foreign subjects. Replying to this the central + powers would always point to Russia. Russia, said they, oppressed the + Poles and Lithuanians, the Letts, the Esthonians, the Finns. She, as well + as Austria-Hungary, has hundreds of thousands of Roumanians within her + territories. Her people had even less political freedom than the + inhabitants of Austria and Germany. + </p> + + <p> + The nations of the Entente did not reply to these charges of the Germans. + There was no reply to make; it was the truth. In fact there is no doubt + that French and British statesmen were afraid of a Russian victory. They + did not want the war to be won by the one nation in their group which had + a despotic form of government. On the other hand the high officials in + Russia were not any too happy at the thought of their alliance with the + free peoples of western Europe. Germany was much more their ideal of a + country governed in the proper manner than was France. As you have been + told, many of the nobles of the Russian court were of German blood and + secretly desired the victory of their fatherland, while many Russians of + the party who wanted to keep all power out of the hands of the common + people were afraid of seeing Germany crushed, for fear their own people + would rise up and demand more liberty. + </p> + + <p> + You will recall that there had been unrest in Russia at the time of the + outbreak of the war; that strikes and labor troubles were threatened, so + that many people thought the Czar had not been at all sorry to see the war + break out, in order to turn the minds of his people away from their own + wrongs. + </p> + + <p> + At the close of the disastrous war with the Japanese in 1905, the cry from + the Russian people for a Congress, or some form of elective government, + had been so strong that the Czar had to give in. So he called the first + Duma. This body of men, as has been explained, could talk and could + complain, but could pass no laws. The first Duma had had so many + grievances and had talked so bitterly against the government, that it had + been forced to break up, and Cossack troops were called in to put down + riots among the people at St. Petersburg, which they did with great + ferocity. All this time there had been growing, among the Russian people, + a feeling that they were being robbed and betrayed by the grand dukes and + high nobles. They distrusted the court. They felt that the Czar was + well-meaning, but weak, and that he was a mere puppet in the hands of his + German wife, his cousins the grand dukes, and above all a notorious monk, + called Rasputin. This strange man, a son of the common people, had risen + to great power in the court. He had persuaded the Empress that he alone + could keep health and strength in the frail body of the crown prince, the + Czarevitch, and to keep up this delusion he had bribed one of the ladies + in waiting to pour a mild poison into the boy’s food whenever Rasputin was + away from the court for more than a few days. The poor little prince, of + course, was made sick; whereupon, the Empress would hurriedly send for + Rasputin, upon whose arrival the Czarevitch “miraculously” got well. In + this manner this low-born fakir obtained such a hold over the Czar and + Czarina that he was able to appoint governors of states, put bishops out + of their places, and even change prime ministers. There is no doubt that + the Germans bribed him to use his influence in their behalf. It is a sad + illustration of the ignorance of the Russian people as a whole, that such + a man could have gotten so great a power on such flimsy pretenses. + </p> + + <p> + The real salvation of the Russians came through the Zemptsvos. These were + little assemblies, one in each county in Russia, elected by the people to + decide all local matters, like the building of roads, helping feed the + poor, etc. They had been started by Czar Alexander II, in 1862. Although + the court was rotten with graft and plotting, the Zemptsvos remained true + to the people. They finally all united in a big confederation, and when + the world war broke out, this body, really the only patriotic part of the + Russian government, kept the grand dukes and the pro-Germans from + betraying the nation into the hands of the enemy. + </p> + + <p> + It was a strange situation. The Russian people through the representatives + that they elected to these little county assemblies were patriotically + carrying out the war, while the grand dukes and the court nobles, who had + gotten Russia into this trouble, were, for the most part, hampering the + soldiers, either through grafting off the supplies and speculating in + food, or traitorously plotting to betray their country to the Germans. + With plenty of food in Russia, with millions of bushels of grain stored + away by men who were holding it in order to get still higher prices, there + was not enough for the people of Petrograd to eat. + </p> + + <p> + As you were told in a previous chapter, the German, Sturmer, was made + prime minister, probably with the approval of the monk, Rasputin. + Roumania, depending on promises of Russian help, was crushed between the + armies of the Germans on the one side and the Turks and Bulgars on the + other, while trainload after trainload of the guns and munitions which + would have enabled her armies to stand firm was sidetracked and delayed on + Russian railroads. “Your Majesty, we are betrayed,” said the French + general who had been sent by the western allies to direct the army of the + king of Roumania, when his pleas for ammunition were ignored and promise + after promise made him by the Russian prime minister was broken. + </p> + + <p> + Of all the countries in Europe, with the possible exception of Turkey, + Russia had been the most ignorant. The great mass of the people had had no + schooling and were unable to read and write. It was easier for the grand + dukes and nobles to keep down the peasants and to remain undisturbed in + the ownership of their great estates if the people knew nothing more than + to labor and suffer in silence. There was a class of Russians, however, + the most patriotic and the best educated men in the state, who were + working quietly, but actively, to make conditions better. Then too, the + Nihilists, anarchists who had been working (often by throwing bombs) for + the overthrow of the Czar, had spread their teachings throughout the + country. Students of the universities, writers, musicians, and artists, + had preached the doctrines of the rights of man. While outwardly the + government appeared as strong as ever, really it was like a tree whose + trunk has rotted through and through, and which needs only one vigorous + push to send it crashing to the ground. + </p> + + <p> + It is generally in large cities that protests against the government are + begun. For one thing, it is harder, in a great mob of people, to pick out + the ones who are responsible for starting the trouble. Then again it is + natural for people to make their protests in capital cities where the + government cannot fail to hear them. A third reason lies in the fact that + in large cities there are always a great number of persons who are poor + and who are the first ones to feel the pinch of starvation, when hard + times arise or when speculators seize upon food with the idea of causing + the prices to rise. Starvation makes these people desperate—they do + not care whether they live or not—and, as a result, they dare to + oppose themselves to the police and the soldiers. + </p> + + <p> + There had been murmurs of discontent in Petrograd for a long time. This + was felt not only among the common people, but also among the more + patriotic of the upper classes. In the course of the winter of 1916-17, + the monk, Rasputin, as a result of a plot, was invited to the home of a + grand duke, a cousin of the Czar. There a young prince, determined to free + Russia of this pest, shot him to death and his body was thrown upon the + ice of the frozen Neva. + </p> + + <p> + About this time the lack of food in Petrograd, the result largely of + speculation and “cornering the market,” had become so serious that the + government thought it wise to call in several regiments of Cossacks to + reinforce the police. + </p> + + <p> + These Cossacks are wild tribesmen of the plains who enjoy a freedom not + shared by any other class in Russia. They are warriors by trade and their + sole duty consists in offering themselves, fully equipped, whenever the + government has need of their services in war. They were of a different + race, originally, than the Russians themselves, although by inter-marrying + they now have some Slavic blood in their veins. Their appearance upon the + streets of Petrograd was almost always a threat to the people. Enjoying + freedom themselves and liking nothing better than the practice of their + trade—fighting—they had had little or no sympathy with the + wrongs of the populace, and so were the strongest supporters of the + despotic rule of the Czar. At times when the Czar did not dare to trust + his regular soldiers to enforce order in Petrograd or Moscow, for fear the + men would refuse to fire upon their own relatives in the mob, the Cossacks + could always be counted upon to ride their horses fearlessly through the + people, sabering to right and left those who refused to disperse. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus55"></a> +<img src="images/55.jpg" width="400" height="294" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Crowd in Petrograd during the Revolution</p> +</div> + + <p> + The second week of March, 1917, found crowds in Petrograd protesting + against the high prices of food and forming in long lines to demand grain + of the government. As day succeeded day, the crowds grew larger and bolder + in their murmurings. Cossacks were sent into the city, but for some + strange reason they did not cause fear as they had in times past. Their + manner was different. Instead of drawing their sabers, they good naturedly + joked with the people as they rode among them to disperse the mobs, and + were actually cheered at times by the populace. The crowds grew larger and + more boisterous. Regiment after regiment of troops was called in. The + police fired upon the people when the latter refused to go home. Then a + strange thing happened. A Cossack, his eyes flashing fire, rode at full + tilt up the street toward a policeman who was firing on the mob, and shot + him dead on the spot. A shout went up from the people: “The Cossacks are + with us!” New regiments of troops were brought in. The men who composed + them knew that they were going to be ordered to fire upon their own kind + of people—their own kin perhaps, whose only crime was that they were + hungry and had dared to say so. One regiment turned upon its officers, + refusing to obey them, and made them prisoners. Another and another joined + the revolting forces. It was like the scenes in Paris on the 14th of July, + 1789. The people had gathered to protest, and, hardly knowing what they + did, they had turned their protests into a revolution. Regiments loyal to + the Czar were hastily summoned to fire upon their revolting comrades. They + hesitated. Leaders of the mob rushed over to them, pleading with them not + to fire. A few scattering volleys were followed by a lull, and, then with + a shout of joy, the troops last remaining loyal threw down their arms and + rushed across to embrace the revolutionists. At a great meeting of the mob + a group of soldiers and working men was picked out to call upon the Duma + and ask this body to form a temporary government. Another group was + appointed to wait upon Nicholas II and tell him that henceforth he was not + the Czar of all the Russias, but plain Nicholas Romanoff. Messengers were + sent to the fighting fronts to inform the generals that they were no + longer to take orders from the Czar, but from the representatives of the + free people of Russia. With remarkable calmness, the nation accepted the + new situation. Within two days a new government had been formed, composed + of some of the best men in the great empire. The Czar signed a paper + giving up the throne in behalf of himself and his young son and nominating + his brother Michael to take his place. Michael, however, was too wise. He + notified the people that he would accept the crown only if they should + vote to give it to him; and this the people would not do. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus56"></a> +<img src="images/56.jpg" width="399" height="324" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Revolutionary soldiers holding a conference in the Duma</p> +</div> + + <p> + The government, as formed at first, with its ministers of different + departments like the American cabinet, was composed of citizens of the + middle classes—lawyers, professors of the universities, land-owners, + merchants were represented—and at the head of the ministry was a + prince. This arrangement did not satisfy the rabble. The radical + socialists, most of whom owned no property and wanted all wealth divided + up among all the people, were not much happier to be ruled by the + moderately well-to-do than they were to submit to the rule of the nobles. + The council of workingmen and soldiers, meeting in the great hall which + had formerly housed the Duma, began to take upon themselves the powers of + government. Someone proclaimed that now the Russian people should have + peace, and when Prof. Milioukoff, foreign minister for the new government, + assured France and England that Russia would stick by them to the last, a + howling crowd of workingmen threatened to mob him. “No annexations and no + indemnities,” was the cry of the socialists. “Let us go back to conditions + as they were before the war. Let each nation bear the burden of its own + losses and let us have peace.” After a stormy session, the new government + agreed to include in its numbers several representatives of the soldiers + and workingmen. Prof. Milioukoff resigned and Alexander Kerensky, a + radical young lawyer, became the real leader of the Russian government. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus57"></a> +<img src="images/57.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Kerensky (standing in automobile) reviewing Russian troops</p> +</div> + + <p> + Germany and Austria, meanwhile, had eagerly seized the advantage offered + by Russia’s internal troubles. Their troops were ordered to make friends + with the Russians in the trenches opposite. They played eagerly upon the + new Russian feeling of the brotherhood of man and freedom and equality, to + do away with fighting on the east, thus being able to transfer to the + western front some of their best regiments. As a result the French and + English, after driving the Germans back for many miles in northern France + were at last brought to a standstill. The burden of carrying the whole war + seemed about to fall more heavily than ever upon the armies in the west. + Talk of a separate peace between Russia and the central powers grew + stronger and stronger. The Russian troops felt that they had been fighting + the battles of the Czar and the grand dukes and they saw no reason why + they should go on shooting their brother workingmen in Germany. + </p> + + <p> + At this point Kerensky, who had been made minister of war, set out to + visit the armies in the field. Arriving at the battle grounds of eastern + Galicia he made rousing speeches to the soldiers and actually led them in + person toward the German trenches. The result was a vigorous attack all + along the line under Generals Brusiloff and Korniloff which swept the + Germans and Austrians back for many miles, and threatened for a time to + recapture Lemberg. German spies, however, and agents of the peace party + were busy among the Russian soldiers. They soon persuaded a certain + division to stop fighting and retreat. The movement to the rear, begun by + these troops, carried others with it, and for a time it seemed as though + the whole Russian army was going to pieces. Ammunition was not supplied to + the soldiers. The situation was serious and called for a strong hand. + Kerensky was made prime minister and the members of the government and the + council of workingmen and soldiers voted him almost the powers of a Czar. + He was authorized to give orders that any deserters or traitors be shot, + if need be, without trial. Under his rule the Russian army began to + re-form, and the situation improved. + </p> + + <p> + In November, 1917, a faction of the extreme Socialists called the + Bolsheviki (Bŏl-shĕ-vï′kï) won over the + garrisons of Petrograd and Moscow, seized control of the government, + forcing Kerensky to flee, and threatened to make peace with Germany. These + people are, for the most part, the poor citizens of large cities. They + have few followers outside of the city population, for the average Russian + in the country is a land owner, and he does not take kindly to the idea of + losing his property or dividing it with some landless beggar from + Petrograd. + </p> + + <p> + The revolt of the Bolsheviki, then, simply added to the confusion in the + realm of Russia. That unhappy country was torn apart by the fights of the + different factions. Finland demanded its independence, and German spies + and agents encouraged the Ruthenians living in a great province called the + Ukraine, to do the same. The Cossacks withdrew to the country to the north + of the Crimean peninsula, and the only Russian armies that kept on + fighting were those in Turkey. These forces had been gathered largely from + the states between the Black and Caspian Seas. Having suffered persecution + in the old days, they had hated the Turks for ages and needed no orders + from Petrograd to induce them to take revenge. + </p> + + <p> + Finally the Bolshevik government agreed to a peace with the central powers + which gave Germany and Austria everything that they wanted. The Russian + armies were disbanded and the Germans and Austrians were free to turn + their fighting men back to the western front. In the meantime, the + Ruthenian republic, now called the Ukraine, was allowed by the Bolsheviki + to make a separate peace with Germany and Austria. The troops of the + Germans and Austrians began joyously to pillage both Russia and the + Ukraine, hunting for the food that was so scarce in the central empires. + However, for a whole year hardly anybody in Russia had been willing to do + a stroke of work. The fields had gone untilled while the peasants, drunk + with their new freedom, and without a care for the morrow, lived off the + grain that had been saved up during the past years. As a result, whatever + grain the enemy found proved spoiled and mouldy, hardly fit to feed to + hogs. As the Germans went about, taking anything that they wished and as + food grew scarce, the unrest in Russia grew greater. + </p> + + <p> + The Bolshevik government had not set up a democracy—a government + where all the people had equal rights: they had set up a tyranny of the + lower classes. The small land owners, the tradesmen, the middle classes + were not allowed any voice in the government. When the first National + Assembly or Congress was elected and called together, the Bolsheviki + finding that they did not control a majority of its members, disbanded it + by force. + </p> + + <p> + Little by little people began to oppose this rule. They objected to being + robbed of their rights by the rabble just as much as by the Czar. + </p> + + <p> + When the Russian armies were disbanded, there were some troops that + refused to throw down their arms. Among them were the regiments of + Czecho-Slovaks. These men had been forced, against their will, to serve in + the Austrian army. They were from the northern part of the Austrian + empire, Bohemia and Moravia. They were Slavs, related to the Russians, + speaking a language very much like Russian, hating the Germans of Austria + and anxious to free their country from the empire of the Hapsburgs. When + General Brusiloff made his big attack in June, 1916, these men had + deserted the Austrian army and re-enlisted as Russians. They could not get + back to Austria for the Austrians would shoot them as deserters. Of + course, the Austrian and the German generals would make no peace with + them. Therefore, this army, 200,000 strong, kept their own officers and + their order and their arms and refused to have anything to do with the + cowardly peace made by the Bolsheviki. Several thousand of them made their + way across Siberia, across the Pacific Ocean, across America, across the + Atlantic to France and Italy, where they are fighting by the thousands in + the armies of the Entente. The main body of them, however, are still in + Russia (August 1, 1918), holding the great Siberian railway, fully ready + to renew the war against the central powers at any time when the patriotic + Russians will rise and help them. The problem of how to get aid to the + Czechs without angering the Russian people is a big one for the allied + statesmen. + </p> + + <p> + The trouble with the Russians is that they are not educated; the result of + this is that they readily believe the lies of spies and tricksters, that + would never deceive an educated man. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Was the Russian government as harsh as that of Germany? + </li> + <li> + Why was Russia a source of weakness to the Entente? + </li> + <li> + Why was Rasputin killed? + </li> + <li> + Why did the Czars prefer the Cossacks? + </li> + <li> + What classes fought after the Czar’s downfall? + </li> + <li> + How did the central powers take advantage of Russia’s troubles? + </li> + <li> + How did the peace with the Bolsheviki help Germany? + </li> + <li> + Explain where the Czecho-Slovak army came from. + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap23"></a>Chapter XXIII.<br/> +The United States at War—Why?</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + Germany throws to the winds all rules of civilized war.—Dr. + Zimmermann’s famous note.—Congress declares war.—Other nations + follow our example.—The plight of Holland, Denmark, and Norway.—German + arguments for submarine warfare shown to be groundless.—German + agents blow up American factories.—German threats against the United + States.—Germany and the Monroe Doctrine.—A government whose + deeds its people cannot question.—Why American troops were sent to + Europe.—Why the war lords wanted peace in January, 1918. + </p> + + <p> + In the meantime, two months had elapsed from the time when the German + ambassador, Count Von Bernstorff, had been sent home by the United States. + The Germans, true to their word, had begun their campaign of attacking and + sinking without warning ships of all kinds in the waters surrounding Great + Britain and France. Even the hospital ships, marked plainly with the red + cross, and boats carrying food to the starving people of Belgium, were + torpedoed without mercy. The curious state of public feeling in Germany is + well illustrated by an incident which happened at this time. It so + happened that an English hospital ship, crossing the channel, was laden + with about as many German wounded as British. These men had been left + helpless on the field of battle after the Germans had retreated, and had + been picked up and cared for by the British, along with their own troops. + A German submarine with its deadly torpedo sent this vessel to the bottom. + The wounded men, German and British alike, sank without the slightest + chance for their lives. A burst of indignation came from all over Germany + against the “unspeakable brutality” of the British who dared to expose + German wounded men to the danger of travel on the open sea! The British + were warned that if this happened again the Germans would make reprisals + upon British prisoners in their hands. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus58"></a> +<img src="images/58.jpg" width="400" height="330" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Flight from a Torpedoed Ocean Liner</p> +</div> + + <p> + Week followed week and still there was no declaration of war between the + United States and Germany. But in the latter part of February, the United + States government made public a note which its secret agents had stopped + from being delivered to the German ambassador in Mexico. It was signed by + Dr. Zimmermann, German minister of foreign affairs, and it requested the + ambassador as soon as it was certain that there would be an outbreak of + war with the United States as a result of the sinking of ships without + warning, to propose to Mexico that she ally herself with Germany. + “Together we will make war on the United States,” said Dr. Zimmermann, + “and together we will make peace. Mexico will receive as her reward her + lost provinces of Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico.” “Ask the Mexican + government,” said Dr. Zimmermann, “to propose to the Japanese that Japan + break away from her alliance with England and join Mexico and Germany in + an attack upon the United States.” + </p> + + <p> + The publication of this note made a tremendous change in feeling in the + United States. Up to this time a great portion of the people had felt that + perhaps we were hasty in breaking off relations with Germany, and in their + earnest desire for peace had been willing to put up with injury and even + insults on the part of the Germans, excusing them on the grounds of their + military necessity. The publication of Dr. Zimmermann’s note, however, + showed the people of the United States the true temper of the government + at Berlin. It showed them that the German war lords had no respect for + anything but brute force, that the language of cannon was the only + language which they could understand, and that any further patience on the + part of this country would be looked upon as weakness and treated with + scorn and contempt. + </p> + + <p> + On the sixth of April, 1917, Congress, called into session by the + President, by an overwhelming vote declared that a state of war existed + between the United States of America and the Imperial Government of + Germany. + </p> + + <p> + At this point it may be well to sum up the causes that brought the United + States into the great war. These causes may be given under two heads: (1) + the war waged upon us by submarines; and (2) the German plots and threats + against our country at a time when we were at peace with them. The latter, + as given in pages to follow, comprise: (a) The Kaiser’s threat, (b) + Admiral Von Tirpitz’s threat, (c) the blowing up of American factories and + death of American workingmen, (d) the attempt to get us into war with + Japan and Mexico, and (e) the spending of the German government’s money in + an attempt to make our congressmen vote as Germany wished. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus59"></a> +<img src="images/59.jpg" width="399" height="284" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">President Wilson reading his War Message to Congress</p> +</div> + + <h3> + The Submarine War + </h3> + + <p> + Up to the time when the United States declared war, two hundred and + twenty-six Americans, men, women, and infants, had met their death through + the sinking of ships, torpedoed without warning, under orders of the + German government. These people were peaceable travelers, going about + their business on the high seas in passenger steamers owned by private + companies. According to the law observed by all nations up to this time + there was no more reason for them to fear danger from the Germans than if + they had been traveling on trains in South America or Spain, or any other + country not at war. The attack upon these ships, to say nothing about the + brutal and inhuman method of sinking them without warning, was an act of + war on the part of Germany against any country whose citizens happened to + be traveling on these ocean steamers. That the action of the United States + in calling the submarine attacks an act of war was only justice is proved + by the fact that several other nations, who had nothing to gain by going + to war and had earnestly desired to remain neutral, took the same stand. + Brazil, Cuba, and several other South and Central American republics found + that they could not maintain their honor without declaring war on Germany. + German ambassadors and ministers have been dismissed from practically + every capital in Spanish America. + </p> + + <p> + In Europe, also, neutral nations like Holland, Denmark, and Norway saw + their ships sunk and their citizens drowned. In spite of their wrongs, + however, the first two did not dare to declare war on Germany, as the + Germans would be able to throw a strong army across the border and overrun + each of these two little countries before the allies could come to their + help. With the fate of Belgium and Serbia before them, the Danes and the + Dutch swallowed their pride and sat helplessly by while Germany killed + their sailors and defenseless passengers. After the failure of the Entente + to protect Serbia and Roumania, no one could blame Denmark and Holland. + </p> + + <p> + Norway, too, was exposed to danger of a raid by the German fleet. + Commanding the Skager Rack and Cattegat as they did, with the Kiel Canal + connecting them, the Germans could bombard the cities on the Norwegian + coast or even land an army to invade the country. The three little + countries together do not have an army any larger than that of Roumania, + and it would have been out of the question for them to declare war on + Germany without seeing their whole territory overrun and laid waste. + </p> + + <p> + Nevertheless public opinion in Norway was so strong against Germany that + the Norwegian government, on November first, 1917 sent a vigorous protest + to Berlin, closing with these words: + </p> + + <p> + “The Norwegian government will not again state its views, as it has + already done so on several occasions, as to the violation of the + principles of the freedom of the high seas incurred by the proclamation of + large tracts of the ocean as a war zone and by the sinking of neutral + merchant ships not carrying contraband. + </p> + + <p> + “It has made a profound impression on the Norwegian people that not only + have German submarines continued to sink peaceful neutral merchant ships, + paying no attention to the fate of their crews, but that even German + warships adopted the same tactics. The Norwegian government decided to + send this note in order to bring to the attention of the German government + the impression these acts have made upon the Norwegian people.” + </p> + + <p> + The two arguments that the Germans used in trying to justify themselves + for their inhuman methods with the submarine are: (1) that on these ships + which were sunk were supplies for the French and British armies, the + arrival of which would aid them in killing Germans, and (2) that the + English, by their blockade of Germany, were doing something which was + contrary to the laws of nations and starving German women and children, + and, therefore, since England was breaking some rules of the war game, + Germany had the right to go ahead and break others. + </p> + + <p> + The trade of the United States in selling war supplies to France and + England was a sore spot with Germany. They claimed that the United States + was unfair in selling to the Entente and not to them. Of course, this was + foolish, as has been pointed out, for the United States was just as ready + to sell to Germany as to the Allies, as was shown by the two voyages of + the <i>Deutschland</i>. If our government had forbidden our people to sell + war supplies at all, and if other neutral countries had done the same + thing, then the result would be that all wars would be won by the country + which made the biggest preparation for war in times of peace. A law passed + by neutral countries forbidding their merchants from selling munitions + would leave a non-military nation, which had not been getting ready for + war, absolutely at the mercy of a neighbor who for years had been storing + up shells and guns for the purpose of unrighteous conquest. So clear was + this right to sell munitions that Germany did not dare protest, but + ordered Austria to do so instead. In reply, our government was able to + point out cases where Austrian firms had sold guns, etc., to Great Britain + during the Boer War as you have already been told, and Austria had no + answer to give. + </p> + + <p> + What is more, at all of the meetings of the diplomats of different nations + at the Hague, called for the purpose of trying to prevent future wars, if + possible, or at least to make them more humane and less brutal to the + women and children and others who were not actually fighting, Germany had + always upheld the right of neutral nations to sell arms. Moreover, her + representatives had fought strongly against any proposals to settle + disputes by arbitration and peaceful agreements. At a time when many + European nations signed treaties with the United States agreeing to allow + one year to elapse between a dispute which might lead to war and the + actual declaring of war itself, Germany positively refused to consider + such an agreement. + </p> + + <p> + As for the English blockade, England was doing no more to Germany than + Germany or any other country would have done to England if the English + navy had not been so strong. In our own Civil War the North kept up a like + blockade of the South and no nation protested against it, for it was + recognized as an entirely legal act. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, + the Germans were blockading the city of Paris and the country around it. + The Frenchmen tried to send their women and children outside the lines to + be fed. The Germans drove them back at the point of the bayonet, and told + them that they might “fry in their own fat.” According to the laws of war + they were perfectly justified in what they did. Then, too, the English + blockade, which stopped ships which were found to be loaded with supplies + for Germany and took them peaceably to an English port, where it was + decided how much the owners should be paid for the cargoes, was a very + different matter from the brutal drowning of helpless men, women, and + children by the German submarines. In one case, owners of the goods were + caused a great deal of annoyance and in some instances did not get their + money promptly. On the other side, there was murder of the most fiendish + kind, an act of war against neutral states. + </p> + + <h3> + Plots and Threats Against the United States + </h3> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus60"></a> +<img src="images/60.jpg" width="400" height="285" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">American Grain Set on Fire by German Agents</p> +</div> + + <p> + Let us turn now to the second cause for grievance that the United States + had against Germany. At a time when American citizens who sympathized with + Germany were subscribing millions of dollars for the relief of the German + wounded, it is strongly suspected that this was the very money, which, + collected by the German government’s own agents, was being spent in plots + involving the destroying of the property of some American citizens and the + death of others. The German ambassador and his helpers were hiring men to + blow up American factories, to destroy railroad bridges, and to kill + Americans who were making