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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2004 [EBook #13600]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Robinson Curriculum, Don Kretz, and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+  FIRST    edition, published in three volumes,       1768-1771.
+  SECOND   edition, published in ten volumes,         1777-1784.
+  THIRD    edition, published in eighteen volumes,    1788-1797.
+  FOURTH   edition, published in twenty volumes,      1801-1810.
+  FIFTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1815-1817.
+  SIXTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1823-1824.
+  SEVENTH  edition, published in twenty-one volumes,  1830-1842.
+  EIGHTH   edition, published in twenty-two volumes,  1853-1860.
+  NINTH    edition, published in twenty-five volumes, 1875-1889.
+  TENTH    edition, ninth edition and eleven
+  supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
+  ELEVENTH edition, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
+
+
+THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+
+ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+VOLUME II
+
+ANDROS to AUSTRIA
+
+[E-Text Edition of Volume II - Part 01 of 16 - ANDROS to ANISE]
+
+
+
+
+INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH
+THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
+
+[Note: Listing adjusted to E-Text Edition of Volume II, Part 01. The
+full list of contributors appear in the complete E-text Edition of
+Volume II. A complete list of all contributors to the encyclopaedia,
+appears in the final volume.]
+
+
+A.B.R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R S F.L.S. D.Sc. Keeper of the
+Department of Botany, British Museum.
+
+- ANGIOSPERMS
+
+
+C.Pl. - REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. Fellow of Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of _Life and Times of Alfred the
+Great_; &c.
+
+- ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE
+
+
+E.O. - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. Consulting Surgeon
+to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
+Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities
+of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
+Senior Students_.
+
+- ANEURYSM
+
+
+H.M.C. - HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare
+College, Cambridge. Author of _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.
+
+- ANGLI; ANGLO-SAXONS
+
+
+H.Sm. - HUGH SHERINGHAM. Angling Editor of _The Field_ (London).
+
+- ANGLING
+
+
+I.B.B. - ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, F.R.S., M.D. King's Botanist in
+Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Professor
+of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of Botany
+in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Sherardian Professor of
+Botany in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.
+
+- ANGIOSPERMS (_in part_).
+
+
+J.G.C.A. - JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor
+of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. Formerly Fellow of
+Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of _Studica Pontica_.
+
+- ANGORA
+
+
+L.J.S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Department of Mineralogy,
+British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
+and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
+
+- ANHYDRITE
+
+
+L.M.Br. - LOUIS MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. Fielden Professor of French and
+of Romance Philology in the University of London.
+
+- ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE
+
+
+N.W.T. - NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist
+to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe
+d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought Transference_; _Kinship
+and Marriage in Australia_; &c.
+
+- ANIMAL-WORSHIP, ANIMISM
+
+
+P.C.M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
+Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University
+Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor
+at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital,
+1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal
+College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to
+the University of London, 1903.
+
+- ANIMAL
+
+
+P.C.Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+- ANGLESEY, 1st EARL OF
+
+
+P.Vi. - PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and
+Harvard). Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of
+Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Honorary Professor of History
+in the University of Moscow. Author of _Villainage in England_;
+_English Society in the 11th Century_; &c.
+
+- ANGLO-SAXON LAW
+
+
+T.Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
+
+Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme
+Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
+Author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; &c. M.P.
+for Blackburn, 1910.
+
+- ANGARY
+
+
+W.H.Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
+Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
+London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
+in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
+Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.
+
+- ANGEL
+
+
+W.H.Di. - WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S.
+
+- ANEMOMETER
+
+
+W.M.R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article:
+ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
+
+- ANGELICO, FRA
+
+
+PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
+
+  Anglican Communion.
+  Angola.
+
+
+  [Note regarding E-text edition:
+  Volume and page numbers have been incorporated into the text
+  at the first paragraph break of each page as: v.02 p.0001 ]
+
+
+
+THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+VOLUME II, PART I
+
+
+[v.02 p.0001]
+
+ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America,
+was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros,
+an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of
+Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of
+Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of
+Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then
+served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in
+what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
+bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York
+(later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his
+jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in
+1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in
+the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable
+administrator, whose imperious disposition, however, rendered him
+somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in
+1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his
+capital, of the "Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts
+(including Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
+Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended
+over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with
+colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the
+18th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince
+of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and
+arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon
+afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (q.v.); and the inter-colonial
+union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but
+was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698
+he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of
+Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
+he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor
+of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at
+St. Anne's, Soho.
+
+See _The Andros Tracts_ (3 vols., Boston, 1869-1872).
+
+
+
+ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most
+northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N.
+of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is
+nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 m. Its surface is
+for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered
+valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000
+inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the
+west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus.
+The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.
+
+The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps
+with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on
+Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous
+to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus,
+Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was
+subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian
+League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be
+coerced by the settlement of a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its
+freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the
+second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
+archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a
+frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedonia and
+Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308
+it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed
+again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it
+was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and
+remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that
+kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
+A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under
+Venetian protection.
+
+
+
+ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
+politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a contemporary
+of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of
+Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing
+the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the
+expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important
+posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary
+commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes
+and Aristotle (_Rhet._ iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as an
+orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have
+composed an _Atthis_, or annalistic account of Attica from the
+earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed
+whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion
+who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor
+Gaetano de Sanctis (in _L'Attide di Androzione e un papiro
+di Oxyrhynchos_, Turin, 1908) attributes to Androtion, the
+atthidographer, a 4th-century historical fragment, discovered by
+B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v.). Strong
+arguments against this view are set forth by E.M. Walker in the
+_Classical Review_, May 1908.
+
+[v.02 p.0002]
+
+
+
+ANDUJAR (the anc. _Slilurgi_), a town of southern Spain, in the
+province of Jaen; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir and the
+Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Andujar is widely known
+for its porous earthenware jars, called _alcarrazas_, which keep water
+cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish clay
+found in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+ANECDOTE (from [Greek: an]-, privative, and [Greek: ekdidomi], to give
+out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It
+has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not
+published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret
+histories--Procopius, _e.g._, gives this as one of the titles of his
+secret history of Justinian's court--or portions of ancient writers
+which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first
+time. Of such _anecdota_ there are many collections; the earliest was
+probably L.A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular
+acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of
+detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections
+are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by
+T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the
+_Percy Anecdotes_ (1820-1823).
+
+
+
+ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse
+about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as
+surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at
+Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he
+was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he
+was practising in Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his
+successful surgical treatment of _fistula lacrymalis_, and while
+at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the
+fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.
+
+
+
+ANEMOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind, and [Greek: metron],
+a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
+pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1)
+those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure
+of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the
+pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will
+give information about both these quantities.
+
+Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1)
+those which do not require a wind vane or weathercock, (2) those
+which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. Thomas Romney
+Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally
+used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists
+of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of
+horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a
+cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the
+centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of
+turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any
+given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated.
+The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is
+easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented
+to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also
+faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence
+a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round
+providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer
+are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand
+it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual
+velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but
+violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first
+designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the
+cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third
+of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by
+some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for
+it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly
+called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very
+largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost
+any value between two and a little over three. The result has been
+that wind velocities published in many official publications have
+often been in error by nearly 50%.
+
+The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging
+to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation
+is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must
+be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal.
+Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
+follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil
+the same purpose must be employed. This type of instrument is very
+little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In
+cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as
+in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these
+anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give
+most satisfactory results.
+
+Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate
+and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a
+good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists
+of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind
+vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the
+wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring
+determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate,
+and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in
+the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved
+by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long
+series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding
+60 lb per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values
+are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the
+anemometer.
+
+The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while
+the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the
+force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for
+following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make
+matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often
+connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A
+violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by
+its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the
+same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen
+it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion,
+and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its
+position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act
+the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be
+indicated on the chart.
+
+A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
+designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate
+being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by
+hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back
+farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples
+of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the
+winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has
+not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lb are extremely
+rare.
+
+Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a
+sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing
+to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small
+light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing
+cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over
+a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has
+given satisfactory results.
+
+Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid
+with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is
+perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument
+has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an
+increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in
+all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication.
+If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it
+causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical
+use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on
+the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis,
+the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great
+variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1)
+utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube
+facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the
+wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of
+a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure
+differences on which the action depends are very small, and special
+means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of
+recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane
+which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of
+registration.
+
+[v.02 p.0003]
+
+The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the
+exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling
+or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any
+convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two
+connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
+though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on
+which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of
+the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be
+considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
+effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the
+air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are
+carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an
+effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the
+opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
+entirely alter the registration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 & FIG. 2 Anemometers.]
+
+The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is
+one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on
+engineering give the relation P=.005 _v_^2 when P is the pressure in
+lb per sq. ft. and _v_ the velocity in miles per hour. The history
+of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the
+18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating
+that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the
+qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received
+general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions
+of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by .003, for many
+independent authorities using different methods have found values very
+close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure
+is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed.
+Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter
+of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and
+for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the
+relation P=.003 _v_^2 is fairly correct.
+
+In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
+measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale.
+In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a
+high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an
+allowance must be made. Approximately 1-1/2% should be added to the
+velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it
+stands above sea-level.
+
+(W.H. Di.)
+
+
+
+ANEMONE, or WIND-FLOWER (from the Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind), a
+genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
+species in the north and south temperate zones. _Anemone nemorosa_,
+wood anemone, and _A. Pulsatilla_, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain;
+the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone pastures in some of
+the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs
+with an underground rootstock, and radical, more or less deeply cut,
+leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white,
+red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three
+leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles
+which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the species are
+favourite garden plants; among the best known is _Anemone coronaria_,
+often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with
+parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on
+stalks of from 6 to 9-in. high; the flowers are of various colours,
+but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There
+are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the
+centre are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden
+favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They
+grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which
+should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October,
+and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected
+by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in
+May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into
+a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the
+seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a
+flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of
+handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as
+the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively
+spring-blooming plants, of which _A. hortensis_ and _A. fulgens_ have
+less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers;
+they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by _A.
+Pulsatilla_, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer
+surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid _A.
+japonica_, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the
+latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy
+perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2-1/2 to 3 ft.
+in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
+species, represented by the native British _A. nemorosa_ and _A.
+apennina_, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for
+planting in woods and shady places.
+
+The genus _Hepatica_ is now generally included in anemone as a
+subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are
+varieties of the common South European _A. Hepatica_; they are
+charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.
+
+
+
+ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century
+he is treated in the catalogues as two persons--Anacletus and Cletus.
+According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve
+years (c. 77-88).
+
+
+
+ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman
+masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about
+1560, studied under G.M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as
+composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are
+printed in Proske's _Musica Divina_ and other modern anthologies, and
+it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy
+of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as
+1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems
+to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his
+numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if
+we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement,
+which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference,
+that "he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its
+subdivisions" is incomprehensible. Quavers were common property in
+all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers
+appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers
+are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
+as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation to
+indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt
+from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of
+preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism.
+They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and
+hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their
+own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The
+12-part _Stabat Mater_ in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete
+works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.
+
+[v.02 p.0004]
+
+
+ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir,
+situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by
+rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent
+castle, built in the middle of the 16th century by Henry II. for Diana
+of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated
+the armies of the League in 1590.
+
+
+
+ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh)
+bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor
+and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem _Gododin_, for a
+son of Gildas, the historian. _Gododin_ is an account of the British
+defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with
+Dawstane in Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken
+prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted.
+It was translated and edited by W.F. Skene in his _Four Ancient
+Books of Wales_ (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the
+Cymmrodorion Society in 1888. See CELT: _Literature_ (Welsh).
+
+
+
+ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. [Greek: aneurisma], a dilatation), a
+cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of an artery and
+contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the
+dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation
+of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or
+injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflammation of the inner coats
+of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass in the hand is apt to
+cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial)
+and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually
+followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound
+in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape in
+to the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to
+condense and form the sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased,
+may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed
+tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.
+
+The division, of aneurysms into two classes, _true_ and _false_, is
+unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not
+an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better
+classification is into _spontaneous_ and _traumatic_. The man who has
+chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of
+gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-disease, and whose artery
+yields under cardiac pressure, has a _spontaneous_ aneurysm; the
+barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier
+whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet
+or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by
+a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of _traumatic_ aneurysm.
+In those aneurysms which are a _saccular_ bulging on one side of the
+artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit
+layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This
+laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the
+aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation in the sac then ceases;
+contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and
+the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are _fusiform_
+dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for
+the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
+laminated fibrine.
+
+In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood
+pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely
+effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted
+to more promptly and securely than was previously the case.
+Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment
+by compression, or the application of an india rubber bandage, the
+surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and
+applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience
+has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has
+none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it.
+Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or
+other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by
+dissecting out the aneurysm. Popliteal, carotid and other aneurysms,
+which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this
+plan, which is the old "Method of Antyllus" with modern aseptic
+conditions. Speaking generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with
+surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic
+measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and
+disappointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be
+dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a
+pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so
+that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase
+the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac.
+
+(E.O.)
+
+
+
+ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. _anfractuosus_, winding), twisting and
+turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to
+denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea,
+mountains, or the fissures (_sulci_) separating the convolutions of
+the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.
+
+
+
+ANGARIA (from [Greek: aggaros], the Greek form of a Babylonian word
+adopted in Persian for "mounted courier"), a sort of postal system
+adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians,
+among whom, according to Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 6; cf. Herodotus
+viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback
+were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for
+the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers.
+In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a
+compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption.
+The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport
+vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which
+they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So
+_angaria_, _angariare_, in medieval Latin, and the rare English
+derivatives "angariate," "angariation," came to mean any service which
+was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.
+
+
+
+ANGARY (Lat. _jus angariae_; Fr. _droit d'angarie_; Ger. _Angarie_;
+from the Gr. [Greek: aggareia], the office of an [Greek: aggaros],
+courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
+seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from
+doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including
+that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art.
+53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land,
+annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides
+that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other
+ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though
+belonging to companies or private persons, _may be used_ for military
+operations, but "must be restored at the conclusion of peace _and_
+indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that "the plant of
+railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those
+states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them
+as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of
+angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both
+belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however,
+that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the
+"necessity of war" can be made to cover.
+
+(T. BA.)
+
+
+
+ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in
+monotheistic religions, _e.g._. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in
+allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of
+superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a sharp
+distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand,
+and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the
+"angels."
+
+"Angel" is a transcription of the Gr. [Greek: angelos], messenger.
+[Greek: angelos] in the New Testament, and the corresponding _mal'akh_
+in the Old Testament, sometimes mean "messenger," and sometimes
+"angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English
+Versions. "Angel" is also used in the English Version for [Hebrew:]
+_'Abbir_, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for [Hebrew:]
+_'Elohim_, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure [Hebrew:] _shin'an_,
+in Ps. lxviii. 17.
