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Title: The Tinguian
       Social, Religious, and Economic Life of a Philippine Tribe

Author: Fay-Cooper Cole

Release Date: July 8, 2004 [EBook #12849]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

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The Tinguian
Social, Religious, and Economic Life of a Philippine Tribe



By
Fay-Cooper Cole
Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology



1922






CONTENTS



        List of Illustrations
        Introduction
   I.   Geographical Relations and History
  II.   Physical Type and Relationships
 III.   The Cycle of Life

            Birth
            Childhood
            Engagement and Marriage
            Death and Burial
            The Layog

  IV.   Religion and Magic
   V.   The Ceremonies

            1. The Minor Ceremonies
            2. The Great Ceremonies
            3. Special Ceremonies

  VI.   Social Organization. Government. The Village
 VII.   Warfare, Hunting, and Fishing
VIII.   Economic Life

            Rice Culture
            Cultivated Plants and Trees
            Wild Plants and Trees
            Plants and Trees Used in the Treatment of Disease
            Use of Betel-Nut, Tobacco, and Stimulants
            Domestic Animals

  IX.   Products of Industry

            Iron-Working
            Spinning and Weaving
            Manufacture of Rope and String
            Bark Cloth
            Basket Making
            Mats
            Dyes
            Net Making
            Manufacture of Pottery
            Pipe Making
            Method of Drying Hides

   X.   Decorative Art
  XI.   Personal Adornment, Dances, and Musical Instruments
 XII.   Music, By Albert Gale
        Conclusions





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


Text-Figures

 1.   Child's Cradle and Jumper
 2.   Diagram of a Game
 3.   Cross Sections Showing Types of Graves
 4.   Ceremonial Paraphernalia
 5.   Household Objects
 6.   Spoons and Ladles
 7.   Types of Knives
 8.   Head-axes
 9.   Spears
10.   Shields
11.   Chicken Snare
12.   Bird Snares
13.   Fishing Devices
14.   Grass Knife; Root Adze; Rice Cutter
15.   Agricultural Implements
16.   Devices Used in Spinning and Weaving
17.   Rope-Making Appliances
18.   Bark Beater
19.   Basket Weaves
20.   Net Needle and Mesh Stick
21.   Tobacco-Pipes
22.   Designs on Pipes and Pottery
23.   Decorative Designs
24.   Patterns Used in Weaving
25.   Blanket Designs
26.   Musical Instruments



PLATES


Frontispiece: Map of Northwestern Luzon.
I.        The Province of Abra, Looking Inland from the Coast Range.
II.       Abra, Looking toward the Sea from the Top of the Cordillera
          Central.
III.      Manabo Man.
IV.       Man of Ba-ak.
V.        Manabo Woman.
VI.       Woman of Patok.
VII.      A Mountain Tinguian from Likuan.
VIII.     A Young Man from Likuan.
IX.       Girl from the Mountain Village of Lamaw (Photograph from
          Philippine Bureau of Science).
X.        A Woman from Lamaw (Photograph from Philippine Bureau
          of Science).
XI.       A Typical Small Boy (Photograph from Philippine Bureau
          of Science).
XII.      The Baby Tender.
XIII.     A Betrothed Maiden.
XIV.      The Wedding.
XV.       Mothers and Babies.
XVI.      Funeral of Malakay.
XVII.     The Whipping at a Funeral.
XVIII.    Inapapaiag. An Offering to the Spirits.
XIX.      The Medium's Outfit.
XX.       Ceremonial Houses.
XXI.      Balaua. The Greatest of the Spirit Structures.
XXII.     Spirit Houses in a Garden.
XXIII.    The Kalangan: A Spirit House; Second in Importance.
XXIV.     The Saloko. A Split Bamboo, in which Offerings are
          Placed. Ceremonies.
XXV.      The Saloko. A Spirit Bamboo, in which Offerings are Placed.
XXVI.     Ready to Launch the Spirit Raft on the River.
XXVII.    The Tangpap. An Important Spirit Structure.
XXVIII.   Gateway at Likuan.
XXIX.     Pottery Houses, for the Spirit of the Rice.
XXX.      A Medium Making an Offering to the Guardian Stones.
XXXI.     Ceremonial Pounding of the Rice.
XXXII.    Renewing the Offering on the Spirit Shield.
XXXIII.   Singeing a Pig at a Ceremony.
XXXIV.    Offering of the Pigs to the Spirits.
XXXV.     The Sayang Ceremony.
XXXVI.    Potters at Work.
XXXVII.   A Family of Laba-an.
XXXVIII.  The Village of Sallapadin.
XXXIX.    Typical Houses.
XL.       House Building.
XLI.      Roofing a House.
XLII.     Water Carriers (Photograph from Philippine Bureau of Science).
XLIII.    A Tinguian Housewife (Photograph from Philippine Bureau
          of Science).
XLIV.     A Warrior.
XLV.      Hunter Fitted for the Trail.
XLVI.     Hunting Party on Mt. Posoey.
XLVII.    Shooting the Blowgun.
XLVIII.   Highland Field and Terraces at Patok.
XLIX.     The Rice Terraces near Likuan.
L.        Plowing in the Lower Terraces.
LI.       Taking Rice Sprouts from the Seed Beds.
LII.      Transplanting the Rice.
LIII.     Bird Scarers in the Fields.
LIV.      Harvesting the Rice.
LV.       The Rice Granary.
LVI.      Pounding Rice (Photograph from Philippine Bureau of Science).
LVII.     Winnowing and Sifting (Photograph from Philippine Bureau
          of Science).
LVIII.    Drying Corn.
LIX.      Breaking the Corn between Two Stones.
LX.       Preparing Tobacco.
LXI.      Feeding the Pigs.
LXII.     A Typical Forge of the Iron Workers.
LXIII.    Ginning Cotton and Sizing the Thread.
LXIV.     Beating Cotton on a Carabao Hide.
LXV.      Spinning (Photograph from Philippine Bureau of Science).
LXVI.     Weaving a Blanket.
LXVII.    Basket Making.
LXVIII.   Basket Types.
LXIX.     Basket Types.
LXX.      The Net Maker.
LXXI.     Ceremonial Blanket.
LXXII.    Blankets Showing Designs.
LXXIII.   Blankets Showing Designs.
LXXIV.    Woven Belts and Clouts.
LXXV.     Men of Sallapadin.
LXXVI.    Typical Dress of the Man.
LXXVII.   Women in Full Dress.
LXXVIII.  Customary Dress of the Woman.
LXXIX.    Women's Arm Beads.
LXXX.     Woman Wearing Girdle and Clout (Photograph from Philippine
          Bureau of Science).
LXXXI, 1. Dancing Tadek at a Ceremony.
LXXXI, 2. Beating the Copper Gongs.
LXXXII.   The Nose Flute.
LXXXIII.  Playing on Bamboo Guitars.






THE TINGUIAN


INTRODUCTION

It seems desirable, at the outset, to set forth certain general
conclusions regarding the Tinguian and their neighbors. Probably no
pagan tribe of the Philippines has received more frequent notice in
literature, or has been the subject of more theories regarding its
origin, despite the fact that information concerning it has been
exceedingly scanty, and careful observations on the language and
physical types have been totally lacking.

According to various writers, these people are descended from Chinese,
Japanese, or Arabs; are typical Malay; are identical with the Igorot;
are pacific, hospitable, and industrious; are inveterate head-hunters,
inhospitable, lazy, and dirty. The detailed discussion of these
assertions will follow later in the volume, but at this point I wish
to state briefly the racial and cultural situation, as I believe it
to exist in northwestern Luzon.

I am under the impression that at one time this whole region was
inhabited by pygmy blacks, known as Aeta or Negrito, small groups of
whom still retain their identity. With the coming of an alien people
they were pressed back from the coasts to the less hospitable regions
of the interior, where they were, for the most part, exterminated,
but they intermarried with the invaders to such an extent that to-day
there is no tribe or group in northwestern Luzon but shows evidence
of intermixture with them. I believe that the newcomers were drawn
from the so-called primitive Malay peoples of southeastern Asia; that
in their movement eastward and northward they met with and absorbed
remnants of an earlier migration made up of a people closely related
to the Polynesians, and that the results of this intermixture are
still evident, not only in Luzon, but in every part of the Archipelago.

In northern Luzon, I hold, we find evidences of at least two series
of waves and periods of migration, the members of which are similar
physical type and language. It appears, however, that they came
from somewhat different localities of southeastern Asia and had, in
their old homes, developed social organizations and other elements
of culture radically different from one another--institutions and
groupings which they brought with them to the Philippines, and which
they have maintained up to the present time.

To the first series belong the Igorot [1] with their institutions of
trial marriage; division of their settlements into social and political
units known as _ato_; separate dormitories for unmarried men and women;
government by the federated divisions of a village as represented by
the old men; and a peculiar and characteristic type of dwelling.

In the second wave series we find the Apayo, the western division at
least of the people known as Kalinga, the Tinguian, and Ilocano. [2] In
none of these groups do we find the institutions just mentioned. Trial
unions are unknown, and marriage restrictions are based solely on
blood relationship; government is through the headman aided by the
elders of his village, or is a pure democracy. Considerable variation
exists between the dwellings of these four peoples, yet they conform
to a general type which is radically different from that of the Igorot.

The Apayao and Kalinga divisions of this second wave series, by reason
of their environment, their more isolated localities and consequent
lack of frequent communication with the coast, have a simpler culture
than that of the Tinguian; yet they have, during many generations,
developed certain traits and institutions now apparently peculiar
to them. The Tinguian and Ilocano, on the other hand, have had the
advantages of outside communication of extensive trade, and the
admixture of a certain amount of foreign blood.

These last two groups evidently left their ancient home as a unit,
at a time prior to the Hindu domination of Java and Sumatra, but
probably not until the influence of that civilization had begun to
make itself felt. Traces of Indian culture are still to be found in
the language, folklore, religion, and economic life of this people,
while the native script which the Spanish found in use among the
Ilocano seems, without doubt, to owe its origin to that source.

After reaching Luzon, this people slowly broke up into groups which
spread out over the provinces of Ilocos Sur and Norte, Union and
Abra. The partial isolation of some of these divisions, local feuds,
the universal custom of head-hunting, and the need of human victims to
accompany the spirits of the dead, all doubtless aided in separating
the tribe into a number of dialect groups,--groups which nevertheless
retained the old culture to a surprising degree.

Long before the arrival of the Spanish, Chinese and Japanese
traders were visiting the Ilocos coasts. We are also informed that
merchants from Macao and India went there from time to time, while
trade relations with Pangasinan and the Tagalog provinces were well
developed.

The leavening influence of trade and contact with other peoples
resulted in such advancement that this people was early mentioned as
one of the six "civilized" tribes of the Philippines.

Upon the arrival of Salcedo, the greater portion of the coast people
accepted the rule of Spain and the Christian religion, while the
more conservative element retired to the interior, and there became
merged with the mountain people. To the Spaniards, the Christianized
natives became known as Ilocano, while the people of the mountain
valleys were called Tinguian, or mountain dwellers.

If the foregoing sketch is correct, as I believe the data which follow
prove it to be, we find in the Tinguian of to-day a people living
much the same sort of life as did the members of the more advanced
groups at the time of the Spanish invasion, and we can study in them
early Philippine society stripped of its European veneer.

This second and concluding section of Volume XIV gives the greater part
of the results of an investigation carried on by me with the assistance
of Mrs. Cole among the Tinguian, from January, 1907, to June, 1908;
the funds for which were furnished Field Museum of Natural History by
the late Robert F. Cummings. The further generosity of Mrs. Cummings,
in contributing a fund toward the printing of this publication is
also gratefully acknowledged.

A collection of texts and a study of the language are contemplated
for a separate volume, as is also the detailed treatment of the
anthropometric data.

For the transcription of the phonograph records and the chapter on
Music, I am indebted to Mr. Albert Gale. His painstaking analysis
establishes beyond question the value of the phonograph as an aid in
ethnographic research.

The photographs, unless otherwise noted, were taken by the author in
the field.



CHAPTER I

GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS AND HISTORY

The Tinguian are a pagan Philippine people who inhabit chiefly the
mountain province of Abra in northwestern Luzon. From this center
their settlements radiate in all directions. To the north and west,
they extend into Ilocos Sur and Norte as far as Kabittaoran. Manabo,
on the south, is their last settlement; but Barit, Amtuagan,
Gayaman, and Luluno are Tinguian mixed with Igorot from Agawa
and Sagada. Villaviciosa is an Igorot settlement from Sagada, but
Bulilising, still farther south, is predominantly Tinguian. Sigay in
Amburayan is said to be made up of emigrants from Abra, while a few
rancherias in Lepanto are likewise much influenced. The non-Christian
population of Ilocos Sur, south of Vigan, is commonly called Tinguian,
but only seven villages are properly so classed; [3] four others
are inhabited by a mixed population, while the balance are Igorot
colonies from Titipan, Sagada, and Fidilisan. Along the Cordillera
Central, from the head-waters of the Saltan (Malokbot) river as far
south as Balatok, is found a population of mixed Tinguian, Kalinga,
and Igorot blood. Kalinga predominates north of Balbalasang and
along the Gobang river, while the Igorot is dominant in Guina-an,
Lubuagan, and Balatok. Tinguian intermarriage has not extended far
beyond Balbalasang, but their culture and dress have affected the
whole region. [4] From this belt there have been extensive migrations
into Abra, the newcomers for the most part marrying with the Tinguian,
but in the Ikmin river valley emigrants from Balatok formed the towns
of Danok, Amti, and Doa-angan, which have remained quite isolated up
to the present time. Agsimao and other towns of the Tineg group, in
the extreme northern end of Abra, are made up chiefly of Apayao mixed
with Kalinga, while all the villages on the headwaters of the Binongan
have received emigrants from the Kagayan side. The population of the
towns properly classed as Tinguian is approximately twenty thousand
individuals. [5]

From the foregoing it is seen that, with the exception of a few
villages of mixed descent, all their territory lies on the western
side of the Cordillera Central, [6] the great mountain range which
runs from north to south through northern Luzon.

As one emerges from the jungle, which covers the eastern slopes of
these mountains, and looks down over the province of Abra, he sees
an exceedingly broken land (Plates I and II), the subordinate ranges
succeeding one another like the waves of the sea. The first impression
is one of barrenness. The forest vanishes, and in its place are long
grassy slopes, broken here and there by scattered pines and lower
down by dense growths of the graceful, feathery bamboo. But this lack
of trees is more fancied than real, for as one proceeds down any of
the valleys he meets with side canyons, where the tropical jungle
still holds sway, while many a mountain side is covered with a dense
undergrowth of shrubs, plants, and vines. It seems probable that the
forest once covered the western slopes of the mountains, but accident
and intention on the part of man has cleared broad sections. As soon
as the shade is removed, the land is invaded by a coarse grass (the
_cogon_), and this is burned over each year in order to provide feed
for the stock and to make good hunting grounds. The young trees are
killed off and reforesting prevented.

Numerous streams plunge from the high mountains toward the coast. In
places they rush through deep gorges between high mountains, again
they pass peacefully through mountain valleys. Everywhere they are
fed by minor streams and waterfalls until at last, as they emerge
into the broader valleys of the Abra and its tributaries, they are
rivers of respectable size.

The great central valley of Abra is far from being a level plain. In
places, as about Manabo, Bukay, and Bangued, there are stretches
of level land; but, for the most part, the country is rough and
broken. This valley is cut off from the sea by the Coast Range of
mountains which forms the provincial line between Abra and Ilocos
Sur, while another heavy spur forms the northern limits of Abra from
Ilocos Sur to the Cordillera Central. Two small and rather difficult
passes afford entrance from the coastal plain into the valley, but
the chief avenue of communication is the cut through which the Abra
river reaches the sea. So narrow is this entrance that, at high water,
the river completely covers the floor and often raises its waters
ten or fifteen feet up the canyon side. In recent years a road has
been cut in the rocks above the flood waters, but even to-day most
of the traffic between Abra and the coast is carried on by means of
rafts which are poled up the river. [7]

The rainfall averages about one hundred inches, and most of this
precipitation takes place between May and the end of September. This,
coupled with the lack of forest, causes the rivers to become rushing
torrents during the rainy season, while during the balance of the year
most of them are mere rivulets. Under these conditions there has been
no development of navigation by the mountaineers. On occasion they may
construct a bamboo raft, but they possess no boats of any description.

The great fluctuation of the streams makes fishing an uncertain
occupation; yet at least a dozen varieties of fish are known, and
enough are taken to add materially to the food supply.

Deer and pig are fairly abundant, and a considerable number is killed
each year; wild carabao roam the mountain sides and uninhabited
valleys, but they are dangerous animals, and can seldom be taken with
the primitive weapons of the natives. Wild chickens are plentiful,
and many are snared, together with smaller birds. In fact, there
is sufficient game and fish to support a considerable population,
if the people would turn seriously to their capture, so that the
oft repeated statement that the mountaineers of Abra were forced to
agriculture is not entirely accurate. It seems much more probable that,
at the time of their entrance into the interior valleys, the Tinguian
were already acquainted with terraced hillside fields, and that they
developed them as needed.

The soil is fairly fertile, the rainfall abundant during the growing
season, and the climate warm enough to insure good crops. The
thermometer ranges between 80 deg. and 85 deg. during the day, but there is
generally a land or sea breeze, so that actual discomfort from the
heat is unusual. The nights are somewhat cooler, but a drop of a few
degrees is felt so keenly that a person may be uncomfortarble at 70 deg..

Fogs and cold rains are not uncommon during the wet season, while one
or more typhoons can be expected each year. Earthquakes are likewise
of occasional occurrence, but the construction of the houses is such
that storms and earthquakes do much less damage than along the coast.

There is no doubt that the natural ruggedness of the country and the
long rainy season have had a strong influence on the people, but this
has been chiefly in isolating them in small groups. The high mountains
separating the narrow valleys, the lack of water transportation, the
difficulty of maintaining trails, have all tended to keep the people
in small communities, while the practice of head-hunting has likewise
raised a barrier to free communication. Thus, the settlements within
a limited area have become self-sustaining groups; a condition which
has existed long enough to allow for the development of five dialects.

The traditions of the Tinguian furnish us with no stories of an earlier
home than Luzon, but there are many accounts of migrations from the
coast back into the mountains, after the arrival of the Spaniards
and the Christianization of the Ilocano. The fact that there is an
historical background for these tales is amply proven by fragments
of pottery and the like, which the writer has recovered from the
reported sites of ancient settlements.

The part played by this people in Philippine history is small indeed,
and most of the references to them have been of an incidental nature.

Apparently, they first came in contact with the Spanish in 1572 when
Salcedo was entrusted with the task of subduing that part of Luzon
now known as the Ilocano provinces. The people he encountered are
described as being more barbarous than the Tagalog, not so light
complexioned, nor so well clad, but husbandmen who possessed large
fields, and whose land abounded in rice and cotton.

Their villages were of considerable size, and each was ruled over by a
local headman who owed allegiance to no central authority, There was
a uniform, well recognized code of law or custom, and a considerable
part of the population could read and write in a native script similar
to that of the Tagalog. They also possessed gold, which was reported
to have come from rich mines in the interior, and on primitive forges
were turning out excellent steel weapons, but the use of fire-arms
was unknown. According to _Reyes_, their weapons consisted of lances,
bows and arrows, bolos, great shields which protected them from head
to foot, blow guns and poisoned arrows. The newcomers also found a
flourishing trade being carried on with Manila and the settlements
in Pangasinan, as well as with the Chinese. This trade was of such
importance that, as early as 1580 pirate fleets from Japan frequently
scoured the coast in search of Chinese vessels and goods, while from
time to time Japanese traders visited the Ilocos ports.

Apparently trade relations were not interrupted for a considerable
time after the arrival of the Spaniards, for in 1629 Medina states
that ships from China, Macao, and India "are accustomed to anchor in
these ports--and all to the advantage of this district." [8]

That pre-Spanish trade was not restricted to the Ilocos provinces,
but was active along the whole northern coast of Luzon has been amply
proved by many writers. In fact, the inhabitants of Pangasinan not
only had trade relations with Borneo, Japan, and China, [9] but it
now seems probable that they can be identified as the Ping-ka-shi-lan
who, as early as 1406, sent an embassy to China with gifts of horses,
silver, and other objects for the emperor Yung-lo. [10]

Trade relations of an even earlier date are evident throughout all
this area, in the presence far in the interior of Chinese pottery of
the fourteenth century and possibly of the tenth. [11]

With friendly relations so long established, it is to be expected
that many evidences of Chinese material culture would be found in all
the northern provinces; and it is not unlikely that a considerable
amount of Chinese blood may have been introduced into the population
in ancient times, as it has been during the historic period. It does
not seem probable, however that either the influence of Chinese blood
or culture need have been stronger in the Ilocos provinces than in
the other regions which they visited.

When Salcedo attempted a landing at Vigan, he was at first opposed; but
the superior weapons of the Spaniards quickly overcame all resistance,
and the invaders took possession of the city, which they rechristened
Fernandino. From this center they carried on an energetic campaign
of reduction and Christianization. As fast as the natives accepted
the rule of Spain, they were baptized and taken into the church, and
so rapid was the process that by 1587 the Ilocano were reported to be
Christianized. [12] In fact, force played such a part that Fray Martin
de Herrada, who wrote from Ilocos in June, 1574, protested that the
reduction was accomplished through fear, for if the people remained
in their villages and received the rule of Spain and the Church, they
were accepted as friends and forthwith compelled to pay tribute; but
if they resisted and fled to other settlements, the troops followed
and pillaged and laid waste their new dwellings. [13]

Paralleling the coast, a few miles inland, is a range of mountains on
the far side of which lie the broad valleys of the Abra river and its
tributaries. The more conservative elements of the population retreated
to the mountain valleys, and from these secure retreats bade defiance
to the newcomers and their religion. To these mountaineers was applied
the name Tinguianes--a term at first used to designate the mountain
dwellers throughout the Islands, but later usually restricted to his
tribe. [14] The Tinguian themselves do not use or know the appellation,
but call themselves Itneg, a name which should be used for them but
for the fact that they are already established in literature under
the former term.

Although they were in constant feuds among themselves, the mountain
people do not appear to have given the newcomers much trouble until
toward the end of the sixteenth century, when hostile raids against the
coast settlements became rather frequent. To protect the Christianized
natives, as well as to aid in the conversion of these heathens, the
Spanish, in 1598, entered the valley of the Abra and established a
garrison at the village of Bangued. [15]

As before, the natives abandoned their homes and retreated several
miles farther up the river, where they established the settlement
of Lagangilang.

From Bangued as a center, the Augustinian friars worked tirelessly to
convert the pagans, but with so little success that _San Antonio_,
[16] writing in 1738, says of the Tinguian, that little fruit was
obtained, despite extensive missions, and that although he had made
extraordinary efforts, he had even failed to learn their number.

In the mountains of Ilocos Sur, the missionaries met with somewhat
better success, and in 1704 _Olarte_ states that in the two preceding
years one hundred and fifty-six "infidel Tinguianes" had been converted
and baptized. Again, in 1760, four hundred and fifty-four converts are
reported to have been formed into the villages of Santiago, Magsingal,
and Batak. [17] About this time the work in Abra also took on a more
favorable aspect; by 1753 three Tinguian villages, with a combined
population of more than one thousand, had been established near
Bangued, and in the next century five more settlements were added to
this list. [18]

In general the relations between the pagan and Christianized natives
were not cordial, and oftentimes they were openly hostile; but
despite mutual distrust the coast people have on several occasions
enlisted the aid of the mountaineers against outside enemies. In
1660 a serious revolt occurred in Pangasinan and Zambales, and
the rebels, after gaining control of these provinces, started on a
looting expedition in the northern districts. In the face of strong
resistance they proceeded as far north as Badok, in Ilocos Sur,
burning and pillaging many villages including the capital city of
Vigan (Fernandino). The Tinguian came to the aid of the hard-pressed
Ilocano, and their combined forces fell upon the enemy just outside
the village of Narbacan. The tribesmen had previously made the road
almost impassable by planting it thickly with sharpened sticks; and,
while the invaders were endeavoring to remove these obstacles, they set
upon them with great fury and, it is said, succeeded in killing more
than four hundred of the Zambal, a part of whom they beheaded. [19]

As Spanish rule was extended into the Tinguian territory, Ilocano
settlers pressed in and acquired holdings of land. This led to many
bitter disputes which were consistently settled in favor of the
converts; but at the same time many inducements were offered the
pagans to get them into the Christianized village. All converts were
to be exempted from paying tribute, while their villages received
many favors withheld from the pagan settlements. This failing to
bring the desired results, all the nearby villages of the Tinguian
were incorporated with the civilized pueblos, and thereafter they had
to furnish the major part of all taxes and most of the forced labor.

Following the appointment of Gov. Esteban de Pennarubia in 1868,
the tribesmen suffered still greater hardships. Under his orders all
those who refused baptism were to be expelled from the organized
communities, an edict which meant virtual banishment from their
old homes and confiscation of their property. Further, no Tinguian
in native dress was to be allowed to enter the towns. "Conversions"
increased with amazing rapidity, but when it was learned that many of
the new converts still practiced their old customs, the governor had
the apostates seized and imprisoned. The hostile attitude of Pennarubia
encouraged adventurers from the coast in the seizure of lands and
the exploitation of the pagans, and thus a deep resentment was added
to the dislike the Tinguian already held for "the Christians." Yet,
despite the many causes for hostility, steady trade relations have been
maintained between the two groups, and the influence of the Ilocano
has been increasingly strong. A little more than a half century ago
head-hunting was still common even in the valley of Abra, where it is
now practically unknown. As a matter of dire necessity the mountain
people made raids of reprisal against the hostile Igorot villages
on the eastern side of the great mountain range, and it is still the
proud boast of many a man in the vicinity of Manabo that he took part
in the raid which netted that village a score of heads from the towns
of Balatok and Lubuagan. But, as will be seen later, head-hunting
was by no means limited to forays against other tribes; local feuds,
funeral observances, and the desire for renown, all encouraged the
warriors to seek heads even from nearby settlements. Those incentives
have not been entirely removed, and an occasional head is still taken
in the mountain districts, but the influence of the Ilocano, backed
by Spanish and American authority, is rapidly making this sport a
thing of the past.

The rule of Governor Pennarubia had so embittered the Tinguian against
the "white man" that a considerable number joined the insurrecto
troops to fight against the Spaniards and Americans. These warriors,
armed with spears, shields, and head-axes, made their way to Malolos,
where they joined the Filipino troops the day of the first American
bombardment. The booming of cannon and the bursting of shells was
too much for the warriors, and, as they express it, "the first gun
was the beginning of their going home."

Friendly relations with the insurgents were early destroyed by bands
of armed robbers who, posing as Filipino troops, looted a number of
Tinguian villages. In several localities the tribesmen retaliated by
levying tribute on the Christianized villages, and in some instances
took a toll of heads to square accounts. At this juncture the Americans
appeared in Abra, and the considerate treatment of the pagans by the
soldiers soon won for them a friendly reception. Later, as the result
of the efforts of Commissioner Worcester, the Tinguian villages were
made independent of Ilocano control, and the people were given the
full right to conduct their own affairs, so long as they did not
disturb the peace and welfare of the province.

Under American rule the Tinguian have proved themselves to be
quiet, peaceable citizens; a few minor disturbances have occurred,
but none of sufficient importance to necessitate the presence of
troops in their district. They have received less attention from the
Government than most of the pagan tribes, but, even so, a measure of
progress is discernible. They still stoutly resist the advances of
the missionaries, but the few schools which have been opened for their
children have always been crowded to overflowing; trade relations are
much freer and more friendly than a decade ago; and with the removal
of unequal taxes and labor requirements, the feelings of hostility
towards "the Christians" are rapidly vanishing. It now seems probable
that within one or two generations the Tinguian will again merge with
the Ilocano.



CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL TYPE AND RELATIONSHIPS

From the time of the Spanish invasion up to the present, nearly every
author who has mentioned the people of northern Luzon has described the
Tinguian as being different from other Philippine tribes. The majority
of these writers has pictured them as being of larger stature than
their neighbors; as lighter in color, possessing aquiline features
and mongoloid eyes; as being tranquil and pacific in character, and
having a great aptitude for agriculture. From these characteristics
they have concluded that they are probably descended from early Chinese
traders, emigrants, or castaways, or are derived from the remnants of
the pirate band of the Chinese corsair Limahon (Lin-fung), which fled
into the mountains of Pangasinan after his defeat by Salcedo in 1574.

These conjectures are strengthened by the reported discovery,
in early times, of graves in northwestern Luzon, which contained
bodies of men of large stature accompanied by Chinese and Japanese
jewels. The undisputed fact that hundreds of ancient Chinese jars and
dishes are still among the cherished possessions of the Tinguian is
also cited as a further proof of a close relationship between these
peoples. Finally it is said that the head-bands, jackets, and wide
trousers of the men resemble closely those of the fishermen of Fukien,
one of the nearest of the Chinese provinces. [20]

Two writers, [21] basing their observations on color, physical
resemblances, and the fact that the Tinguian blacken their teeth
and tattoo their bodies, are convinced that they are the descendants
of Japanese castaways; while _Moya_ [22] states that the features,
dress, and customs of this people indicate their migration from the
region of the Red Sea in pre-Mohammedan times.

Finally, _Quatrefages_ and _Hamy_ are quoted as regarding the Tinguian
as modern examples of "the Indonesian, an allophylic branch of the
pure white race, non-Aryan, therefore, who went forth from India
about 500 B.C." [23]

_Dr. Barrows_ [24] classes all the pagan tribes of northern Luzon--the
pygmies excepted--with the Igorot, a position assailed by _Worcester_,
[25] particularly in regard to the Tinguian; but the latter writer
is convinced that the Apayao and Tinguian are divisions of the same
people, who have been separated only a comparatively short time.

In the introduction to the present volume (p. 236) I have expressed
the opinion that the Tinguian and Ilocano are identical, and that
they form one of the waves of a series which brought the Apayao and
western Kalinga to northern Luzon, a wave which reached the Islands
at a later period than that represented by the Igorot, and which
originated in a somewhat different region of southeastern Asia. [26]

In order to come to a definite decision concerning these various
theories, we shall inquire into the cultural, linguistic, and physical
types of the people concerned.

The most striking cultural differences between the Igorot and the
Tinguian, indicated in the introduction, will be brought out in more
detail in the following pages, as will also the evidence of Chinese
influence in this region. Here it needs only to be restated, that
there are radical differences in social organization, government,
house-building, and the like, between the Igorot-Ifugao groups,
and the Ilocano-Tinguian-Apayao-Kalinga divisions.

All the tribes of northwestern Luzon belong to the same linguistic
stock which, in turn, is closely related to the other Philippine
languages. There are local differences sufficiently great to make it
impossible for people to communicate when first brought together,
but the vocabularies are sufficiently alike, and the morphology of
the dialects is so similar that it is the task of only a short time
for a person conversant with one idiom to acquire a speaking and
understanding knowledge of any other in this region. It is important
to note that these dialects belong to the Philippine group, and there
seems to be very little evidence of Chinese influence [27] either in
structure or vocabulary. [28]

The various descriptions of the physical types have been of such
a conflicting nature that it seems best at this point to present
rather detailed descriptions of the Tinguian, Ilocano, and Apayao,
and to compare these with the principal measurements of the other
tribes and peoples under discussion.

For purposes of comparison, the Tinguian have been divided into a
valley and mountain group; for, as already indicated, there has been a
considerable movement of the mixed Kalinga-Igorot people of the upper
Saltan (Malokbot) river, of Guinaan Lubuagan and Balatok, into the
mountain districts of Abra, and these immigrants becoming merged into
the population have modified the physical type to a certain extent.

In the detailed description of the Ilocano, all the subjects have
been drawn from the cities of Bangued in Abra, and Vigan in Ilocos
Sur, in order to eliminate, so far as possible, the results of recent
intermixture with the Tinguian,--a process which is continually taking
place in all the border towns. The more general tabulation includes
Ilocano from all the northern provinces.

Aged and immature individuals have been eliminated from all the
descriptions here presented. [29]


_Ilocano_


Observations on 19 Males from Vigan and Bangued

                                 Range                  Average
Height, standing                 meters 1.510 to 1.714   1.607
Length of head                     "    .164 to  .191     .1787
Breadth of head                    "    .146 to  .158     .1522
Height of head                     "    .120 to  .144     .1316
Breadth of zygomatic arches        "    .129 to  .148     .1373
Length of nose                     "    .043 to  .054     .0485
Breadth of nose                    "    .034 to  .046     .0382

Cephalic index          85.1
Length-Height index     73.0
Breadth-Height index    86.2
Nasal index             78.7


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin scale.

_Hair_--Often black, but usually brown-black. 50 per cent straight
and about 50 per cent slightly wavy. One case closely curled.

_Forehead_--Usually high, broad, and moderately retreating, but
sometimes vaulted.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases flat.

_Face_--Moderately high; broad and oval. Three cases angular.

_Eye-slit_--Generally slightly oblique, moderately open, almond
shape. Mongolian fold present in 45 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and moderately high.
Bridge:--Inclined to be concave, but often straight.
Wings:--Middle thick and slightly arched or swelled.

_Lips_:--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_:--Outstanding. Lobes generally small and close growing, but
are sometimes free.



_Ilocano_ [30]

_Observations Made By Folkmar_ (_See Album of Philippine Types,
Manila_, 1904)


37 Males of Ilocos Norte

                                     Average
Height, standing             meters  1.593
Length of head                 "      .180
Breadth of head                "      .151
Length of nose                 "      .055
Breadth of nose                "      .040

Cephalic index     84.39
Nasal index        73.12



59 Males of Ilocos Sur

                                     Average
Height, standing             meters  1.596
Length of head                 "      .177
Breadth of head                "      .150
Length of nose                 "      .053
Breadth of nose                "      .039

Cephalic index    85.06
Nasal index       72.95


31 Males of Union Province

                                     Average
Height, standing             meters  1.590
Length of head                 "      .176
Breadth of head                "      .151
Length of nose                 "      .050
Breadth of nose                "      .039

Cephalic index    85.72
Nasal index       78.63


193 Males from All Provinces

                             Average
Height, standing             meters    1.602
Length of head                 "        .178
Breadth of head                "        .151
Length of nose                 "        .052
Breadth of nose                "        .040

Cephalic index    84.81
Nasal index       75.44


_Valley Tinguian_



Observations on 83 Males (See Plates III, IV)

                                                 Range           Average
Height, standing                         meters  1.48  to 1.70   1.572
Length of head                             "     1.65  to  .195   .1811
Breadth of head                            "      .140 to  .164   .1507
Height of head, 39 cases                   "      .116 to  .144   .1337
Breadth of zygomatic arches                "      .129 to  .148   .1387
Length of nose                             "      .042 to  .060   .0499
Breadth of nose                            "      .030 to  .043   .0384

Cephalic index         83.2
Length-Height index    72.5
Breadth-Height index   86.5
Nasal index            76.9


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Varies from black to brownish black. Usually wavy, but straight
in about one third.

_Forehead_--Moderately high and broad; slightly retreating, but
sometimes vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in three
cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases of flattening.

_Face_--Moderately high and broad; cheek bones sufficiently outstanding
to give face angular appearance, tapering from above, but oval faces
are common.

_Eye-slit_--Straight or slightly oblique; moderately wide open and
inclined to be almond shaped; Mongolian fold slightly developed in
about 20 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--middle broad and high, seldom small or flat.
Bridge:--middle broad and usually straight, but 25 per cent are
slightly concave, while two cases are convex.
Wings:--In most cases are thin, but are commonly thick; both are
slightly arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_--Outstanding, with small close-growing lobes.

_Valley Tinguian_


Observations on 35 Females (See Plates V, VI)

                                                 Range           Average
Height, standing                         meters  1.42  to 1.58   1.474
Length of head                             "      .161 to  .186   .1743
Breadth of head                            "      .136 to  .155   .1460
Height of head (22 cases)                  "      .119 to  .138   .1301
Breadth of zygomatic arches                "      .123 to  .139   .1304
Length of nose                             "      .039 to  .056   .046
Breadth of nose                            "      .030 to  .042   .0354

Cephalic index              83.7
Length-Height index         74.6
Breadth-Height index        88.6
Nasal index                 76.9


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Usually brown black, but black is common.   Sometimes straight,
but generally slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Considerable variation. Usually moderately high, broad,
and vaulted, but is sometimes low and moderately retreating.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases of flattening.

_Face_--Moderately high and oval. In a few cases angular, tapering
from above.

_Eye-slit_--Generally oblique, moderately open and almond shape. Is
sometimes straight and narrowly open. Mongolian fold slightly developed
in about 25 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Moderately broad and either flat or slightly elevated.
Bridge:--Middle broad and slightly concave. In five cases is straight
and in two is convex.
Wings:--Equally divided between thick and thin. Slightly arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_--Outstanding, with small, close growing lobes.

_Mountain Tinguian_


Observations on 62 Males (See Plates VII-VIII)

                                                 Range          Average
Height, standing                         meters  1.45  to 1.71   1.57
Length of head                              "     .171 to  .203   .1856
Breadth of head                             "     .140 to  .161   .1493
Height of head (59 cases)                   "     .115 to  .154   .1316
Breadth of zygomatic arches                 "     .129 to  .149   .1385
Length of nose (60 cases)                   "     .043 to  .059   .0512
Breadth of nose (60 cases)                  "     .033 to  .046   .0399

Cephalic index         80.4
Length-Height index    70.9
Breadth-Height index   87.4
Nasal index            77.9


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown black, and slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Middle high to high, moderately broad, moderately
retreating, but sometimes vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly
developed in five cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle or strongly arched.

_Face_--Moderately high. Cheek bones moderately outstanding giving face
angular appearance, tapering from above. In seven cases face is oval.

_Eye-slit_--Sometimes straight, but usually slightly oblique,
moderately open, almond shape. Mongolian fold in five cases.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and moderately high, but sometimes high.
Bridge:--Middle broad and straight. Seven cases concave and three
convex.
Wings:--Middle thick and arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick, sometimes thin; double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding; lobes generally small and close growing.

_Mountain Tinguian_


Observations on 16 Females (See Plates IX-X)

                                                 Range           Average
Height, standing                         meters  1.38  to 1.53   1.482
Length of head                              "     .163 to  .188   .1782
Breadth of head                             "     .137 to  .155   .1452
Height of head                              "     .119 to  .137   .1303
Breadth of zygomatic arches                 "     .125 to  .138   .1327
Length of nose                              "     .039 to  .054   .0461
Breadth of nose                             "     .034 to  .042   .0368

Cephalic index        80.1
Length-Height index   73.1
Breadth-Height index  90.0
Nasal index           79.8


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown-black and slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Moderately high and broad; moderately retreating.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched.

_Face_--Moderately high and generally oval; sometimes angular tapering
from above.

_Eye-slit_--About equally divided between straight and oblique;
moderately open. Mongolian fold slightly developed in one third
of cases.

_Nose_--Root:--Moderately broad and nearly flat, but sometimes
moderately high.
Bridge:--Middle broad and inclined to be concave. Straight noses occur.
Wings:--Usually thin and inclined to be swelled.

_Lips_--Middle thick and inclined to be double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding. Lobes small and close growing.

_Apayao_


Observations on 32 Males

                                                 Range           Average
Height, standing                         meters  1.48  to 1.70   1.587
Length of head                              "     .175 to  .199   .1877
Breadth of head                             "     .137 to  .158   .1492
Height of head                              "     .119 to  .155   .1331
Breadth of zygomatic arches                 "     .130 to  .149   .1418
Length of nose                              "     .040 to  .054   .0466
Breadth of nose                             "     .035 to  .044   .0390

Cephalic index        79.5
Length-Height index   70.9
Breadth-Height index  89.2
Nasal index           83.6


_Eyes_--Dark brown, 1 to 4 in Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown black and wavy.

_Forehead_--High and generally moderately retreating, but in about one
third is vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in six cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Rather strongly arched. Six cases (all from
one village) showed slight flattening of occipital region.

_Face_--Usually high. The cheek bones are moderately outstanding
giving face angular appearance, tapering from above. In eight cases
face tapers from below, and in nine is oval.

_Eye-slit_--Usually oblique, moderately open, almond shape. Mongolian
fold in about 50 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and flat or slightly elevated.
Bridge:--Middle broad and slightly or strongly concave. Seven instances
of straight noses occur.
Wings:--Middle thick, arched or swelled.

_Lips_--Middle thick and slightly double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding. Lobes small and close growing.

_Bontoc Igorot_ [31]

_Observations By Jenks_ (_See The Bontoc Igorot, Manila_, 1905)


32 males                       Average   Range
Height, standing     meters     1.6028
Length of head         "         .1921
Breadth of head        "         .1520
Length of nose         "         .0525
Breadth of nose        "         .0462

Cephalic index                 79.13     67.48 to  91.48
Nasal index                    79.19     58.18 to 104.54

In this group     9 are brachycephalic
                 20 are mesaticephalic
                  3 are dolichocephalic


_Color_--Ranges from light brown, with strong saffron undertone,
to very dark brown or bronze.

_Eyes_--Black to hazel brown. "Malayan" fold in large majority.

_Hair_--Coarse, straight and black. A few individuals possess curly
or wavy hair.

_Nose_--Jenks gives no statement, but his photos show the root of the
nose to be rather high; the bridge appears to be broad and straight,
although in some individuals it tends toward concave.


29 females                 Average   Range
Height, standing meters     1.4580
Length of head      "        .1859
Breadth of head     "        .1470
Length of nose      "        .0458
Breadth of nose     "        .0360

Cephalic index             79.09     64.89 to 87.64
Nasal index                78.74     58.53 to 97.56

In this group 12 are brachycephalic
              12 are mesaticephalic
               5 are dolichocephalic


Very different results were obtained by _Kroeber_ [32] from the group
of Igorot exhibited in San Francisco in 1906. His figures may possibly
be accounted for by the fact that about one third of the party came
from Alap near the southern end of the Bontoc area, also, as he has
suggested, by the preponderance of very young men. The figures for
this group are as follows:


Observations on 18 Males

Average  height               1.550  Range 1.46  to 1.630    "
         length of head        .186         .176 to  .194    "
         breadth of head       .146         .138 to  .153    "
         bizygomatic width     .135         .129 to  .142    "
         length of nose        .041         .031 to  .046    "
         breadth of nose       .040         .036 to  .046    "

         cephalic index      78.43
         nasal index         99.8


Observations on 7 Females

Average  height               1.486  Range 1.440 to 1.530    "
         length of head        .182         .171 to  .191    "
         breadth of head       .143         .136 to  .150    "
         bizygomatic width     .131         .127 to  .136    "
         length of nose        .037         .033 to  .042    "
         width of nose         .037         .036 to  .038    "

         cephalic index      78.59
         nasal index         99.7


From these descriptive sheets it is obvious that each tribe is made
up of very heterogeneous elements, and each overlaps the other to a
considerable extent; however, the number of individuals measured is
sufficiently great for us to draw certain general conclusions from
the averages of each group.

It is at once evident that the differences between the Ilocano and the
Valley Tinguian are very slight, in fact are less than those between
the valley and mountain people of the latter tribe. The Ilocano
appear to be slightly taller, the length of head a little less, and
the breadth a bit more; yet there is an average difference of only
two points in the cephalic indices of the two groups. The only other
points of divergence are: the greater percentage among the Ilocano of
eyes showing the Mongolian fold, and the occurrence of straight hair
in about half the individuals measured. However, this latter feature
may be more apparent than real; for the Ilocano cut the hair short,
and a slight degree of waviness might readily pass unobserved.

As we pass from the Valley to the Mountain Tinguian, and from them
to the Apayao, we find the average stature almost constant, but the
head becomes longer; there is a greater tendency for the cheekbones
to protrude and the face to be angular, and there is a more frequent
development of the supra-orbital ridges. The root of the nose is
often flat and the bridge concave; while wavy hair becomes the rule
in the mountains. There is a slight decrease, in the Tinguian groups,
of eyes showing the Mongolian fold, but in the Apayao the percentage
again equals that of the Ilocano.

The Apayao present no radical differences to the Mountain Tinguian;
yet, as already noted, the length and height of the head are
slightly greater; the zygomatic arches more strongly developed;
the face more angular; and the nose is broader as compared with its
length. Evidences of former extensive intermixture are here apparent,
while at the present time there is rather free marriage with the
neighboring Kalinga and Negrito.

Comparing these four groups with the Igorot, we find that the latter
averages slightly taller than all but the Ilocano. The breadth of the
head is about the same as the Ilocano; but the length is much greater,
and there is, in consequence, a considerable difference in the cephalic
index. Reference to our tables will show the Ilocano and both Tinguian
divisions to be brachycephalic, while the Igorot is mesaticephalic. The
average index of the Apayao also falls in the latter classification;
but the variation from Igorot is greater than is indicated, for the
Apayao skull is actually considerably shorter and narrower. In the
length and breadth of the nose, the Igorot exceeds any of the groups
studied, while the Malayan (Mongolian?) fold of the eye is reported
in the great majority of cases. The bodily appearance of the Tinguian
and Bontoc Igorot differs little, although the latter are generally of
a slightly heavier build. Both are lithe and well proportioned, their
full rounded muscles giving them the appearance of trained athletes;
neither is as stocky or heavy set as are the Igorot of Amburayan,
Lepanto, and Benguet.

There is great variation in color among the members of all these
tribes, the tones varying from a light olive brown to a dark reddish
brown; but in general the Ilocano and Valley Tinguian are of a lighter
hue than the mountain people.

Observations on the Southern Chinese and the South Perak Malay are
given below, not with the intention of connecting them with any one
of the tribes of Luzon, but in order to test, by comparison, the
theory of the Chinese origin of the Tinguian, and also to secure,
if possible, some clue as to the relationships of both peoples.

_The Southern Chinese_

_Dr. Girard_, [33] as a result of his studies on the Chinese of
Kwang-si, a province of southern China, expresses the belief that
the population is greatly mixed, but all considered they appear more
like Indo-Chinese than like the Chinese proper (that is, Northern
Chinese). _Deniker_ [34] comes to a similar conclusion from a study
of the results obtained by many observers.

_Girard_ gives the following measurements for 25 males of Kwang-si:


                                   Range             Average
Height, standing         meters    1.528 to 1.748    1.616
Length of head             "                          .1815
Breadth of head            "                          .1435
Height of head             "                          .1270
Length of nose             "                          .04648
Breadth of nose            "                          .03876

Cephalic index                     73.    to 85.     79.52
Length-Height index                                  69.9
Breadth-Height index                                 88.5
Nasal index                        67.    to 95.     82.98


_Deniker_ (p. 578) gives the average height of 15,582 males, mostly
Hakka of Kwang-tung, as 1.622. The cephalic index of 61 living subjects
and 84 crania, principally from Canton, he finds to be--Living 81.2;
crania 78.2.

_Martin_ [35] presents the following data: Average height of
males--1.614; average height of females--1.498. Cephalic index
(49 males)--81.8. Length-Height index (49 males)--66.5. Nasal index
(49 males)--77.7. [36]

_South Perak Malay_ [37]

_Observations by Annandale and Robinson_ (_Fasciculi Malayenses,
Pt_. I, pp. 105 _et seq_., _London_, 1903).


37 males                                       Range
Average
Height, standing                     meters    1.488  to 1.763   1.594
Length of head                         "        .173  to  .198    .182
Breadth of head                        "        .141  to  .162    .149
Height of head (tragus to vertex)      "        .119  to  .146    .135
Breadth of zygomatic arches            "        .120  to  .150    .139
Length of nose                         "        .0413 to  .0525   .0477
Breadth of nose                        "        .0337 to  .0437   .0358

Cephalic index          82.3
Length-Height index     73.9
Nasal index             81.2


_Color_--Varies from dark olive to red;   less commonly olive or
yellowish
white.

_Eyes_--Black, sometimes reddish brown.

_Hair_--Appears to be straight in most cases, but being cut short a
slight waviness might not be noticed. Black.

A comparison of these figures with those of our Luzon groups brings out
several interesting points. It shows that the Tinguian are not related
to the Chinese, "because of their tall stature;" for they are, as a
matter of fact, shorter than either the Chinese or Igorot. It is also
evident that they resemble the southern Chinese no more than do the
people of Bontoc. Further it is seen that both the Tinguian-Ilocano
and the Chinese show greater likeness to the Perak Malay than they
do to each other. As a matter of fact, we find no radical differences
between any of the peoples discussed; despite evident minor variations,
the tribes of northwestern Luzon approach a common type, and this type
appears not to be far removed from the dominant element in southern
China, Indo-China, and Malaysia generally, a fact which probably can
be attributed to a common ancestry in times far past. [38]

With this data before us, we might readily dismiss most of the theories
of early writers as interesting speculations based on superficial
observation; but the statement that the Tinguian are derived from
the pirate band of Limahon has received such wide currency that it
deserves further notice. It should be borne in mind that the scene
of the Chinese disaster was in Pangasinan, a march of three days
to the south of the Tinguian territory. It is unlikely that a force
sufficiently large to impress its type on the local population could
have made its way into Abra, without having been reported to Salcedo,
who then had his headquarters at Vigan.

As early as 1598 the Tinguian were so powerful and aggressive that
active steps had to be taken to protect the coast people from their
raids. Had they been recognized as being essentially Chinese--a
foreign, hostile population--some mention of that fact must certainly
have crept into the Spanish records of that period. Such data are
entirely wanting, while the exceedingly rich traditions of the Tinguian
[39] likewise fail to give any evidence of such an invasion.

The presence of large quantities of ancient Chinese pottery in Abra
must be ascribed to trade, for it is inconceivable that a fugitive band
of warriors would have carried with them the hundreds of jars--many
of large size--which are now found in the interior.

The reputed similarity of the garments of the men to those of Fukien
fishermen is likewise without value, for at the time of the Spanish
invasion both Ilocano and Tinguian were innocent of trousers. It
was not until the order of Gov. Pennarubia, in 1868, barring all
unclad pagans from the Christianized towns, that the latter donned
such garments. To-day many of the men possess full suits, but the
ordinary dress is still the head-band, breech-cloth, and belt.

Finally, it seems curious that the Tinguian should be of "a pacific
character" because of the fact that they are descended from a band
of Chinese pirates.

Summarizing our material, we can say of the Tinguian, that they are a
rather short, well-built people with moderately high, brachycephalic
heads, fairly high noses, and angular faces. Their hair is brown black
and inclined to be wavy, while the skin varies from a light olive
brown to a dark reddish brown. A study of our tables shows that within
this group there are great extremes in stature, head and nasal form,
color, and the like, indicating very heterogeneous elements in its
make-up. We also find that physically the Tinguian conform closely to
the Ilocano, while they merge without a sharp break into the Apayao
of the eastern mountain slopes. When compared to the Igorot, greater
differences are manifest; but even here, the similarities are so many
that we cannot classify the two tribes as members of different races.

We have seen that this people approaches the southern Chinese in
many respects, but this is likewise true of all the other tribes
under discussion and, hence, we are not justified, on anatomic
grounds, in considering the Tinguian as distinct, because of Chinese
origin. The testimony of historical data and language leads us to the
same conclusions. Chinese influence, through trade, has been active
for many centuries along the north and west coast of Luzon, but it
has not been of a sufficiently intimate nature to introduce such
common articles of convenience and necessity as the composite bow,
the potter's wheel, wheeled vehicles, and the like.

The anatomical data likewise prevent us from setting this tribe apart
from the others, because of Japanese or Indonesian origin.



CHAPTER III

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

_Birth_.--The natural cause of pregnancy is understood by the Tinguian,
but coupled with this knowledge is a belief in its close relationship
to the spirit world. Supernatural conception and unnatural births are
frequently mentioned in the traditions, and are accepted as true by
the mass of people; while the possibility of increasing the fertility
of the husband and wife by magical acts, performed in connection with
the marriage ceremony, is unquestioned. Likewise, the wife may be
affected if she eats peculiar articles of food, [40] and unappeased
desires for fruits and the like may result disastrously both for the
expectant mother and the child. [41] The close relationship which
exists between the father and the unborn babe is clearly brought out
by various facts; for instance, the husband of a pregnant woman is
never whipped at a funeral, as are the other guests, lest it result
in injury to the child.

The fact that these mythical happenings and magical practices do not
agree with his actual knowledge in no way disturbs the Tinguian. It is
doubtful if he is conscious of a conflict; and should it be brought to
his attention, he would explain it by reference to the tales of former
times, or to the activities of superior beings. Like man in civilized
society, he seldom rationalizes about the well-known facts--religious
or otherwise--generally held by his group to be true.

It is thought that, when a mortal woman conceives, an _anito_
woman likewise becomes pregnant, and the two give birth at the same
time. Otherwise, the lives of the two children do not seem to be
closely related, though, as we shall see later, the mothers follow
the same procedure for a time after delivery (cf. p. 268).

According to common belief, supernatural beings have become possessed
at times, with menstrual blood or the afterbirth which under their
care developed into human offspring, some of whom occupy a prominent
place in the tribal mythology. [42] In the tales we are told that a
frog became pregnant, and gave birth to a child after having lapped up
the spittle of Aponitolau, [43] a maid conceived when the head-band
of her lover rested on her skirt, [44] while the customary delivery
of children during the mythical period seems to have been from between
the fingers of the expectant mother. [45] _Anitos_ and, in a few cases,
the shades of the dead have had intercourse with Tinguian women, [46]
but children of such unions are always born prematurely. As a rule, a
miscarriage is thought to be the result of union with the inhabitants
of the spirit realm, though an expectant woman is often warned not to
become angry or sorrowful lest her "blood become strong and the child
be born." Abortion is said to be practised occasionally by unmarried
women; but such instances are exceedingly rare, as offspring is much
desired, and the chance of making a satisfactory match would be in
no way injured by the possession of an illegitimate child. [47]

Except for the district about Manabo, it is not customary to make any
offerings or to cause any changes in the daily life of the pregnant
woman until the time of her delivery is near at hand. In Manabo a
family gathering is held about a month before the anticipated event,
at which time the woman eats a small chicken, while her relatives look
on. After completing this meal, she places two bundles of grass, some
bark and beads in a small basket and ties it beside the window. The
significance of the act is not clear to the people, but it is "an
old custom, and is pleasing to the spirits."

Shortly before the child is expected, two or three mediums are
summoned to the dwelling. Spreading a mat in the center of the room,
they place on it their outfits (cf. p. 302) and gifts [48] for all
the spirits who are apt to attend the ceremony. Nine small jars
covered with _alin_ leaves are distributed about the house and yard;
one sits on a head-axe placed upon an inverted rice-mortar near the
dwelling, another stands near by in a winnower, and is covered with
a bundle of rice; four go to a corner of the room; while the balance
is placed on either side of the doorway. These jars are later used
to hold the cooked rice which is offered to the _Inginlaod_, spirits
of the west. At the foot of the house ladder a spear is planted, and
to it is attached a long narrow cloth of many colors. Last of all, a
bound pig is laid just outside the door with its head toward the east.

When all is ready, the mediums bid the men to play on the _tong-a-tong_
(cf. p. 314); then, squatting beside the pig, they stroke its
side with oiled fingers, meanwhile chanting appropriate _diams_
(cf. p. 296). This done, they begin to summon spirits into their
bodies, and from them learn what must be done to insure the health
and happiness of the child. Later, water is poured into the pig's ear,
that "as it shakes out the water, so may the evil spirits be thrown out
of the place." [49] Then an old man cuts open the body of the animal
and, thrusting in his hand, draws out the still palpitating heart,
which he gives to the medium. With this she strokes the body of the
expectant woman, "so that the birth may be easy, and as a protection
against harm," and also touches the other members of the family. [50]
She next directs her attention to the liver, for by its condition it
is possible to foretell the child's future (cf. p. 307).

While the medium has been busy with the immediate family, friends
and relatives have been preparing the flesh for food, which is now
served. No part is reserved, except the boiled entrails which are
placed in a wooden dish and set among other gifts intended for the
superior beings.

Following the meal, the mediums continue summoning spirits until
late afternoon when the ceremony known as _Gipas_--the dividing--is
held. [51] The chief medium, who is now possessed by a powerful spirit,
covers her shoulder with a sacred blanket, [52] and in company with
the oldest male relative of the expectant woman goes to the middle of
the room, where a bound pig lies with a narrow cloth extending along
its body from head to tail. After much debating they decide on the
exact center of the animal, and then with her left hand each seizes a
leg. They lift the victim from the floor, and with the head-axes, which
they hold in their free hands, they cut it in two. In this way the
mortals pay the spirits for their share in the child, and henceforth
they have no claims to it. The spirit and the old man drink _basi_,
to cement their friendship; and the ceremony is at an end.

The small pots and other objects used as offerings are placed on the
sacred blanket in one corner of the room, where they remain until
the child is born, "so that all the spirits may know that _Gipas_
has been held." A portion of the slaughtered animals and some small
present are given to the mediums, who then depart.

In San Juan a cloth is placed on the floor, and on it are laid
betel-nuts, four beads, and a lead sinker. These are divided with
the head-axe in the same manner as the pig, but the medium retains
for her own use the share given to the spirits.

In the better class of dwellings, constructed of boards, there is
generally a small section in one corner, where the flooring is of
bamboo; and it is here that the delivery takes place, but in the
ordinary dwellings there is no specified location.

The patient is in a kneeling or squatting position with her hands on a
rope or bamboo rod, which is suspended from a rafter about the height
of her shoulders. [53] She draws on this, while one or more old women,
skilled in matters pertaining to childbirth, knead and press down on
the abdomen, and finally remove the child. The naval cord is cut with
a bamboo knife, [54] and is tied with bark cloth. Should the delivery
be hard, a pig will be killed beneath the house, and its blood and
flesh offered to the spirits, in order to gain their aid.

If the child is apparently still-born, the midwife places a Chinese
dish close to its ear, and strikes against it several times with a
lead sinker. If this fails to gain a response, the body is wrapped
in a cloth, and is soon buried beneath the house. There is no belief
here, as is common in many other parts of the Philippines, that the
spirits of unborn or still-born children form the chief recruits for
the army of evil spirits.

The after-birth is placed in a small jar together with bamboo leaves,
"so that the child will grow like that lusty plant," and is then
intrusted to an old man, usually a relative. He must exercise the
greatest care in his mission, for should he squint, while the jar is in
his possession, the child will be likewise afflicted. If it is desired
that the infant shall become a great hunter, the jar is hung in the
jungle; if he is to be an expert swimmer and a successful fisherman,
it is placed in the river; but ill fortune is in store for the baby
if the pot is buried, for he will always be afraid to climb a tree
or to ascend a mountain.

These close ties between the infant and the after-birth are
easily comprehended by a people who also believe in the close
relationship between a person and any object recently handled by him
(cf. p. 305). In general it is thought that the after-birth soon
disappears and no longer influences the child; yet certain of the
folk-tales reflect a firm conviction that a group of spirits, known
as _alan_, sometimes take the placenta, and transform it into a real
child, who is then more powerful than ordinary mortals. [55]

Immediately following the birth the father constructs a shallow bamboo
framework (_baitken_), [56] which he fills with ashes, and places in
the room close to the mother. On this a fire is kept burning constantly
for twenty-nine days [57] For this fire he must carefully prepare each
stick of wood, for should it have rough places on it, the baby would
have lumps on its head. A double explanation is offered for this fire;
firstly, "to keep the mother warm;" secondly, as a protection against
evil spirits. The idea of protection is evidently the original and
dominant one; for, as we shall see, evil spirits are wont to frequent
a house, where a birth or death has occurred, and a fire is always
kept burning below the house or beside the ladder at such a time. [58]

When the child has been washed, it is placed on an inverted
rice-winnower, and an old man or woman gives it the name it is to
bear. The winnower is raised a few inches above the ground, and the
woman asks the child its name, then drops it. Again she raises it,
pronounces the name, and lets it fall. A third time it is raised and
dropped, with the injunction, "When your mother sends you, you go,"
or "You must not be lazy." If it is a boy, it may be instructed,
"When your father sends you to plow, you go."

Among the Tinguian of Ilocos Norte it is customary for the person
who is giving the name to wave a burning torch beneath the winnower,
meanwhile saying, if to a boy, "Here is your light when you go to
fight. Here is your light when you go to other towns." If the child
is a girl, she says, "Here is your light when you go to sell things."