war supplies for the armies of Europe. Factory + after factory was blown up with considerable loss of life. Bombs, with + clock work attachment to explode them at a certain time, were found on + ships sailing for Europe. Money was poured out in great quantities to + influence members of the United States Congress to vote against the + shipment of war supplies to France and England. Revolts paid for by German + money were organized in Mexico and the Islands of the West Indies. For a + long time there had been a series of stories and newspaper and magazine + articles trying to prove to the American people that Japan was planning to + make war on us. The same sort of stories appeared in Japan, persuading the + Japanese that they were in danger of being attacked by the United States. + It now appears that the great part of these stories were started by the + Germans, who hoped to get us into a war with Japan and profit by the ill + will which must follow between the two countries. + </p> + + <p> + At first, Americans were inclined to think that all of these things could + be traced to German-Americans, whose zeal for their Fatherland caused them + to go too far. But it has been proved beyond a doubt that all of these + acts, which were really acts of war against the United States, were + ordered by the government at Berlin and paid for by German money, or by + American money which had been contributed for the benefit of the German + Red Cross service. + </p> + + <p> + In addition to these facts there were threats against the United States + which could not be ignored. The Kaiser had told our ambassador at Berlin, + Mr. Gerard, that “America had better beware after this war” for he “would + stand no nonsense from her.” Admiral Von Tirpitz, the German Secretary of + the Navy, also told Mr. Gerard that Germany needed the coast of Belgium as + a place from which to start her “future war on England and America.” + </p> + + <p> + American statesmen were seriously concerned at threats of this kind, for + they knew that the government in power at Berlin could absolutely command + its people, and by forbidding certain kinds of news and substituting other + things in the German newspapers could make the German people think + anything which the war lords wished them to think. Thus there was great + danger that, having won the war from the Entente or having stood them off + successfully until the fight was declared a draw, Germany would next + attack the United States with the idea of collecting from this + comparatively defenseless and very rich country the huge indemnity which + she had planned to assess upon France and Russia. With this money and with + the breaking down of the Monroe Doctrine, Germany could set up a great + empire in South America which would make her almost as powerful as she + would have been had her first plans for crushing France and Russia been + successful. + </p> + + <p> + You will recall, from your study of United States history, that President + Monroe had warned European governments to keep their hands off South + America, for the United States would act as big brother to any of the + little republics there who might be attacked by a European foe. Germany in + recent years has resented this very vigorously. There were nearly half a + million Germans in the southern part of Brazil. Uruguay and the Argentine + Republic also had large German settlements. If the Monroe Doctrine were + out of the way, Germany hoped that she would be able to get a footing in + these countries in which she had colonists and gradually to gain control + of the entire country. In the fall of 1917 there was uncovered a plot + among the German residents of certain states in the southern part of + Brazil to make this territory a part of the German Colonial Empire. This + discovery, along with the sinking of Brazilian ships by submarines, drove + Brazil into war with Germany. + </p> + + <p> + To sum up: The United States entered the war: first, because German + submarines were killing her peaceful citizens and stopping her lawful + trade; second, because paid agents of the German government were + destroying American property in the United States, killing American + citizens, and creating discord in our political life; they were pretending + to be friendly and yet were trying to enlist Japan and Mexico in war + against us; third, for the reason that because of Germany’s threats and + her well-known policy in South America there was grave danger that it + would be our turn next if the central powers should come out of the + European war uncrushed. + </p> + + <p> + The American government has made it plain that we are not moved by any + desire for gain for ourselves. We have nothing to win through the war + except the assurance that our nation will be safe. If Germany had a + government which the people controlled, then the United States could trust + promises of that government. But, as President Wilson has pointed out, no + one can trust the present government of Germany, for it is responsible to + no one for what it does. It has torn up sacred promises, which its + Chancellor called “scraps of paper”; it has broken its word; it has + ordered “acts of frightfulness” in the lands which it has conquered and on + the high seas, with the idea of brutally forcing its will upon enemies and + neutral countries alike. It has deceived its own people, persuading them + that they were attacked by France and Russia, while all the time it was + plotting to rule the world through force of arms. + </p> + + <p> + President Wilson has said that the object of the United States in this war + is “to make the world safe for democracy.” This means that a free people, + who have no desire to interfere with any of their neighbors or to make + conquests by force of arms, shall be allowed to live their lives without + preparation for war and without fear that they may be attacked by a nation + with military rulers. + </p> + + <p> + We have seen how France, attacked in 1870 and threatened by Germany in + 1875, 1905, of war and 1911 was obliged to match gun for gun and ship for + ship with her warlike neighbor to the east. The dread of an attack by the + military party of Germany hung over France like a shadow throughout + forty-three years of a peace which was only a little better than war, + because of the vast amount of money that had to be spent and the attention + that had to be given to preparation for the war that all felt would one + day come. + </p> + + <p> + When once the German people have a controlling voice in the government, + then, and not till then, can other governments believe the word of the + statesmen at Berlin. But at present the citizens of Germany have little + real power. For, while they can elect members of the Reichstag, the + Reichstag can pass no laws, for above this body is the national council, + whose members are appointed by the Kaiser and the other kings and grand + dukes. The power of declaring war and making peace lies practically in the + hands of the Kaiser alone, and at any moment he can set aside any of + Germany’s laws, under the plea that “military necessity” calls for certain + things to be done. In this way, he has thrown into prison those who dared + to speak against the war, and has either suppressed newspapers or ordered + them to print only what he wished printed; thus the German people have let + him do their thinking for them. + </p> + + <p> + They are a docile people. One of the first words that a German baby is + taught to say is “Kaiser,” and all of the schools, which are run by the + government, have taught nothing but respect for the present form of + government, and almost a worship of the Kaiser himself. What it is hoped + that this war will bring about is the freeing of the German people from + their blind obedience to the military power, which for its own glory and + pride has hurled them by the millions to death. + </p> + + <p> + The United States has adopted plans in this war which are very different + from any hitherto used. With the exception of some troops raised for a few + months during the dark days of the War of the Rebellion, all of our armies + have been recruited from men who enlisted of their own free will. In this + great conflict in which we are now engaged, the government has drawn its + soldiers by lot from a list of all the young men in the country between + the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one. Thus, rich and poor alike are + fighting in our ranks. + </p> + + <p> + For the first time in our history our troops have been sent to fight on + another continent. Many persons have felt that we should keep our young + men at home and wait for Germany to cross the Atlantic in order to attack + us. Our statesmen, on the other hand, saw that the peace of the world was + at stake. If Germany, Austria, and Turkey, the three countries whose + people have no voice in the question of peace or war, come out of this + conflict victorious, or even undefeated, the world will see again the mad + race for armaments which resulted in the war of 1914. If, on the other + hand, the people of these nations realize that it is true today, as in the + olden times, that those people who take up the sword shall perish by the + sword, they will overthrow their leaders and agree to disarm and live at + peace in future with their neighbors. + </p> + + <p> + The military parties in Austria and Germany wanted war. The only way by + which these people can be convinced is by brute force. When they realize + that they have not gained by war, but have lost, not only a great deal of + their wealth, through the terrific cost of the war, but the friendship and + respect of the whole world, when they realize that the nations allied + against them will push the war relentlessly until these military chiefs + confess that they never want to hear the word “war” again, then, and only + then, will they be ready to throw down their arms and agree to join a + league of the nations whose object shall be to prevent any future wars. + </p> + + <p> + As long as Germany was victorious and her people thought that they were + going to come out of the conflict with added territory and big money + indemnities, war was popular. But with the flower of their young men + slain, and the prospect of conquest and plunder growing smaller and + smaller with each passing month, the Germans, too, are beginning to hate + the thought of war. + </p> + + <p> + The American army can give the finishing touch to the German downfall + along the western front, and the sooner the Germans realize that they + cannot win from the rapidly growing number of their enemies, the sooner + will come the the end of this greatest tragedy in the civilized world. + </p> + + <p> + The war lords knew that if the war lasted long enough they must be + defeated and they were striving hard all through the years 1916 and 1917 + to make peace while they had possession of enough of the enemy’s lands so + that they could show their own people some gain in territory to pay them + back for their terrible sufferings. The German war debt was so great that + the war lords dreaded to face their own people after the latter realized + that they had been deceived as well as defeated. The government had told + them (1) that England, France, and Russia forced this war upon Germany, + (2) that the German armies would win the war in short order, and (3) that + a huge sum of money would be collected from France, Belgium, and Russia to + pay the expenses of the war. The war lords dreaded to think of the time + when their people, knowing that they themselves will have to bear the + fearful burden of war debt, learned also that the whole tragedy was forced + upon the world by the pride and ambition of their own leaders. By + Christmas 1917, the Kaiser was once more hinting that Germany was ready to + talk peace. He was wise, for if peace could have been made then it would + have left Germany absolute mistress of all of middle Europe. Austria, + Bulgaria, and Turkey were more under the control of the Kaiser and his war + lords than were parts of his own empire like Bavaria and Saxony. In + Belgium, Serbia, Poland, Lithuania, Roumania, and northern France the + central powers had over forty millions of people who were compelled to + work for them like slaves. The plunder collected from these countries ran + into billions of dollars. The road to the east, cut asunder by the results + of the second Balkan war (see <a href="#map20">map</a>), had been + forced open by the rush of the victorious German armies through Serbia and + Roumania. A peace at this time would have been a German victory. With the + drain on the man power of the central powers, with dissatisfaction growing + among their people, with the steady increase in the armies of the United + States, time was fighting on the side of the allies. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Does the Zimmermann note show that the German government understood + conditions in Mexico and the United States? + </li> + <li> + Why did the Zimmermann note have so strong an effect upon American + public opinion? + </li> + <li> + What were the steps by which the United States was forced into war? + </li> + <li> + Why did not Holland and Denmark declare war on Germany also? + </li> + <li> + What was the main difference between the English blockade of Germany + and the German submarine war on England? + </li> + <li> + Was the German government responsible for the acts of its agents in + this country? + </li> + <li> + What is the Monroe Doctrine? + </li> + <li> + Why could not the Imperial Government of Germany be trusted? + </li> + <li> + How was this war different for the United States from any previous + conflict? + </li> + <li> + What was the greatest obstacle to peace? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap24"></a>Chapter XXIV.<br/> +Europe as it Should Be</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + Natural boundaries of nations in Europe.—Peoples outside of the + nations with whom they belong.—The mixture of peoples in + Austria-Hungary, and Russia.—The British Isles.—The Balkan + states.—Recent changes in the map.—The wrongs done by mighty + nations upon their weak neighbors bring no happiness. + </p> + + <p> + We have several times shown you, in the course of this little history, + maps drawn by kings and marked off by diplomacy and through bloodshed. Let + us now examine a map of Europe divided according to the race and language + of its various peoples. It often happens that the boundaries set by + nature, like seas, high mountains, and broad rivers, divide one people + from another. It is natural that the people of Italy, for instance, hemmed + in by the Alps to the north and by the water on all other sides, should + grow to be like each other and come to talk a common language. + </p> + + <p> + In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, Great + Britain, and Switzerland have boundaries largely set by nature. On this + account, it is not surprising that the map of “Europe as it should be” + which unites people of the same blood under the same government, agrees + rather closely in some places with the map of Europe as it is. + </p> + + <p> + The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and those of the kingdom of + Portugal fit pretty closely the countries inhabited by Spanish and + Portuguese peoples. + </p> + + <p> + There are a few Italians in France, also a few Walloons and Flemish. + Otherwise France is largely a unit. Some of the French people are found in + Switzerland and others in that part of the German Empire which was taken + away from France after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. + </p> + + <p> + The Danes are not all living in Denmark. A great many of them inhabit the + two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein which were torn away from Denmark + by Prussia in 1864. The high mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula + separate the Norwegians from the Swedes about as well as they divide the + countries geographically. + </p> + + <p> + The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, but part of the northwestern + corner of the German Empire is also peopled by Dutch. The territory around + Aix-La-Chapelle, although part of the German Empire, is inhabited by + Walloons, a Celtic people who speak a sort of French. Belgium, small as it + is, contains two different types of population, the Walloons and the + Flemish. + </p> + + <p> + The German Empire does not include all of the Germans. A great many of + these are to be found in Austria proper, Styria (sty̆′rĭȧ), + and the northern Tyrol (ty̆′rol) (western counties of the + Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern half of Switzerland and the + edges of Bohemia. Germans are also to be found in parts of Hungary; and in + the Baltic provinces of Russia there are over two million of them. + </p> + + <p> + All of the Italians are not in the kingdom of Italy. The Island of + Corsica, which belongs to France, is inhabited by Italians. The province + of Trentino (trĕn ti′nō) (the southern half of the + Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by Italians, as is also + Istria, which includes the cities of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. Certain + islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely Italian in their + population. + </p> + + <p> + The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by French, Italians, and Germans. + Besides the languages of these three nations, a fourth tongue is spoken + there. In the valleys of the southeastern corner of Switzerland are found + people who talk a corruption of the old Latin, which they call Romaunsch + or Romansh. + </p> + + <p> + Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is a jumble of languages and + nationalities. This empire includes nearly a million Italians in its + southwestern corner, and three million Roumanians in Transylvania. It has + as its subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina several million Serbians. In + Slavonia (slȧ vō′nĭ ȧ), Croatia (crō a′tia), + and Dalmatia (dăl mā tia), it has two or three million Slavs, + who are closely related to the Serbians. In the north, its government + rules over several million Czechs (chĕcks) (Bohemians and Moravians) + who strongly desire to have a country of their own. It controls also two + million Slovaks, cousins of the Czechs, who also would like their + independence. In the county of Carniola (car ni ō′lȧ), + there are one and a half million Slovenes, another Slavic people belonging + either by themselves or with their cousins, the Croatians and Serbs. + </p> + + <p> + The German Empire includes several hundred thousand Frenchmen, who want to + get back under French control, a million or two Danes, who want once more + to belong to Denmark, and several million Poles, who desire to see their + country again united. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="map24"></a> +<a href="images/map24.jpg"> +<img src="images/map24.jpg" width="700" height="484" alt="Illustration: +Messen" /></a> +<p class="caption">Europe as It Should Be</p> +</div> + + <p> + Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost as numerous as those + composing Austria-Hungary. The Russians themselves are not one people. The + Red Russians or Ruthenians are quite different from the people of Little + Russia, and they in turn are different from the people of Great Russia, to + the north. The Baltic provinces are peopled, not by Russians, but by two + million Germans, an equal number of Letts and a somewhat greater number of + Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found the Esthonians, cousins of the + Finns. North-west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose people, with the + Esthonians, do not belong to the Indo-European family, and who would + dearly love to have a separate government of their own. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus61"></a> +<img src="images/61.jpg" width="401" height="310" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Polish children</p> +</div> + + <p> + You have already been told in <a href="#chap05">Chapter V</a> that the country + of the English, if limited by race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or + the north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north-eastern part of + Ireland and the southern half of the former Scottish kingdom. + </p> + + <p> + Turning to the Balkan states, we find our hardest task, for the reason + that peoples of different nationalities are hopelessly mixed and jumbled. + There are Turks and Greeks mixed in with the Roumanians and Bulgarians in + the Dobrudja. Parts of southern Serbia and portions of Grecian Macedonia + are inhabited by people of Bulgarian descent. Transylvania, with the + exception of the two little mixture islands mentioned before is inhabited + by Roumanians. The southern half of the Austrian province of Bukowina also + ought to be part of Roumania, as should the greater part of the Russian + state of Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has a population of 7,000,000, + there are between five and six million of her people who live outside her + present boundaries. + </p> + + <p> + The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea should belong to Greece. Greek + people have inhabited them for thousands of years. The Albanians are a + separate people, while Montenegro and Bosnia should be joined to Serbia. + </p> + + <p> + Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this volume and you will see that + most of the changes that have been made of late years are bringing + boundaries nearer where they should be. You will also note that wherever + there have been recent changes contrary to this plan, they have always + resulted in more bloodshed. The partition of Poland, the annexation of + Schleswig, Alsace, and Lorraine to Germany, the division of Bulgarian + Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and + Herzegovina by Austria are good examples. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked natural boundaries? + </li> + <li> + Who are the Walloons? + </li> + <li> + Who are the Romansh people? + </li> + <li> + To what other people are the Esthonians related? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus62"></a> +<img src="images/62.jpg" width="399" height="270" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">The price of the war</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap25"></a>Chapter XXV.