+
+[v.02 p.0005]
+
+In the later development of the religion of Israel, _'Elohim_ is
+almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times
+_'Elohim_ (gods), _bn[=e] 'Elohim, bn[=e] Elim_ (sons of gods,
+_i.e._ members of the class of divine beings) were general terms
+for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of
+superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior,
+and ultimately subordinate.[1] So, too, the angels are styled "holy
+ones,"[2] and "watchers,"[3] and are spoken of as the "host of
+heaven"[4] or of "Yahweh."[5] The "hosts," [Hebrew:] _Sebaoth_ in
+the title _Yahweh Sebaoth_, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time
+identified with the angels.[6] The New Testament often speaks of
+"spirits," [Greek: pneumata].[7] In the earlier periods of the
+religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally
+stated, so that the idea of "angel" in the modern sense does not
+occur, but we find the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, Angel of the Lord, or
+_Mal'akh Elohim_, Angel of God. The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is an appearance
+or manifestation of _Yahweh_ in the form of a man, and the term
+_Mal'akh Yahweh_ is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii.
+2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the _Mal'akh
+Yahweh_ say they have seen God.[8] The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ (or _Elohim_)
+appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the
+Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.[9] The phrase _Mal'akh Yahweh_ may
+have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King;
+but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and
+later on, when the angels were classified, the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ came
+to mean an angel of distinguished rank.[10] The identification of the
+_Mal'akh Yahweh_ with the _Logos_, or Second Person of the Trinity, is
+not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea
+of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct
+from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
+persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine
+of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.
+
+In the earlier literature the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_ is almost
+the only _mal'akh_ ("angel") mentioned. There are, however, a few
+passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the
+_Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_. There are the cherubim who guard Eden.
+In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and
+Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but
+possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone.[11]
+At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder,[12] and later
+on they appear to him at Mahanaim.[13] In all these cases the
+angels, like the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, are connected with or represent a
+theophany. Similarly the "man" who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is
+identified with God.[14] In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
+beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the
+pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about
+angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations
+of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.[15]
+Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient
+Israel had much to say of superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but
+that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as
+unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.
+
+The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period
+immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy[16] and
+Isaiah;[17] and at the same time we find angels prominent in Ezekiel
+who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the
+hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and
+perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism.[18] Ezekiel gives
+elaborate descriptions of cherubim;[19] and in one of his visions he
+sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem.[20] As
+in Genesis they are styled "men," _mal'akh_ for "angel" does not occur
+in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play
+a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as "men," sometimes as
+_mal'akh_, and the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ seems to hold a certain primacy
+among them.[21] Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the
+High Priest before the divine tribunal.[22] Similarly in Job the _bne
+Elohim_, sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
+Satan, still in his role of public prosecutor, the defendant being
+Job.[23] Occasional references to "angels" occur in the Psalter;[24]
+they appear as ministers of God.
+
+In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the "evil angels" of A.V. conveys a false
+impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., _i.e._ angels who
+inflict chastisement as ministers of God.
+
+The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of
+Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by
+Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels,[25]
+parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas (Amesha Spenta), or
+seven great spirits of the Persian mythology, but the connexion is
+doubtful.
+
+In the Priestly Code, _c._ 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels
+apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis
+i. 26.
+
+During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent
+a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences.
+In Daniel, _c._ 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as "men" or
+"princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are
+implied, there are "princes" and "chief" or "great princes"; and
+the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is
+pre-eminent,[26] he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading
+part is played by Raphael, "one of the seven holy angels."[27]
+
+In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the
+canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers
+of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as
+subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The
+statement[28] that God "charged His angels with folly" applies to
+all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen
+nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we
+find Asmodaeus the evil demon, [Greek: to poneros daimonion], who
+strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to "a devil
+or evil spirit," [Greek: pneuma].[29] The Fall of the Angels is not
+properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as
+interpreted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the _bn[=e] Elohim_
+of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but
+they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism
+and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the
+_bne Elohim_ suffered any loss of status through their act.
+
+The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the
+gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process
+by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton
+in _Paradise Lost_. The development of the doctrine of an organized
+hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period 200
+B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination
+ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as
+the various books of Enoch and the _Ascension of Isaiah_ supply much
+information on this subject.
+
+[v.02 p.0006]
+
+In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God
+and the agents of revelation;[30] and Our Lord speaks of angels
+as fulfilling such functions,[31] implying in one saying that they
+neither marry nor are given in marriage.[32] Naturally angels are most
+prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest
+in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the
+doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we
+have names, Gabriel,[33] and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon,[34]
+Beelzebub.[35] and Satan;[36] ranks are implied, archangels,[37]
+principalities and powers,[38] thrones and dominions.[39] Angels
+occur in groups of four or seven.[40] In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with
+the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably
+guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that
+the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels"
+are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
+"angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or
+chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use
+of "angel," and it is doubtful whether the monarchical government of
+churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.
+
+Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the
+angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important
+part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Midrashim and the Kabbala.
+Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much
+influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the
+_De Hierarchia Celesti_, written in the 5th century in the name
+of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and
+confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and
+modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings,
+or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain
+knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
+existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
+
+The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the
+_Book of Jubilees_ and the Slavonic _Enoch_ describe their creation;
+and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and
+through Christ.
+
+Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels.
+It is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's
+account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual
+beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions.
+Angels are constantly spoken of as "men," and, including even the
+Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions
+of human life; they eat and drink,[41] walk[42] and speak.[43] Putting
+aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having
+wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish,[44] exercise
+miraculous powers,[45] and fly.[46] Seeing that the anthropomorphic
+language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the
+Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in
+either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and
+elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies,[47] and the
+elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c.[48] The angels are
+infinitely numerous.[49]
+
+The _function_ of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of
+God. His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have
+seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the _bne Elohim_ and
+the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the
+army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with
+men, the angels, as their name implies, are specially His messengers,
+declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he
+controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
+and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels.[50].
+Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels.[51]
+According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels.
+Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and
+Christian ideas as to angels.
+
+While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of
+spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that
+many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In
+Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the
+stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific
+acts.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: _E.g._ Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Zech. xiv. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Dan. iv. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Deut. xvii. 3 (?).]
+
+[Footnote 5: Josh. v. 14 (?).]
+
+[Footnote 6: The identification of the "hosts" with the stars comes
+to the same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with
+angels. It is probable that the "hosts" were also identified with the
+armies of Israel.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Rev. i. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Exod. iii. 2, xiv.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Zech. i. 11f.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Cf. xviii. I with xviii. 2, and note change of number in
+xix. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Gen. xxviii. 12, E.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Gen. xxxii. I, E.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Gen. xxxii. 24, 30, J.]
+
+[Footnote 15: "An angel" of I Kings xiii. 18 might be the _Mal'akh
+Yahweh_, as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its
+present form, may be exilic or post-exilic.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Deut. vi. 4. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Isaiah xliii. 10 &c.]
+
+[Footnote 18: It is not however certain that these doctrines of
+Zoroastrianism were developed at so early a date.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Ezek. i.x.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ezek. ix.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Zech. i. 11 f.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Zech. iii. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Job i., ii. Cf. I Chron. xxi. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Pss. xci. 11, ciii. 20 &c.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Dan. viii. 16, x. 13, 20, 21.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Tob. xii. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Job iv. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Tobit iii. 8, 17, vi. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 30: _E.g._ Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. 11. (to Jesus), Luke
+i. 26 (to Mary), Acts xii. 7 (to Peter).]
+
+[Footnote 31: _E.g._ Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Mark xii. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Luke i. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Rev. ix. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Mark iii. 22.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Mark i. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Michael, Jude 9.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Rom. viii. 38; Col, ii. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Col. i. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Rev. vii. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Gen. xviii. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Gen. xix. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Zech. iv. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Judges vi. 12, 21.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Rev. vii. 1. viii.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Job xxxviii. 7; _Asc. of Isaiah_, iv. 18; Slav. _Enoch_,
+iv. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; possibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8,
+20.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Ps. lxviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2; _LXX_. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.]
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the sections on "Angels" in the handbooks of O.T.
+Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c.; and of
+N.T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's _Dogmatics_. Also
+commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on
+_Daniel_, and G.A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 310 ff.; and articles
+_s.v._ "Angel" in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and the _Encyclopaedia
+Biblica_.
+
+(W.H. BE.)
+
+
+
+ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (_angelot, ange_) in 1340,
+and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue of
+the "noble," and so at first called the "angel-noble." It varied in
+value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was
+last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was derived from the
+representation it bore of St. Michael and the dragon. The angel was the
+coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known
+as king's evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called
+touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead.
+
+
+
+ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order _Umbelliferae_,
+represented in Britain by one species, _A. sylvestris_, a tall
+perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels
+of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to
+a plant of an allied genus, _Archangelica officinalis_, the tender
+shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic
+sweetmeats. _Angelica balsam_ is obtained by extracting the roots with
+alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It is of
+a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax and
+angelicin, C_{18}_H_{30}_O. The essential oil of the roots of
+_Angelica archangelica_ contains ss-terebangelene, C_{10}_H_{16}, and
+other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains ss-terebangelene,
+together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.
+
+The angelica tree is a member of the order _Avaliaceae_, a species of
+_Aralia (A. spinosa_), a native of North America; it grows 8 to 12 ft.
+high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an umbrella-like head,
+and much divided leaves.
+
+
+
+ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. Il Beato Fra Giovanni
+Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of
+the Florentine state in the 15th century, the representative, beyond
+all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately,
+termed simply "Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he
+first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound
+designation into English, it runs thus--"the Beatified Friar John the
+Angelic of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
+Fra Giovanni or Friar John; "The Angelic" is a laudatory term which
+was assigned to him at an early date,--we find it in use within thirty
+years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in
+our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His
+baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He
+was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown
+but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes
+stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at
+Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
+Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain,
+but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may
+have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese
+school is discernible in his work.
+
+[v.02 p.0007]
+
+According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the
+Certosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest extant
+performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, whither he
+was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the
+opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed in fresco
+were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent
+of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have worked
+under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Starnina. From 1418 to 1436
+he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican
+convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the
+altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works; he may have
+studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel
+in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of
+Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome. The pope
+who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he it was who in
+1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angelico, to
+be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by Vasari) is
+true--that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico
+only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and by
+him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and
+responsible a station--Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his
+successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation
+and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in
+1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself
+credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in
+the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del
+Sacramento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
+1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the
+cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He
+afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In
+this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the
+Minerva.
+
+According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on
+whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
+have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and
+self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to
+the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing
+diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched
+or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as
+divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He
+was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should
+be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without
+fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last
+Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most
+frequently treated.
+
+Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
+Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able
+to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed
+to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the
+convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series
+of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the
+Crucifixion with St. Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on
+a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion,
+with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized
+figures--the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is
+the misdoing of some restorer; an "Annunciation," the figures of about
+three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage,
+the "Virgin enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell,
+the "Coronation of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas,
+Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcoming
+Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an "Adoration of the Magi"; the "Marys
+at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the altarpiece which
+Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected
+with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it
+represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of
+the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and
+Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but
+it has long been severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery,
+an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and
+twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than
+those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
+Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr,
+now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella
+of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London,
+and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The
+subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and
+a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or
+beati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 266 figures
+or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This
+predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another
+picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now
+obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre--the "Coronation of the
+Virgin," with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic.
+For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a
+"Deposition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a "Last
+Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a
+"Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three sections, now
+in the Uffizi,--this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto
+cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling,
+portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints
+and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much
+repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts
+of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and
+on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter's
+advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show
+vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate
+treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a
+number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his;
+for instance, a "St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran
+museum, and a "Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo,
+Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently
+practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises
+that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also
+a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous
+artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes
+at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio
+series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence,
+in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and
+Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato.
+
+We have spoken of Angelico's art as "pietistic"; this is in fact
+its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity,
+devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is
+intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a
+particular ideal--that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment
+from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not
+always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces
+becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which
+hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds,
+therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he
+produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico
+should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical
+painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his
+monastic calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness.
+Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly
+falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such
+as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
+Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a
+subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
+actions--the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or
+contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish
+and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding
+mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame
+was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints
+is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this
+conduces materially to that celestial character which so pre-eminently
+distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the
+hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.
+
+[v.02 p.0008]
+
+Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S.
+Beissel, 1895; V.M. Crawford, 1900; R.L. Douglas, 1900; I.B. Supino,
+1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.
+
+(W.M.R.)
+
+
+
+ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was
+born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He
+graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School,
+and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised
+for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the
+Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the
+same year establishing and becoming editor of _Our Dumb Animals_, a
+journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane
+treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization
+of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the
+movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion
+of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1908 there were more than
+72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president
+of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a
+criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safeguarding of
+the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston
+on the 16th of March 1909.
+
+
+
+ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a
+perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of
+the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular.
+
+
+
+ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation.
+It has its name from the opening words, _Angelus Domini nuntiavit
+Mariae_. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited
+as versicle and response alternately with the salutation "Hail, Mary!"
+This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily,
+about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the
+Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country
+churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival
+of the curfew bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed
+to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
+ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice
+said daily.
+
+
+
+ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624
+at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally
+known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his
+poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran,
+and at first physician to the duke of Wuerttemberg-Oels, he joined in
+1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and
+became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau
+on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title
+_Heilige Seelenlust, oder geistliche Hirtenlieder der in ihren
+Jesum verliebten Psyche_ (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most
+beautiful of which, such as, _Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner
+Gottheit hast gemacht_ and _Mir nach, spricht Christus, unser Held_,
+have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal. More remarkable,
+however, is his _Geistreiche Sinn-und Schluss-reime_ (1657),
+afterwards called _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ (1674). This is a
+collection of "Reimsprueche" or rhymed distichs embodying a strange
+mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob Boehme and
+his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of
+mysticism. The essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God,
+he said, can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an
+object of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself,
+without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words, by
+becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one.
+
+A complete edition of Scheffler's works (_Saemtliche poetische Werke_)
+was published by D.A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862). Both
+the _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ and _Heilige Seelenlust_ have been
+republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from the
+former work by O.E. Hartleben (1896). For further notices of Silesius'
+life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in _Weimarisches Jahrbuch
+I_. (Hanover, 1854); A. Kahlert, _Angelus Silesius_ (1853); C.
+Seltmann, _Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik_ (1896), and a biog. by
+H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).
+
+
+
+ANGERMUeNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Brandenburg, on Lake Muende, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-Stettin
+railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien-walde and
+Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant churches, a grammar
+school and court of law. Its industries embrace iron founding and
+enamel working. In 1420 the elector Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained
+here a signal victory over the Pomeranians.