In the San Juan district, the fire is made of pine sticks; for
"the burning pine gives a bright light, and thus makes it clear to
the spirits that the child is born. The heat and smoke make the child
hard and sturdy." Just before the naming, the rice winnower is circled
above the fire and the person officiating calls to the spirits, saying,
"Come and take this child, or I shall take it." Then, as the infant
still remains alive, she proceeds to give it its name. [59]

A Tinguian child is nearly always named after a dead ancestor; often
it receives two names--one for a relative in the father's family,
and one in the mother's. A third name commemorating the day or some
event, or perhaps the name of a spirit, is frequently added. [60]
Certain names, such as Abacas ("worthless"), Inaknam ("taken up"),
and Dolso ("rice-chaff") are common. If the infant is ailing, or if
the family has been unfortunate in raising children, the newborn is
named in the regular way, then is placed on an old rice winnower,
and is carried to a refuse heap and left. Evil spirits witnessing
this will think that the child is dead, and will pay no more heed
to it. After a time, a woman from another house will pick the child
up and carry it back to the dwelling, where it is renamed. In such
a case it is probable that the new name will recall the event. [61]

If a former child has died, it is possible that the infant will receive
its name, but if so, it will be renamed within a few days. In this
manner, respect is shown both for the deceased child and the ancestor
for which it was named; yet the newborn is not forced to bear a title
which is apparently displeasing to the spirits. Continued sickness
may also result in the giving of a new name. [62] In such a case a
small plot of rice is planted as an offering to the spirits, which
have caused the illness.

According to Reyes, the child to be named is carried to a tree, and
the medium says, "Your name is ----;" at the same time she strikes the
tree with a knife. If the tree "sweats," the name is satisfactory;
otherwise, other names are mentioned until a favorable sign is
obtained. [63] The writer found no trace of such procedure in any
part of the Tinguian belt.

For a month succeeding the birth, the mother must follow a very strict
set of rules. Each day she is bathed with water in which certain herbs
and leaves, distasteful to evil spirits, are boiled. [64] Beginning
with the second day and until the tenth she must add one bath each
day, at least one of which is in cold water. From the tenth to the
twenty-fourth day she takes one hot and one cold bath, and from then
to the end of the month she continues the one hot bath. Until these
are completed, the family must keep a strip of _ayabong_ bark burning
beneath the house, in order to protect the baby from evil spirits. As
an additional defence, a miniature bow and arrow, and a bamboo shield,
with a leaf attached, as hung above the infant's head (Fig. 4, No. 1).

On the fifth day the mother makes a ring out of old cloth, rice stalks,
and a vine, and puts it on her head; over her shoulders is an old
blanket, while in one hand she holds a reed staff, which "helps her
in her weakness, and protects her from evil beings." She carries a
coconut shell filled with ashes, a basket and a jar, and thus equipped
she goes to the village spring. Arriving there, she cleans the dishes
"as a sign that her weakness has passed, and that she can now care
for herself;" then she sets fire to a piece of bark, and leaves it
burning beside the water, as a further sign of her recovery. When
she returns to the dwelling, the cleansed dishes and the staff are
placed above the spot, where she and the baby sleep.

On the 29th day the fire is extinguished, and the bamboo frame
is fastened under the floor of the house, below the mother's mat,
"so that all can see that the family has followed the custom." As
the frame is carried out, the mother calls to the _anito_ mother
(cf. p. 261) to throw out her fire.

In the mountain districts about Lakub, a ceremony in which the spirits
are besought to look to the child's welfare is held about the third
day after the birth. The mediums summon several spirits; a chicken
or a pig is killed, and its blood mixed with rice is offered up. At
the conclusion a small _saloko_ [65] containing an egg is attached
to one end of the roof. In Ba-ak this is generally a three to six day
event attended by all the friends and relatives of the family. Here,
in place of the egg, a jar containing pine-sticks is attached to the
roof, for the pine which burns brightly makes it plain to the spirits
what the people are doing.

In the light of the extended and rather complex procedure just
related, it is interesting to note that the Tinguian woman is one
of those mythical beings whom careless or uninformed writers have
been wont to describe as giving birth to her children without bodily
discomfort. _Reyes_ [66] tells us that she cuts the umbilical cord,
after which she proceeds to the nearest brook, and washes the clothing
soiled during the birth. _Lerena_ likewise credits her with delivering
herself without aid, at whatever spot she may then chance to be; then,
without further ado or inconvenience, she continues her duties as
before. If she happens to be near to a river, she bathes the child;
or, if water is not handy, she cleans it with grass or leaves, and
then gives it such a name as stone, rooster, or carabao. [67]

Throughout the greater part of the Tinguian territory, nothing
further of importance takes place for about two years, providing
the child progresses normally, but should it be ailing, a medium
will be summoned to conduct the _Ibal_ ceremony. [68] For this a pig
or rooster is prepared for sacrifice, but before it is killed, the
medium squats before it and, stroking its side with oiled fingers,
she chants the following _diam_.

"Those who live in the same town go to raid, to take heads. After
they arrive, those who live in the same town, 'We go and dance with
the heads,' said the people, who live in the same town, 'because they
make a celebration, those who went to kill.' 'When the sun goes down,
you come to join us,' said the mother and baby (to her husband who
goes to the celebration). After that the sun truly went down; she
went truly to join her husband; after that they were not (there),
the mother and the baby (i.e., when the father arrived where they
had agreed to meet, the mother and child were not there).

"He saw their hats lying on the ground. He looked down; the
mother and the baby were in (the ground), which ground swallowed
them. 'Why (are) the mother and the baby in the ground? How can I
get them?' When he raises the mother and the baby, they go (back)
into the ground. After that Kaboniyan above, looking down (said),
'What can you do? The spirits of Ibal in Daem are the cause of their
trouble. It is better that you go to the home of your parents-in-law,
and you go and prepare the things needed in Ibal,' said Kaboniyan.

"They went truly and prepared; after that they brought (the things)
to the gate. After that the mother and child came out of the
ground. 'After this when there is a happening like this, of which you
Ipogau are in danger, you do like this (i. e., make the Ibal ceremony);
and I alone, Kaboniyan am the one you summon,' said Kaboniyan.

"After that they got well because they came up, the mother and
the baby."

When the chant is finished, the animal is slaughtered, and food is
prepared both for guests and spirits. Following the instructions
of Kaboniyan, the latter is placed at the entrance to the village;
after which it is possible that this powerful spirit will visit the
gathering in the person of the medium, and give further instructions
for the care of the infant.

In the village of Lakub the writer witnessed a variation of this
ceremony which, it is said, is also followed in case the pregnancy
is not progressing favorably. A piece of banana stalk, wrought into
the form of a child, and wearing a bark head-band, was placed on the
mat beside the medium. She, acting for a spirit, seized the miniature
shield and bow and arrow which hung above the baby, and attempted to
shoot the figure. Immediately two old women came to the rescue of the
image, and after a sharp tussel compelled the spirit to desist. They
then secured the weapons, and in their turn tried to shoot the figure,
which was now defended in vain by the medium. It was later explained
that, in the first place, the figure represented the child, and
had the spirit succeeded in shooting it, the babe would have died;
later, it impersonated the child of the spirit, and when that being
saw its own offspring in danger, it immediately departed from the
village. Several other spirits then entered the body of the medium,
and after receiving food and drink, gave friendly advice.

When the child is about two years old, a ceremony known as _Olog_
[69] is held. The mediums who are summoned prepare a spirit mat,
[70] and at once begin to recite _diams_ over the body of a bound
pig. As soon as the animal is killed, its heart is removed, and is
rubbed against the breast of each member of the family. The medium
then resumes her place at the mat, and soon is possessed by a spirit
who takes charge of the proceedings. At his suggestion, the child is
rubbed from head to foot with the thread from the medium's outfit, "so
that it will not cry any more;" next, he orders that the intestines
of the pig be cleaned, placed on a wooden dish, and be carried
to the gate of the town. When they arrive at the designated spot,
the mediums make a "stove" by driving three sticks into the ground,
so as to outline a triangle, and within these they burn a bundle
of rice-straw. Beside the "stove" is placed a branch, each leaf of
which is pierced with a chicken feather. This completed, the child is
brought up to the fire, and is crowned with the intestines; while one
of the mediums strikes the ground vigorously with a split stick, [71]
to attract the attention of the spirits. Next, she secures a rooster,
and with this in one hand and a spear in the other, she marches five
times around the fire meanwhile reciting a _diam_. At the conclusion of
this performance the fowl is killed; and its blood, mixed with rice,
is scattered on the ground. At the same time the medium calls to
all the spirits to come and eat, to be satisfied, and not cause the
child to become ill. The flesh and rice cakes are likewise offered,
but after a few moments have elapsed, they are eaten by all the people.

At the conclusion of the meal, a wreath of vines is substituted for
the intestines, which are hung beside the fire. This concludes the
ceremony; but, as the mother and child reach the ladder of their
home, the people above sprinkle them with water, meanwhile calling
out eight times, "You are in a heavy storm." The significance of
this sprinkling is not known, but the custom is widespread, and is
evidently very ancient.

In the mountain village of Likuan, a man who wears a very large hat
takes the child to a nearby _saloko_. As he returns, he is sprinkled
by a medium, who says, "You are wet from the rain; in what place
did you get wet?" He replies, "Yes, we are wet from the rain; we
were wet in Inakban (a town of the spirits);" then placing two small
baskets in the _saloko_, he carries the child into the dwelling. Soon
the father appears and goes about inquiring for his wife and child;
suddenly spying the baskets, he seizes them and takes them into the
house, saying, "Here are the mother and the child."

The following morning, the women place rice cakes and betel-nuts,
ready to chew, in leaves, and tie them to a bamboo stalk with many
branches. This is then planted beside the spring, "so that the child
will grow and be strong like the bamboo." The sight of all these
good things is also pleasing to the spirits, and they will thus be
inclined to grant to the child many favors.

When the women return to the house, they carry with them a coconut
shell filled with water, and with this they wash the infant's face
"to keep it from crying, and to keep it well." This done, they tie
a knot of banana leaves to the house ladder as a sign that no person
may enter the dwelling until after its removal the next day. [72]

A ceremony, not witnessed by the writer, is said to take place when
evil spirits have persistently annoyed the mother and the child,
when the delivery is long overdue, or when an _anito_ child [73]
has been born to a human mother. The husband and his friends arm
themselves with long knives or head-axes, and enter the dwelling,
where they kill a rooster. The blood is mixed with rice; and this,
together with nine coconut shells filled with _basi_, is placed beneath
the house for the _anitos_ to eat. While the spirits are busy with
this repast, the mother, wrapped in a blanket, is secretly passed out
a window and taken to another house. Then the men begin shouting,
and at the same time slash right and left against the house-posts
with their weapons. In this way the evil spirits are not only kept
from noticing the absence of the mother, but are also driven to a
distance. This procedure is repeated under nine houses, after which
they return to the dwelling with the woman. As soon as they reach the
top of the ladder, an old woman throws down ashes "to blind the eyes
of the _anitos_, so that they cannot see to come up." [74] She likewise
breaks a number of small jars, "which look like heads," as a threat of
the treatment which awaits them if they attempt to return to the house.

Within the dwelling food and presents are offered to the good spirits,
and all who have participated in the _anito_ driving are feasted.

Next morning, a wash, said to be particularly distasteful to the evil
_anito_, is prepared. It consists of water in which are placed lemon,
bamboo, and _atis_ leaves, a cigar stub, and ashes from burned rice
straw. The family wash in this mixture, and are then fully protected
against any evil spirits, which may still remain after the terrifying
events of the previous night.

_Childhood_.--When outside the house, small babies are always carried
by their mothers or older sisters (Plate XV). The little one either
sits astride its mother's hip or fits against the small of the back,
and is held in place by her arm or by a blanket which passes over one
shoulder. From this position the infant is readily shifted, so that
it can nurse whenever it is hungry. There are no regular periods for
feeding, neither is there a definite time for weaning. Most children
continue to nurse until quite large, or until they are displaced by
newcomers. However, they are given some solid food, such as rice,
while very young, and soon they are allowed to suck sugar-cane and
sweet potatoes. It is also a common thing to see a mother take the pipe
from her mouth, and place it in that of her nursing infant. They thus
acquire the habit of using tobacco at a very early age, and continue
it through life, but apparently without evil effects. Weaning is
accomplished by rubbing the breasts with powdered chile peppers,
or plants with sour flavor.

A crib or sleeping basket is made out of bamboo or rattan, and
this is attached to the center of a long bamboo pole, which is
suspended across one corner of the room (Fig. 1, No. 2). The pole
bends with each movement of the child, and thus it rocks itself to
sleep. Another device in which small children are kept is known as
_galong-galong_. This consists of a board seat attached to a strip
of split rattan at each corner. Sliding up and down on these strips
are vertical and horizontal pieces of reed or bamboo, which form an
open box-like frame (Fig. 1, No. 1). The reeds are raised, the child
is put in, and then they are slipped back in place. This device is
suspended from a rafter, at such a height that it can serve either
as a swing or walker, as desired.

When the mother goes to the village spring or to the river, she
carries her baby with her, and invariably gives it a bath in the
cold water. This she applies with her hand or a coconut shell, and
frequently she ends the process by dipping the small body into the
water. Apparently, the children do not enjoy the ordeal any more than
European youngsters; but this early dislike for the water is soon
overcome, and they go to the streams to paddle and play, and quickly
become excellent swimmers. They learn that certain sluggish fish hide
beneath large rocks; and oftentimes a whole troop of naked youngsters
may be seen going up stream, carefully feeling under the stones,
and occasionally shouting with glee, as a slippery trophy is drawn
out with the bare hands. They also gather shell fish and shrimps,
and their catch often adds variety to the family meal.

Children are seldom punished or scolded. All the family exhibit real
affection for the youngsters, and find time to devote to them. A
man is never too old or too busy to take up and amuse or caress
the babies. Kissing seems to be unknown, but a similar sign of
affection is given by placing the lips to the face and drawing the
breath in suddenly. A mother is often heard singing to her babes,
but the songs are usually improvised, and generally consist of a
single sentence repeated over and over. Aside from the daily bath,
the child has little to disturb it during the first five or six years
of its life. It has no birthdays, its hair is never cut, unless it be
that it is trimmed over the eyes to form bangs, and it wears clothing
only on very special occasions. The children are by no means innocent
in sexual matters; but absolute familiarity with nudity has removed
all curiosity and false modesty, and the relations between the sexes
are no freer than in civilized communities.

When garments are put on, they are identical with those worn by the
elders. At all ages the people will discard their clothing without
any sense of shame, whenever the occasion demands; as, for instance,
the fording of a stream, or when a number of both sexes happen to be
bathing at the same time in the village pool. This does not lead to
immodesty or lewdness, and a person who is careless about the acts,
which are not considered proper in Tinguian society, is an object of
scorn quite as much as he would be in a more advanced community.

The first toys generally consist of pigs, carabao, or horses made by
sticking bamboo legs into a sweet potato or mango. A more elaborate
plaything is an imitation snake made of short bamboo strips fastened
together with cords at top, center, and bottom. When this is held near
the middle by the thumb and forefinger, it winds and curls about as
if alive.

Stilts of bamboo, similar to those used in America, are sometimes
used by the older children, but the more popular local variety is
made by fastening cords through the tops of half coconut shells. The
youth holds a cord in each hand, stands on the shells with the lines
passing between the first two toes, and then walks.

Flat boards with cords attached become "carabao sleds," and in
these immense loads of imaginary rice are hauled to the granaries. A
similar device serves as a harrow, while a stick is converted into a
"plough" or "horse," as is desired. Imitation carabao yokes are much
prized, and the children pass many hours serving as draught animals
or drivers. The bull-roarer, made by putting a thin piece of bamboo
on a cord and whirling it about the head, makes a pleasing noise,
and is excellent to use in frightening stray horses. Blow-guns, made
out of bamboo or the hollow tubes of plants, vie in popularity with
a pop-gun of similar construction. A wad of leaves is driven through
with a plunger, and gives a sharp report, as it is expelled.

Tops are among the prized possessions of the boys. They are spun,
or are wound with cord, and are thrown overhand at those of other
players, with the intention of splitting or marking them.

Quite as popular, with the small girls, are tiny pestles with which
they industriously pound rice chaff, in imitation of their mothers.

While still mere babies, the boys begin to play with toy knives
made of wood, but by the time they are seven or eight years of
age, they are permitted to carry long _bolos_, and before puberty
they are expert with the weapons used by the tribe (Plate XI). In
the mountain regions in particular, it is a common occurrence for
groups of youngsters, armed with reed spears and palm-bark shields,
to carry on mock battles. They also learn to make traps and nets, and
oftentimes they return to the village with a good catch of small birds.

Full grown dogs are seldom friendly or considered as pets; but puppies,
small chickens, parrakeets, pigs, and baby carabao make excellent
playfellows, and suffer accordingly. From the day of its birth,
the young carabao is taken possession of by the children, who will
fondle and tease it, ride on its back, or slide off over its head
or tail. Soon they gain confidence, and find similar amusements with
the full grown animals. These huge beasts are often surly or vicious,
especially around white men, but they recognize their masters in the
little brown folk, and submit meekly to their antics. In fact, the
greater part of the care of these animals is entrusted to young boys.

When not engaged in some of the amusements already mentioned, it
is probable that the youngster is one of the group of naked little
savages, which races through the village on the way to the swimming
hole, or climbs tall trees from the top of which sleeping pigs can be
easily bombarded. Should the children be so fortunate as to possess
a tin can, secured from some visiting traveller, they quickly convert
it into a drum or _gansa_, and forthwith start a celebration. All can
dance and sing, play on nose flutes, bamboo guitars, or Jew's harps.

In addition to songs of their own composition, there are other songs,
which are heard whenever the children are at play. They make a swing
by tying ropes to a carabao yoke, and attach it to a limb; then,
as they swing, they sing:


"Pull swing. My swing is a snake.
Do not writhe like a snake. My swing is a big snake.
Do not turn and twist. My swing is a lizard.
Do not tremble or shake."


When a group gathers under a house to pop corn in the burning rice
chaff, they chant:


"Pop, pop, become like the privates of a woman.
Make a noise, make a noise, like the clay jar.
Pop, pop, like the coconut shell dish.
Sagai, sagai, [75] make a noise like the big jar."


When the smoke blows toward a part of the children, the others sing
over and over:


"Deep water here; high land there."


A favorite game is played by a number of children. Part stand on the
edge of a bank, part below. Those above sing, "Jump down, where the
big stone is, the big stone which swallows people. Big stone, which
swallows people, where are you?" To this the children below reply,
"I am here. I am the big rock which swallows men. Come down here." As
those on the bank jump down, they are piled upon, and a free-for-all
tussel ensues. In the midst of this, one of the players suddenly sings
out, "I am a deer in--, I am very fat." With this he starts off on a
run, and the rest of the party, now suddenly transformed into dogs,
take up the chase, yelping and barking. When the deer becomes tired,
he makes for the water, where he is considered safe; but if he is
caught, he is rolled and bitten by the dogs.

Another game played by both boys and girls is known as _maysansani_,
and is much like hide-and-go-seek. One boy holds out an open hand,
and the others lay their fingers in his palm, while the leader counts,
_maysansani_, _duan-nani_, _mataltali_, [76] _ocop_. As _ocop_ ("four"
or "ready") is pronounced, the boy quickly closes his hand in order to
catch a finger. If he succeeds, the prisoner puts his hands over his
eyes, and the leader holds him, while the others run and hide. When
all are ready, he is released, and then must find all the players;
or he is beaten on the forearm with the first and second fingers of
all the participants, or they may pick him up by his head and feet,
and whirl him about.

Like European children, they have a set of small sayings or acts for
use on appropriate occasions. A youngster may come up to another who
is eating a luscious mango; when requested for a bite, he is apt to
draw down the lower lid of his eye and coolly answer, "I will make a
sound like swallowing for you," and then go on with the feast. He may
even hold out the tempting fruit, as if to comply with the request,
then suddenly jerk it back and shout "kilat." [77] This is often the
signal for a scuffle.

As the children grow older, they begin more and more to take their
place in the village life. The little girl becomes the chief guardian
of a new arrival in the family; and with the little one strapped on
her back, she romps and plays, while the baby enjoys it all or sleeps
serenely (Plate XII). The boy also assists his father and mother in
the fields, but still he finds some time for games of a more definite
character than those just described. Probably the most popular of
these is known as _agbita_ or _lipi_.

This is played with the large disk-shaped seeds of the _lipi_ plant
(Ilocano _lipai_). Each player puts two disks in line, then all go
to a distance and shoot toward them. The shooter is held between the
thumb and first finger of the left hand, and is propelled forward by
the index finger of the right. The one whose seed goes the farthest
gets first shot, and the others follow in order. All seeds knocked
down belong to the player, and if any are still in line after each
has had his turn, the leader shoots again. When each boy has had two
shots, or when all the disks are down, a new line is made; and he
whose seed lies at the greatest distance shoots first.

Another common game is _patpatinglad_, which has certain resemblances
to cricket. A small cylinder-shaped missel, called _papa-anak_
("little duck"), about four inches long, is set in a shallow groove,
so that one end stands free; it is then struck and batted with a bamboo
stock--_papa-ina_ ("mother duck"). The lad who has driven his missel
the farthest is the winner, and hence has the privilege of batting
away the _papa-anak_ of the other players, so that they will have to
chase them. If he likes, he may take hold of the feet of a looser
and compel him to walk on his hands to secure this missel. A loser
is sometimes taken by the head and feet, and is swung in a circle,

A game frequently seen in the lowland valleys is also common to the
Ilocano children, who call it San Pedro. Lines are drawn on the ground
to enclose a space about thirty feet square (see diagram Fig. 2). The
boys at d try to run between the lines, and at the same time evade
the guards a, b, and c. Guard a can run along line 1, or 4 as far
as 2. Guard b must stay on line 2; and c must keep on 3. When the
runners are captured, they become the guards.

From the preceding paragraphs it may be surmized that the youth is
quite untrained and untaught. It is true that he spends no time in a
class-room; he passes through no initiation at the time of puberty,
neither are there ceremonies or observances of any kind which reveal
to him the secret knowledge of the tribe, yet he quickly learns his
place in society, and at an early age begins to absorb its customs and
beliefs. He sits about the village fires in the evenings, and listens
to the tales of long ago, or hears the elders discuss the problems
of their daily life. During the hot midday hours, he lounges in the
field-houses, while his parents relate the fate of lazy children;
or tell of punishments sent by the spirits on those who fail to
follow the customs of the ancestors, or give heed to the omens. He
attends the ceremonies, where he not only learns the details of these
important events, but with his own eyes sees the bodies of the mediums
possessed by superior beings, and thus the close relationship of the
spirit world to his people is forcibly brought to his notice. He is
never debarred from the dances or other activities; in fact, he is
encouraged to take part in them or to imitate his elders. Soon custom
gathers him into its net, and unless he is the exceptional individual,
or comes in intimate contact with outsiders, he never escapes.

It has already been seen that he begins very early to take an active
part in the village life, but it is many years before he assumes a
position of importance in the group. It is only when age and experience
have gained for him the respect of his fellows that he begins to have
a voice in the more weighty affairs of Tinguian life.

_Engagement and Marriage_.--Since there are no clans or other
groupings to limit the number of families in which unions may be
contracted, the only impediments are former marriage ties or blood
relationship. Cousins may not marry, neither is a man allowed to wed
his step-sister, his wife's sister, or her mother.

Engagement takes place while the children are very young, sometimes
while they are still babes-in-arms; but usually the contract is made
when they are six or eight years of age.

The boy's parents take the initiative, and having selected a suitable
girl, they broach the subject to her family. This is not done directly,
but through an intermediary, generally a relative, "who can talk much
and well." He carries with him three beads--one red, one yellow,
and one agate, [78] which he offers "as an evidence of affection,"
and then proceeds to relate the many desirable qualities of the
groom and his family, as well as the advantages to be gained by the
union. If the suit is favored, the beads are attached to the girl's
wrist as a sign of her engagement, and a day is set for the _pakalon_
[79] or price fixing.

On the appointed day, friends and relatives gather at the girl's
home and, after several hours of feasting and drinking, settle down
to the real business on hand. A large pig is slaughtered, and its
liver is carefully examined; for, should the omens be unfavorable,
it would be useless to continue the negotiations further at that time
(cf. p. 307). If the signs are good, the happy crowd forms a circle,
and then begins a long and noisy discussion of the price which the girl
should bring. Theoretically, the payment is made in horses, carabao,
jars, blankets, and rice, but as each article is considered as having
a value of five pesos ($2.50), the money is frequently substituted,
especially by people in poor circumstances.

A portion of the agreed price is paid at once, and is distributed
between the girl's parents and her relatives, who thus become vitally
interested in the successful termination of the match; for should
it fail of consummation, they must return the gifts received. The
balance of the payment is often delayed for a considerable time,
and it not infrequently happens that there is still a balance due
when the man dies. In such a case no division of his property can be
made until the marriage agreement is settled in full.

The completion of the list is the signal for great rejoicing; liquor
circulates freely, the men sing _daleng_ (cf. p. 440), and _tadek_
(cf. p. 440) is danced far into the night.

In the yard where the dancing takes place, three inverted rice-mortars
are placed one above the other, "to serve as a table for the spirits
who always attend." A dish of liquor is placed on it, while at its
side is a spear decorated with a man's belt.

These engagement-parties are the great social affairs of the year,
and friends will journey long distances to be present, but the
betrothed couple is seldom in evidence, and in many instances the
groom is absent.

Following their engagement the children live with their parents until
such a time as they are considered old enough to maintain their own
home. If the lad comes from a well-to-do family, it is probable that
the final ceremony will take place before either of the couple reaches
puberty; but, if the groom must earn a living, the marriage may be
delayed until he is eighteen or nineteen years old (Plate XIII).

When the time for the fulfillment of the agreement arrives, the boy
goes, in company, at night to the girl's house. He has a headaxe
hanging from his belt, but he is the only one so armed. An earlier
writer [80] has described a feigned attack on the house of the bride
as a part of the marriage ceremony, but the present writer did not
witness anything of the sort, nor could he learn of any such action.

The groom carries with him a small part of the marriage payment and a
valuable jar; these he presents to his parents-in-law, and from that
time on he may never call them or their near relatives by name. Should
he do so, "he will have boils and the first child will be insane."

The bride's people have provided a coconut shell filled with water
and a wooden dish [81] containing cooked rice. These are placed
between the couple, as they sit in the center of the room (Plate
XIV). The boy's mother drops two beads into the shell cup, and bids
them drink; for, "as the two beads always go together at the bottom,
so you will go together and will not part. The cool water will keep
you from becoming angry."

Great care must be exercised in handling the cup; for should the
contents be shaken the couple will become dizzy, and in old age
their heads and hands will shake. After they have drunk, each takes
a handful of rice, and squeezes it into a ball. The girl drops hers
through the slits in the bamboo floor as an offering to the spirits,
but the boy tosses his into the air. If it breaks or rolls, it is a
bad sign, and the couple is apt to part, or their children die. In
such a circumstance, the marriage is usually deferred, and tried
again at a later date; but repeated scattering of the rice generally
results in the annulling of the agreement. [82] Should anything in the
dwelling fall or be broken during the ceremony, it is halted at once;
to proceed further that night would be to court misfortune. However,
it may be undertaken again a few days later.

The guests depart immediately after the rice ceremony. No food or
drink is offered to them, nor is there any kind of celebration. [83]

That night the couple sleep with a pillow between them, [84] and
under the groom's pillow is a head-axe. Early in the morning, the
girl's mother or some other elderly female of her family awakens
them, and leads the way to the village spring. Arriving there, she
pours water in a coconut shell, which contains a cigar from which the
couple have drawn smoke; [85] she adds leaves of bamboo and _agiwas_,
and washes their faces with the liquid, "to show that they now have
all in common; that the tobacco may keep them and their children from
becoming insane; that the _agiwas_ will keep them in health; and the
bamboo will make them strong and insure many children, the same as it
has many sprouts." On their way home, the boy cuts a _dangla_ shrub
(_Vitex negundo_ L.) with his head-axe, and later attaches it to the
door of their home, "so that they may have many children."

Throughout that day the doors and windows are kept tightly closed;
for should the young people see birds or chickens having intercourse,
they are apt to become insane, and their first born have sore or
crossed eyes.

The next morning is known as _sipsipot_ ("the watching"). Accompanied
by the girl's parents, the couple goes to the father's fields. On
the way they carefully observe any signs which animals, birds, or
nature, may give them. When they reach the fields, the boy shows his
respect for his elders by cutting the grass along the borders with
his head-axe. This service also counteracts any bad sign which they
may have received that morning. He next takes a little of the soil on
his axe, and both he and his bride taste of it, "so that the ground
will yield good harvests" for them, and they will become rich. [86]

Nowadays the couple goes to the home, prepared by the groom and his
parents, as soon as it is ready, but the tales indicate [87] that in
former times they lived for a time with the boy's parents. They are
accompanied by the groom's mother, and go very early in the morning,
as they are then less apt to receive bad signs from the birds. The girl
carries her sleeping mat and two pillows; but before she has deposited
these in her new dwelling, she seats herself on the bamboo floor with
her legs stretched out in front. It then becomes necessary for the
groom to present her with a string of agate beads equal in length to
the combined width of the bamboo slats which she covers. Before she
can eat of her husband's rice, he must give her a string of beads,
or she will become ill; she may not open his granary until a like
present has been given, or the resident spirit will make her blind;
neither may she take food from the pots or water from the jars,
until other beads have been presented to her.

If the girl comes from another village, it is customary to make a
payment to her parents for each stream crossed on the journey to the
new home; another is demanded before she goes up the house ladder,
and still others when she enters the house, and her belongings are
brought in. [88]

A common occurrence in Ba-ak and the San Juan district is for the
parents of the girl to spread rows of baskets, Chinese plates or jars
on the floor and to offer them to the groom. Before he can accept
them, he must make a return gift of money, beads, and the like for
each one. It is explained by the elders that, when the young people
see all the gifts spread out on the floor, they will appreciate the
expense involved, and will be less likely to separate.

If at any time the relatives of the girl have reason to doubt the
husband's affection, they go to his home, and hold a gathering known
as _nagkakalo-nan_. They place a pig, a jar, and a number of baskets
on the floor; and the husband is obliged to exchange money and other
gifts for them, if he desires to convince the people of his continued
love. After the pig has been served as food, the old men deliberate;
and should they decide that the relatives have erred, they assess
the whole cost of the gathering to the plaintiffs, and return the
gifts. If the charge is sustained, the relatives recover the price of
the pig, and retain the articles received in exchange for the baskets
and dishes.

Divorce is not uncommon, and is effected by a council similar to that
just described. An attempt to reconcile the couple is made, but if that
fails, the old men decide who is at fault, and assess the expenses of
the gathering to that one. If blame attaches to the husband, he must
complete any part of the marriage price still due; but if the woman is
guilty, her parents and relatives must return the gifts distributed at
the time of the engagement. The chief causes for divorce are cruelty
or laziness on the part of the man, or unfaithfulness of the woman.

Small children are generally left with the mother, but when they are
old enough to decide, they may choose between their parents. However,
the father must aid in the support of his offspring, and they share
in his property when he dies. Either party to a divorce may remarry
at any time.

The Tinguian recognize only one wife, but a man may have as many
concubines (_pota_), as he can secure. The _pota_ lives in a house
of her own, but she is held somewhat in contempt by the other woman,
and is seldom seen in the social gatherings or in other homes. Her
children belong to the father, and she has no right of appeal to
the old men, except in cases of cruelty. Men with concubines do not
suffer in the estimation of their fellows, but are considered clever
to have won two or three women.

The _pota_ is generally faithful to one man, and prostitution is
almost unknown. Unfaithfulness on the part of a betrothed girl, or
wife, or even a _pota_ is almost certain to cause serious trouble,
and is likely to end in a murder.

The early pledging and marriage of the children has reduced illicit
sexual intercourse to a minimum; nevertheless, it sometimes happens
that an unbetrothed girl, not a _pota_, is found to be pregnant. In
such a case the man is expected to make a gift of about one hundred
pesos to the girl's people, and he must support the child when finally
it comes into his keeping. Neither party to such an occurrence loses
standing in the community unless the father should fail to redeem
the child. Should this happen, he would be a subject of ridicule
in the community, and a fine might also result. The usual outcome
of such an illicit union is that the girl becomes the _pota_ of her
child's father.

_Death and Burial_.--Sickness and death are usually caused by
unfriendly spirits; [89] sometimes Kadaklan himself thus punishes
those who refuse to obey the customs; sometimes they are brought
about by mortals who practise magic, or by individuals themselves as
punishment for violated taboos; and finally violent death is recognized
as coming from human agency.

The methods of cajoling the spirits, of overcoming magic, and
thwarting evil designs are discussed in another chapter (cf. pp. 295
_et seq_.). If all these fail, and the patient dies, the family and
relatives at once don old garments, and enter on a period of mourning,
while friends and relatives assist in the disposal of the corpse.

A funeral is a great event in a Tinguian village. The dead is bathed,
"so that his spirit [90] may be clean," and is placed in a bamboo seat
at the end of the house. This seat, which is known as _sangadel_,
is constructed by placing three long bamboo poles against the wall
and resting a frame of bamboo slats on them, to a height of about
three feet. A mat is attached to the top, and is stretched onto the
floor in front.

The corpse is dressed in its best garments, beads and silver wire
surround its neck, while above and about it are many valuable blankets,
belts, clouts, woven skirts, and the like, which the spirit is to take
with him to the ancestors in Maglawa, his future home. A live chicken
is placed behind the chair as an offering, but following the funeral
it becomes the property of the friend, who removes the poles from
the house. The flesh of a small pig is also offered to the spirits,
while the intestines are hung just outside the door, until the body
is buried. In the yard at the north-east corner of the house stands an
inverted rice-mortar on which is a dish of _basi_,--an offering to the
spirit Al-lot, who in return prevents the people from becoming angry.

The needs of the spirit of the deceased are looked after by the members
of the family. It is their duty to place two small jars of liquor
near to the corpse and to bring food to it, when the others are eating.

Up to this point only those spirits who attend the ceremony with
friendly intent have been provided for, but the Tinguian realize
that there are others who must be kept at a distance or at least be
compelled to leave the body unharmed. The first of these evil beings
to be guarded against is Kadongayan, [91] who in former times used
to attend each funeral and amuse himself by sliting the mouth of the
corpse, so that it extended from ear to ear. Through the friendly
instruction of Kaboniyan it was learned that, if a live chicken, with
its mouth split down to its throat, were fastened to the door of the
house, its suffering would be noticed by the evil spirit, who, fearing
similar treatment, would not attempt to enter the dwelling. [92]

The spirit Ibwa is also much feared. [93] Long ago he used to
mingle with the people in human form, without harming them, but
the thoughtless act of a mourner started him on the evil course
he has since pursued. In those times, it is said, the corpse was
kept in the dwelling seven days; and, as the body decomposed, the
liquid which came from it was caught in dishes, and was placed in the
grave. On the occasion referred to, he was handed a cup of the "lard"
to drink. He immediately acquired a great liking for this disgusting
dish, and frequently even devoured the body as well. Since he fears
iron, it is possible to drive him away by using metal weapons. It is
also necessary to guard the grave against him and the spirit Selday,
who demands blood or the corpse.

Akop is another evil spirit, who has a head, long slimy arms and
legs, but no body. He is always near the place of death, awaiting an
opportunity to embrace the spouse of the deceased, and once let the
living feel his cold embrace, death is sure to follow. So a barricade
of pillows is erected at one corner of the room, and behind this the
wife is compelled to remain during the three days the body is kept in
the house, while throughout the night she sleeps under a fish net, in
the meshes of which the long fingers of the spirit are sure to become
entangled. Meanwhile, two or three old women sit near the corpse
fanning it and wailing continually, at the same time keeping close
watch to prevent the spirits from approaching the body or the widow
(Plate XVI). From time to time the wife may creep over to the corpse,
and wailing and caressing it beg the spirit not to depart. [94]
According to custom, she has already taken off her beads, has put
on old garments and a bark head-band, and has placed over her head
a large white blanket, which she wears until after the burial. [95]
Likewise all the relatives don old garments, and are barred from all
work. The immediate family is under still stricter rules. Corn is their
only food; they may not touch anything bloody, neither can they swing
their arms as they walk. They are prohibited from mounting a horse,
and under no circumstances are they allowed to leave the village
or join in merry-making. Failure to obey these rules is followed by
swift punishment, generally meted out by the spirit of the dead. [96]
Except for the wife, these restrictions are raised after the blood and
oil ceremony (described in a later paragraph), but the widow continues
in mourning until the Layog is celebrated, at the end of a year.

According to many informants among the older men, it was formerly
necessary, following the death of an adult, for the men to put on
white head-bands and go out on a head-hunt. Until their return it was
impossible to hold the ceremony which released the relatives from the
taboo. [97] During the first two days that the body is in the house,
the friends and relatives gather to do honor to the dead and to partake
of the food and drink, which are always freely given at such a time;
but there is neither music, singing, or dancing. [98]

On the morning of the third day, the male guests assemble in the
yard, and after drinking _basi_ they select one of their number
and proceed to beat him across the wrist or thigh, with a light rod
(Plate XVII). Two hundred blows are required, but since the stick is
split at one end only, one hundred strokes are given. This whipping is
not severe, but the repeated blows are sufficient to cause the flesh
to swell. As soon as the first man is beaten, he takes the rod and
then proceeds to apply one hundred and fifty strokes [99] to each man
present, excepting only those whose wives are pregnant. Should one
of the latter be punished, his wife would suffer a miscarriage. The
avowed purpose of this whipping is "to make all the people feel as
sorry as the relatives of the dead man."

Burial in most of the valley towns is beneath the house, "as it is
much easier to defend the body against evil spirits, and the grave
is also protected against the rain." In Manabo and many mountain
villages, however, burial is in the yard. It is customary to open a
grave already occupied by several of the relatives of the deceased.

Toward noon of the last day, some of the men begin clearing away the
bamboo, which protects the old burial, and to remove the dirt.

The grave is generally of one of the forms indicated in Fig. 3,
and when a depth of about three feet has been reached, the workers
encounter stone slabs which protect a lower chamber. [100] When
these are reached, the diggers make an opening and thrusting in
burning pine-sticks, they call to the dead within, "You must light
your pipes with these." As soon as the slabs are raised, the oldest
female relative of the deceased goes into the grave, gathers up
the bones of the last person interred, ties them into a bundle,
and reburies them in one corner. There is at present no such type
of burial chamber, as is described by _La Gironiere_, [101] nor is
there a memory or tradition of such an arrangement. As his visit took
place less than a century ago, it is unlikely that all trace of it
would have been lost. The heavy rainfall in this district would make
the construction and maintenance of such a chamber almost impossible,
while the dread of leaving the corpses thus exposed to hostile spirits
and the raids of enemies in search of heads would also argue against
such a practice. His description of the mummifying or drying of the
corpse by means of fires built around it [102] is likewise denied by
the old men of Manabo, who insist that they never had such a custom. It
certainly does not exist to-day. In a culture, in which the influence
of custom is as strong as it is here, it would seem that the care of
the corpse, which is intimately related to the condition of the spirit
in its final abode, would be one of the last things to change, while
the proceedings following a death are to-day so uniform throughout
the Tinguian belt, that they argue for a considerable antiquity.

When the grave is ready, the fact is announced in the dwelling, and is
the signal for renewed lamentation. The wife and near relatives throw
themselves on the corpse, caressing it and crying wildly. Whatever
there may have been of duty or respect in the wailing of the first two
days, this parting burst of sorrow is genuine. Tears stand in the eyes
of many, while others cease their wailing and sob convulsively. After
a time an old woman brings in some _oldot_ seeds, each strung on a
thread, and fastens one on the wrist of each person, as a protection
against the evil spirit Akop, who, having been defeated in his designs
against the widow, may seek to vent his anger on others.

When this has been done, a medium seats herself in front of the
body; and, covering her face with her hands, begins to chant and
wail, bidding the spirit to enter her body. Suddenly she falls back
in a faint, while suppressed excitement is manifested by all the
onlookers. After a moment or two, fire and water are placed at her
head and feet, "in order to frighten the spirit away," and then the
medium gives the last message of the dead man to his family. This is,
except for very rare exceptions, the only time that the spirits of the
deceased communicate with mortals; and it is, so far as the writer has
been able to learn, the only occasion when the medium repeats messages
given to her. At other times she is possessed by natural spirits,
[103] who then talk directly with mortals.

As a last preparation for the grave, a small hole is burned in each
garment worn by the dead person, for otherwise the spirit Ibwa will
envy him his clothing and attempt to steal them. The corpse is then
wrapped in a mat, and is carried from the house. [104] The bearers
go directly to the _balaua,_ [105] and rest the body in it for a
moment. Unless this is done, the spirit will be poor in its future
life and unable to build _balaua_.

The body is deposited full length in the grave, the stone slabs are
relaid, the chinks between them filled in with damp clay, and the
grave is refilled. [106] As the last earth is pushed in, a small pig
is killed, and its blood is sprinkled on the loose soil. Meanwhile
Selday is besought to respect the grave and leave it untouched. The
animal is cut up, and a small piece is given to each guest, who will
stop on the way to his home, and place the meat on the ground as an
offering, meanwhile repeating a _diam_. Should he fail to do this,
sickness or death is certain to visit his home or village.

As a further protection against evily disposed spirits, especially
Ibwa, an iron plough-point is placed over the grave, "for most evil
spirits fear iron;" and during this night and the nine succeeding,
a fire is kept burning at the grave and at the foot of the
house-ladder. [107]

That night the men spend about an hour in the house of mourning,
singing _sang-sangit_, a song in which they praise the dead man,
encourage the widow, and bespeak the welfare of the family. The wailers
still remain in the dwelling to protect the widow, and a male relative
is detailed to see that the fire at the foot of the ladder is kept
burning brightly.

Early the next morning, the widow, closely guarded by the wailers,
goes to the river, throws her headband into the water, and then goes
in herself. As she sinks in the water, an old man throws a bundle
of burning rice-straw on her. "The water will wash away some of
the sorrow, and the fire will make her thoughts clear." Upon her
return to the village, the grave is enclosed with a bamboo fence,
and above it is hung a shallow box-like frame, known as _patay_, in
which are placed the articles needed by the spirit. [108] Within the
house the mat and pillow of the dead are laid ready for use, and at
meal time food is placed beside it. The length of time that the mat
is left spread out differs somewhat between towns and families. In
some cases it is taken up at the end of the period of taboo, while in
others it is not rolled up; nor are the windows of the house opened
until after the celebration of the _Layog_ ceremony, a year later.

The taboo is usually strictly observed through ten days; but should
there be some urgent reason, such as planting or reaping, it may
be raised somewhat earlier. It is concluded by the blood and oil
ceremony. The _lakay_, the other old men of the settlement, and all
the relatives, gather in the house of mourning, while the mediums
prepare for the ceremony. They kill a small pig and collect its blood
in a dish; in another receptacle they place oil. A brush has been
made out of a variety of leaves, and this the medium dips into the
blood and oil, then draws it over the wrists or ankles of each person
present, meanwhile saying, "Let the _lew-lew_ (_Fiscus hauili_ Blanco)
leaves take the sickness and death to another town; let the _kawayan_
("bamboo") make them grow fast and be strong as it is, and have many
branches; let the _atilwag_ (_Breynia acuminata_ Nuell. Arg.) turn
the sickness to other towns." A little oil is rubbed on the head
of each person present; and all, except the widow, are then freed
from restrictions. She must still refrain from wearing her beads,
ornaments, or good clothing; and she is barred from taking part in
any merry-making until after the _Layog_ ceremony. [109]

At the conclusion of the anointing, the old men discuss the disposal
of the property and other matters of importance in connection with
the death.

_The Layog_. [110]--Several months after the burial (generally after
the lapse of a year), the friends and relatives are summoned in the
_Layog_,--a ceremony held with the avowed intention "to show respect
for the dead and to cause the family to forget their sorrow." Friends
come from near and far; and rice, pigs, cows or carabaos are prepared
for food, while _basi_ flows freely. It is said that the liquor
served at this time is "like tears for the dead." A medium goes to
the guardian stones of the village, and there offers rice mixed with
blood; she oils the stones, places new yellow headbands on each one,
and after dancing _tadek_, returns to the gathering. Often she is
accompanied by a number of men, who shout on their return trip "to
frighten away evil spirits."

Near the house a chair is made ready for the deceased, and in it are
placed clothing and food. In the yard four crossed spears form the
frame-work on which a shield rests (Plate XVIII) [111] and on this
are beads, food, and garments--offerings for the spirits; while near
the house ladder is the spirits' table made of inverted rice mortars.

The duration of this ceremony depends largely on the wealth of the
family, for the relatives must furnish everything needed at this
time. Games are played, and there is much drinking and singing; but
before the members of the family may take part, they are dressed in
good garments, and the blood and oil ceremony is repeated on them. At
the conclusion of the dancing, they go into the house, roll up the mat
used by the dead, open the doors and windows, and all are again free
to do as they wish. Should they fail to roll up the mat at this time,
it must remain until another _Layog_ is held; and during the interval
all the former restrictions are in force. [112]

About twenty years ago, a great number of people in Patok died
of cholera; and since then the people of that village have held a
_Layog_ in their honor each November, to the expense of which all
contribute. As this is just before the rice-harvest, a time when all
the people wear their best garments, it is customary for the old men
to allow bereaved families to participate in this ceremony and then
release them from mourning.

_Beliefs Concerning the Spirit of the Dead_.--Direct questioning brings
out some differences of opinion, in the various districts, concerning
the spirit of the dead. In Manabo, a town influenced both by the
Igorot of the Upit River valley and the Christianized Ilocano of San
Jose, the spirit is said to go at once to the great spirit Kadaklan,
and then to continue on "to the town where it lives." "It is like a
person, but is so light that it can be carried along by the wind when
it blows." [113] The people of Ba-ay, a mountain village partially
made up of immigrants from the eastern side of the Cordillera Central,
claim that the spirits of the dead go to a mountain called Singet,
where they have a great town. Here, it is also stated, the good are
rewarded with fine houses, while the bad have to be content with
hovels. The general belief, however, is that the spirit (_kalading_)
has a body like that of the living person, but is usually invisible,
although spirits have appeared, and have even sought to injure living
beings. Immediately following death, the spirit stays near to its
old home, ready to take vengeance on any relative, who fails to show
his body proper respect. After the blood and oil ceremony, he goes to
his future home, Maglawa, carrying with him gifts for the ancestors,
which the people have placed about his corpse. In Maglawa he finds
conditions much the same as on earth; people are rich and poor;
they need houses; they plant and reap; and they conduct ceremonies
for the superior beings, just as they had done during their life
on earth. Beyond this, the people do not pretend to be posted, "for
Kaboniyan did not tell." With the exception of the people of Ba-ay
and a few individuals influenced by Christianity, the Tinguian has no
idea of reward or punishment in the future life, but he does believe
that the position of the spirit in its new home can be affected by the
acts of the living (cf. p. 289). No trace of a belief in re-incarnation
was found in any district inhabited by this tribe.

_Life and Death_.--The foregoing details concerning birth, childhood,
sickness, and death, seem to give us an insight into the Tinguian
conception of life and death. For him life and death do not
appear to be but incidents in an endless cycle of birth, death,
and re-incarnation ad infinitum, such as pictured by _Levy-Bruhl_;
[114] yet, in many instances, his acts and beliefs fit in closely
with the theory outlined by that author. In this society, there is
only a weak line of demarcation between the living and the dead, and
the dead for a time at least participate more or less in the life of
the living. This is equally true of the unborn child, whose future
condition, physical and mental, may be largely moulded by the acts of
others. According to _Levy-Bruhl_, this would indicate that the child
at delivery is not fully born, is not as yet a member of the group;
and the succeeding ceremonies are necessary to its full participation
in life. Death is likewise of long duration. Following the last breath,
the spirit remains near by until the magic power of the funeral severs,
to an extent, his participation with society. The purpose of the final
ceremony is to complete the rupture between the living and the dead.

To the writer, the facts of Tinguian life and beliefs suggest a
somewhat different explanation. We have seen how strong individuals
may be affected by magical practices. The close connection between an
individual, his garments, or even his name, must be considered to apply
with quite as much force to the helpless infant and the afterbirth. So
strong is this bond, that even unintentional acts may injure the
babe. Evil spirits are always near; and, unless great precautions are
taken, they will injure adults if they can get them at a disadvantage,
particularly when they are asleep. The child is not able to protect
itself from these beings; therefore the adults perform such acts, as
they think will secure the good will and help of friendly spirits,
while they bribe or buy up those who might otherwise be hostile;
and lastly they make use of such magical objects and ceremonies,
as will compel the evil spirits to leave the infant alone. As the
child grows in size and strength, he is less in need of protection;
and at an early age he is treated like the other younger members of
the community. Naming follows almost immediately after birth, while
puberty and initiation ceremonies are entirely lacking. Apparently
then, a child is considered as being fully alive at birth, and at no
time does he undergo any rites or ceremonies which make him more a
part of the community than he was on the first day he saw the light.

When death occurs, the spirit remains near to the corpse until after
the funeral, and even then is close by until the ten days of taboo are
over. He still finds need of nourishment, and hence food is placed
near to his mat. As at birth, he is not in a position to protect
his body from the designs of evil spirits, and if his relatives
fail to give the corpse proper care, it is certain to be mutilated;
likewise certain acts of the living towards the corpse can affect the
position of the spirit in Maglawa. Hence it is of supreme importance
that the former owner guards against any possible neglect or injury
to the body, and it seems plausible that the presence of the spirit
near its old haunts may be for the purpose of seeing that its body
is carefully attended to. The folktales tell of several instances,
in which the spirits took vengeance on relatives who neglected their
bodies, or violated the period of taboo. [115]

When the danger period is past, the spirit at once leaves its old home,
and returns again only at the time of the _Layog_. From that time on,
he continues his existence in the upper world, neither troubling,
nor being troubled by mortals on earth. [116] Ancestor worship does
not occur here, nor are offerings made to the dead, other than those
described above.



CHAPTER IV

RELIGION AND MAGIC

The Tinguian has been taught by his elders that he is surrounded by
a great body of spirits, some good, some malevolent. The folk-tales
handed down from ancient times add their authority to the teachings of
older generations, while the individual himself has seen the bodies
of the mediums possessed by the superior beings; he has communicated
with them direct, has seen them cure the sick and predict coming
events. At many a funeral, he has seen the medium squat before the
corpse, chanting a weird song, and then suddenly become possessed by
the spirit of the deceased; and, finally, he or some of his friends
or townspeople are confident that they have seen and talked to ghosts
of the recently departed. All these beings are real to him; he is so
certain of their existence that he seldom speculates about them or
their acts.

Some of these spirits are always near; and a part of them, at least,
take more than an ordinary interest in human affairs. Thanks to the
teachings of the elders, the Tinguian knows how to propitiate them;
and, if necessary, he may even compel friendly action on the part
of many. Toward the less powerful of the evily disposed beings, he
shows indifference or insolence; he may make fun of, or lie to, and
cheat them during the day, but he is careful to guard himself at night
against their machinations. To the more powerful he shows the utmost
respect; he offers them gifts of food, drink, and material objects;
and conducts ceremonies in the manner demanded by them. Having done
these things, he feels that he is a party to a bargain; and the spirits
must, on their part, repay by granting the benefits desired. Not
entirely content with these precautions, he performs certain magical
acts which prevent evil spirits from doing harm to an individual
or a community, and by the same means he is able to control storms,
the rise of streams, and the growth of crops. It is doubtful if the
Tinguian has ever speculated in regard to this magical force, yet he
clearly separates it from the power resident in the spirit world. It
appears to be a great undifferentiated force to which spirits, nature,
and men are subject alike.

If a troublesome question arises, or an evident inconsistency in
his beliefs is called to his attention, he disposes of it by the
simple statement that it is _kadauyan_ ("custom"), "was taught by
the ancestors," and hence is not subject to question.

His religion holds forth no threat of punishment in a future world,
neither are there rewards in that existence to urge men to better
deeds. The chief teaching is that the customs of ancient times must be
faithfully followed; to change is to show disrespect for the dead, for
the spirits who are responsible for the customs, which are synonymous
with law.

Custom and religion have become so closely interwoven in this society
that it is well-nigh impossible to separate them. The building of a
house, the planting, harvesting and care of the rice, the procedure at
a birth, wedding, or funeral, in short, all the events of the social
and economic life, are so governed by custom and religious beliefs,
that it is safe to say that nearly every act in the life of the
Tinguian is directed or affected by these forces.

Two classes of spirits are recognized; first, those who have existed
through all time, whom we shall call natural spirits; second, the
spirits of deceased mortals. The latter reside forever in Maglawa,
a place midway between earth and sky; but a small number of them have
joined the company of the natural spirits. Except for these few, they
are not worshiped, and no offerings are made to them, after the period
of mourning is past. The members of the first class cover a wide range,
from Kadaklan, the great spirit who resides above, to Kaboniyan,
the teacher and helper, to those resident in the guardian stones,
to the half human, half bird-like _alan_, to the low, mean spirits
who delight to annoy mortals. These beings are usually invisible,
but at times of ceremonies they enter the bodies of the mediums,
possess them, and thus communicate with the people. On rare occasions
they are visible in their own forms, as when Kaboniyan appeared as
the antagonist and later as the friend of Sayen. [117]

These beings are addressed, first through certain semi-magical
formulas, know as _diams_. These are seldom prayers or supplications,
but are a part of a definite ritual, the whole of which is expected
to gain definite favors.

At the beginning, and during the course of all ceremonies, animals are
killed. A part of the flesh and the blood is mixed with rice, and is
offered to the spirits; but the bulk of the offering is eaten by the
participants. Liquor is consumed in great quantities at such a time,
but a small amount is always poured out for the use of the superior
beings. Finally, the mediums summon the spirits into their bodies;
and, when possessed, they are no longer considered as persons,
but are the spirits themselves. The beings who appear in this way
talk directly with the people; they offer advice, give information
concerning affairs in the spirit world, and oftentimes they mingle
with the people on equal terms, joining in their dances and taking
a lively interest in their daily affairs.

The people seldom pray to or supplicate the invisible spirits; but when
they are present in the bodies of the mediums, they make requests, and
ask advice, as they would from any friend or acquaintance. With many,
the Tinguian is on amicable terms, while toward Kaboniyan he exhibits
a degree of respect and gratitude which is close to affection. He
realizes that there are many unfriendly spirits, but he has means of
controlling or thwarting their evil designs; and hence he does not
live in that state of perpetual fear which is so often pictured as
the condition of the savage.

_The Spirits_.--A great host of unnamed spirits are known to exist;
they often attend the ceremonies and sometimes enter the bodies of
the mediums, and in this way new figures appear from time to time. In
addition to these, there are certain superior beings who are well
known, and who, as already indicated, exercise a potent influence on
the daily life of the people. The following list will serve to give
some idea of these spirits and their attributes; while the names
of the less important will be found in connection with the detailed
description of the ceremonies.

Kadaklan ("the greatest"), a powerful male spirit, who lives in the
sky, created the earth, sun, moon, and stars. The stars are only
stones, but the sun and moon are lights. At times Kadaklan enters
the body of a favored medium, and talks directly with the people;
but more frequently he takes other means of communication. Oftentimes
he sends his dog Kimat, the lightening, to bite a tree or strike a
field or house, and in this way makes known his wish that the owner
celebrate the _Padiam_ ceremony (cf. p. 401). All other beings are
in a measure subservient to him, and his wishes are frequently made
known through them. Thunder is his drum with which he amuses himself
during stormy weather, but sometimes he plays on it even on clear days.

Agemem is the wife of Kadaklan. She lives in the ground. Little is
known of her except that she has given birth to two sons, [118] whose
chief duty is to see that the commands of their father are obeyed.

Adam and Baliyen are the sons of Kadaklan. The name of the first boy
is suggestive of Christian influence, but there are no traditions or
further details to link him with the Biblical character.

Kaboniyan is the friend and helper of the people, and by many is
classed above or identified with Kadaklan. At times he lives in the
sky; again in a great cave near Patok. [119] From this cave came the
jars which could talk and move, here were found the copper gongs used
in the dances, and here too grew the wonderful tree which bore the
agate beads so prized by the women. This spirit gave the Tinguian
rice and sugar-cane, taught them how to plant and reap, how to foil
the designs of ill-disposed spirits, the words of the _diams_ and the
details of many ceremonies. Further to bind himself to the people,
it is said, he married "in the first times" a woman from Manabo. He
is summoned in nearly every ceremony, and there are several accounts
of his having appeared in his own form. According to one of these,
he is of immense proportions; his spear is as large as a tree, and
his head-axe the size of the end of the house. [120]

Apdel is the spirit who resides in the guardian stones (_pinaing_)
at the gate of the town. During a ceremony, or when the men are away
for a fight, it becomes his special duty to protect the village from
sickness and enemies. He has been known to appear as a red rooster
or as a white dog.

Idadaya, who lives in the east (_daya_), is a powerful spirit who
attends the _Pala-an_ ceremony. He rides a horse, which he ties to
the little structure built during the rite. Ten grand-children reside
with him, and they all wear in their hair the _igam_ (notched feathers
attached to a stick). When these feathers lose their lustre, they can
only be restored by the celebration of _Pala-an_(cf. p. 328). Hence the
owners cause some mortal, who has the right to conduct the ceremony,
to become ill, and then inform him through the mediums as to the cause
of his affliction. The names of the grand-children are as follows:
Pensipenondosan, Logosen, Bakoden, Bing-gasan, Bakdangan, Giligen,
Idomalo, Agkabkabayo, Ebloyan, and Agtabtabokal.

Kaiba-an is the spirit who lives in the little house or _saloko_
in the rice-fields, and who protects the growing crops. Offerings
are made to him, when a new field is constructed, when the rice is
transplanted, and at harvest time. "The ground which grows" (that is
the nest of the white ant) is said to be made by him.

Makaboteng, also called Sanadan, is the guardian of the deer and wild
hogs. His good will is necessary if the dogs are to be successful in
the chase; consequently he is summoned to many ceremonies, where he
receives the most courteous treatment. In one ceremony he declared,
"I can become the sunset sky."

Sabian or Isabian is the guardian of the dogs.

Bisangolan ("the place of opening or tearing") is a gigantic spirit,
who lives near the river, and who in time of floods uses his head-axe
and walking-stick to keep the logs and refuse from jamming. "He is
very old, like the world, and he pulls out his beard with his finger
nails and his knife. His seat is a wooden plate." He appears in the
_Dawak_, _Tangpap_, and _Sayang_ ceremonies, holding a rooster and a
bundle of rice. In Ba-ak he is called Ibalinsogoan, and is the first
spirit summoned in _Dawak_.

Kakalonan, also known as Boboyonan, is the one who makes friends, and
who learns the source of troubles. When summoned at the beginning of
a ceremony, he tells what needs to be done, in order to insure the
results desired.

Sasagangen, sometimes called Ingalit, are spirits whose business
it is to take heads and put them on the _saga_ or in the _saloko_
(cf. p. 310). Headache is caused by them.

Abat are numerous spirits who cause sore feet and headache. _Salono_
and _bawi_ are built for them (cf. pp. 309-310). The spirits of Ibal,
who live in Daem, are responsible for most sickness among children,
but they are easily appeased with blood and rice. The Ibal ceremony
is held for them.

Maganawan, who lives in Nagbotobotan ("the place near which the rivers
empty into the hole, where all streams go") is one of the spirits,
called in the _Sangasang_ ceremony, and for whom the blood of the
rooster mixed with rice is put into the _saloko_, which stands in
the yard.

Inawen is a pregnant female spirit, who lives in the sea, and
who demands the blood of a chicken mixed with rice to satisfy her
capricious appetite. She also attends the _Sangasang_.

Kideng is a tall, fat spirit with nine heads. He is the servant of
Inawen, and carries the gifts of mortals to his mistress.

Ibwa is an evil spirit, who once mingled with the people in human
form. Due to the thoughtless act of a mourner at a funeral, he became
so addicted to the taste of human flesh, that it has since then been
necessary to protect the corpse from him. He fears iron, and hence
a piece of that metal is always laid on the grave. Holes are burned
in each garment placed on the body to keep him from stealing them.

Akop is likewise evil. He has a head, long slimy arms and legs, but no
body. He always frequents the place of death, and seeks to embrace the
spouse of the deceased. Should he succeed, death follows quickly. To
defeat his plans, the widow is closely guarded by the wailers; she
also sleeps under a fish net as an additional protection against his
long fingers, and she wears seeds which are disliked by this being.