<br/> +The Cost of It All</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + What war debts mean—The devastation of farms and villages—Diseases + which travel with war—The men picked to die first—The + survivors and their children—The effect on France of Napoleon’s wars—What + Hannibal did to Rome—What happened to the Franks—Sweden before + and after the wars of Charles XII—Europe at the close of the Great + War + </p> + + <p> + In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war were rapidly rushing toward + bankruptcy. England spent $30,000,000 a day; France, Germany, and Austria + nearly as much apiece. Thus in the course of a year, a debt of $300 was + piled upon every man, woman, and child in the British kingdom. The average + family consists of five persons, so that this means a debt of $1500 per + family for each year that the war lasted. The income of the average family + in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and the amount of money that + they can save out of this sum is very small. Yet the British people are + obliged to add this tremendous debt to the already very large amount that + they owe, and will have to go on paying interest on it for hundreds of + years. + </p> + + <p> + In the same fashion, debts piled up for the peoples of France, Germany, + Austria, Russia and all the countries in the war. In spite of what we have + said above of the average income of English families, Great Britain is + rich when compared with Austria and Russia. What is more, Great Britain is + practically unscarred, while on the continent great tracts of land which + used to be well cultivated farms have been laid waste with reckless + abandon. East Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, part of Hungary, + Alsace, Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south-western Austria-Hungary, + and all of Belgium and Roumania, a territory amounting to one-fifth of the + whole of Europe, were scarred and burned and devastated. + </p> + + <p> + It will be years and years before these countries recover from the effects + of war’s invasion. For every man killed on the field of battle, it is + estimated that two people die among the noncombatants. Children whose + fathers are at the front, frail women trying to do the work of men, aged + inhabitants of destroyed villages die by the thousands from want of food + and shelter. + </p> + + <p> + In the trail of war come other evils. People do not have time to look + after their health or even to keep clean. As a result, diseases like the + plagues of olden times, which civilization thought it had killed, come to + life again and destroy whole cities. The dreadful typhus fever killed off + one-fifth of the population of Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera + raged among the Austrian troops in the fall of the same year. For every + soldier who is killed on the field of battle, three others die from + disease or wounds or lack of proper care. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus63"></a> +<img src="images/63.jpg" width="399" height="268" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Rendered Homeless by War</p> +</div> + + <p> + In time of war, the first men picked are the very flower of the country, + the strong, the athletic, the brave, the very sort of men who ought to be + carefully saved as the fathers of the people to come. As these are killed + or disabled, governments draw on the older men who are still vigorous and + hardy. Then finally they call out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the + aged, and the young boys. As a general rule, the members of this last + class make up the bulk of the men who survive the war. They, instead of + the strong and healthy, become the fathers of the next generation of + children. + </p> + + <p> + In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years B.C., there stood on the + coast of North Africa a city named Carthage, which, like Rome, owned lands + far and near. Carthage would have been satisfied to “live and let live,” + but Rome would not have it so. As a result, the two cities engaged in + three terrible wars which ended in the destruction of Carthage. But before + Carthage was finally blotted off the map, her great general, Hannibal, + dealt Rome a blow which brought her to her knees, and came very near + destroying her completely. Five Roman armies, averaging 30,000 men apiece, + he trapped and slaughtered. The death of these 150,000 men was a loss from + which Rome never recovered. From this time on, her citizens were made of + poorer stuff, and the old Roman courage and Roman honor and Roman free + government began to decline. + </p> + + <p> + The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, Lombards, etc.) who swarmed into + the Roman Empire about the year 400 A.D., although they were barbarians, + nevertheless had many excellent qualities. They were brave, hardy men and + stood for freedom from tyrants. However, they fought so many wars that + they were gradually killed off. Take the Franks, for example; the three + grandsons of Charlemagne, who had divided up his great empire, fought a + disastrous war with one another, which ended in a great battle that almost + wiped out the Frankish nation. This happened about 840 A.D. + </p> + + <p> + Sweden was once one of the great powers of Europe. However, about 1700 + A.D., she had a king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer Russia and + Poland. He was finally defeated at a little town in the southern part of + Russia nearly a thousand miles away from home, and his great army was + wiped out. After his time, Sweden sank to the level of a second class + nation. The bodies of her best men had been strewn on battlefields + reaching from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Black Sea. + </p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illus64"></a> +<img src="images/64.jpg" width="268" height="400" alt="Illustration: " /> +<p class="caption">Charles XII of Sweden</p> +</div> + + <p> + For eighty years after the time of Napoleon, the French nation showed a + lower birth rate and produced smaller and weaker men than it had one + hundred years previously. The reason for this is easily found. During the + twenty-three years of terrible fighting which followed the execution of + the king, France left her finest young men dead all over the face of + Europe. They died by the thousands in Spain, in Italy, in Austria, in + Germany, and above all, amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Only within + the last twenty years have the French, through their new interest in + out-of-door sports and athletics, begun once more to build up a hardy, + vigorous race of young men. And now came this terrible war to set France + back where she was one hundred years ago. + </p> + + <p> + Picture Europe at the close of this great war; the flower of her young + manhood gone; the survivors laden with debts which will keep them in + poverty for years to come; trade and agriculture at a standstill; but + worst of all, the feeling of friendship between nations, of world + brotherhood, postponed one hundred years. Hatred of nation for nation is + stronger than ever. + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + How does a nation at war increase its debts? + </li> + <li> + Why do diseases thrive in war time? + </li> + <li> + What became of the Goths and Franks? + </li> + <li> + Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden? + </li> + <li> + What was the effect of Napoleon’s many wars upon the strength of the + French nation? + </li> + <li> + Is war growing more humane? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap26"></a>Chapter XXVI.<br/> +What Germany Must Learn</h2> + + <p class="letter"> + The German plot.—What the Czar’s prohibition order did.—Where + Germany miscalculated.—Where England and America failed to + understand.—An appeal to force must be answered by force.—Effect + of the Russian revolution.—“It never must happen again.”—The + league to enforce peace.—The final lesson. + </p> + + <p> + Before 1914 friends of peace in all countries, but especially in English + speaking lands, had hoped that there would never again be a real war + between civilized nations. + </p> + + <p> + Among the people of the United States and Great Britain it was + unbelievable that any group of responsible rulers would deliberately plot, + in the twentieth century, the enslaving of the world through military + force, as we now know that the war lords of Prussia and Austria planned + it. However, the plot was not only made but was almost successful. They + made, though, a great mistake in the case of England. They were sure that + she would not enter the war. Her turn was to come later on, after France + and Russia had been crushed. The German leaders were also mistaken in + calculating the time that Russia would take to mobilize her troops. In + 1904, at the outbreak of the war against Japan, the Russian soldiers had + become so drunk that it was many weeks before they could be gotten into + any kind of military shape. But at the outbreak of the great “world-war” + the order of the Czar which stopped the sale of strong drink changed all + of Prussia’s plans. Instead of taking two or three months to assemble her + army, Russia had her troops marching in a mighty force through the German + province of East Prussia three weeks after the war had opened. The result + was that the German soldiers had to be sent back from northern France to + stop the victorious march of the Slavs. The battle of the Marne, fought in + the first week of September, 1914, decided the fate of the world. It hung + in the balance long enough to prove that a small addition to the forces on + either side might have made all the difference in the world in the final + outcome. The little British army, which was less than one-eighth of the + force of the Allied side, probably furnished the factor that defeated the + Germans. The presence in the battle of the German troops who had been + withdrawn to stop the Russians, might have given victory to the invaders. + </p> + + <p> + Germany made a mistake, also, in expecting Italy to join in the attack on + France. Any one of these three factors might have won the war in short + order for the forces of Austria and Germany. With France crushed, as she + might have been, in spite of her heroic resistance, without the help of + the tiny British army, or with the intervention of Italy on the side of + her former allies, it would have been no difficult task for the combined + forces of Germany and Austria to pound the vast Russian armies into + confusion, collect a big indemnity from both France and Russia, and be + back home, as the Kaiser had promised, before the leaves fell from the + trees. + </p> + + <p> + As has been said, the great majority of the citizens in nations where the + people rule, could not believe that in this day and age the rulers of any + civilized country would deliberately plot robbery and piracy on so grand a + scale. They had looked forward to the time when all nations might disarm + and live in peace with their neighbors. In France alone, of all the + western nations, was there any clear idea of the Prussian plan. France, + having learned the temper of the Prussian war lords in 1870, France, + burdened by a national debt heaped high by the big indemnity collected by + the Germans in ’71, looked in apprehension to the east and leaped to arms + at the first rattling of the Prussian saber. + </p> + + <p> + Germany, up to 1866 renowned chiefly for her poets, musicians, and + thinkers, had since been fed for nearly fifty years upon the doctrine that + military force is the only power in the world worth considering. Some of + the German people still cling to the high ideals of their ancestors, but + the majority had drunk deeply of the wine of conquest and were intoxicated + with the idea that Germany’s mission in life was to conquer all the other + nations of the world and rule them for their own good by German + thoroughness and by German efficiency. It may take many years to stamp + this feeling out of the German nation. As they have worshipped force and + appealed to force as the settler of all questions, so they will listen to + reason only after they have been thoroughly crushed by a superior force. + The sufferings brought upon the German nation by the war have had a great + effect in making them doubt whether, after all, force is a good thing. As + long as the people could be kept enthusiastic through stories of wonderful + victories over the Russians, the Serbians, and then the Roumanians, they + were contented to endure all manner of hardships. + </p> + + <p> + Someone has said that no people are happier than those living in a + despotism, if the right kind of man is the despot. So the German people, + although they were governed strictly by the military rule, nevertheless, + were contented as long as they were prosperous and victorious in war. With + the rumors and fears of defeat, however, they began to