+
+
+
+ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions
+are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a
+goddess who relieved men from pain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans
+and their flocks from _angina_ (quinsy); or she was the protecting
+goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which
+might not be pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it
+was even thought that Angerona itself was this name. Modern scholars
+regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and Dea Dia; or
+as the goddess of the new year and the returning sun (according to
+Mommsen, _ab angerendo_= [Greek: apo tou anapheresthai. ton haelion).]
+Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia, was celebrated on the
+21st of December. The priests offered sacrifice in the temple of
+Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in which stood a statue of Angerona,
+with a finger on her mouth, which was bound and closed (Macrobius
+i. 10; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 9; Varro, _L. L._ vi. 23). She was
+worshipped as Ancharia at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her
+has been recently discovered. (See FAESULAE.)
+
+
+
+ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of
+Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes.
+Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on both banks of the
+Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is
+famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced
+with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and
+surrounded by ample, tree-lined boulevards, beyond which lie new
+suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its
+numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of
+St. Maurice, dating in the main from the 12th and 13th centuries.
+Between the two flanking towers of the west facade, the spires of
+which are of the 16th century, rises a central tower of the same
+period. The most prominent feature of the facade is the series of
+eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
+nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and
+transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich
+stained glass (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) and valuable tapestry
+(14th to 18th centuries). The bishop's palace which adjoins the
+cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the 12th century. Of the
+other churches of Angers, the principal are St. Serge, an abbey-church
+of the 12th and 15th centuries, and La Trinite (12th century). The
+prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St. Aubin; in
+its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the 11th and 12th
+centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the
+splendid abbey-church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th
+century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (11th century) are also to be
+seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
+a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an armoury.
+The ancient hospital of St. Jean (12th century) is occupied by an
+archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about
+1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has
+a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Musee David,
+containing works by the famous sculptor David d'Angers, who was a
+native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of Rene
+of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The Hotel de Pince or d'Anjou
+(1523-1530) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are
+also many curious wooden houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
+palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
+a hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern
+buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating
+from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court of
+assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce,
+a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of
+the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its educational
+institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a lycee, a preparatory
+school of medicine and pharmacy, a university with free faculties
+(_facultes libres_) of theology, law, letters and science, a higher
+school of agriculture, training colleges, a school of arts and
+handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of the town
+is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity, but the
+distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and thread-making,
+and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and parasols are
+leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and woollen and other
+fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture of
+sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief
+articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp,
+early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock.
+
+[v.02 p.0009]
+
+Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the
+Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it became the seat of
+the counts of Anjou (_q.v._). It suffered severely from the invasions
+of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the English
+in the 12th and 15th centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585, and the
+Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution,
+Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in the 14th
+century.
+
+See L.M. Thorode, _Notice de la ville d'Angers_ (Angers, 1897).
+
+
+
+ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of
+the fine arts, was born at St. Petersburg and settled in London about
+1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of
+the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British
+government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery.
+
+
+
+ANGILBERT (d. 814), Frankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne,
+was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school
+under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor's son, Pippin,
+he assisted for a while in the government of Italy, and was later
+sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796.
+Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne's daughter,
+Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of
+his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St. Riquier, where his
+brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert,
+however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
+rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the
+closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne
+to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814.
+Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was
+the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been
+preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between
+Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and
+Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius,
+and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the
+greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars
+(796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a
+delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house
+surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The
+reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name
+occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his
+salutation.
+
+Angilbert's poems have been published by E. Dummler in the _Monumenta
+Germaniae Historica_. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in
+Roederer's _Schriften fuer germanische Philologie_ (1888). See also A.
+Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France._
+
+
+
+ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for "pain of the chest"), a term applied to a
+violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion
+with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive
+degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: _Disease_). An attack of
+angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt
+at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest
+in various directions, and frequently extending down the left arm.
+A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies the pain,
+although there is seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the
+attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily
+exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the
+continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The
+countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse
+feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack
+subsides and complete relief is obtained. The duration of a paroxysm
+rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it may last for a longer
+period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in
+aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the
+first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the
+result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under
+middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It
+must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
+treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other
+remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite
+of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the
+physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon
+as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief
+and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is
+marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the
+rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections
+of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this
+drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent
+recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous
+attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
+physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is "bed,"
+of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of
+anginal pain.
+
+
+_Pseudo-angina_.--In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more common
+condition must be mentioned that has now universally received the
+name of pseudo-angina. This includes the praecordial pains which very
+closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference lies
+in the fact that pseudo-angina is independent of structural disease
+of the heart and coronary arteries. In true angina there is some
+condition within the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve
+centres. In pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but
+some peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to the
+medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of pain
+that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are three main
+varieties:--(1) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the toxic. The
+reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due to irritation
+from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of pseudo-angina may be
+agonizing, the pain radiating through the chest and into the left arm,
+but the patient does not usually assume the motionless attitude of
+true angina, and the duration of the seizure is usually much longer.
+The treatment is that of the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is
+a good one, sudden death not occurring.
+
+
+
+ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term "Angiosperm" ([Greek: angeion],
+receptacle, and [Greek: sperma], seed) was coined in the form
+Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of
+his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering
+plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contradistinction to
+his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic
+fruits--the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as
+a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus
+with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of
+the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its
+modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established
+in 1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
+Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From
+that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual,
+reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was
+used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation,
+as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851
+of Hofmeister's brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the
+embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct
+relationships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position
+of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
+term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable
+designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
+Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicotyledons
+and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays
+received and in which it is used here.
+
+[v.02 p.0010]
+
+The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the
+direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and
+adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angiosperms are
+the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant
+vegetation of the earth's surface at the present epoch. There is no
+land-area from the poles to the equator, where plant-life is possible,
+upon which Angiosperms are not found. They occur also abundantly in
+the shallows of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and in less number in
+salt lakes and in the sea; such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however,
+primitive forms, but are derived from immediate land-ancestors.
+Associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety in general
+form and manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
+surface of a pond consists of a tiny green "thalloid" shoot, one, that
+is, which shows no distinction of parts--stem and leaf, and a
+simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The great
+forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of hundreds of
+years, has developed a wide-spreading system of trunk and branches,
+bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves, while
+beneath the soil a widely-branching root-system covers an area of
+corresponding extent. Between these two extremes is every conceivable
+gradation, embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or
+climbing in habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater
+variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants,
+the Gymnosperms.
+
+
+_Internal structure._
+
+In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far exceeds
+that found in Gymnosperms (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_). The vascular
+bundles of the stem belong to the collateral type, that is to say,
+the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side
+by side on the same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into
+which the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
+the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central
+pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and
+phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as
+cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles
+(interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular
+periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development
+of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon
+becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk
+of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences
+in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end
+of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into
+concentric rings, one for each season of growth--the so-called annual
+rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more
+numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue.
+Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
+diameter only in exceptional cases.
+
+
+_Vegetative organs._
+
+As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or the forking
+of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the
+main stem, is absent both in the case of the stem and the root. The
+leaves show a remarkable variety in form (see LEAF), but are generally
+small in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
+some Monocotyledons, _e.g._ in the Aroid family, where in some genera
+the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each season.
+
+In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower,
+as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
+underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral leaves are
+borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers are formed only
+on shoots of a higher order, often only on the ultimate branches of
+a much branched system. A potential branch or bud, either foliage or
+flower, is formed in the axil of each leaf; sometimes more than one
+bud arises, as for instance in the walnut, where two or three stand in
+vertical series above each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or
+are called to development under exceptional circumstances, such as
+the destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
+a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds
+which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds occasionally arise
+from the roots, when they are called adventitious; this occurs in many
+fruit trees, poplars, elms and others. For instance, the young shoots
+seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but
+root-shoots. Frequently, as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root,
+the original root of the seedling, persists throughout the life of
+the plant, forming, as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as
+in carrot, or in perennials, a much-branched root system. In many
+Dicotyledons and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes,
+and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem.
+
+
+_Flower._
+
+The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the flower, which
+shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration, and supplies the
+most trustworthy characters for the distinction of the series and
+families or natural orders, into which the group is divided. The
+flower is a shoot (stem bearing leaves) which has a special form
+associated with the special function of ensuring the fertilization of
+the egg and the development of fruit containing seed. Except where
+it is terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf,
+which is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
+arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
+termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion of
+the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-bearing or
+vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system
+in which the bracts are small and scale-like. Such a branch-system is
+called an inflorescence. The primary function of the flower is to bear
+the spores. These, as in Gymnosperms, are of two kinds, microspores
+or pollen-grains, borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and
+megaspores, in which the egg-cell is developed, contained in the
+ovule, which is borne enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The
+flower may consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where
+each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
+however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly concerned
+with the reproductive process, acting as protective organs for the
+sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope. These form the perianth
+and are in one series, when the flower is termed monochlamydeous, or
+in two series (dichlamydeous). In the second case the outer series
+(calyx of sepals) is generally green and leaf-like, its function being
+to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud; while
+the inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly
+coloured, and more delicate in structure, its function being to
+attract the particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination
+is effected. The insect, &c., is attracted by the colour and scent
+of the flower, and frequently also by honey which is secreted in some
+part of the flower. (For further details on the form and arrangement
+of the flower and its parts, see FLOWER.)
+
+
+_Stamen and pollen._
+
+Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (_microsporangia_)
+which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a stalk
+or filament. The development of the microsporangia and the contained
+spores (pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the
+microsporangia in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is
+set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
+of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family
+(Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then dropped
+or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some member of the
+animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface of the carpel of the same
+or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate of carpels forming the
+pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary containing one or more ovules
+and a receptive surface or stigma; the stigma is sometimes carried up
+on a style. The mature pollen-grain is, like other spores, a single
+cell; except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, it has
+a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the
+endospore or intine, and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or
+extine. The exospore often bears spines or warts, or is variously
+sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value
+for the distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the
+microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac. In very few cases
+has anything representing prothallial development been observed;
+generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative cell) is cut
+off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on the stigma, under
+favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain puts forth a pollen-tube
+which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its
+way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the mouth
+of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into
+the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides to
+form two male- or sperm-cells. The male-cells are carried to their
+destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.
+
+[v.02 p.0011]
+
+
+_Pistil and embryo-sac._
+
+The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a placenta, which is
+generally some part of the ovary-wall. The development of the ovule,
+which represents the macrosporangium, is very similar to the
+process in Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two coats
+surrounding the central nucellus, except at the apex where an opening,
+the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a cellular tissue enveloping
+one large cell, the embryo-sac or macrospore. The germination of the
+macrospore consists in the repeated division of its nucleus to form
+two groups of four, one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One
+nucleus from each group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of
+the sac, where the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus.
+Of the three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
+(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere, the
+other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive egg-cells
+(in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as synergidae.
+The three cells at the opposite end are known as antipodal cells
+and become invested with a cell-wall. The gametophyte or prothallial
+generation is thus extremely reduced, consisting of but little more
+than the male and female sexual cells--the two sperm-cells in the
+pollen-tube and the egg-cell (with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac.
+
+
+_Fertilization._
+
+At the period of fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
+to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-tube has
+penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes absorbed, and the male or
+sperm-cells are ejected into the embryo-sac. Guided by the synergidae
+one male-cell passes into the oosphere with which it fuses, the two
+nuclei uniting, while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or,
+as it is also called, the endosperm nucleus. This remarkable
+double fertilization as it has been called, although only recently
+discovered, has been proved to take place in widely-separated
+families, and both in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is
+every probability that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal
+process in Angiosperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere
+immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore
+which by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant. The
+endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular tissue which
+fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-sac, and forms a
+tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored a supply of nourishment
+for the use later on of the embryo. It has long been known that after
+fertilization of the egg has taken place, the formation of endosperm
+begins from the endosperm nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as
+the recommencement of the development of a prothallium after a pause
+following the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is
+still maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
+within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
+male-cell, as the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
+polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertilization
+which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other.
+If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product of an act of
+fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the embryo itself,
+we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced within the
+embryo-sac--one, the embryo, which becomes the angiospermous plant,
+the other, the endosperm, a short-lived, undifferentiated nurse to
+assist in the nutrition of the former, even as the subsidiary embryos
+in a pluri-embryonic Gymnosperm may facilitate the nutrition of the
+dominant one. If this is so, and the endosperm like the embryo is
+normally the product of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid
+endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we
+may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the
+mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants, regarding
+which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were
+indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the
+egg and its product. This would not, however, explain the formation
+of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed
+parents. The signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is
+not explained by these new facts, but it is noteworthy that the second
+male-cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus,
+the sister of the egg, before the union of this with the basal polar
+one. The idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new
+one; it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
+the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that these
+represented male and female cells, an assumption for which there
+was no evidence and which was inherently improbable. The proof of a
+coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus
+gives the conception a more stable basis. The antipodal cells aid more
+or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo, and may
+undergo multiplication, though they ultimately disintegrate, as do
+also the synergidae. As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting
+qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization.
+The number of chromosomes (see PLANTS: _Cytology_) in the nucleus of
+the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the number
+found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this reduced number
+persists in the cells derived from them. The full number is restored
+in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of
+fertilization, and remains until the formation of the cells from which
+the spores are derived in the new generation.
+
+In several natural orders and genera departures from the course of
+development just described have been noted. In the natural order
+Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous genus
+_Casuarina_ and others, instead of a single macrospore a more or less
+extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one cell proceeds to
+the formation of a functional female cell. In _Casuarina_, _Juglans_
+and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube does not enter by means
+of the micropyle, but passing down the ovary wall and through the
+placenta, enters at the chalazal end of the ovule. Such a method
+of entrance is styled chalazogamic, in contrast to the porogamic or
+ordinary method of approach by means of the micropyle.
+
+
+_Embryology._
+
+The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
+the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested by
+cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying number of transverse
+segment-walls transform it into a pro-embryo--a cellular row of which
+the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the
+embryo-sac, and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo,
+while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons
+the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of
+the pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
+ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal cell
+forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo, its
+axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell; the
+cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary
+stem a lateral one--a condition in marked contrast with that of the
+Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons, however, the cotyledon is not
+really terminal. The primary root of the embryo in all Angiosperms
+points towards the micropyle. The developing embryo at the end of the
+suspensor grows out to a varying extent into the forming endosperm,
+from which by surface absorption it derives good material for growth;
+at the same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of
+nutrition, and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed,
+special absorptive "suspensor roots" which invest the developing
+embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even into
+the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac sends
+out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument. As the embryo
+develops it may absorb all the food material available, and store,
+either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not immediately
+required for growth, as reserve-food for use in germination, and by so
+doing it increases in size until it may fill entirely the embryo-sac;
+or its absorptive power at this stage may be limited to what is
+necessary for growth and it remains of relatively small size,
+occupying but a small area of the embryo-sac, which is otherwise
+filled with endosperm in which the reserve-food is stored. There are
+also intermediate states. The position of the embryo in relation to
+the endosperm varies, sometimes it is internal, sometimes external,
+but the significance of this has not yet been established.