Kadongayan indulges in the malicious sport of slitting the mouth of
the corpse back to the ears. In order to frighten him away, a live
chicken, with its mouth split to its throat, is placed by the door,
during the time the body is in the house. When he sees the sufferings
of the bird, he fears to enter the dwelling lest the people treat
him in the same manner.

Selday is an ill-disposed being. He causes people to have sore feet,
and only relieves them, when offerings are made to him in the _saloko_
or _bawi_. He lives in the wooded hill, but quickly learns of a
death, and appears at the open grave. Unless he is bought off with an
offering, the blood of a small pig, he is almost certain to make away
with the body, or cause a great sickness to visit the village. As
the mourners return home, after the burial, they place bits of the
slaughtered animal by the trail, so that he will not make them ill.

Bayon is a male spirit, who dwells in the sky, and who comes to
earth as a fresh breeze. He once stole a girl from Layogan, changed
her two breasts into one, placed this in the center of her chest,
and married her.

Lokadaya is the human wife of Bayon. She now appears to have joined
the company of the natural spirits and to be immortal. At times,
both she and her husband enter the bodies of the mediums.

Agonan is the spirit who knows many dialects. He lives in Dingolowan.

Gilen attends many ceremonies, and occupies an important place in
_Tangpap_; yet little is known of him.

Inginlaod are spirits who live in the west.

Ginobayan is a female spirit, always present in the _Tangpap_ ceremony.

Sangalo is a spirit who gives good and bad signs.

Dapeg, Balingen-ngen, Benisalsal, and Kikiba-an, are all disturbers
and mischief-makers. They cause illness, sore feet, headache, and bad
dreams. They are important only because of the frequency with which
they appear.

Al-lot attends festivals and prevents quarrels.

Liblibayan, Banbanayo, and Banbantay, are lesser spirits, who formerly
aided "the people of the first times."

The term "Alan" comprises a large body of spirits with half human,
half bird-like forms. They have wings and can fly; their toes are
at the back of their feet, and their fingers attach to the wrists
and point backward. Often they hang from the branches of trees,
like bats, but they are also pictured as having fine houses and great
riches. They are sometimes hostile or mischievous, but more frequently
are friendly. They play a very important part in the mythology,
but not in the cult. [121]

Komau is a giant spirit, who, according to tradition, was killed
by the hero Sayen. Among the Ilocano and some of the Tinguian, the
Komau is known as a great invisible bird, which steals people and
their possessions. He does not visit the people through the bodies
of the mediums.

Anito is a general term used to designate members of the spirit world.

A survey of the foregoing list brings out a noticeable lack of
nature-spirits; of trees, rocks, and natural formations considered as
animate; and of guardian spirits of families and industries. There is
a strong suggestion, however, in the folk-tales to the effect that
this has not always been the case; and even to-day there are some
conflicts regarding the status of certain spirits. In the village of
Manabo, thunder is known as Kidol; in Likuan and Bakaok, as Kido-ol;
and in each place he is recognized as a powerful spirit. In Ba-ay,
two types of lightning are known to be spirits. The flash from the sky
is Salit, that "from the ground" is Kilawit. Here thunder is Kadaklan,
but the sun is the all powerful being. He is male, and is "so powerful
that he does not need or desire ceremonies or houses." The moon is
likewise a powerful spirit, but female.

In the discussion of the tales [122] it was suggested that these and
other ideas, which differ from those held by the majority of the tribe,
may represent older conceptions, which have been swamped, or may have
been introduced into Abra by emigrants from the north and east.

_The Mediums_.--The superior beings talk with mortals through the aid
of mediums, known individually and collectively as _alopogan_ ("she who
covers her face"). [123] These are generally women past middle life,
though men are not barred from the profession, who, when chosen, are
made aware of the fact by having trembling fits when they are not cold,
by warnings in dreams, or by being informed by other mediums that they
are desired by the spirits. A woman may live the greater part of her
life without any idea of becoming a medium, and then because of such a
notification will undertake to qualify. She goes to one already versed,
and from her learns the details of the various ceremonies, the gifts
suitable for each spirit, and the chants or _diams_ which must be used
at certain times. This is a considerable task, for the _diams_ must be
learned word for word; and, likewise, each ceremony must be conducted,
just as it was taught by the spirits to the "people of the first
times." The training occupies several months; and when all is ready,
the candidate secures her _piling_. This is a collection of large
sea-shells attached to cords, which is kept in a small basket together
with a Chinese plate and a hundred fathoms of thread (Plate XIX). New
shells may be used, but it is preferable to secure, if possible, the
_piling_ of a dead medium. Being thus supplied, the novice seeks the
approval of the spirits and acceptance as a medium. The wishes of the
higher beings are learned by means of a ceremony, in the course of
which a pig is killed, and its blood mixed with rice is scattered
on the ground. The liver of the animal is eagerly examined; for,
if certain marks appear on it, the candidate is rejected, or must
continue her period of probation for several months, before another
trial can be made. During this time she may aid in ceremonies, but
she is not possessed by the spirits. When finally accepted, she may
begin to summon the spirits into her body. She places offerings on a
mat, seats herself in front of them, and calls the attention of the
spirits by striking her _piling_, or a bit of lead, against a plate;
then covering her face with her hands, she begins to chant. Suddenly
she is possessed; and then, no longer as a human, but as the spirit
itself, she talks with the people, asking and answering questions,
or giving directions, as to what shall be done to avert sickness and
trouble, or to bring good fortune.

Certain mediums are visited only by low, mean spirits; others, by both
good and bad; while still others may be possessed even by Kadaklan, the
greatest of all. It is customary for the spirit of a deceased mortal to
enter the body of a medium, just before the corpse is to be buried, to
give messages to the family; but he seldom comes again in this manner.

The pay of a medium is small, usually a portion of a sacrificed
animal, a few bundles of rice, and some beads; but this payment is
more than offset by the restrictions placed on her. At no time may
she eat of carabao, wild pig, wild chicken, or shrimp; nor may she
touch peppers--all prized articles of food.

The inducements for a person to enter this vocation are so few that a
candidate begins her training with reluctance; but, once accepted by
the spirits, the medium yields herself fully and sincerely to their
wishes. When possessed by a spirit, her own personality is submerged,
and she does many things of which she is apparently ignorant, when
she emerges from the spell. Oftentimes, as she squats by the mat,
summoning the spirits, her eyes take on a far-away stare; the veins
of her face and neck stand out prominently, while the muscles of
her arms and legs are tense; then, as she is possessed, she assumes
the character and habits of the superior being. If it is a spirit
supposed to dwell in Igorot or Kalinga land, she speaks in a dialect
unfamiliar to her hearers, orders them to dance in Igorot fashion,
and then instructs them in dances, which she or her townspeople could
never have seen. [124] At times she carries on sleight-of-hand tricks,
as when she places beads in a dish of oil, and dances with it high
above her head, until the beads vanish. A day or two later she will
recover them from the hair of some participant in the ceremony. Most
of her acts are in accordance with a set procedure; yet at times she
goes further, and does things which seem quite inexplainable.

One evening, in the village of Manabo, we were attending a
ceremony. Spirit after spirit had appeared, and at their order dances
and other acts had taken place. About ten o'clock a brilliant flash
of lightning occurred, although it was not a stormy evening. The body
of the medium was at that time possessed by Amangau, a head-hunting
spirit. He at once stopped his dance, and announced that he had
just taken the head of a boy from Luluno, and that the people of
his village were even then dancing about the skull. Earlier in the
evening we had noticed this lad (evidently a consumptive) among
the spectators. When the spirit made this claim, we looked for him,
but he had vanished. A little later we learned that he had died of
a hemorrhage at about the time of the flash.

Such occurrences make a deep impression on the mind of the people,
and strengthen their belief in the spirit world; but, so far as could
be observed, the prestige of the medium was in nowise enhanced.

Since most of the ceremonies are held to keep the family or individual
in good health, the medium takes the place of a physician. She often
makes use of simple herbs and medicinal plants, but always with the
idea that the treatment is distasteful to the being, who has caused
the trouble, and not with any idea of its curative properties. Since
magic and religion are practically the same in this society, the
medium is the one who usually conducts or orders the magic rites;
and for the same reason she, better than all others, can read the
signs and omens sent by members of the spirit world.

_Magic and Omens_.--The folk-tales are filled with accounts of magical
acts, performed by "the people of the first times." They annihilated
time and space, commanded inanimate objects to do their will, created
human beings from pieces of betel-nut, and caused the magical increase
of food and drink. Those days have passed, yet magical acts still
pervade all the ceremonies; nature is overcome, while the power to
work evil by other than human means is a recognized fact of daily
life. In the detailed accounts of the ceremonies will be found many
examples of these magical acts, but the few here mentioned will give
a good idea of all.

In one ceremony, a blanket is placed over the family, and on their
heads a coconut is cut in two, and the halves are allowed to fall;
for, "as they drop to the ground, so does sickness and evil fall away
from the people." A bound pig is placed in the center of the floor,
and water is poured into its ear that, "as it shakes out the water,
so may evil spirits and sickness be thrown out of the place." At one
point in the _Tangpap_ ceremony, a boy takes the sacrificial blood
and rice from a large dish, and puts it in a number of smaller ones,
then returns it again to the first; for, "when the spirits make a
man sick, they take a part of his life. When they make him well, they
put it back, just as the boy takes away a part of the food, gives it
to the spirits, and then replaces it," The same idea appears in the
dance which follows. The boy and the medium take hold of a winnower,
raise it in the air, and dance half way around a rice-mortar; then
return, as they came, and replace it, "just as the spirits took away
a part of the patient's life, but now will put it back."

The whole life of a child can be determined, or at least largely
influenced, by the treatment given the afterbirth, while the use
of bamboo and other prolific plants, at this time and at a wedding,
promote growth and fertility.

A piece of charcoal attached to a certain type of notched stick is
placed in the rice-seed beds, and thus the new leaves are compelled
to turn the dark green color of sturdy plants.

If a river is overflowing its banks, it can be controlled by cutting
off a pig's head and throwing it into the waters. An even more certain
method is to have a woman, who was born on the other side of the river,
take her weaving baton and plant it on the bank. The water will not
rise past this barrier.

Blackening of the teeth is a semi-magical procedure. A mixture of
tan-bark and iron salts is twice applied to the teeth, and is allowed
to remain several hours; but, in order to obtain the desired result,
it is necessary to use the mixture after nightfall and to remove it,
before the cocks begin to crow, in the morning. If the fowls are heard,
while the teeth are being treated, they will remain white; likewise
they will refuse to take the color, should their owner approach a
corpse or grave.

On well-travelled trails one often sees, at the tops of high hills,
piles of stones, which have been built up during many years. As he
ascends a steep slope, each traveller picks up a small stone, and
carries it to the top, where he places it on the pile. As he does so,
he leaves his weariness behind him, and continues his journey fresh
and strong.

The use of love-charms is widespread: certain roots and leaves, when
oiled or dampened with saliva, give forth a pleasant odor, which
compels the affection of a woman, even in spite of her wishes. [125]

Evil magic, known as _gamot_ ("poison") is also extensively used. A
little dust taken from the footprint of a foe, a bit of clothing,
or an article recently handled by him, is placed in a dish of water,
and is stirred violently. Soon the victim begins to feel the effect
of this treatment, and within a few hours becomes insane. To make him
lame, it is only necessary to place poison on articles recently touched
by his feet. Death or impotency can be produced by placing poison on
his garments. A fly is named after a person, and is placed in a bamboo
tube. This is set near the fire, and in a short time the victim of the
plot is seized with fever. Likewise magical chants and dances, carried
on beneath a house, may bring death to all the people of the dwelling.

A combination of true poisoning and magical practice is also found. To
cause consumption or some wasting disease, a snake is killed, and
its head cut off; then the body is hung up, and the liquor coming
from the decomposing flesh is caught in a shell cup. This fluid
is introduced into the victim's food, or some of his belongings are
treated with it. If the subject dies, his relatives may get revenge on
the poisoner. This is accomplished by taking out the heart of a pig
and inserting it in the mouth or stomach of the victim. This must be
done under the cover of darkness, and the corpse be buried at once. A
high bamboo fence is then built around the grave, so that no one can
reach it. The person responsible for the death will fall ill at once,
and will die unless he is able to secure one of the victim's garments
or dirt from the grave.

The actual introduction of poison in food and drink is thought to be
very common. The writer attended one ceremony following which a large
number of the guests fell sick. The illness was ascribed to magic
poisoning, yet it was evident that the cause was over-indulgence in
fresh pork by people, who for months had eaten little if any meat.

_Omens_.--The ability to foretell future events by the flight or calls
of birds, actions of animals, by the condition of the liver and gall
of sacrificed pigs, or by the movements of certain articles under
the questioning of a medium, is an undoubted fact in this society.

A small bird known as _labeg_, is the messenger of the spirits,
who control the _Bakid_ and _Sangasang_ ceremonies. When this bird
enters the house, it is caught at once, its feathers are oiled; beads
are attached to its feet, and it is released with the promise that
the ceremony will be celebrated at once. This bird accompanies the
warriors, and warns or encourages them with its calls. If it flies
across their path from right to left, all is well; but if it comes
from the left, they must return home, or trouble will befall the party.

The spirits of _Sangasang_ make use of other birds and animals to
warn the builders of a house, if the location selected does not please
them. All the Tinguian know that the arrival of snakes, big lizards,
deer, or wild hogs at the site of a new house is a bad sign.

If a party or an individual is starting on a journey, and the
kingfisher _(salaksak)_ flies from in front toward the place just
left, it is a command to return at once; else illness in the village
or family will compel a later return. [126] Should the _koling_ cry
_awit, awit_ ("to carry, to carry"), an immediate return is necessary,
or a member of the party will die, and will be carried home. When a
snake crawls across the trail, and goes into a hole, it is a certain
warning that, unless the trip is given up, some of the party will die,
and be buried in the ground.

The falling of a tree across the trail, when the groom is on his
way to the home of his bride, threatens death for the couple, while
the breaking or falling of an object during the marriage ceremony
presages misfortune.

Not all the signs are evil; for, if a man is starting to hunt,
or trade, and he sees a hawk fly in front of him and catch a bird
or chicken, he may on that day secure all the game he can carry,
or can trade on his own terms.

All the foregoing are important, but the most constantly employed
method of foretelling the future is to examine the gall and liver
of slain pigs. These animals are killed in all great ceremonies,
at the conclusion of a medium's probation period, at birth, death,
and funeral observances, and for other important events. If a
head-hunt is to be attempted, the gall sack is removed, and is
carefully examined, for if it is large and full, and the liquor in
it is bitter, the enemy will be powerless; but if the sack is small,
and only partially filled with a weak liquor, it will fare ill with
the warriors who go into battle. For all other events, the liver
itself gives the signs. When it is full and smooth, the omens are
favorable; but if it is pitted, has black specks on it, is wrinkled,
or has cross lines on it, the spirits are ill-disposed, and the
project should be delayed. If, however, the matter is very urgent,
another pig or a fowl may be offered in the hope that the attitude
of the spirits may be changed. If the liver of the new sacrifice is
good, the ceremony or raid may continue. The blood of these animals
is always mixed with rice, and is scattered about for the superior
beings, but the flesh is cooked, and is consumed by the mortals. [127]

To recover stolen and misplaced articles or animals, one of three
methods is employed. The first is to attach a cord to a jar-cover or
the shells used by a medium. This is suspended so that it hangs freely,
and questions are put to it. If the answer is "yes," it will swing to
and fro. The second method is to place a bamboo stick horizontally on
the ground and then to stand an egg on it. As the question is asked,
the egg is released. If it falls, the answer is in the negative;
if it stands, it replies "yes." The third and more common way is to
place a head-axe on the ground, then to blow on the end of a spear
and put it point down on the blade of the axe. If it balances, the
answer is "yes."

_Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia_.--As has been indicated,
the Tinguian holds many ceremonies in honor of the superior beings;
and, in connection with these, builds numerous small structures,
and employs various paraphernalia, most of which bear definite names,
and have well established uses. Since a knowledge of these structures
and devices is necessary to a full understanding of the ceremonies,
an alphabetical list is here furnished, before proceeding to the
detailed discussion of the rites.

_Alalot_: Two arches of bamboo, which support a grass roof. A small jar
of _basi_ stands in this structure for the use of visiting spirits. Is
generally constructed during the _Sayang_ ceremony, but in Bakaok
it is built alone to cure sickness or to change a bad disposition
(Plate XX, No. 4).

_Aligang_: A four-pronged fork of a branch in which a jar of _basi_
and other offerings are placed for the Igorot spirits of Talegteg
(Salegseg). It is placed at the corner of the house during _Sayang_.

_Ansisilit_: The framework placed beside the guardian stones on the
sixteenth morning of _Sayang_. It closely resembles the _Inapapayag_.

_Balabago_ (known in Manabo as Talagan): A long bamboo bench with a
roofing of betel leaves. It is intended as a seat for guests, both
spirit and human, during important ceremonies.

_Balag_: A seat of wood or bamboo, placed close to the house-ladder
during the _Sayang_ ceremony. Above and beside it are _alangtin_
leaves, branches of the _lanoti_ tree, sugar-cane, and a leafy branch
of bamboo. Here also are found a net equipped with lead sinkers, a
top-shaped device, and short sections of bamboo filled with liquor. In
some towns this is the seat of the honored guest, who dips _basi_
for the dancers. In San Juan this seat is called _Patogau_.

_Balaua_: This, the largest and most important of the spirit
structures, is built during the _Sayang_ ceremony. The roofing is
of plaited bamboo, covered with cogon grass. This is supported by
eight uprights, which likewise furnish attachment for the bamboo
flooring. There are no sides to the building, but it is so sturdily
constructed that it lasts through several seasons. Except for the
times of ceremony, it is used as a lounging place for the men, or
as a loom-room by the women. Quite commonly poles are run lengthwise
of the structure, at the lower level of the roof; and this "attic,"
as well as the space beneath the floor, is used for the storage of
farming implements, bundles of rattan and thatching (Plate XXI).

_Balitang_: A large seat like the _Balabago_, but with a grass
roofing. It is used as a seat for visitors during great ceremonies
and festivals. This name is applied, in Manabo, to a little house,
built among the bananas for the spirit Imalbi.

_Bani-it_ or _Bunot_: Consists of a coconut husk suspended from a
pole. The feathers of a rooster are stuck into the sides. It is made
as a cure for sick-headache, also for lameness.

_Bangbangsal_: Four long bamboo poles are set in the ground, and are
roofed over to make a shelter for the spirits of Sayaw, who come in
the _Tangpap_ ceremony.

_Batog_: An unhusked coconut, resting on three bamboo sticks, goes
by this name. It always appears in the _Sayang_ ceremony, close to
the _Balag_, but its use and meaning are not clear.

_Bawi_, also called _Babawi, Abarong_, and _Sinaba-an_: A name applied
to any one of the small houses, built in the fields or gardens as
a home for the spirits Kaiba-an, Abat, Selday, and some others of
lesser importance (Plate XXII).

_Idasan_: A seat or bench which stands near the house-ladder during
the _Sayang_. A roof of cogon grass protects ten bundles of unthreshed
rice, which lie on it. This rice is later used as seed. In the San Juan
district, the place of the Idasan seems to be taken by        three
bamboo poles, placed in tripod fashion, so as to support a basket of
rice. This is known as _Pinalasang_.

_Inapapayag_: Two-forked saplings or four reeds are arranged so as to
support a shield or a cloth "roof" (Plate XVIII). During _Sayang_ and
some other ceremonies, it stands in the yard, or near to the town gate;
and on it food and drink are placed for visiting spirits. During the
celebration of _Layog_ (cf. p. 290), it is built near to the dancing
space, and contains offerings for the spirit of the dead. A spear
with a colored clout is stuck into the ground close by; and usually
an inverted rice mortar also stands here, and supports a dish of
_basi_. In the mountain village of Likuan it is built alone as a cure
for sickness. A pig is killed and the mediums summon the spirits as
in _Dawak_ (cf. p. 316).

_Kalang_: A wooden box, the sides of which are cut to resemble the
head and horns of a carabao. The spirits are not thought to reside
here, but do come to partake of the food and drink placed in it. It is
attached to the roof of the dwelling or in the _balaua_ or _kalangan._
New offerings are placed in the _kalang_, before the men go to fight,
or when the _Sayang_ ceremony is held. It also holds the head-bands
worn by the mediums, when making _Dawak_ (Fig. 4, No. 2).

_Kalangan_: the place of the _kalang_. This is similar to the _balaua_,
but is smaller and, as a rule, has only four supporting timbers
(Plate XXIII).

_Pala-an_: Four long poles, usually three of bamboo, and one of a
resinous tree known as _anteng_ (_Canarium villosum_ Bl.) are set
in a square and support, near the top, a platform of bamboo (Plate
XXIV). Offerings are made both on and below the _Pala-an_ during the
ceremony of that name, and in the more important rites.

_Pangkew_: Three bamboo poles are planted in the ground in a triangle,
but they lean away from each other at such an angle, as to admit of
a small platform midway of their length. A roofing of cogon grass
completes the structure. It is built during _Sayang_, and contains a
small jar of _basi_. The roof is always adorned with coconut blossoms
(Plate XX).

_Sagang_: Sharpened bamboo poles about eight feet in length on which
the skulls of enemies were formerly exhibited. The pointed end was
pushed through the _foramen magnum_, and the pole was then planted
near the gate of the town.

_Saloko_, also called _Salokang_ and _Sabut_: This is a bamboo pole
about ten feet long, one end of which is split into several strips;
these are forced apart, and are interwoven with other strips, thus
forming a sort of basket. When such a pole is erected near to a house,
or at the gate of the town, it is generally in connection with a
ceremony made to cure headache. It is also used in the fields as a
dwelling place for the spirit Kaiba-an (Plate XXV).

The _Saloko_ ceremony and the _diam_, which accompanies it, seem to
indicate that this pole originated in connection with head-hunting;
and its presence in the fields gives a hint that in former times a
head-hunt may have been a necessary preliminary to the rice-planting.

_Sogayob_: A covered porch, which is built along one side of the house
during the _Sayang_ ceremony. In it hang the vines and other articles,
used by the female dancers in one part of the rite. A portion of one
of the slaughtered pigs is placed here for the spirits of Bangued. In
Lumaba the _Sogayob_ is built alone as a part of a one-day ceremony;
while in Sallapadan it follows _Kalangan_ after an interval of about
three months.

_Taltalabong_: Following many ceremonies a small bamboo raft with
arched covering is constructed. In it offerings are placed for spirits,
who have been unable to attend the rite. In Manabo it is said that the
raft is intended particularly for the sons of Kadaklan (Plate XXVI).

_Tangpap_: Two types of structure appear under this name. When it is
built as a part of the _Tangpap_ ceremony, it is a small house with a
slanting roof resting on four poles. About three feet above the ground,
an interwoven bamboo floor is lashed to the uprights (Plate XXVII). In
the _Sayang_ ceremony, there are two structures which go by this name
(Plate XX, Nos. 2 and 3). The larger has two floors, the smaller only
one. On each floor is a small pot of _basi_, daubed with white.

_Taboo Gateway_: At the gate of a town, one sometimes finds a defensive
wall of bamboo, between the uprights of which are thrust bamboo spears
in order to catch evil spirits, while on the gate proper are vines
and leaves pleasing to the good spirits. Likewise in the _saloko_,
which stands close by, are food and drink or betel-nut. All this
generally appears when an epidemic is in a nearby village, in order
to frighten the bearers of the sickness away, and at the same time
gain the aid of well-disposed spirits. At such a time many of the
people wear wristlets and anklets of bamboo, interwoven with roots
and vines which are displeasing to the evil beings (Plate XXVIII).

_Ceremonial Paraphernalia_.--_Akosan_ (Fig. 4, No. 4): A prized
shell, with top and bottom cut off, is slipped over a belt-like
cloth. Above it are a series of wooden rings and a wooden imitation
of the shell. This, when hung beside the dead, is both pleasing to
the spirit of the deceased, and a protection to the corpse against
evil beings.

_Aneb_ (Fig. 4, No. 1): The name usually given to a protective
necklace placed about the neck of a young child to keep evil spirits
at a distance. The same name is also given to a miniature shield,
bow and arrow, which hang above the infant.

_Dakidak_ (Fig. 4, Nos. 3-3a): Long poles, one a reed, the other
bamboo, split at one end so they will rattle. The medium strikes
them on the ground to attract the spirits to the food served on
the _talapitap_.

_Igam_: Notched feathers, often with colored yarn at the ends, attached
to sticks. These are worn in the hair during the _Pala~an_ and _Sayang_
ceremonies, to please the spirits of the east, called Idadaya.

_Inalson_: A sacred blanket made of white cotton. A blue or blue
and red design is formed, where the breadths join, and also along
the borders. It is worn over the shoulders of the medium during the
_Gipas_ ceremony (cf. p. 263).

_Lab-labon_: Also called _Adug_. In Buneg and nearby towns, whose
inhabitants are of mixed Tinguian and Kalinga blood, small incised
pottery houses are found among the rice jars, and are said to be the
residences of the spirits, who multiply the rice. They are sometimes
replaced with incised jars decorated with vines. The idea seems to
be an intrusion into the Tinguian belt. The name is probably derived
from _labon_, "plenty" or "abundance" (Plate XXIX).

_Piling_ (Plate XIX): A collection of large sea-shells attached to
cords. They are kept in a small basket together with one hundred
fathoms of thread and a Chinese plate, usually of ancient make. The
whole makes up the medium's outfit, used when she is summoning the
spirits.

_Pinapa_: A large silk blanket with yellow strips running
lengthwise. Such blankets are worn by certain women when dancing
_da-eng_, and they are also placed over the feet of a corpse.

_Sado_ (Fig. 4, No. 3): The shallow clay dishes in which the spirits
are fed on the _talapitap_.

_Salogeygey_: The outside bark of a reed is cut at two points, from
opposite directions, so that a double fringe of narrow strips stands
out. One end is split, _saklag_ leaves are inserted, and the whole
is dipped or sprinkled in sacrificial blood, and placed in each house
during the _Sagobay_ ceremony. The same name is applied to the magical
sticks, which are placed in the rice seed-beds to insure lusty plants
(cf. p. 399).

_Sangadel_: The bamboo frame on which a corpse is placed during
the funeral.

_Tabing_: A large white blanket with which one corner of the room
is screened off during the _Sayang_ and other ceremonies. In this
"room" food and other offerings are made for the black, deformed,
and timid spirits who wish to attend the ceremony unobserved.

_Takal_: Armlets made of boar's tusks, which are worn during certain
dances in _Sayang_.

_Talapitap_ (Fig. 4, No. 3): A roughly plaited bamboo frame on which
the spirits are fed during the more important rites. Used in connection
with the _dakidak_ and clay dishes _(sado)._

_Tongatong_ (Fig. 4, No. 5): The musical instrument, which appears
in many ceremonials. It consists of six or more bamboo tubes of
various lengths. The players hold a tube in each hand, and strike
their ends on a stone, which lies between them, the varying lengths
of the cylinders giving out different notes.



CHAPTER V

THE CEREMONIES

A visitor, who enters the Tinguian territory in the period following
the rice-harvest, quickly gains the impression that the ceremonial
life of this people is dominant. In nearly every village, he finds one
or more ceremonies in progress, while work is almost forgotten. This
condition exists until the coming of the rains in May, when all is
changed. Men and women go to the fields before daybreak, and return
only when darkness forces them to cease their toil. During the
period when the fields are in preparation, or the rice is growing,
few ceremonials are held, except those intended to promote the growth
of the crops, to cure sickness, or to ward off impending misfortune.

Aside from the rites, which attend birth, marriage, and similar events,
the ceremonies may be placed in two divisions: first, those which
may be celebrated by all people; second, those restricted to certain
families. The first class we shall designate as the minor ceremonies.


SECTION 1

The Minor Ceremonies

_Dawak_ (also called Boni and Alopag).--The name _Dawak_ is applied
to that part of important ceremonies in which the spirits enter
the bodies of the mediums. It is also given as a separate ceremony,
usually to cure sickness, but in some settlements it follows a birth.

According to tradition, it was taught, together with the _Sayang_
ceremony, by the spirit Kaboniyan to a woman Dayapan; and she, in turn,
taught it to others, who were then able to cure sickness.

It is probable that the name comes from _dawat_ (a "request" or
"petition"); yet there is little in it which corresponds to prayer
or entreaty.

As there was considerable variation in each _Dawak_ witnessed by
the writer, the complete ceremony is given for the village of Ba-ak,
together with striking variations from other towns.

In this instance, the rite was held to effect the cure of a sick woman
and to learn the desires of the spirits. Two mediums, assisted by
several men and women, spent the first afternoon preparing the things
to be used. First, a short cane was fashioned out of black wood,
rattan rings were slipped over this, and all were placed inside a
Chinese jar. A dish of cooked rice was put over the top, as a cover,
and a blanket spread over the whole. This was brought close to the
patient, the medium recited a _dam_ over it, [128] and then ordered
that it remain there throughout the ceremony. On a large mat in the
center of the room were placed betel-nuts, coconuts, and leaves, two
jars--one empty, the other filled with _basi_--, a large and small
head-axe, two spears, and some shells. An empty jar had a string
of beads tied around its neck, and inside it was placed a switch,
care being taken that a portion of it hung outside. Beside the jar
was a basket containing five bundles of unthreshed rice, on which was
a skein of thread supporting a new jar. All this was covered with a
woman's skirt. Finally a bound pig was laid just inside the door.

When all was complete, three men played on the _tongatong_
(cf. p. 314), until one of the mediums took her place beside the
mat. Raising a plate above her head, she struck it repeatedly with
a small head-axe, to call attention of the spirits. [129] Then she
began to chant and wail calling the spirits to enter her body. After
two or three moments of song, she was possessed by a spirit, who
announced that his name was Ibalinsogwan. He placed a rooster at one
end of a spear, and a bundle of rice at the other, did a short dance,
and departed. The mediums then seated themselves on opposite sides
of the jar of _basi_; each drank of the liquor, and the chant began
again. Spirit after spirit took possession of one of the mediums,
who then conversed with the other, asked questions concerning the
patient, or other matters, and occasionally offered advice. Before
his departure, each spirit would drink of the _basi_.

The members of the family were present during most of the day; friends
came, and went as they pleased, stopped to listen to or talk with
the spirits, drank _basi_, and then went about their work.

Early the second morning, the mediums went to a bound pig in the house,
and after placing betel-nut on its back, they poured water into its
ear. This caused the animal to shake its head; and, as the water was
thrown out, one of the mediums caught it in her hand, and applied it to
the sick woman, at the same time chanting, "Go away sickness, be thrown
out like this water; let this person be well, for she is now following
the custom." As soon as she had finished, two men carried the animal to
the river bank, where they killed and singed it. Upon their return to
the house, they removed and carefully examined its liver; for, by the
markings on it, the people were assured that the spirits were pleased
with the manner in which the ceremony was being conducted, and hence
the prospects for the patient's recovery were very bright. _Gipas_,
the dividing, followed. An old man divided the pig with the medium,
but by sly manipulation managed to get a little more than she did. A
betel-nut, beeswax, and a lead net-sinker were tied together with
a string, and were divided, but again the old man received a little
more than his share. Betel-nut was offered to the pair. Apparently
each piece was the same, but only one was supplied with lime, and
the mortal secured that. He then challenged the medium to see whose
spittle was the reddest. Both expectorated on the head-axe, but since
the spittle of the medium was not mixed with lime, it was uncolored. In
all instances the human being came out victor over the spirit, who
sought to take the woman's life. Hence her recovery was assured.

A new spirit possessed the medium, and under her directions the
family was placed beneath a blanket, and a coconut was cut in two over
their heads. In addition to the fluid of the nut, water was emptied
over them, "so that the sickness would be washed away." As soon as
the family emerged from the blanket, they went to their _balaua_,
[130] and offered food, after which the medium again summoned several
spirits. From this time until well into the evening, the guests danced
_tadek_, stopping only to be served with food and drink.

The morning of the third and last day was spent in preparing food and
other offerings, which were placed on a mat and left, for a time, to be
used by the immortals. Later the offerings were consumed by the guests,
and the medium summoned the spirit Agkabkabayo. This being directed
four men to carry the blanket on which the medium was seated to the
_balaua_, when they were met by another medium, possessed by the spirit
Balien. For a time they busied themselves making repairs to the spirit
structure, then decorated it by tying strips of shredded coconut leaves
to the slats of the floor. They also attached leaves to the _kalang_
(cf. p. 310), and inserted betel-nut and leaf. The final act of the
ceremony was to prepare four _soloko_ (cf. p. 310). In the first was
placed a half coconut; in the second was rice mixed with blood; in
the third cooked flesh of a fowl; and in the last were four stalks
of rice, and some pine-sticks. One was placed at each gate of the
town as an offering, and the people returned to their homes.

As payment for their services, the mediums received a small portion
of the pig, some rice, beads, a little money, and cloth.

The acts and conversation of the spirits when summoned in _Dawak_
are well illustrated by the following.

A woman of Lagangilang was ill with dysentery; and a medium, in this
instance, a man, was instructed to make _Dawak_. He began summoning
the spirits by striking a dish with his head-axe. Soon he covered
his face with his hands, began to sway to and fro, and to chant
unintelligible words. Suddenly he stopped and announced that he was
the spirit Labotan, and that it was his wish that blood and rice
be placed on a head-axe, and be laid on the woman's abdomen. Next
he ordered that they should feed some rice to the small pig which
lay bound on the floor. "If he eats, this is the right ceremony,
and you will get well," he said. The pig refused the food, and, after
expressing regret that he was unable to help, the spirit departed, to
be succeeded by Binongon. He at once directed that the pig be killed,
and the palpitating heart be put on the woman's stomach, and then
be pressed against each person in the room, as a protection against
illness. At first he refused to drink the liquor which was offered to
him, for it was new and raw; but when he learned that no other could be
obtained, he drank, and then addressed the patient. "You ate something
forbidden. It is easy to cure you if the spirits have made you ill;
but if some one is practising magic, perhaps you will die." With
this cheering message the spirit departed, and Ayaonwan appeared. He
directed an old woman to feed rice and water to the patient, and
then, without further advice, he said, "The other spirits do not
like me very well, so I cannot go to their places. I went to their
places, but they said many bad words to me. I offered them _basi_,
but they did not wish to take; so I asked the way, and they showed
me to the other spirits' place. I was poor, and had nothing to eat
for noon or night. When I was in the road, I met many long snakes,
and I had to push them apart so I could walk. And I met many eels,
and asked of them the road; but the eels bit me, and took me into
their stomachs, and carried me to Luluaganan to the well there; then
I died. The people, who go to the well, say, 'Why is Ayaonwan dead? We
have a bad odor now;' and the eels say, 'Whose son is this?' and they
rubbed my dead spirit, and I received life again. Then I took blood
and rice with me to the sky to the other eels to make _Sayang_. The
eels gave me gold for my wrists; the monkeys gave me gold for my teeth
and hair; the wild pig gave me bracelets. There is much more I can
tell you, but now I must go." The spirit departed, and a new one was
summoned. This spirit took the spear in his hand, and after chanting
about the illness of the woman, he drank _basi_ out of a dish, sitting
on the head-axe. Then singing again he dipped the spear in the oil,
and allowed it to fall drop by drop on the stomach of the sick woman;
later he touched the heads of all present with the spear, saying,
"You will not be sick any more," and departed.

_Pinaing_ or _Pinading_ (Plate XXX).--At the gate or entrance of
nearly every village will be found a number of peculiarly shaped,
water-worn stones, either beneath a small shelter, or nestling among
the roots of some great tree. These are the "guardian stones," and
in them lives Apdel ("the spirit who guards the town"). Many stories
cluster about these _pinaing_, [131] but all agree that, if proper
offerings are made to them at the beginning of a great ceremony;
when the men are about to undertake a raid; or, when sickness is in a
nearby village, the resident spirit will protect the people under his
care. Thus it happens that several times each year a group of people
may be seen early in the morning, gathered at the stones. They anoint
the head of each one with oil, put new bark bands on their "necks,"
after which they kill a small pig. The medium mixes the blood of
the slain animal with rice, and scatters it on the ground while she
recites the story of their origin. Then she bids the spirits from
near and far to come and eat, and to be kindly disposed.

In Bakaok and some other villages it is customary for the medium
to summon several spirits at this time, and this is followed by the
dancing of _tadek_. The people of Luluno always hold a ceremony at
the _pinaing_ before the planting of the rice and after the harvest.

Following this ceremony in the village of San Juan, a miniature raft
(_taltalabong_) was loaded with food and other presents, and was
set afloat, to carry provisions to any spirit, who might have been
prevented from enjoying the feast.

These stones are of particular interest, in that they present one
of the few instances in which the Tinguian associates supernatural
beings with natural objects.

_Saloko_ (Plate XXV).--Besides the houses, in the fields, and at
the gate of many villages, one often sees long bamboo poles with
one end converted into a basket-like receptacle. Offerings of food
and betel-nut are now found in them; but, according to some of the
older men, these were, until recently, used to hold the heads of
slain enemies, as is still the case among the neighboring Apayao.

The ritual of the _Saloko_ ceremony seems, in part, to bear out this
claim; yet the folk-tales and equally good informants assure us that
the heads were placed on sharpened bamboo poles, which passed through
the _foramen magnum_. It is probable that both methods of exhibiting
skulls were employed in the Tinguian belt.

Nowadays the _saloko_ found near to the villages are usually erected,
during a short ceremony of the same name, as a cure for headache. A
medium is summoned; and, after securing a chicken, she strokes it,
as she chants:


"You spirits of the _sagang_, [132] who live above.
"You spirits of the _sagang_, who live on the level ground.
"You spirits of the _sagang_, who live in the east.
"You spirits of the _sagang_, who live in the west.
"You Lalaman [133] above.
"You Lalaman on the wooded hill.
"You Lalaman in the west.
"If you took the head of the sick man,
"You must now grant him health, as you please."


The fowl is killed; and its blood, together with rice and some other
gift, is placed in the _saloko_, and is planted near the house or
gate. Oftentimes a string of feathers runs from the pole to the
dwelling, or to the opposite side of the gate. The family cooks and
eats the chicken, and the affected member is expected to recover at
once. Should the trouble persist, a more elaborate ceremony, probably
_Dawak_, will follow.

In some instances betel-nut prepared for chewing takes the place of
the fowl; rice-stalks hang from the sides of the basket, and bits of
pine are added "to make bright and clear." All of this is rubbed on
the patient's head, while the medium recites the _diam_.

_Bawi_, also called _Sinaba-an_ and _Ababong_.--This name is often
applied to the small houses built in the rice-fields for the spirit
Kaiba-an, but more commonly it refers to the little structures of
bamboo and grass, which nestle among the banana plantings near the
village (Plate XXII). When such a structure is built or repaired,
it is accompanied by a ceremony of the same name. The usual purpose
of this event is to cure sore feet, but in Patok and other valley
towns it is celebrated before the rice harvest and the pressing of the
sugar-cane, so that the spirits will keep the workers in good health,
and save them from injury.

One of the most common ailments is sore or cracked feet caused,
no doubt, by standing for long periods in the mud and water of the
rice-fields, and then tramping over the rough, hot trails to the
village. The Tinguian, however, know that the spirits, called Abat and
Selday bring about this affliction, unless they are kept in good humor,
and have something to occupy their time other than disturbing human
beings; hence these houses are built for them, suitable offerings are
placed inside, and finally a few banana suckers are planted close by,
so that the spirits will be kept busy caring for them.

The origin of the ceremony is ascribed to a woman of ancient
times, named Bagutayka, who, lacking certain organs, appears as an
outcast. She at first caused passers-by to have trouble with their
feet and limbs, but later taught them how to effect a cure by building
the _bawi_ and performing the ceremony. [134]

To-day, when a person is afflicted, he summons a medium, the
spirit-house is built, and then the following _diam_ is recited over
a rooster:


"You abat above,
"You abat in the ground,
"You abat in the corner of the house,
"You abat in the center pole,
"You abat below the stair,
"You abat in the door,
"You Selday in the wooded hill,
"You Selday above,
"Make the sick person well, if you please!" [135]


When the recital is finished, the fowl is killed, and its blood
mixed with rice is placed in nine dishes and one polished coconut
shell. From these it is transferred to nine other dishes and one
bamboo basket. These are placed in a row, and nine dishes and one
unpolished shell are filled with water, and placed opposite. In the
center of this double line is a dish, containing the cooked flesh
of the rooster, also some rice, and one hundred fathoms of thread,
while between the dishes are laid ten half betel-nuts, prepared for
chewing. Later, all these things are returned to a single receptacle,
except those in the shell cups and basket, which are placed in the
spirit-house. The underlying idea in this procedure seems to be that
frequently found in other ceremonies, namely, that food and water
symbolizes the life of the patient, which is partially taken away by
the spirits; but when they are returned to one place, the life must
be replaced in a like manner.

In Manabo a piece of banana bark is taken from one of the plantings
beside a _bawi_; and, after being washed in the water, is applied to
the affected limb.

The final act is to take a coconut husk, stick feathers in its sides,
and hang it beside the _bawi_ as a sign to all that the ceremony has
been held.

No spirits are summoned at this time, neither is there singing
or dancing.

_Bakid_. [136]--This ceremony is held to celebrate the completion
of a new dwelling, or to remove any bad sign, which may have been
received during the building operations.

The medium and her assistants fasten a bamboo pole or rattan cord
across one portion of the room, and on it place numerous pieces of
cloth-skirts, blankets, belts, a fish-net, and a quantity of false
hair. This serves first as an offering to the spirits, but it is also
explained that, if the immortals are unable to count all the gifts,
they will be powerless to injure the occupants of the dwelling. Should
an evilly disposed being desire to make trouble for the owner, he
must count every hair in the switches, as well as every hole in the
fish-net. Failing in this, he will be compelled by the other spirits
to celebrate the _Bakid_ ceremony five times at his own expense.

Beneath the line of offerings, a bound pig is laid; and, as she strokes
the side of the animal, with oiled fingers, the medium repeats a _diam_
[137] in which she tells of misfortunes of a family, which failed to
observe the signs sent by Kaboniyan, and of his instructions as to how
best to overcome their troubles. The family listens respectfully until
the story is finished, then they lift a door from its socket, place
it in the middle of the floor, and proceed to sacrifice the pig upon
it. Some of the blood is immediately sprinkled on the house timbers,
particularly those which may have given the builders trouble, either
in transportation, or during the erection of the structure. The greater
part of the blood is mixed with rice, and is dropped through the slits
in the floor, or scattered about for the spirits; while for an hour
or more a portion of the meat, the heart, and the head, are placed
below the offerings on the cord or on the house-beams. Later, these
portions will be cooked and served to the guests. Immediately after
the killing, the liver is removed, and is examined for a sign. Should
the omens be unfavorable, another animal will be killed, or the
family will celebrate _Sangasang_ within a few days. If the signs
are satisfactory, the host begins to distribute _basi_, and soon good
fellowship reigns. One after another of the guests sings the _daleng_,
in which they bespeak for the owner a long and prosperous life in his
new home. The _Bakid_ always ends with a feast, in which the flesh of
slaughtered animals plays the important part. Upon its completion, the
medium is given a portion of the meat, some unthreshed rice, and other
small gifts, as payment for her services. The guests return to their
homes, and for two or three days following are barred from entering
the new dwelling. During this period the family must remain indoors.

_Sangasang_.--_Sangasang_ is often so similar to the _Bakid_, that
one description might cover both. This is particularly true, if it
is held to remove a bad sign. Should a large lizard or a bird enter
a new building, it is considered as a messenger of Kaboniyan; and the
foregoing ceremony is carried out, the only variation being that the
bird or lizard is caught, if possible, is anointed with oil, a bead
is attached to a leg, and it is then released to go back to its master.

Continued misfortunes to the members of a household would also be an
excuse for the ceremony. In this instance, the only variation from the
procedure just given would be in the _diams_. The first to be recited
tells how the spirit Maganawan sent many snakes and birds to the gate
of a town to demand the blood of a rooster mixed with rice. The people
celebrated _Sangasang_, and sent blood and rice to Maganawan, who,
in turn, spat it out on the ground. As he did so, the sickness and
misfortunes of the mortals vanished. The second _diam_ [138] relates
a quarrel between the various parts of the house, each insisting on
its own importance. At last they recognize their mutual dependence,
and the people of the dwelling are again in good health. [139]

In Lumaba and nearby villages, unpleasant dreams, or a bad disposition
are overcome by a ceremony called _Sangasang_; but, as this varies
somewhat from the others, it is given in detail.

The medium, who is summoned for this event, calls for oil and a
rooster with long spurs. When these are brought, she strokes the fowl
with the oil, and chants the following _diam_. "There is a very old
woman in the sea, and she says to her spirits, who are Dapeg (a spirit
which kills people), Balingenngen (a spirit which causes bad dreams),
and Benisalsal (a spirit which throws things and is unpleasant), 'Go
beyond the sea and spread your sickness,' The spirits are going. They
arrive and begin their work, and if the people do not make _Sangasang_,
many will die. Now it is morning, and the spirits are going to the
river to see what the people have offered to the old woman, who is
Inawen. If they do not find anything, they will say, 'All the people
in this town shall die,' and then they will go on to another place."

"Inawen, who is waiting, sends Kideng (a servant) to search for
the spirits, who are killing people, to tell them to return. Dapeg
leaves the first town. He goes to another, and the dogs bark so that
the people cannot sleep. A man opens the door, to learn the cause of
the barking, and he sees a man, fat and tall, with nine heads, and
he carries many kinds of cakes. The man says, 'Now take these cakes,
and if you do not make _Sangasang_ for my mistress, at the river,
you shall die. You must find a rooster with long tail and spurs; you
must mix its blood with rice, and put it in the river at dawn when no
one can see you,' The man makes _Sangasang_ the next night, and puts
the blood, mixed with rice, in a well dug by the river, so that the
spirits may take it to their mistress. Kideng also arrives and says,
'you must come with me now, for she awaits you who are bearing this
offering.' They go and arrive. Their mistress eats and says, 'I did
not think that the blood of people tasted so badly, now I shall not
send you again, for you have already killed many people.'"

When this chant is completed, the chicken is killed, as directed
in the song; and at night the blood and rice are offered beside the
stream. [140] The chicken is eaten by the family, and its feathers
are tied to a string, stretched across the room. Leaves are attached
to the house-ladder as a warning that all visitors are barred, and
for three days the family remains quietly indoors.

_Sagobay_. [141]--This is one of the most widespread of the ceremonies,
for it not only covers the entire Tinguian belt, but extends into the
Igorot villages of the Upit river region and Ilocos Sur, as well as
into the Kalinga villages of the Malokbot valley.

Its occurrence in connection with the rice-culture is fully, described
elsewhere (cf. p. 400), so that at this place only its second function,
that of keeping illness from the town, is described.

When an epidemic appears in a nearby settlement, the _lakay_ summons
the old men in council, and they decide on the number of pigs, and
the amount of rice, _basi_, and other articles required, after which
the necessary funds are secured by levying a tax on all the people
of the village.

To keep the evil spirits, who bear the sickness, out of the town,
a cord of bamboo or rattan is stretched around the whole settlement,
while at the gate a high fence is erected. Through the uprights of
this fence are stuck bamboo spikes with the sharpened ends facing
outward, so as to catch or pierce the intruders (Plate XXVIII);
while in the _saloko_ and along the gateway are placed leaves, roots,
and other offerings acceptable to the friendly spirits. Similar cords
and leaves are also strung around the entrances to the houses.

The cord and gateway form an adequate protection, and no human
being or spirit will violate this taboo. Should a human do so, the
least penalty would be a tax sufficient to pay all the expense of
the ceremony; but should the sickness afterwards invade the town,
it is quite possible that more serious punishment might be exacted
by the families of the victims.

When all is prepared, the men and boys arm themselves, and with shouts
and hostile demonstrations drive the sickness toward the town whence it
is thought to come. [142] Returning to the center of the village, the
people dance _tadek_, and the mediums may summon several spirits. Next,
the pigs are killed, and their livers are examined for a sign. Should
the omens be unfavorable, one or more fowls will be sacrificed,
until it seems certain that the help of the spirits is assured,
after which the flesh is cooked and eaten. Then a small covered raft
_(taltalabong)_ is constructed, and a portion of the food is placed
inside. Late in the afternoon, this is carried through the village,
while one or more drummers keep up a din to frighten evil spirits
away. Just as the sun is sinking, the raft is carried to the river,
and is set afloat, in order that any interested spirits, who may have
been prevented from attending the ceremony, may still receive their
share of the offering. In Likuan a different explanation is offered
for the _taltalabong_. Here they say that the offerings are placed
on the raft, so as to induce any hostile spirits who may be near to
enter, and then they are carried out and away from the town.

The blood of the slaughtered animals has been saved, and upon their
return from the river the people dip leaves into it, and attach these
near to the doors of their dwellings. For at least one day following,
no work is done, and all visitors are barred. During this time the
people only converse in low tones, and take special precautions against
even animals making a noise. The beaks of roosters are tied, or they
are placed in small baskets, so that they cannot stand up to crow.

In Lakub a new house or protection is placed above the guardian stones,
and offerings are made to them at the time of the _Sagobay_, while
in Likuan the participants wear neck and ankle bands of bamboo as a
further protection from the sickness.

_Ngorong-or_.--Lumaba and the Tinguian villages of Ilokos Sur hold
this ceremony, whenever a person is seriously ill with stomach
trouble. As the rite does not extend far into the Tinguian belt,
but is found in the Igorot villages farther south, it seems likely
that it is an importation from that region.

The members of the family gather in the afternoon, and kill a small
pig by cutting off its head. A part of the blood is saved, and the
balance is sprinkled against the house posts and ladder. The pig
itself is hung from one round of the ladder, so that its blood will
drip to the ground. The medium has been standing quietly to one side
watching, but now she calls upon the spirits, "You (calling one or
more by name), come out; be vomited up, for now you are being fed." She
allows them a few minutes for their repast, then cuts open the carcass
and removes the liver. A bit is cut from the top, then she splits open
the animal's skull, and removes a little of the brain. This she places
on a banana leaf; and, after adding a small piece of gold, wraps it up
and buries it beside the center post of the dwelling. The animal is
now cooked and served to the guests, but liberal portions are placed
on the house rafters and other places convenient for the spirits.

Next morning a piece is cut from a dog's ear, is smeared with blood,
and is placed in a small split bamboo, together with two stalks of
rice. A clout is tied to a spear, and all are rubbed on the body of
the patient, while the medium explains that this is the betel-nut
of the spirits, and that, when she takes it from the village, they
will go also, and the recovery be assured. The family follows her to
the gate of the town, and watches closely, as she thrusts the spear
and pole into the ground; for if they are firmly set in the ground,
yet lean away from the village, it is certain that the spirits have
departed, and the sick will recover.

Following the ceremony, members of the family may not work for
five days, neither may they lead a horse or carabao, or eat of wild
meat. Should they do any of the things forbidden, they will be struck
by lightning.

_Sapata the Oath_.--If a theft has been committed, and it has been
impossible to detect the guilty person, the following procedure
takes place. A rice-mortar is placed in the yard, and on it a dish of
_basi_. All the people are summoned to gather, and one by one they
drink of the liquor, meanwhile calling on the snakes to bite them,
the lightning to strike them, or their abdomens to swell up and burst
if they are guilty. Soon the people will know the culprit, for one
of these disasters will befall him. When that occurs, his family
will be compelled to make good the theft, as well as the expense of
this gathering.



SECTION 2

The Great Ceremonies

In addition to the ceremonies and rites which may be celebrated by
all the people there are a number of more elaborate observances,
which can only be given by those who have the hereditary right,
or who have gained the privilege by a certain definite procedure.

In general these ceremonies are restricted to the villages in or
close to the valley of the Abra, the lower reaches of the Tineg,
Malanas, and Sinalong rivers. As one proceeds up the tributary
streams into such settlements as Baay, Likuan, and Lakub, it is
noticeable that the typical spirit houses become fewer in number,
while the participants in the accompanying ceremonies are limited to
recent emigrants from the lower valleys. The same thing is found to
be true on the western side of the coast range of mountains, as one
goes north or south from the Abra river, although there is evidence
here that some of the settlements formerly had these rites, but have
allowed them to fall into disuse, as a result of Ilocano influence.

This distribution of the great ceremonies seems to give a hint that
they are intrusive; that they probably were at one time restricted
to the families of emigrants and even to-day are barred from a part
of the people. They have not yet extended far into the interior,
despite the fact that in the lower valleys they almost completely
dominate the life of the people during a portion of the year.

In all the valley towns one sees little houses and platforms,
apparently of no practical value, yet occupying important places,
while in the period following the rice-harvest elaborate festivals are
carried on about them. Soon it develops that each of these structures
has a definite name, is associated with a particular ceremony, and
is built and kept in repair in honor of certain powerful spirits.

The culmination of these rites is the great _Sayang_ ceremony which
extends over seventeen days and nights. When this is held, it includes
all the minor events of this class, and the smaller spirit structures
are then built or repaired. This supreme event can only be celebrated
by a few families, but all the townpeople are welcome guests, and all,
regardless of age and sex, may witness or take part in the proceedings.

Since all the great events occur after the harvest, a time of leisure
and plenty, they become the great social events of the year. A person
who does not have the hereditary right to the ceremonies may gain the
liberty if he be warned in a dream or be notified by the spirits that
it is their wish. Since all the expenses of such a gathering fall on
the giver, it is imperative that he be well-to-do. Such a one gives
the ceremonies, in order, during a term of years, and eventually
obtains the right to the _Sayang_, the greatest social and religious
event in Tinguian life.

Adoption entitles an individual to all the privileges of the family,
and as the writer and his wife were adopted into a family possessing
the right to all the ceremonies, they became at once participants in
all the events which are here described. In this way it was possible
to obtain information and instruction on many points which observation
alone could scarcely afford.

The _Pala-an_ ceremony is the first round on the social and religious
ladder. It is here given in some detail, and is then followed by
others, in the order of their importance.

_Pala-an_.--The _Pala-an_ is held when some member of the family is
ill, or when the structure of that name needs repair. Many spirits
visit the people during this rite, but the one chiefly interested is
Idadaya, the spirit of the east. He and his ten grandchildren wear in
their hair the notched tail-feathers of a rooster, which are known
as _igam._ From time to time these lose their luster, and they can
only be refreshed by having some mortal celebrate _Pala-an_.

When it appears that these ornaments need attention, the Idadaya will
notify some family, either through a medium or by sending illness
to them.

A family having received such a notification summons a medium,
and she at once begins to gather _saklag_ (_Justicia gendarussa_
L.) and _sikag_ (_Lygodium_ sp. near _scandens_) and a grass known
as _bildis_, while the men secure the bamboo and other materials used
in building the spirit structure. One corner of the living room is
screened off with a large white blanket called _tabing_, and behind
it the medium places unthreshed rice and jars which she has decked
with vines and leaves.

While she is thus engaged, the men are busy building the _pala-an_
(Plate XXIV). This consists of four long poles--three of bamboo and
one of a resinous tree, _anteng_, [143] set in a square and supporting,
near the top, a platform of bamboo.

A number of women have been invited to assist the family, and they
now proceed to beat out sufficient rice to serve the guests. When
the pounding is finished, a rice-mortar is set out in the open, and
a little rice is placed in it. The women, armed with long pestles,
gather around and, keeping time to the music of copper gongs, they
circle the mortar contra-clockwise, striking its edge three times
in regular beats of 1, 2, 3; on the next beat the leader strikes the
bottom of her pestle against that of her neighbor, on the first and
second beats, but on the third she pounds the rice in the mortar. This
is repeated by the woman on her right and so on around the circle. Then
the leader strikes the top of her pestle against the top of the one
held by the women next her on two beats and on the third pounds rice,
and this is repeated by all. The music now becomes much faster, and,
keeping time with it, the leader strikes first into the rice, then
whirls clear around and strikes the pestle of the woman on her left;
again she turns and strikes that of the woman on her right. Each
follows her in turn, and soon all are in motion about the mortar,
alternately pounding the rice and clashing pestles. This is known as
_kitong_, and is the method prescribed by the great spirit Kaboniyan
for the breaking of a part of the rice to be used in this and other
ceremonies (Plate XXXI).

As soon as the pounding is finished, the medium places some of
the newly broken rice in a bamboo dish, and places this on a rice
winnower. She also adds a skirt, five pieces of betel-nut, two piper
leaves, and a little dish of oil, and carries the collection below
the _pala-an_, where a bound pig lies. The betel-nut and leaf are
placed on the animal, then the medium dips her fingers in the oil,
and strokes its side while she recites the following _diam_:--

"The spirit who lives in Dadaya lies in bed; he looks at his _igam_,
and they are dull. He looks again, 'Why are my _igam_ dull? Ala,
let us go to Sudipan, where the Tinguian live, and let us take our
_igam_, so that some one may make them bright again.' After that they
laid them (the _igam_) on the house of the Ipogau, and they are all
sick who live in that house. Kaboniyan looked down on them. 'Ala,
I shall go down to the Ipogau,' He truly went down to them, 'What is
the matter with you?' 'We are all sick who live in the same place,'
said those sick ones. 'That is true, and the cause of your sickness
is that they (the spirits) laid down their _igam_ on you. It is best
that you make _Pala-an_, since you have received their _igam_, for
that is the cause of your illness,' After that they made _Pala-an_,
and they recovered from their sickness, those who lived in the same
place. (Here the medium calls the spirits of Dadaya by name and then
continues.) 'Now those who live in the same place make bright again
those _igam_ which you left in their house. Make them well again,
if you please'."

As soon as she finishes her recital, the pig is stabbed in the throat,
its blood is collected, and is mixed with cooked rice. The carcass is
singed at once. Five men then carry it to the top of the _pala-an_,
where it is cut up. The suet and the hind legs are handed to the
medium, who places them behind the screen in the room, and the family
may then rest assured that the spirits thus remembered will free them
from headache and sore eyes. After the flesh has been cut into small
pieces, most of it is carried into the dwelling to be cooked for
the guests, but a portion is placed in a bamboo tube, and is cooked
beneath the _pala-an_. When it is ready to serve, the five men again
go to the top of the structure and eat it, together with cooked rice,
then they take the bamboo cooking tube, tie some of the sacred vines
from behind the curtain about it, and fasten it to one pole of the
_pala-an_. The men in the house are free to eat, and when they are
finished, the women dine.

In the cool of the afternoon, the people begin to assemble in the
yard, where they are soon joined by the medium carrying a spear in
one hand, a rooster in the other, and with a rice winnower atop her
head. She places the latter on a rice-mortar close to the _pala-an_,
and uncovering it reveals a small head-axe, notched chicken feathers,
her shells, five pieces of betel-nut and two leaves, a jar cover,
a dish of oil, and a coconut shell filled with rice and blood.

At the command of the medium, four or five men begin to play on
copper gongs, while the wife of the host comes forward and receives
the spear and rooster in one hand. The medium takes the head-axe,
and then the two women take hold of the winnower with their free
hands. Keeping time to the music, they lift it from the mortar,
take one step, then stop, strike the spear and head-axe together,
then step and stop again. At each halt the medium takes a little of
the rice and blood from the winnower and sprinkles it on the ground
for the spirits to eat. [144] When they have made half the circuit
of the mortar, they change places and retrace their steps; for "as
they take the gifts partly away and then replace them, in the same
manner the spirits will return that part of the patient's life which
they had removed, and he will become well and strong again."

The blood and rice which remain after this dance is placed on nine
pieces of banana bark. Five of these are carried to the _pala-an_;
one to the east and one to the west gate of the town; one is put on
the _talagan_, a miniature seat erected near by for the convenience of
visiting spirits, and one in a little spirit house known as _tangpap_
(cf.p.311). For an hour or more, the medium makes _dawak_, and summons
many spirits into her body. When the last of superior beings has made
his call, the medium goes to her home, carrying her payment for the
day's work, [145] but the townspeople remain to drink _basi_ and to
sing _da-eng_ until well into the night.

Early the next morning, the medium goes to the house, and removing
the jars and the bundle of decorated rice from the _tabing_, carries
them to the family's rice granary, and places them in the center of
that structure, covering them with six bundles of rice. This is an
offering to the spirit residing there, and for the next five days
the granary must not be opened.