doubt their + government. There are indications that sweeping reforms in the election of + representatives in the Reichstag and in the power of that body itself will + take place before long. + </p> + + <p> + The Russian revolution was in some respects a blow to the central powers. + In the first place the fact that Russia had a despot for a ruler while + England, France, and Italy were countries where the people elected their + law makers, made it impossible that there should be the best of + understanding between the allies. Then, again, the various peoples of + Austria-Hungary, while they were not happy under the rule of the Hapsburg + family, were afraid lest, if they became subjects of the Czar, it would be + “jumping from the frying pan into the fire.” They would rather bear the + evils of the Austrian rule than risk what the Czar and the grand dukes + might do to them. Turkey, likewise, was bound to stick to Germany to the + end, because of her fear that Russia would seize Constantinople. When the + new government of Russia, then, announced that they did not desire to + annex by force any territory, but only wished to free the peoples who were + in bondage, it removed the fear of the Turks as far as their capital city + was concerned; it showed the Poles, Ruthenians, and Czechs of Austria that + they were in no danger of being swallowed up in the Russian empire, but + that, on the other hand, the Russians wanted them to be free, like + themselves; it showed the German people how easily a whole nation, when + united, could get rid of its rulers, and encouraged the bold spirits who + had never favored the military rule. + </p> + + <p> + The nations of the Entente, including the United States, are now united in + an effort to stamp out the curse of feudalism in Austria and in Germany—a + curse which has disappeared from all other parts of the civilized world. + They are united to crush the military spirit of conquest which exists + among the war leaders of the Prussians. They are pledged “to make the + world safe for democracy” as President Wilson has said; to do away with + the rule of force. So long as the governments of Germany, Austria, and + Turkey place the military power at all times above the civil power, so + long will it be necessary to police the world. There must be no repetition + of the savage attack of August, 1914. There was a time when many of us + believed that some one nation, by disbanding its army and refusing to + build warships, might set an example of disarming which all the world + would finally follow. It now is plain that there must be a “League to + Enforce Peace” as Ex-President Taft and other American statesmen have + declared. The United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Italy, + Belgium, Portugal, Serbia, Greece, together with Spain, Holland, Norway, + Sweden, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other nations where the will of the + people is the law, must unite in an alliance which will insist on + arbitration as a means of settling disputes. + </p> + + <p> + In 1870, Great Britain and the United States had a dispute which might + well have led to war. Instead of fighting over it, however, they laid + their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, an Italian, a + Brazilian, an Englishman, and an American. This court, by a vote of four + to one, decided against England, and England accepted the decision as + final, although it cost her many millions of dollars. + </p> + + <p> + The League to Enforce Peace must insist that each nation in the world + maintain only a small force of soldiers, to be used as police for its own + affairs, and there must be an international police to settle all + differences between nations and to enforce the orders of the court of + arbitration. In time (no one knows how soon) the people of Germany and + Austria will be freed from the military rule which now has the power to + hurl them into war. When that day arrives and they learn that they have + been led astray by Treitschke and Bernhardi, who preached that war was a + blessing to a nation and that only the powerful nations had the right to + survive, they will know that “Thou shalt not kill” is just as strong a + commandment today as when it first was uttered. + </p> + + <p> + Sometime, nations will learn that other nations have the right to live, + and that no country can wrong another through force of arms without + suffering for it in the end. In a blunted conscience, in the loss of the + sympathy of the rest of the world, in a lessening of the Christ-spirit of + doing good to others, the nation which resorts to force to gratify its own + selfish ends, like the individual, pays the full penalty for its misdeeds. + It, was a great American who said, “The world is my country and mankind + are my brothers.” + </p> + + <div class="review"> + <h5> + Questions for Review + </h5> + <ol> + <li> + Why did England and the United States fail to understand Germany? + </li> + <li> + What right would Germany have had to an indemnity? + </li> + <li> + What great change took place in Germany after 1866? + </li> + <li> + Why must the war go on till Germany is crushed? + </li> + <li> + What lesson must Germany learn? + </li> + <li> + Why have the South American republics fought so many wars? + </li> + <li> + Suggest some solution for the problem of war. + </li> + <li> + What is meant by arbitration? + </li> + <li> + What was the greatest mistake of those who planned the war? + </li> + <li> + How did the Russian Revolution help the cause of the Entente? + </li> + <li> + What is the greatest lesson taught by the war? + </li> + </ol> + </div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap27"></a>Pronouncing Glossary</h2> + + <p> + In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the English + pronunciation is given for names that have become at all familiar in + history or geography. Thus the English Crā′cōw is given + instead of the Polish Krȧ′ko͝of or the German Krä′kau. + </p> + + <p> + On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja must be given as the + natives of these places pronounce them, as there is no recognized English + pronunciation. + </p> + + <p> + In certain cases where there are several current pronunciations, the + author has been forced to make a selection, arbitrarily. Thus a seaport in + Greece, which has changed hands recently, has no less than five names. Its + Greek name is pronounced Thĕssȧlōnyi′ki, while + other nations term it variously Sȧlōni′kā, Sĕlȧnïk′, + Sō′lōn, Sȧlōni′ki or Salō′nicȧ. + </p> + + <p> + Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English speaking people to + reproduce. These are indicated by English syllables which approximate them + as nearly as possible. + </p> + + <p> + Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be found pronounced + in the glossary. It is assumed that such names as Austria, Bismarck, etc., + can hardly be mispronounced.<br/><br/> + </p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Aboukir (ä′bö̈ kïr)<br/> +Aegean (ē jē′ăn)<br/> +Agadir (ȧ gȧ dïr′)<br/> +Aix-la-Chapelle (āks lä shȧpĕl′)<br/> +Albania (ăl bā′nï ȧ)<br/> +Algeciras (ăl jĕ si′rȧs) or (ȧljĕ sï′rȧs)<br/> +Alsace (ȧl sȧs′)<br/> +Andrassy (ȧn drȧs′sy̆)<br/> +Aragon (ă′rȧ gŏn)<br/> +Armada (är mä′dȧ)<br/> +Armenians (är mē′nï ȧns)<br/> +Arminius (är mĭn′ï ŭs)<br/> +Avlona (ȧv lō′ṅa)<br/> +Baden (bä′dĕn)<br/> +Balkan (bȧl kän′) or (bôl′kän)<br/> +Banat (bȧn′ȧt)<br/> +Basques (bȧsks)<br/> +Bastille (bȧ stïl′)<br/> +Bavaria (bȧ vā′rï ȧ)<br/> +Belfort (bĕl′fôr)<br/> +Bernadotte (bēr′nȧ dŏt)<br/> +Bessarabia (bĕs sȧ rā′bï ȧ) or (bĕs +sȧ rä′bï ȧ)<br/> +Bismarck-Schönausen (shẽn how′zĕn)<br/> +Blenheim (blĕn′ĕm) or (blĕn′hīm)<br/> +Boer (bo͞or)<br/> +Bohemia (bōhē′mīȧ)<br/> +Bonaparte (bō′nȧ pärt)<br/> +Bosnia (bŏz′ni̇ ȧ)<br/> +Bourbon (bo͞or′bŭn)<br/> +Brandenburg (brăn′dĕn bûrg)<br/> +Breton (brē′ton) or (brĕt′ŭn)<br/> +Brusiloff (brū si′lŏff)<br/> +Bukowina (bo͝o kō vï′nȧ)<br/> +Bulgaria (bŭl gā′ri̇ ȧ)<br/> +Burgundians (bûr′gŭn’dï ȧns)<br/> +Burgundy (bûr′gŭn dy)<br/> +Byzantium (by̆ zăn′tï ̆um)<br/> +Caesar (sēz′ēr)<br/> +Carniola (cȧr nï ō′lȧ)<br/> +Carpathian (cãr pā′thï ȧn)<br/> +Carthage (cȧr′thāj)<br/> +Castile (cȧs til′)<br/> +Castlereagh (căs′l rā)<br/> +Cavour (cȧ vo͞or′)<br/> +Charlemagne (shär lĕ mān′)<br/> +Chauvinists (shō′vĭn ĭsts)<br/> +Cicero (sĭs′ē rō)<br/> +Cimbri (sĭm′brï)<br/> +Cincinnatus (sĭn sĭn nä′tŭs)<br/> +Constantine (cŏn′stăn tïn)<br/> +Cracow (crā′cō)<br/> +Crimea (crĭ mē′ȧ)<br/> +Croatia (crō ä′tï ȧ) or (crōä′shȧ)<br/> +Czech (chĕk)<br/> +Dacians (dā′shŭnz)<br/> +Dalmatia (dăl mā′shï ȧ)<br/> +Théophile Delcassé (tā′ō fïl dĕl +cȧ sä′)<br/> +Deutschland (doitsh′lȧnd)<br/> +Devonshire (dĕv′ŏn shïr)<br/> +Disraeli (dĭz rā′lĭ)<br/> +Dobrudja (dō bro͝od′jȧ)<br/> +Dreibund (drī′bo͝ond)<br/> +Durazzo (dū rȧt′zö)<br/> +Emmanuel (ĕm măn′ū ĕl)<br/> +Entente Cordiale (ȧn tȧnt′côr dyȧl′)<br/> +Enver Bey (ĕn′vẽr bā′)<br/> +Epinal (ĕp′ï nȧl)<br/> +Epirus (ĕp ī′rŭs)<br/> +Erse (ērs)<br/> +Esthonians (ĕs thō′nï ănz)<br/> +Etruscans (ē trŭs′cănz)<br/> +Euphrates (ū frā′tēz)<br/> +Fashoda (fȧ shō′dȧ)<br/> +Fiume (fï ū′me)<br/> +Gaelic (gā′lĭc)<br/> +Galicia (găl ĭ′shȧ)<br/> +Gallipoli (găl ĭ′pōlï)<br/> +Garibaldi (gȧr ï bȧl′dï)<br/> +Gerard (jĕr ärd′)<br/> +Germanic (jẽr măn′ĭc)<br/> +Glamis (glăm′ĭs)<br/> +Gortchakoff (gôr′chȧ kŏf)<br/> +Goths (gŏths)<br/> +Granada (grȧ nä′dȧ)<br/> +Hannibal (hăn′nĭ bl)<br/> +Hanover (hăn′ō vẽr)<br/> +Herzegovina (hārt′sĕ gō vï′nȧ)<br/> +Hesse-Darmstadt (hĕs sĕ därm′stȧt)<br/> +Hindustan (hĭn do͞o stän′)<br/> +Hohenzollern (hō ĕn tsŏl′ẽrn)<br/> +Holstein (hōl′stīn)<br/> +Illyrians (ĭ ly̆r′ĭ ȧns)<br/> +Istria (ĭs′trï ȧ)<br/> +Janina (yȧ nï′nȧ)<br/> +Janus (jā′nŭs)<br/> +Jonescu (jō nĕs′ko͞o)<br/> +Jutes (jūts)<br/> +Kaiser (kī′zẽr)<br/> +Kaspar (kăs′pär)<br/> +Kavala (kȧ vä′ lȧ)<br/> +Kerensky (kĕ rĕn′skĭ)<br/> +Khartoom (kär to͞om′)<br/> +Korea (kō rē′ȧ)<br/> +Kȯrniloff (kor nï′lŏff)<br/> +Koumanova (ko͞o mä′nō vȧ)<br/> +Lamar (lȧ mär′)<br/> +Leon (lē′ŏn)<br/> +Liege (lï ĕzh′)<br/> +Lithuania (lĭth o͞o ā′nīȧ)<br/> +Longwy (lŏng′vy̆)<br/> +Lorraine (lôr rān′)<br/> +Macedonia (mă sē dō′nï ȧ)<br/> +Magyar (mŏd′yär)<br/> +Manchuria (măn chū′rï ȧ)<br/> +Marathon (măr′ȧ thŏn)<br/> +Marchand (mär shän′)<br/> +Maria Theresa (mä rī′ä tĕr ēs′ä)<br/> +Marlborough (märl′bō rō)<br/> +Marsala (mär sä′lȧ)<br/> +Marseillaise (mär sĕl yāz′)<br/> +Mazzini (mȧt sï′nï)<br/> +Mesopotamia (mĕs ō pō tā′mĭ ä)<br/> +Metternich (mĕt′tẽr nĭkh)<br/> +Milioukoff (mĭl yo͞o′kŏff)<br/> +Mirabeau (mĭr′ȧ bō)<br/> +Modena (mō dē′nȧ) or (mō′dā nȧ)<br/> +Mohammedan (mō hăm′mĕd ȧn)<br/> +Moltke (mōlt′kȧ)<br/> +Monastir (mō nȧ stïr′)<br/> +Montenegrin (mŏn tē nē′grĭn)<br/> +Montenegro (mŏn tē nē′grō)<br/> +Moslems (mŏz′lĕmz)<br/> +Murat (mü′rä)<br/> +Napoleon (nȧ pō′lē ŏn)<br/> +Nice (nïs)<br/> +Northumberland (nôrth ŭm′bẽr lănd)<br/> +Novibazar (nō′vĭ bȧ zär′)<br/> +Ostrogoths (ŏs′trō gŏths)<br/> +Ottoman (ŏt′tō mȧn)<br/> +Parma (pär′mȧ)<br/> +Piedmont (pēd′mŏnt)<br/> +Pola (pō′lä)<br/> +Poland (pō′lănd)<br/> +Pomerania (pŏm ĕr ā′nï ȧ)<br/> +Pyrenees (pĭr′ĕn ēēz)<br/> +Rasputin (räs po͞o′tïn)<br/> +Reichstag (rīkhs′tägh)<br/> +Riga (rï′gȧ)<br/> +Romansh (rō mȧnsh′)<br/> +Roon (rōn)<br/> +Roumani (ro͞o mä′nï)<br/> +Roumania (ro͞o mā′nï ȧ)<br/> +Ruthenian (ro͝o thē′nï ȧn)<br/> +Sadowa (sä′dō vȧ)<br/> +Salonika (sȧ′lō nï′kȧ)<br/> +Sanjak (sȧn jȧk′)<br/> +San Stephano (sȧn stĕ fä′nö)<br/> +Saône (sōn)<br/> +Sarajevo (sä rä yĕ′vō)<br/> +Sardinia (sär dĭn′i̇ ȧ)<br/> +Sarrail (sȧr rī′)<br/> +Savoy (sȧ voy′)<br/> +Saxony (săx′ōn y̆)<br/> +Sazanof (sä′zä nŏff)<br/> +Scandinavian (scăn dĭ nā′vĭ ȧn)<br/> +Schleswig (shlĕs′vĭg)<br/> +Scutari (sko͞o′tä rï)<br/> +Serbia (sẽr′bĭ ȧ)<br/> +Silesia (sĭl ē′shȧ)<br/> +Skipetars (skïp′ĕ tarz)<br/> +Slavic (slä′vĭc)<br/> +Slavonia (slȧ vō′nï ȧ)<br/> +Slavonic (slȧ vŏn′ĭc)<br/> +Slavs (slävz)<br/> +Slovak (slō väk′)<br/> +Slovenes (slō vēnz′)<br/> +Slovenian (slō vē′nï ȧn)<br/> +Sobieski (sō bĭ ĕs′kĭ)<br/> +Stoessel (stēs′sĕl)<br/> +Strasbourg (strȧs′bo͝org)<br/> +Styria (sty̆′rĭ ȧ)<br/> +Suevi (swē′vï)<br/> +Syria (sy̆r′ï ȧ)<br/> +Take (tä kā)<br/> +Talleyrand (tȧl′lā rȧn)<br/> +Teutones (tū tō′nēz)<br/> +Teutonic (tū tŏn′ĭc)<br/> +Thessaly (thĕs′sȧ ly̆)<br/> +Thracians (thrā′shŭnz)<br/> +Tigris (tī′grĭs)<br/> +Toul (to͞ol)<br/> +Transylvania (trăn sy̆l vā′nï ȧ)<br/> +Trentino (trĕn tī′nō)<br/> +Trieste (trï ĕst′) or (trï ĕs′tā)<br/> +Tripoli (trĭp′ō lĭ)<br/> +Tuscany (tŭs′cȧ ny̆)<br/> +Tyrol (ty̆′rōl)<br/> +Tzernagorah (tzēr nä′gō′rȧ)<br/> +Vandals (văn′dlz)<br/> +Venetia (vĕn ē′shȧ)<br/> +Venizelos (vĕn ĭ zĕl′ŏs)<br/> +Vercingetorix (vēr sĭn jĕt′ö rĭks)<br/> +Verdun (vār dŭn′)<br/> +Volgars (vŏl′gärz)<br/> +Von Bernstorff (fŏn bārns′torf)<br/> +Von Plehve (fŏn plā′vē)<br/> +Von Tirpitz (fŏn tïr′pĭts)<br/> +Vosges (vōzh)<br/> +Walloon (wäl lo͞on′)<br/> +Westphalia (wĕst fā′lï ȧ)<br/> +Wied (we͞ed)<br/> +Wilhelmine (wĭl′hĕl mïn)<br/> +Yorkshire (yôrk′shīr) +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap28"></a>Index</h2> + + <p> + Adriatic Sea, question of the control of.