+
+[v.02 p.0012]
+
+The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from the
+endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before that of the
+egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young
+embryo. If in its extension to contain the new formations within it
+the embryo-sac remains narrow, endosperm formation proceeds upon the
+lines of a cell-division, but in wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is
+first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the
+sac, and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character, forming
+a tissue filling the sac. The function of the endosperm is primarily
+that of nourishing the embryo, and its basal position in the
+embryo-sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material
+entering the ovule. Its duration varies with the precocity of the
+embryo. It may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the
+embryo within the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more
+or less conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as
+a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually
+apparent, for there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and
+according to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in
+cellulose, mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
+reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition, such
+endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions, for
+instance, that of water-absorption.
+
+Some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted.
+Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an egg-cell
+without the latter having been fertilized, has been described in
+species of _Thalictrum_, _Antennaria_ and _Alchemilla_. Polyembryony
+is generally associated with the development of cells other than the
+egg-cell. Thus in _Erythronium_ and _Limnocharis_ the fertilized
+egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos are produced.
+Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the embryo-sac may
+exceptionally form an embryo, _e.g._ the synergidae in species of
+_Mimosa_, _Iris_ and _Allium_, and in the last-mentioned the
+antipodal cells also. In _Coelebogyne_ (Euphorbiaceae) and in _Funkia_
+(Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious production
+of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the top of the
+embryo-sac. In a species of _Allium_, embryos have been found
+developing in the same individual from the egg-cell, synergids,
+antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two Malayan species of
+_Balanophora_, the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm,
+which is formed from the upper polar nucleus only, the egg apparatus
+becoming disorganized. The last-mentioned case has been regarded
+as representing an apogamous development of the sporophyte from the
+gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
+the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples
+cited above suggests the use of great caution in formulating definite
+morphological theories upon them.
+
+
+_Fruit and seed._
+
+As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the
+embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of
+the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit,
+and combines with it and the integument to form the _seed-coat_; or
+the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. In some
+plants the nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of
+deposit of reserve-food constituting the _perisperm_ which may coexist
+with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone form a
+food-reserve for the embryo, as in _Canna_. Endospermic food-reserve
+has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter is
+comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series. Seeds
+in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are commonly called
+_albuminous_ or _endospermic_, those in which neither is found are
+termed _exalbuminous_ or _exendospermic_. These terms, extensively
+used by systematists, only refer, however, to the grosser features
+of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident occurrence of a
+food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds show to microscopic
+examination a distinct endosperm which may have other than a nutritive
+function. The presence or absence of endosperm, its relative amount
+when present, and the position of the embryo within it, are valuable
+characters for the distinction of orders and groups of orders.
+Meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp,
+the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of
+distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is
+felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in
+the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple,
+strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite
+relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of
+protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also
+directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the
+seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
+protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination. On
+the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the
+embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed.
+
+
+_Dissemination._
+
+Dissemination is effected by the agency of water, of air, of
+animals--and fruits and seeds are therefore grouped in respect of this
+as hydrophilous, anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these
+are obvious--buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
+first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
+mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods in which
+these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and every part of
+the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into requisition to
+supply the adaptation (see FRUIT). Special outgrowths, arils, of the
+seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In the feature of fruit and
+seed, by which the distribution of Angiosperms is effected, we have a
+distinctive character of the class. In Gymnosperms we have seeds, and
+the carpels may become modified and close around these, as in _Pinus_,
+during the process of ripening to form an imitation of a box-like
+fruit which subsequently opening allows the seeds to escape; but
+there is never in them the closed ovary investing from the outset the
+ovules, and ultimately forming the ground-work of the fruit.
+
+
+_Germination of Seed._
+
+Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds upon a
+suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of which is a
+sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of vitality of the embryo is
+a point of interest. Some seeds retain vitality for a period of many
+years, though there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
+"mummy wheat" will germinate; on the other hand some seeds lose
+vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the seed the
+more slow as a general rule will germination be in starting, but there
+are notable exceptions. This pause, often of so long duration, in
+the growth of the embryo between the time of its perfect development
+within the seed and the moment of germination, is one of the
+remarkable and distinctive features of the life of Spermatophytes. The
+aim of germination is the fixing of the embryo in the soil, effected
+usually by means of the root, which is the first part of the embryo
+to appear, in preparation for the elongation of the epicotyledonary
+portion of the shoot, and there is infinite variety in the details
+of the process. In albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the
+absorbents of the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought
+above ground (_epigeal_), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or
+carrying it upon them, and then they serve as the first green organs
+of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (_hypocotyl_)
+commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Exalbuminous
+Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their cotyledons, which
+may in germination remain below ground (_hypogeal_). In albuminous
+Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself, probably in consequence of its
+terminal position, is commonly the agent by which the embryo is thrust
+out of the seed, and it may function solely as a feeder, its extremity
+developing as a sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or
+it may become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping
+off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous
+Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or strongly hygrophilous plants
+and have often peculiar features in germination.
+
+[v.02 p.0013]
+
+
+_Vegetative reproduction._
+
+Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of
+Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional
+process. At the same time every bud on a shoot has the capacity
+to form a new plant if placed in suitable conditions, as the
+horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we
+see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know
+may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots.
+Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through
+the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may
+have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of
+it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between
+such vegetative distribution buds and production of flower is usually
+marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower
+and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous
+plants are an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for
+flower.
+
+
+_Phylogeny and taxonomy._
+
+The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
+unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the
+general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their
+evolution, we can as yet say little.
+
+Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us
+nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs.
+We readily recognize in them now-a-days the natural classes of
+Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative
+and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel
+sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the
+more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive
+evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that
+the Dicotyledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the
+palaeontological evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being
+the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
+of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is manifestly a
+temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of
+the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not
+sprung from that of Gymnosperms.
+
+Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature
+of Angiosperms supply the clue to phylogeny, but the uncertainty
+regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower gives
+a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive
+sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared
+to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to
+be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may
+have the one or the other character in different cases. Apart from
+this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of
+the flower-whorls--in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the
+corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the
+calyx--is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence
+that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly
+derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has
+followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed
+to be an antecedent one to the exalbuminous condition, and the recent
+discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst
+Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest
+development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along
+two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which
+has culminated in the hypogynous epipetalous bicarpellate forms with
+dorsiventral often large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur
+in Scrophulariaceae, and the other in the epigynous bicarpellate
+small-flowered families of which the Compositae represent the most
+elaborate type. In the polypetalous forms progression from hypogyny
+to epigyny is generally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with
+insect-pollination has been established, a dominant group has been
+developed as in the Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class,
+however, and the position within it of apetalous families with
+frequently unisexual flowers, have provoked much discussion. In
+Monocotyledons a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed,
+and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this
+connexion it is noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are
+adapted as bulbous geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xerophilous
+conditions. The Gramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant
+self-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find
+explanation in a multiplicity of factors.
+
+Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
+was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of
+arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true
+affinities. In his _Philosophia Botanica_ (1751) Linnaeus grouped the
+genera then known into sixty-seven orders (_fragmenta_), all except
+five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these but did not
+characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups.
+Some represent natural groups and had in several cases been already
+recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are, in the light
+of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined polypetalous and
+gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even
+Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together where they have
+some striking physiological character in common.
+
+Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean _fragmenta_ was continued
+in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine Laurent,
+and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his _Genera Plantarum
+secundum Ordines Naturales disposita_ (1789) is the first which can
+claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully characterized,
+and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen classes under the two
+main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The former comprise
+three classes, which are distinguished by the relative position of the
+stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of the latter are based on the
+same set of characters and fall into the larger subdivisions Apetalae,
+Monopetalae and Polypetalae, characterized respectively by absence,
+union or freedom of the petals, and a subdivision, _Diclines
+Irregulares_, a very unnatural group, including one class only. A.P.
+de Candolle introduced several improvements into the system. In his
+arrangement the last subdivision disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall
+into two groups, a larger containing those in which both calyx and
+corolla are present in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae,
+representing the Apetalae and _Diclines Irregulares_ of Jussieu.
+The dichlamydeous group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae,
+Calyciflorae and Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of
+the petals. This, which we may distinguish as the French system,
+finds its most perfect expression in the classic _Genera Plantarum_
+(1862-1883) of Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description,
+based on careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of
+flowering plants. The subdivision is as follows:--
+
+  DICOTYLEDONS.
+
+  Polypetalae:
+  Thalamiflorae.
+  Disciflorae.
+  Calyciflorae.
+
+  Gamopetalae:
+  Inferae.
+  Heteromerae.
+  Bicarpellatae.
+
+  Monochlamydeae in eight series.
+  Monocotyledons in seven series.
+
+Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
+hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6
+larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name from
+a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion at the
+base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is superior.
+It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae, has petals
+and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It contains 27 orders
+in 5 cohorts.
+
+Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae, has an interior ovary and
+stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
+in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
+stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
+carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae,
+has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24
+orders in 4 cohorts.
+
+The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups
+characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules, and are
+now recognized as of unequal value.
+
+The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
+with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
+Scitamineae, and passing through the petaloid hypogynous orders
+(series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
+Juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
+its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, screw-pines and
+others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series
+6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series
+Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a
+grass-like habit.
+
+[v.02 p.0014]
+
+The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicotyledons
+undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate
+forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the
+inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are
+closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence
+of a corolla. The German systematist, A.W. Eichler, attempted
+to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had
+characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons
+in two subclasses. The earlier Choripetalae embraces the Polypetalae
+and Monochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and
+is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those
+orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The
+second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates
+in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series
+Aggregatae, the chief representative of which is the great and
+wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler's system,
+embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of
+Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr. Adolf Engler of Berlin, who
+adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the
+two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr. Engler is the principal editor
+of a large series of volumes which, under the title _Die naturlichen
+Pflanzenfamilien_, is a systematic account of all the known genera
+of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently
+in _Das Pflanzenreich_ the same author organized a series of complete
+monographs of the families of seed-plants.
+
+As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is now
+preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the
+way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows:
+
+  Monocotyledons.
+  Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
+  Dicotyledons.
+  INSEMINEAE.
+  SEMINEAE.
+  _Unitegmineae.
+  Bitegmineae_.
+
+The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal
+Dicotyledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae
+and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological
+differentiation of the epidermis of their root is that generally
+characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons--the
+old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being
+adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is
+extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering
+the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as
+a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
+members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the grouping in
+the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument,
+the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the
+funicle is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of
+this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
+Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and
+therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however,
+mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
+one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
+Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments to
+be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and bitegminous
+groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an indusium, not a
+character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the
+ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time
+the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as
+the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet
+know the significance of this correlation, which, however, is not an
+invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals.
+
+Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr. C.J. Chamberlain
+of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the
+morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and the
+series of events which ends in the formation of the seed (_Morphology
+of Angiosperms_, Chicago, 1903).
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The reader will find in the following works details
+of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and Hooker,
+_Genera Plantarum_ (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, _Bluthendiagramme_
+(Leipzig, 1875-1878); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen
+Pflanzenfamilien_ (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, _Syllabus der
+Pflanzenfamilien_, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth, _Handbuch der
+Blutenbiologie_ (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, _History of Botany_,
+English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, _Systematische Anatomie
+der Dicotyledonen_ (Stuttgart, 1899); van Tieghem, _Elements de
+botanique_; Coulter and Chamberlain, _Morphology of Angiosperms_ (New
+York, 1903).
+
+(I.B.B.; A.B.R.)
+
+
+
+ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient
+Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the
+Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous of the remains being the
+town of Angkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on
+the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap.
+Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the
+vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient
+stone bridge.
+
+Angkor-Thom lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According
+to Aymonier it was begun about A.D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer
+sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists
+of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded
+by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which
+is entered by five monumental gates, are the remains of palaces and
+temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are:--
+
+(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure
+containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the
+Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace
+decorated with magnificent reliefs.
+
+(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with
+colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of
+galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform
+structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular
+base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are
+built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as
+perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains.
+
+Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architecture, lies
+less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular
+park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060
+yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the
+moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a
+quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The
+temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards
+to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the
+first half of the 12th century A.D. It consists of three stages,
+connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
+as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
+pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces
+of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vaulting supported on
+columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage.
+They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square
+basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in
+the representation of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
+every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted;
+floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and
+capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed
+by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge
+blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use
+of cement.
+
+See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de
+Lagree, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ (1872-1873); A.H. Mouhot,
+_Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos_ (2 vols., 1864); Fournereau
+and Porcher, _Les Ruines d'Angkor_ (1890); L. Delaporte, _Voyage
+au Cambodge: l'architecture Khmer_ (1880); J. Moura, _Le Royaume de
+Cambodge_ (2 vols., 1883).
+
+
+
+ANGLE (from the Lat. _angulus_, a corner, a diminutive, of which the
+primitive form, _angus_, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat.
+_angere_, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. [Greek:
+ankos], a bend; both connected with the Aryan root _ank_-, to bend:
+see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of one line or plane to
+another. Euclid (_Elements_, book I) defines a plane angle as the
+inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet
+each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other (see
+GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle must be either
+a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was
+utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a
+straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the
+interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the
+third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse
+angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of these concepts and
+the various definitions of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be
+found in W.B. Frankland, _The First Book of Euclid's Elements_ (1905).
+Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a straight line standing
+upon another straight line so as to make the adjacent angles equal;
+any angle less than a right angle is termed an acute angle, and any
+angle greater than a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference
+between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of
+the angle, and between an angle and two right angles the supplement
+of the angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement is
+treated in the article TRIGONOMETRY. A solid angle is definable as
+the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in a common
+point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The angle between two
+planes is termed dihedral, between three trihedral, between any number
+more than three polyhedral. A spherical angle is a particular dihedral
+angle; it is the angle between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and
+is measured by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and
+the centre of the sphere.
+
+[v.02 p.0015]
+
+The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two
+curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line
+and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents
+to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if
+ever, used) have been given to particular cases:--amphicyrtic (Gr.
+[Greek: amphi], on both sides, [Greek: kyrtos], convex) or cissoidal
+(Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr.
+[Greek: xystris], a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic
+(Gr. [Greek: koilae], a hollow) or _angulus lunularis_, biconcave.
+
+
+[Illustration: The Angler (_Lophius piscatorius_).]