Nothing more of importance takes place during the morning, but late
in the afternoon the people assemble in the dwelling to drink _basi_,
while one or more mediums summon the spirits. After a time a sterile
female pig is brought in and placed in the center of the room. Two
men armed with long knives slice the animal open along the length of
its stomach. An old man quickly slips in his hand, draws out the still
palpitating heart, and hands it to a medium, who in turn strokes the
stomachs of members of the family, thus protecting them from intestinal
troubles. She also touches the guests and the articles which have
been used during the day. For this second day this medium receives,
as pay, the head and two legs of the pig, a hundred fathoms of thread,
a dish of broken rice, and five bundles of unthreshed rice. She also
is given a small present in exchange for each bead she received when
the spirits entered her body.

Following the ceremony, the members of the family are barred from work,
usually for one moon, and during this period they may not eat of wild
pig or carabao, of lobsters or eels. An infraction of this rule would
incur, the wrath of the spirits and result in sickness and disaster.

_Tangpap_.--In many of the valley towns Tangpap is only a part
of _Sayang_ (cf.p.345), and is never given alone, but in Manabo,
Lagangilang, and nearby settlements it is recognized as one of the
ceremonies which must be celebrated before a family acquires the
right to _Sayang_. In these villages it follows _Pala-an_ after a
lapse of two or three years. It was during the progress of this
ceremony in the village of Manabo, in 1908, that the writer and
his wife were made members of the tribe, and since the mediums were
particularly anxious that we know all the details, the information
in this instance is unusually complete. It is here given in full,
as an excellent example of how all are conducted.

A Manabo woman, the wife of Sagasag, was seized with an illness which
deprived her of the use of her limbs, and when other means of relief
failed, was told by the spirits to give the _Tangpap_ ceremony, to
which she already had a hereditary right. A medium was summoned,
and she, with two assistants, began to prepare many presents for
the spirits who were expected to attend the ceremony. From previous
experience it was known the sort of gift each would appreciate, and
by the end of the second day the following things were in readiness.

For the spirits Bakod and Olak, [146] a rice winnower was loaded with
a shield, a clay dish, a coconut shell filled with _basi_, a string of
beads, a small basket, two bundles of rice, and leaves of the _atilwag_
(_Breynia acuminata_), later the half of a slain pig was also added.

Cords were attached at each corner of the living room, and beneath
the points where they crossed was a mat on which the mediums were to
sit when summoning the spirits. On the cords were leaves, grasses,
and vines, the whole forming a decoration pleasing to the superior
beings, I-anayan and I-angawan.

For Gapas they provided two small baskets of rice, a shell called
_gosipeng_, and a rattan-like vine, _tanobong_, betel-nuts and
piper-leaf.

Bogewan received a basket of rice, some white thread, sections of
_posel_--a variety of bamboo--, _atilwag_ leaves, and some beads. For
Bognitan, a jar was partly filled with _tanobong_, and for Gilin, a
jar of _basi_. Cooked rice was moulded into the form of an alligator,
and was spotted with red, betel saliva. This, when placed on a basket
of rice, was intended for Bolandan.

Soyan was provided with a basket which contained the medium's
shells and a cloth, while Ibaka received a jar cover filled with
salt. Dandawila had to be content with a stem of young betel-nuts,
and Bakoki with two fish baskets filled with pounded rice, also a
spear. A large white blanket was folded into a neat square, and on
it was laid a lead sinker for the use of Mamonglo.

As a rule, three spirits named Mabeyan attended this ceremony. For
the first, a bamboo frame was constructed, and on it was placed a
female pig, runo (a reed), and prepared betel nut. For the second,
a shield, fish net, rice and a rice winnower, and a bit of string;
while for the third, a rice winnower was set with eight coconut shells,
a small dish, and a gourd dipper.

During a considerable portion of the time that these articles
were being prepared, several men sat in the yard and played on
the _tongatong_, but when the mediums finally gave the signal that
everything was in readiness, they moved their instrument up on the
porch of the dwelling, where they continued playing softly.

One of the mediums took her place in the mat in the middle of the room,
and raising a Chinese plate above her head, began to strike against
it with her shells, in order to notify the spirits that the ceremony
was about to begin. Next she placed two dishes on the mat in front
of her, and as she sang a monotonous chant, she touched each one with
a small stick. The host was then ordered to shuffle his feet between
the lines of dishes and to step over each one. As soon as he did so,
the medium pulled the mat from beneath them, rolled it up, and used
it as a whip with which she struck the head of each member of the
family. The spirit who had caused the woman's illness was supposed to
be near by, and after he witnessed this whipping, he would be afraid
to remain longer. As a promise of future reward to the well-disposed
immortals, a bound pig was then placed beside the door of the dwelling.

Going to the hearth, the medium withdrew burning sticks, and placed
them in a jar, and held this over the head of the sick woman, for
"a spirit has made her sick, but the fire will frighten him away,
and she will get well." After she had made the circuit of the family,
she held a bundle of rice above the flames, and with it again went
to each person in the room; then she did the same thing with broken
rice and with the _atilwag_ vine.

Two mediums then seated themselves on the mat, and covering their
faces with their hands, began to chant and wail, beseeching the
spirits to enter their bodies. One after another the spirits came
and possesed the mediums, so that they were no longer regarded as
human beings, but as the spirits themselves. First came Kakalonan,
also known as Boboyonan, a friendly being whose chief duty it is
to find the cause of troubles. Addressing the sick woman, he said,
"Now you make this ceremony, and I come to make friends and to tell
you the cause of your trouble. I do not think it was necessary for you
to hold this ceremony now, for you built your _balaua_ only two years
ago; yet it is best that you do so, for you can do nothing else. You
are not like the spirits. If we die, we come to life again; if you
die, you do not." At this point an old man interrupted, and offered
him a drink of _basi_. At first Kakalonan refused, saying he did not
want to accept any payment; but finally he yielded and drained the
coconut shell of liquor. After assuring the family that all would be
well with them when the ceremony was complete, he took his departure.

The next spirit to come was Sagangan [147] of Anayan. He appeared to
be in a rage, because the proper present had not been prepared for his
coming, and was expressing himself vigorously when a passing woman
happened to touch him, and he at once departed. The medium chanted
for a long time, urging him to return, and finally he did so. At once
he demanded that two bundles of rice have wax heads moulded on them,
and that black beads be inserted for eyes. These, he assured them,
would serve him as well as the woman's life, so he would make the
exchange, and she would get well.

When the dolls were prepared, he addressed the husband, "My other
name is Ingalit, and I live in the sky. What is the matter with the
woman?" "I do not know," replied the man. "We ask you." "You ask me,
what is the matter with this woman, and I will tell you. How does
it happen that Americans are attending the ceremony?" The husband
replied that the Americans wished to learn the Tinguian customs, and
this finally seemed to satisfy the superior being. Turning toward the
door where the men were still softly playing on the _tongatong_, he
called out peevishly, "Tell the people not to play on the _tongatong_,
for the spirits who wish to hear it are not present, and we are ashamed
to have the Americans hear it. You make this ceremony now because you
are sick and do not wish to die, but you could have waited two years."

While this spirit was talking, another, who said he lived in
Langbosan, and had been sent by Gilen, came to the body of the
second medium. Paying no attention to the other spirit, he began
to give instructions for the conduct of the ceremony. The _tangpap_
was to be build the next morning, also two _balags_ (p.308), and for
them they were to prepare one pig. "Do not fail to prepare this pig,
but you may use it for both _tangpap_ and _balag_. You will also make
a _taltalabong_ (p.311). For this you must prepare a different pig,
for this is for the sons and servants of Kadaklan."

After the departure of these beings, ten other spirits came in quick
succession. Two of the latter claimed to be Igorot spirits, and both
talked with the peculiar stacatto accent of the people who live along
the Kalinga-Igorot border. [148]

After the departure of the Igorot spirits, both mediums were possessed,
one by Sanadan, a male spirit, and the other by the female spirit
of Pangpangdan. At their request the men began again to play on the
_tongatong_, and the spirits danced. Soon Sanadan began to fondle the
woman, to rub her face with his, to feel of her body and at last of
her privates. Other spirits, who stayed only long enough to drink,
followed them, and then Gonay appeared. The spectators had been
openly bored by the last few visitors, but the name of Gonay quickly
revived their interest. She began to sing a wailing song in which she
told of her sad plight. Time after time she repeated the sentence,
"Gongay has no husband, for her mother put a stone in her vagina,
yet she loves all young men." From time to time she would pause, and
make ludicrous attempts to fondle the young boys, and then when they
resisted her, she again took up her plaint. At last she succeeded in
getting one young fellow to exchange cigars and headbands with her,
and began to rub her hands on his body, urging him not to leave
her. Just when she seemed on the verge of success in winning him,
another spirit Baliwaga came to the medium, and the fun-maker had
to depart. The newcomer placed an agate bead in a dish, and held it
high above his head while he danced. Finally he called out that the
bead had vanished, but when he lowered the plate, it was still there,
and he left in chagrin. He was succeeded by a dumb female spirit named
Damolan, who undertook to do the trick in which her predecessor had
failed. Holding the plate high above her head, she danced furiously,
and from time to time struck against the side of the dish with the
medium's shells. Twice when she lowered the dish, the bead was there,
but on the third attempt it had vanished. The trick was so cleverly
done that, although we were beside her and watching closely, we did
not detect the final movement. With much satisfaction, the medium
assured us that the bead would be found in the hair of the man who
broke the first ground for the _tangpap_, a boast which was made good
the following morning.

Adadog came next, and not finding the chicken which should have been
placed on the mat for him, he broke out in a great fury and tried to
seize a man in its place. He was restrained from doing injury to his
victim, and soon left, still highly indignant. Seven other spirits
stopped only for a drink, and then Daliwaya appeared. Upon her arrival,
one of the headmen gravely informed her that the people wished to adopt
four Americans, but that only one was then present. The spirit bade the
writer to arise from the mat, where he was lying, and after stroking
his head for a time, said, "You wish to make this American an _Itneg_,
[149] but before you can do anything, the spirits must approve and
give him a name. I will give him a name now, and then to-morrow all
the people must say if they wish to give him another name and make him
Ipogau. [150] His name shall be Agonan, for that is the name of the
spirit who knows many languages." Again she stroked the writer's head,
and then taking a large porcelain platter, she filled it with _basi_,
and together we drank the liquor, alternately, a swallow at a time.

After her departure, an Alzado [151] came and danced with high knee
action, meantime saying, she was there to make some one ill, and that
she would do so unless the American gave her a cloth for her clout
when she returned the following day.

The next visitor was Sanadan, the spirit who owns and guards the deer
and wild pig. Up to this time the people had been mildly interested in
the arrivals, but when this important being appeared, the men at once
became alert; they told him of their troubles in the hunts, of the
scarcity of deer, and urged him to send more of them to Mt. Posoey,
where they were accustomed to hunt. He offered much good advice
concerning the methods of hunting, but refused to take any action
regarding the game on the nearby mountain, for, he said, the spirit
Dapwanay who owns Posoey was watching the game there. Just before he
departed, he called to the headmen, "I am very rich and very bold. I am
not afraid to go anywhere. I can become the sunset sky. I am going to
Asbinan in Kalaskigan to have him make me a shoe of gold. To-morrow
you must not use any of the things you have had out-of-doors, but
you may make use of them when you build the _taltalabong_."

The last spirit to come that night was Ablalansa who keeps guard
over the sons of Kadaklan. He paused only for a drink and to tell the
people that America was very near to the place, where the big birds
live who eat people.

It was midnight when the medium informed us that no more spirits
would come that evening, and we went to rest.

About six o'clock the next morning, the women began the ceremonial
pounding of the rice known as _kitong_ (cf. p. 329) in the yard, while
one of the mediums went to the bound pig lying in the dwelling and
recited a _diam_ as she stroked its side; she also poured a little
_basi_ through the slits in the floor for the use of any visiting
spirits. While the women were thus engaged, the men were busy
constructing spirit houses in the yard. Of greatest importance was
the _tangpap_ (Plate XXVII), a small bamboo structure with a slanting
roof, resting on four poles, and an interwoven bamboo floor fastened
about three feet above the ground. [152] Near one of the house poles
a funnel-shaped basket was tied, and in it was set a forked stick,
within the crotch of which was a little floor and roof, the whole
forming a resting place for the Igorot spirits of Talegteg. The
_pala-an_ needed a few repairs, and two of the old men looked after
these, while others made two long covered bamboo benches which might
be used either by visiting men or spirits. [153] Four long bamboo
poles were set in the ground, and a roof placed over them to form
the _bang-bangsal_, a shelter always provided for the spirits of Soyau.

By ten o'clock all was in readiness, and the people then gathered
in the dwelling, where the mediums began summoning the spirits. The
first to arrive was Omgbawan, a female spirit whose conversation
ran as follows: "I come now because you people ought to make this
ceremony. I did not come last night, for there were many spirits here,
and I was busy. You people who build _tangpap_ must provide all the
necessary things, even though they are costly. It is good that the
Americans are here. I never talked with one before."

Manaldek [154] was the next arrival, and as he was one of the spirits
who was supposed to have caused the patient's illness, his visit was
of considerable importance. He was presented with a spear and prepared
betel-nut. The latter was attached to the point of the weapon, and
this was pressed against the body of the pig, then the spirit touched
each member of the family in order to drive the sickness from them.

Mamonglo ordered the family under a white blanket, and then touched
the head of each person with a lead sinker, while his companion
spirit waved a bundle of rice and a firebrand over them, "To take
away the sickness which they had sent." Six other spirits came
long enough to drink, then Bisangolan occupied the attention of
all for a time. He is an old man, a giant who lives near the river,
and with his head-axe keeps the trees and driftwood from jamming,
and thus prevents floods. For quite a time he chatted about himself,
then finally blew smoke over the people, at the same time assuring
them that the sickness would now vanish like the smoke. Just before
departing he informed the family that a spirit named Imalbi had caused
the trouble in the patient's eyes, and that on the next morning they
must build a little house, called _balitang_, among the banana trees,
and place in it a live chicken.

Gayangayan, a female spirit from Lagayan, followed, rubbed the head
of each person, blew smoke over them, and then announced thus: "The
people of Layogan [155] must not close their doors when it rains,
or it will stop."

The attitude of the people toward the weaker and less important spirits
was well shown when Ambayau, a wild female spirit, arrived. She
demanded to know where she could secure heads, and immediately the
people began to tell her all sorts of impossible places, and made jests
about her and her family. Finally they told her to take the head of
a certain Christianized native; but she refused, since she had short
hair, and it would be hard for her to carry the skull. While she
was still talking, the men started to carry the pig from the room,
but she detained them, to explain that the people cut the meat into
too large pieces, for "we spirits eat only so much," indicating a
pinch. The spirit Soyau came for a drink, and then all the people
went out to the _tangpap_, where the pig was killed, singed, and cut
up. A small pig was laid beside the _pala-an_, and for a time was
guarded by the son of the sick woman, who for this event had placed
the notched chicken-feathers in his hair, and had put on bracelets
of boar's tusks. As soon as she had finished at the _tangpap_, the
medium came to the _pala-an_, and having recited the proper _diam_
over the pig lying there, ordered it killed in the manner already
described for this structure (cf. p. 329). Both animals were then
cooked, and soon all the guests were eating, drinking and jesting.

Late in the afternoon, the spirit mat was spread in the yard near to
the _tangpap_, and the mediums began summoning the spirits. The first
to come was Mamabeyan, an Igorot spirit for whom the people showed
the utmost contempt. They guyed him, threw dirty water on his body,
and in other ways insulted him, until in his fury he tried to climb the
house posts to punish a group of girls, the worst offenders, but men
and women rushed up with sticks and clubs, and drove him back. After
a time he calmed down, and going to a bound pig, he addressed it as
"a pretty lady," and tried to caress it.

While this clown spirit was amusing the crowd, a second medium
brought out ten coconut shells, one of which was filled with blood
and rice. These she placed on a winnower, which in turn was set on a
rice-mortar. Soon the spirit Ilongbosan entered her body, and commanded
the son of the patient to take some of the blood and rice from the
one dish, place it in all the others, and then put it back again,
"for when the spirits make a man sick, they take part of his life,
and when they make him well, they put it back. So the boy takes a part
of the blood and rice away, and gives it to the spirits, then puts
it back." The spirit was followed, by Gilen, who bade the lad take
hold of one side of the winnower, while he held the other. Raising
it in the air, they danced half way round the mortar, then retraced
their steps. "This is because the spirits only partially took the
life away. Now they put it back." As they finished dancing, Gilen
struck his spear against the boy's head-axe and departed.

The medium, now with her own personality, leaned a shield against the
rice-mortar, and in the [Lambda] thus formed she hung a small bundle
of rice and a burning cord, while over the whole she spread a fish
net. Scarcely had she completed this task, when she was possessed
by the spirit of Kibayen, this being walked round and round the
net, seeking for an opening, but without success. Later the medium
explained, "The rice and fire represent the woman's life, which the
spirit wishes to take; but she cannot, since she is unable to pass
through the fish net."

The next visitor was Yangayang, who began to boast of his power to make
persons ill. Suddenly the medium fell to the ground in convulsions,
and then stretched out in a dead faint. The writer examined her
closely, but could not detect her breathing. After a moment, the
second medium seized a rooster and waved it over the prostrate form,
while an old man gave a sharp stroke on a gong close to her head. The
medium awoke from her faint and thus "the death was frightened away."

Mamonglo, who had been present during the morning, returned for a
moment to again rub the family and guests with his lead sinker. While
he was thus engaged, the second medium was possessed by Baniyat,
a female who made a bit of fun by trying to steal the beads of the
young girls, "so the men would love her." Several times she tried
to scale the house ladder, but was always repulsed, and each failure
was greeted with jeers and ridicule.

Gomogopos, who causes stomach troubles, came, and after dancing
before the rice-mortar, demanded that a small pig be laid before the
_tangpap_. Scarcely had the animal been deposited, when the spirit
seized a head-axe and cut it in two at one blow. Then he dipped the
weapon in its blood and applied it to the stomach of each member
of the family. "The pig is his pay, and now he takes away his kind
of sickness."

The second medium secured a live rooster, and using its wings as a
brush, she took up the blood and the two halves of the pig, and put
them in the _tangpap_. "The rooster is the spirits' brush, and when
the dirt In front of the _tangpap_ is cleaned up, then the people will
be clean and well inside their bodies." At the command of the medium,
the husband of the patient went to the opposite side of the _tangpap_;
then she threw a bundle of rice over the structure to him. He caught
it, and immediately threw it back. This was repeated six times, but
on the seventh the bundle lighted on the roof, where it was allowed
to remain. "The spirit threw away the lives of the people, but the
man returned them. The bundle is now on the _tangpap_, so now the
people's lives will remain safe."

An unnamed spirit was next to appear, and at his command the fore part
of the pig was stood upright in the winnower, and a stick was placed in
each nostril. These were seized by the spirit, who pumped them up and
down, then withdrew them, and stroked each member of the family, while
he chanted, "I did this to your lives, so now I must do it to you."

Saking, a lame spirit, called for one of the pig's legs, and with
it rubbed the limbs of each member of the family, "so that they will
not become ill in their legs."

One of the mediums now became possessed by Mangamian, who carried
a feather which he used as a fighting knife. The onlookers seized
similar weapons and defended themselves, or drove the spirit away
by threatening him with a small dog. A fire had been built near
the _tangpap_, and from time to time the spirit would rush up to
this, thrust his feather into the flames, and then put it into his
mouth. Later it was explained, "He is an evil spirit who tries to
kill people. The feather is his bolo. He is like a blacksmith, and
when his knife gets dull, he puts it in the fire, then puts it in his
mouth to wet it, so as to make it ring." Three spirits now appeared in
quick succession, and discussed with the old men the advisability of
adopting the Americans [156] as Ipogau. Finally the leader Ilabdangan
called them to the mat before him and told them their names, and also
recited a list of their relations. Then, filling a coconut shell with
_basi_, he drank half and presented the shell to each candidate, who
had to drain it to the last drop. A circle was formed, and for the
balance of the afternoon the new members of the tribe had to dance
_tadek_ with their relations.

Just before dusk, the Igorot spirit Daliwaya, who had been present the
night before, appeared and demanded that the American give her cloth
for her clout. When she received this, she sang and then instructed
the men how to dance in Igorot fashion. When finally they were doing
her bidding, she danced beside them with outstretched arms in the
manner of the Igorot women. Later, when the medium was again herself,
we questioned her concerning her knowledge of this dance, but she
professed absolute ignorance.

That evening the people danced _tadek_, for a short time, near to the
_pala-an_, then a fire was built beside the _tangpap_, and by its light
the visitors danced _da-eng_ until far into the night (cf.p. 440).

Early the next morning, the men went to some banana trees near
to a rice granary, and there constructed a little spirit house,
which resembled the _pala-an_, except that it was only about four
feet high. This was called _balitang_, and was made in fulfilment of
the orders given by the spirit Imalbi on the previous evening. When
it was finished, the medium placed a dish of broken rice on it, and
then tied a rooster with a belt close enough, so that the fowl could
eat of the rice. Returning to the dwelling, she took down a small
shield which was attached to the wall, placed new leaves and a dish
of oil on it. Then as she stirred the oil, she sang the _Talatal_
(Plate XXXII). The significance of this song, which consists only
of mentioning the names of prominent men of various villages, seems
to be lost. The _kalang_, or spirit box, was then redecorated, food
was dropped through the slits in the floor for visiting spirits,
and finally the medium held the shield over the heads of the family,
beat upon it with a head-axe, while in a loud voice she asked the
spirits that, since the family was now celebrating _tangpap_, they
would please make them well again. The shield was fastened to the
wall, new offerings of _basi_ were placed in the _kalang_, and after
it had been swung over the head of the patient, it was again fastened
above the house beam near to the roof.

For the next hour the mediums summoned spirits to them. The first five
had little of interest to offer, except that each demanded that his
liquor be served to him on a head-axe. When the spirit Amangau arrived,
he spent the time boasting of his head-hunting exploits; he told of how
he had gone to one village, and had killed all the people, except one
pregnant woman, and of the dance which followed. Finally he claimed
the credit of having killed a man who had recently died in Manabo,
and assured the people that his friends were then dancing about the
head. The spirit Banbanyalan, who followed, disclaimed any part in the
killing just mentioned, but verified the statement of his predecessor.

Tomakdeg came, and after filling his mouth with rice, blew it out
over the people, in the same way that the sickness was to be spit
out. Meanwhile Bebeka-an, armed with a wooden spoon, tried to dig
up the floor and the people on it, "for that is the way she digs
up sickness." Awa-an, a spirit of the water, came to inform the
people that the spirit of a man recently drowned was just passing the
house. Everything else was abandoned for a few moments, while _basi_
was poured out of the window, so that the dead might receive drink.

Two female spirits, Dalimayawan and Ginlawan, came at the same
time and danced together, while they informed the people of their
beauty and their expertness in dancing. Suddenly they stopped,
and said that Andayau, the mother of Lakgangan, was near by; then
they instructed the host that he should wrap a gourd in a cloth and
tell Andayau that it was her son's head, and that he had been killed,
because he had stolen carabao. Scarcely had the two visitors departed,
when the mother appeared, and being informed of her son's death, she
began to wail, "He is lost. No one works the fields, where we planted
calabasa. Lakgangan is lost, he who has been killed. Why did you go
to steal carabao? We have put Lakgangan in a hammock; we take him to
Tomakdang. The _basi_ put out for Lakgangan is good. He is lost whom
they went to kill. Lakgangan is lost. We take him to Tomakdang."

The song was interrupted by a head-hunting spirit, who demanded the
heads of two visiting girls from Patok, but she finally went away
satisfied with a piece of cloth which they gave her. Blood and oil
were sprinkled liberally over the ground and the gathering broken up
for the morning.

All the forenoon, a small group of men and women, had been constructing
a small covered bamboo raft, and had placed in it a sack of rice,
which had been contributed by all the people. [157]

By four o'clock a large number of people had gathered in the yard near
the house, and soon the spirit mats were spread on an old bedstead,
and the mediums started again to summon the superior beings. The first
two to appear were Esteban from Cagayan and Maria from Spain. They wore
gay handkerchiefs about their shoulders, and when they danced, gave
an imitation of the Spanish dances now seen among the Christianized
natives of the coast. It was quite evident that these foreign spirits
were not popular with the people, and they were distinctly relieved
when Mananako replaced them. This spirit has the reputation of being
a thief, and the guests had great sport preventing him from stealing
the gifts intended for other spirits.

In the midst of this revelry, the other medium was suddenly possessed
by Kadaklan--the supreme being. The laughter and jesting ceased, and
breathlessly the people listened, while the most powerful being said,
"I am Kadaklan. Here in this town where I talk, you must do the things
you ought to do. I hear what you say you desire, and I see what you are
able to do. Something ill will befall you unless you quickly celebrate
_Sagobay_ (cf. p. 324), when there are no strangers or Christians in
your town. Where is the _basi_ which should have been in the place
where I first came?" [158] Without awaiting an answer he vanished,
and his wife Agemem took his place and repeated his remarks with
little variation.

Sopo, a gambler, next appeared and tossed handfuls of coins into a
blanket. He stated that if heads came up, the people won and would
have good health, but if they lost, their lives were his. As soon as
he threw, the people rushed up, and if they saw any tails they were
quickly turned, and the spirit was informed that he had lost.

Kimat, lightning, came and demanded a drink, which was given. As he is
usually considered as a dog, the writer inquired why he had appeared
as a man, but was rewarded only by a shrug of the shoulders and the
word--_kadauyan_ ("custom").

Another spirit, Andeles, quickly replaced lightning, and with Sopo
danced on the spirit raft, while the old men put dishes of water and
coins inside, and fastened a small live chicken to the roof. The people
then tried to induce the spirits to leave, but they refused. Suddenly
they were flung aside, and two strong men seized the raft and started
to run with it. Immediately the two spirits gave chase and fought
viciously all who tried to get in their way, but when, finally,
their opponents were joined by an old woman carrying a bundle of
burning rice straw and an old man beating a drum, they gave up the
chase and vanished. The party proceeded on to the Abra river, where
they waded out into deep water and set the raft afloat (Plate XXVI).

That evening the guests danced _da-eng_, and the ceremony was over.

Throughout the three days, the mediums had been constantly drinking
of _basi_, and while under the strain of the ceremony, they had not
appeared intoxicated, but at its conclusion both were hopelessly
drunk. The payment for the service was one half of the largest pig,
unthreshed rice, and about two pesos in money, which was given in
exchange for the beads which different spirits had demanded.

Kalangan.--In Manabo and the villages of that vicinity a period
of about seven years elapses between the building of _tangpap_ and
the celebration of _Kalangan_, but in most of the valley towns the
latter ceremony follows _Pala-an_ after two or three years. [159]
The ceremony is so similar to the _Tangpap_ just described that only
the barest outline will be given here. The chief difference in the
two is the type of structure built for the spirits. _Kalangan_ has
four supporting timbers to which the flooring is lashed, and from
which kingposts go to ridge poles. A bamboo frame rests on this and,
in turn, supports an overhanging grass roof (Plate XXIII).

The procedure is as follows: Late in the afternoon, all the necessary
articles are brought to the house, then the mediums dance for a time to
the music of the _tongatong_. _Basi_ is served to the guests, and for
an hour or more the spirits are summoned. Next morning the _kalangan_
is built, and two pigs are sacrificed beside it. Their blood mixed with
oil is offered to the spirits, and many acts, such as distributing the
rice into ten dishes and then replacing it in the original container,
the churning of sticks in the nose of a slaughtered animal and the
like, are performed. Spirits are summoned in the afternoon, and in
the evening _da-eng_ is danced. On the third day new offerings are
placed on the spirit shield and hanger; offerings are made at the
new structure, numerous spirits appear, talk to and amuse the people,
and finally _da-eng_ is danced until late evening.

Following the ceremony, all members of the family are barred from work
for about one month. They may not eat the meat of the wild carabao,
wild hog, beef, eels, nor may they use peppers in their food. Wild
fowl are barred for a period of one year.

_Kalangan_ is much more widespread than either _Tangpap_ or the
_Sayang_ ceremony, and this spirit structure is often found in
villages, where the other great ceremonies are lacking.

_Sayang_.--The greatest of all the ceremonies is the _Sayang_,
the ability to celebrate which proclaims the family as one of
wealth and importance. In most cases the right is hereditary, but,
as already indicated, a person may gain the privilege by giving,
in order, and through a term of years, all the minor ceremonies. In
such circumstances _Sayang_ follows _Kalangan_ after a lapse of from
four to eight years. Otherwise the ceremony will be held about once
in seven years, or when the spirit structure known as _balaua_ is in
need of repairs.

Originally this appears to have been a seventeen-day ceremony, as
it still is in Manabo, Patok, Lagangilang, and neighboring villages,
but in San Juan, Lagayan, Danglas, and some other settlements it now
lasts only five or seven days. However, even in those towns where it
occupies full time, the first twelve days are preliminary in nature.

On the first day, the mediums go to the family dwelling and take
great pains to see that all forbidden articles are removed, for wild
ginger, peppers, shrimps, carabao flesh, and wild pork are tabooed,
both during the ceremony and for the month following. The next duty
is to construct a woven bamboo frame known as _talapitap_ on which
the spirits are fed, and to prepare two sticks known as _dakidak_,
one being a thin slender bamboo called _bolo_, the other a reed. These
are split at one end, so they will rattle when struck on the ground,
and thus call the attention of the spirit for whom food is placed on
the rack.

That evening a fire is built in the yard, and beside it the mediums
dance _da-eng_ alone. Meanwhile a number of women gather in the yard
and pound rice out of the straw. This pounding of rice continues
each evening of the first five days. The first night they beat out
ten bundles, the second, twenty, and so on, until they clean fifty
on the fifth day.

Little occurs during the second and third days, but on these evenings
the young men and girls join the mediums and dance _da-eng_ by the
fire in the yard. The fourth and fifth nights are known as _ginitbet_
("dark"), for then no fires are lighted, and the mediums dance
alone. It is supposed that the black spirits, those who are deformed,
or who are too shy to appear before the people, will come out at this
time and enjoy the ceremony.

Beginning with the sixth day the women pound rice in the early
morning. Starting with ten bundles, they increase the number by
ten each day until on the thirteenth morning they pound out eighty
bundles. A fire is lighted in the yard on the sixth day, and is kept
burning continuously through the eighth, but the ninth and tenth are
nights of darkness. When the fire is burning, it is a sign for all who
wish, to come and dance, and each evening finds a jolly party of young
people gathered in the yard, where they take part in the festivities,
or watch the mediums, as they offer rice to the superior beings.

On the eleventh day, a long white blanket (_tabing_) is stretched
across one corner of the room, making a private compartment for the use
of visiting spirits. That evening, as it grows dark, a jar of _basi_
is carried up into the house. All lights are extinguished both in
the yard and the dwelling, so that the guests have to grope their way
about. After the liquor is consumed, they go down into the yard, where,
in darkness, they join the medium in dancing _da-eng._ The twelfth day
is known as _Pasa-ad_--"the building." During the preliminary days,
the men have been bringing materials for use in constructing the great
spirit-house called _balaua_, and on this morning the actual work is
started. In form the _balaua_ resembles the _kalangan_, but it is large
enough to accommodate a dozen or more people, and the supporting posts
are trunks of small trees (Plate XXI). After the framework is complete,
one side of the roof is covered with cogon grass, but the other is
left incomplete. Meanwhile the women gather near by and pound rice in
the ceremonial manner described in the _Pala-an_ ceremony (cf. p. 329).

As soon as the building is over for the day, a jar of _basi_ is
carried into the structure, a little of the liquor is poured into
bamboo tubes and tied to each of the corner poles. The balance of the
liquor is then served to the men who sit in the _balaua_ and play
on copper gongs. Next, a bound pig is brought in, and is tied to a
post decorated with leaves and vines. Soon the medium appears, and
after placing prepared betel-nut and lime on the animal, she squats
beside it, dips her fingers into coconut oil, and strokes its side,
then later dips a miniature head-axe into the oil, and again strokes
the animal, while she repeats a _diam_. This is a recital of how in
ancient times Kadaklan and Agemen instructed the Tinguian as to the
proper method of celebrating the _Sayang_ ceremony. [160] A little
later the pig is removed from the _balaua_, and its throat is cut,
first with a metal blade, but the deep, mortal thrust is made with a
bamboo spike. The animal is then singed, but its blood is carefully
saved for future use (Plate XXXIII). While all this is taking place,
the men in the _balaua_ drink _basi_ and sing _dalengs_ in which they
praise the liberality of their hosts, tell of the importance of the
family, and express hope for their continued prosperity. As they sing,
the chief medium goes from one to another of the guests, and after
dipping a piece of lead in coconut oil, holds it to their nostrils
as a protection against evil. When finally the pig has been singed
and scraped, it is again brought into the _balaua_, and its body is
opened by a transverse cut at the throat and two slits lengthwise of
its abdomen. The intestines are removed and placed in a tray, but the
liver is carefully examined for an omen. If the signs are favorable,
the liver is cooked and is cut up, a part is eaten by the old men, and
the balance is attached to the corner pole of the spirit structure. The
head, one thigh, and two legs are laid on a crossbeam for the spirits,
after which the balance of the meat is cooked and served with rice
to the guests. That evening many friends gather in the yard to dance
_da-eng_, to drink _basi_, or to sing _daleng_. According to tradition,
it was formerly the custom to send golden betel-nuts to invite guests
whom they wished especially to honor. [161] Nowadays one or more
leading men from other villages may be especially invited by being
presented with a bit of gold, a golden earring or bead. When such
a one arrives at the edge of the yard, he is placed in a chair, is
covered with a blanket, and is carried to the center of the dancing
space by a number of women singing _diwas_ (cf. p. 452). At frequent
intervals the merry-making is interrupted by one of the mediums who
places the _talapitap_ on the ground, puts rice and water on it,
and then summons the spirits with the split sticks. Once during the
evening, she places eight dishes and two coconut shells of water on
the rack. Reaching into one of the dishes which contains rice, she
takes out a handful and transfers it, a little at a time, into each
of the others, then extracting a few grains from each, she throws
it on the ground and sprinkles it with water from the two cups. The
remaining rice is returned to the original holder, and the act is
repeated eight times. The significance of this seems to be the same
as in the _Tangpap_ ceremony, where the life of the individual is
symbolized by the rice, which is only partially taken away and is again
returned. The next act is always carried out, but its meaning appears
to be lost. The eight dishes are filled with rice, and are placed on
the frame together with sixteen coconut shells of water, and eight men
and eight women seat themselves on opposite sides. First they eat a
little of the food, then taking a small amount in their fingers, they
dip it into the water and place it in the mouth of the person opposite.

The fourteenth day is known as _Palay-lay_--"the seasoning"--and
during the next twenty-four hours the people remain quietly in the
village while the bamboo used in the _balaua_ "becomes good."

Next day is one of great activity. The roofing of the _balaua_ is
completed, all necessary repairs are made to the dwelling, for dire
results would follow should any part of the house break through during
the concluding days of the ceremony. The balance of the day is taken
up in dancing and in the construction of the following spirit-houses:
the _Aligang, Balabago, Talagan, Idasan, Balag, Batog, Alalot, Pangkew_
and _Sogayob_ (cf. pp. 308-311). Also a little bench is built near
the hearth, and on it are placed coconut shell cups and drinks for
the use of the Igorot spirits who usually come this night.

The evening of this day is known as _Libon_--"plenty" or
"abundance." Toward nightfall the mediums, and their helpers enter the
dwelling and decorate it in a manner already described for the great
ceremonies. Cords cross the room from opposite corners and beneath,
where they meet, the medium's mat is spread. On the cords are hung
grasses, flowers, girdles, and wreaths of young coconut leaves. When
all is ready, a small pig is brought into the room, while the men
play frantically on their gongs and drums. On the medium's mat are
many articles, _alangtin_ leaves, a rooster, a branch filled with
young betel-nuts, cooked rice moulded into the form of an alligator,
but with a wax head and seeds for eyes, a spear, and a bundle of
rice straw. Taking up a dish of water, the medium pours a part of it
into the pig's ear; then, as the animal shakes its head, she again
catches it in the dish. Rolling up a mat, she dips it into the water,
and with it touches the heads of all members of the family, for in
the same manner that the pig has thrown the water out of its ear,
so in a like fashion will illness and misfortune be thrown from
all the family who have been sprinkled with it. This act finished,
the medium dances before the doors and windows, while she waves the
chicken, betel-nuts, or other objects taken from the mat.

At her invitation, the host and his wife join her, but previously
they have dressed themselves in good garments, and on their heads
and at their waists they wear girdles and wreaths of _alangtin_,
or wild grasses. The host is handed a long knife, and is instructed
to cut the throat of the pig. His wife takes a rice winnower and
a stick, and going to each window strikes the winnower five times,
then drops it to the floor, at the same time crying, "Wa-hui." Next,
she strikes a jar of liquor with the winnower, then shakes a coconut
shell filled with rice against her abdomen; when finished she is
handed a live chicken and again she approaches the jar. Soon she is
joined by her husband, armed with a spear and head-axe. As he passes
the liquor, he stamps on the ground, while his wife waves the fowl,
and all this time the medium continues to sprinkle them with a grass
brush dipped in water. No explanation is given for the individual acts,
but the purpose of the whole is to drive away sickness, "just as the
rooster flaps his wings." Ten dishes are placed on the spirit mat,
and as the medium sings, she touches each one in turn with a split
bamboo; after which she piles the dishes up and has the host come and
squat over them three times. Another sprinkling with water follows
this act, and then the medium swings a bundle of rice and a lighted
torch over the head of each member of the family, while she assures
them that all evil spirits will now depart.

The guests go down to the yard, where they are served with liquor,
and where they dance _da-eng_ and _tadek_. On all former occasions,
the liquor has been served in shell cups, but on this night a sort
of pan-pipe, made of bamboo tubes, is filled with liquor. The guest
drinks from the lowest of the series, and as he does so, the liquor
falls from one to another, so that he really drinks from all at one
time. Bamboo tubes attached to poles by means of cords are likewise
filled with _basi_ and served to the dancers.

While the others are enjoying themselves, the mediums and the hosts
are attending strictly to the business in hand. Dressed in their best
garments, the husband and wife go to each one of the spirit houses,
and touch them with their feet, a circuit which has to be repeated
ten times. Each time as they pass the little porch-like addition,
known as _sogayob_, the mediums sprinkle them with water. When they
have completed their task, the mediums spread a mat in front of the
pig, which lies below the _sogayob_, and on it they dance, pausing
now and then to give the animal a vicious kick or to throw broken
rice over it. And so the night is passed without sleep or rest for
any of the principals in the ceremony.

The sixteenth day is _Kadaklan_,--"the greatest." Soon after daybreak,
the people accompany the medium to the guardian stones near the gate
of the village, and watch her in silence, while she anoints the head
of each stone with oil, and places a new yellow bark band around its
"neck." As soon as she finishes, the musicians begin to play vigorously
on their gongs and drums, while two old men kill a small pig and
collect its blood. The carcass is brought to the medium, who places
it beside four dishes, one filled with _basi_, one with salt, one with
vinegar, and the last with the pig's blood. She drinks of the liquor,
dips her fingers in coconut oil, and strokes the pig's stomach, after
which it is cut up in the usual manner. The liver is studied eagerly,
for by the markings on it the fate of the host can be foretold. Should
the signs be unfavorable, a chicken will be sacrificed in the hope that
the additional offering may induce the spirits to change their verdict;
but if the omens are good, the ceremony proceeds without a halt. The
intestines and some pieces of meat are placed on the _ansi-silit,_--a
small spirit frame or table near the stones. The host, who has been
watching from a distance, is summoned, and is given a piece of the
flesh to take back to his house for food, and then the rest of the
meat is cooked and served to the guests. But before anything is eaten,
the medium places prepared betel-nuts before the stones, mixes blood
with rice, and scatters it broadcast, meanwhile calling the spirits
from near and far to come and eat, and to go with her to the village,
where she is to continue the ceremony. As the company approaches the
_balaua_, the musicians begin to beat on their gongs, while women in
the yard pound rice in ceremonial fashion. When they have finished,
the family goes up into the _balaua_ and dances to the music of the
gongs until the medium bids them stop.

The pig which has been lying in front of the _sogayob_, and another
from the yard, are killed, and are laid side by side near to the
_balaua_ in a spot indicated by the medium. She places a bamboo tube
of water between them, on their backs she lays several pieces of
prepared betel-nut, then strokes their sides with oiled fingers. Her
next duty is to sprinkle _basi_ from the jar onto the ground with
a small head-axe, at the same time calling the spirits to come and
drink. (Plate XXXIV). A bundle which has been lying beside the animals
is opened, and from it the medium takes a red and yellow headband
with chicken feathers attached, and boar's tusk armlets. These she
places on the host, then hands him a blanket. Holding the latter in
his outstretched arms, as he would do if dancing _tadek_, he squats
repeatedly over a dish of water. As he finishes, the medium takes
the tube of water from between the pigs, and pouring a little of it
on her hand, she applies it to the abdomen of the man's wife and
children. The animals are now cooked in yard, while a quantity of
rice is made ready in the house. During the preparation of the meal,
the musicians play incessantly, but as the food is brought out,
they cease and join the others in the feast.

It is late in the afternoon before much activity is again manifest. At
first a few gather and begin to dance _tadek_; little by little
others come in until by nightfall the yard is full. _Basi_ is served
to all, and soon, above the noisy laughter of the crowd, is heard the
voice of some leading man singing the _daleng_. The visitors listen
respectfully to the song and to the reply, then resume the music and
dancing. After a time a huge fire is built in the yard, and by the
flickering light two lines of boys and girls or older people will
form to sing and dance the _daeng._ [162]

On the morning of the seventeenth day, the men kill two pigs, usually
by chasing them through the brush and spearing them to death. They
are prepared in the usual way, and are placed, one in the _balaua_,
the other in the _sogayob_, where they are cut up. A bit of the flesh
is left in each structure, the fore half of one animal is carried
into the yard, but the rest is prepared for food.

On an inverted rice-mortar, in the yard, is placed a jar of _basi_,
notched chicken feathers, and boar's tusks. The man and his wife are
summoned before this, are decorated as on the day before, and are
instructed to dance three times around the mortar. While this is going
on, a shield and a rice winnower are leaned against each other so as
to form an arch on which lies a sheaf of rice. From the middle hangs
a piece of burning wood, while over all a fish net is thrown. As in a
former ceremony (cf. p. 347), the rice and fire represent the life of
some member of the family, which the evil spirits may desire to seize,
but they are prevented, since they are unable to pass through the
meshes of the net. Going to the half of the pig, which stands upright
in a rice winnower, the medium places a string of beads--agate and
gold--around its neck and attaches bits of gold to its legs. Then
she places a thin stick in each nostril and pumps them alternately
up and down, as a smith would work his forge. After a little she
removes the plungers, and with them strokes the bodies of members of
the family. Near to the pig stands a dish of water in which the heart
is lying. The host goes to this, removes the heart, and placing it on
his head-axe, takes it in front of the animal, where it lies, while
he pumps the nostril-sticks up and down ten times. Meanwhile his wife
is decorated with wreathes of leaves and vines; a leaf containing
the pig's tail and some of the flesh is placed on her head, and a
spear is put in her left hand. As her husband completes his task,
she goes to the mortar, where she finds one dish full of blood and
rice and the empty coconut shells. The rice and blood represent the
lives of the family, and following the instructions of the medium,
she takes these lives and places them little by little on the shells,
but before all is gone, the medium bids her return them to the big
dish. In a like manner the spirits may take a part of the life of the
family, but will return it again. This act is repeated ten times. Next
she takes a piece of woven bamboo, shaped like two triangles set end
on end [163], and goes to the _batog_, where her daughter sits under
a fish-net holding a similar "shield." They press these together,
and the mother returns to the mortar eight times. The mediums who
have gathered beneath the _sogayob_ begin to sing, while one of them
beats time with a split bamboo stick. At the conclusion of the song,
one of them offers _basi_ to the spirits and guests, and then placing
a bundle of green leaves on the ground, she pours water over it,
while the host and his wife are made to tramp in the mud. The man is
now carrying the spear, while the woman holds a cock in one hand, and
an empty dish in the other. As they are stamping on the damp leaves,
old women stand near by showering them with rice and water.

Since early morning a dog has been tied at the end of the house. It
is now brought up to the bundle of leaves, and is knocked on the head
with a club, its throat is cut, and some of its blood is applied with a
head-axe to the backs of the man and woman. More water is poured on the
bundle, again they tramp in the mud, and again they are showered with
rice and water. The man goes to one side of the _balaua_, and throws
a bundle of rice over it to his wife, who returns it eight times.

A strange procession now forms and winds its way to the stream. In the
lead is the host armed with spear, shield, and head-axe; next comes
the medium carrying the bamboo rack--_talapitap_--like a shield,
and the split bamboo--_dakidak_--as a spear; next is an old woman
with a coconut shell dish, then another with a bundle of burning
rice straw; behind her is the wife followed by a man who drags the
dead dog. They stop outside of the village, while the medium hides
the rack and split bamboo near the trail. Soon the man with the dog
leaves the line and drags the animal to a distant tree, where he ties
it in the branches. As they arrive at the stream, the people pause,
while the medium holds the shell cup beside the burning straw, and
recites a _diam_. The writer tried on two occasions to get this _diam_,
but it was given so low and indistinctly that its full content was
not secured, neither was it possible to get the medium to repeat it
after the ceremony. From what was heard it seems probable it is the
_dawak diam_, [164] a guess made more probable by the killing of the
dog and the bathing which follows. As soon as the medium finishes,
the whole party disrobes and bathes.

Upon their return to the village, they are met by a company of men and
boys who assail them by throwing small green nuts. The host secures
the spirit rack which the medium had hidden, and with it attempts to
ward off the missiles. Despite this show of hostility, the company
proceeds to the _sogayob_, where the man and his wife wash their faces
in water containing pieces of coconut leaves. During all the morning
a number of women have been preparing food, and this is now served
to the guests, a considerable company of whom have collected. Late
in the afternoon, all the spirits are remembered in a great offering
of food. A framework is constructed in the yard, [165] and on it
are placed eggs, meat, fish, rice cakes, sugar, betel-nut, tobacco,
_basi_, and rice mixed with blood. After allowing the superior beings
a few moments to finish their repast, the viands are removed, and from
then until sunset all the guests dance _tadek_. As darkness comes,
a great fire is lighted in the yard, and within the circle of its
light the company gathers, while the more important men sing _daleng_.

In some of the villages men gather the next morning to do any necessary
work on the _balaua_, and then the mediums celebrate the _dawak_,
[166] which always forms a part of this ceremony. In Manabo the _dawak_
follows after an interval of three days.

This great and final event is so much like the procedure which makes
up the _Tangpap_ ceremony that it seems necessary to give it only
in skeleton form, adding explanations whenever they appear to be
necessary. In the _balaua_ is spread a mat covered with gifts for
the spirits who are expected. Here also is the spirit shield from
the dwelling, and a great heap of refuse made up of the leaves,
vines and other articles used in the preceding days.

When all is ready, a medium seats herself by the mat, dips oil from a
shallow dish with a small head-axe, and lets it drip onto the ground;
then she does the same with _basi_, and finally strokes a rooster
which lies beside the jar, all the while reciting the proper _diam_.

Taking the spirit shield, which belongs in the dwelling, she puts
oil at each corner, and then touches the heads of all the family with
it. Beads and betel-leaf are added, and the shield is carried to the
house, where it is again fastened to the wall, as a testimony to all
passing spirits that the ceremony has been made, and food provided
for them.

The time has now arrived for the spirits to appear. Seating herself
beside the mat, the medium strikes on a plate with her shells or a
piece of lead, and then starts her song. She rubs her hands together
with a revolving motion, swings her arms, and begins to tremble from
head to foot. Suddenly she is possessed by a spirit, and under his
direction holds oil to the nostrils of the host, and beats him with a
small whip of braided betel-leaf. This done, she drinks for the spirit,
and it departs. Again she sings, and again she is possessed. One
spirit takes the rooster, and with its wings cleans up the rubbish
in the _balaua_ and in the yard, empties it in a tray, and orders it
taken from the village. In the same way all sickness and misfortune
will be removed from the settlement.

Several spirits follow, and as the morning wears on, the medium becomes
more and more intense. The muscles of her neck and the veins of her
forehead stand out like cords, while perspiration streams from her
bod. Taking a shield and head-axe in her hand, she does a sort of
muscle dance, then goes to each member of the family, and strikes the
weapons together over their heads; from them she goes to the doors
and windows, and strikes at them with the axe. Finally she returns to
the mat, balances a cup of _basi_ on the weapon, and causes the host
to drink. Another attack on the doors follows, and then in exhaustion
she sinks beside the mat. After a short rest, she dips beads in oil,
and with them touches the heads of the family. The musicians strike
up a lively tattoo at this point, and again seizing her weapons,
the medium dances in front of the spirit shield. Going to the rooster
on the mat, she cuts off a part of its comb, and presses the bloody
fowl against the back or leg of each person in the room. The spirit
drinks and disappears.

The next visitor dances with the host, and then wrestles with him, but
upon getting the worst of the match takes leave. As in the _Tangpap_,
large number of minor beings call for a moment or two and pass on. One
spirit places the family beneath a blanket, cuts a coconut in two
above their heads, and first allows the water to run over them; then
finally the halves are allowed to drop. She waves burning rice-straw
above them, and removes the blanket. It is explained that the water
washes all evil away, and that as the shells fall from the family,
so will sickness leave them. Evil spirits are afraid of the fire,
and leave when the burning rice-straw is waved about the blanket.

As a final act the members of the family are instructed to hold,
in their hands the head-axe, chicken feathers, agate beads, and
other articles, and then to mount the rice-mortar in the yard. Soon
one or more of the mediums is possessed by spirits, who rush toward
the mortar, and strive to seize the prized objects. Before they can
accomplish their design, they are met by old men and women, who fight
them off. At last they abandon the attempt and, together with the
host and his wife, go to the edge of the town, where they pick sweet
smelling leaves and vines. These they carry back to the village to
give to the guests, and to place in the house and spirit dwellings.

As a final act _basi_ is served to all, and _tadek_ is danced until
the guests are ready to return to their homes.

In San Juan they make the spirit raft--_taltalabong_--as in _Tangpap_,
and set it afloat at sunset.

The mediums are paid off in rice, a portion of the slaughtered animals,
beads, one or two blankets, and perhaps a weapon or piece of money.

During the succeeding month the family is prevented from doing
any work, from approaching a dead body, or entering the house of
death. Wild carabao, pig, beef, eels, and wild peppers may not be
eaten during this period, and wild chickens are taboo for one year.


SECTION 3

Special Ceremonies

The two ceremonies which follow do not have a wide distribution,
neither are they hereditary. They are given at this time because of
their similarity to the great ceremonies just described.

_Pinasal_.--This rather elaborate rite seems to be confined to San
Juan and nearby settlements. The right to it is not hereditary, and
any one who can afford the expense involved may celebrate it. However,
it usually follows the _Sayang_, if some member of the family is ill,
and is not benefited by that ceremony, for "all the spirits are not
present at each ceremony, and so it may be necessary to give others,
until the one who caused the sickness is found."

On the first day the house is decorated as in _Tangpap_ and _Sayang;_
a bound pig is placed beside the door, and over it the mediums recite
a _diam_ and later summon several spirits. Liquor is served to the
guests, who dance _tadek_ or sing songs in praise of the family.

Early the next day, the pig is killed and, after its intestines have
been removed, it is covered with a colored blanket, and is carried
into the dwelling. Here it is met by the mediums who wave rain coats
above the animal, and then wail over the carcass. "The pig and its
covering are in part payment for the life of the sick person. They
cry for the pig, so they will not need to cry for the patient." Later
the pig is cut up and prepared as food, only the head and feet being
left for the spirits.

_Gipas_, the dividing, follows. A Chinese jar is placed on its side,
and on each end a spear is laid, so that they nearly meet above
the center of the jar. Next a rolled mat is laid on the spears,
and finally four beads and a headband are added. The mat then is
cut through the middle, so as to leave equal parts of the headband
and two beads on each half. "This shows that the spirit is now paid,
and is separated from the house."

The next act is to stretch a rattan cord across the center of the
room and to place on it many blankets and skirts. A man and a woman,
who represent the good spirits Iwaginan and Gimbagon, are dressed in
fine garments, and hold in their hands pieces of gold, a fine spear,
and other prized articles. They are placed on one side of the cord,
and in front of them stand a number of men with their hands on each
others' shoulders. Now the mediums enter the other end of the room,
spread a mat, and begin to summon the spirits. Soon they are possessed
by evil beings who notice the couple representing the good spirits,
and seizing sticks or other objects, rush toward them endeavoring
to seize their wealth. When they reach the line of men, they strive
to break through, but to no avail. Finally they give this up, but
now attempt to seize the objects hanging on the line. Again they
are thwarted. "If the evil spirits get these things, they will come
often, their children will marry, and they also will harm the family;
but if the good beings keep their wealth, their children will marry,
and will aid the owner of the house."

Later one of the mediums and an old woman count the colors in a fine
blanket. Usually there are five colors, so "the spirit is powerless
to injure the people for five years." Next the couple gamble, but
the medium always loses. Finally the spirit becomes discouraged
and departs. The decorations are now taken from the room, and
the sick person is carried down to the river by the members of the
family. Arrived at the water's edge, the oldest relative will cut off
a dog's head as final payment for the life of the invalid. Since the
act is carried on beside the river, the spirits will either witness
the act, or see the blood as it floats away, and hence will not need
to visit the town. The rattan cord and vines used in the dwelling
are thrown onto the water for the same reason.

The whole family is covered with a large blanket, and a medium swings
a coconut over them, then resting the halves on the head of each one
for a moment, she releases them, meanwhile calling to the spirit,
"You see this; this is your share; do not come any more." After
assuring them that the sickness will now fall away from them, she
waves burning _cogon_ grass over their heads while she cries, "Go
away, sickness." The blanket is removed, and the family bathes. While
they are still in the water, the medium takes a spear and shield
in her hands, and going to the edge of the stream, she begins to
summon spirits, but all the while she keeps sharp watch of the
old man who killed the dog, for he is now armed and appears to be
her enemy. However, she is not molested until she starts toward the
village. When quite near to the settlement, she is suddenly attacked by
many people carrying banana stalks which they hurl at her. She succeeds
in warding these off, but while she is thus engaged, an old man runs
in and touches her with a spear. Immediately she falls as if dead,
and it is several moments before she again regains consciousness. This
attack is made to show the spirit how unwelcome it is, and in hopes
that such bad treatment will induce it to stay away.

After the return of the family to the village, the guests drink
_basi_, sing and dance, and usually several spirits are summoned by
the mediums.

The next morning two _Pinalasang_ [167] are constructed in the
yard. Each supports a plate containing beads, a string of beads
is suspended from one of the poles, and a jar of _basi_ is placed
beneath. In front of them the mediums call the spirits, then offer the
heart, livers, and intestines, while they call out, "Take me and do not
injure the people." The final act of the ceremony is to construct the
spirit raft _taltalabong_, load it with food, and set it afloat on the
river, "so that all the spirits may see and know what has been done."

In addition to the regular pay for their services, the mediums divide
the jaw of a pig and carry the portions home with them, as their
protection against lightning, and the spirits whose hostility they
may have incurred.

_Binikwau_.--This ceremony, like the one just described, seems
to be limited to the San Juan region, and is given under similar
circumstances.

The room is decorated as usual, and a bound pig is laid in the
center. This is known as "the exchange," since it is given in place
of the patient's life. Two mediums place betel-nut on the animal,
then stroke it with oil, saying, "You make the liver favorable,"
i.e., give a good omen. After a time they begin summoning the spirits,
and from then until late evening the guests divide their time between
the mediums and the liquor jars. Soon all are in a jovial mood, and
before long are singing the praises of their hosts, or are greeting
visiting spirits as old time friends.

The pig is killed early next morning, and its liver is eagerly examined
to learn whether or no the patient is destined to recover. A part of
the flesh is placed on the house rafters, for the use of the spirits,
while the balance is cooked and served. Following the meal, the gongs
and drums are brought up into the house, and the people dance or sing
until the mediums appear, ready to summon the spirits. The first to
come is Sabian, the guardian of the dogs. He demands that eight plates
and a coconut shell be filled with blood and rice; another shell is
to be filled with uncooked rice, in which a silver coin is hidden; and
finally a bamboo dog-trough must be provided. When his demands are met,
he begins to call, "Come, my dogs, come and eat." Later the blood and
rice are placed in the trough, and are carried to the edge of the town,
where they are left. This done, the spirit pierces the pig's liver with
a spear and, placing it on a shield, dances about the room. Finally,
stopping beside the mat, he lays them on the patient's stomach. The
next and final act is to scrape up a little of the liver with a small
head-axe, and to place this, mixed with oil, on the sick person.

On the third and last day, the medium leads a big dog to the edge of
the village, and then kills it with a club. A piece of the animal's ear
is cut off, is wrapped in a cloth, and is hung around the patient's
neck as a protection against evil, and as a sign to all spirits that
this ceremony has been held.

Throughout the rest of the day many spirits visit the mediums, and at
such a time Kakalonan is sure to appear to give friendly advice. The
final act is to set the spirit raft afloat on the stream.



CHAPTER VI

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. GOVERNMENT. THE VILLAGE

The village is the social unit within which there are no clans,
no political, or other divisions. The Tinguian are familiar with the
Igorot town, made up of several _ato_ [168] but there is no indication
that they have ever had such an institution.

The head of the village is known as _lakay_. He is usually a man
past middle age whose wealth and superior knowledge have given him
the confidence of his people. He is chosen by the older men of the
village, and holds his position for life unless he is removed for
cause. It is possible that, at his death, his son may succeed him,
but this is by no means certain.

The _lakay_ is supposed to be well versed in the customs of the
ancestors, and all matters of dispute or questions of policy are
brought to him. If the case is one of special importance he will summon
the other old men, who will deliberate and decide the question at
issue. They have no means of enforcing their decisions other than the
force of public opinion, but since an offender is ostracised, until
he has met the conditions imposed by the elders, their authority is
actually very great. Should a _lakay_ deal unjustly with the people,
or attempt to alter long established customs, he would be removed from
office and another be selected in his stead. No salary or fees are
connected with this office, the holder receiving his reward solely
through the esteem in which he is held by his people.

In former times two or three villages would occasionally unite to
form a loose union, the better to resist a powerful enemy, but with
the coming of more peaceful times such beginnings of confederacies
have vanished. During the Spanish regime attempts were made to
organize the pagan communities and to give titles to their officers,
but these efforts met with little success. Under American rule local
self government, accompanied by several elective offices, has been
established in many towns. The contest for office and government
recognition of the officials is tending to break down the old system
and to concentrate the power in the _presidente_ or mayor.

It is probable that the early Tinguian settlement consisted of one
or more closely related groups. Even to-day the family ties are so
strong that it was found possible, in compiling the genealogical
tables, to trace back the family history five or six generations.

These families are not distinguished by any totems, guardian spirits,
or stories of supernatural origin, but the right to conduct the
more important ceremonies is hereditary. Descent is traced through
both the male and female lines, and inheritance is likewise through
both sexes. There are no distinguishing terms for relations on the
father's or mother's side, nor are there other traces of matriarchal
institutions.

Families of means attain a social standing above that of their
less fortunate townsmen, but there is no sharp stratification of
the community into noble and serf, such as was coming into vogue
along many parts of the coast at the time of the Spanish conquest,
neither has slavery ever gained a foothold with this people. The
wealthy often loan rice to the poor, and exact usury of about fifty
per cent. Payment is made in service during the period of planting
and harvesting, so that the labor problem is, to a large extent,
solved for the land-holders. However, they customarily join the
workers in the fields and take their share in all kinds of labor.

The concubines, known as _pota_ (cf. p. 283), are deprived of certain
rights, and they are held somewhat in contempt by the other women,
but they are in no sense slaves. They may possess property, and their
children may become leaders in Tinguian society.

The only group which is sharply separated from the mass is composed
of the mediums, and they are distinctive only during the ceremonial
periods. At other times they are treated in all respects as other
members of the community.

On three occasions the writer has found men dressing like women,
doing women's work, and spending their time with members of that
sex. Information concerning these individuals has always come by
accident, the people seeming to be exceedingly reticent to talk about
them. In Plate XXXVI is shown a man in woman's dress, who has become
an expert potter. The explanation given for the disavowal of his sex is
that he donned women's clothes during the Spanish regime to escape road
work, and has since then retained their garb. Equally unsatisfactory
and unlikely reasons were advanced for the other cases mentioned.