<br /> Agadir incident.<br /> + Albania, formation of the kingdom of.<br /> Albanians,<br /> language + of;<br /> habits of.<br /> Alexander the Great.<br /> Algeciras + incident.<br /> Alliance, the Holy.<br /> Alliance, the Triple.<br /> + Alliance, the Dual.<br /> Alliance, the Balkan.<br /> Alsace.<br /> + Ambassador.<br /> Angles, the, invade Britain.<br /> Arbitration of + national disputes.<br /> Arminius.<br /> Armor, value of.<br /> + Austria-Hungary,<br /> origin of;<br /> helps to + divide Poland;<br /> at war with France;<br /> at + war with Sardinia and France;<br /> at war with Prussia and + Italy;<br /> refuses to arbitrate Serbian trouble.<br /> + Austrians in Italy. + </p> + <p> + Balance of Power.<br /> Balkan problem.<br /> Barons.<br /> Bastille, fall + of the.<br /> Belgium,<br /> joined to Holland to form the + Netherlands;<br /> independent;<br /> guaranteed + its freedom by three powers.<br /> Bernadotte.<br /> Bismarck-Schönausen.<br /> + Blenheim, battle of (poem).<br /> Blockade of Germany.<br /> Bohemia,<br /> + part of the Holy Roman Empire;<br /> part of the + Hapsburg domains.<br /> Bolsheviki, revolt of the.<br /> Bonaparte, Louis + Napoleon.<br /> Bonaparte, Napoleon.<br /> Bosnian problem.<br /> Bourbon + family.<br /> Brandenburg;<br /> rise of.<br /> Brazil + declares war on Germany.<br /> Britons.<br /> Bulgaria,<br /> freed + by Russia;<br /> left partially under the control of Turkey;<br /> + independent;<br /> at war;<br /> with + five nations;<br /> plunges into world war;<br /> treacherously + orders an attack on Greece and Serbia.<br /> Bulgars,<br /> origin + of;<br /> in Macedonia.<br /> Bulow, Prince von.<br /> + Burgundians.<br /> Byzantium becomes Constantinople. + </p> + <p> + Caesar, Julius.<br /> Cape to Cairo Railroad.<br /> Catharine II of + Russia.<br /> Cavour, Count, prime minister of Sardinia.<br /> Celtic + languages, disappearance of.<br /> Celts.<br /> Charlemagne.<br /> Charles + V.<br /> Charles XII of Sweden.<br /> Chauvinists.<br /> Churchill, + Winston.<br /> Cincinnatus.<br /> Constantine,<br /> prince in + Crete;<br /> king of Greece.<br /> Constantinople.<br /> + Contraband of war.<br /> Cracow, Republic of.<br /> Crete.<br /> Czechs. + </p> + <p> + Danes,<br /> in Schleswig.<br /> Dark Ages.<br /> Delcassé.<br /> + Denmark,<br /> loses Norway;<br /> defeated by + Prussia and Austria;<br /> injured by submarine campaign.<br /> + <i>Deutschland</i>, voyages of the.<br /> Dialects.<br /> Dictator, Roman.<br /> + Divine right of kings.<br /> Dukes vs. Kings.<br /> Duma, the Russian;<br /> + asked to form a government. + </p> + <p> + Edward VII.<br /> Elba, Napoleon’s return from.<br /> Elector, the Great.<br /> + Electors of the Holy Roman Empire.<br /> England,<br /> power + of the king of;<br /> in Egypt;<br /> troubles of, + in 1914.<br /> Entente Cordiale.<br /> Entente, the Triple.<br /> + Esthonians.<br /> Etruscans. + </p> + <p> + Fashoda incident.<br /> Ferdinand of Bulgaria;<br /> enters + war on side of Germany and Austria;<br /> attacks Serbia;<br /> + ambitions of.<br /> Feudal system.<br /> Finland annexed to + Russia.<br /> Finns;<br /> conquered by the Swedes.<br /> + Flemish.<br /> France,<br /> power of king of;<br /> execution + of king of;<br /> in Africa;<br /> wars of.<br /> + Franks.<br /> Franz Ferdinand.<br /> Frederick the Great.<br /> French + Revolution. + </p> + <p> + Gaelic language.<br /> Gaels.<br /> Garibaldi.<br /> Gauls.<br /> German + Confederation.<br /> German secret agents<br /> set fire to + American property and kill Americans;<br /> try to stir up + war between the U. S. and Japan;<br /> stir up trouble in + Russia.<br /> German tribes.<br /> Germanic languages.<br /> Germany, the + Holy Roman Empire of.<br /> Germany,<br /> the modern Empire + of;<br /> encourages France to declare war on England;<br /> + makes friends with Turkey;<br /> policy toward + Balkan nations;<br /> warns Russia;<br /> attacks + France through Belgium.<br /> Goths.<br /> Government,<br /> by + the people;<br /> based on the consent of the governed;<br /> + limited to the ruling class.<br /> Governments, newness of + European.<br /> Great Britain<br /> offers to judge Serbian + trouble;<br /> declares war on Germany.<br /> Greece,<br /> + treaty of, with Serbia;<br /> Greek Empire,<br /> origin + of;<br /> fall of.<br /> Greeks;<br /> ungenerous + to Bulgarians,<br /> desert to Venizelos;<br /> join + the Entente. + </p> + <p> + Hague, court of the.<br /> Hannibal’s war against Rome.<br /> Hapsburgs, + the.<br /> Hohenzollern family.<br /> Holstein.<br /> Homage.<br /> + Hungarians.<br /> Huns. + </p> + <p> + Indemnity.<br /> Indo-European family of languages.<br /> Istria.<br /> + Italy,<br /> a battle ground of nations;<br /> becomes + a nation;<br /> makes war on Turkey;<br /> declines + to support Austria and Germany;<br /> declares war on + Austria. + </p> + <p> + Kavala.<br /> Kent, William, on Mexican intervention.<br /> Kerensky, + leader of the Russian government.<br /> Kings, origin of.<br /> Koumanova, + battle of. + </p> + <p> + Labor troubles,<br /> in England;<br /> in Russia.<br /> + Language, relationship shown by.<br /> Latin tongues.<br /> Lithuania.<br /> + Lombards.<br /> Lorraine.<br /> Louis XIV of France.<br /> <i>Lusitania</i>, + sinking of the. + </p> + <p> + Macedonia.<br /> Magyars.<br /> Marathon, battle of.<br /> Marchand, Major.<br /> + Maria Theresa,<br /> Empress of Austria;<br /> helps + to divide Poland.<br /> Marlborough, Duke of.<br /> Mazzini.<br /> + Metternich.<br /> Middle Ages.<br /> Military service,<br /> owed + to rulers;<br /> in Prussia;<br /> in France.<br /> + Mirabeau.<br /> Moltke.<br /> Montenegro,<br /> origin of;<br /> + declares war on Austria.<br /> Monroe Doctrine.<br /> Moors.<br /> + Murat. + </p> + <p> + Napoleon III.<br /> Netherlands, foundation of kingdom of.<br /> + Newspapers, control of.<br /> Normans.<br /> Norway,<br /> joined + to Sweden;<br /> danger from Germany;<br /> vigorously + protests submarine warfare.<br /> Novibazar, the Sanjak of. + </p> + <p> + Ostrogoths. + </p> + <p> + Paris, siege of.<br /> Peace,<br /> German offer of;<br /> + Allies’ terms of;<br /> United States’ desire + for;<br /> Russo-German conference toward;<br /> German + desire for.<br /> Peasants,<br /> attached to the land;<br /> + support fighting classes.<br /> Peter the Great.<br /> Poland,<br /> + kingdom of;<br /> partition of;<br /> given + largely to Russia;<br /> revolutions in.<br /> Preparation for + war<br /> Prussia,<br /> origin of kingdom of;<br /> crushed + by Napoleon;<br /> dominated by Bismarck. + </p> + <p> + Rasputin;<br /> assists Sturmer;<br /> is killed.<br /> + Reichstag.<br /> Reign of Terror.<br /> Republic,<br /> first + French;<br /> second French;<br /> third French.<br /> + Robber chiefs.<br /> Roman Empire, beginnings of.<br /> Romansh people.<br /> + Rome, wars of, with Carthage.<br /> Roon.<br /> Rothschild, the banking + house of.<br /> Roumani.<br /> Roumania;<br /> hopes of;<br /> + population of;<br /> declares war on Austria;<br /> + is crushed between two armies.<br /> Russia,<br /> rise + of;<br /> attacks Turkey;<br /> policy of;<br /> + relations with Bulgaria;<br /> defends Serbia;<br /> + ignorance of the people of;<br /> revolution in;<br /> + controlled by the Bolsheviki.<br /> Ruthenians. + </p> + <p> + Sarrail,<br /> sent to Salonika;<br /> watching + Bulgars and Greeks.<br /> Saxons.<br /> Saxony,<br /> annexed + in part to Prussia;<br /> allied to Austria.<br /> Salonika, + Spanish Jews in.<br /> Sardinia, kingdom of.<br /> Schleswig.<br /> + Scutari.<br /> Serbia,<br /> trade with Austria;<br /> relations + with Bulgaria;<br /> trouble with Austria;<br /> attacked + on three sides.<br /> Serbs,<br /> origin of;<br /> lands + of;<br /> language of.<br /> Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two.<br /> + Silesia, seizure of.<br /> Slavic tribes.<br /> Slovaks.<br /> Slovenes.<br /> + Sobieski, John, king of Poland.<br /> Socialists,<br /> in + Germany;<br /> in Italy.<br /> Spain,<br /> origin + of;<br /> drives out “unbelievers,”;<br /> becomes + a republic.<br /> Submarine boats<br /> sink British warships;<br /> + sink merchant ships;<br /> sink the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br /> + cross the Atlantic;<br /> begin to sink all ships + without warning;<br /> kill Americans;<br /> sink + Norwegian ships.<br /> Suevi.<br /> Sturmer chosen prime minister of + Russia.<br /> Sweden, decline of. + </p> + <p> + Talleyrand.<br /> Trentino.<br /> Tunis, seized by France.<br /> Turkey,<br /> + defended by France and England;<br /> attacks + Russia.<br /> Turks;<br /> capture Constantinople;<br /> driven + back from Vienna;<br /> the young Turks;<br /> tolerance + of the young;<br /> bigotry of the young. + </p> + <p> + Ulster trouble, the.<br /> United States,<br /> indignant over + the <i>Lusitania</i>;<br /> warns Germany;<br /> defends + munitions trade in reply to Austria;<br /> receives <i>Deutschland</i> + hospitably;<br /> sends the German Ambassador home;<br /> + declares war;<br /> desires nothing but to be + safe from attack;<br /> sends an army to Europe. + </p> + <p> + Vandals.<br /> Venice, Republic of.<br /> Venizelos,<br /> prime + minister of Greece;<br /> comes from Crete;<br /> opposes + King Constantine;<br /> once more prime minister.<br /> + Vercingetorix.<br /> Victor Emmanuel.<br /> Vienna, Congress of. + </p> + <p> + Walloons.<br /> War,<br /> four causes of;<br /> cost + of;<br /> diseases caused by;<br /> increasing + horror of.<br /> Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of.<br /> Waterloo, battle of.<br /> + William of Normandy.<br /> Wilson, President,<br /> patient + with Germany;<br /> asks both sides to name their terms;<br /> + calls Congress to declare war. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11200 ***</div> +</body> + +</html> diff --git a/11200-h/images/01.jpg b/11200-h/images/01.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..22d4520 --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-h/images/01.jpg diff --git a/11200-h/images/02.jpg b/11200-h/images/02.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7ecfe9 --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-h/images/02.jpg diff --git a/11200-h/images/03.jpg b/11200-h/images/03.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..42379f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-h/images/03.jpg diff --git a/11200-h/images/04.jpg b/11200-h/images/04.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..30c9861 --- /dev/null +++ b/11200-h/images/04.jpg diff --git a/11200-h/images/05.jpg 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