+
+
+ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-devil
+(_Lophius piscatorius_), a fish well known off the coasts of Great
+Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body and its
+singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists of all
+ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the "monk," a
+name which more properly belongs to _Rhina squatina_, a fish allied to
+the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad, flat and depressed,
+the remainder of the body appearing merely like an appendage. The wide
+mouth extends all round the anterior circumference of the head;
+and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are
+inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impediment to
+an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from
+the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to
+perform the functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or
+rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides
+itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round its head and also
+along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short
+fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary
+faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings,
+assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which
+it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the
+organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is
+provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the
+head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines
+of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy
+of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a
+lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to
+attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them
+with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are
+attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action
+of the jaws is automatic and depends on contact of the prey with the
+tentacle. Its stomach is distensible in an extraordinary degree, and
+not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as
+their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens
+of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It
+consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3
+ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a
+single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the
+sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated
+into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of
+Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60 deg. N.
+lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second
+species (_Lophius budegassa_) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third
+(_L. setigerus_) the coasts of China and Japan.
+
+
+
+ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, 1st EARL OF (1614-1686), British statesman,
+son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (cr. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr.
+1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle,
+Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was
+educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's
+Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and
+being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde,
+now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in concluding a
+treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing the country
+from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was
+returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the
+parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears
+to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard
+Cromwell's parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his
+seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of
+the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for
+Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth
+converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing
+about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of
+revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides
+was on the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father's death
+he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish
+peerage, and on the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of
+Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the
+peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in
+parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the
+abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of
+taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the
+administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the
+office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee
+for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on
+the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was
+a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the
+working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a
+captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of
+Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked
+by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July
+1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill "for the encouragement
+of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and
+bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign
+commodities being greater than the export of home goods, "it must
+necessarily follow ... that our silver will also be carried away into
+foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money."[1] He especially
+disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the
+importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure
+promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill
+brought in with that object in January 1667. This same year his
+naval accounts were subjected to an examination in consequence of his
+indignant refusal to take part in the attack upon Ormonde;[2] and he
+was suspended from his office in 1668, no charge, however, against him
+being substantiated. He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671
+between the two Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend
+money bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled
+_The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons_ (1702), in which
+the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was appointed
+lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining the great seal
+the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In 1679 he was included
+in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council.
+
+[v.02 p.0016]
+
+In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed
+great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is mentioned as
+endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws
+against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.[3] In the panic of the
+"Popish Plot" in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his
+contemporaries and a conspicuous courage. On the 6th of December he
+protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the
+Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking
+bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent
+from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though
+believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he
+interceded, according to his own account,[4] with the king for him as
+well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His independent attitude drew
+upon him an attack by Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the
+attorney-general, Sir W. Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to
+stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested
+against the second reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681
+Anglesey wrote _A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country_, as a
+rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs on
+the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman
+Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured
+his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding the "Cessation," and
+the duke brought the matter before the council. In 1682 he wrote _The
+Account of Arthur, Earl of Anglesey ... of the true state of Your
+Majesty's Government and Kingdom_, which was addressed to the king
+in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have been
+printed till 1694.[5] In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th of
+August 1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared
+at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June
+1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford's attainder.
+He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire on the 26th of April
+1686, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and
+business capacity, and by conspicuous courage and independence of
+judgment. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he
+had been allotted lands by Cromwell.
+
+The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust
+and not supported by any evidence. Pepys, a far more trustworthy
+judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a
+"grave, serious man," and commends his appointment as treasurer of
+the navy as that of "a very notable man and understanding and will do
+things regular and understand them himself."[6] He was a learned and
+cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed
+at his death. Besides the pamphlets already mentioned, he wrote:--_A
+True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt ... the Duke of Ormond
+and ... the Earl of Anglesey_ (1682); _A Letter of Remarks upon
+Jovian_ (1683); other works ascribed to him being _The King's Right of
+Indulgence in Matters Spiritual ... asserted_ (1688); _Truth Unveiled,
+to which is added a short Treatise on ... Transubstantiation_ (1676);
+_The Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy_ (1688);
+and _England's Confusion_ (1659). _Memoirs_ of Lord Anglesey were
+published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical
+information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir John
+Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface to Lord
+Anglesey's _State of the Government_ in 1694. The author however
+of the preface to _The Rights of the Lords asserted_ (1702), while
+blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished papers," admits
+their genuineness.
+
+Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James
+Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides other children, he had
+James, who succeeded him, Altham, created Baron Altham, and Richard,
+afterwards 3rd Baron Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl
+(d. 1761), left a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the
+peerage became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as
+Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great
+Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created in 1793 earl of
+Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the
+1st earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd earl
+of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and
+Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863),
+who thus became 10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the
+1st Viscount Valentia the father of the 1st earl of Anglesey in the
+Annesley family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls
+Annesley in the Irish peerage.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Protests of the Lords_, by J.E. Thorold Rogers (1875),
+i. 27: Carti's _Life of Ormonde_ (1851), iv. 234; _Parl. Hist._ iv.
+284.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Carti's _Ormonde_, iv. 330, 340.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Cal. of State Pap. Dom._ (1673-1675), p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Memoirs_, 8, 9.]
+
+[Footnote 5: By Sir J. Thompson, his son-in-law. Reprinted in _Somers
+Tracts_ (Scott, 1812), viii. 344, and in _Parl. Hist._ iv. app. xvi.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _Diary_ (ed. Wheatley, 1904), iv. 298, vii. 14.]
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--_Dict. of Nat. Biography_, with authorities there
+collected; lives in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_ (Bliss), iv. 181,
+_Biographia Britannica_, and H. Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_
+(1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's
+character and career); also _Bibliotheca Anglesiana_ ... per Thomam
+Philippum (1686); _The Happy Future State of England_, by Sir Peter
+Pett (1688); _Great News from Poland_ (1683), where his religious
+tolerance is ridiculed; _Somers Tracts_ (Scott, 1812), viii. 344;
+_Notes of the Privy Council_ (Roxburghe Club, 1896); _Cal. of State
+Papers, Dom._; _State Trials_, viii. and ix. 619.
+
+(P.C.Y.)
+
+
+
+ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, 1st MARQUESS OF (1768-1854), British
+field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May 1768. He was the eldest son
+of Henry Paget, 1st earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at
+Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering
+parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six
+years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as
+he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on
+his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which
+he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The
+corps soon became part of the regular army as the 80th Foot, and it
+took part, under Lord Paget's command, in the Flanders campaign of
+1794. In spite of his youth he held a brigade command for a time, and
+gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry
+arm, with which he was thenceforward associated. His substantive
+commission as lieutenant-colonel of the 16th Light Dragoons bore the
+date of the 15th of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel
+in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers,
+daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was
+transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which
+regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself
+strenuously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of
+a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799
+in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the
+unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions,
+brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition,
+he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command
+became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted
+major-general, and six years later lieutenant-general. In command of
+the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army during the Corunna campaign, Lord
+Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente,
+the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore
+wrote:--"It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise.... Our
+cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and the
+right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction
+of their ... leaders...." At Benavente one of Napoleon's best cavalry
+leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoettes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was
+Paget's last service in the Peninsula. His _liaison_ with the wife of
+Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at
+that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many
+occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true
+cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to
+1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he
+commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his
+parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented
+almost continuously up to his father's death in 1812, when he took
+his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was
+divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been
+divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married
+to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the
+British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of
+Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general
+in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the
+greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his
+command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse
+artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Quatre Bras
+to Waterloo on the 17th of June, and on the 18th gained the crowning
+distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge
+of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's
+_corps d'armee_ (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life
+throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired,
+a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later
+the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of
+his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only
+to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also
+decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.
+
+[v.02 p.0017]
+
+In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he
+became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as
+lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against
+Queen Caroline made him for a time unpopular, and when he was on one
+occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout "The Queen,"
+he added the wish, "May all your wives be like her." At the close of
+April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking
+the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by
+Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy
+council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the
+appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
+discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to
+the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which
+he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party
+animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws,
+to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of
+education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed
+to those of the government. He saw clearly that the time was come when
+the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was
+an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter
+to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
+view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
+lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in
+parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration in
+November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times
+were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of
+viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for
+repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now
+to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his
+popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on
+the difficult subject, and in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the
+marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education,
+the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable
+act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement
+he remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of
+government. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
+master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
+March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his advancement
+to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years before, he exchanged
+his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons which he had held over forty
+years, for that of the Royal Horse Guards. He died on the 29th of
+April 1854.
+
+The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two sons
+and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters by the
+second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate;
+but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd, 4th and 5th
+marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in
+1905, when the title passed to his cousin.
+
+Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army
+and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one, SIR CHARLES PAGET
+(1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy;
+another, General SIR EDWARD PAGET (1775-1849), won great distinction
+by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna,
+and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the
+marquess's sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET
+(1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS
+FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge
+of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the
+brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea.
+In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871
+lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean
+journals were published in 1881.
+
+
+
+ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area
+is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor,
+is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits (Afon Menai),
+over which were thrown Telford's suspension bridge, in 1826, and the
+Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with
+slight risings such as Parys, Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, _i.e._.
+"chair of the monastery"; there is a Nanner, "convent," not far away)
+and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y
+daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the
+land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility,
+and there are few industries.
+
+As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
+foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
+surface in three areas:--(1) a western region including Holyhead and
+Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Trefdraeth,
+and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough, Caerwen and
+Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much
+contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations
+in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies
+immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from
+Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between
+this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of
+Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this
+tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel
+Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of
+Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed
+and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered
+volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern
+and central pre-Cambrian masses carboniferous rocks are found. The
+carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and
+Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by
+Llangefni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the
+N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes
+considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on
+the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round
+Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made
+of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal
+measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near
+Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and
+felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron ochre have
+been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll
+and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences
+of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older
+rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast.
+
+[v.02 p.0018]
+
+The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holyhead branch)
+crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead
+(Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is
+farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in
+the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime
+and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey,
+coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
+county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one
+member is returned for the county. It is in the north-western circuit,
+and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop.
+2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai
+Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six
+hundreds and seventy-eight parishes.
+
+Mon (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of
+O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll
+("Dark Isle") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; "Isle of brave
+folk"). It is the Mona of Tacitus (_Ann._ xiv. 29, _Agr._ xiv. 18),
+Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru
+by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys
+Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67),
+Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island
+was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands
+overlooking the sea, _e.g._ at Plas Newydd. The Druids were attacked
+in A.D. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in A.D. 78. In the
+5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the
+princes of Gwynedd lived till 1277. The present road from Holyhead
+to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps,
+coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the
+Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was
+devastated by the Danes (_Dub Gint_ or black nations, _gentes_),
+especially in A.D. 853.
+
+See Edw. Breese, _Kalendar of Gwynedd_ (Venedocia), on Anglesey,
+Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and _The History of Powys
+Fadog_.
+
+
+
+ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO_{4},
+crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with
+barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
+by Dr. Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-mine
+in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F.S.
+Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found
+abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple
+in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces
+of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of
+limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi
+in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
+adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The
+variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very
+extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V.
+von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the
+angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness
+is 3 and the specific gravity 6.3. There are distinct cleavages
+parallel to the faces of the prism (110) and the basal plane (001),
+but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals
+barytes and celestite.
+
+[Illustration: Anglesite specimen.]
+
+Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the
+oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these
+have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals
+encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills,
+in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most
+localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing
+lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large
+masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral
+contains 68%.
+
+
+
+ANGLI, ANGLII or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in
+his _Germania_ (cap. 40) at the end of the 1st century. He gives no
+precise indication of their geographical position, but states that,
+together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of
+later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary
+was situated on "an island in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his _Geography_
+(ii. 11. Sec. 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision
+between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks
+of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately,
+however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence
+furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications
+which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these
+passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home
+of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is
+that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the
+canton Engilin), from which region the _Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc
+est Thuringorum_ is believed by many to have come. At the present time
+the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the
+beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part
+of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly
+from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of
+the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking
+affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to
+be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion.
+Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that
+the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be
+observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately
+to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skioeldr, the
+mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skioeldungar). In English
+tradition this person is connected with "Scedeland" (pl.), a name
+which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skane, while in
+Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient
+royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.
+
+Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a
+land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the _Historia
+Brittonum_. King Alfred and the chronicler AEthelweard identified this
+place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of
+Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent,
+and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by
+Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions
+relating to two kings named Wermund (_q.v._) and Offa (_q.v._), from
+whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are
+connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has
+preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in
+their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal
+family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli
+invaded this country (see BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_), after which time
+their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the
+code mentioned above.
+
+The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric
+antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries.
+Among the places where these have been found, special mention should
+be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between
+Rendsburg and Eckernfoerde, which has yielded many urns and brooches
+closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still
+greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
+and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
+articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter
+case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to
+reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the
+age preceding the invasion of Britain.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Hist. Ecc._ i. 15: King Alfred's version of
+_Orosius_, i. 1. Sec.Sec. 12, 19; AEthelweard's _Chronicle_, lib. i. For
+traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (1). L.
+Weiland, _Die Angeln_ (1889); A. Erdmann, _Ueber die Heimat und den
+Namen der Angeln_ (Upsala, 1890--cf. H. Moeller in the _Anzeiger fuer
+deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur_, xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock
+in the _Historisk Tidskrift_ (Stockholm), 1895, xv. p. 163 ff.; G.
+Schuette, _Var Anglerne Tyskere?_ (Flensborg, 1900); R. Munro Chadwick,
+_The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt,
+_Denmark in the Early Iron Age_ (London, 1866); J. Mestorf,
+_Urnenfriedhofe in Schleswig-Holstein_ (Hamburg, 1886); S. Mueller,
+_Nordische Altertumskunde_ (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122
+ff.; see further ANGLO-SAXONS and BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_.
+
+(H.M.C.)
+
+[v.02 p.0019]
+
+
+
+ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the
+Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with
+the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as "Anglican
+Communion," first used in the 19th century, marked at once the immense
+development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change
+which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
+and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate
+article (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF); and it is not without significance
+that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history
+of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the
+limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over
+three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it
+early gave way to the dominant Presbyterianism, its religious was long
+overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact,
+while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious
+practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception,
+which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a
+particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the
+Scotsman, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of
+the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation.
+This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly
+favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeeding the
+Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church
+to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the 16th
+and 17th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond
+the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the
+Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the
+seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical
+organization. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in
+the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though
+in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop
+for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen
+of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that
+their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who
+occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates
+for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.
+
+The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim
+that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East
+as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church,
+was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The
+severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought
+the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of
+an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the
+royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion
+of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr. Samuel Seabury to
+England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate
+him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the
+opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was
+necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to
+consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though
+the bestowal of the _potestas ordinis_ would be valid, the crown,
+which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal
+_jurisdiction_, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the
+consecration of a bishop to a see outside the realm (see BISHOP).