It should be noted that similar individuals have been described from
Zambales, Panay, from the Subanun of Mindanao, and from Borneo. [169]
It has been suggested, with considerable probability, that at least
a part of these are hermaphrodites, but in Borneo, where they act
as priests, _Roth_ states that they are unsexed before assuming
their roles.

_Laws_.--Law, government, and custom are synonymous. Whatever the
ancestors did is right, and hence has religious sanction. The _lakay_
and his advisors will give their decisions according to the decrees
of the past, if that is possible, but when precedent is lacking,
they will deliberate and decide on a course. The following may be
taken as typical of the laws or customs which regulate the actions
of the people, within a group, toward one another.

_Rules governing the family._--A man may have only one wife, but
he may keep concubines. If the wife's relatives suspect that a
mistress is causing the husband's affections to wane, they may hold
the _Nagkakalonan_ or "trial of affection" (cf. p. 282), and if their
charges are sustained, the husband must pay them a considerable amount,
and, in addition, stand all the expenses of the gathering. If it is
shown that they are not justified in their suspicions, the expense
falls on the accusers.

The wife may bring a charge of cruelty or laziness against her husband,
and if it is substantiated, he will be compelled to complete the
marriage agreement and give the woman her freedom. Unfaithfulness on
the part of a wife, or a betrothed girl, justifies the aggrieved in
killing one or both of the offenders. He may, however, be satisfied
by having the marriage gift returned to him, together with a fine
and a decree of divorce.

A man who has a child by an unmarried woman, not a _pota_, must
give the girl's people about one hundred pesos, and must support the
infant. Later the child comes into his keeping, and is recognized as
an heir to his estate.

Marriage is prohibited between cousins, between a man and his adopted
sister, his sister-in-law, or mother-in-law. Union with a second cousin
is also tabooed. It is said that offenders would be cut off from the
village; no one would associate with them, and their children would
be disinherited.

A widow may remarry after the _Layog_ ceremony (cf. p. 290), but all
the property of her first husband goes to his children.

If a wife has neglected her husband during his final illness, she may
be compelled to remain under two blankets, while the body is in the
house (cf. p. 286), unless she pays a fine of ten or fifteen pesos
to his family.

Children must care for and support infirm parents. Should there be
no children, this duty falls upon the nearest relative.

_Inheritance_.--Although a price is paid for the bride, the Tinguian
woman is in no sense a slave. She may inherit property from her
parents, hold it through life, and pass it on to her children.

Following the death of a man, enough is taken from his estate to pay
up any part of the marriage agreement which may still be due, and
the balance is divided among his children. If there are no children,
it is probable that his personal possessions will go to his father
or mother, if they are still living; otherwise, to his brothers and
sisters. However, the old men in council may decide that the wife
is entitled to a share. Should she remarry and bear children to her
second husband, she cannot give any part of this property to them,
but upon her death it goes to the offspring of the first marriage, or
reverts to the relatives. Land is divided about equally between boys
and girls, but the boys receive the major part of the animals, and the
girls their mother's beads. Oftentimes the old men will give the oldest
child the largest share, "since he has helped his parents longest."

Whatever the husband and wife have accumulated in common during their
married life is divided, and the man's portion is disposed of, as
just indicated. Illegitimate children and those of a _pota_ receive a
share of their father's property, but not in the same proportion as
the children of the wife. No part of the estate goes to a concubine
unless, in the judgment of the old men, it is necessary to provide
for her, because of sickness or infirmity.

_Transfer and sharing of property._--Land and houses are seldom
transferred, except at the death of the owner, but should a sale or
trade be desired, the parties to the contract will make the bargain
before the _lakay_ and old men, who thus become witnesses. A feast
is given at such a time, and is paid for by either the seller or
the buyer. The sale or barter of carabao, horses, valuable jars, and
beads may be witnessed in this manner, but the transfer of personal
property is purely a matter between the parties concerned.

If a man works the property of another, he furnishes the seed and
labor, and the crop is divided. If an owner places his animals in the
care of another, the first of the increase goes to him, the second
to the caretaker. Should an animal die, the caretaker must skin
it, and give the hide to the owner, after which he is freed from
responsibility, but he is liable for the loss, theft, or injury to
his charges.

_Murder and Theft._--The relatives of a murdered man may kill his
assailant without fear of punishment, but, if they are willing,
the guilty party may settle with them by paying in Chinese jars,
carabao, or money. The usual payment varies from fifty to one hundred
pesos. A thief is compelled to make restitution, and is also subject
to a small fine.

The practice of evil magic, and the breaking of a taboo, are considered
serious crimes, but as they have been treated under Religion and Magic,
they will not be repeated here.

_Lying, Cheating, Breaches of Etiquette._--Falling outside the realm
of law are those things which may be considered right and wrong,
but the infraction of which carries with it no penalty. Lying, for
instance, is not bad, if it is done to protect yourself or a friend,
but falsifying without purpose is mean and to be despised. Cheating
is not wrong. Your ability to outwit the other person is proof that
you are the smarter man.

It is bad manners for a man to sit with his legs far apart or to
expose all of his clout, or for a woman to sit on the floor with one
leg drawn up. A person should not walk about while others are singing
or dancing. Basi should never be drunk, until it has been offered to
every one present, especially the elders.

Before eating, a person should invite all in the room to join him,
even though he does not expect them to accept. A visitor should never
eat with the wife of another during his absence.

Always call before entering a house. Never enter a dwelling, when
the owner is away, and has removed the ladder from the door. Never
enter a village dirty; stop and bathe at the spring before going up.
Only dogs enter the houses without bathing.

_The Village_ (Plate XXXVIII).--A village generally consists of two
or three settlements, situated near together, and under the authority
of a single _lakay_ or headman. There is no plan or set arrangement
for the dwellings or other structures, but, as a rule, the house,
spirit structure, and perhaps corrals are clustered closely together,
while at the edge of the settlement are the rice granaries and garden
plots. Formerly a double bamboo stockade surrounded each settlement,
but in recent years these have disappeared, and at the time of our
visit only one town, Abang, was so protected.

The dwellings vary in size and shape. They conform in general to
two types. The first and most common is a single room with a door
at one end opening off from an uncovered porch (Plate XXXIX). The
second consists of three rooms, or rather two rooms, between which
is a porch or entry way, all under one roof. There is seldom an outer
door to this entry way, but each room has its own door, and oftentimes
windows opening on to it, so that one has the feeling that we have
here two houses joined by the covered porch. In such buildings this
entry way is a convenient place for hanging nets or for drying tobacco.

In one room is the hearth, the water pots, and dishes, while the
other is the family sleeping-room.

The construction of the dwelling is shown in Plates XL-XLI. A number
of heavy hard-wood posts are sunk deeply into the ground and project
upward 10 or more feet. At a height of 4 or 5 feet above the ground,
crossbeams are lashed or pegged to form the floor supports, while
at the tops are other beams on which the roof rests. Plate XL shows
the skeleton of this roof so plainly that further description is
unnecessary. This framework, generally constructed on the ground, is
raised on to the upright timbers, and is lashed in place. A closely
woven mat of bamboo strips, or of bamboo beaten flat, covers each
side of the roof, and on this the thatch is laid. Bundles of _cogon_
grass are spread clear across the roof, a strip of bamboo is laid
at the upper ends, and is lashed to the mat below. A second row of
thatch overlaps the top of the first, and thus a waterproof covering
is provided.

Another type of roofing is made by splitting long bamboo poles,
removing the sectional divisions and then lashing them to the
framework. The first set is placed with the concave sides up, and runs
from the ridge pole to a point a few inches below the framework, so
as to overhang it somewhat. A second series of halved bamboos is laid
convex side up, the edges resting in the concavity of those below,
thus making an arrangement similar to a tiled roof.

For the side walls this tiled type of construction is commonly used
(Plate LXXVIII). A coarse bamboo mat is likewise employed, while a
crude interweaving of bamboo strips is by no means uncommon. Such a
wall affords little protection against a driving rain or wind, but the
others are quite effective. Well-to-do families often have the side
walls and floors of their houses made of hard-wood boards. Since planks
are, or have been until recently, cut out with knives, head-axes,
or adzes, much time and wealth is consumed in constructing such a
dwelling. When completed, it is less well adapted to the needs of
the people than the structures just described, but its possession is
a source of gratification to the owner, and aids in establishing him
as a man of affairs in his town.

The floor is made of poles tied to the side-beams, and on these strips
of bamboo are laid so as to leave small cracks between them. This
assists in the house-cleaning, as all dirt and refuse is swept through
the openings on to the ground. When the floor is made of wood, it is
customary to leave one corner to be finished off in the bamboo slits,
and it is here that the mother gives birth to her children. This
is not compulsory, but it is custom, and indicates clearly that the
planked floor is a recent introduction.

Entrance to the dwelling is by means of a bamboo ladder which is
raised at night, or when the family is away. Windows are merely square
holes over which a bamboo mat is fitted at night, but the door is a
bamboo-covered framework which turns in wooden sockets.

Such a house offers no barriers to mosquitoes, flies, flying roaches,
or white ants, while rats, scorpions, and centipedes find friendly
shelter in the thatch roof. Quite commonly large but harmless snakes
are encouraged to take up their residence in the cook room, as their
presence induces the rats to move elsewhere. Little house lizards
are always present, and not infrequently a large lizard makes its
home on the ridge pole, and from time to time gives its weird cry.

The ground beneath the house is often enclosed with bamboo slats, and
is used for storage purposes, or a portion may be used as a chicken
coop. It is also customary to bury the dead beneath the dwelling,
and above the grave are the boxes in which are placed supplies for
the spirits of the deceased.

With some modification this description of the Tinguian house and
village would apply to those of the western Kalinga and the Apayao,
[170] and likewise the Christian natives of the coast, but a very
different type of dwelling and grouping is found among the neighboring
Igorot. [171] It is also to be noted that we do not find to-day any
trace of tree dwellings, such as were described by _La Gironiere_ [172]
at the time of his visit scarcely a century ago. Elevated watch-houses
are placed near to the mountain fields, and it is possible that in
times of great danger people might have had similar places of refuge
in or near to their villages, but the old men emphatically deny that
they were ever tree-dwellers, and there is nothing in the folk-tales
to justify such a belief; on the contrary, the tales-indicate that
the type of dwelling found to-day, was that of former times. [173]

_House Furnishings_.--The average house has only one room. Inside the
door, at the left, one usually finds the stove, three stones sunk in a
box of ashes or dirt, or a similar device of clay (Fig 5, No. 1). Above
the fire is suspended a hanger on which are placed dishes and food, in
order that they may not be disturbed by insects. Along the wall stands
a small caldron, jars for water and rice, and the large Chinese jars,
tke latter as a general rule heirlooms or marriage gifts. These are
sometimes used for _basi_, but more often they contain broken rice,
cotton, or small articles. Above the jars is a rack or hangar on which
dishes or coconut shells are placed. At one end of the room a set of
pegs, deer horns, or a cord supports a variety of clothes, blankets,
a woman's switch, and perhaps a man's belt. The sleeping-mats either
hang here or occupy a rack of their own. Below the cord stand chests
secured in early years through trade with the Chinese. In these are
the family treasures, valuable beads, coins, blankets, ceremonial
objects, and the like. Piled on the boxes is a variety of pillows,
for no Tinguian house is complete without a number of these (Plate
LXVI). The other house furnishings, consisting of a spinning wheel,
loom, coconut rasp, and clothes beater (Fig. 5, No. 10) find space
along the other wall. Behind the door, except in the valley towns,
stand the man's spear and shield; above or near the door will be the
spirit offering in the form of a small hanger or a miniature shield
fastened against the wall. The center of the floor affords a place
for working, eating, and sleeping. If there are small children in
the family a cradle or jumper will be found suspended from a beam or
a bamboo pole placed across one corner of the room (cf. p. 272).

The type of jars made by the Tinguian is shown in Fig. 5, No. 7,
while those of foreign introduction have been fully described in a
previous publication. [174]

The native jars are used both for cooking and as water containers. With
them will be found pot rings and lifters. The first is a simple ring of
plaited bamboo, which fits on the head or sets on the floor, and forms
a support for the rounded bottom of the jar. The second (Figure 5,
No. 3) consists of a large rattan loop, which is placed over the neck
of the jar. The hands are drawn apart, and the weight closes the loop,
causing it to grip the jar. Long bamboo tubes with sections removed are
used as water containers, while smaller sections often serve as cups
or dippers. Gourds are also used in this manner (Fig. 5, Nos. 8-9).

Food is removed from the jars with spoons and ladles (Fig. 6) made of
wood or coconut shells, but they are never put to the mouth. Meat is
cut up into small pieces, and is served in its own juice. The diner
takes a little cooked rice in his fingers, and with this dips or scoops
the meat and broth into his mouth. Greens are eaten in the same manner.

Halved coconut shells serve both as cups and as dishes (Fig. 5,
No. 6). Wooden dishes are likewise used, but they are employed chiefly
in ceremonies for the feeding of the spirits or to hold the rice from
which a bride and groom receive the augury of the future (Fig. 5,
Nos. 4-5).

Baskets, varying considerably in material, size and type, are
much used, and are often scattered about the dwelling or, as in
the case of the men's carrying baskets, are hung on pegs set into
the walls. Somewhere about the house will be found a coconut rasp
(Fig. 5, No. 11). When this is used, the operator kneels on the wooden
standard, and draws the half coconut toward her over the teeth of
the blade. The inside of the shell is thus cleaned and prepared for
use as an eating or drinking dish. Torches or bamboo lamps formerly
supplied the dwellings with light. Lamps consisting of a section
of bamboo filled with oil and fitted with a cord wick are still in
use, but for the most part they have been superseded by tin lamps of
Chinese manufacture. Oil for them is extracted from crushed seeds of
the _tau-tau_ (_Jatropha grandulifera_ Roxb.)

A very necessary article of house furnishing is the fire-making
device. In many instances, the housewife will go to a neighboring
dwelling and borrow a light rather than go to the trouble of building
a fire, but if that is not convenient, a light may be secured by one
or two methods. The first is by flint and steel, a method which is
probably of comparatively recent introduction. The second and older is
one which the Tinguian shares with all the neighboring tribes. Two
notches are cut through a section of bamboo, and tree cotton is
placed below them. A second section of bamboo is cut to a sharp edge,
and this is rubbed rapidly back and forth in the notches until the
friction produces a spark, which when caught on tinder can be blown
into a flame. [175] At the door of the house will be found a foot
wiper (Fig. 5, No. 12) made of rice-straw drawn through an opening
cut in a stick, or it may consist of coconut husks fastened together
to make a crude mat, while near by is the broom made of rice-straw or
grass. Rice-mortars, pestles, and similar objects are found beneath
the dwellings.

_The Village Spring_.--Each village is situated near to a spring or
on the banks of a stream. In the latter case deep holes are dug in the
sands, and the water that seeps in is used for household purposes. In
the morning, a number of women and girls gather at the springs,
carrying with them the plates and dishes used in the meals, also
garments which need to be laundered. The pots and dishes are thoroughly
scoured with sand and water, applied with a bundle of rice-straw or
grass. The garments to be washed are laid in the water, generally in
a little pool near to the main spring or beside the stream. Ashes from
rice-straw are then mixed with water and, after being strained through
a bunch of grass, are applied to the cloth in place of soap. After
being thoroughly soaked, the cloth is laid on a clean stone, and is
beaten with a stick or wooden paddle. The garment is again rinsed,
and later is hung up on the fence near the dwelling to dry.

Before returning to her home, the woman fills her pots with water, and
then takes her bath in a pool below the main spring (Plate XLII). All
garments are removed except the girdle and clout, and then water,
dipped up in a coconut shell, is poured on to the face, shoulders,
and body. In some cases sand is applied to the body, and is rubbed in
with the hand or a stone; rinsing water is applied and the garments
are put back on without drying the body. Every one, men, women,
and children, takes a daily bath, and visitors will always stop to
bathe at the spring or river before entering a village. Promiscuous
bathing is common, and is accepted as a matter of course, but there
is no indication of embarrassment or self-consciousness. When she
returns to the village, the woman will often be seen carrying one
or two jars of water on her head, her washing under her arm, while
a child sets astride her hip or lies against her back (Plate XLIII).



CHAPTER VII

WARFARE, HUNTING, AND FISHING

Head-hunting and warfare are practically synonymous. To-day both are
suffering a rapid decline, and a head is seldom taken in the valley of
the Abra. In the mountain district old feuds are still maintained, and
sometimes lead to a killing, and here too the ancient funerary rites
are still carried out in their entirety on rare occasions. However,
this peaceful condition is not of long standing. In every village the
older men tell with pride of their youthful exploits, of the raids
they indulged in, the heads they captured; and they are still held
in high esteem as men "who fought in the villages of their enemies."

During the time of our stay in Abra, the villages of the Buklok
valley were on bad terms with the people of the neighboring Ikmin
valley, and were openly hostile to the Igorot on the eastern side of
the mountain range. Manabo and Abang were likewise hostile to their
Igorot neighbors, and the latter village was surrounded with a double
bamboo stockade, to guard against a surprise attack. Manabo at this
time anticipated trouble with the warriors of Balatok and Besao, as a
result of their having killed six men from those towns. The victims
had ostensibly come down to the Abra river to fish, but, judging by
previous experience, the Tinguian believed them to be in search of
heads, and acted accordingly. This feud is of old standing and appears
to have grown out of a dispute over the hunting grounds on Mt. Posoey,
the great peak which rises only a few miles from Manabo. There have
been many clashes between the rival hunters, the most serious of
which occurred in 1889, when the Tinguian had twenty-nine of their
number killed, and lost twenty-five heads to the Igorot of Besao.

The people of Agsimo and Balantai suffered defeat in a raid carried on
against Dagara in 1907, and at the time of our visit a number of the
warriors still bore open wounds received in that fight. In the same
year at least three unsuccessful attacks, probably by lone warriors,
were made against individuals of Lagangilang, Likuan, and Lakub.

Accounts of earlier travelers offer undoubted proof that head-hunting
was rampant a generation ago; while the folk-tales feature the taking
of heads as one of the most important events in Tinguian life.

The first incentive for head-taking is in connection with funeral
rites. According to ancient custom it was necessary, following
the death of an adult, for the men of the village to go out on a
headhunt, and until they had done so, the relatives of the deceased
were barred from wearing good clothing, from taking part in any
pastimes or festivals, and their food was of the poorest and meanest
quality. To remove this ban, the warriors would don white head-bands,
arm themselves, and sally forth either to attack a hostile village
or to ambush an unsuspecting foe. Neighboring villages were, out
of necessity, usually on good terms, but friendly relations seldom
extended beyond the second or third settlement, a distance of ten or
fifteen miles. Beyond these limits most of the people were considered
enemies and subject to attack.

While such a raid was both justifiable and necessary to the village
in which a death had occurred, it was considered an unprovoked attack
by the raided settlement; a challenge and an insult which had to be
avenged. Thus feuds were established, some of which ran through many
years, and resulted in considerable loss of life. A town, which had
lost to another a greater number of heads than they had secured, was
in honor bound to even the score, and thus another cause for battle
was furnished. The man who actually succeeded in taking a head was
received with great acclaim upon his return to the village; he was
the hero in the festival which followed, and thereafter was held in
high esteem, and so another motive was furnished. [176]

There is an indication in the _Saloko_ ceremony that heads may have
been taken to cure headache and similar ills (cf. p. 319); while the
presence of the head-basket, of the same name, in the fields suggests
a possible connection between head-hunting and the rice culture,
such as still exists among the neighboring Kalinga. [177]

The Tinguian do not now, and apparently never have practised human
sacrifice, but this custom and head-hunting seem to be closely
related, and to have as a primary cause the desire to furnish slaves
or companions for the dead. This idea was found among the ancient
Tagalog, Visayan, and Zambal, and still exists among the Apayao
of Northern Luzon; the Bagobo, Mandaya, Bila-an, and Tagakaola of
Mindanao; as well as in Borneo and the islands to the south. [178]
That it once had a strong hold on the Ilocano of the coast is made
evident by the mysterious cult known as _axibrong_, which at times
terrifies whole communities. In 1907 the region about Bangui, in
Ilocos Norte, was greatly excited over several attempts to kill people
of that settlement, and it was whispered that when a leading man,
who had recently died, was placed in his coffin, his right hand had
suddenly raised up with four fingers extended. This, it was said, was a
demand on the part of the dead for four companions, and the subsequent
attacks on the villagers were thought to be due to the activities of
the bereaved family in complying with the wishes of the deceased.

The raids following a death were usually carried out as a village
affair, and many warriors participated, but it seems that by far the
greater number of heads were secured by individuals or couples, who
would lie in ambush near to the trails, or to the places, where the
women had to pass in carrying water from the streams to the village.

While the Tinguian always chose to attack from ambush, yet he did
not hesitate to fight in the open when occasion demanded it. For a
distance of fifteen or twenty feet he depended on his spear, but for
close quarters he relied on his shield and head-axe. An examination of
Plate XLIV will show that the shield has three prongs at the top. These
the warrior seeks to slip between the legs of his enemy to trip him
up, then one stroke downward with the axe, and the opponent is put out
of the fight. The two lower prongs are meant to be slipped about the
neck. One more stroke of the head-axe, and the victor takes his trophy
and starts for home, while the relatives of the dead man seek to secure
the remains to carry them back to their village. As the loss of a head
reflects on the whole party, and in a like manner its acquisition adds
distinction to the victors, a hot fight usually develops over a man
who is stricken down, and only ceases when the enemy is beaten off,
or has been successful in getting away with the trophy.

If a war party finds it necessary to make a night camp, or if they
are hard pressed by the foe, they plant long, thin strips of bamboo
or _palma brava_ [179] in the grass. The ends of these are cut to
sharp points, and they are so cleverly concealed that pursuers must
use great care, and consequently lose much time, or they will have
their legs and feet pierced with these needle-like blades.

Upon their return to the village, the warriors were formerly met
at the gate by their relatives, who held two ladders in A shape,
thus forming a pathway over which each had to climb. Once inside
the town, the heads were placed on a bamboo spike known as _sagang_
(cf. p. 310), or in the _saloko_ (cf. p. 310), and for three days
were exhibited beside the gate. In the meantime messages were sent
to friendly villages to invite the people to the celebration.

On the morning of the last day, the heads were carried up to the center
of the village, where, amid great rejoicing, the men sang the praises
of the victors or examined the skulls of the victims. Sometime during
the morning, the men who had taken the heads split them open with
their axes and removed the brains. To these they added the lobes of
the ears and joints of the little fingers, and they placed the whole
in the liquor which was afterwards served to the dancers. There seems
to be no idea here of eating the brains of the slain as food. They are
consumed solely to secure a part of their valor, an idea widespread
among the tribes of Mindanao. [180] The writer does not believe that
any people of the Philippines indulges in cannibalism, if that term
is used to signify the eating of human flesh as food. Several, like
the Tinguian, have or still do eat a portion of the brain, the heart
or liver of brave warriors, but always, it appears, with the idea of
gaining the valor, or other desirable qualities of the victims.

The balance of the head festival consisted in the drinking of sugar
cane rum, of songs of praise by the headmen, and finally all joined
in dancing _da-eng_. Just before the guests were ready to depart, the
skulls were broken into small bits, and the fragments were distributed
to the guests so that they might taken them to their homes, and thus
be reminded of the valor of the takers. [181] This disposition of
the skull agrees with that of many Apayao towns, [182] but it does
not conform with the description of ancient times afforded us in the
tales, [183] nor with the practices of the Kalinga and Igorot people,
both of whom preserve the trophy.

The weapons of the warriors consists of a spear, head-axe, and shield,
and the small bamboo spikes known as _soga_. They do not make use
of the bow and arrow, although they have been credited as possessing
them. [184] The old men claim it has not been used in their lifetime,
nor is mention made of it in the folk-tales. The only time it appears
is in the crude weapons used in shooting fish in the rice-fields,
and in the miniature bow and arrow, which hang above the heads of a
newborn child.

Bolos, or long knives, are carried at the side suspended from the belt,
and upon occasion may be used as weapons. However, they are generally
considered as tools (Fig. 7).

_The Head-Axe_, _aliwa_ or _gaman_ (see Fig. 8).--The axes made by
the Tinguian and Kalinga are identical, probably due to the fact that
the center of distribution, as well as the best iron work of this
region, is found in Balbalasang--a town of mixed Tinguian and Kalinga
blood. The blade is long and slender with a crescent-shape cutting
edge on one end, and a long projecting spine on the other. This
projection is strictly utilitarian. It is driven into the ground
so as to support the blade upright, when it is desired to have both
hands free to draw meat or other articles over the cutting edge. It
is also driven into the soil, and acts as a support when its owner
is climbing steep or slippery banks.

The blade fits into a long steel ferrule which, in turn, slips onto
a wooden handle. The latter may be straight or plain, but commonly
it has a short projection midway of its length, which serves as a
finger-hold and as a hook for attachment to the belt. Quite frequently
the handle is decorated with thin circles or bands of brass, while
ornamental designs sometimes appear on the blade.

While the axe is primarily a weapon, its use is by no means confined
to warfare. It is used in house and fence building, in cutting up
game and forest products, and in many other ways. Fig. 8 shows three
types of head-axes, the first two, the Tinguian-Kalinga axe; third,
the Igorot; fourth, the Apayao. There is a noticeable difference
between the slender blades of the first group and the short, thick
blade of the Igorot, yet they are of the same general type. The
Apayao weapon, on the other hand, presents a radical difference in
form. Despite these variations, the axes of these three tribes present
an interesting problem. So far as it known, these are the only tribes
in the Philippines which make use of a head-axe, and it is believed
that no similar weapon is found in the Malayan Islands. However,
blades of striking resemblance do occur among the Naga of Assam. [185]
It is possible that the weapons of these far separated regions may hark
back to a common source, from which they received their instruction
in iron working.

_The Spear_, _pika_.--The various types of spears used by the Tinguian
are shown in Fig. 9.

A considerable part of these are made in the villages along the upper
reaches of the Buklok river and in Balbalasang, but many come into
Abra through trade with the Igorot and Kalinga. They are used for
hunting and fighting, and are intended both as thrusting and throwing
weapons. In the lowlands the older type of spear-head is a modified
leaf shape, attached to a ferrule which slips over the shaft. In the
mountains, heads with two or more barbs are set into the handles,
and are held in place by means of wooden wedges and by metal rings
which surround the ends of the shafts. A metal end or shoe covers the
butt end of the weapon, thus converting it into an excellent staff
for mountain climbing.

Occasionally a hunting spear is fitted with a detachable head, which
will pull out of the socket when an animal is struck. The shaft is
attached to the point by means of a heavy line, and as this drags
through the undergrowth, it becomes entangled and thus delays the
flight of the game.

_Shields_, _kalasag_.--Mention has already been made of the typical
Tinguian-Kalinga shield (cf. p. 373). While this is the common type
of the region (Fig. 10, Nos. 1-1a), others, which approach those of
the Bontoc Igorot, are frequently used (Fig. 10, No. 2). As a rule,
these come from Balatok, Lubuagan, Guinaan and the villages along
the Malokbot river, all of which are strongly influenced in blood
and culture by the Igorot. In the latter shields we find the prongs
at the top and bottom, but they are no longer of sufficient size and
opening to be of practical value. The clue to their origin is probably
afforded us in their use by the Tinguian.

Across the top and bottom of each shield, near to the prongs, are two
or three braided bands which appear to be ornamental, or to strengthen
the weapon. Their real use, however, is to hold the _soga_, the pointed
bamboo sticks which are planted in the grass to delay pursuers. A half
dozen or more of these are usually to be found under the braiding at
the back of the shield.

All shields are of very light wood, and can easily be pierced by
a spear. They are intended to be used in deflecting missels rather
than actually to stop them. To aid in this purpose, there is a hand
grip cut into the center of the back. This is large enough to admit
the first three fingers, while the thumb and little finger are left
outside to tilt the shield to the proper angle.

_Hunting_ (Plates XLV-XLVI).--Hunting must be considered more in the
nature of a sport than as a necessity, for, while a considerable amount
of game is taken each year, it is not enough to furnish an important
part of the food supply. As we have already noted, a great part of the
country occupied by this tribe is devoid of forests. Dense growths
do occur in some valleys and ravines, and a few of the mountains,
like Posoey, are heavily forested, but for the most part the western
slopes of the Cordillera Central are covered with rank _cogon_
grass. In the ravines and on the wooded slopes are deer, pig, wild
carabao, and wild chickens, and during the dry season of the year it
is no uncommon thing to see a considerable number of men leaving the
village at daybreak with their dogs, spears, and nets. The customary
method of hunting the larger animals is to stretch long nets across
the runway of the game. A number of the hunters, armed with spears,
conceal themselves near by, while the balance of the party take the
dogs to a distance and then, spreading out fan-shape, will converge
on the net, beating the brush and shouting in order to stir up the
game. The dogs, sullen, half-starved brutes, take little interest
in the chase until an animal is started, then they begin to bay,
and the whole pack is in pursuit. As the quarry rushes into the net,
the concealed hunters fall upon it and spear it to death, at the
same time fighting back the hungry dogs which would quickly devour
it. Sometimes an animal escapes from the net, but if wounded, it is
almost certain to fall a prey to the pack. Many deer are taken by
this method in the course of a year. Sometimes a wild pig is netted,
and on exceedingly rare occasions a carabao. However, the wild carabao
is a dangerous animal, and hunters will not attack it unless it is so
entangled in the nets that it is practically helpless. Still hunting
for deer, near to the feeding grounds, yields a few animals each year,
and during the period when the _lumboy_ (_Eugenia jambolana_ Lam.) are
in fruit, the hunters often hide themselves in the trees at night,
and spear the pigs which come below them to feed.

Wild hogs are also secured by placing a close fence about a field. One
or two small entrances are left open and inside of these, deep pits
are dug, and are covered with brush. As the animal pushes in, it
steps on the frail covering, and is hurled to the bottom of the pit,
where it is easily dispatched with the spear.

Among the smaller game, the wild chicken is the most important. These
fowls seldom fly, but seek safety by running through the
underbrush. The Tinguian takes advantage of this trait, and stretches
nets loosely in the probable runway of the birds, and then drives
them toward it in the same manner, as he does the deer. As the fowl
runs full speed into the loose net, it folds about him, and he is
easily taken.

The most common method of securing wild roosters is by means of a
series of slip nooses attached to a main cord or band (Fig. 11). This
is set up so as to enclose a square or triangular space, and a tame
rooster is put inside. The crowing of this bird attracts the attention
of the wild fowl who comes in to fight. Soon, in the excitement of
the combat, one is caught in a noose, and the harder it pulls, the
more securely it is held. At times the trap is baited with worms or
grain. The snare is carried in a basket-like case, which is often
fitted with a compartment for the decoy rooster. [186]

Another type of chicken snare consists of a single noose, which
rests on two elevated strips of bamboo. The other end of the cord
is attached to a bent limb, held down by means of a small trigger,
which slips under a cross strip. The game is led onto the trap by
scattering grain. The weight of the bird releases the trigger, the
bent twig flies up, and the noose is drawn tightly.

Small birds are captured in considerable numbers by the boys who, for
this purpose, make use of three types of snares. The first and most
common is a simple slip noose made of human or horse hair attached to
a stick. Several of these are driven into the ground close together,
and grain is scattered between them. A second type of noose trap
is shown in Fig. 12, No. 1. A Bamboo pole _a_ with sharpened end
has a spring _b_ of the same material attached to its side. A cord
from this passes through a small hole in the top of _a_, and then
forms a slip noose. A small stick or trigger _c_ is forced into the
hole until firm enough to keep the line held taut, and the noose is
spread on it. Bait is placed on the point of _a_ in such a manner
that the bird has to alight on _c_ to secure it. Its weight releases
the trigger, and the noose is drawn tightly around its legs. Another
trap of this nature is illustrated by Fig. 12, No. 2. Here a branch is
bent down and a line is attached. The trigger stick _a_ slips outside
_b_, and the pressure holds the free stick _c_ in place against the
crotch. Bait is so placed on _d_ that a bird coming to secure it must
stand inside the slip noose which is spread on _c_. The weight and
movement of the victim releases the trigger, draws the line taut,
and closes the noose about its legs.

In the lowland villages, blowguns (_salbalana_) are used to a limited
extent in hunting birds. Two long strips of palm wood are grooved and
fitted together. Over these the intestines of a carabao are drawn, and
the whole is wrapped tightly with cord and covered with beeswax. The
guns vary from 12 to 16 feet in length, and are often excellently made,
yet they are little better than toys, for the missels used are only
clay balls. Poison darts are unknown in this region, and the weapon
is confined to the villages near to the coast. This, together with
the fact that the blowgun does not appear in the lore or ceremonies,
suggests that it of recent introduction (Plate XLVII).

Locusts are considered excellent food, and when they are flying in
great numbers, are taken by means of small nets. These are attached
to poles, and are swung into the swarm. Sometimes nearly the whole
village will unite in such a hunt, the catch being stored in large
bottle-shaped baskets until needed.

Bats and rats are not eaten, but the latter are trapped and killed
because of the grain they destroy and the injury they do to the houses
and their contents. The most common trap is made from a section of
bamboo in one side of which a spring is inserted. A line attached
to this leads to a slip noose which fits inside the tube. Bait is
attached to a trigger which, when disturbed, releases the spring and
closes the loop around the intruder.

_Fishing_.--Mention has already been made of the capture of fish
by the children. Older people likewise devote some time to fishing,
but not to the extent of making it an occupation. Nearly every family
has a collection of traps and lines, and at times quite a number of
fish and eels are secured.

The common trap is shown in Fig. 13, No. 1. The entrance is made of
sharp bamboo splints, which converge toward a small hole opening into
the trap proper. The device is then placed in the water in such a way
that fish coming downstream will be diverted into the opening. The
current and the natural inclination of the fish to go into a dark
hiding-place causes them to force their way into the trap, and once
in they cannot emerge. The water escapes through the bamboo slits,
but the fish can only be released by opening the small end of the trap.

Many of the women carry baskets attached to the belt at the hip. The
tops of these baskets have funnel-shaped openings, and are immediately
available for use as traps, if a good catch is in prospect (Fig. 13,
No. 2). These are usually employed for shrimps and minnows. Eels are
caught in long, round traps of rattan and bamboo. A frog is fastened
in the far end of the tube, usually with a fish-hook. This is attached
to a rattan spring, which is connected with the door of the trap. The
eel enters and seizes the frog, but as it starts to back out, it
releases the bent rattan, and the door is pulled shut.

Small hand nets, spread apart by means of sticks held in the hands,
are used by women in scooping up small fish. Ordinarily, it is scooped
away from the body, but if a fish takes refuge under a rock, the net
is placed under the opposite side, and the stone is turned over with
the foot.

The most effective fishing-device is a large throw net made
cornucopia shape. The large net is open and weighted with many
sinkers of lead. The man throws the net with a full arm sweeping
motion, so that it spreads to its full extent, and all the sinkers
strike the water at the same time. The splash causes all the fish
inside the circle to dart inward, and as it sinks, the net settles
over them. The fisherman draws in the cord attached to the small end,
causing the sinkers to drag along to the bottom until directly beneath
him, when their weight closes the net. It requires much skill and
practice to throw this net properly, but once the art is mastered,
the fisherman is very successful.

Blanket fishing similar to that in use by the neighboring Igorot is
found here. A large blanket is weighed down with stones, and is placed
in the river. After one or two hours have elapsed, a number of men form
a wide circle around it. Often they drag between them a rope to which
many corn husks are attached. As they advance toward the blanket, they
turn the larger stones with their feet so that any fish hiding beneath
them will be frightened away. The circle of men and corn husks causes
the fish to go toward the blanket, and finally to take refuge under
the stones piled upon it. When the blanket is reached, the men seize
the corners and lift it out of the water on to the bank, where the
stones are thrown out and the fish secured. A somewhat similar idea
is found in the _lama_. Quantities of leaf branches are sunk into a
still pool, and are left for a few days until the fish have come to
use them as a hiding-place. A number of men make a close fence of
bamboo sticks about them, then go inside, throw out the branches,
and catch the fish with their hands or with the nets. Streams are
often diverted from their course, for a time, and then returned,
leaving the fish in the artificial channels stranded.

A curious method of fishing was seen in the Ikmin river. A hook was
fastened in the end of a bamboo pole, and close to this a minnow
was attached to a short line, to act as a lure. When the other fish
approached the captive, the pole was jerked sharply, in an attempt
to snag them. On one occasion the writer saw fifty fish taken by this
method in less than an hour.

Short lines attached to sticks are often baited, and are set along
the embankments of the flooded rice-fields. Small fish spears with
detachable heads are also used in the rice lands, as well as in
the clear pools. The only occasion when the bow and arrow is used
in this region is when the rice fields are flooded. At such times a
short bow and an arrow with fork-shaped head are employed (Fig. 13,
Nos. 3-3a). A fish poison or stupifier is occasionally used. A small
red berry known as _baiyatin_ is crushed, and the powder is thrown
into or just above quiet pools, where fish abound. Some of the fish
become stupified and float on the surface, where they are quickly
speared or scooped up. They are eaten without any ill effects.



CHAPTER VIII

ECONOMIC LIFE

_Rice Culture_.--The most important crop raised by the Tinguian is
rice, and to its cultivation he devotes a considerable portion of
his time. Two distinct methods of growing are now found throughout
the district--the mountain or upland fields, in which the rice is
raised without irrigation; and the rice terraces with irrigation [187]
(Plate XLVIII). To prepare the first type of field, a piece of forest
land is chosen if possible, or lacking this, a plot covered with
second growth is selected. The purpose in using timber land is to
escape the cogon grass (_Imperata koenigii_), which quickly invades
all open fields, and flourishes until the trees again shut out the
sunlight. The trees and underbrush are cut down during the dry season,
so that they may be ready for burning before the arrival of the first
rains. Should no timber land be available, an open piece will be
selected, and after the grass is burned, the soil will be partially
cleared of its stubborn roots by means of a large knife or adze-like
instrument known as _pal'lek_ (Fig. 14, No. 2).

After the clearing, the field is fenced in so as to protect it
from deer, wild pigs, and carabao. The rudest type of protection
consists of a barricade of brush, strengthened with forked sticks,
in the crotches of which poles are laid. The more common method is
to set bamboo tubes, at intervals, around the whole plot and to lash
to them other tubes which have been split in half. A still better
fence is made by cutting three holes, about a foot apart, through
each upright and to insert smaller bamboo through these.

When the rains begin, the men go to the fields, each with two hardwood
sticks whittled to tapering rounded ends. These are driven alternately
into the soil making shallow holes an inch or so in depth, into each of
which the women drop several seed rice. The whole field is gone over in
this way; soil is pushed into the holes with the feet, and frequently
the task is finished by sowing a few handfuls of seed broadcast and
distributing it by brushing back and forth with a leafy branch. [188]

In the valley districts the planting sticks are cut as needed, but in
the mountains, where the upland rice is more important, strong bamboo
poles fitted with hardwood points are in general use. These implements,
known as _tepon_ (Fig. 15, No. 1), are invariably carefully decorated
with incised designs, and are preserved from year to year. Commonly,
the divisions between the sections of the bamboo are knocked out and
the tube used as a receptacle for the seed rice.

As the mountain fields need special protection, it is customary to
build near them little elevated houses in which the workers may rest,
and in which the watchers can live during the time the grain must
be guarded. If the plots are near to a village, such a house seldom
consists of more than a rude framework of poles, which support a grass
roof, and to which a bamboo floor is lashed, two or three feet above
the ground; but if the fields are at a distance, these structures are
provided with sides, and are raised high on strong logs. Such high,
well built houses are necessary, both to protect the occupants from
surprise attacks of enemies, and to afford shelter against driving
winds or rains. It is not an uncommon occurrence for a whole family
to go to one of these isolated mountain dwellings and reside for
a considerable period, particularly when the rice is approaching
maturity.

These upland fields produce much smaller crops than do the wet lands,
and as they are quickly exhausted, it is not customary to plant
them to rice for more than two seasons. At the end of this time,
they may be used for _camotes_ (_Convolvulus batatas_), sugar-cane,
or cotton, but in the majority of cases they are allowed to lie unused
for several seasons, when the grass or undergrowth is again removed
and the fields replanted.

The wet fields produce by far the greater part of the rice, and it is
about them that most of the agricultural labors center. In the broad
valleys, low embankments, of sufficient height to maintain the water
at a depth of two or three inches, separate the fields. The lower
plots are often of considerable length and width, some covering as
much as an acre of ground, but as they begin to ascend the slopes,
the walls rise higher, and the fields become narrower until they
may be only a few feet in width. In the rugged mountain districts,
the terraces often begin just above the flood water of the stream. At
this point, a stone wall, four or five feet in height, is erected,
and back of this the mountain side is cut away and filled in until
it forms a step or terrace. Back of this another wall is raised, and
the process is repeated until at last the terraces extend for two or
three hundred feet up the mountain side (Plate XLIX). When the field
is first made, top soil, enriched with vegetable growth, is laid on
the surface, often to a depth of several inches, but from this time
on no fertilizer, other than the decaying straw of the previous crop,
is added, although the field is used continuously for many years.

Water is conducted to many of the fields by means of ditches, usually
by diverting the flow of some of the numerous springs or streams but in
a few instances, stone dams have been thrown across the rivers and the
water carried for considerable distances by flumes and ditches. The
highest terraces are first inundated to the desired depth, and then
openings are made in the side walls--so as to allow the lower fields
to be flooded. This method of irrigation provides for the maximum
use of the water, and also supplies a constant current which prevents
the formation of stagnant pools.

Some of the fields are situated too far up the mountain side to
be reached by ditches, and in such cases the growth of the rice is
entirely dependent on the rainfall; however, in normal years, the
precipitation is sufficient to mature the crop.

At the beginning of the rainy season, some of the seed rice is sprouted
in specially prepared beds in the villages. In such cases a small plot
is surrounded with low dirt walls, the soil is enriched with manure,
water is added, and the whole is worked until it becomes a thin mud,
on which the rice is thickly sown. Around this bed, a bamboo frame
is erected to keep out pigs and chickens, while from time to time
water is poured on the growing shoots. The more common method of
sprouting, however, is to select a piece of land, which will receive
the full benefit of the rainfall and to break this with a plow drawn
by a carabao.

When the seed beds have been planted, the people go to the fields,
repair the embankments, and admit the water. The straw remaining
from the previous crop is allowed to rot, for a time, and then the
ground is gone over with a bamboo harrow (_pali-id_), [189] as shown
in Fig. 15, No. 3, to remove weeds, branches, and the like. Wherever
it is possible, the soil is broken with a plow, _alado_ (Plate L),
but in fields to which animals cannot be taken, the ground is turned by
means of sharpened sticks, or poles tipped with iron, which are driven
into the soil and forced forward, thus pushing the earth above them
into the water. [190] As will be seen from the accompanying drawing
(Fig. 15, Nos. 2-2a), the plow is constructed entirely of wood except
for the iron share, and conforms closely to that used in Java, Celebes,
Sumatra, Burma, and Annam. [191]

Within a few days after the plowing, the soil is further broken by
dragging it with a harrow, made by driving wooden pegs into a heavy
board, or into large bamboo tubes (Fig. 15, No. 4). A worker stands
on this, and is dragged about the field, leveling it, and at the same
time pulling out sticks, roots, and any other matter of sufficient
bulk to interfere with the planting.

Two types of sleds (Fig. 15, Nos. 5-6) are used in connection
with the rice culture, as well as in general transportation. The
first consists of rude wooden runners on which a bamboo flooring is
laid. The second has narrow runners, which are hewn with considerable
care, while sides of flattened bamboo convert the sled into an open
box. The first type (_pasagad_) is used principally during the wet
season for the transportation of plows, harrows, and the like, the
wide runners slipping through the mud without becoming mired. The use
of the latter (_kalison_) is restricted to the dry-season, when it
is of particular advantage in moving the rice. Wheeled vehicles are
not employed in any part of the Tinguian belt, although their use is
now fairly common among the Ilocano.

It requires a month or six weeks to make ready the fields, and in the
meantime the rice in the seed beds has grown to a height of twelve
or fourteen inches. The shoots are then pulled up by the roots, are
tied into bundles, and the tops are cut off (Plate LI). The bundles
are distributed about the fields at convenient distances, and the
workers then transplant the young rice--three or four together--in the
soft ooze, using the thumb and fore-finger of the right hand for that
purpose (Plate LII). The preparation of the field is looked after by
the men and boys, and oftentimes they aid in transplanting, but the
latter is considered to be women's work, and is generally left to them.

The rice is set so thickly that when a plot is planted it presents to
the eye a solid mass of green. It is hard to imagine a more beautiful
sight than to look down on these fields, which rise in wave above
wave of brilliant green, until at last they give way to the yellower
billows of _cogon_ grass which cover the mountain slopes.

After the transplanting, the grain needs constant attention; at
first, to keep it properly weeded and flooded; later, to protect it
from animals and birds. Hence many workers are always in the fields,
but it is, nevertheless, the happy time for the people, and if one
approaches a group of workers unawares, he will hear one or more
singing the _daleng_, a song in which they compliment or chide the
other workers, or relate some incident of the hunt or of village
life. Toward midday little groups will gather in the field shelters
to partake of their lunches, to smoke, or to rest, and usually in
such a gathering will be a good story-teller who amuses with fables,
or tales of adventure. [192]

When the rice begins to mature, an even stricter watch must be kept,
for, in addition to its other enemies, the rice birds [193] now seek
to feed on the crop and, while they are small in size, they often
appear in such numbers that they work great havoc.

The usual device employed in frightening both birds and animals is
a bamboo pole cut into strips at the top, so that, as it is shaken,
these strike together, producing a great clatter. Many of these
poles are planted, and then all are connected by means of rattan
lines which finally lead to the little watch house. Here a man or boy
sits and occasionally gives the lines a sudden jerk, which sets up a
clapping over the whole field (Plate LIII). A clever development of
this device was seen by the writer in the Ikmin river valley. Here
the stream flows swiftly and plunges headlong into pools every few
yards. The rattan cord attached to the clappers is fastened to a small
raft which is then set afloat in the pool. After a whirl in the eddy
it is caught by the swift current, and is carried a few feet down
stream, at the same time bending the clappers nearly to the ground;
then as the raft enters calmer water, the tension is released, and it
is thrown violently back into the pool from which it has just drifted;
at the same time the clappers fly back into place with a great noise.

Another contrivance, used in keeping small birds from the fields, is
a bird-like form cut from the bark of a banana or palm tree. Many of
these are suspended by lines from bamboo poles, and, as the wind blows
them to and fro, they appear like giant birds hovering over the rice.

A simple protection against deer is made by bending the white inner
bark of bamboo into arches and planting these at intervals along
possible places of entry, for it is said that these animals will not
approach such a contrivance.

Soon after the water is turned into the fields, shells and fish begin
to appear even in the higher terraces. Doubtless a considerable part
of these come in through the ditches, but the natives insist that most
of the fish bury themselves deep in the mud at the approach of the dry
season and hibernate until water again appears in the fields. [194]
These intruders are prized as food, and to secure them, short baited
lines are placed along the edges of the terraces, while each woman
has, attached to her belt, a small basket into which she places shells
discovered during her work. The men likewise secure fish by means of
hooks and lines, and also pierce them with short spears fitted with
detachable points, but more commonly they shoot them with a small
bow and peculiar arrows, the heads of which resemble flattened spoons
cut into four or five teeth. [195]

As the grain begins to ripen, the land is allowed to dry, and when
all is ready for the cutting, the people put on their best garments
and go to the fields. Each stalk is cut separately by means of a
crescent-shaped blade (_lakom_ or _lakem_) attached to a small wooden
cylinder (Fig. 14, Nos. 3-3a). This handle is held between the thumb,
first and fifth fingers, while the stalk is caught by the second and
third fingers, and is pulled inward against the steel blade. [196]
Many workers grasp the stalk near the head with the left hand, while
the cutting blade is used with the right.

Both men and women may engage in cutting the rice, but as the latter
are much the more dexterous workers, this task is generally assigned
to them (Plate LIV). The grain is cut so as to leave stalks about
ten inches in length; these are laid in the free hand until a bunch
of considerable size has accumulated, when they are bound together
with strips of bark. [197] At the end of the day these bundles
are carried to the drying yards, where they remain until the whole
crop is harvested. A drying yard is a plot of ground surrounded by
a bamboo fence of such a height that it is impossible for fowls and
the like to gain entrance. When all the bundles are thoroughly dried,
they are placed in the granary, and from that time on the handling
of the rice is given over to the women.

The granaries, or store-houses, of the Tinguian and Ilocano are
identical (Plate LV), but, barring the Apayao, are different from any
of the surrounding groups, except when their influence may have spread
this peculiar type to a limited degree. It is worthy of note, however,
that the granaries of some Sumatran groups are of similar design and
construction. Such a store-house is raised high above the ground on
four hard-wood poles; the framework is of bamboo, and the sides flare
sharply from the floor to the grass roof. Within the framework is a
closely woven matting of flattened bamboo, which is nearly water-tight;
but to secure still further protection from moisture, and also to
allow for free circulation of air, a rack is built in such a way that
the rice is kept several inches from the outside walls. Just below
the floor, each post supports a close-fitting pottery jar--without
top or bottom--or a broad disk of wood, which effectually prevents
the entrance of rodents.

To thrash the grain, the woman places a bundle on a piece of carabao
hide, and, as she rolls it beneath her feet, she pounds it with a long
wooden pestle (_hala_) until all the kernels are beaten loose from
the straw. [198]   It is then placed in a wooden mortar (_luson_)
of hourglass form or with straight sides, where it is again beaten
until the outside husks are loosened, and the grain is somewhat broken
(Plate LVI). Winnowing is accomplished by tossing the contents of the
mortar in shallow traps (_igau_), so that the chaff is blown away,
while the grain falls back into the winnower (Plate LVII).

The rice is now ready for cooking; the chaff is collected, and is
used as food for the pigs and dogs, while the stalks are saved to be
burned, for the ashes are commonly used in lieu of soap.

Rice has also come to have great importance, both as a standard of
value and as a medium of exchange. A single stalk is known as _sanga
dawa_. When the stalks are equal in size to the leg, just above the
ankle, the bundle is called _sang-abtek_. [199] Ten _sang-abtek_ equal
_sanga-baal_. One hundred _sang-abtek_ make _sanga-oyon_. The measure
of cleaned rice is as follows: Two full hands (one coconut shell
full)--1 _sopa_ (Ilocano _supa_; Spanish 1/8 _ganta_). 8 _sopa_--1
_salop_ (Spanish _ganta_ or about 2 quarts).  25 _salop_--1 _kaban_.

It is customary to pay laborers in rice; likewise the value of animals,
beads, and the like are reckoned and paid in this medium. During
the dry season rice is loaned, to be repaid after the harvest with
interest of about fifty per cent.

According to tradition, the Tinguian were taught to plant and reap
by a girl named Dayapan. This woman, who was an invalid, was one
day bathing in the stream, when the great spirit Kaboniyan entered
her body. He carried with him sugar-cane and unthreshed rice which
he gave to the girl with explicit directions for its use. Likewise
he taught her the details of the _Sayang_, the most important of
the ceremonies. Dayapan followed instructions faithfully, and after
the harvest and conclusion of the ceremony, she found herself to be
completely cured. After that she taught others, and soon the Tinguian
became prosperous farmers. [200]

In Part I of this volume a reconstruction of the early life of this
people was attempted from their mythology. The results seemed to
indicate that the tales reflect a time before the Tinguian possessed
terraced rice-fields, when domestic work animals were still unknown,
and the horse had not yet been introduced into the land. But it was
also noted that we are not justified in considering these as recent
events.

At this time, with the more complete data before us, it may be well to
again subject the rice culture to careful scrutiny, in the hope that
it may afford some clue as to the source from which it spread into
this region. It is possible that the Tinguian may have brought it
with them from their early home, which may be supposed to have been
in southeastern Asia; they may have acquired it through contact with
Chinese or Japanese traders, or through commercial relations with
the islands to the south; or again it may have developed locally in
the Tinguian, Igorot, and Ifugao territory.

It should be noted at the outset that highly developed terrace
cultivation is found in Japan and China to the north; in parts of
Borneo, in the Nias archipelago, in Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumatra,
Burma, and India proper, and it is probable that all within this
broad belt developed from a single origin.

When we compare the construction of Igorot and Tinguian terraces and
the methods of irrigation, we find them quite similar, although those
of the former are somewhat superior and of much greater extent. The
planting of the seed rice and the breaking of the soil in the high
fields are also much alike, but here the resemblances cease. In
the lower fields, the Tinguian employ the carabao, together with
the plow and harrow; the Igorot do not. The Igorot fertilize their
fields, the Tinguian never. In harvesting, the Tinguian make use of
a peculiar crescent-shaped blade to cut the stalk, the Igorot pull
each head off separately. The Tinguian and Ilocano granaries are
of a distinctive type radically different from the Igorot, while the
methods of thrashing in the two groups are entirely different. Finally,
the ceremonial observances of the Tinguian, so far as the rice is
concerned, are much more extensive and intricate than have been
described for the Igorot. In a like manner there are many striking
differences between the methods of handling the grain by the Tinguian
and those found in Japan and China. On the other hand, when we come
to compare the rice culture of this region with the islands to the
south, the similarities are very striking. The short description
given by _Marsden_ for Sumatra [201] would, with a few modifications,
apply to the situation in Abra. The use of the plow and harrow drawn
by carabao is found in Java and Sumatra; the common reaping knife of
both these islands is identical with the Tinguian, although there is
a slight difference in the way it is utilized; the peculiar type of
granary found in Abra again appears in Sumatra, while the Tinguian
ceremonial acts associated with the cultivation and care of the
rice-recall, in several instances, details of such ceremonies in Java.

If Tinguian rice culture did come from the south, through trade or
migration, in comparatively recent times we should expect to find
evidences of the same culture distributed along the route by which
it must have traveled. We find, however, that few terraces exist in
Mindanao and northern Borneo; and the former, at least, are of recent
introduction. [202] There is also negative evidence that such fields
were rare along the coasts at the time of the Spanish invasion. In
the early documents we meet with frequent statements that the people
were agriculturists and raised considerable quantities of rice and
vegetables in their clearings; but the writer has discovered only
two instances in which mention is made of terraced fields. [203] Had
extensive terraces existed on the coast, it seems certain that some
notice must have been taken of them. Yet in the mountains of central
and northwestern Luzon, in districts remote from coast influences,
are found some of the most remarkable fields of this type in Malaysia;
terraces representing such an expenditure of labor that they argue
for a long period of construction.

The proof is not absolute, but, in view of the foregoing, the writer is
inclined to the belief that the Igorot and the Tinguian brought their
rice culture with them from the south, and that the latter received
it from a source common to them and to the people of Java and Sumatra.

Many writers who have discussed the rice culture of the East Indies
are inclined to credit its introduction to Indian colonists, [204]
but _Campbell_ [205] holds to the belief that it was practised
centuries before the Christian era and prior to the Hindu invasion of
Java. There seems to be no dissent, however, among these writers to
the belief that its introduction antedated the arrival of the European
in the Orient by several centuries. The fact that dry land farming,
carried on with planting sticks and the like, is still found among the
Igorot and Tinguian, and for that matter all over the Philippines,
cannot be advanced as an argument that the irrigated fields are of
recent date, for upland fields and primitive tools are still used in
Java and Sumatra, where, as we have just seen, the wet field culture
is an old possession.

_Magical Rites and Ceremonies Connected with the Rice_.--The importance
of rice to this people is nowhere better evidenced than in the numerous
and, in some cases, elaborate rites with which its cultivation and
care is attended. Some of these observances appear to be purely
magical, while others are associated with the consulting of omens,
acts of sacrifice, propitiation, and finally of thanksgiving. All
are interwoven with tribal law and custom to such an extent that
neglect, on the part of the individual, amounts to a crime against the
community, and hence is punished with public indignation and ostracism.

When a new field is to be prepared, or a granary erected, strict watch
must be kept for omens, for should the inhabitants of the spirit world
be unfavorable to the project, they will indicate their feelings by
sending snakes, large lizards, deer, wild hogs, or certain birds to
visit the workers. Should any of these appear, as the task is begun,
the place is generally abandoned at once, but if doubt still exists, or
it is deemed abvisable to try to persuade the spirits to reconsider, a
small pig will be sacrificed. Its blood, mixed with rice, is scattered
about on the ground as an offering, while the medium recites a proper
_diam_. [206] After a suitable time has elapsed for the spirits to
partake, the liver of the animal is removed, and is carefully examined
(cf. p. 307). If the omens are now favorable, the work may be resumed,
but should they still be unpropitious, it is folly to proceed, for
disaster is certain to follow.

The next anxiety is to secure a lusty growth of plants in the seed
beds, and to accomplish this, sticks known as _salogegey_, are stuck
in each plot. The surface of such a stick has been pared so that
shavings stand out on it in opposite directions, for such a decoration
"is pleasing to the spirits;" while a piece of charcoal, placed in the
notched end, compels the new leaves to turn the dark green of sturdy
plants. The first seeds to be planted must always be sowed by the wife
of the owner, "so that they will be fertile and yield a good crop."

When a field has been constructed, or when the terraces are ready to
receive the plants, a ceremony known as _Dalau_, [207] is held. The
purpose of this is to secure the good will of the spirits in general,
but more particularly to provide a dwelling place for the powerful
being Kaiba-an, who guards the crops. A medium, accompanied by
the family and any others who may be interested, goes to the field
carrying a large bamboo pole, _bolo_ [208] branches, stalks of _lono
[209] bakon_, and _saklak_. [210] The end of the bamboo is split
open, and a _saloko_ [211] is constructed to which are attached the
other leaves and stalks. The _saloko_ is then placed on the dividing
ridge of the field, and all is ready for the ceremony, unless it is
considered wise to also construct a small house (_baubauwi_). If the
field is near the village, the latter is generally dispensed with,
but if it is distant, the house is erected so that the spirit will
accept it as its dwelling, while it is guarding the crop. It is further
explained that the spirit then stays in the small house or _saloko_
instead of in the rice stalks, and so they are able to grow.

A female pig is presented to the medium who, after reciting a proper
_diam_ above it, stabs the animal and collects its blood. This is
mixed with rice, and a part is at once deposited in the _saloko_,
while the balance is placed on a head-axe, and is carried about the
field. When the whole plot has been traversed, this rice and blood
is scattered in all directions, while the spirits are besought to
come and eat. A part of the company has meanwhile been cooking the
flesh of the slain animal, but before any of it is served, a skirt
(_kinomayan_) is spread at the foot of the _saloko_, and on it are
placed dishes of oil and of cooked rice.

After the meal has been eaten, the family gathers up the skirt and
dishes, to return them to the village, but the other offerings remain.

Rain, like all other things needed, is sent by Kadaklan or
Kaboniyan. If it does not come as desired, or if the crop is not
progressing favorably, a ceremony known as _Komon_ or _Ubaiya_ [212]
is held. Each person of the village is assessed a _sopa_ of rice,
a bundle of _palay_, or a small coin with which pigs, _basi_, and
other things necessary, can be purchased.

Early in the morning of the appointed day, the mediums, accompanied
by many people, go to the guardian stones, oil the head of each, and
place a bark band around it. Then having recited a proper _diam_ over
a small pig, they slaughter it and scatter its blood mixed with rice
among the stones. Likewise they place a dish of _basi_ among them for
the use of the spirits. A part of the slain animal is then cooked and
eaten, after which all go back to the village. At some appointed place,
rice, eggs, betel-nuts, and a large pig have been assembled, and to
this spot the mediums go to conduct the rite known as _Dawak_. [213]
Before its conclusion a _diam_ is recited over the pig, which is then
killed and prepared for food. Meanwhile the chief medium beseeches the
supreme being Kadaklan to enter her body. He comes, and after telling
the people what must be done to insure the crop, he designates some
one man who must, on the following morning, celebrate _Padiam_.

After all the visiting spirits have been given food and drink, a small
covered raft (_taltalabong_) is constructed, and in it are placed a
live chick, a cooked rooster, and other articles of food. Four sturdy
men carry this to the river and set it afloat, while the people shout
and beat on gongs to drive away evil spirits who might wish to steal
the raft and its contents. The purpose of this offering is to supply
food to any spirits who may be unable to attend the ceremony.