+The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal
+restrictions, were more amenable; and on the 11th of November 1784
+Seabury was consecrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786,
+on the initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
+were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad; and,
+on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in America and
+the nature of certain liturgical changes in contemplation, the two
+English archbishops proceeded, on the 14th of February 1787,
+to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the sees of
+Pennsylvania and New York (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH).
+
+This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the
+United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely
+loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious
+life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from
+that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles
+of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is
+not yet by any means complete.
+
+Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards the
+traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity of
+Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the jurisdiction of
+Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion of the Anglican
+Church has been in no sense conceived as a Protestant aggressive
+movement against Rome. Occasional exceptions, such as the consecration
+by Archbishop Plunket of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in
+Spain, raised so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main,
+then, the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the
+British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its claim,
+so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the Church
+of England and the English race, while recognizing its special duties
+towards the non-Christian populations subject to the empire or brought
+within the reach of its influence. As against the Church of Rome, with
+its system of rigid centralization, the Anglican Church represents the
+principle of local autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive
+and more catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has
+developed on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation;
+but, though in principle there is no great difference between a church
+defined by national, and a church defined by racial boundaries, there
+is an immense difference in effect, especially when the race--as in
+the case of the English--is itself ecumenical.
+
+The realization of what may be called this catholic mission of the
+English church, in the extension of its organization to the colonies,
+was but a slow process.
+
+
+_The Church in the Colonies._
+
+On the 12th of August 1787 Dr. Charles Inglis was consecrated bishop
+of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British possessions in
+North America. In 1793 the see of the Quebec was founded; Jamaica
+and Barbados followed in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839.
+Meanwhile the needs of India has been tardily met, on the urgent
+representations in parliament of William Wilberforce and others, by
+the consecration of Dr. T.F. Middleton as bishop of Calcutta, with
+three archdeacons to assist him. In 1817 Ceylon was added to his
+charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East Indies and the
+islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 "New South Wales and its
+dependencies"! Some five years later, on the nomination of the duke
+of Wellington, William Broughton was sent out to work in this enormous
+jurisdiction as archdeacon of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835
+and 1837, the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836
+Broughton himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus
+down to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several
+were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more
+than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of that year,
+however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his famous letter to the
+archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that "an episcopal church without
+a bishop is a contradiction in terms," and strenuously advocating a
+great effort for the extension of the episcopate. It was not in vain.
+The plan was taken up with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841
+the bishops of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration which
+inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent declarations
+in 1872 and 1891 have served both to record progress and to stimulate
+to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand was founded in 1841, being
+endowed by the Church Missionary Society through the council, and
+George Augustus Selwyn was chosen as the first bishop. Since then the
+increase has gone on, as the result both of home effort and of the
+action of the colonial churches. Moreover, in many cases bishops
+have been sent to inaugurate new missions, as in the cases of the
+Universities' Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo, Corea and New
+Guinea; and the missionary jurisdictions so founded develop in time
+into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial jurisdictions
+of 1841, there are now about a hundred foreign and colonial
+jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant Episcopal Church
+of the United States.
+
+[v.02 p.0020]
+
+It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired legislative
+independence and a determinate organization. At first, sees were
+created and bishops were nominated by the crown by means of letters
+patent; and in some cases an income was assigned out of public
+funds. Moreover, for many years all bishops alike were consecrated in
+England, took the customary "oath of due obedience" to the archbishop
+of Canterbury, and were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans.
+But by degrees changes have been made on all these points.
+
+
+_Provincial Organization._
+
+(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization necessary,
+and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Calcutta received
+letters patent as metropolitan of India when the sees of Madras and
+Bombay were founded; and fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton
+in 1847 and Bishop Gray in 1853, as metropolitans of Australia and
+South Africa respectively. Similar action was taken in 1858, when
+Bishop Selwyn became metropolitan of New Zealand; and again in 1860,
+when, on the petition of the Canadian bishops to the crown and the
+colonial legislature for permission to elect a metropolitan, letters
+patent were issued appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that
+office. Since then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed
+by regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by
+the resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The
+constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as
+South Africa, New South Wales, and Queensland, the metropolitan see
+is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city can claim
+pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else is the senior
+bishop by consecration. Two further developments must be mentioned:
+(a) The creation of diocesan and provincial synods, the first diocesan
+synod to meet being that of New Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation
+of a provincial synod was foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian
+bishops at Sydney in 1850; (b) towards the close of the 19th century
+the title of _archbishop_ began to be assumed by the metropolitans of
+several provinces. It was first assumed by the metropolitans of Canada
+and Rupert's Land, at the desire of the Canadian general synod in
+1893; and subsequently, in accordance with a resolution of the Lambeth
+conference of 1897, it was given by their synods to the bishop of
+Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales and to the bishop of Cape
+Town as metropolitan of South Africa. Civil obstacles have hitherto
+delayed its adoption by the metropolitan of India.
+
+
+_Freedom from state control._
+
+(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches have been freed from their
+rather burdensome relations with the state. The church of the West
+Indies was disestablished and disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was
+decided, in _Regina_ v. _Eton College_, that the crown could not
+claim the presentation to a living when it had appointed the former
+incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case of an
+English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the crown lawyers,
+two missionary bishops were consecrated without letters patent for
+regions outside British territory: C.F. Mackenzie for the Zambezi
+region and J.C. Patteson for Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape
+Town and New Zealand respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared,
+in _Long_ v. _The Bishop of Cape Town_, that "the Church of England,
+in places where there is no church established by law, is in the same
+situation with any other religious body." In 1865 it adjudged Bishop
+Gray's letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to be powerless
+to enable him "to exercise any coercive jurisdiction, or hold any
+court or tribunal for that purpose," since the Cape colony already
+possessed legislative institutions when they were issued; and his
+deposition of Bishop Colenso was declared to be "null and void in law"
+(_re The Bishop of Natal_). With the exception of Colenso the South
+African bishops forthwith surrendered their patents, and formally
+accepted Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example followed in
+1865 in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the diocese of
+Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and consecrated
+under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time entirely
+discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen for the bishop
+of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate produced the reply
+from the colonial secretary that "it was not the part of the crown
+to interfere in the creation of a new bishop or bishopric, and not
+consistent with the dignity of the crown that he should advise Her
+Majesty to issue a mandate which would not be worth the paper on which
+it was written, and which, having been sent out to Canada, might be
+disregarded in the most complete manner." And at the present day the
+colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however,
+is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of sees
+founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue (with the
+exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does so). They are
+not only nominated by the crown and consecrated under letters
+patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected "to such power of
+revocation and recall as is by law vested" in the crown; and where
+additional oversight was necessary for the church in Tinnevelly, it
+could only be secured by the consecration of two assistant bishops,
+who worked under a commission for the archbishop of Canterbury which
+was to expire on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then,
+however, new sees have been founded which are under no such
+restrictions: by the creation of dioceses either in native states
+(Travancore and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota
+Nagpur, Lucknow, &c.). In the latter case there is no _legal_
+subdivision of the older diocese, the new bishop administering
+such districts as belonged to it under commission from its bishop,
+provision being made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical
+there shall be no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.
+
+
+_Spiritual autonomy._
+
+(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the
+archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 1855 no colonial bishop
+was consecrated outside the British Isles, the first instance being
+Dr. MacDougall of Labuan, consecrated in India under a commission
+from the archbishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be
+unlawful for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the
+suffragan's oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed by
+the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop at his
+discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has not been done
+in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by the metropolitan of
+Sydney at his consecration. Thus the constituent parts of the Anglican
+communion gradually acquire autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop
+into organized dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with
+canons of their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve
+isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another, and
+act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and dioceses are
+mapped out by common arrangement, and even transferred if it seems
+advisable; _e.g._ the diocese Honolulu (Hawaii), previously under the
+jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, was transferred in 1900
+to the Episcopal Church in the United States on account of political
+changes. Though the see of Canterbury claims no primacy over the
+Anglican communion analogous to that exercised over the Roman Church
+by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and deference,
+which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange of
+greetings. There is also a strong common life emphasized by common
+action.
+
+[v.02 p.0021]
+
+
+_Pan-Anglican Congress._
+
+The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world,
+instituted by Archbishop Longley in 1867, and known as the Lambeth
+Conferences (_q.v._), though even for the Anglican communion they
+have not the authority of an ecumenical synod, and their decisions
+are rather of the nature of counsels than commands, have done much to
+promote the harmony and co-operation of the various branches of the
+Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this common life was
+given by the great pan-Anglican congress held in London between the
+12th and 24th of June 1908, which preceded the Lambeth conference
+opened on the 5th of July. The idea of this originated with Bishop
+Montgomery, secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the
+Gospel, and was endorsed by a resolution of the United Boards of
+Mission in 1903. As the result of negotiations and preparations
+extending over five years, 250 bishops, together with delegates,
+clerical and lay, from every diocese in the Anglican communion, met in
+London, the opening service of intercession being held in Westminster
+Abbey. In its general character, the meeting was but a Church congress
+on an enlarged scale, and the subjects discussed, _e.g._. the attitude
+of churchmen towards the question of the marriage laws or that of
+socialism, followed much the same lines. The congress, of course,
+had no power to decide or to legislate for the Church, its main value
+being in drawing its scattered members closer together, in bringing
+the newer and more isolated branches into consciousness of their
+contact with the parent stem, and in opening the eyes of the Church
+of England to the point of view and the peculiar problems of the
+daughter-churches.
+
+The Anglican communion consists of the following:--(1) The Church of
+England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with 24 and 11 dioceses
+respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland, 2 provinces, Armagh and
+Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respectively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal
+Church, with 7 dioceses. (4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of
+the United States, with 89 dioceses and missionary jurisdictions,
+including North Tokyo, Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the
+independent dioceses of Hayti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church,
+consisting of (a) the province of Canada, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
+province of Rupert's Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India
+and Ceylon, 1 province of 11 dioceses. (7) The Church of the West
+Indies, 1 province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward
+Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church, consisting
+of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
+province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses; (c) the province of Victoria,
+with 5 dioceses. (9) The Church of New Zealand, 1 province of 7
+dioceses, together with the missionary jurisdiction of Melanesia.
+(10) The South African Church, 1 province of 10 dioceses, with the 2
+missionary jurisdictions of Masbonaland and Lebombo. (11) Nearly 30
+isolated dioceses and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from
+the see of Canterbury.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--_Official Year-book of the Church of England_;
+Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_, vol. ii. (London, 1895); _Digest
+of S.P.G. Records_ (London, 1893); E. Stock, _History of the Church
+Missionary Society_, 3 vols. (London, 1899); H.W. Tucker, _The English
+Church in Other Lands_ (London, 1886); A.T. Wirgman, _The Church and
+the Civil Power_ (London, 1893).
+
+
+
+ANGLING, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by means of
+a baited hook or "angle" (from the Indo-European root _ank-_, meaning
+"bend").[1] It is among the most ancient of human activities, and may
+be said to date from the time when man was in the infancy of the Stone
+Age, eking out a precarious existence by the slaughter of any living
+thing which he could reach with the rude weapons at his command. It is
+probable that attack on fishes was at first much the same as attack
+on animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and conducted by
+means of a rude spear with a flint head. It is probable, too, that the
+primitive harpooners were not signally successful in their efforts,
+and so set their wits to work to devise other means of getting at the
+abundant food which waited for them in every piece of water near their
+caves. Observation would soon show them that fish fed greedily on each
+other and on other inhabitants of the water or living things that fell
+into it, and so, no doubt, arose the idea of entangling the prey by
+means of its appetite. Hence came the notion of the first hook, which,
+it seems certain, was not a hook at all but a "gorge," a piece of
+flint or stone which the fish could swallow with the bait but which it
+could not eject afterwards. From remains found in cave-dwellings and
+their neighbourhood in different parts of the world it is obvious that
+these gorges varied in shape, but in general the idea was the same, a
+narrow strip of stone or flake of flint, either straight or slightly
+curved at the ends, with a groove in the middle round which the line
+could be fastened. Buried in the bait it would be swallowed end
+first; then the tightening of the line would fix it cross-wise in the
+quarry's, stomach or gullet and so the capture would be assured. The
+device still lingers in France and in a few remote parts of England in
+the method of catching eels which is known as "sniggling." In this a
+needle buried in a worm plays the part of the prehistoric gorge.
+
+The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge is
+easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved, until
+eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained. This
+development would be materially assisted by man's discovery of the
+uses of bronze and its adaptability to his requirements. The single
+hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to us, was possibly a
+concession of the lake-dweller to what may even then have been a
+problem--the "education" of fish, and to a recognition of the fact
+that sport with the crude old methods was falling off. But it is
+also not improbable that in some parts of the world the single hook
+developed _pari passu_ with the double, and that, on the sea-shore
+for instance, where man was able to employ so adaptable a substance as
+shell, the first hook was a curved fragment of shell lashed with fibre
+to a piece of wood or bone, in such a way that the shell formed the
+bend of the hook while the wood or bone formed the shank. Both
+early remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear out this
+supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were pressed
+into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line or the rod
+that may have been used with these early hooks is largely a matter
+of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the tendril of a plant, the
+first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is fairly obvious that the
+rod must have been suggested by the necessity of getting the bait out
+over obstacles which lay between the fisherman and the water, and
+that it was a device for increasing both the reach of the arm and the
+length of the line. It seems not improbable that the rod very early
+formed a part of the fisherman's equipment.
+
+[Footnote 1: As to whether "angling" necessarily implies a rod as well
+as a line and hook, see the discussion in the law case of _Barnard_ v.
+_Roberts_ (_Times L.R._, April 13, 1907), when the question arose
+as to the use of night-lines being angling; but the decision against
+night-lines went on the ground of the absence of the personal element
+rather than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries
+are blind guides on this point, and the authorities cited are
+inconclusive; but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three
+necessary factors--a personal angler, the sporting element, and the
+use of recognized fishing-tackle.]
+
+
+_Literary History_.--From prehistoric times down to comparatively
+late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have remained a
+practice; its development into an art or sport is a modern idea. In
+the earliest literature references to angling are not very numerous,
+but there are passages in the Old Testament which show that
+fish-taking with hook as well as net was one of the common industries
+in the East, and that fish, where it was obtainable, formed an
+important article of diet. In _Numbers_ (xi. 5) the children of Israel
+mourn for the fish which they "did eat in Egypt freely." So much too
+is proved by the monuments of Egypt; indeed more, for the figures
+found in some of the Egyptian fishing pictures using short rods and
+stout lines are sometimes attired after the manner of those who were
+great in the land. This indicates that angling had already, in
+a highly civilized country, taken its place among the methods
+of diversion at the disposal of the wealthy, though from the
+uncompromising nature of the tackle depicted and the apparent
+simplicity of the fish it would scarcely be safe to assume that in
+Egypt angling arrived at the dignity of becoming an "art." In Europe
+it took very much longer for the taking of fish to be regarded even as
+an amusement, and the earliest references to it in the Greek and Latin
+classics are not very satisfying to the sportsman.