Early the next morning, the man who has been designated by Kadaklan
to perform the _Padiam_ makes ready, at his own expense, a large
pig and cooked rice, and carries these to the fields. He must be
dressed in striped garments known as _ginalit_, must carry a headaxe,
and wear on his head the cloth band of the medium, beneath which are
thrust two _igam_, that is, chicken feathers notched or decorated with
bits of colored thread (cf. p. 313). He is accompanied by his wife,
attired in a red jacket (_sinasaya_) and a skirt (_pinapa_), and by a
medium who also wears the _igam_ beneath a headband of _sikag_; [214]
while the townspeople follow behind. Arrived at the field, the medium
squats before the bound pig, and holding a spear, betel-nuts, and oil,
begins to recite a _diam_, meanwhile she strokes the animal from time
to time with oiled fingers. This concluded, she stabs the pig, and
having mixed its blood with rice, scatters it over the field, calling
to the spirits to come and eat, and then to grant a full harvest. The
people eat part of the animal while in the field, but before returning
home, the head of each family receives a small strip of uncooked flesh,
which he fastens above the door as a sign that the ceremony has been
held. [215] The following day, the owner and the medium return to
the field and break a little soil with a spear, and the ceremony is
complete, but for some days these two are barred from eating shrimp,
carabao, or wild pig. The owner must also pay the medium ten bundles
of rice for her assistance in insuring his own crops, as well as those
of the community. Should lightning strike a field or a tree in it,
this ceremony is repeated, with the exception that the strips of
flesh are not distributed, nor is the soil broken with a spear. [216]

In Lumaba, a town strongly influenced by the Igorot, the _Ubaiya_
regularly precedes the rice planting, as well as the first use of a
newly constructed field. While conforming, in general, to that already
described, a part of the procedure is somewhat different. On the day
before the ceremony, the men go to the mountains and gather _lono_
stalks, one for each house and two for the town gate. The two reeds are
placed crosswise of the entrance to the village and serve as a sign
of taboo, and thereafter no one may enter until they are officially
removed. To do so would necessitate the repetition of the ceremony,
and the offender would be obliged to provide all the things necessary
for it. Likewise, no one may wear a hat or prepare food during the
period of taboo.

The next day is known as _Bignas_, and at dawn all the men arm
themselves with bamboo poles. With these they beat about under the
houses and throughout the town, in order to drive away any evil
spirits who may be lurking about. Having effectively rid the town,
they force the invisible beings ahead of them to the river, where they
deposit the poles. They return to the village singing and shouting,
and are met at the gate by the women, who hold ladders, one on each
side of the entrance, so that they meet at the top and thus form a
path by which the men may enter without breaking the interdict. At
the guardian stones, they pause long enough to sacrifice a pig and a
rooster, and offer blood and rice to the spirits, and then they proceed
to the center of the village, where they dance _tadek_ and _da-eng_
until dusk. At nightfall a pig is killed, its flesh is divided among
the people, and a _lono_ stalk, after being dipped in the blood,
is given to a member of each family. This is carried home, and is
placed on the outside wall as a sign that the ceremony has been held.

If the sun is shining the following morning, the _lakay_ will go
outside the town to gather wood. Upon his return the people are again
free to fish and hunt, but work is forbidden until evening. Should
the sun fail to appear, all remain quietly in the village until the
_lakay_ can remove the taboo by his wood gathering.

In Manabo the ceremony is a mixture of the two types just described,
and is always held at the time of planting and when droughts
occur. [217]

The procedure at harvest time varies considerably in different
districts, but the usual custom is for a woman, from each family, to
go to the fields and cut alone until she has harvested one hundred
bundles. During this time she may use no salt, but a little sand
is placed in her food as a substitute. No outsider may enter the
dwelling during this preliminary cutting. So strictly is this rule
observed that the writer has been absolutely excluded from homes where,
on other occasions, he was a welcome guest. In Lumaba and vicinity
it is the custom to sacrifice a chicken two days before the harvest
begins, and to cook its neck and intestines without salt. These are
then divided into nine parts, are placed in dishes, and are carried
to the spirit house in the field. At the end of the second day,
the feathers of the fowl are stuck into the sides of the structure,
and the spirits are entreated to grant a good harvest and health for
the workers. The dishes are then returned to the village, and on the
following morning the women may begin cutting.

When the rice is ready to be stored, the _Palpalaem_ [218] ceremony
is held in honor of the spirit of the granary. Vines and shrubs [219]
are tied to each supporting post of the granary and above the door,
while a bit of _sikag_ is also hidden inside a bundle of rice, which
has been placed at each corner pole. Near one post is a small pig with
its head toward the east, and over it the medium recites a _diam_. As
usual, the animal is killed, and its blood mixed with rice is offered
to the spirits. A part of the flesh is wrapped in banana leaves, and
a bundle is buried at the foot of each post. The skull is cooked,
and after being cleaned, is hung up inside the roof. The rest of
the meat is cooked, and is served with rice to the little company of
friends who have gathered. Each guest is also given a few stalks of
the rice from the bundles at the corner posts.

Just before the new rice is placed in the granary, a jar of _basi_
is placed in the center of the structure, and beside it a dish filled
with oil and the dung of worms. Five bundles of _palay_ are piled
over these, and the whole is presented to the spirit, who will now
allow the rice to multiply until it is as plentiful as the dung.

In Buneg and nearby villages, all of which are strongly influenced
by immigrants from the Cagayan valley, a small clay house known as
_lablabon_ or _adug_ is placed with the rice, and from time to time
offerings are put in them for the spirit who multiplies the rice
(Plate XXIX).

Certain restrictions always apply to the granary. It may never be
opened after dark, for evil spirits are certain to enter, and the crop
will vanish quickly. It can be opened only by a member of the family
"whom the spirit knows;" and should another attempt to remove the
grain, sickness or blindness will befall him. So rigorously is this
enforced that a bride never opens her husband's granary until he has
presented her with a string of beads, which she wears about her neck to
identify her. It is further necessary that she receive a similar gift
before she eats of his rice, otherwise she will become ill. However,
this does not apply to others, even strangers being fed without this
gift being made.

A custom which formerly prevailed, but is now falling into disuse,
was for the bride and groom to visit the family fields, where the
youth cut a little grass along the dividing ridges. He then took up
a bit of earth on his head-axe, and both tasted of it, "so that the
ground would yield them good harvests, and they would become wealthy,"

_Cultivated Plants and Trees_.--Near every settlement will be found
a number of small gardens, in which a variety of vegetables are
grown. Occasionally a considerable planting of bananas will be found,
while many villages are buried beneath the shade of coconut trees,
but in comparison with rice the cultivation of other crops becomes
insignificant. Nevertheless, a considerable amount of food stuff,
as well as of plants and trees used in household industries, are
planted in prepared land; while many of wild growths are utilized. The
following list is doubtless incomplete, but still contains those of
special value to this people. [220]

Next to rice the _camote_ (_Convolvulus batatas_) is the most
important food product. Occasionally it is raised in the gardens or
rice terraces, but, as a rule, it is planted in hillside clearings from
which one or two crops of rice have been removed. The tuber is cut
into pieces, or runners from old plants are stuck into the ground,
and the planting is complete. The vine soon becomes very sturdy,
its large green leaves so carpeting the ground that it even competes
successfully with the _cogon_ grass. If allowed, the plants multiply
by their runners far beyond the space originally allotted to them. The
tubers, which are about the size of our sweet potatoes, are dug up as
needed, to replace or supplement rice in the daily menu. Both roots
and plants are also cooked and used as food for the pigs and dogs.

_Aba_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_ Schott) is raised, [221] but as it
requires a moist soil, and hence would occupy land adapted to rice,
it is chiefly limited to the gardens. It has large fleshy roots
which are used like those of the _camote_, while the leaves and
young shoots are also cooked and eaten. Other tubers known as _obi_
(_Dioscorea sp_.), _gakad_ (_Dioscorea divaricata_ Blanco), _annaeg_
(_Dioscorea fasciculata_), and _kamas_ (_Pachyrhizus angulatus_
D.C.) are raised to a limited extent in the gardens.

Corn, _mais, bukel_, and red corn, _gasilan_ (_Zea mays_ L.) seems
to have been introduced into Abra in comparatively late times, for
despite the fact that it is one of the most important crops, it has
neither gathered to itself ceremonial procedure, nor has it acquired a
place in the folk-lore. A considerable amount is raised in the village
gardens, but generally it is planted by dibbling in the high land. When
ripe, the ears are broken from the stalk, the husks are turned back,
and several are tied together. These bunches are then placed over
horizontal poles, raised several feet from the ground (Plate LVIII),
and after being thoroughly dried, are hung from the house rafters. The
common method of grinding is to place the corn on a large stone,
over which a smaller stone is rocked until a fine flour is produced
(Plate LIX). Stone disk grinders, imported from the coast, are also
in use. These consist of grooved stones, the upper of which revolves
on the lower. Grain is fed into an opening at the top as needed. Dried
corn, popped in the embers of a fire, is much relished by the children.

Several varieties of squash, [222] and beans, as well as peanuts
(_mani_) are among the common products of the garden. The former are
trained to run over a low trellis or frame to prevent injury to the
blossoms from a driving rain. Both blossoms and the mature vegetables
are used as food.

Among the minor products are ginger, _laya_ (_Zingiber officinale_
Rosc.) and a small melon, locally known as _melod_, which is used
as a sweetening. Sugar cane, _onas_ (_Saccharum_), is raised in
considerable quantity, and is used in making an intoxicating drink
known as _basi_. It is also eaten raw in place of a sweetmeat, but
is never converted into sugar. Nowadays the juice is extracted by
passing the cane between two cylinders of wood with intermeshing
teeth. Motive power is furnished by a carabao attached to a long
sweep. This is doubtless a recent introduction, but it has entirely
superseded any older method.

The cane is raised from cuttings which are set in mud-beds until
ready to be transferred to the mountain-side clearings. These lands
are prepared in the same manner as the upland rice fields already
described. The men dig shallow holes and set each plant upright,
while the women follow, filling the hole with water and then pressing
earth in with fingers or toes.

In addition to these food crops, considerable plantings of cotton or
_kapas_ (_Gossypium_ sp.) and tobacco or _taba-o_ (_Nicotiana tabacum_)
are raised in the clearings. The former is planted on the hillsides,
where it matures in three or four months. The plant seldom reaches
a height of two feet, and the bolls are small, doubtless due to lack
of care and suitable fertilization. [223]

Tobacco seeds are sprouted in beds similar to those used for the rice,
and the same magical device is used to insure a lusty growth. The young
plants are carefully watered and shaded until they reach a height of
five or six inches. They are then transplanted to hillside clearings,
or to unused rice fields, where they are set out about three to a
foot. This transfer generally takes place near the beginning of
the dry season, so that the crop will be sure to mature without
the damaging effect of water on the leaves. The plants while lusty
do not attain the size of those grown in the valley regions of the
interior. As soon as the leaves begin to turn a dark yellow, they are
cut off and are strung on slender bamboo sticks (Plate LX), which are
then hung up in the house. When nearly dry, they are laid in piles,
and are occasionally turned to prevent rust or mildew from forming.

A small amount of indigo, _tayum_ (_Indigofera tinctoria_) is raised,
generally in open spots near the villages. The plants receive little
or no attention, yet still attain a height of about three feet. The
leaves and branches are placed in water for a few days, and are then
boiled, together with a little lime, the resultant liquor being used
as a dye for cotton thread.

No product receives more attention in the lore of the Tinguian than the
climbing vine known as _lawed_ (_Piper sp_.). [224] It was formerly
in universal use in connection with the chewing of betel-nut. To-day
betel-nut is less common in this region, but this leaf and the
areca-nut still play an important part in all ceremonies. According
to tradition, it was possible in the old times to tell the fate of
an absent friend by noting the condition of a _lawed_ vine planted
by him prior to his departure. [225] The vine is now trained on poles
and trellises, near to many houses.

Among the larger cultivated plants and trees, the banana (_Musa
paradisiaca_), coconut (_Cocos nucifera_), and bamboo (_Bambusa
sp_.) are the most important.

At least twenty varieties of bananas are raised in Abra. The fruit
of some of these is scarcely larger than the forefinger, while
others are quite large. The common type bears a rather small, yellow
fruit locally known as _saba_. In Manabo and several other villages,
plantings covering three or four acres are to be found, but the usual
plot is small, and is situated near to the house of the owner.

Suckers, which sprout from the roots of mature plants, are set out as
needed, either to make new groves or to replace the old stalks, which
are cut down after bearing. Both bud and fruit are eaten. The latter
are cut on the stem while still green, and are hung in the house to
ripen, in order to protect them from bats and fruit-feeding birds.

The coconut (_niog_) is not raised in groves, as in the Christianized
districts, but in many villages every house has two or three trees
towering above it. Even the interior mountain settlements, like Lingey,
Ba-ay, and Likuan, are hidden beneath these trees, thus incidentally
disposing of the fable that "the coconut tree will not grow out of
sight of the sea." Young trees have to be protected by fences during
the first two or three years of growth, or they will be uprooted by the
pigs, but from that time on they require little or no care. They are
not tapped for sap, as is customary in most parts of the Philippines,
but notches are cut in the tree trunks in order to supply foothold for
the fruit gatherer. The nuts are cut off with a knife as soon as ripe,
else they may fall and cause death or injury to people below.

No other fruit serves the people in so many ways. The juice is relished
as a drink, the meat as a food, the oil as a food and hair dressing;
the shells serve as dishes and cups, or are carved into ladles,
while the fibrous covering of the nut is converted into foot wipers,
thread brushes, and the like.

The betel-nut, _bwa_ (_Areca catechu_ L.), is also found in some
villages, particularly in the mountains. It is a tall, slender palm
which yields the nut so prized throughout the Islands for chewing.

Mango-treees, _mangga_ (_Mangifera indica_ L.) appear here and there
in valleys and on mountain sides, where the seeds have doubtless been
carried by birds or travelers, but considerable groves are found in
many districts. The fruit is picked before it is ripe, and is eaten
as it becomes mellow.

Other trees and shrubs which are occasionally planted are: _Atis_
(_Anona squamosa_ L., an American plant) prized both for its fruit
and bark--the latter being used in rope-making.

_Atatawa_ (_Jathropha multifida_ L.). Also found in a wild state. The
fruit is used as a purgative. The _Jathropha curcas_ L. is also used.

_Daligan_ (_Averrhoa carambola_ L.) or Coromandel gooseberry. The
fruit is eaten without cooking.

_Lanka_ (_Artocarpus integrifola_ L.). Jackfruit.

_Maling-kapas_ or _kapas to insit_ (_Ceiba pantadra_ Gaertn.), also
known by the Ilocano as _kapas sanglay_. This so-called "Chinese
cotton" is a small tree with few, but perfectly straight, branches,
which radiate from the trunk in horizontal lines. It produces
elliptical pods which burst open when ripe, exposing a silky white
cotton. The fiber is too short for spinning, but is used as tinder
and as stuffing for pillows.

Orange (_lokban_) and lime (_lolokisen_) trees are greatly prized,
but appear only occasionally. They receive no care, and consequently
yield only inferior fruit.

The _pias_ (_Averrhoa bilimbi_ L.) is a garden tree which produces
an acid fruit used in cooking.

_Santol_ (_Sandoricum indicum_ Cav.) trees are raised both for the
fruit and for timber. It is said that house posts of this wood are
not attacked by white ants.

_Wild Plants and Trees_.--Few of the wild growths have escaped the
attention of this people, and many are used as food and medicine,
as well as for fiber materials and bark cloth. Among those used for
food, the following are the most important:--

_Apang_ or _sapang_ (_Bixa orellana_ L.).

_Alloseup_ (_Antidesma ghesaembilla_ Gaertn.).

_Bayabas_, or lemon guava (_Psidium guayava_ L.), an American shrub
which now grows wild, and in great abundance, in the mountains.

_Balatong_ (_Phaseolus mungo_ L.). Only the seeds are used.

_Damokes_ (_Pithecolobium dulce_ Benth.), an American tree which now
grows spontaneously in northern Luzon. The fruit is eaten, while the
bark is sometimes used for tanning.

_Ipako_ (_Psophocarpus tetragonolobus_ D.C.), a herbaceous vine
infrequently seen in the gardens. The young pods are used as a
condiment.

_Kochai_ (_Alliuni tricoccum_) or wild leek.

_Katodai_ (_Sesbania grandiflora_ P.). Only the flowers are eaten.

_Kama-al_ (_Allaeanthus luzonicus_ Blanco. Vill.).

_Kalot_ (_Dioscorea daemona_ Roxb.), a tuber, poisonous if eaten
without special preparation. It is cut into small pieces, and is
placed in running water for several days, after which it is cooked.

_Kamatis_ (_Lycopersicum esculentum_ Mill.), tiny tomatoes which are
eaten raw or cooked.

_Labok_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_ Schott).

_Longboy_ (_Eugenia jambolana_ Lam.).

_Olo_ (_Cissus sp_.), a low climbing herb, the stems and leaves of
which are used in place of vinegar.

_Palda_ (_Phaseolus lunatus_ L.), civet bean.

_Sili_ (_Capsicum frutescens_ L.), small red peppers. The American
chile. Used as a condiment.

Specimens of about twenty other food plants and trees were obtained,
but their identification was impossible.

The wild growths used as medicines, or in the manufacture of string,
rope, and bark cloth, will be mentioned under those headings.

_Plants and Trees Used in the Treatment of Disease_.--Most sickness
is thought to be caused by spirits, either with evil intent or to
punish some wrong-doing or oversight on the part of the people. To
placate or bribe these superior beings, elaborate ceremonies are held,
but in addition to these a number of simple remedies are made use
of. The efficacy of some of these medicines is explained by the fact
that certain leaves or infusions are distasteful to the spirits of
disease, which, consequently, take their departure. Again, a trouble
such as a tooth-ache is caused by a small worm which is gnawing at
the tooth. To overcome this, the bark and leaves of the _alem_ tree
are thoroughly beaten, and are applied to the face. The worm smells
the crushed leaves, and straightway enters the poultice which is then
burned. The spirits which bring the cholera can be driven away by
burning the leaves of _sobosob_ (_Blumea balsamifera_), _bangbangsit_
(_Hyptis suavolens_ Poir.) and _dala_ (?) beneath the house; likewise,
the bark of the _bani_ (?) keeps the bearers of constipation at a
distance. _Bangbangsit_ is also considered as a cure for stomachache,
diarrhoea, and is an aid in bringing on menstruation. When used
for these purposes, the root is boiled, and the liquor is drunk. The
fresh leaves will also relieve a pain in the stomach if applied to it,
while the fruit is eaten to cure diarrhoea. If the patient is already
affected with cholera or dysentery, the leaves of the _sobosob_
are placed in a jar of water at the mouth of which a clay ball is
suspended, and the whole is then completely covered with banana
leaves. The pot it placed over a fire, and the steam being unable
to escape is absorbed by the clay. Later this is crushed, is mixed
with water, and is swallowed by the patient. Lard burned to a crisp
is likewise mixed with water, and is drunk to relieve diarrhoea.

Fever is a frequent ailment, and several medicines are employed
against it. The most common is to crush the leaves of the _dangla_
(_Vitex negundo_ L.) in vinegar made from _basi_, and to add to
this a fourth part of urine. The patient drinks a shell cup of the
liquor, is washed in cold water, and then is briskly rubbed with fine
salt. Young banana leaves are applied to the flesh, and over these
blankets are placed. This is repeated twice daily until the fever
is broken. Wild tomato leaves, pounded and applied to the abdomen,
are also considered valuable in causing the patient to sweat. If the
trouble is unusually severe, a hot bath is prepared by boiling the
leaves of the lemon, _atis_ (_Anona squamosa_ L.), and _toltolang_
(?) trees in water. After the patient has been bathed in this, he is
wrapped in blankets. The same remedy is used to cure fits.

Snake bite is treated by chewing the bark of the _alonen_ (_Streblus_
_asper_ Lour.), or _kasabong_ (_Argemone mexicana_ L.), or the root
of the _talabatab_ (_Capparis micracantha_ D.C.), all of which cause
vomiting.

The fruit of the _soloyot_ (_Corchorus olitorius_ L.), when baked
and ground to a powder, likewise produces vomiting, and is used for
any kind of poisoning.

To relieve the itch, the juice of the _kabatiti_ (_Luffa acutangula_
Roxb.), _Bayabas_ (_Psidium guajava_ L.) or _lew-lew_ (_Ficus haulili_
Blanco) is mixed with vinegar and soot, and is applied to the skin. The
milky exudation of the _kalinbwaya_ (_Euphorbia neruefolia_ L.) is
also placed on the affected parts.

During the rainy season the people are greatly troubled with small
blisters which form between the toes and quickly break down, leaving
open sores. To "harden" the feet, they hold them over burning straw.

Certain other aids against disease are also employed. Cracked
feet are treated with carabao dung; the nest of a small cave bird
(_nido_) is crushed in water, and is drunk as a cure for coughs;
while the flesh of the shell fish (_kool_) is applied to boils. A
further cure for the itch is made by pounding a coconut shell into
a fine powder. This is placed in a jar, over a hot fire, and a piece
of iron is laid over the top. The "sweat" which collects on the iron
is said to give instant relief.

An infected ("bad") finger or limb is tightly bound "to keep the
sickness from going up."

_Use of Betel-Nut, Tobacco, and Stimulants_.--A study of the tales and
ceremonies makes it evident that the betel-nut (_bwa_) was at one time
extensively used. To-day it occupies an exceedingly important place
in the religious rites, but is seldom chewed. When it is offered
to the spirits, it is still prepared in the way that is universal
throughout Malaysia. The nut of the areca palm (_Areca catechu_
L.) is split into four pieces, fresh lime is spread on a piper leaf
(_Piper betel_ L.), this is wrapped about the piece of nut, and is
ready for chewing. The areca palm grows well in this territory, and
quite an extensive grove is to be found near the village of Bakaok,
yet this is the only place where any number of the people are addicted
to its use. Tobacco (_tabao_), on the other hand, is in universal
use, although it certainly was introduced after the arrival of the
Spaniards. The leaf is dried, and is rolled into thin cigars which
are placed in tiny pipes (Fig. 21). The cigar itself is never held in
the lips, nor is the leaf chewed. Young and old of both sexes smoke
frequently, but not a great deal at a time. After taking a few puffs,
the pipe is stuck into the hair, or under the inner band of the hat,
until again needed.

The only intoxicating drink made and used by this people is the
fermented juice of the sugar-cane, known as _basi_. The juice when
extracted from the cane is boiled with water for four or five hours. It
is placed in a large jar together with cinnamon bark, and is tightly
covered over with leaves. Fermentation begins almost at once, but for
a month the drink is raw and little prized. In three or four months,
it becomes quite mellow and pleasant to the taste. Jars are sometimes
stored away to be opened only for some important event, such as a
marriage festival or the celebration of a great ceremony. At such a
time a very definite procedure is followed. The most honored guest
is invited to do the serving. He removes the covering, dips into the
liquor, pours a little on the sides of the jar, and then a few drops
on the ground as an offering to the spirits. A coconut shell cup
is then dipped out, and is carried to the _lakay_ or some other old
man. Before he drinks, he raises the cup to the level of his face, and,
beginning at his right, offers it to each person in the circle. The
one saluted makes a gesture away from his body with his right hand,
the palm upturned. When all have refused the cup, the man drinks,
often he stops to sing the _daleng_, an improvised song in which he
compliments his host, bespeaks the welfare of his family, or praises
the other members of the gathering. One after another the guests are
served, but always according to age and importance, the women and
young people being left to the last. The liquor is quite intoxicating,
two or three drinks being sufficient to put the company in a jovial
mood. It often happens that one or more will become gloriously drunk,
but, as a rule, they are not quarrelsome, and there seems to be no
unpleasant after-effects. [226]

_Domestic Animals_.--Dogs, pigs, chickens, and carabao appear to
have been long in the possession of this tribe. Horses, goats, and
cattle are now owned by some of the people, but only the former are
of sufficient number to be considered important.

The dogs _(aso)_are surly, ill-kept creatures of mongrel breed. They
are seldom treated as pets, but are kept for hunting. Well-fed dogs
are considered lazy, and hence they are fed only with a rice gruel,
which seems to be neither fattening nor satisfactory. When in the
village, the miserable creatures wander about under the houses, there
to pick up and fight over morsels which may drop from above, or they
lie in the ashes of the bonfires, the better to protect themselves from
fleas and other enemies. When used in hunting, they are kept in leash
until the game is started. When released, they follow the quarry at
full cry, and if the game has been injured, they will seldom give up
the chase. It is necessary for the hunters to follow the dogs closely
and beat them off a slain animal, otherwise they will quickly devour
it. They are always rewarded with a part of the intestines and some
other portions, so that they may be keen for the next hunt.

Pigs (_babuy_) run at large throughout the villages or in the
neighboring underbrush. They are fed at night close to the dwellings,
and thus become at least half tame (Plate LXI). Many spend the hot
hours of mid-day beneath the houses, from which they are occasionally
driven by the irate housewives, when their squealing and fighting
become unbearable. The domestic pigs are probably all descended from
the wild stock with which they still constantly mix. Most of the young
pigs are born with yellow stripes like the young of the wild, but
they lose these marks in a short time. Castration of the young males
is usually accomplished when the animals are about two months old.

Considerable numbers of chickens (_manok_) are raised. Nets or coops
are arranged for them beneath the houses, but they run at large during
the day time. Eggs are an important part of the food supply, but the
fowls themselves are seldom killed or eaten, except in connection with
the ceremonies. The domestic birds closely resemble the wild fowl of
the neighborhood, and probably are descended from them. Except for a
few strongly influenced settlements, cock-fighting has no hold upon
this people.

The carabao or water buffalo (_nuang_) is the most prized and valuable
animal possessed by this tribe. As a rule, it is handled and petted
by the children from the time of its birth, and hence its taming
and breaking is a matter of little moment. In the mountain region
about Lakub, where most of the animals are allowed to run half wild,
only the strongest are broken. The animal is driven into a A-shaped
pen, and a heavy pole is fastened across its neck just behind the
horns. It is thus prevented from using its strength, and is loaded
or ridden until it becomes accustomed to the treatment. Carabao are
used for drawing the sleds and for ploughing and harrowing in the
lower fields. Should one be seriously injured, it would be killed
and eaten; but strong animals are slaughtered only on very rare
occasions. Wild carabao are fairly abundant in the mountains. They
closely resemble the tame stock, and are generally considered to be
derived from animals which have escaped.



CHAPTER IX

PRODUCTS OF INDUSTRY

_Iron-Working_.--Little iron work is now done in the valley of the
Abra for the competition of the Ilocano smiths of Santa and Narvacan,
in Ilocos Sur, and the cheap products brought to the coast, and as
far inland as Bangued, by Chinese traders, have swamped the native
industry.

Forges are still found in many villages of eastern Abra, particularly
those of the upper Buklok river, but the real center of the industry is
in and around Balbalasang, on the eastern side of the mountain range.

We have in northern Luzon a situation similar to that found throughout
the archipelago, namely, that the most flourishing smithies are usually
those farthest removed from the coast traders. Where communication
is easy and trade unrestricted, the native industry has vanished,
or is on the wane. To-day the forges of the Bontoc Igorot, of the
Tinguian-Kalinga border villages, and of Apayao, are turning out
superior weapons, but elsewhere in the northwestern districts the pagan
people have either lost the art, or make only very inferior articles.

It is certain that iron-working has long been known, not only in the
Philippines, but throughout Malaysia, and it is likewise evident that
these regions secured the art from the same source as did the people
of Assam, Burma, and eastern Madagascar, for the description of the
Tinguian forge and iron-working which follows would, with very little
modification, apply equally well to those in use in Southern Mindanao,
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Assam, Burma, and Madagascar. [227]

Long before the arrival of the Spanish in the Philippines, the Chinese
had built up such a lively trade in iron bars and caldrons that it was
no longer necessary for the natives to smelt their own iron ore; if
indeed they ever did so. [228] This trade metal was widely distributed,
and then reworked by the local smiths. Even to-day the people of
Balbalasang make the long journey to Bangued, or even to Vigan,
to secure Chinese iron, which they carry back to their mountain forges.

There is no positive proof that the Filipinos formerly mined and
smelted iron, but there is a strong probability that they did so, prior
to the introduction of trade metal. It has already been noted that the
Tinguian type of forge and the method of handling and tempering iron
is widespread in Malaysia; and, as will be seen later, this process
is not that in use among the Chinese, so that it is unlikely that the
art was introduced by them. In furnishing iron ready for forging,
they were simply supplying in a convenient form an article already
in use, and for which there was an urgent demand. In the islands to
the south we find that many of the pagan tribes do now, or did until
recently, mine and smelt the ore. _Beccari_ [229] tells us that the
Kayan of Borneo extract iron ore found in their own country. _Hose_
and _McDougall_ say that thirty years ago nearly all the iron worked
by the tribes of the interior of Borneo was from ore found in the
river beds. At present most of the pagans obtain the metal from the
Chinese and Malay traders, but native ore is still smelted in the far
interior. [230] Foreign iron is now used by the Battak of Sumatra,
but deserted iron-works are known to exist in their country, while the
Menangkabau still possess smelting furnaces. [231] It seems probable
that the whole industry had a common source, and was spread or carried
as a unit, but when trade relations made the arduous work of mining
and smelting unnecessary, it was quickly given up. That native iron
might have supplied the needs of many Philippine tribes, including
the Tinguian, is certain, for important deposits of magnetite and
hematite are found in Abra, in Ilocos Norte, Angat, Bulacan, Albay,
and other parts of the Islands. [232] On several occasions, when
on the trail, the natives have called our attention to boulders,
apparently of hematite, which they recognized as iron.

The smithies are small structures with grass roofs, but no sides or
floors (Plate LXII). At one end is a raised bamboo bench in front of
which stands the forge. This consists of two upright wooden cylinders,
usually logs hollowed out, known as _po-opan._ In each of these is
a piston or plunger (_doeydoyog_) at the lower end of which is a
wooden ring packed with corn husks and chicken feathers. When this
is pushed downward in the cylinder, it compresses the air and forces
it out of the small opening in the base, but when it is drawn up,
the packing collapses and allows the plunger to be raised without
effort. These pistons are worked so that one is rising, while the
other is falling. The cylinders stand in a wooden block out of which
bamboo tubes (_tolongon_) conduct the air into a tube of fire clay
(_ibong_), and this in turn carries it into the charcoal fire. There
are no valves, as in the Chinese bellows, but the bamboo tubes fit
loosely, and the fire is not drawn back. Near to the hearth is a stone
anvil (_dalisdisan_), while a heavy stone hammer, a small iron hammer,
and iron pinchers complete the outfit.

The fire is lighted, and the operator sitting on the bench alternately
raises and lowers the plungers in the cylinders until the fire burns
brightly; then the smith puts metal into the coals and allows it
to remain until it reaches a white heat. It is then removed and
placed on the anvil, where his helper beats it out with the large
hammer. This is a stone weighing twenty or more pounds, fitted inside
the handles so that it can be used with both hands. As a rule, it
is swung between the legs, and is allowed to strike the metal as it
descends, but some of the men raise it above the shoulder and strike
a much more powerful blow. If two pieces of metal are to be welded
together, as is often the case when broken caldrons are used, they
are laid, one overlapping the other, and are held together with damp
fire-clay. In this condition they are placed in the fire and heated,
and are then beaten together. It often takes several firings to bring
about a perfect weld.

After the initial shaping, the smith completes the work with the small
hammer, and the blade is ready for tempering. A bamboo tube of water
is placed near by, and the blade is again inserted in the fire and
brought to a white heat. Then the smith withdraws it and watches it
intently until the white tone begins to turn to a greenish-yellow, when
he plunges it into the water. The tempered blade is now smoothed down
with sandstone, and is whetted to a keen edge. Head-axes, spear-heads,
adzes, a few knives, and the metal ends for the spear-shafts are the
principal products of the forge.

The blades are by no means of equal temper or perfection, but the
smiths of the Tinguian-Kalinga border villages seldom turn out poor
weapons, and as a result, their spears and head-axes have a wide
distribution over northwestern Luzon.

In view of the wide distribution of this type of forge and method of
iron-working; of its persistence in isolated communities, while it
has vanished from the coast, or has been superseded by the Chinese
methods of work; as well as of other details here described, the
writer is of the opinion that the art has not been introduced into
the Philippines through trade, but is a possession which many or all
of the tribes brought with them from their ancient home, probably
somewhere in southeastern Asia. The effects of trade, in historic
times, are evident throughout the Christianized regions, in Chinese
and European forges and in foreign types of utensils. Likewise the
influence of the Mohammedanized tribes is very marked in the Sulu
archipelago, the western coasts of Mindanao, and even among many of
the pagan tribes of that island, but the isolated forges throughout
Malaysia and the methods described by early explorers in this field,
are practically identical with those just reviewed.

_Spinning and Weaving_.--That cotton (_kapas_) was being raised and
the fibre spun into cloth at the time of the Spanish occupation
of the Islands, is amply proved by many references in the early
chronicles. Also there was a considerable trade in cotton, silk,
and the like, carried on by the Chinese and the Brunei Moro. [233]

The weaving industry seems to have reached its height in the Ilocos
provinces, where the processes of ginning, carding, spinning, and
weaving were, for the most part, identical with those found in Borneo,
Java, the Malay Peninsula, Burma, and a large part of India. [234]
The same methods and utensils are used among the Tinguian, but side by
side with the more complicated devices, such as the ginning machine
and spinning wheel, are found more simple contrivances; so it would
appear that we are here dealing with older and more primitive methods
of work than are found on the coast. [235]

Every step in the manufacture of cloth is looked after by the women,
who raise a limited amount of cotton in the upland fields, pick and dry
the crop, and prepare it for weaving. The bolls are placed on racks,
and are sun-dried, after which the husks are removed by hand.

Ginning is accomplished by two methods. The simplest, and doubtless the
older, is to place the cotton on a smooth wooden block and to roll over
it a wooden cylinder which tapers slightly toward each end (Fig. 16,
No. 1). The palm of the hand, at the base of the fingers, is placed on
the roller and the weight of the body applied, as the cylinder is moved
slowly forward, forcing the seeds from the floss. [236] The more common
instrument (_lilidsan_) acts on the principle of a clothes wringer
(Plate LXIII). Two horizontal cylinders of wood are geared together at
one end, and are mounted in a wooden frame in such a manner that they
are quite close together, yet not in contact. A handle is attached to
the lower roller at the end opposite the gears, and as it is turned,
it rotates the cylinders in opposite directions. A piece of cotton
is pressed between the rollers, which seize the fibres and carry them
through, while the seeds are forced back and fall to the ground.

The cleaned cotton is never bowed or otherwise separated with a
vibrating string, as is the case in Java, India, and China, but the
same result is obtained by placing it on a piece of carabao hide and
beating it with two rattan sticks until it becomes soft and fluffy
(Plate LXIV).

After the carding, the cotton is spun by placing it in a hollow
cylinder of palm bark attached to a bamboo stick (_tibtibean_). A bit
of thread is twisted from the cotton at the bottom of the cylinder,
and is attached to a spindle, which is rubbed rapidly against the
naked thigh, and is then allowed to turn in shallow basket, or on
a piece of hide. As it spins it twists out new thread and the arm
of the operator rises higher and higher, until at last the spindle
stops. The position of the extended arm is then altered, and the
spindle again set in motion in order to wind up the new thread on
the shaft. While the spinning is progressing, the free hand of the
operator is passed rapidly up and down the thread, keeping the tension
uniform and rubbing out any inequalities (Plate LXV).

In many sections the spinning wheel used by the coast natives is
beginning to replace the hand outfit (Fig. 16, No. 5). The mass of
fiber is held in the left hand, and a thread from it is attached to
a horizontal spindle, which is turned by a cord passing over a large
wheel. This method is much more rapid than the hand device, but the
thread is less uniform, and it is seldom utilized when a fine fabric
is to be woven. Bamboo bobbins, consisting of small tubes, are also
wound by attaching them to the spindle shaft, so that the thread is
transferred by the revolution of the wheel.

As soon as the thread is spun, it is placed on a bamboo frame
(_lalabayan_), Fig. 16, No. 2, on which it is measured and made ready
for the combing and sizing. As it is taken from the measuring frame,
a bamboo rod is passed through each end of the loop, and these
are fastened tightly inside the combing device (_agtatagodan_) by
means of rattan bands. The thread is then carefully combed downward
with a coconut husk which is dipped in a size of rice water (Plate
LXIII). After drying it is transferred to the shuttles and bobbins by
means of the wheel described in the previous paragraph or by a more
primitive device, called _ololau_ (Fig. 16, Nos. 4 and 4a). This
consists of four horn hooks attached to bamboo sticks, which pass
through openings in a bamboo tube in such a manner that they slip
on each other, and thus produce a wheel of any size desired. [237]
The tube fits loosely over a wooden peg sustaining the wheel in a
horizontal position, yet turning readily. The loop of threads from
the sizing frame is laid on the hooks, from which it is drawn by
hand onto the bobbins and shuttles. The next step is to prepare the
warp for the loom. The thread is drawn from bobbins on the floor,
and is first fastened to peg No. 1 of the warp winder (_gaganayan_),
as shown in Fig. 16, No. 3. From here it is carried the length of
the board, around 5, thence to 6 and back to 1, after again passing
around 5. The peg A, which later serves as a lease rod in the loom,
is encircled each time by the threads passing between 6 and 5. As
the warp is carried from 1 toward 5, it passes outside 2, 3 and 4,
but when it is returned to 1, it is inside these pegs. These are the
heddle rods of the loom, and loops from them enclose certain of the
threads, thus determining the order in which the warp is to be raised
in opening the shed. [238]

The loom, while primitive, is far from simple in its operation. The
warp is attached at both ends to sticks or rollers, the far one of
which is fastened to a cross timber of the living room (Plate LXVI).

The web is kept stretched by means of a strap or belt, which attaches
to the near roller and then passes around the waist of the operator,
who sits on the floor with her feet against a bamboo brace. [239]
The arrangement of the lease rod and heddle sticks has been already
described; in addition to these the threads are further controlled by
a reed board which acts both as warp spacer and beater-in. All being
ready for the weaving, the shed is opened by raising one of the heddle
sticks, and a heavy knife-shaped batten of wood is slipped into the
opening. This is turned sideways to enlarge the shed, and a shuttle
bearing the weft thread is shot through. By raising and lowering the
heddle rods the position of the warp is changed as desired, while
from time to time the weft threads are forced up against the fabric by
means of the reed board, and are beaten in with the batten. Tangling
is prevented by means of several flat sticks which cross the warp at
some distance from the operator; while threads which show signs of
loosening are carefully rubbed with a waxed stick.

On this loom the woman produces head-bands, belt, and narrow strips of
cloth which are made up into blankets and the like. These fabrics are
often in several colors and exhibit many tasty and intricate designs,
some of which will be described in the chapter on Decorative Art.

_Manufacture of Rope and String_.--At least eighteen trees, shrubs,
and vines are used in the making of cordage. [240] When small trees
or limbs are used, and the bark does not adhere too tightly to the
wood, sections about an arm's length are cut, and two or four splices
are made at the top. These are loosened with a knife until there is
enough for the hand to grasp, when the bark can be turned back like a
glove. Very large sections are held by two men, while a third peels
off the bark. With some varieties of trees and shrubs it is found
best to place the sections in the sun to dry, then a sharp bend in
the stalk causes the bark to separate from the wood so that it is
easily peeled off.

When large trees are used, the bark is slit lengthwise every six of
eight inches, and the log is beaten with hard wood sticks. In a short
time the covering loosens from the wood and is pulled off. The outside
layer is worthless, but the remainder is cut into strips about a half
inch in width, and is then split lengthwise into thin layers.

In rope-making three strips are laid side by side on the thigh or on a
board, but with their ends at unequal distances (Fig. 17, No. 1). These
are twisted together, toward the right, until a few inches have
been turned, then the cord is put over one end of a double forked
stick (_sikwan_), leaving an equal length on either side (Fig. 17,
No. 3). The two halves are twisted together until the end of one strip
of bark is reached; a new piece is laid on top of the others, and as
they are turned, it becomes part of the twist. As other ends are met
with, new strips are added in a like manner until all the bast desired
has been made. It is then wound up on the forked stick until needed.

The rope machine (_agtatalian_) consists of three wooden whirls, which
constitute the forming device, and a single whirl for the traveler,
while a grooved block serves to keep the strands apart (Fig. 17,
No. 2). Three equal lengths of the prepared bast are measured, and an
end is attached to each of the whirls of the forming machine (Fig. 17,
No. 2a). However, only one cut is made in the bast, for strand 3. All
are attached to the single whirl of the traveler, and the process
begins. The operator at each end turns his whirl, or set of whirls,
rapidly toward the right, the one with the traveler bracing his foot
against the lower end, to keep the twisting bast under tension. A
third operator guides the grooved piece of wood from the traveler
toward the forming machine, as the three strands twist round each
other into rope. The bast is known as _ginisgis_, the rope as _tali_.

Vines, rattan, and strips of bamboo are likewise twisted together to
form crude, but strong cordage.

The making of thread is described under spinning and weaving, but
the cords used in snares and the like are prepared in a different
manner. The operator squats on the ground, and taking a strip of
fiber, places it on his thigh; then with open palm he rolls it
toward the knee. The twisted bast is bent at the center; the thumb
and forefinger of the left hand hold the loop, and the two strands
are placed together. These are now rolled toward the knee as before,
the hand giving extra pressure on the ulnar side, and then are rolled
back toward the body with pressure on the radial side. When the end
of a band is reached, a new one is rolled in, and the process is
continued. A tie at the end keeps the cord from untwisting.

When very long strips of fiber are used, two men will work
together. One holds the end of the loop, while the other twists each
half of the strip in the same direction. Then placing them together on
his thigh, he turns them, under pressure, in the opposite direction,
thus making a cord.

_Bark Cloth_.--Bark cloth is still in common use for men's headbands
and for clouts. It is secured from the same trees as the rope
material, but wider strips are taken, and it is customary to beat
the bark thoroughly before it is removed from the wood. It is then
split to the desired thickness, after which it is beaten with wooden
or bone mallets (_gikai_), which are generally grooved transversely
(Fig. 18). The cloth produced is soft and pliable, but is not of the
fineness of tapa, and it is always in comparatively narrow pieces. In
no instance was the operator seen to beat two strips together to gain
greater breadth or to repair breaks.

_Basket Making_.--In most districts the men are the basket weavers,
but in some towns, especially of Ilocos Norte, the women are skilled
in this industry (Plate LXVII). The materials used are rattan, which
may be gathered at any time, or bamboo, which is cut only during the
dry season and under the waning moon. It is firmly believed that
boring insects will not injure bamboo cut at this time, and it is
known that the dry period stalks are the strongest.

The tools employed are a short knife or a miniature head-axe and an
awl. With the former the operator scrapes the outer surface, and then
splits the tube into strips of the desired width and thickness. A
certain number of these strips, which are to be used for decoration,
are rubbed with oil, and are held in the smoke of burning pine or of
rice-straw until a permanent black is obtained. [241]

Five weaves are recognized by the Tinguian, but they are really
variations of two--checkerwork and the diagonal or twilled.

The first and most simple is known as _laga_, the technic of which
is the passing of each element of the weft under one and over one
of the warp elements. Where the warp and weft are of uniform size,
as in mats, it is impossible to distinguish the one from the other,
but in many cases the weft is the smaller. Fish traps and storage
baskets for mangoes and cotton are generally of this type (Fig. 19,
Nos. 1 and 2).

A variation of the _laga_ known as _minminata_--"many eyes"--(Fig. 19,
No. 3), is found in certain types of carrying baskets, the woven tops
of hats, and the like. Here the warp is crossed, and the weft passes
through it in regular order so as to produce hexagonal openings.

Another variant is known as _kalawat_ [242] (Fig. 19, No. 4). In this
the warp stems are in threes. Starting from A they are bent down,
pass over and under similar sets of three, curve on themselves or
other warp stems so as to leave open spaces between. The rattan
wall-hangers for coconut shell dishes are usually in this weave.

The greater part of the baskets are in the diagonal or twilled
weave, in which each element of the weft passes over two or more warp
elements. Variations are numerous, either to produce certain effects
or to accommodate designs. Of these the most common are


        1 under 2 over 2 etc.
        2 under 2 over 2 etc.
        2 under 4 over 4 etc.


The weaver also frequently constructs the bottom with 2 over 4 under
4; then when the sides are made he changes to 1 over 2 under 2, until
the center is reached; then 1 of the warp passes over 3 of the weft;
for the balance the stitch is 1 over 2 under 2. This variation produces
a chevron-like pattern which, in general, is known as _binakol_; but
when it is desired to designate more closely, this name is applied
to the weaving having an oblique effect (Fig. 19, No. 5), while the
horizontal is known as _dinapalig_ (Fig. 19, No. 6).

_Types of Baskets_:--Plates LXVIII and LXIX show the most common
types of baskets made and used in this territory. Others of Igorot
and Kalinga origin sometimes appear, but are seldom imitated by the
local basket-makers.

Baskets 1 and 2 of Plate LXVIII are known as _kaba_, and are used
principally to hold unthreshed rice, corn, and vegetables. Smaller
baskets of the same form are for broken rice and cooked vegetables. The
larger specimens are often made of rattan, while the smaller are
usually of bamboo. Shallow bamboo baskets, _pidasen_ or _alodan_
(Plate LXIX, No. 2) are used as eating dishes for cooked rice.

Clothing is put away in covered oval or rectangular baskets, _opigan_
(Plate LXIX, No. 4), while cotton is stored in long cylindrical
baskets _kolang_ (Plate LXVIII, No. 3).

The _pasikeng_ or _lagpi_(Plate LXIX, No. 3), commonly called the
"head basket," is the chief basket of the men. It is made of rattan,
and is supported on the back by means of bands which pass over the
shoulders. In it are carried extra garments and all necessities for
the trail. Recently some of the men have joined together two of these
baskets by means of a wide, flat band, and this is fitted over the
back of a horse or carabao,--an evident imitation of the saddle bags
used by Spaniards and Americans. Men also carry small containers for
their pipes and trinkets, or else make use of a traveling basket,
such as is shown in Plate LXIX, No. 5.

Rice winnowers and sieves (Plate LVII) and the fish-traps shown in
Fig. 13 conclude the list. No coiled baskets are made.

Aside from the decoration produced by variations in the weave, little
ornamentation is found in the basketry from Abra, but the Tinguian
of Ilocos Norte make and distribute large quantities of baskets with
colored patterns. Colored vines are sometimes woven in, but the common
method is to employ blackened bamboo, both in warp and weft.

The top of the basket is strengthened by two hoops of rattan or
bamboo. One is placed outside, the other inside; on them is laid
a small strip of the same material, and all three are sewed down
by passing a thin strip of rattan through two holes punched in
margin. This strip doubles on itself, encircles the rim, and after
an interval again passes through two more holes, and so on around the
entire basket. A square base, attached in the same manner as the rim,
generally completes the basket. In the mountain districts near to
Apayao, the bases of the smaller eating dishes are drawn in toward
the center at four points, giving the effect of a four-pointed star.

_Mats_ (_ikamin_).--Mats are used as beds, never as floor
coverings. They are rectangular in form, usually about six feet long
and three wide, and are undecorated. They are made from strips of
_pandanus_ in the _laga_ weave (cf. p. 423).

_Dyes_.--In recent years analine dyes have come into favor in some
villages, and a variety of colors appears in the articles made by
their weavers, but the vegetable dyes used by the ancestors are
still employed by most of the women. The commonest colors are blue,
pink--"black red"--, red, and yellow.

Blue is ordinarily produced by placing the leaves and branches of the
indigo plant, _tayuni (Indigofera tinctoria)_in water for a few days;
then to boil them, together with a little lime. The thread is dipped
in the liquid.

Pink is secured by crushing _lynga_ (_Sesamum indicum_ L.) seeds and
boiling them in water. Threads are placed in this for five nights,
while during the day they are dried in the sun. The root of the
_apatot_ (_Morinda citrifolia_ or _umbellata_) is next crushed,
and water is added. The threads are now transferred to this liquid,
and for ten days and nights are alternately soaked and sunned. A
copper color results, but this soon changes to pink. It is said that
the _apatot_ alone produces a red dye. It is also claimed that the
seeds of the _apang_ (_Bixa Orellana_ L.) and of a variety of rattan,
when boiled, give a permanent red. [243]

A yellow dye is produced by boiling the leaves of the _Tamarindus
indica_ L. in water until a strong liquor is obtained.

Bark head-bands are stained a purplish-red by applying a liquid
secured through boiling _kelyan_ (_Diospyros cunalon_ D.C.?) bark. For
ceremonial purposes they are also colored yellow by applying the juice
of the _konig_ (_Curcuma longa_), but as this has a disagreeable odor,
and the color is not permanent, it is not much used in every-day
garments. Lemon juice is also applied to bark to give it a yellow hue.

Fish nets are colored brown by dipping them into a dye made by
crushing the _katakot_ vine in water, or by staining with the juice
of the _taotawa_ (_Jatropha curcas_ L,).

The bamboo strips used in decorating basketry are blackened by
holding them in the smoke of burning rice-straw. Black designs,
such as appear in the ornamentation of lime holders and the like,
are secured by rubbing oil and soot into incised lines, and then
holding the object in the smoke of burning rice-straw.

_Net Making_.--Nets are used in fishing, in catching wild chickens
and grasshoppers, and in hunting deer and pigs. The first three types
are made of twine, but the fourth is of strong rope.

All net work is done by the man who, for this purpose, employs a mesh
stick and a needle of bamboo or carabao horn (Fig. 20). The needle
(No. 1) also serves as a shuttle, since it carries a considerable
amount of thread between the tongue and notch. The size of the loop
is determined by the width of the mesh stick or spreader (No. 2). The
operator generally sits on a rice winnower or squats on the ground with
a net suspended above him (Plate LXX). He forms the mesh by running
the needle over and around the spreader, and up and through the loop
above, thus forming a loop on the mesh stick. This is drawn tightly,
the needle is again passed through, but without encircling the stick,
and thus a knot is tied. This is repeated until a row of loops has
been completed, when another series is started.

_Manufacture of Pottery_.--In nearly every village there are two or
three women who make jars and dishes, but the potters of Abang and
Lakub are the only ones whose wares have a wide distribution.

The clay is dampened, and is carefully kneaded with the hands to remove
lumps and gravel, and to reduce it to the proper consistency. A handful
is taken from the mass, and is roughly modeled with the fingers to
form the base of the pot. This is set on a wooden plate which, in
turn, is placed in a rice winnower (Plate XXXVI). The plate takes
the place of a potter's wheel, for it is turned with the right hand
while with the left the woman shapes the clay, and smoothes it off
with a dampened cloth. From time to time, she rolls out a coil of clay
between the palms of her hands, lays it along the top of the vessel,
and works and pinches it in. Further shaping and thinning is done with
a wooden paddle and the dampened hand, and then the jar is allowed to
dry slightly. Before the drying has progressed far enough to render
the sides rigid, a smooth stone is placed inside, and the sides are
tapped gently with a paddle until properly thinned and shaped.

After allowing a couple of days for drying, the potter rubs the jar
inside and out with smooth stones or _lipi_ seeds, so as to give it
an even surface.

When several jars or dishes have been prepared, they are placed in
carabao dung or other slow burning material and fired. This generally
takes place at night, and the jars are left undisturbed until morning,
when they are ready for service. Occasionally resin is rubbed over a
jar while it is hot, thus giving it a glazed surface; this, however,
is not common, as the resin quickly melts off the cooking utensils,
while porous jars are preferred as water containers, since the seepage
lowers the temperature of the contents.

Vessels made in Lakub are often decorated with incised patterns
(Fig. 22, No. 8), but otherwise the Tinguian ware is plain. Chinese
jars are found in every village, and are highly prized, but the native
potters do not imitate them in form or decoration. Had Chinese blood
or influence ever been strong in the region, we might expect to find
the potter's wheel and traces of true glazing, but both are lacking.

_Pipe Making_.--Both men and women smoke pipes, consisting of a short
reed handle and a small bowl. Men are the pipe makers, and often show
considerable skill in the decoration of their product.

The common pipe-bowl is of clay, which has been carefully shaped
with the fingers and a short bamboo spatula. Designs are incised,
and the raised portions are further embellished by the addition of
small pieces of brass wire (Fig. 21, Nos. 4-5). The bowls are baked
in a slow fire, and the mouthpieces are added.

A second type of pipe, or cigar holder, is made of bamboo (Fig. 21,
Nos. 1-3). Designs are incised in the sides, oil is applied, and the
pipe is held in the smoke of burning rice-straw until the lines become
permanently blackened (Fig. 22, Nos. 1-3).

In recent years, Ilocano jewelers have introduced silver pipes, made
from coins. One Tinguian pipe maker has learned the trade, and does a
lively business. He has further beautified his product by attaching
pendants representing fish (Fig. 21, No. 6). Brass pipes of Igorot
origin are sometimes seen, but are not made in this region.

_Method of Drying Hides_.--Hides of carabao, and sometimes of other
animals, are stretched on bamboo frames and are sun-dried (Plate
LV). Later they are placed in water containing tanbark, and are roughly
cured. Such leather is used in the manufacture of the back straps used
by the weavers, and in making sheathes for knives, but more commonly
it is placed on the ground, and on it rice and cotton are beaten out.



CHAPTER X

DECORATIVE ART

In decorative art the Tinguian offers sharp contrast to the Igorot and
Ifugao, both of whom have developed wood carving to a considerable
extent. They also have their bodies tattooed, while the colored
lashings on spear shafts, pipe stems, and other objects show a
nice appreciation for color and design. In all these the Tinguian
is deficient or lacking; he does no wood carving, tattooing is
scanty, while his basket work, except that from two small regions, is
plain. At times he does make some simple designs on canes, on bamboo
rice-planters and weaving sticks, on lime boxes and pipe stems, but
these are exceptions rather than the rule. In the region about Lakub,
he decorates his jars by cutting the ends of sticks to form small
dies which he presses into the newly fashioned clay (Fig. 22, No. 8),
while in Manabo and some other villages the pipe makers cut the bowls
of the clay pipes in floral designs or inlay small pieces of brass to
form scroll patterns (Fig. 22, Nos. 4-7). These last mentioned designs
are so restricted in their manufacture, and are so different from those
found elsewhere in Abra, that they cannot be considered as typical.

The figures incised in bamboo show some realistic motives, such as
the fish, birds, and flowers in Fig. 23, No. 1; the snake and lizard
in No. 2; the man in No. 5; but the strictly geometrical is dominant
in nearly every case. Probably the most typical of this class of work
is shown in Nos. 3 and 4 and Fig. 22, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. It should be
noted, however, that, where one decorated object is seen, many more
entirely plain will be found. In short, ornamentation is uncommon
and of minor importance.

The one place where decoration is dominant is in the weaving, and
this is done entirely by the women. Figures 24 and 25 show typical
designs which occur in the blankets. Except for No. 8 in Fig. 24,
they do not appear to be copies from nature, but all have realistic
interpretations. Fig. 24 shows eight designs drawn by native weavers,
which are identified as follows:


    1. A fish.
    2. Weaving on a Spanish bed or chair seat.
    3. Pineapple.
    4. A heart.
    5. Fishhooks.
    6. A crab.
    7. Cross section of a pineapple.
    8. A horse.


In Fig. 25 are five typical patterns taken from blankets, while
No. 6 is the ornamental stitching which unites two breadths of cloth,
the latter is identified as "fingers and finger nails." No. 1 is the
turtle, No. 2 a crab, No. 3 a rice-mortar, No. 4 the bobbin winder
shown in Fig. 16, No. 4; No. 5 pineapple.

Plate LXXI is a ceremonial blanket, such as is hung up over the
dead. The figures are identified as _a_ a deer, _b_ horse, _c_ carabao
calf, _d_ man. The textile in Plate LXXII, No. 1 is likewise used
chiefly as a ceremonial piece, the designs representing _a_ man, _b_
horse, _c_ star.

A very pleasing blanket is shown in Plate LXXII, No. 2 in which the
designs are identified as a rice cake, and _b_ as a star, while the
whole pattern is known as _kalayan_--the river. The textile in Plate
LXXIII, No. 1 imitates a mat, while No. 2 is known as _kosikos_--the
circle.

A part of these designs are evidently copies from real objects,
others appear to be merely pattern names, while the weavers do not
hesitate to borrow any likely patterns which strike their fancy. One
quite frequently sees a blanket which shows a "lion," or some other
animal or object, with which the people could only become acquainted
through pictures or descriptions from outside sources.

In addition to these designs already mentioned, there are certain
common types of decoration effected through weaving or embroidery,
for which no explanations are given. They are said to be only "to
make pretty." Among these are the ends of belts and clouts, as shown
in Plate LXXIV, or the raised diamond pattern shown in No. 2 of the
same Plate, or the plaid effect in colors, which appear in some of
the skirts.

It has already been noted (cf. p. 416) that the weaving methods of
the Tinguian are similar to those of the Ilocano, and the same is true
of a considerable part of the decorative patterns. The Christianized
natives have less of the realistic, a greater variety of geometrical
designs, and a greater fondness for bright colors, made possible by
the use of analine dyes, than the mountaineers.

It seems probable that the Tinguian-Ilocano peoples brought the
weaving industry with them into northern Luzon, that the Ilocano branch
has borrowed improved methods of manufacture, as well as decorative
motives from the people with whom they have been in contact through
trade. The Tinguian in turn have borrowed from them, but, in the
main, they still retain the more primitive methods of weaving, and
it is probable their types of ornamentation likewise approximate more
closely those in use in earlier times.



CHAPTER XI

PERSONAL ADORNMENT, DANCES, AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

The dress of the man is the clout (_ba-al_), either of beaten
bark or of cloth, and a woven belt (_balikes_) in which he keeps
small articles (Plates LXXV-LXXVI). On special occasions he wears a
long-sleeved jacket (_bado_), open in front, and in a few instances,
trousers. Both these garments are recent acquisitions, and the latter,
in particular, are not in favor, except where Ilocano influence is very
strong. The man is not inclined to adorn himself with brass and gold,
neither does he use tattooing to any extent, as do his Kalinga and
Igorot neighbors. Some have small patterns on an arm or thigh, but
these are usually property marks with which he brands his animals or
other possessions. Tattooing as an evidence of a successful head-hunt
is not found in this region, nor are there other marks or garments
to identify the warriors.

The hair is worn long, and is parted straight down the middle; the
two strands are twisted, crossed in the back, then carried to the
forehead, where they are again crossed, and the ends are fastened
by intertwining on each side of the head. A bark band (_ayabong_)
holds the hair in place, but at times it is replaced by a cloth or
a narrow ring of interwoven grass and rattan. Round bamboo hats,
with low dome-shaped tops, are commonly worn (Plate XLV), but these
are sometimes displaced by hats which go to a sharp peak, or by those
made of a gourd or of wood.

The woman's hair is parted in the middle, and is combed straight down
to the nape of the neck, where it is caught by strings of beads;
these are crossed in the back and encircle the head; the strand of
hair is then twisted and a loop formed which is carried to the left
side, where it is again caught under the beads, near to or above
the ear. Most of the Tinguian have luxuriant heads of hair, but,
nevertheless, switches are commonly used by both sexes. The hair is
often washed with the ashes of rice-straw, or with the bark of the
_gogo_ tree (_Entada purseta_), and is moistened with coconut oil.

Strings of beads encircle the women's necks, but the typical ornament
consists of strands above strands of beads reaching from the wrist
to the elbow, and if the wealth of the owner permits, even covering
the upper arm as well (Plate LXXIX). The strands are fastened tightly
above the wrist, causing that portion of the arm to swell. Slits of
bamboo are usually placed under the beads, and may be removed if the
pain or annoyance of the constriction is too severe. The upper arm
beads are removed with little difficulty; but those on the forearm are
taken off only once or twice a year, when new threads are substituted,
or when the owner is in mourning. Beneath these ornaments a delicate
fretwork of blue lines is tattooed, so that the woman's arms may not
be white and unsightly when she is without her beads. [244]

Most of the women have their ears pierced, but in the valley towns
only a small proportion wear earrings. In the mountain sections heavy
ornaments of gold or copper are worn, the weight often drawing the
lobe of the ear far down on the neck.

When at work, the woman discards all clothing from the upper portion
of her body, but at other times wears a short-sleeved jacket which
reaches to her waist (Plate LXXVII). The waist is cut so low in the
neck that the head can pass through. There is no shoulder seam. A
straight piece set over the shoulder extends down in square, both
front and back, to a line about even with the breast, where it is
sewed to the garment proper. A narrow skirt (_dingwa_), with colored
border, extends from the waist to the knees. It is held in place by
drawing it tightly and then tucking one corner under the upper edge,
or by pressing it beneath the girdle (Plate LXXVIII).