+
+[v.02 p.0022]
+
+There is, however, a passage in the _Odyssey_ (xii. 247) which is of
+considerable importance, as it shows that fishing with rod and line
+was well enough understood in early Greece to be used as a popular
+illustration. It occurs in the well-known scene where Scylla seizes
+the companions of Odysseus out of the ship and bears them upwards,
+just as "some fisher on a headland with a long rod" brings small
+fishes gasping to the shore. Another important, though comparatively
+late, passage in Greek poetry is the twenty-first idyll of Theocritus.
+In this the fisherman Asphalion relates how in a dream he hooked
+a large golden fish and describes graphically, albeit with some
+obscurity of language, how he "played" it. Asphalion used a rod and
+fished from a rock, much after the manner of the Homeric angler. Among
+other Greek writers, Herodotus has a good many references to fish and
+fishing; the capture of fish is once or twice mentioned or implied by
+Plato, notably in the _Laws_ (vii. 823); Aristotle deals with fishes
+in his _Natural History_, and there are one or two fishing passages
+in the anthology. But in Greek literature, as a whole the subject of
+angling is not at all prominent. In writers of late Greek, however,
+there is more material. Plutarch, for instance, gives us the famous
+story of the fishing match between Antony and Cleopatra, which has
+been utilized by Shakespeare. Moreover, it is in Greek that the first
+complete treatise on fishing which has come down to us is written, the
+_Halieutica_ of Oppian (c. A.D. 169). It is a hexameter poem in five
+books with perhaps more technical than sporting interest, and not so
+much even of that as the length of the work would suggest. Still it
+contains some information about tackle and methods, and some passages
+describing battles with big fish, in the right spirit of enthusiasm.
+Also in Greek is what is famous as the first reference in literature
+to fly-fishing, in the fifteenth book of Aelian's _Natural History_
+(3rd century A.D.). It is there described how the Macedonians captured
+a certain spotted fish in the river Astraeus by means of a lure
+composed of coloured wool and feathers, which was presumably used in
+the manner now known as "dapping." That there were other Greek writers
+who dealt with fish and fishing and composed "halieutics" we know from
+Athenaeus. In the first book of his _Deipnosophistae_ he gives a list
+of them. But he compares their work unfavourably with the passage of
+Homer already cited, in a way which suggests that their knowledge of
+angling was not a great advance upon the knowledge of their remote
+literary ancestors. In Latin literature allusions to angling are
+rather more numerous than in Greek, but on the whole they are
+unimportant. Part of a poem by Ovid, the _Halieuticon_, composed
+during the poet's exile at Tomi after A.D. 9, still survives. In
+other Roman writers the subject is only treated by way of allusion or
+illustration. Martial, however, provides, among other passages, what
+may perhaps be entitled to rank as the earliest notice of private
+fishery rights--the epigram _Ad Piscatorem_, which warns would-be
+poachers from casting a line in the Baian lake. Pliny the elder
+devoted the ninth book of his _Natural History_ to fishes and
+water-life, and Plautus, Cicero, Catullus, Horace, Juvenal, Pliny
+the younger and Suetonius all allude to angling here and there.
+Agricultural writers, too, such as Varro and Columella, deal with the
+subject of fish ponds and stews rather fully. Later than any of these,
+but still just included in Latin literature, we have Ausonius (_c_.
+A.D. 320) and his well-known idyll the _Mosella_, which contains a
+good deal about the fish of the Moselle and the methods of catching
+them. In this poem is to be found the first recognizable description
+of members of the salmon family, and, though the manner of their
+application is rather doubtful, the names _salmo, salar_ and _fario_
+strike a responsive note in the breast of the modern angler.
+
+
+_Post-classical Literature_.--As to what happened in the world of
+angling in the first few centuries of the Christian era we know
+little. It may be inferred, however, that both fish and fishermen
+occupied a more honourable position in Christendom than they ever did
+before. The prominence of fishermen in the gospel narratives would in
+itself have been enough to bring this about, but it also happened
+that the Greek word for fish, [Greek: ICHTHUS], had an anagrammatic
+significance which the devout were not slow to perceive. The initials
+of the word resolve into what is practically a confession of faith,
+[Greek: Iesous Christos Theou Uios Soter](Jesus Christ, Son of God,
+Saviour). It is therefore not surprising that we find the fish very
+prominent as a sacred emblem in the painting and sculpture of
+the primitive church, or that Clement of Alexandria should have
+recommended it, among other things, as a device for signet rings or
+seals. The fisherman too is frequently represented in early Christian
+art, and it is worthy of remark that he more often uses a line and
+hook than a net. The references to fish and fishing scattered about
+in the writings of the early fathers for the most part reflect the two
+ideas of the sacredness of the fish and divine authorization of the
+fisherman; the second idea certainly prevailed until the time of Izaak
+Walton, for he uses it to justify his pastime. It is also not unlikely
+that the practice of fasting (in many cases fish was allowed when meat
+was forbidden) gave the art of catching fish additional importance.
+It seems at any rate to have been a consideration of weight when
+sites were chosen for monasteries in Europe, and in many cases when
+no fish-producing river was at hand the lack was supplied by the
+construction of fish-ponds. Despite all this, however, save for an
+occasional allusion in the early fathers, there is hardly a connecting
+link between the literature of Pagan Rome and the literature that
+sprang up on the invention of printing. One volume, the _Geoponica_, a
+Greek compilation concerning whose authorship and date there has
+been much dispute, is attributed in _Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ to
+the beginning of the 10th century. It contains one book on fish,
+fish-ponds and fishing, with prescriptions for baits, &c., extracted
+for the most part from other writers. But it seems doubtful whether
+its date should not be placed very much earlier. Tradition makes it
+a Carthaginian treatise translated into Greek. A more satisfactory
+fragment of fishing literature is to be found in the Colloquy of
+AElfric, written (_ad pucros linguae latinae locutionis exercendos_)
+towards the end of the same century. AElfric became archbishop of
+Canterbury in A.D. 995, and the passage in the Anglo-Saxon text-book
+takes honourable rank as the earliest reference to fishing in English
+writings, though it is not of any great length. It is to be noted that
+the fisher who takes a share in the colloquy states that he prefers
+fishing in the river to fishing in the sea. Ascribed to the 13th or
+14th century is a Latin poem _De Vetula_, whose author was apparently
+Richard de Fournival. It contains a passage on angling, and was placed
+to the credit of Ovid when first printed (c. 1470). A manuscript in
+the British museum, _Comptes des pecheries de l'eglise de Troyes_
+(A.D. 1349-1413), gives a minute account of the fisheries with the
+weights of fish captured and the expenses of working. There is,
+however, practically nothing else of importance till we come to
+the first printed book on angling (a translation of Oppian, 1478,
+excepted), and so to the beginning of the literature proper. This
+first book was a little volume printed in Antwerp probably in 1492 at
+the press of Matthias van der Goes. In size it is little more than a
+pamphlet, and it treats of birds as well as fish:--_Dit Boecxken leert
+hoe men mach Voghelen ... ende ... visschen vangen metten kanden. Ende
+oeck andersins...._ ("This book teaches how one may catch birds ...
+and ... fish with the hands, and also otherwise"). Only one copy
+apparently survives, in the Denison library, and a translation
+privately printed for Mr. Alfred Denison in 1872 was limited to
+twenty-five copies. At least two other editions of the book appeared
+in Flemish, and it also made its way, in 1502, to Germany, where,
+translated and with certain alterations and additions, it seems
+to have been re-issued frequently. Next in date comes the famous
+_Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle_, printed at Westminster by
+Wynkyn de Worde in 1496 as a part of the second edition of _The Book
+of St. Albans_. The treatise is for this reason associated with the
+name of Dame Juliana Berners, but that somewhat dubious compiler
+can have had nothing whatever to do with it. The treatise is almost
+certainly a compilation from some earlier work on angling ("bokes of
+credence" are mentioned in its text), possibly from a manuscript of
+the earlier part of the 15th century, of which a portion is preserved
+in the Denison collection. This was published in 1883 by Mr. Thomas
+Satchell under the title _An Older Form of the Treatyse of Fysshynge
+wyth an Angle_. But it is also possible that a still older work was
+the parent of both books, for it has been held that the manuscript is
+an independent version. However this may be, it is certain that the
+treatise itself has been the parent of many other works. Many of
+the instructions contained in it are handed down from generation to
+generation with little change except in diction. Especially is this
+the case with the list of trout-flies, a meagre twelve, which survives
+in many fishing books until well into the 18th century.
+
+[v.02 p.0023]
+
+From the beginning of the 16th century the fisherman's library begins
+to grow apace, as, though books solely devoted to fishing are not yet
+frequent, works on husbandry and country pursuits almost all contain
+something on the subject. In Italy the fisherman and his occupation
+apparently were considered poetically; the word _pescatore_ or its
+cognates are common on Italian 16th and 17th century title-pages,
+though in many instances the fulfilment of the implied promise is
+not adequate, from an angler's point of view. From the pages of
+_Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ a fairly long list of Italian writers could
+be gleaned. Among them may be mentioned Sannazaro (_Piscatoria_, &c.,
+Rome, 1526) and Andrea Calmo (_Rime pescatorie_, Venice, 1557). A
+century later was Parthenius, who published a volume of _Halieutica_
+at Naples. This writer has an amusing reference to the art of
+"tickling" trout as practised in Britain. In Germany, as has been
+shown, the original little Flemish treatise had a wide vogue in
+the 16th century, and fishing played a part in a good many books on
+husbandry such as that of Conrad Heresbach (1570). Fish and fish-ponds
+formed the main topic of a Latin work by Dubravius (1552), while
+Gesner in the middle of the 16th and Aldrovandi at the beginning of
+the 17th centuries wrote at length on the natural history of fishes.
+In France the subject is less well represented, but _Les Pescheries_
+of Chris. de Gamon (Lyons, 1599) and _Le Plaisir des champs_ of Cl.
+Gauchet (Paris, 1604) deserve to be noted. _Les Ruses innocentes_ by
+Francois Fortin, first published at Paris in 1600, and several times
+in later editions, is characterized by Messrs Westwood and Satchell as
+"on the whole the most interesting contribution made by France to
+the literature of angling." England during the most part of the 16th
+century was evidently well enough served by the original treatise
+out of _The Book of St. Albans_. It was republished twice by Wynkyn
+de Worde, six or seven times by Copland, and some five times by other
+printers. It was also practically republished in _A Booke of Fishing_
+by L.M. (1590). L.M. (Leonard Mascall) ranks as an angling author, but
+he did little more than borrow and edit the treatise. The same may
+be said of another version of _The Book of St. Albans_ "now newly
+collected by W.G. Faulkener" and issued in 1596.
+
+
+_Modern Literature_.--In 1600 appeared John Taverner's _Certaine
+Experiments concerning Fish and Fruite_, and after this the period of
+angling literature proper begins. The _Secrets of Angling_ (1613),
+by J(ohn) D(ennys). Esq., is one of the most important volumes in the
+angler's library, both on account of the excellence of the verse
+in which it is written and also on account of its practical value.
+Gervase Markham, "the first journalist," as he has been called,
+published his first book of husbandry at the same date, and, as in
+most of his many books on the same subject, devoted a certain amount
+of space to fishing. But Markham gathered his materials in a rather
+shameless manner and his angling passages have little originality.
+Thomas Barker's _The Art of Angling_ (1st ed., 1651) takes a more
+honourable position, and received warm commendation from Izaak Walton
+himself, who followed it in 1653 with _The Compleat Angler_. So
+much has been written about this treasured classic that it is only
+necessary to indicate its popularity here by saying that its editions
+occupy some twenty pages in _Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ (1883), and that
+since that work was published at least forty new editions have to be
+added to the list. During Walton's life-time the book ran through five
+editions, and with the fifth (1676) was incorporated Charles Cotton's
+second part, the "instructions how to angle for a trout or grayling,
+in a clear stream." In some cases too there was added a third book,
+the fourth edition of _The Experienced Angler_, by Robert Venables
+(1st ed., 1662). The three books together bore the title of _The
+Universal Angler_. Venables's portion was dropped later, but it is
+worth reading, and contained sound instruction though it has not the
+literary merit of Walton and Cotton.
+
+A few other notable books of the century call for enumeration,
+_The Gentleman's Recreation_ by Nicholas Cox (1674), Gilbert's _The
+Angler's Delight_ (1676), Chetham's _Vade-Mecum_ (1681), _The Complete
+Troller_ by Robert Nobbes (1682), R. Franck's _Northern Memoirs_
+(1694), and _The True Art of Angling_ by J.S. (1696). Of these
+Chetham, Nobbes, Franck and J.S. have the merit of considerable
+originality. Franck has gained some notoriety by his round abuse
+of Walton. In the 18th century among others we find _The Secrets of
+Angling_ by C.G. (1705), Robert Hewlett's _The Angler's Sure Guide_
+(1706), _The Whole Art of Fishing_ (1714), _The Compleat Fisherman_
+by James Saunders (1724), _The Art of Angling_ by R. Brookes (1740),
+another book with the same title by R. and C. Bowlker (Worcester,
+c. 1750), _The Complete Sportsman_ by Thomas Fairfax (c. 1760), _The
+Angler's Museum_ by T. Shirley (1784), and _A Concise Treatise on
+the Art of Angling_ by Thomas Best (1787). Of these only Saunders's,
+Bowlker's and Best's books are of much importance, the rest being
+for the most part "borrowed." One volume of verse in the 18th century
+calls for notice, Moses Browne's _Piscatory Eclogues_ (1729). Among
+greater names we get angling passages in Pope, Gay and Thomson; the
+two last were evidently brothers of the angle.
+
+With the 19th century angling literature becomes too big a subject to
+be treated in detail, and it is only possible to glance at a few of
+the more important books and writers. Daniel's _Rural Sports_ appeared
+in 1801; it is a treasure-house of odd facts. In 1828 Sir Humphry Davy
+published his famous _Salmonia_, which was reviewed in the _Quarterly_
+by Sir Walter Scott. At about this time too were appearing the _Noctes
+Ambrosianae_ in _Blackwood's Magazine_. Christopher North (Professor
+Wilson) often touched upon angling in them, besides contributing a
+good many angling articles to the magazine. In 1835 that excellent
+angling writer Thomas Tod Stoddart began his valuable series of
+books with _The Art of Angling as Practised in Scotland_. In 1839 he
+published _Songs and Poems_, among which are pieces of great merit.