When a girl becomes a woman, she dons a girdle (_palingtan_) of
braided grass or rattan which fits over the hips, and to which a
clout is attached (Plate LXXX). As a rule, the girdle and clout are
not removed when bathing, as are the other garments.

The woman seldom wears a hat, except when she is working in the
fields, where sunshades large enough to protect the entire body are
used (Plate LIV). Frequently a cloth or a skirt is twisted about the
head as a protection against the sun.

On chilly mornings one often sees the people covered from head to
ankles with their sleeping blankets, or a woman may draw a particularly
wide skirt about her body just below the armpits so that she is
protected from her breasts to the knees.

The teeth of both sexes are blackened with iron salts and tan bark,
[245] but they are not cut or mutilated, as is common with many
Philippine peoples.

While both sexes are proud of heavy heads of hair, they do not look
with equal favor on face and body hairs. These are plucked out either
by grasping them between a knife blade and the thumb nail, or with a
bamboo device known as _iming_. This consists of a section of bamboo
split into several strips at one end. A hair is placed in one end of
the slits, and the bamboo is bent into a half circle, causing it to
take a firm hold, when it is jerked outwards.

Prized necklaces (_paliget_) made of small strands of twisted silver
wire, are placed on the neck of a corpse, and on some occasions are
worn by the living. During dances the hair is adorned with notched
chicken feathers attached to sticks, while circlets made of boar's
tusks are placed on the arms.

_Dances_.--Two dances, one ceremonial, the other suitable for all
occasions, are very popular.

The ceremonial dance known as _da-eng_ takes place at night, and is
carried on to the accompaniment of a song. [246] An equal number of
men and women take part. The women form a line facing a similar row
of men, about twenty feet distant. Locking arms about one another's
waists and with one foot advanced, they begin to sway their bodies
backwards and forwards. Suddenly they burst into song, at the same
time stepping forward with the left foot. Keeping perfect time to the
music, they take three steps toward the men, then retreat to their
original positions. The men then take up the song and in a similar
manner advance and retreat. This is repeated several times, after
which the two lines join to form a circle. With arms interlocked
behind one another's backs, and singing in unison, they begin to
move contra-clockwise. The left foot is thrown slightly backward
and to the side, and the right is brought quickly up to it, causing
a rising and falling of the body. The step, at first slow, becomes
faster and faster till the dancers have reached the limit of their
vocal and physical powers.

The _da-eng_ is sacred in character, is danced only at night and
then under the direction of the mediums. It is, however, in great
favor, and often so many of the younger people wish to take part
that double lines, or two or more groups, may be dancing at the same
time. It sometimes happens, when the _basi_ has been flowing freely,
that the participants become so boisterous and the pace so fast
that spectators are run down or the dancers are piled in a heap,
from which they emerge laughing and shouting.

The common dance, the _tadek_, is a part of nearly all gatherings of
a social and religious nature. The music for this dance usually is
made with three _gansas_ [247] and a drum. The _gansas_ are pressed
against the thighs of the players who kneel on the ground. Two of the
coppers are beaten with a stick and the palm of the hand, while the
third is played by the hands alone (Plate LXXXI, Fig. 2). The stick
or left hand gives the initial beat which is followed by three rapid
strokes with the right palm. A man and a woman enter the circle, each
holding a cloth about the size of a skirt. The man extends his cloth
toward the woman, and bringing it suddenly down, causes it to snap,
which is the signal to begin. With almost imperceptible movement of
the feet and toes and a bending at the knees, he approaches the woman,
who in a like manner goes toward him. They pass and continue until
at a distance about equal to the start, when they again turn and
pass. Occasionally the man will take a few rapid steps toward the
woman, with exaggerated high knee action and much stamping of feet,
or he will dance backward a few steps. At times the cloth is held
at arm's length in front or at the side; again it is wrapped about
the waist, the woman always following the actions of the man. At
last they meet; the man extends his hand, the woman does likewise,
but instead of taking his, she moves her own in a circle about his,
avoiding contact. Again they dance away, only returning to repeat
the performance. Finally she accepts the proffered hand, the headman
brings _basi_ for the couple to drink, and the dance is over. The
man sometimes ends the dance by the sharp snapping of his cloth,
or by putting it on his extended arms and dancing toward the woman,
who places her cloth upon his (Plate LXXXI, Fig. 1).

_Musical Instruments, Songs, and Dances_.--The Tinguian is naturally
musical. He sings at his work, he beats time with his head-axe against
his shield as he tramps the mountain trails, he chants the stories of
long ago as the workers gather about the fires each evening of the dry
season, he sings the praises of his host at feasts and festivals, [248]
joins with others in the dirge which follows a burial, and he and many
others will sing together as they dance the _da-eng_. But his music
does not stop with his vocal accomplishments. In the folk-tales the
pan pipe (_dew-dew-as_) occupies a most important place, and to-day
the maidens still play them in the evening hours. It is a simple
device made of reeds of various lengths lashed together (Fig. 26,
No. 1). The player holds the instrument just in front of her lips,
and blows into the reeds, meanwhile moving them to and fro, producing
a series of low notes without tune.

Another instrument of great importance in the legends is the nose
flute (_kalaleng_). This is a long reed with holes cut in the side,
to be stopped by the fingers in producing the notes. The player closes
one nostril with a bit of cotton, and then forces the air from the
other into a small hole cut in the end of the tube. The instrument
is popular with the men, and often one can hear the plaintive note
of the nose flute far into the night (Plate LXXXII).

The mouth flute (_tulali_) is similar to that found in civilized lands,
but is constructed from a reed.

A peculiar device used solely by the women is the _bunkaka_ (Fig. 26,
No. 2). This consists of a bamboo tube with one end cut away so as
to leave only two thin vibrating strips. These, when struck against
the palm of the left hand, give out a note which can be changed by
placing a finger over the opening at x.

A Jew's harp is constructed like a netting needle, but with a tongue of
bamboo cut so that it will vibrate when struck, or when a cord attached
to the end is jerked sharply (Fig. 26, No. 3). If made of bamboo,
the instrument is known as _kolibau_; if brass, _agiweng_. It is often
mentioned in the tales, and to-day is played by nearly all the men.

Bamboo guitars (_kuliteng_) are made by cutting narrow strips
throughout the length of a section of bamboo, but not detaching them
at the ends. They are raised and tuned by inserting small wedges of
wood at the ends. Small sections of thin bamboo are sometimes fitted
over two strings, and are beaten with sticks, or the strings can be
fingered like a guitar (Plate LXXXIII).

Music for dances is furnished by an orchestra consisting of four men,
three with copper gongs (_gangsas_), and one with a drum. The gongs
are tambourine shape, with sides about an inch and a half high. They
are placed against the thighs of the players who kneel on the ground,
and are beaten with a stick and the palm of the hand or by the hands
alone. [249] They doubtless came into this region through trade,
but at a time so remote that their origin is now credited to the
spirits. The drum (_tambor_) is made of a short section of a tree
hollowed out. The ends are covered with cow's hide or pig's skin.



CHAPTER XII

MUSIC

_Introduction_.--That the songs might be delivered as nearly as
possible at the same pitch which the singers used when making
the records, investigation was made as to the usual speed used by
manufacturers while recording. It was found to be 160 revolutions per
minute. Accordingly the phonograph was carefully set at this speed
during transcription.

In determining the keys in which to transcribe the various songs, the
pitch-pipe used was that of the "International," which was adopted
at the Vienna Congress in Nov. 1887. This congress established c2 =
522 double vibrations per second. All the records proved to be a
shade flat by this standard, but were found to be almost exactly in
accord with an instrument of fixed pitch, which in turn was found to
be approximately eleven beats at variance with the pitch-pipe on c2.

Assuming that the recording and transcribing speeds of the machines
were the same, this would place the original singing almost exactly in
accord with the old "philosophical standard of pitch" which places c2
at 512 double vibrations per second. Though the singing was not always
in perfect accord with the notes set down in transcriptions, with the
exception of those very marked departures especially indicated in the
music, the variations were so slight that, so far as true intonation
goes, the performances were fully up to the standard of those of the
average natural singer.

Special ear tubes were used while transcribing the records, and resort
made to a special device wherewith any order of whole, or even part
measures could be consecutively played. Thus it was possible to
closely compare parts which were similar in either words or music.

In some of the records two or more voices can be distinguished singing
in unison. Such unisons are shown in the transcription by single
notes. No attempt has been made to indicate the several voices. But
when such single notes are shown accompanied by the word "solo,"
it is to be understood that all of the performers have dropped out
but one, probably the leader. When the voices split up into parts,
it is so notated in the music.

Primitive people display more or less timidity in giving their
songs for scientific purposes. Such timidity is especially apt
to be manifested in their attacks. In the _Da-eng_, Girls' Part
(Record J), the delayed attack at the beginning of each new verse
is very marked. The delay varies considerably from verse to verse,
as indicated by the number of beats rest shown at the ends of the
lines. Similar pauses are found in the Boys' Part of the same ceremony
(see Record A). These beats rest or pauses are not to be taken as
part of the legitimate rhythm, for it is more than likely that if the
singers were giving their songs in their regular ceremonial and the
performers unconscious of observation, these pauses would not occur.

In transcribing those songs which have several verses on the record,
the notation has been so arranged on the page that the measures line
up vertically, making comparison easy between corresponding measures
of the different verses.

To indicate peculiar qualities, special signs are used in connection
with the regular musical symbols. The table which follows shows these
signs and also lists the qualities for which they stand. Some of these
qualities could have been represented by regular musical symbols,
but it was thought best to use the special signs to make them stand
out more prominently. The qualities thus indicated as well as those
which are represented by the regular musical notation will be found
listed and defined after the tabulation of qualities.



Words of the Da-Eng

_Part I_. Sung in line. [250]


   Ma-li-dom ag-dag-da-gi yo-ma-yom
    Yom-ma-yom ta yom-ma-yom ag-dag-da-gi yo-ma-yom.
   Ma-la-nas ag-dag-da-gi na-sa-nas
    Ma-sa-nas ta ma-sa-nas ag-dag-da-gi na-sa-nas.
   Si On-na-i in-no-bi-yan ki-not-ko-tan Na-to-tan
    Na-to-tan ta na-to-tan ki-not ko-tan na-to-tan.
   Kol-kol-dong si gi-nol-bat nga ag-moli-moli-yat
    Mo-li-yat ta mo-li-yat ag-mo-li mo-li-yat.
   Ka-lan-tag kal-la-yan-nen ag-ka-idig-na-yan
    dig-na-yan ta dig-na-yan ag-ka-i dig-na-yan.
   A-na-on si Tak-la-yan na-is-ti-lo ai bolo
    Bin-no-lo ta bin-no-lo na-is-ti-lo ai bo-lo.
   Sok-bot ni ka-bin-bin-an adi ma-sil-si-li-ban
    si-li-ban ta si-li-ban adi ma-sil-si-liban
   Ba-gai-ba-yem dem-ma-ngen si-nol-bo-dan ni kolat.
    ki-no-lat ta ki-no-lat ai ag-ki-no ki-no-lat.
   Sabak ni am-mo-ga-wen mimog-go-mog di-kai-wen
    di-kai-wen ta ki-kai wen mimog-go-mog di-kai-wen.
   Sabak ni an-na-a-wen mi-ka-li-ya li-ya-wen.
    Li-ya-wen ta li-ya-wen ai ag-li-ya li-ya-wen


_Part II_. Sung in line.


   alin-to-bo ni ni-og ag-lam-pi-yok
    lam-pi-yok ta lam-pi-yok ag-lam-pi lam-pi-yok.
   al-in-to-bo ni aba ai adi nag-pada
    pi-na-da ta pi-na-da ai adi nag-pa-da.
   al-in-to-bo ni no-nang ag-ba-li ba-li-yang
    ba-li-yang ta ba-li-yang ai ag-ba-li ba-li-yang.
   al-in-to-bo ni lamai um-al-ali ma-ya-mai
    ma-ya-mai ta ma-ya-mai umal ali ma-ya-mai.
   al-in-to-bo ni bang-on ag-ba-la ba-la-ngon
    ba-la-ngon ta ba-la-ngon ag-ba-la ba-la-ngon.
   al-in-to-bo ni oway pel-sa-tem ket i-nom-lai
    i-nom-lai ta i-nom-lai pel-sa-tem ket i-nom-lai.
   al-in-to-bo ni oling bog-yo-ngem ket boom-li-sing
    boom-li-sing ta boom-li-sing bog-yo-ngem ket boom-li-sing.
   al-in-to-bo ni ba-kan umal ali ka-na-kan
    ka-na-kan ta ka-na-kan umal ali ka-na-kan.
   al-in-to-bo ni anis ai adi na-gi-nis
    gi-ni-nis ta gi-ni-nis ai adi nedey na-gi-nis.


_Part III_. Sung as they dance in circle.


   A-ya-mem si pa-ni-ki ag-sol-sol-wap si la-bi
   ni la-bi ta ni labi ag-sol-sol-wap si la-bi.
   A-ya-mem si bat-ta-teng ag-tiya ti ya-deng
   ti-ya-deng ta ti-ya-deng ag-ti-ya ti-ya-deng.
   A-ya-mem si bang-nga-an nga dum-ang-dang-lap si da-lan
   din-na-lan ta din-na-lan dum-ang-dang-lap si da-lan.
   A-ya-mem si om-om-bek nga ag-ma-si ma-sim-bek
   si nim-bek ta si-nim-bek nga ag-ma-si ma-sim-bek.
   A-ya-mem si po-na-yen nga omas-asi gai-ga-yen
   gai-ga-yen ta gai-ga-yen om-as asi gai-ga-yen.
   A-ya-mem si la-ga-dan nga tomal-la tal-la-dan
   tal-la-dan ta tal-la-dan nga ag-ta-la tal-la-dan.
   A-ya-mem si bal-ga-si nga agka-a ka-a-si
   ka-a-si ta ka-a-si nga ag-ka-a ka-a-si.


_Part IV_.


   Bwa di la-od to-mo-bo nga lo-mok-bot
   lo-mok-bot ta lo-mok-bot to-mo-bo wa lo-mok-bot.
   Bwa di Ba-li-la-si-bis nga gi-i-tem ket ma-i-mis
   i-ni-mis ta i-ni-mis gi-i-tem ket ma-i-mis.
   Bwa di Mal-la-pa-ai gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ey
   te-ga-ey ta te-ga-ey gi-i-tem ket tom ga-ey.
   Bwa di Mal-lo-sa-ak gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ak
   te-ga-ak ta te-ga-ak gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ak.
   Bwa di Tom-mo nga kom-ma-lab ket tom-mo-bo
   tom-mo-bo ta tom-mo-bo kom-ma-la-lab ket tom-mo-bo.


_Part V_.


   Adi yo pai lau-lau-den lawed-ko nga do-la-wen
   do-la-wen ta do-la-wen adi yo pai lau-lau-den.
   La-wed ngaita di al-yo pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-o
   bi-na-o ta bi-na-o pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-o.
   La-wed di po-dok pang-lau-lau-dan ta bo-kod
   bi-no-kod ta bi-no-kod pang-lau-lau-dan ta bo-kod.
   La-wed di Sab-lang, pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-sang
   bi-na-sang ta bi-na-sang pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-sang.
   La-wed di Pa-wai pang-lau-lau-dan ta a-wai
   in-na-wai ta in-na-wai pang-lau-lau-dan ta a-wai.


_Part VI_.


   Ka-wa-yan di Po-da-yan na-tong-dan ta na-tong-dan
   na-tong-dan ta na-tong-dan ka-wa-yan di Po-da-yan.
   Ka-wa-yan di Bal-li-weyan om-mi-weyan
   Om-mi-weyan ta om-mi-weyan ka-wa-yan di Bal-li-weyan.
   Ka-wa-yan di Ba-ta-an ko-ma omi-na-lan
   i-na-lan ta i-na-lan ka-wa-yan di Ba-ta-an.
   Sol-kod-ko nga ka-wa-yan na-kak-la-ang di dem-mang
   di dem-mang ta di dem-mang na-kak-la-ang di dem-mang.
   Kawayan di Pa-la-i ag-ka-i dong-la don-la-li
   dong-la-li ta dong-la-li ag-ka-i dong-la dong-la-li.



_Part VII_.


   Da-num di la-od kom-mog-nod ket kom-mog-nod
    Kom-mog-nod ta kom-mog-nod danum di la-od.
   Dagsi-yan di Pa-la-wang ko-ma ta sum-mi na-wang
    si-na-wang ta si-na-wang ko-ma ta sum-mi-na-wang.
   Dagsi-yan di Langiden mi-ka si-li si-li-ten
    sili-ten ta si-li-ten dag-si-yan di Lang-i-den.
   Dagsi-yan di Ka-ba-lang-gan na-kal kalong go-kong-an
    ga-kong-an taga-kong-an na-kal ka-long ga-kong-an.
   Danum di Pa-da-ngi-tan ki-na-dang ta ka-witan
    ka-wi-tan ta ka-wi-tan ki-na-dang ta ka-wi-tan.
   Dag-si-yan di Lai-og-an nan-gol la-ol la-yo-san
    la-yo-san ta la-yo-san o-mal-la al-lo-yo-san.
   Danum di Abang sum-mol-wai ta sum-mol-wai
    Sum-mol-wai ta sum-mol-wai da-num di A-bang.
   Danum di Abas inum-bas ket inum-bas
    inum-bas ta i-num-bas da-num di A-bas.
   Danum di Ba-ai nag-kat-lo nga sa-long-ai
    Sa-long-ai ta sa-long-ai nag-kat-lo nga sa-long-ai.
   Danum di Da-ya nag-kil-la-yos nga si-pa
    Si-ni-pa ta si-ni-pa nag-kil-la-yos nga sipa.
   Danum di ngato ti-nung-dai ta a-nito
    A-nito ta a-nito ti-nun-dai ta a-nito.
   Danum di aging ti-nung-dai ta ka-la-ding
    Ka-lad-ing ta ka-la-ding ti-nung-dai ta ka-la-ding.
   Danum di A-yeng ti-nung-dai ta ba-yeng-yeng
    ba-yeng-yeng ta ba-yeng-yeng ti-nung-dai ta ba-yeng-yeng.
   Adi ka-pai man-gi-mon na-sal-li-bon ai bo-bon
    bin-no-bon ta bin-no-bon na-sal-li-bon ai bo-bon.


_Approximate Translation of the Da-Eng_ [251]

I


   ?
      ?
   The Malanus flows.
    Flows, flows, flows onward.
   Si (Mr.) On-na-i and Na-to-tan dig obi (taro) with their hands.
    Dig, dig, dig with the hands.
   The firefly in the woods opens his eyes.
    Opens, opens, opens his eyes.
   The bank caves into the river.
    Caves, caves, caves in.
   Here, your arm pretty bamboo (?)
    Bamboo, bamboo, pretty bamboo.
   Do not disturb the rest of the kabibinan (a bird).
    Disturb, disturb, do not disturb.
   Help the kolat (a plant) to grow.
    Become kolat, become kolat, stir up to become kolat.
   The flower of the Amogawen falls on you.
    On you, on you, falls on you.
   The flower of the Ana-an plays with you.
    Plays, plays, it plays.


II.


   The young leaves of the coconut wave.
    Wave, wave, they wave.
   The leaves of the aba are not alike.
    Alike, alike, are not alike.
   The leaves of the nonang turn back and forth.
    Back and forth, back and forth, turn back and forth.
   The leaves of the lamay quake.
    Quake, quake, they quake.
   The leaves of the bangon arise(?).
    Arise, arise, they arise.
   The leaves of the rattan cut and twist.
    Twist, twist, cut, and twist.
   The leaves of the oling rustle and rattle.
    Rattle, rattle, rustle and rattle.
   The leaves of the bakan fall before time.
    Fall, fall, fall before time.
   The leaves of the anis (a low shrub) are not clean.
    Clean, clean, not clean.


III.


   You play Mr. bat who fly by night.
    Night, night, fly by night.
   You play grasshopper whose back is concave.
    Concave, concave, whose back is concave.
   You play Bang-nga-an who shines like gold by the trail.
    By the trail, by the trail, shines like gold by the trail.
   You play onombek who hiccoughs.
    Hiccough, hiccough, who hiccoughs.
   You play dove who falls.
    Falls, falls, who falls.
   You play lagadan (a bird) who flees(?).
    Flees, flees, who flees.
   You play balgasi (?) who mourns for the dead.
    Mourns, mourns, mourns for the dead.


IV.


   Betel-nut of the west which grows up like the gourd.
    Grows up, grows up like the gourd.
   Betel-nut of Balasibis which smiles when it is cut. (Literally--is
   cut and smiles.)
    It smiles, it smiles, is cut, and smiles.
   Betel-nut of Malapay which chuckles  (like a woman) when it is cut.
    Chuckles, chuckles, is cut, and chuckles.
   Betel-nut of Malosak which laughs (like a man) when it is cut.
    Laughs, laughs, is cut, and laughs.
   Betel-nut of Tomo which climbs and grows.
    Grows, grows, climbs, and grows.


V.


   Do not take the leaves of my lawed, who am rich.
   Rich, rich, do not take lawed leaves.
   The widower takes often the top (best) lawed of Alyo.
   The widower, the widower, the widower takes often.
   The lawed of the wooded hill the widow takes often.
   The widow, the widow, the widow takes often.
   The lawed of Sablang the maiden takes often.
   The maiden, the maiden, the maiden takes often.
   The lawed of Paway the hermit (country man) takes often.
   The hermit, the hermit, the hermit takes often.


VI.


   Bamboo of Podayan, ever living, ever living.
   Ever living, ever living, bamboo of Podayan.
   Bamboo of Baliweyan sigh (literally "go wey") when the wind blows.
   Sigh, sigh, bamboo of Baliweyan.
   Bamboo of Bataan, like the sunshine.
   Sunshine, sunshine, bamboo of Bataan.
   My cane of bamboo gives out a clang.
   Clang, clang, gives out a clang.
   Bamboo of Palai wave up and down.
   Wave, wave, wave up and down.


VII.


   Water of the west, become less and less.
    Less, less, water of the west.
   Spring of Palawang overflow.
    Overflow, overflow, be like the overflow.
   Spring of Langiden flow fast. (Literally "like lightning".)
    Flow, flow, spring of Langiden.
   Spring of Ka-ba-lang, flow like a chain.
    Chain, chain, flow like a chain.
   Water of Padangitah be knee deep to the rooster.
    Rooster, rooster, knee deep to the rooster.
   Spring of Layogan flow on.
    Flow, flow, flow on.
   Water of Abang (?)
    ?
   Water of Abas, become dry.
    Become dry, become dry, water of Abas.
   Water of Ba-ay has three branches.
    Branches, branches, has three branches.
   Water of the East shaped like a ball.
    Ball, ball, shaped like a ball.
   Water from above the anito holds (stops).
    Anito, anito, the anito holds.
   Water of the uninhabited place the ghost holds.
    Ghost, ghost, the ghost holds.
   Water of Ayeng the bamboo tube holds.
    Bamboo tube, bamboo tube, the bamboo tube holds.
   Do not be jealous, pretty spring.
    Spring, spring, pretty spring.



_Da-Eng_. Boys' part.

Record A. Sung while dancing in a religious ceremony.

There are at least two voices in this record. Possibly there were
three or more singers taking part, though it is not possible to
distinguish more than two.

The song is cast in the pentatonic scale of A major. The notes
G-natural and D-flat do not belong to this scale. At those places
where they are put down in the notation, they are used to better define
the glissandos. The singers pass over them rapidly, sliding from the
topmost note of the group to the lowest with no perceptible dwelling
on any of the intermediate tones. The glissandos are indicated by
straight lines drawn obliquely underneath such groups (see _Definition
of Qualities_, p. 478).

In each of measures 2 and 6 of verses 1, 2, and 3; and in measure
6 of verse 4, is shown a group of three notes with an asterisk
above. These groups, as shown in the notation, are B, A, G; but in
measure 2 of verse 4, the corresponding group is C, B, A. In those
measures marked *, the singers are very plainly striving to reach
the tones C, B, A. There is that quality of tension in the voices
with the accompanying forcing of tone which is peculiar to untrained
singers striving for a tone near the limit of their highest range. As
the tones actually sounded are neither B, A, G, nor C, B, A, but are
instead a sort of compromise between the two, it is quite evident that
the succession intended in each of the seven measures is the same
as in the eighth or odd one, viz. C, B, A. If we assume this to be
the case, it eliminates seven of the foreign G naturals shown in the
notation. If, however, this conjecture is wrong, and the performers
really feel that the groups in question all start on B, then the G
naturals are eliminated by the glissandos. The only other G-natural
is shown in measure 7 of verse 4. By comparing this measure with the
corresponding measure in each of the other three verses, it will be
seen that the singers have taken great pains in those verses to avoid
this note which does not belong to the pentatonic scale which they are
using,--evidence that they do not sense the tone in the fourth verse,
where it is taken glissando. The D-flat, also foreign to the scale,
occurs but once. It is in measure 3 of the top line. The glissando
here eliminates this tone also, but, by comparing this measure with
the corresponding measure of each of the other verses, we find the
same avoidance as in the case of the G-natural,--evidence that the
performers do not sense this other foreign tone. The song is therefore
very markedly pentatonic in character.

The assumption that the seven groups marked with asterisks do not
represent the real intent of the singers, is based entirely on the
"stress" heard in the record. This "stress" cannot be represented
in notation. Relying on the notation alone, one would be warranted
in drawing a contrary conclusion and assuming that the odd measure
should be made to conform to the other seven and all read, B, A, G; or,
from the phonographic record, one might assume that the compromise,
previously mentioned, was the intonation really intended. Primitive
peoples frequently do sing and play, quite intentionally, tones out of
conformity with scale tones of present-day concert music. Such tones
cannot be represented by our musical notation without resort to special
signs. This is not necessary in the present case, as the falling short
of true intonation does not appear to be from deliberate intent on
the part of the singers, but seems to be due to lack of ability.

In eight of the measures, at least one of the voices departs from the
melody proper, producing the harmony-intervals so frequently heard
in the music of primitive peoples, namely, that of a 5th without
the 3rd to complete the triad, and that of a 4th without the 6th
to complete the chord. Such thirdless 5ths are found in measures 5
(verse 1), 1 and 8 (verse 2), 5 (verse 3), and 1 and 5 (verse 4); and
the interval of a 4th without the 6th is found in measures 3 and 8 of
verse 4. In the last measure of the notation, however, the interval
of a 4th there shown is caused by the leader's voice departing from
the regular melodic succession instead of the accompanying voice or
voices, as is the case in each of the other measures mentioned.

In measures 1 and 5 of each of the four verses of the song, and also
in measure 3 of the second verse, the sign, "....." (mezzo staccato
marks), is used to indicate the pulsating of the voice of one of the
singers, probably the leader, marking the rhythm of the song.

The metronome tempo is mostly 88, but varies at times and runs as-high
as 92 per minute in the last half of the 4th verse.

Between verses 2 and 3 the phonograph shows that the singers paused
eight beats (two whole measures), and between verses 3 and 4 there was
a similar, though shorter, pause of two beats (one-half measure). These
pauses are not shown in the notation.

There was no special change in dynamics throughout the song except
as indicated by the sforzando marks in measures 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and
8 of verse 4.

In general character this song resembles most the _Dang-dang-ay_
(Record M).


_Diwas_

Record B. Sung at night by the friends of a sick man.

There are two singers on this record, both men with bass voices. One
seems to be the leader, the accompanying singer dragging along
behind. As the tempo is very slow and many of the tones long drawn
out, this uncertainty on the part of the second performer is not so
noticeable, except on the quick runs as the leader passes to another
principal tone.

The song is cast in the natural minor scale of D. The E-flat near the
beginning of the second line does not belong to the scale. It is not
well defined on the record, and so is indicated in the transcription
with an interrogation-mark beneath.

Although not confined to the intervals of the pentatonic scale, the
number is distinctly pentatonic in character. It is made up mostly
of the tones A, C, D, and E. These tones belong to the pentatonic
scales of C major and its relative minor A. In tonality, the song
cannot be considered as belonging to either of these keys, as there
is a very distinct feeling of B-flat in it, notwithstanding that the
tone is seldom dwelt upon, but passed over quickly, almost glissando,
in nearly every place where it occurs.

The song ends on A. This is not the key note, however, but is the
fifth of the key.

The song is like a mournful chant. Throughout there is a peculiar
wailing which leaves a strange, haunting impression. The music
admirably suits the hour when it is used. It would be decidedly
incongruous given in broad daylight. These untutored savages could
hardly have conjured up a more typical tone-picture of the "shadowy
valley" than the song heard on this record.

The peculiarly weird character is due in large part to the swelling out
and dying away of the tones on certain syllables. (For comparison to
effects found in Igorot music, see "Swelled Tones" under _Definition
of Qualities_, p. 479).

_Sang-Sangit_

Record C. Sung during the evening following a funeral.

In this record we hear but one voice--a man's. The song is cast in
the minor scale of G, but whether the natural minor or the harmonic,
cannot be determined, as the singer does not use the 7th of the
scale. It is not pentatonic in character.

The song is given in the recitative style. There are several verses
which vary but little in the music, except for the changes in the
reiterated staccato tones which are made greater or less in number to
accommodate the difference in number of syllables. With the exception
of those starting the glissandos or trills, the repeated tones were
given with a very decided staccato punch.

Much of the intonation is vague. In taking the glissandos shown near
the middle of the top line, the upper tone is sung about half way
between B-flat and B-natural. There is some abandon in the rhythm also.

The group of six notes marked with an asterisk are trilled on the
semitone interval.

_Dawak_

Record D. The song of a medium when calling spirits into her (his)
body.

This song is doubtless the invention of the singer. It has that abandon
which usually characterizes the songs of workers in the occult among
primitive folk.

The song is cast mostly in the relative minor (G-sharp) of the
pentatonic scale of B-natural major. A-sharp does not belong to this
scale. There are five measures, where this note appears, but in each
instance the tonality of the phrase momentarily rests in D-sharp minor,
the relative of the pentatonic major of F-sharp. A-sharp belongs to
this scale, but B-natural does not. The singer, with his instinct for
the five-note scale, avoids the B-natural until the tonality shifts
back to the original key. The song is therefore classed as pentatonic
in character.

The melody is distinctly harmonic in structure, as nearly all of the
successions are made up of triad intervals.

Though the song runs but a minute and a half, the tempo changes eight
times. The performer takes nearly every new tempo with a well-defined
rhythm. There is considerable freedom shown in the first movement
when the tremolos between B-natural and the G-sharp below are taken.

The singer shows quite remarkable flexibility of voice, excellent
breath control, and a rather surprising quality of tone and accuracy
of intonation. As a demonstration of flexibility, about the middle of
the first movement, he takes the quarter note B-natural in falsetto
and immediately drops into the waver a tenth below, at the same time
assuming his natural voice. The falsetto tone is indicated in the
transcription by a tiny circle above the note. All of the wavered
tones, as well as the falsetto at the beginning and the turn at the
end are sung with one breath to a single syllable. This is quite
a remarkable performance considering that the singer had no voice
training.

Near the opening of the first 2/4 movement is shown a group of five
notes given in the time of four,--a rhythmic effect few trained
musicians can execute well.

Of the various performers who took part in making the fourteen records,
this singer shows the best voice technic and control.

The fact that the singer scarcely repeats a single motive throughout
the extent of the song, but is constantly introducing new tonal ideas
argues an extempore performance. It would be interesting to have for
comparison another record of the same song made at another time.

_Song of a Spirit_

Record E. Sung by a medium when possessed by a spirit.

Melodically this song is quite in contrast with the _Dawak_. This
one is distinctly melodic in structure, though there are suggested
harmonies. These harmonies are mostly tonic and dominant alternating
one with the other.

Using a two-measure motive, which he announces at the very start,
the singer works the material over and over, first in one harmonic
mode and then in the other, frequently changing the form of the motive
through embellishments or altered metric values, but always leaving
an impression which harks back to the original motive.

Arrange the various tones of this melody in any order that we will,
we cannot make them conform to any diatonic scale used in modern
music. If, however, we ignore the C-flat, which occurs twice in the
song, it gives us an incomplete ascending melodic-minor scale in
D-flat. But the song is not minor in mode. It is distinctly major
in tonality. It is formed mostly of the four tones D-flat, E-flat,
A-flat, and B-flat. All of these belong to the pentatonic major scale
of D-flat. This gives a very marked pentatonic flavor, yet the song
is not in the pentatonic scale, for the singer introduces half steps,
and there are no such intervals in the pentatonic scale.

Casting about among the scales used by various peoples, the nearest
approach I find to the tonal succession of this song is one of the
numerous scales or "tunings" used by the Japanese. It is that known
as the "Hirajoshi." To make comparison easy, I have transposed this
Japanese koto-tuning into the same key as that of the song. Along
with it I show the tonal material of the Tinguian song arranged in
corresponding sequence.

It will be seen that every note in the Japanese scale is found also
in the Tinguian, though not always in the same octave. All of the
Tinguian tones are found in the Japanese scale except the C-flat and
D-flat. These exceptions are shown with their stems turned down. The
notes shown in white in the Tinguian scale are not sung at the pitch
indicated, but occur in the song as octaves of these tones. The black
notes therefore show the actual tones sung. It will be noticed that
in the arrangement of the notes the opening tone is repeated a few
notes later on. This is because the Japanese usually tune the koto
with the first and fifth strings in unison to facilitate the execution
of certain passages in their music.

The "Jog," heard so frequently in the Igorot songs, occurs eight times
in this number. It is not quite so well defined here, however, as in
the _Dang-dang-ay,_ being modified in this song either by syncopation,
by phrasing, or by lack of accent. It is interesting to note however,
that it is always given on the tonic or the dominant, and also that
it is repeated in true Igorot style.

The unconcern and skill with which the performer of this song unravels
the mixed up duplet and triplet groups, is evidence of his inherent
sense of rhythm, as it pertains to the symetry of note groups and
their embodiment as beat-units into larger, varying measure-units;
but his indifference, as he juggles his metric values of 2/4, 3/8, and
3/4 time, shows an entire absence of appreciation for form as revealed
in even-measured sections, phrases, and periods of modern music.

Considered in the light of an oracle from the spirit himself speaking
through the medium, the music would indicate that the spectre is not
one of the gentle and kind disposition, but on the contrary is very
domineering. He is of frightful mien, and tries to terrorize all who
come under his sway.

_Song of a Spirit_

Record F. Sung by a medium when possessed by a spirit.

This song is very similar in general character to the _Dawak_,
and many qualities in it indicate that it is given by the same
performer. It has the same general formation as the _Dawak_. It is
harmonic in construction. Nearly all of its tones follow the triad
intervals of either the minor or its relative major tonic chords or
the minor dominant chord. There is no well-marked motive development
but instead a succession of tones first from one triad, then from
another, and so on, grouped in ever varying fashion.

The key is G minor, but closes in the relative major B. While singing
in the minor, the performer follows modern methods and raises his
seventh or "leading tone," when the progression is upwards into the
tonic (see measures 10, 13, 25, and 27).

The tempo is mostly 108, but at the tenth measure the movement
slows down to 80. At this point is shown a note with a large circle
above. This tone was taken with a very wide open mouth quite in
contrast with the one preceeding. The next measure following shows
two tones taken falsetto.

Like the Dawak, this song is probably the composition of the
singer. Although very primitive in its general aspect, it has absorbed
from some source a bit of modern influence.

If the surmise is correct that the performer of this song is the same
as the one who made the record of the _Dawak_, and if the two songs
were made at distinct times with a considerable period elapsing in
which other records were made, it would indicate, as is frequently the
case among primitive singers, that this performer almost invariably
sings at the same pitch. In other words, he has to some degree the
sense of absolute pitch.

_Bagoyas_

Record G. A song of praise and compliment sung by a guest at a feast
or party. Words are extempore, but music constant.

The singer is a tenor with considerable dramatic quality in his
voice. The words of the song must be extemporized to suit each new
occasion; so also, must the elemental tonal forms be extemporaneously
combined, for the music must fit the words, and these will vary in
rhythm and meter with each performance. The music may be considered
constant, however, in that the form of each component motive is more
or less fixed.

The following five group-ingredients, used either in the pure form
as shown, or with slight alterations, make up approximately one-half
of the entire song.

Reiterated tones and glissandos pad out between these and make up
practically the remainder of the number.

Turning our attention to the first of the above groups, which I have
marked "M.M.1." (melodic motive), we find that it is used nearly a
score of times throughout the extent of the song.

A motive may be modified in ten different recognized ways and each form
of modification employed in varying degrees, within certain limits,
and yet the motive will not loose its identity. As an example of this
we find in this song the first melodic motive _transposed_ from the
fourth degree of the scale (where it is originally announced) to the
first, the fifth, and the sixth degrees. We find the same motive
given with _omissions_, with _additions_, with _augmentations_,
with _contractions_, and with _altered rhythmic values_; in short,
the composer has turned this motive over and over, and unwittingly
developed it much after the manner used by musicians trained in the
art of composition. The fact that this motive is given four times
rhythmically and melodically intact, besides recurring frequently
throughout the composition in one or another of the accepted forms of
modification, argues that this melodic germ was a familiar tone-figure
to the singer, one that he could apply to most any syllable on which
he wished to dwell. In this connection it is interesting to note that
this motive, in its purest form, is always used in a transitional way,
not only musically, but rhetorically, thus "marking time," as it were,
while the improvisator chooses his next words of praise.

The second melodic motive (M.M.2.) occurs at least five times, with
some transformations to be sure, and sometimes even overlapping the
first motive. The third (R.M.) is purely rhythmic, but seems to be
a pet device of the singer and helps him out with syllables needing
special emphasis. The fourth can hardly be dignified by the name of
motive, in this case, but is simply a musical device (M.D.), used by
the singer mostly in his terminations.

I surmise that the song in its entirety, including the above elemental
groups, is the invention of the singer. He has equipped himself with
these particular tonal fragments, because they not only suit his fancy,
but lie well within the range of his vocal attainments. He has used
them so frequently and in such varied forms that he can instantly
twist, turn, or alter them to fit the requirements of the various
syllables of his ever changing flatteries.

With a few such elemental groups of his own invention at command,
any singer would be well equipped to extemporize for the delectation
of his host and the entertainment of the other guests.

The song is exceptional for strongly accented notes. The triplets
giving the value of three quarter notes in the time of two are rather
unusual in modern music. It is cast in the natural minor scale
of B-flat. The singer never uses either the raised 6th or 7th in
ascending, as do moderns in the melodic minor, but adheres strictly
to the old _normal_ or _natural minor_ form.

Although diatonic, in that both the G-flat and C-natural appear
frequently, yet the number savors much of the pentatonic.

At three places where the singer uses one or the other of the tones
foreign to the pentatonic scale, he makes half-step progressions.

In the fourth line of the song we find the single instance in these
records, where the performer takes an upward glissando. It is on the
two-note embellishment F-natural G-flat shown in the last measure of
that line. It is immediately followed by a downward glissando.

Balalognimas

Record II.

Two singers are heard on this record. They seem to be women. Possibly
there are more than the two voices. As the song has such a well-defined
swing and such a martial character, it must be wonderfully inspiring
when given by a large company of singers.

It is cast in the natural minor diatonic scale of C-sharp, though it
is strongly pentatonic in character.

The rhythm is partly 5/8 and partly 4/8, but it swings along so
naturally that it seems as if it could not be otherwise.

The distribution of the accents, sometimes falling on the first
and third beats and again on the second and fourth, helps to give
it a character which puts it in a class by itself. It has the most
character of any of the women's songs in this group.

There are several verses to the song almost precisely alike in words
and music.

_Da-Eng_. Boys and Girls Alternating.

Record I. Sung while dancing in a religious ceremony.

This song is in two distinct movements or parts varying one from the
other in meter, in tempo, and in general style.

Part 1

There are at least two voices discernible in this part. They seem to
be the voices of girls or women.

It is cast in the relative minor (C) of the pentatonic scale of E-flat
major. The tones of this scale given in order are C, E-flat, F, G,
B-flat, and then the octave C. The tones D-natural and A-flat are
missing, thus avoiding the half step between D and E-flat, and between
G and A-flat (see remarks in pentatonic scale under _Definition of
Qualities_, p. 480).

The A-flat shown in the third from the last measure of this part is
written there to define more clearly that particular glissando which
seems to be of slightly different rhythmic construction than the one
in the corresponding measure above. The fact that the tone is passed
over glissando eliminates it from the scale.

In the fourth measure of each line we find a peculiar splitting up of
the parts, one voice holding the C, while the other skips to the E-flat
above, thus producing the harmony-interval of a minor third. This
behavior seems to be intentional on the part of the performers, as
it occurs precisely the same in each of the four lines of the song,
though not quite so well defined the last time owing to the fact that
the upper voice does not come out so strong on the E-flat. This is
indicated in the notation by a small square note.

Part 1 is in the very unusual rhythm of 5/4. The rhythm is not
well defined, however, as there is considerable abandon in the
style of rendition. The metronome tempo of 69 applies practically
throughout. Sometimes the singers are a trifle in advance of the count
and at others drag behind, but always sooner or later drop into the
regular beat. A stress on each fifth count gives the number a rhythm
of five. It is unique also in that each line has but five measures.

Part 2

In this, the same number of voices is heard as in the first part. The
performers seem to be the same ones who sang from the beginning.

The scale is the same as that of part 1. The intonation is very
distinct and the character unmistakably pentatonic.

In measure 2 there is the harmony-interval of a perfect fourth
followed immediately by that of a minor third, the same succession
as was used in the _Da-eng_, Girls' part (Record J). In the fourth
and fifth measures of this part are found unprepared minor thirds,
which also appear in Record J. These harmonies are not so primitive
as those found in the boys' part of the same ceremony (see Record A).

The tempo throughout this part is 80 and the rhythm strongly
marked. There is a wait between the two lines. The machine was
evidently stopped at this point or the needle raised and started
again. Each line has the uncommon number of five measures the same
as the first part, but metrically the part is in 4/4 rhythm.

The second time through, the singers seem to be striving to repeat
the first line of the movement with embellishments consisting of
inverted mordents, appogiature, and trills.

Musically, there seems to be absolutely no connection between this
song and the other two of the same ceremony. In many ways this song
is the most interesting of those submitted. In origin it probably
dates between the other two.

It is not given consecutively on the record, as there were breaks
between each two lines while the needle was raised.

_Da-Eng_. Girls' part.

Record J. Sung while dancing in a religious ceremony.

The record shows but two voices one of which is greatly predominant
in strength and confidence as if it were the leader's voice.

The song is cast in the scale of B minor. It is not pentatonic. The
singers would employ, so an interrogation-mark is; placed below that
be either A-natural or A-sharp, according to whether the scale is
the _natural_ minor or the _harmonic_ minor, it is not possible to
determine which tone the singers would employ, so an interrogation mark
is placed below that note. The raised fourth (E-sharp), shown in the
fifth measure of four out of the six verses, is perfectly intentional
on the part of the singers, but musically, is to be interpreted as
an accidental, and does not affect the scale of the song.

In this song we again have the interval of a fourth without the sixth
above. It occurs four times, each time followed immediately by the
less primitive and more harmonious interval of a minor third. The
minor third harmony also occurs in three other measures,--in these
without preparation.

These minor thirds are all the same,--B-D, the foundation of the
tonic chord of the key,--evidence that the singers have a keen sense
of the minor tonality.

The tempo alternates between 96 and 108. The first half of each line
is given at 96, but the second half is taken more rapidly at 108 beats
per minute. Each of these rhythms is very evenly preserved, the time
being well marked by accented notes and pulsations of the voice as
shown in the score. The figures at the ends of the lines indicate
the number of beats rest actually taken by the performers. Twice
they take the normal number four, which, if preserved throughout,
would place the song in the regular eight-measure form. Some of the
measures are 4/4, and some are 3/4.

In each verse of this song we find an example of the characteristic
which I have termed a "jog." It is seen in each next-to-last measure
with special sign beneath. The jogs in the 2nd, 4th, and 6th measures
are the best defined (see table of special signs under _Introduction_,
p. 444).

There are three qualities in this song, which indicate that it is of
more modern origin than either of the other two which belong to the
same ceremony. The frequent and undoubtedly intentional use of the
raised fourth giving the half step E-sharp to F-sharp; the persistent
recurrence of the hardly primitive, minor-third harmony; and the fact
that the song is not cast in the pentatonic scale, as are the other
two records of the same ceremony, point to a more modern origin.

It may be that in the earliest practice of this ceremony the girls
or women did not participate, their parts having been a later
addition. This could not be determined musically, however, without
examining more records of songs from this or similar ceremonies.

_Bogoyas_

Record K. Sung by a woman.

This is a woman's song of praise, complimentary to the host at a party.

The singer makes use of all the scale tones of the major key of E-flat,
except the D-natural. The B-natural found in the next-to-last measure
is a passing tone, and does not affect the scale or tonality. At that
point the suggested supporting harmony is an augmented triad upon
the tonic leading into the subdominant. With the exception of this
one measure, the song is in the five-note scale. Notwithstanding that
this measure contains two A-flats and also the passing tone B-natural,
both of which tones are foreign to this particular five-note scale,
the song is not robbed of its pentatonic character.

The rhythm of this song is interesting. It alternates throughout
between 4/4 and 5/4. It might have been notated in 9/4 time instead,
in which case it would have but five measures.

The singer uses the downward glissandos, so characteristic of nearly
all of the Tinguian songs of this group. These glissandos are indicated
by oblique lines drawn beneath the tones covered by the slide.

In the second measure there is an almost inaudible tone at the end
of the glissando. It is indicated by a small, square note. Careful
listening to the record at this point shows that the singer really
leaves the principal tone E-flat and slides with a sudden dying-down
of volume. The abruptness with which the sound of the voice fades as it
starts the glissando, leaves the impression of E-flat still sounding.

One tone in this song is given on the inhaled breath. It is indicated
by a circle with a dot in the center placed beneath the note. This
tone was produced well back in the throat, while the singer sharply
inhaled the breath. This artifice, occasionally used by the Tinguian,
is seldom, if ever, heard in the singing of civilized peoples (for
other examples, see analysis of Record M, _Dang-dang-ay_).

This song, given by a woman, has not the well-marked motive development
shown in the other _Bogoyas_, sung by a man. However, we find two quite
distinct, prevailing ideas set forth. The first includes the whole of
the first measure and the first beat of the second. It seems to be
in the nature of a question which finds its answer in the remainder
of the second measure, and again in the third, and again in the
fourth measure. It is the same answer, but expressed each time in a
little different manner. In the fifth measure and carrying over into
the sixth, the questioning is heard again. Although put forth in a
different arrangement of tones, it is the same musical thought as that
expressed in the first measure. This time it is answered but once. The
answer takes parts of two measures. Now follows another query similar
to the first, and again comes the answer fully expressed in each of
the two concluding measures.

The principal interest in this centers around the B-natural, indicating
that the singer has a very decided appreciation of the half step
and of the upward leading tendency of a tone raised a semitone by
an accidental.

_Na-Way_

Record L. Sung at the celebration which closes the period of mourning
for the dead.

There are two voices heard in the record, probably women. In ten
of the measures there is a splitting up of the parts. In the first
measure of each of the second and third lines, and also in the third
measure of the third line, the difference in the parts is owing to
uncertainty of attack, one of the singers, usually the leader, starting
the syllable ahead of the other performer. In the second measure of
the last line, the first divergence is caused by the leader taking E
by way of embellishment; and the second divergence, producing a minor
third, is caused by the other voice dropping to B too soon. These are
not intentional harmonies. The other six departures from unison are
caused by the leader embellishing her part. The appogiatura, shown
with a tiny circle above, has the quality of falsetto. The singer
yodles down to the principal tone B.

The song is strictly pentatonic. Peculiarly enough, it may be
considered as belonging to any one of the following tonalities, B
minor, E minor, or G major, though there is no G in the melody. The
song seems the most primitive, however, when considered in the key
of E minor, for the harmonies required to place it in this tonality
carry more of the primitive atmosphere than do the chords which are
required in either of the other tonalities.

In this connection it would be interesting to know just how these
various harmonizations would appeal to the Tinguian. It is a well-known
fact among musicians who have recorded the songs of primitive peoples,
that though the songs are used with practically no harmonies, yet the
singers feel an harmonic support which they do not express. Experiments
along this line have been tried with the American Indians. Various
harmonizations of a given melody have been played for them, a melody
which they themselves sing only in unison, and they have been very
quick to choose the particular harmonic support which appeals to them
as being an audible expression of the vague something which they feel
within, but do not attempt to voice.

The tones of this song when arranged to represent the scale of E minor
coincide exactly with the scale tones of two of the tunings of the
Japanese 13 stringed _koto_. These tunings were both borrowed by the
Japanese from the Chinese by whom they were used as special tunings of
the _ch'in_, or _kin_, one of the most ancient of musical instruments.

In each of the eleven glissandos shown in the notation, the voices drop
suddenly to approximately the tone shown by the small square note. The
glides are taken diminuendo, the tone dying away completely. The
sudden diminuation of tone taken with a glissando gives an effect
something like a short groan. The song is in seven-measure periods.

_Dang-Dang-Ay_

Record M. Sung by women while pounding rice out of the straw and husks.

Only one voice can be distinguished in the record. It is that of
a woman.

Though strongly pentatonic in character, the song is cast in
the diatonic scale of F major. Metrically there is considerable
freedom. 3/4, 4/4, and 5/4 rhythms are thrown in with the most
haphazard abandon, yet it has the even pulsing which should dominate
a song of this character.

The song is in two rather distinct movements. The first, in spite
of the two triplets thrown in at the first and third measures, has
a straight-away motion which offers a striking contrast to the more
graceful, swaying second part which is mostly in triplets. The change
from one style to the other is made by the singer with no variation
in tempo. It is therefore admirably adapted to accompany the regular
falling of the pestles while beating out the rice.

Near the close of the song are two notes with [Sun] over them. These
were vocalized on the inhaled breadth (for other examples of Inhaled
Tones, see analysis of Record K, _Bogoyas_).

This song contains seven examples of the "Jog" (see _Definition
of Qualities_, p. 479). Those in the second part of the song are
the best defined. One of these is shown with open head. This jog is
given the most nearly like the Igorot manner of execution of any of
the examples found in these fourteen songs.

In general character, this song somewhat resembles the Boys' Part of
the _Da-eng_ ceremony (Record A).

_Kuilay-Kuilay_

Record N. Sung by women while passing liquor.

There is one singer only on this record. It is a woman. The song is
given in a lively, jolly, rollicking style.

It is cast in the F major scale. The melody has good variety. At
times it defines quite clearly the harmonic outline by following the
tonal framework of the tonic, dominant, or subordinant chords. Passing
tones are used more freely and naturally in this song than in any of
the others.

In the third measure of the fifth line, the singer very plainly
vocalizes a half step from F to E. The second and fourth lines also
show semitones, though these are not so distinctly given on the record
as the other example.

In the last measure of the third line there is a modulation into the
tonality of B-flat which carries through two measures.

In the fifth line are three accents which make the meter rather elusive
at that point. The two small notes shown at the beginning of the
third line seem to be spoken with no attempt at vocalization. They are
notated, however, at the pitch of the speaking voice. The small note
shown in the bottom line is given very faintly in the record and seems
more like a muffled exclamation than an intentionally vocalized tone.

The tempo throughout is quite regular, following the indicated pulse
of 92 in both the 6/8 and 2/4 rhythms.

In the latter part of the song there are a number of changes between
duple and triple rhythm. The singer makes these changes with perfect
ease and sings the groups with that exactness of proportion which
characterizes the performance of most of the singers in these records.

Musically this song is strikingly adapted to the purpose for which
it is intended.

_Tabulation of Qualities and Characteristics_.--The qualities found
in the records have been tabulated under two main headings. Under the
caption, "Rarely or Never Heard in Modern Music," are listed those
qualities which, so far as present research goes, are so very unusual
that they may be termed musical idiosyncrasies of the race. These
qualities are so eccentric that if found in several of the songs,
even if the number of songs be much in the minority, the qualities
may be accepted as characteristics. [252]

To receive recognition as a characteristic, any quality found under the
other heading, "Commonly Heard," would necessarily have to show that it
quite persistently occurred throughout a large majority of the songs.

The columns of the large table, when read horizontally, show which
qualities appear in a given song. Read vertically they show the
degrees of dominance of the various qualities.

The songs are grouped under two heads, those given by men and boys, and
those given by women and girls. This will facilitate comparison of the
degrees of dominance of the qualities found in the songs of each. [253]

Numbers have been put down in some of the columns of the table. These
figures indicate the number of times the quality appeared in the
song. If the song has several verses on the record, and the quality
appears the same number of times in each, then the tabulation gives the
number of times in but a single verse. If the verses vary in the use
of the quality, then an average has been struck and figure put down in
the tabulation. In those songs where a certain quality occurs with such
irregularity that it was impossible to represent the average without
fractions, only the mark X has been put down in the table, simply to
indicate that the quality was present. Such qualities as Tonality,
Character, Structure, Scale, etc., naturally, with few exceptions, run
through the whole song, and they are indicated by the X. Some songs
have both of two opposed qualities. When this occurs, it is shown
by checking both qualities. [254] Some qualities which were present,
but indeterminable are indicated by an interrogation-point. [255]

Following the tabulation is given a detailed explanation or definition
of each of the qualities listed at the heads of the vertical columns.

_Dying Tones_.--Found only at the end of some few glissandos. On
the glide, the volume of sound diminishes so rapidly that when the
final tone of the group is reached, the sound has practically died
out. The effect is something like a short groan with no anguish in
it. Sign,--same as a muted note, but written at the end of a glissando.

_Muted Tones_.--Sort of half-articulated tones, if I may use that
expression. Without more records of the same songs in which these are
shown, it is not possible to determine whether they are intended by
the singers as necessary parts of the records. Sign,--note with small
square head.

_Inhaled Tones_.--Tones produced well back in the throat while
sharply inhaling the breath rather than exhaling it, as practiced
almost universally by singers. Sign,--circle with dot in center.

_Pulsated Tones_.--Tones of more than one beat sung with a rythmic
stressing usually in accord with the time meter or some multiple
of that meter. Pulsation is rarely heard among modern musicians,
except in drilling ensemble singing. It is heard quite frequently in
the singing of our American Indians and in the songs of several other
primitive peoples. It occurs to some extent in nearly every one of the
Tinguian men's songs. It is found in but one of those sung by women.

Though pusation does serve to define the rhythm, I believe it is used
by primitive peoples mostly as a purely aesthetic touch. It is indicated
in the notation by the usual musical staccato sign thus, --.....

_Swelled Tones_.--Tones usually of from two to four beats which are
sung with increasing volume to the center, finishing with a decrescendo
to the end. The Swell is sometimes applied to tones of more than four
beats, but when so used, it looses some of its character. Swelled
tones must be given to single syllables only, and they are the most
effective when introduced several times in succession with but few, if
any, intervening tones. The sign which I have used is double diverging
lines followed by double converging lines placed under the note.

In 1905 it was my privilege to transcribe a number of native songs
from the singing of a group of Igorot. In these songs they made
frequent use of swelled tones.

_Downward Glissandos_.--An even sliding of the voice from the topmost
tone of a group to the lowest with no perceptible dwelling on any
intermediate tone and without in any manner defining any of the tones
lying between the extremes. Sign,--a straight line drawn obliquely
downward beneath the group.

_Upward Glissandos_.--An even sliding of the voice upward without
sounding any of the intermediate tones. Sign,--a straight line drawn
obliquely upward beneath the group.

_Notes in Group, Beats in Measure, or Measures in Period_.--Groups of
five seem to have no terrors for these people. In modern music it is
extremely unusual to find notes grouped in fives, or measures having
the rhythmic value of five beats, or periods made up of measures in
fives. A study of the tabulation shows that the Tinguian have a rather
natural bent for groupings in this number. It seems easy for them
to drop into that metric form. I consider this trait, evidenced in
their melodies, one of the marked characteristics of their music. [256]

Groups of notes, beats, or measures in seven are so few in these
records that we are not warranted in accepting it as a characteristic.

_Jog_.--An over-emphasized short-appoggiatura with always either the
tonic or dominant of the key as the principal tone. The first tone
is usually an eighth or sixteenth in value, and must stand on the
next degree above the principal tone. The principal tone is usually
a quarter note or longer in value.

In singing the jog, the short note is given a very pointed accent, the
voice dropping quickly with a sort of jerk to the second, unaccented,
sustained tone. It is executed without sliding, both tones being
well-defined. To be most effective, it should be given two, three,
or four times consecutively without intervening tones.

This device was heard very frequently in the Igorot songs; in fact,
some of their songs consisted of little else than the jog sounded
first on tonic two or three times, then the same number of times on
the dominant, then again on the tonic, then on the dominant, and so
on back and forth.

It would be interesting to know just how commonly this device is used
in the singing of the Tinguian and also in the music of other tribes
of these Islands. From it we might learn something of the contact of
other tribes with the Igorot.

Japanese Scales.--For structure of these scales, see analysis of those
songs using one or another of the Japanese "tunings" or approximations
to them.

Tonality.--That entire group of harmonies which, intimately related to
a foundation or "tonic" chord, may be considered as clustered around
and drawn to it.

Major Tonality. That tonality in which the upper two of the three tones
constituting its tonic chord, when ranged upward from its foundation
tone, are found at distances of four and seven semitones respectively
from it.

Minor Tonality. That tonality in which the upper two of the three tones
constituting its tonic chord, when ranged upward from its foundation
tone, are found at distances of three and seven semitones respectively
from it.

Pentatonic Character. That peculiar essence or quality which a melody
has when it is built up entirely or almost wholly of the tones of
the pentatonic or five-note scale. The melody may employ sparingly
one or both of the two tones foreign to the pentatonic scale, and
yet its pentatonic character will not be destroyed.

Diatonic Character. That quality which a melody takes on when the
two tones which are foreign to the pentatonic scale of the same key
or tonality are freely employed.

I use this term in contradistinction to "Pentatonic Character," and
not in contradistinction to "Chromatic," as it is usually employed
in musical literature.

Melodic Structure. That form of flowing succession of tones in
which the accented tones, if considered in sequence, show dominant
non-adherence to chord intervals.

_Harmonic Structure_. That form of tonal succession in which the
tones of the melody follow rather persistently the structural outline
of chords.

_Major Pentatonic Scale_. That scale in which the constituent
tones, if considered in upward sequence, would show the following
arrangement of whole and whole-and-a-half-step intervals,--(whole)
(whole) (whole-and-a-half) (whole) (whole-and-a-half).

_Minor Pentatonic Scale_. That scale in which the constituent tones,
if considered in upward sequence, would show the following arrangement
of whole and whole-and-a-half step intervals,--(whole-and-a-half)
(whole) (whole) (whole-and-a-half) (whole).

The pentatonic scale is markedly primitive in character. It is known
to have been in use anterior to the time of Guido d'Arezzo, which
would give it a date prior to the beginning of the 11th century. [257]

Rowbotham ascribes the invention of scales to those primitive musicians
who, striving for greater variety in their one-toned chants, added
first one newly-discovered tone, then another, and another. [258]
The pentatonic scale might have resulted from such chanting.

Most of the primitive peoples of the present day do not seem to feel
or "hear mentally" the half step. If musicians of early days had this
same failing, it was only natural for them to avoid that interval
by eliminating from their songs one or the other of each couplet of
tones which if sung would form a half step, thus their chants would
be pentatonic.

Not only do people in the primitive state fail to sense the half step,
but also people in modern environment who have heard very infrequently
this smallest interval of modern music.

Inability to sense this interval may be better understood when we
stop to consider that most of us find it unnatural and difficult
to hear mentally the still smaller quarter-step interval or one of
the even-yet-smaller sub-divisions of the octave which some peoples
have come to recognize through cultivation, and have embodied in
their music.

This tendency to avoid the half step and develop along the line of
pentatonic character is sometimes seen in our own children when they
follow their natural bent in singing. It has been my observation
that children with some musical creative ability, but unaccustomed
to hearing modern music with its half steps, almost invariably hum
their bits of improvised melody in the pentatonic scale.

_Major Diatonic Scale_. That scale in which the constituent tones if
considered in upward sequence would show the following arrangement
of whole and half step intervals,--(whole) (whole) (half) (whole)
(whole) (whole) (half).

_Natural Minor Diatonic Scale_. That scale in which the constituent
tones, if considered in upward sequence, would show the following
arrangement of whole and half step intervals,--(whole) (half) (whole)
(whole) (half) (whole) (whole).

_Harmonic Minor Diatonic Scale_. That scale in which the
constituent tones, if considered in upward sequence, would show
the following arrangement of half, whole and whole-and-a-half step
intervals,--(whole) (half) (whole) (whole) (half) (whole-and-a-half)
(half).

_Melodic Minor Diatonic Scale_ (_Ascending_). That scale in which
the constituent tones, if considered in upward sequence, would show
the following arrangement of whole and half step intervals,--(whole)
(half) (whole) (whole) (whole) (whole) (half).

_Falsetto_. Artificial or strained head-tones which sound an octave
above the natural tone. Sign,--a tiny circle above the note.

In record L. _Naway_ is shown one falsetto tone. It is unusual to
find this effect in a woman's voice.

_Semitones Sung_. This needs no definition. The classification is put
down to show to what extent these singers appreciate the half-step
intervals, and are able to vocalize it (see preceeding definition
of Pentatonic Scale for footnote relative to appreciation of this
interval). Sign,--curved bracket above or below the notes.

In these records the men use the half-step interval in six of their
seven songs, while the women make use of it in but three of their
eight songs.

_Appoggiature_. These, with the exception of one double one shown in
the _Bagoyas_ (Record G), are all of the single, short variety. The
singers execute them with the usual quickness heard in modern music,
but with the accent about equally divided between the appoggiatura
and the principal tone. In the transcription they are indicated by
the usual musical symbol,--a small eighth note with a slanting stroke
through the hook.

_Mordents_. Those used in these songs are all of the "inverted"
kind, and were executed by the singers in the manner used by modern
musicians; that is, by giving a quick, single alternation of the
principal tone with the next scale tone above. Indicated in the score
by the usual musical symbol.

_Trills and Wavers_. These need no comment except to call attention
to the fact that there are none found in the regular songs of
the women. The one shown in Record I  (_Da-eng,_ Boys and Girls
alternating) is in the boys' part.

_Changing Between Duple and Triple Rhythm_. I consider this quite a
striking quality in these songs. Some primitive peoples show little
concern over such rhythmic changes, in fact, among some races where
percussive instruments are used to accompany the singing, we frequently
hear the two rhythms at the same time fitted perfectly one against
the other. This is especially true among our American Indians.

While it is not uncommon to find compositions in modern music using
these two rhythms alternately, they are alternated rather sparingly. A
great many musicians have difficulty in passing smoothly from one to
the other, preserving perfect proportions in the note values.

In noting down in the table the findings under this head, I have
put down under each song, not the number of duple or triple or
quadruple groups in the song, but rather the number of "changes"
which occur. After one has made the transition from one style of
rhythm to the other, and has the new "swing" established, manifestly
it is no special feat to follow along in that same kind of measure;
but the real test is the "change" to the rhythm of the other sort. For
instance, in the Song of the Spirit (Record E), I find but 31 measures
and parts of measures which are in triple rhythm, yet the singer had
to change his meter 47 times to execute these. On the other hand,
the _Dang-dang-ay_ (Record M), has in it 21 triple-time measures and
triplet groups of notes, but because of the persistence of the triple
rhythm, when once established in the second part, the song requires
a changing of swing but 17 times.

Because of the frequency of changes found throughout these songs,
and noting, as heard in the records, the precision with which, in
nearly every instance, a new rhythm is taken, I conclude that the
Tinguian have a remarkable grasp of different metric values, which
enables them to change readily from one to the other. Naturally this
trait would stamp itself upon their music, and I consider the use of
such frequent metric changes a dominant characteristic.

Although frequent rhythmic change is also strongly characteristic
of the music of some other peoples, as I have indicated elsewhere,
it is important to tabulate it here to differentiate the Tinguian
from those peoples who do not make use of it.

_Minor 3rds, Perfect 4ths, and Perfect 5ths_. These are the only
intentional harmonies found in these songs. It is interesting to note
that the only examples are in the _Da-eng_ ceremony, where all three
are used, some in one part and some in another.

Among some primitive peoples, only the men take part in the songs. The
early chanting of all peoples was quite likely by men. Probably the
most primitive harmony was a perfect fifth resulting from the attempt
of men with different ranges to sing together. The difference between
a bass and a tenor voice is just about a fifth. Between an alto and
a soprano it is about a fourth. The difference in these voices made
it impossible to sing melodies of wide range in unison, and so the
basses and tenors sang in consecutive fifths. When women took up the
chanting, they sang either in fifths or in fourths.

These harmonies appealed to them, and so continued in use even when
there was no exigency on account of restricted range.

Referring again to the _Da-eng_ ceremony, it is interesting to observe
that the three different parts of this ceremony are in distinct scales,
and that the part sung by the girls alone, is diatonic in character
while the other two parts are pentatonic.

_Conclusion_.--I have long been of the opinion that the music of
different peoples should be given more consideration by scientists
in their endeavor to trace cultural relationships. In years gone by,
ethnologists have attached too little importance to the bearing which
music has on their science.

I am of the opinion that every peculiarity, even to the smallest
element that enters into the make-up of a given melody, has some
influence back of it which has determined the element and shaped
it into combination. It is not unlikely that a thorough study of
the music would reveal these influences, and through them establish
hitherto unknown ethnological facts.

I believe that a careful study of a large number of the songs or
instrumental pieces of a people will reveal a quite definite general
scheme of construction which can be accepted as representative of
that people alone; and if such an analysis be made of the music of
many peoples and the findings so tabulated that the material will
be comprehensible to ethnologists trained to that branch of musical
research, many interesting and instructive side-lights will be thrown
on the question of tribal relationship.

I realize that to examine exhaustively and then tabulate the
characteristics found in the music of just one of the many peoples
of the globe would be something of an undertaking; but nevertheless
I believe the work should be undertaken in this large way, and when
it is, I am sure the results will justify the experiment.

I appreciate that there is an intangible something about music, which
may prove baffling when it comes to reducing it to cold scientific
symbols and descriptions. Take, for instance, quality of tone. Each
one of us knows perfectly the various qualities of the different
speaking voices of friends and acquaintances, yet how many of us can
so accurately describe those qualities to a stranger that he also may
be able to identify the voices among a thousand others. The tabulation
of such elusive qualities would have to be in very general terms. Such
indefinable characteristics would, to some extent, have to depend
for comparison upon the memory of those workers who had received
first-hand impressions. It would be something like a present-day
musician identifying an unfamiliar composition as belonging to the
"French school," the "Italian school," or the "Russian school;"
and yet, this same musician might not be able to point out with
definiteness a single characteristic of that particular so-called
"school."

Though I have held these opinions for several years, I am more
than ever convinced, since examining these few Tinguian records,
that something really tangible and worth while can be deduced from
the music of various primitive peoples, and I trust this branch of
ethnology will soon receive more serious recognition.

Manifestly it would be unwise to draw any unalterable conclusions
from the examination of but fourteen records of a people. But even
in this comparatively small number of songs, ranging as they do
over such a variety of applications and uses, it is possible to
see tendencies which the examination of more records may confirm as
definite characteristics.

While it would be presumptuous at this time to attempt to formulate a
Tinguian style, I trust that what I have tabulated may prove valuable
in summing up the total evidence, which will accumulate as other
surveys are made; and if perchance, the findings here set down and
the conclusions tentatively drawn from them help to clear up any
obscure ethnological point, the effort has been well spent.

_Albert Gale_.



CONCLUSIONS


The first impression gained by the student of Philippine ethnology
is that there is a fundamental unity of the Philippine peoples, the
Negrito excepted, not only in blood and speech, but in religious
beliefs and practices, in lore, in customs, and industries. It is
realized that contact with outside nations has in many ways obscured
the older modes of thought, and has often swamped native crafts,
while each group has doubtless developed many of its present customs
on Philippine soil; yet it seems that enough of the old still remains
to proclaim them as a people with a common ancestry. To what extent
this belief is justified can be answered, in part, by the material
in the preceding pages.

A study of the physical types has shown that each group considered
is made up of heterogeneous elements. Pigmy blood is everywhere
evident, but aside from this there is a well-marked brachycephalic
and a dolichocephalic element. With the latter is a greater tendency
than with the first for the face to be angular; the cheek bones
are more outstanding, while there is a greater length and breadth
of the nose. Individuals of each type are found in all the groups
considered, but taken in the average, it is found that the Ilocano
and Valley Tinguian fall into the first or round-headed class, the
Bontoc Igorot are mesaticephalic, while between them are the mountain
Tinguian and Apayao.

Judging from their habitat and the physical data, it appears that
the Igorot groups were the first comers; that the brachycephalic
Ilocano-Tinguian arrived later and took possession of the coast,
and that the two groups have intermarried to form the intermediate
peoples. However, a comparison of our Luzon measurements with the
people of southern China and the Perak Malay leads us to believe
that the tribes of northwestern Luzon are all closely related to
the dominant peoples of southern China, Indo-China, and Malaysia in
general, in all of which the intermingling of these types is apparent.

The dialects of northwestern Luzon, while not mutually intelligible,
are similar in morphology, and have a considerable part of their
vocabularies in common. Here again the Igorot is at one extreme, the
Ilocano and Valley Tinguian at the other, while the intervening groups
are intermediate, but with a strong leaning toward the coast tongue.

Considering, for the moment, the Bontoc Igorot and the Tinguian, it is
found that both have certain elements of culture which are doubtless
old possessions, as, for instance, head-hunting, terraced rice-fields,
iron-working, a peculiar type of shield, and a battle-axe which they
share with the Apayao of Luzon and the Naga of Assam.

A part or all of these may be due to a common heritage, at any rate,
they help to strengthen the feeling that in remote times these
peoples were closely related. But a detailed study of their social
organizations; of their ceremonies, songs, and dances; of their customs
at birth, marriage, death, and burial; of their house-building; as
well as the details of certain occupations, such as the rice culture,
pottery making, and weaving, indicates that not only have they been
long separated, but that they have been subjected to very different
outside influences, probably prior to their entry into the Philippines.

It is not in the province of this monograph to deal with the probable
affiliations of the Igorot, neither is it our intention to attempt
to locate the ancient home of the Tinguian, nor to connect them with
any existing groups. However, our information seems to justify us in
certain general conclusions. It shows that the oft repeated assertions
of Chinese ancestry are without foundation. It shows that, while trade
with China had introduced hundreds of pieces of pottery and some
other objects into this region, yet Chinese influence had not been
of an intimate enough nature to influence the language or customs,
or to introduce any industry. On the other hand, we find abundant
evidence that in nearly every phase of life the Tinguian were at one
time strongly influenced by the peoples to the south, and even to-day
show much in common with Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and
through them with India. As a case in point we find in the procedure
at birth that the Tinguian are in accord with the Peninsular Malay
in at least eight particulars, some of which, such as the burning
of a fire beside the mother and newborn babe for a month or more,
the frequent bathing of both in water containing leaves and herbs,
the "fumigating" of the baby, the throwing of ashes to blind evil
spirits, are sufficiently distinctive to indicate a common source,
particularly when they still occur together in connection with one
of the great events of life.

Frequent reference has been made to the parallels between Tinguian
customs and those practiced in Sumatra, while the methods of
rice-culture are so similar that they can have come only from the same
source. In the weaving the influence of India seems evident, despite
the fact that cotton is not bowed in Abra, and the Tinguian method
of spinning seems unique. These methods, apparently distinctive,
may once have been practised more broadly, but were superseded by
more efficient instruments. The primitive method of ginning cotton by
rolling it beneath a tapering rod appears to be found nowhere in the
Philippines outside of Abra, but it is used in some remote sections
of Burma.

Part I of this volume presented a body of tales which showed many
resemblances to the Islands of the south, as well as incidents of
Indian lore. There is, in fact, a distinct feeling of Indian influence
in the tales of the mythical period; yet they lack the epics of that
people, and the typical trickster tales are but poorly represented.

The vocabulary shows comparatively little of Indian influence; yet,
at the time of the conquest, the Ilocano was one of the coast groups
making use of a native script which was doubtless of Hindu origin.

The many instances of Indian influence do not justify the
supposition that the Tinguian were ever directly in contact with
that people. The Malay islands to the south were pretty thoroughly
under Hindu domination by the second century of the Christian era,
and it is probable that they were influenced through trade at a
considerably earlier date. Judging from our data, it would seem that
the Ilocano-Tinguian group had left its southern home at a time after
this influence was beginning to make itself felt, but before it was
of a sufficiently intimate nature to stamp itself indelibly on the
lore, the ceremonial and economic life of this people, as it did in
Java and some parts of Sumatra. It is possible that these points of
similarity may be due to trade, but if so, the contact was at a period
antedating the fourteenth century, for in historic times the sea trade
of the southern islands has been in the hands of the Mohammedanized
Malay. Their influence is very marked in the southern Philippines,
but is not evident in northwestern Luzon.

Concerning the time of their arrival in Luzon, and the course
pursued by them, we have no definite proof; but it is evident that
the Tinguian did not begin to press inland until comparatively recent
times. Historical references and local traditions indicate that most
of this movement has taken place since the arrival of the Spaniards,
while the distribution of the great ceremonies gives a further
suggestion that the dominant element in the Tinguian population has
been settled in Abra for no great period. The probable explanation for
this distribution is that the interior valleys were sparsely settled
with a population more akin to the Igorot than to the Tinguian,
prior to the inland movement of the latter people; that the Tinguian
were already possessed of the highly developed ceremonial life,
before they entered Abra, and that this has been spread slowly,
through intermarriage and migration, to the people on the outskirts
of their territory.

These ceremonies are still practised by some families now residing
in Christianized settlements in Abra and Ilocos Sur, while discreet
questioning soon brings out the fact that they were formerly present
in towns which have long been recognized as Ilocano. The relationship
of the Tinguian and Ilocano has already been shown by the physical
data and historical references; but were these lacking, it requires
but a little inquiry and the compilation of geneaological tables to
show that many Ilocano families are related to the Tinguian. It is
a matter of common observation that the chief barrier between the
two groups is religion, and, once let the pagan accept Christianity,
he and his family are quickly absorbed by the Ilocano.

Uninterrupted trade with the coast in recent years, Spanish and
American influence, have doubtless affected considerable changes in
the Tinguian. If, however, we subtract recent introductions, it is
probable that we have in the life of this tribe an approximate picture
of conditions among the more advanced of the northern Philippine
groups prior to the entry of the European into their islands.



NOTES

[1] The _Bontoc_ Igorot is taken as one of the least influenced and
most typical of the Igorot groups.

[2] On this point see _Cole_, The Distribution of the Non-Christian
Tribes of Northwestern Luzon (_American Anthropologist_, N.S., Vol. XI,
1909, pp. 329-347).

[3] These are Ballasio, Nagbuquel, Vandrell, Rizal, Mision, Mambog,
and Masingit. Kadangla-an, Pila, Kolongbuyan (Sapang) and Montero
are mixed Tinguian and Igorot.

[4] See _Cole_, The Tinguian (_Philippine Journal of Science_,
Vol. III, No. 4, Sect. A, 1908, pp. 197, _et seq_.).

[5] _Beyer_ (Population of the Philippine Islands in 1916, p. 74,
Manila, 1917) gives the population as 27,648.

[6] North of Abra it is known as the Cordillera Norte.

[7] This river traffic is entirely in the hands of the Christianized
Ilocano. Rafts seldom proceed up the river beyond Bangued, the capital,
and at low water even this distance is negotiated with difficulty.

[8] Historical references to this trade, as well as to the Spanish
invasion of Ilocos, will be found in _Reyes_, Historia de Ilocos,
Manila, 1890; _Fray Gaspar De S. Augustin_, Conquista de las Islas
Filipinas (Manila, 1698), p. 267; _Medina_, Historia, translated
in _Blair_ and _Robertson_, The Philippine Islands, Vol. XXIII,
pp. 279, _et seq_. See also translation of _Loarca_ and others in
same publication, Vol. III, p. 73, note; Vol. V, p. 109; Vol. XV,
p. 51; Vol. XVII, p. 285.

[9] _Loraca_, 1582, translated in _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit_.,
Vol. V, p. 105.

[10] _Laufer_, Relations of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands
(_Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 256, et seq.)

[11] _Cole_ and _Laufer_, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines (Field
Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII, No. 1).

[12] _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit_., Vol. XVII, p. 285; also III,
p. 73, note; V, p. 109; XV, p. 51.

[13] _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit_., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 287,
_et seq._

[14] _Colin_ (Labor Evangelica, Chap. IV, Madrid 1663), calls the
Manguian of Mindoro and the Zambal, Tingues. _Morga, Chirino_, and
_Ribera_ also use the same name for the natives of Basilan, Bohol,
and Mindanao  (see _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op cit_., Vols. IV,
p. 300; X, p. 71; XIII, pp. 137,205). Later writers have doubtless
drawn on these accounts to produce the weird descriptions sometimes
given of the Tinguian now under discussion. It is said (_op. cit_.,
Vol. XL, p. 97, note) that the radical _ngian_, in Pampanga, indicates
"ancient," a meaning formerly held in other Philippine languages,
and hence Tinguian would probably mean "old or ancient, or aboriginal
mountain dwellers."

[15] _Reyes_, Historia de Ilocos, p. 151 (Manila, 1890), also Filipinas
articulos varios, p. 345 (Manila, 1887); _Blair_ and _Robertson_,
_op. cit_., Vol. XIV, pp. 158-159; Vol. XXVIII, p. 167.

[16] _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit_., Vol. XXVIII, p. 158.

[17] _Antonio Mozo_, _Noticia_ historico-natural (Madrid, 1763),
in _Blair_ and _Robertson_, Vol. XLVIII, p. 69.

[18] These were: Tayum 1803; Pidigan 1823; La Paz and San Gregorio
1832; Bukay (Labon) 1847. For further details of this mission see
_Villacorta_, Breve resumen de los progresos de la Religion Catolica
en la admirable conversion de los indios Igorotes y Tinguianes
(Madrid, 1831).

[19] _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit_., Vol. XXXVIII, p. 199.

[20] Discussions concerning the Chinese origin of the Tinguian will
be found in _Mallat_, Les Philippines, Vol. I, pp. 212-213; Vol. II,
pp. 104-7, 345 (Paris, 1846); _Plauchet_, L'Archipel des Philippines
(_Revue des deux Mondes_, 1887, p. 442); _Buzeto y Bravo_, Diccionario
geografico estadistico historico; _Semper_, Die Philippinen und ihre
Bewohner (Wuerzburg, 1869); _Blumentritt_, Versuch einer Ethnographie
der Philippinen (_Peterman's Mittheilungen_, 1882, No. 67); _Reyes_,
Die Tinguianen (_Mittheilungen K. K. Geogr. Gesellschaft in Wien_,
1887, p. 5, _et seq._); _Reyes_, Filipinas articulos varios (Manila,
1887); _Sanchez y Ruiz_, Razas de Filipinas, usos y custombres, Memoria
Exposicion General, pp. 51, 60, 138 (Manila, 1887); _Montblanc_,
Les Isles Philippines, p. 22 (Paris, 1887); _Montero y Vidal_, El
Archipelago Filipino, p. 289 (Manila, 1886); _Bowring_, A Visit to
the Philippines, p. 171 (London, 1859); _Sawyer_, The Inhabitants of
the Philippines, p. 276 (London, 1900); _Zuniga_, Historia, pp. 19-38
(Sampaloc, 1803); _Colin_, Labor evangelica, Vol. I, chaps. 4, 12-14
(Madrid, 1663); _Blair_ and _Robertson_ (The Philippine Islands,
Vol. XL, pp. 316, _et seq._) give a translation of _San Antonio_
Chronicas, written in Manila between 1738-44, also of _Colin_, Labor
evangelica, of 1663;  _Brinton_, The Peoples of the Philippines
(_Am. Anthropologist_, Vol. XI, 1898, p. 302).

[21] _Paul De La Gironiere_, Vingt annees aux Philippines (Paris,
1853); _Stuntz_, The Philippines and the Far East, p. 36 (New York,
1904).

[22] Quoted by _Paterno_, La antigua civilizacion Tagalog, pp. 122-123
(Madrid, 1887).

[23] _Brinton_, The Peoples of the Philippines (_Am. Anthropologist_,
Vol. XI, 1892, p. 297). See also _De Quatrefages_, Histoire generale
des races humaines, pp. 515-517, 527-528.

[24] Census of the Philippine Islands of 1903, pp. 453-477.

[25] The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon (_Philippine Journal
of Science_, Vol. I, pp. 798, 851, Manila, 1906).

[26] _Blumentritt_ (Ethnographie der Philippinen, Introduction;
also _American Anthropologist_, Vol. XI, 1898, p. 296) has advanced
the theory of three Malay invasions into the Philippines. To the
first, which is put at about 200 B.C., belong the Igorot, Apayao, and
Tinguian, but the last are considered as of a later period. The second
invasion occurred about A.D. 100-500, and includes the Tagalog, Visaya,
Ilocano, and other alphabet-using peoples. The third is represented
by the Mohammedan groups which began to enter the Islands in the
fourteenth century.

[27] _Brinton_ (_Am. Anthropologist_, Vol. XI, 1898, p. 302)
states that the Ilocano of northwestern Luzon are markedly Chinese
in appearance and speech, but he fails to give either authorities or
examples to substantiate this claim. For Indian influence on Philippine
dialects, see _Pardo De Tavera_, El sanscrito e la lingua tagalog
(Paris, 1887); also _Williams_, Manual and Dictionary of Ilocano
(Manila, 1907).

[28] A detailed study of the language is not presented in this
volume. The author has a large collection of texts which will be
published at a later date, together with a study of the principal
Tinguian dialects. A short description of the Ilocano language,
by the writer, will be found in the New International Encyclopaedia.

[29] A more detailed study of these tribes will be given in a
forthcoming volume on Philippine Physical Types.

[30] Observations on 13 Ilocano skulls are tabulated by _Koeze_
(Crania Ethnica Philippinica, pp. 56-57, Haarlem, 1901-4).

[31] A short series of Igorot skull measurements is given by _Koeze_
(Crania Ethnica Philippinica, pp. 42-43, Haarlem, 1901-4).

[32] _Am. Anthropologist_, 1906, pp. 194-195.

[33] Notes sur les Chinois du Quang-si (_L'Anthropologie_, Vol. IX,
1898, pp. 144-170).

[34] The Races of Man, pp. 384, 577, _et seq_.(London, 1900).

[35] _Martin_, Inlandstaemme der Malayischen Halbinsel, pp. 237, 351,
358, 386 (Jena, 1905).

[36] For measurements on the Northern Chinese and the Formosa
Chinese see _Koganei_, Messungen an chinesischen Soldaten
(_Mitt. med. Fak. k. japan. Univ. Tokio_, 1903, Vol. VI, No. 2), und
Messungen an maennlichen Chinesen-Schaedeln (_Internat. Centralblatt
fuer Anthropologie_, 1902, pp. 129, _et seq_.).

[37] For other observations on Malaysia, in general, see _Annandale_
and _Robinson_ (_Jour. Anth. Inst.,_ Vol. XXXII, 1902); _Keane_,
Ethnology (Cambridge, 1907); _Duckworth_  (_Jour. Anth. Inst._,
Vol. XXXII); _Hose_ and _McDougall_ (The Pagan Tribes of Borneo,
Vol. II, pp. 311, _et seq._) give results by _Haddon_; _Hamy_
(_L'Anthropologie_, Vol. VII, Paris, 1896);  _Hagen_, Anthropologische
Studien aus Insulinde (Amsterdam, 1890); _Sullivan_, Racial Types in
the Philippine Islands  (_Anth. Papers, American Museum of Nat. Hist._,
Vol. XIII, pt. 1, New York, 1918).

[38] _Sullivan_ (_Anthropological Papers, American Museum
Nat. History_, Vol. XXIII, pt. 1, p. 42) gives a graphic correlation of
Stature, Cephalic and Nasal Indices, which shows a striking similarity
between the Tagalog and Pangasinan of the Philippines, and the Southern
Chinese. Had he made use of Jenks's measurements of the Bontoc Igorot,
that group would also have approached quite closely to those already
mentioned. The same method applied to the Ilocano and Tinguian shows
them to conform to this type.

[39] See Traditions of the Tinguian (this volume, No. 1).

[40] The eating of double bananas or vegetables is avoided, as it is
thought to result in the birth of twins. The birth of twin girls is
a particular misfortune; for their parents are certain to fare badly
in any trades or sales to which they may be parties.

[41] The importance of gratifying the longings of pregnant women
appears in the legends of the Malay Peninsula. See _Wilkinson_, Malay
Beliefs, p. 46 (London, 1906). _Hildebrandt_ states that the Indian
law books such as Yajnavalkya (III, 79) make it a duty to fulfill
the wishes of a woman at this time, since otherwise the embryo would
be exposed to injury. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. II,
p. 650.

[42] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, pp. 124, 185.

[43] See _op. cit_., p. 105.

[44] See _op. cit_., pp. 144, _et seq_.

[45] See _op. cit_., p. 18.

[46] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 180.

[47] To produce a miscarriage, a secret liquor is made from the bark
of a tree. After several drinks of the brew, the abdomen is kneaded
and pushed downward until the foetus is discharged. A canvass of forty
women past the child-bearing age showed an average, to each, of five
children, about 40 per cent of whom died in infancy. Apparently about
the same ratio of births is being maintained at present.

[48] The gifts vary according to the ceremony. For this event, the
offerings consist of a Chinese jar with earrings fastened into the
handles--"ears"--, a necklace of beads and a silver wire about its
neck; a wooden spoon, a weaving stick, and some bone beads.

[49] This is known as _palwig_.

[50] This action is called _tolgi_.

[51] In the San Juan district _Gipas_ is a separate two-day ceremony,
which takes place about nine months after the birth. In Baak a part
of the _Dawak_ ceremony goes by this name.

[52] This is known as _inalson_, and is "such a blanket as is always
possessed by a spirit." See p. 313.

[53] This is also the method of delivery among the Kayan of Borneo. See
_Hose_ and _McDougall_, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 154
(London, 1912), also _Cole_, The Wild Tribes of Davao District,
Mindanao   (Field Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII. No. 2,
p. 100). _Skeat_ (Malay Magic, p. 334, London, 1900) describes a
similar method among the Malay.

[54] Among the Bukidnon and Bila-an of Mindanao a bamboo blade is
always employed for this purpose. The same is true of the Kayan
of Borneo.   _Hose_ and _McDougall_, _op. cit._, Vol. II, p. 155;
_Cole_, _op. cit._, p. 143.

[55] Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 185. It is
also the belief of the Peninsular Malay that the incidental products
of a confinement may be endowed with life (_Wilkinson_, Malay Beliefs,
p. 30).

[56] The character e, which appears frequently in the native names,
is used to indicate a sound between the obscure vowel _e_, as in sun,
and the _ur_, in burrow.

[57] The number of days varies somewhat in different sections, and
is generally longer for the first child than for the succeeding.

[58] The custom of building a fire beside the mother is practised
among the Malay, Jakun and Mantri of the Peninsula. In India,
the practice of keeping a fire beside the newborn infant, in order
to protect it from evil beings, is widespread. See _Tawney_, Katha
Sarit Sagara, Vol. I, pp. 246, 305, note; Vol. II, p. 631 (Calcutta,
1880). According to _Skeat_ (Malay Magic, p. 343), the Malay keep the
fire burning forty-four days. The custom is called the "roasting of
the mother." The same custom is found in Cambodia (see Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics, Vol. III, pp. 32, 164, 347; Vol. VIII, p. 32).

[59] This may be related to the Malay custom of fumigating the infant
(see _Skeat_, _op. cit._, p. 338).

[60] The following names are typical of this last class.    For boys:
Ab'beng, a child's song; Agdalpen, name of a spirit; Baguio, a storm;
Bakileg, a glutton; Kabato, from _bato_, a stone; Tabau, this name is
a slur, yet is not uncommon; it signifies "a man who is a little crazy,
who is sexually impotent, and who will mind all the women say;" Otang,
the sprout of a vine; Zapalan, from _zapal_, the crotch of a tree.
For girls: Bangonan, from _bangon_, "to rise, to get up;" Igai, from
_nigai_, a fish; Giaben, a song; Magilai, from _gilai_ the identifying
slit made in an animal's ear; Sabak, a flower; Ugot, the new leaf.

[61] In Madagascar children are oftentimes called depreciative names,
such as Rat, with the hope that evil spirits will leave tranquil
an infant for which the parents have so little consideration
(_Grandidier_, Ethnologie de Madagascar, Vol. II).

[62] In Selangor, a sick infant is re-named (_Skeat_, _op. cit._,
p. 341).

[63] _Reyes_, Filipinas articulos varios, 1st ed., pp. 144-5 (Manila,
1887).

[64] The Malay of the Peninsula bathe both mother and child morning
and evening, in hot water to which certain leaves and blossoms are
added. It is here described as an act of purification (_Skeat_,
_op. cit._, pp. 334-5).

[65] Also called _salokang_ (cf. p. 310).

[66] Filipinas articulos varios, p. 144.

[67] _F. De Lerena_, _Ilustracion Filipina_, No. 22, p. 254 (Manila,
Nov. 15, 1860). An equally interesting account of Tinguian procedure
at the time of birth will be found in the account of _Polo De Lara_,
Islas Filipinas, tipos y costumbres, pp. 213, _et seq._

[68] In San Juan. Ibal is always held in six months, unless illness
has caused an earlier celebration. At this time the liver of a pig
is carefully examined, in order to learn of the child's future.

[69] In Likuan this takes place five days after the birth; in
Sallapadan it occurs on the first or second day.

[70] On the mat are placed, in addition to the medium's regular outfit,
a small jar of _basi_, five pieces of betel-nut and pepper-leaf,
two bundles of rice (_palay_) in a winnower, a head-axe, and a spear.

[71] This is a _dakidak_ (cf. p. 311).

[72] Such a taboo sign is here known as _kanyau_. It is not always
used at the conclusion of this ceremony, but is strictly observed
following the cutting of the first rice.

[73] That is, a premature child.

[74] Ashes are used against evil spirits by the Peninsular Malay
(_Skeat_, Malay Magic, p. 325).

[75] Sagai is the sound made when scratching away the embers of a fire.

[76] From _maysa_, one; _dua_, two; _talo_, three.

[77] This is also used as mockery. It has no exact English equivalent,
but is similar to our slang "rubber."

[78] In Patok only the agate bead (_napodau_) is used.

[79] The less pretentious gathering, held by the very poor, is known
as _polya_.

[80] _Worcester_, The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon
(_Philippine Jour. of Science_, Vol. I, No. 8, 1906, p. 858).

[81] It is necessary to use a shallow dish with a high pedestal known
as _dias_ (Fig. 5, No. 5).

[82] In Ba-ak the breaking and scattering of the rice ball is
considered a good omen, as it presages many children. In San Juan
the youth throws a rice ball at the ridge pole of the house, and the
girl's mother does the same.   In this instance, each grain of rice
which adheres to the pole represents a child to be born.

[83] The similarity of the Tinguian rice ceremony to that of many
other Philippine tribes is so great that it cannot be due to mere
chance. Customs of a like nature were observed by the writer among the
Bukidnon, Bagobo, Bila-an, Kulaman, and Mandaya of Mindanao, and the
Batak of Palawan; they are also described by _Reed_ and _Worcester_
for the Negrito of Zambales and Bataan; while _Loarca_, writing late
in the sixteenth century, records a very like ceremony practised by a
coast group, probably the Pintados. At the same time it is worthy of
note that _Jenks_ found among the Bontoc Igorot a great divergence both
in courtship and marriage. Among the Dusun of British North Borneo the
marriage of children of the well-to-do is consummated by the eating
of rice from the same plate. Other instances of eating together, as a
part of the marriage ceremony in Malaysia, are given by _Crawley_. See
_Cole_, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao (Field Museum of
Natural History. Vol. XII, No. 2, pp. 102, 144, 157, 192); _Reed_,
Negritos of Zambales (_Pub. Ethnological Survey,_ Vol. II, pt. 1, p. 58
(Manila, 1904)); _Worcester_, _Philippine Journal of Science_, Vol. I,
p. 811 (Manila, 1906); _Loarca_, Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas,
Chap. X (Arevalo, 1580), translated in _Blair_ and _Robertson_, The
Philippine Islands, Vol. V, pp. 157, _et seq_.; _Jenks_, The Bontoc
Igorot (_Pub. Ethnological Survey_, Vol. I, pp. 68, _et seq_.,
Manila, 1905); _Evans_, _Journ. Royal Anth. Inst_., Vol. XLVII,
p. 159; _Crawley_, The Mystic Rose (London, 1902), pp. 379, _et seq._

[84] In Manabo an old woman sleeps between them. Among the Bagobo and
Kulaman, of Mindanao, a child is placed between the pair. See _Cole_,
_op. cit_., pp. 102, 157.

[85] In Likuan they chew of the same betel-nut. Among the Batak of
Palawan they smoke of the same cigar.

[86] This part of the ceremony is now falling into disuse.

[87] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 12.

[88] Here again the Tinguian ceremony closely resembles the ancient
custom described by _Loarca_. In his account, the bride was carried
to the house of the groom. At the foot of the stairway she was given
a present to induce her to proceed; when she had mounted the steps,
she received another, as she looked in upon the guests, another. Before
she could be induced to set down, to eat and drink, she was likewise
given some prized object.   _Loarca_, Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas,
Chap. X; also _Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit._, Vol. V, p. 157.

[89] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 172. The
origin of death is also given in the tales, _ibid_., p. 177.

[90] The spirit of the dead is generally known as _kalading_, but in
Manabo it is called _kal-kolayo_ and in Likuan _alalya_; in Ilokano,
_al-alia_ means "phantom" or "ghost."

[91] In some villages Selday is the spirit against whom this precaution
is taken.

[92] In Daligan and some other villages in Ilocos Norte, a chicken
is killed, is burned in a fire, and then is fastened beside the door
in place of the live bird.

[93] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 181.

[94] During the funeral of Malakay, in Patok, August 16, 1907, the
wife kept wailing, "Malakay, Malakay, take me with you where you
go. Malakay, Malakay, take me with you. I have no brother. We were
together here, do not let us part. Malakay, take me with you where
you go."

[95] In Manabo the wife is covered at night with a white blanket, but
during the day she wears it bandoleer fashion over one shoulder. In
Ba-ak a white blanket with black border is used in a similar way. If
the wife has neglected her husband during his illness, his relatives
may demand that she be punished by having a second blanket placed
over her, unless she pays them a small amount. It sometimes occurs
that the Lakay or old men impose both fine and punishment. In Likuan
the blanket is placed over the corpse and the wife.

[96] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 180.

[97] This is still the case among the Apayao who live to the north
of the Tinguian (_Cole_, _Am. Anthropologist_, Vol. ii, No. 3, 1909,
p. 340). The custom is reflected in the folk-tales (Traditions of
the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 190; cf. also p. 372).

[98] The writer has known of instances, where towns were deserted
following an epidemic of smallpox, and the dead were left unburied in
the houses. Such instances are unusual even for this dread disease,
and the funeral observances usually expose large numbers of the people
to infection.

[99] In San Juan only thirty strokes are given.

[100] In Manabo a rectangular hole is dug to about five feet,
then at right angles to this a chamber is cut to receive the body.
This is cut off from the main grave by a stone. A similar type of
grave is found in Sumatra (_Marsden_, History of Sumatra, 3d ed.,
p. 287, London, 1811).

[101] According to this author, the Tinguian put the dried remains
of their dead in subterranean tombs or galleries, six or seven yards
in depth, the entrance being covered with a sort or trap door (_La
Gironiere_, Twenty Years in the Philippines, p. 115, London, 1853).

[102] _Op. cit.,_ p. 121.

[103] As distinguished from those of the dead.

[104] Several times the writer has seen friends place money inside
the mat, "so that the spirit may have something to spend."

[105] The large spirit house, built only by well-to-do families having
the hereditary right.

[106] In the folk tales a very different method of disposing of the
dead is indicated (Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1,
pp. 23-24, and note).

[107] Among the Tuaran Dusun of British North Borneo, a fire is built
near the mat on which the corpse lies, to protect the body from evil
spirits, who are feared as body snatchers (_Evans_, _Jour. Ant. Inst.,_
Vol. XLVII, 1917, p. 159).

[108] These consist of dishes, food, tobacco, fire-making outfit,
weapons, clothing, and the like.

[109] In Ilocos Sur a ceremony which lifts the ban off the relatives
is held about five days after the funeral. Three months later, the
blood and oil are applied to the spouse, who is then released from all
restrictions. In San Juan and Lakub, a ceremony known as _Kilyas_ is
held five days after the funeral. The anointing is done as described
above, and then the medium drops a ball of rice under the house,
saying, "Go away sickness and death, do not come to our relatives."
When she has finished, drums are brought out, all the relatives dance
and "forget the sorrow," and are then released from all taboos. The
Layog is celebrated as in the valley towns.

[110] Also known as _Waxi_ in San Juan, and _Bagongon_ in Sallapadin.
In the latter village, as well as in Manabo and Ba-ak, this ceremony
occurs a few days after the funeral.

[111] This is known as _Apapayag_ or _Inapapayag_ (p. 309).

[112] The foregoing ceremonies follow the death of any adult, male or
female, but not of newborn children. If the first-born dies in infancy,
it is buried in the middle of the night when no one can see the corpse,
otherwise other babies will die. The parents don old garments, and are
barred from leaving the town or engaging in pastimes, until the ten-day
period has passed. No fire is built at the grave, nor are offerings
placed over it. When some one else is holding a _Layog_, the parents
may join them "to relieve their sorrow and show respect for the dead."

[113] A folk-tale recorded in this town gives quite a different
idea of the abode of the spirits   (Traditions of the Tinguian,
this volume, No.   1, p.   185; also p. 28, note 2).

[114] Functions mentales dans les societes inferieures   (Paris,
1910).

[115] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No.  1, pp.
180-182

[116] For a full discussion of this subject, see _Cole_, Relations
between the Living and the Dead (_Am. Jour. of Sociology,_ Vol. XXI,
No. 5, 1916, pp. 610, et seq.).

[117] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 185.

[118] In Manabo it is said that there are five sons, who reside in
the spirit houses known as _tangpap, alalot,_ and _pungkew_.

[119] The people of Manabo say, he resides in the spirit-structures
known as _balaua, sogayab, batog,_and _balag_ (cf. pp. 308, _et seq.)_

[120] Among the Ifugao, Kabunian is the lowest of the three layers
which make up the heavens (_Beyer_, Origin Myths among the Mountain
Peoples of the Philippines, _Phil. Jour. of Science,_ Vol. viii,
No. 2, 1913, p. 99).

[121] Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 15.

[122] Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume. No. 1, p. 32.

[123] The medium is also sometimes called _manganito_.

[124] Similar mediums and possession were observed among the ancient
Visayans. See _Blair_ and _Robertson_, The Philippine Islands, Vol. V,
p. 133; _Perez_ writing concerning Zambales says of their mediums,
"He commences to shiver, his whole body trembling, and making many
faces by means of his eyes; he generally talks, sometimes between
his teeth, without any one understanding him. Sometimes he contents
himself with wry faces which he makes with his eyes and the trembling
of all his body. After a few moments he strikes himself on the knee,
and says he is the _anito_ to whom the sacrifice is being made." See
_Blair_ and _Robertson_, _op. cit.,_Vol. XLVII, p. 301.

[125] Among the ancient Tagalog, charms made of herbs, stones, and
wood, were used to infuse the heart with love (_Blair_ and _Robertson_,
The Philippine Islands, Vol VII, p. 194). Similar practices are
found in India, among the Selangor of the Malay Peninsula, among
the Bagobo of Mindanao and in Japan: see _Roy_, _Jour. Royal Anth,
Inst.,_Vol. XLIV, 1914, p. 337; _Skeat_ and _Blagden_, Pagan Races of
the Malay Peninsula, p. 312; _Benedict_, Bagobo Ceremonial, Magic and
Myth, p. 220 _(Annals N. Y. Academy of Sciences,_ Vol. XXV, 1916);
_Hildburgh_, _Man_, Nov. 1915, pp. 168, _et seq.; Trans. Japan Soc,_
Vol. VIII, pp. 132, _et seq._

[126] The _salaksak_ was also the omen bird of the Zambales (_Blair_
and _Robertson_, Philippine Islands, Vol. XLVII, p. 307).

[127] Predicting of the future through the flight of birds, or by
means of the entrails of slain animals, is widespread, not only in
the Philippines and Malaysia generally, but was equally important in
ancient Babylonia and Rome. The resemblances are so many that certain
writers, namely, _Hose_ and _McDougall_, _Kroeber_, and _Laufer_ are
inclined to credit them to common historical influences. See _Hose_
and _McDougall_, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 255 (London,
1912); _Kroeber_, Peoples of the Philippines (_American Museum of
Natural History,_ Handbook Series, No. 8, p. 192, New York, 1919);
_Laufer_, _Toung Pao, _1914, pp. 1-51.

[128] For the _diam_ recited at this time, see Traditions of the
Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 171.

[129] More frequently the medium uses a piece of lead or one of the
shells of her _piling_ for this purpose. In many villages the medium,
while calling the spirits, wears one head-band for each time the
family has made this ceremony.

[130] Had they not possessed a _balaua_, they would have made this
offering in the dwelling.

[131] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. I, pp. 178-179.

[132] The _sagang_ is the sharpened pole, which was passed through
the _foramen magnum_ of a captured skull.

[133] Female spirits, who always stay in one place.

[134] See Tradition of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 178.

[135] This _diam_ is sometimes repeated for the _saloko_ (see p. 319).

[136] Known as Palasod in Bakaok.

[137] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 175.

[138] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 174.

[139] _Op. cit._, p. 175.

[140] In Patok this offering is placed in a _saloko_, which is planted
close to the stream.

[141] Known in Ba-ak and Langiden as Daya, in Patok and vicinity as
Komon or Ubaiya.

[142] This part of the ceremony is often omitted in the valley towns.

[143] _Canarium villosum_ Bl. The resinous properties of this tree are
supposed to make bright or clear, to the spirits, that the ceremony has
been properly conducted. According to some informants, the _pala-an_
is intended as a stable for the horse of Idadaya when he attends the
ceremony, but this seems to be a recent explanation.

[144] This feeding of the spirits with blood and rice is known as
_pisek_, while the whole of the procedure about the mortar is called
_sangba_.

[145] This consists of two bundles of rice, a dish of broken rice,
a hundred fathoms of thread, one leg of the pig, and a small coin.

[146] Many spirits which appear here and in _Sayang_ are not mentioned
in the alphabetical list of spirits, as they play only a local or
minor role in the life of the people.

[147] The spirit who lives in the _sagang_, the sharpened bamboo
sticks on which the skulls of enemies were displayed.

[148] This is of particular interest, as the Tinguian are hostile
to the people of this region, and it is unlikely that either of the
mediums had ever seen a native of that region.

[149] The name by which the Tinguian designate their own people.

[150] The spirits' name for the Tinguian.

[151] The term Alzado is applied to the wilder head-hunting groups
north and east of Abra.

[152] When the _tangpap_ is built during the _Sayang_ ceremony,
it is a little house with two raised floors. On the lower are small
pottery jars, daubed with white, and filled with _basi_ (Plate XX).

[153] The _talagan_ (see p. 308).

[154] This being lives in Binogan. His brothers are Gilen, Ilongbosan,
Idodosan, Iyangayang, and Sagolo.

[155] The site of the old village of Bukay.

[156] In addition to the writer and his wife, Lieut. and
Mrs. H.B. Rowell were initiated at this time. The Lieutenant
had long been a friend and adviser of the tribe, and was held in
great esteem by them. The writer's full name was Agonan Dumalawi,
Mrs. Cole's--Ginobayan Gimpayan, Lieut. Rowell's--Andonan Dogyawi,
and Mrs. Rowell's--Gayankayan Gidonan.

[157] This raft is the _Taltalabong_, and is intended for the sons
and servants of Kadaklan.

[158] It is customary to place a jar of _basi_ under or near the house,
so that Kadaklan may drink, before he reaches the function. This
offering had been neglected, hence his complaint.

[159] This is the case if a person is just acquiring the right to
the ceremony. If the family is already privileged to give this rite,
it will occur in about three years, and _Sayang_ will follow some
four years later.

[160] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 171.

[161] See _ibid._, p. 24.

[162] In Patok, _diwas_ is sung as a part of _da-eng_ on the night
of _Libon_.

[163] This is the same form as the "shield," which hangs above the
newborn infant (p. 312).

[164] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 177.

[165] On two occasions an old bedstead of Spanish type served instead
of the frame.

[166] See p. 315. In some towns the spirits are summoned at different
times during the ceremony, as in _Tangpap_.

[167] See under Idasan, p. 309.

[168] Each with its dormitory for bachelors, and usually for unmarried
girls. See _Jenks_, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 49 (Manila, 1905).

[169] _Combes_, Historia de las islas de Mindanao (Madrid, 1667),
translated by _Blair_ and _Robertson_, Vol. XL, p. 160; Vol. XLVII,
p. 300. _Ling Roth_, Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo,
Vol. II, p. 270, _et seq._(London, 1896).

[170] For description of these villages, see _Cole_, Distribution of
the Non-Christian Tribes of Northwestern Luzon (_Am. Anthropologist_,
Vol. XI, p. 329).

[171] See _Jenks_, The Bontoc Igorot (Manila, 1906).

[172] Twenty years in the Philippines, p. 109 (London, 1853).

[173] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 8.

[174] See _Cole_ and _Laufer_, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines
(Field Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII, No. 1).

[175] Despite frequent assertions to the contrary, the fire syringe
is not used by the Tinguian. It is found among the Tiagan Igorot,
the similarity of whose name has doubtless given rise to the error.

[176] Head-hunting is widespread in this part of the world. It
is found in Assam, in the Solomon Islands, in Borneo, Formosa,
and, it is said, was formerly practiced in Japan. See _Hodson_
(_Folklore,_ June, 1909, p. 109); _Rivers_, History of Melanesian
Society, Vol. II, p. 259 (Cambridge, 1914); _Hose_ and _McDougall_,
Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vols. I-II (London, 1912); _Shinji Ishii_
(_Transactions Japan Soc. of London,_ Vol. XIV, pp. 7, _et seq.)._

[177] See _Worcester_, The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon
(_Philippine Journal of Science,_ Vol. I, p. 824, Manila, 1906).

[178] See _Blair_ and _Robertson_, The Philippine Islands, Vols. V,
p. 137; XXI, p. 140; XXXIV, p. 377; XL, pp. 80-81; XLVII, p. 313;
XLVIII, p. 57.   _Cole_, Distribution of the Non-Christian Tribes
of Northwestern Luzon  _(Am. Anth_., N. S., Vol. XI, 1909, p. 340);
_Cole_, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao (pub. Field Museum
of Natural History, Vol. XII No. 2, p. 114, _et seq._).

[179] These are called _soga_. Their use is widespread in the
Philippines, in Malaysia generally, and even extends into upper
Burma. See _Shakespear_, History of Upper Assam, Upper Burmah and
Northeastern Frontier, pp. 186, _et seq._(London, 1914). _Marsden_,
Hist. of Sumatra, p. 310 (London, 1811).

[180] See _Cole_, Wild Tribes of Davao District (Field Museum of
Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, No. 2, p. 94).

[181] This description is partially taken from the account of  _Paul
P. de La Gironiere_, probably the one white man, who has witnessed
this rite (see Twenty Years in the Philippines, p. 108, London, 1853),
and from the stories of many old men, who themselves have participated
in the head-hunts and subsequent celebrations.

[182] See _Cole_, Distribution of the Non-Christian Tribes of
Northwestern Luzon (_Am. Anthropologist_, N. S., Vol. XI, No. 3,
1909, p. 340).

[183] Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 22.

[184] _Jenks_, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 123 (Manila, 1905); _Kroeber_,
The Peoples of the Philippines (Am. Museum Nat. Hist., Handbook Series,
No. 3, p. 165, New York, 1919).

[185] _Egerton_, Handbook of Indian Arms (Wm. Allen and Co., London,
1880), p. 84; _Shakespear_, History of Upper Assam, Burma and
Northeastern Frontier (MacMillan, London, 1914), p. 197, illustration.

[186] This type of snare is used by nearly all Philippine tribes,
and it is also widespread in Malaysia.

[187] The mountain rice is known as _langpadan_, the lowland rice as
pagey (Ilocano _palay_).

[188] This is similar to the method followed in Sumatra. See _Marsden_,
History of Sumatra, 3d ed., pp. 71-72 (London, 1811).

[189] A similar device is employed in Java. See _Freeman_ and
_Chandler_, The World's Commercial Products, p. 36 (Boston, 1911).

[190] The latter is the customary method among the Bontoc Igorot. See
_Jenks_, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 94.

[191] _Raffles_, History of Java, 2d ed., Vol. I, p. 125, also plate
VIII (London, 1820); _Marsden_, _op. cit_., p. 74;   _Freeman_ and
_Chandler_, _op. cit_., p. 29. Both Raffles and Marsden consider
this type of plow of Chinese origin.   The Tinguian name _alado_
is doubtless a corruption of the Spanish _arado_, but this of course
would not prove that the plow itself was derived from the Spaniards.

[192] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, pp. 195,
_et seq_.

[193] _Munia jagori_ (martens). Locally known as _tikgi_.

[194] Probably the _ophiocephalus_. See _Dean_, _American Museum
Journal_, Vol. XII, 1912, p. 22.

[195] This is the only occasion when men use the bow and arrow.

[196] The neighboring Igorot do not use a cutter, but break the stalks
with the fingers; however, the same instrument is used by the Apayao,
in parts of Mindanao, in Java and Sumatra. See _Marsden_, History of
Sumatra, p. 73; _Raffles_, History of Java, pp. 125-6, also Plate 8;
_Mayer_, Een Blik in het Javaansche Volksleven, Vol. II, p. 452,
(Leiden, 1897); _Van der Lith_, Nederlandsch Oost Indie, Vol. II,
p. 353, (Leiden, 1894).

[197] Rice in the bundle is known as _palay_ or _pagey_.

[198] The Igorot woman pulls the grain from the straw with her hands.

[199] Ilocano _sanga-reppet_ or the Spanish _monojo_.

[200] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 177.

[201] History of Sumatra, pp. 65, _et seq_.

[202] _Hose_ and _McDougall_ (Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II,
pp. 246-7) consider the terraced rice culture of the Murut, of northern
Borneo, a recent acquisition either from the Philippines or from Annam.

[203] _Lavezaris_, writing in 1569-76, states that the natives, of no
specified district, "have great quantities of provisions which they
gathered from irrigated fields" (_Blair_ and _Robertson_, Philippine
Islands, Vol. III, p. 269). In Vol. VIII, pp. 250-251, of the same
publication, is a record of the expedition to Tue, in the mountains
at the southern end of Nueva Viscaya. According to this account, the
natives of that section were, in 1592, gathering two crops of rice,
"one being irrigated, the other allowed to grow by itself."

[204] For the history and extent of terraced field rice-culture,
see _Freeman_ and _Chandler_, The World's Commercial Products
(Boston, 1911); _Ratzel_, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 426, _et
seq_. (London, 1896); _Ferrars_, Burma, pp. 48, _et seq_. (London,
1901); _Bezemer_, Door Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, p. 232 (Groningen,
1906); _Hose_ and _McDougall_, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 246;
_Perry_, _Manchester Memoirs_, Vol. LX, pt. 2, 1915-16; _Wallace_, The
Malay Archipelago, pp. 117, 126 (London, 1894); _Cabaton_, Java and the
Dutch East Indies, p. 213, note (London, 1911); _Meyier_, Irrigation
in Java, _Transactions of the American Soc. of Civil Engineers,_
Vol. LIV, pt. 6 (New York, 1908); _Bernard_, Amenagement des eaux a
Java, irrigation des rizieres (Paris 1903); _Crawfurd_, History of
the Indian Archipelago, Vol. 1, pp. 358, _et seq_. (Edinburgh, 1820).

[205] _Campbell_, Java Past and Present, Vol. II, p. 977 (London,
1915).

[206] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 177.

[207] Also known as Singa and Baubauwi. In Likuan it is held only
in case the crops are not growing as they should; but in Sisikan,
Patikian, and other towns of the Saltan River valley it is celebrated
both before the planting and after the harvesting.

[208] A slender cane similar to bamboo, but nearly white in color.

[209] _runo_, a reed.

[210] _Justicia gendarussa_ L.

[211] Also called _salokang_. See p. 310.

[212] The same ceremony may be held in order to stop the rainfall if
it is too abundant.

[213] At this time the spirits enter the bodies of the mediums and
through them talk with the people.

[214] _Lygodium_ near _scandens_.

[215] In Manabo leaves and grass dipped in the blood are attached
to split sticks, (_sinobung_), and are fastened to a side wall of
the house.

[216] Lightning is recognized as the messenger of Kadaklan.

[217] The Igorot villages of Lukuban and vicinity have a similar
ceremony.   It is here followed by a three-day period of taboo.
Should the bird known as _koling_ fly over the town during this period,
uttering its peculiar cry, the ceremony will be repeated; otherwise,
all is well.

[218] Literally, "to give a taste."

[219] Those used are _sikag_ (_Lygodium_ near _scandens_),
_talabibatab_ (_Capparis micracantha_ D.C.) and _pedped_ (?).

[220] Most of the identifications here given were made by Dr. Elmer
D. Merrill, botanist of the Philippine Bureau of Science, from
specimens collected by the writer.

[221] Known generally throughout the Philippines as _gabi_.

[222] The three common varieties of squash are _kalabasa_ (_Benincasa
certifera_), _tabongau_ and _tankoy_ (_Curcubita sp_.).

[223] In the vicinity of Bakaok a small amount of _maguey_ (_Agave
cantula_ Roxb.) is raised. It is employed in the making of cords.

[224] A less esteemed species is known as _lalawed ta aso_ ("dog
lawed").

[225] See Traditions of the Tinguian, this volume, No. 1, p. 100.

[226] A similar drink was used ceremonially in Pangasinan in 1640. See
_Aduarte_, Historia; _Blair_ and _Robertson_, Vol. XXX, p. 186. It
is still found in many portions of the archipelago.

[227] _Cole_, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao (Field
Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII, No. 2, pp. 82-83); _Hose_
and _McDougall_, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. I, pp. 194-195
(MacMillan and Co., London, 1912); _Raffles_, History of Java, Vol. I,
pp. 192-193; _Marsden_, History of Sumatra, 3rd edition (London, 1811),
p. 181; _Ferrais_, Burma, p. 105 (Low, Marston and Co., London, 1901);
_Peal_ (_Journ. Anth. Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland,_ Vol. XXII,
p. 250, also Plate XIV, fig. No. 2).

[228] _Rockhill_, _T'oung Pao_, Vol. XVI, 1915, pp. 268-269; _Blair_
and _Robertson_, _op. cit._, Vols. II, p. 116; III, p. 209; IV,
p. 74; XXIX, p. 307; XL, p. 48, note; Philippine Census, Vol. I,
p. 482 (Washington, 1905). _De Morga_, Sucesos de las Islas Philipinas
(1609), see Hakluyt Soc. edition, pp. 338, _et seq._ (London, 1868).

[229] Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo (Constable, London,
1904), pp. 282-283. See also _Low_, Sarawak--Its Inhabitants and
Productions, pp. 158, 209 (London, 1848).

[230] _Op. cit._, Vol. I, pp. 193-194.

[231] _Ratzel_, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 434; _Marsden_,
_op. cit._, pp. 173, 181, 347 note.

[232] Fifth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine
Islands, p. 31; Official Catalogue of the Philippine Exhibit, Universal
Exposition, p. 231 (St. Louis, 1904).

[233] _Blair_ and _Robertson_, The Philippine Islands, Vol. II,
pp. 116, 207; Vol. III, pp. 203, 270; Vol. IV, p. 98; Vol. V, p. 145;
Vol. VIII, p. 84; Vol. XII, p. 187; Vol. XVI, p. 106. _Zuniga_,
Estadismo (Retana's edition), Vol. II, pp. 41, 94.

[234] _Foreman_, The Philippine Islands, p. 361 (London, 1892);
_Bezemer_, Door Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, p. 308 (Groningen, 1906);
_Skeat_, _Man_, Vol. I. 1901, p. 178; _Raffles_, History of Java,
2d ed., Vol. I p. 186 (London, 1830); _Brendon_ _(Journal of Indian
Art and Industry,_ Vol. X, No. 82, pp. 17, _et seq._).

[235] Weaving in cotton is a recent introduction among the neighboring
Bontoc Igorot. Formerly their garments were made of flayed bark,
or were woven from local fiber plants. The threads from the latter
were spun or twisted on the naked thigh under the palm of the
hand. Cf. _Jenks_, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 113 (Manila, 1905).

[236] A similar device is used in Burma.

[237] The same type of wheel is found in Java. See _Mayer_, Een Blik
in het Javaansche Volksleven, Vol. II, p. 469 (Leiden, 1897).

[238] A similar warp winder is described for Bombay (_Brendon_,
_Journal of Indian Art and Industry_, Vol. X, No. 82, 1903, pp. 17,
_et seq_.).

[239] For the distribution of this semi-girdle or back strap, see _Ling
Roth_, Studies in Primitive Looms (_Journal Royal Anthrop. Inst_.,
Vol. XLVI, 1916, pp. 294, 299).

[240] These are: _alinau_ (_Grewia multiflora_ Juss.); _babaket_
(_Helicteres hirsuta_ Lour.); _laynai_--a large tree, unidentified;
_lapnek_ (_Abroma_ sp.) _ka'a-ka'ag_, an unidentified shrub; _losoban_
(_grewia_); _pakak_, unidentified; _anabo_ (_Hibiscus pungens_ Roxb.);
_bangal_ (_Sterculia foctida_ L.); _saloyot_ (_Corchoeus olitorius_
L.) _labtang_ (_Anamirta cocculus_); _atis_ (_Anona squamosa_ L.);
_alagak_ (_anona_); _maling-kapas_ (_Ceiba pentandra_ Gaertn.);
_betning_ and _daldalopang_, unidentified; _maguey_ (_Agave cantula_
Roxb.); _bayog_--a variety of bamboo.

[241] It is not essential that the oil be applied, and oftentimes
whole sections are colored before being split.

[242] From _kawat_, the twisting of vines about a tree.

[243] This is the Arnatto dye, an American plant. _Watt_, Dictionary,
Vol. I, p. 454.

[244] This tattooing is accomplished by mixing oil and the black
soot from the bottom of a cooking pot, or the pulverized ashes of
blue cloth. The paste is spread over the place to be treated, and
is driven in with an instrument consisting of three or four needles
set in a piece of bamboo. Sometimes the piercing of the skin is done
before the color is applied; the latter is then rubbed in.

[245] Blackening of the teeth was practised by the Zambal, also in
Sumatra and Japan. _Blair_ and _Robertson_, Vol. XVI, p. 78; _Marsden_,
History of Sumatra, P. 53.

[246] See pp. 445, 456 for words and music.

[247] Shallow copper gongs.

[248] Reyes says that this song, _daleng_, is similar to the _dallot_
of the Ilocano (Articulos varios, p. 32).

[249] Similar instruments are used by the Igorot who suspend them
free and beat them as they dance.

[250] The first line is sung by the girls, the second by the boys. For
the music see p. 445.

[251] The first line is sung by the girls, the second by the boys.

[252] I use the word "modern" in this connection, as it pertains to
the music of those peoples who have developed music as an art, and
among whom we find conformity to the same rules and system of notation.

[253] By reference to the analysis of Record I, _Da-eng_ (Boys and
girls alternating), it will be seen that the record seems to have
been made by one set of singers, apparently women and girls, who
sang together on both parts. The entire record has therefore been
tabulated with the women's songs.

[254] Record F, Song of a Spirit, shows both major and minor tonality
(for explanation see analysis of this song, p. 466).

[255] Record J, _Da-eng_ (Girls' part), shows this mark in the "Scale"
given below the transcription (for explanation see analysis of this
song, p. 471).

[256] I find groups of five used occasionally in the singing of our
American Indians. _Burton_ ("Primitive American Music") shows its
frequent use among the Chippeway. Miss _Fletcher_ also shows groups in
five in her "Omaha Music," and Miss _Densmore_ gives similar grouping
in her transcriptions of American Indian songs.

[257] _Grove_, Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. IV.

[258] _Rowbotham_, History of Music.






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