+During this period, too, first appeared, year by year, the _Newcastle
+Fishers' Garlands_, collected by Joseph Crawhall afterwards and
+republished in 1864. These border verses, like Stoddart's, have often
+a genuine ring about them which is missing from the more polished
+effusions of Gay and Thomson. Alfred Ronalds's _The Fly-Fisher's
+Entomology_ (1st ed., 1836) was a publication of great importance, for
+it marked the beginning of the scientific spirit among trout-fishers.
+It ran through many editions and is still a valuable book of
+reference. A step in angling history is also marked by George Pulman's
+_Vade-Mecum of Fly-fishing for Trout_ (1841), for it contains the
+first definite instructions on fishing with a "dry fly." Another is
+marked by Hewett Wheatley's _The Rod and the Line_ (1849), where is
+to be found the earliest reference to the "eyed" hook. Yet another is
+marked by W.C. Stewart's _The Practical Angler_ (1857), in which is
+taught the new doctrine of "up-stream" fishing for trout. This is a
+book of permanent value. Among the many books of this period Charles
+Kingsley's _Miscellanies_ (1859) stands out, for it contains the
+immortal "Chalk-Stream Studies." The work of Francis Francis begins
+at about the same time, though his _A Book on Angling_, which is still
+one of the most valuable text-books, was not first published till
+1867. Another well-known and excellent writer, Mr. H. Cholmondeley
+Pennell, began in the early 'sixties; it is to him that we owe the
+admirable volumes on fresh-water fishing in the "Badminton Library."
+Among other English writers mention must be made of Messrs William
+Senior, John Bickerdyke and F.M. Halford, who have all performed
+signal services for angling and its literature. (See further
+bibliography _ad fin_.) In America the latter half of the 19th century
+produced a good deal of fishing literature, much of it of a high
+standard.
+
+[v.02 p.0024]
+
+_I go a-Fishing_ by Dr. W.C. Prime (1873), _Fishing with the Fly_ by
+C.F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others (1883), _The American Salmon
+Fisherman_ and _Fly Rods and Fly Tackle_ by H.P. Wells (1886 and
+1885), _Little Rivers_ and other books by the Rev. H. Van Dyke--these
+are only a few specially distinguished in style and matter. Germany
+and France have not contributed so largely to the modern library,
+but in the first country we find several useful works by Max von dem
+Borne, beginning with the _Handbuch der Angelfischerei_ of 1875,
+and there are a good many other writers who have contributed to
+the subject, while in France there are a few volumes on fishing by
+different hands. The most noticeable is M.G. Albert Petit's _La Truite
+de riviere_ (1897), an admirable book on fly-fishing. As yet, however,
+though there are many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has
+not established itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature
+of its own; the same may be said of Germany.
+
+
+_Modern Conditions_.--In the modern history of angling there are one
+or two features that should be touched upon. The great increase in the
+number of fishermen has had several results. One is a corresponding
+increase in the difficulty of obtaining fishing, and a notable rise in
+the value of rivers, especially those which are famed for salmon and
+trout. Salmon-fishing now may be said to have become a pastime of the
+rich, and there are signs that trout-fishing will before long have
+to be placed in the same exclusive category, while even the right to
+angle for less-esteemed fish will eventually be a thing of price. The
+development is natural, and it has naturally led to efforts on the
+part of the angling majority to counteract, if possible, the growing
+difficulty. These efforts have been directed chiefly in two ways, one
+the establishment of fishing clubs, the other the adoption of angling
+in salt water. The fishing club of the big towns was originally a
+social institution, and its members met together to sup, converse
+on angling topics and perhaps to display notable fish that they had
+caught. Later, however, arose the idea that it would be a convenience
+if a club could give its members privileges of fishing as well as
+privileges of reunion. So it comes about that all over the United
+Kingdom, in British colonies and dependencies, in the United States,
+and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs rent waters, undertake
+preservation and restocking and generally lead an active and useful
+existence. It is a good sign for the future of angling and anglers
+that they are rapidly increasing in number. One of the oldest
+fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was the Schuylkill club, founded
+in Pennsylvania in 1732. An account of its history was published in
+Philadelphia in 1830. Among the earliest clubs in London are to be
+numbered such societies as The True Waltonians, The Piscatorial,
+The Friendly Anglers and The Gresham, which are still flourishing. A
+certain amount of literary activity has been observable in the world
+of angling clubs, and several volumes of "papers" are on the records.
+Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of _Anglers' Evenings_
+published in 1880-1894, a collection of essays by members of the
+Manchester Anglers' Association. The other method of securing a
+continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-angling as a substitute for
+fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern thing. Within the memory of
+men still young the old tactics of hand-line and force were considered
+good enough for sea fish. Now the fresh-water angler has lent his
+centuries of experience in deluding his quarry; the sea-angler has
+adopted many of the ideas presented to him, has modified or improved
+others, and has developed the capture of sea-fish into a science
+almost as subtle as the capture of their fresh-water cousins. One more
+modern feature, which is also a result of the increase of anglers,
+is the great advance made in fish-culture, fish-stocking and
+fish-acclimatization during the last half-century. Fish-culture is
+now a recognized industry; every trout-stream of note and value is
+restocked from time to time as a matter of course; salmon-hatcheries
+are numerous, though their practical utility is still a debated
+matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish are also bred for
+purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now considered a fairly
+simple matter to introduce fish from one country to another, and even
+from continent to continent. In England the movement owes a great deal
+to Francis Francis, who, though he was not the earliest worker in the
+field, was among the first to formulate the science of fish-breeding;
+his book _Fish-Culture_, first published in 1863, still remains one of
+the best treatises on the subject. In the United States, where fishery
+science has had the benefit of generous governmental and official
+support and countenance and so has reached a high level of
+achievement, Dr. T. Garlick (_The Artificial Reproduction of Fishes_,
+Cleveland, 1857) is honoured as a pioneer. On the continent of Europe
+the latter half of the 19th century saw a very considerable and rapid
+development in fish-culture, but until comparatively recently the
+propagation and care of fish in most European waters have been
+considered almost entirely from the point of view of the fish-stew and
+the market. As to what has been done in the way of acclimatization it
+is not necessary to say much. Trout (_Salmo fario_) were introduced
+to New Zealand in the late 'sixties from England; in the 'eighties
+rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_) were also introduced from California;
+now New Zealand provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the
+world. American trout of different kinds have been introduced into
+England, and brown trout have been introduced to America; but neither
+innovation can be said to have been an unqualified success, though
+the rainbow has established itself firmly in some waters of the
+United Kingdom. It is still regarded with some suspicion, as it has
+a tendency to wander from waters which do not altogether suit it. For
+the rest, trout have been established in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in
+South Africa, and early in 1906 an attempt was made to carry them to
+British Central Africa. In fact the possibilities of acclimatization
+are so great that, it seems probable, in time no river of the
+civilized world capable of holding trout will be without them.
+
+
+METHODS AND PRACTICE
+
+Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in fresh
+water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the sport have much
+in common, and sea-angling is really little more than an adaptation of
+fresh-water methods to salt-water conditions. Therefore it will not
+be necessary to deal with it at great length and it naturally comes in
+the second place. Angling in fresh water is again divisible into
+three principal parts, fishing on the surface, _i.e._ with the fly; in
+mid-water, _i.e._ with a bait simulating the movements of a small fish
+or with the small fish itself; and on the bottom with worms, paste or
+one of the many other baits which experience has shown that fish will
+take. With the premise that it is not intended here to go into the
+minutiae of instruction which may more profitably be discovered in the
+many works of reference cited at the end of this article, some account
+of the subdivisions into which these three styles of fishing fall may
+be given.
+
+
+_Fresh-Water Fishing._
+
+_Fly-fishing_.--Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it is
+the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method par
+excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting family
+of fish, the _Salmonidae_. It may roughly be considered under three
+heads, the use of the "wet" or sunk fly, of the "dry" or floating fly,
+and of the natural insect. Of these the first is the most important,
+for it covers the widest field and is the most universally practised.
+There are few varieties of fish which may not either consistently or
+occasionally be taken with the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The
+large and gaudy bunch of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon,
+very large trout, black bass and occasionally other predaceous
+fish are taken is not, strictly speaking, a fly at all. It rather
+represents, if anything, some small fish or subaqueous creature on
+which the big fish is accustomed to feed and it may conveniently
+receive the generic name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however,
+which are used to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually
+feed on insect food are in most cases intended to represent that
+food in one of its forms and are entitled to the name of "artificial
+flies." The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the
+imitation theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of
+closer observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters.
+Both wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and
+oldest kind of surface-fishing, the use of a natural insect as a bait.
+Each method is referred to incidentally below.
+
+[v.02 p.0025]
+
+_Spinning, &c_.--Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly consists
+in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it, and its
+devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey on their
+fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling[1] are these devices.
+In the first a small dead fish or an imitation of it made in metal,
+india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve rapidly as it
+is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea of something in
+difficulties and trying to escape. In the second a small fish is
+put on the angler's hook alive and conveys the same idea by its own
+efforts. In the third a small dead fish is caused to dart up and
+down in the water without revolving; it conveys the same idea as the
+spinning fish, though the manipulation is different.
+
+[Footnote 1: Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and
+talk with _trailing_, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along
+behind a boat in motion.]
+
+_Bottom-Fishing_.--Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling which is
+the most general. There is practically no fresh-water fish that will
+not take some one or more of the baits on the angler's list if they
+are properly presented to it when it is hungry. Usually the baited
+hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule suggested by
+the name "bottom-fishing" is not invariable and often the bait is best
+used in mid-water; similarly, in "mid-water fishing" the bait must
+sometimes be used as close to the bottom as possible. Bottom-fishing
+is roughly divisible into two kinds, float-fishing, in which a bite is
+detected by the aid of a float fastened to the line above the hook and
+so balanced that its tip is visible above the water, and hand-fishing,
+in which no float is used and the angler trusts to his hand to feel
+the bite of a fish. In most cases either method can be adopted and it
+is a matter of taste, but broadly speaking the float-tackle is more
+suited to water which is not very deep and is either still or not
+rapid. In great depths or strong streams a float is difficult to
+manage.
+
+
+_The Fish_.
+
+It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler catches
+according to the methods which he employs, as most fish can be taken
+by at least two of these methods, while many of those most highly
+esteemed can be caught by all three. Sporting fresh-water fish are
+therefore treated according to their families and merits from the
+angler's point of view, and it is briefly indicated which method or
+methods best succeed in pursuit of them.
+
+_Salmon_.--First in importance come the migratory _Salmonidae_, and
+at the head of them the salmon (_Salmo salar_), which has a two-fold
+reputation as a sporting and as a commercial asset. The salmon
+fisheries of a country are a very valuable possession, but it is only
+comparatively recently that this has been realized and that salmon
+rivers have received the legal protection which is necessary to their
+well-being. Even now it cannot be asserted that in England the salmon
+question, as it is called, is settled. Partly owing to our ignorance
+of the life-history of the fish, partly owing to the difficulty of
+reconciling the opposed interests of commerce and sport, the problem
+as to how a river should be treated remains only partially solved,
+though it cannot be denied that there has been a great advance in the
+right direction. The life-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns
+the matter in hand, may be very briefly summed up. It is bred in the
+rivers and fed in the sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn
+as high as they can get, the ova are deposited on gravel shallows,
+hatching out in the course of a few weeks into parr. The infant salmon
+remains in fresh water at least one year, generally two years, without
+growing more than a few inches, and then about May assumes what is
+called the smolt-dress, that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands
+and red spots of infancy and becomes silvery all over. After this it
+descends without delay to the sea, where it feeds to such good purpose
+that in a year it has reached a weight of 2 lb to 4 lb or more, and it
+may then reascend as a grilse. Small grilse indeed may only have been
+in the sea a few months, ascending in the autumn of the year of their
+first descent. If the fish survives the perils of its first ascent
+and spawning season and as a kelt or spawned fish gets down to the sea
+again, it comes up a second time as a salmon of weight varying from
+8 lb upwards. Whether salmon come up rivers, and, if so, spawn, every
+year, why some fish are much heavier than others of the same age, what
+their mode of life is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer
+when the breeding season is not till about November or December,
+whether they were originally sea-fish or river-fish--these and other
+similar questions await a conclusive answer. One principal fact,
+however, stands out amid the uncertainty, and that is that without a
+free passage up and down unpolluted rivers and without protection on
+the spawning beds salmon have a very poor chance of perpetuating
+their species. Economic prudence dictates therefore that every year a
+considerable proportion of running salmon should be allowed to escape
+the dangers that confront them in the shape of nets, obstructions,
+pollutions, rods and poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the
+interests which are bound up in these dangers (the last excepted;
+officially poachers have no interests, though in practice their plea
+of "custom and right" has too often to be taken into consideration)
+that the salmon question consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish
+for the market, a fair proportion for the rods and a fair proportion
+for the redds, without unduly damaging manufacturing interests, this
+is the object of those who have the question at heart, and with many
+organizations and scientific observers at work it should not be long
+before the object is attained. Already the system of "marking" kelts
+with a small silver label has resulted in a considerable array of
+valuable statistics which have made it possible to estimate the
+salmon's ordinary rate of growth from year to year. It is very largely
+due to the efforts of anglers that the matter has gone so far. Whether
+salmon feed in fresh water is another question of peculiar interest to
+anglers, for it would seem that if they do not then the whole practice
+of taking them must be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides
+of the argument, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and
+kelts excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not
+feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do, and
+bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture by rod and
+line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious food-stuffs as
+dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side it is argued that
+food is never found inside a salmon after it has been long enough in a
+river to have digested its last meal taken in salt water. The very few
+instances of food found in salmon which have been brought forward to
+support the contrary opinion are in the scientific view to be regarded
+with great caution; certainly in one case of recent years, which at
+first appeared to be well authenticated, it was afterwards found that
+a small trout had been pushed down a salmon's throat after capture
+by way of a joke. A consideration of the question, however, which
+may perhaps make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr.J.
+Kingston Barton in the first of the two volumes on _Fishing_ (_Country
+Life_ Series). He maintains that salmon do not habitually feed
+in fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility of their
+occasionally taking food. His view is that after exertion, such as
+that entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the fish
+may feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap
+at anything in its vicinity which looks edible. The fact that the
+angler's best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly
+arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they are
+compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the worse
+becomes the prospect of catching them, and "unfishable" is one of the
+expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the condition of a
+river during the long periods of drought which too often distinguish
+the sport.
+
+[v.02 p.0026]
+
+_Salmon Tackle and Methods_.--It is when the drought breaks up and the
+long-awaited rain has come that the angler has his chance and makes
+ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on some short
+streams only a few hours) during which the water will be right;
+_right_ is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning not only that the
+colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but that its height shall
+be within an inch or two of a given mark, prescribed by experience.
+As to the tackle which is made ready, there is, as in most angling
+matters, divergence of opinion. Salmon fly-rods are now made
+principally of two materials, greenheart and split-cane; the former is
+less expensive, the latter is more durable; it is entirely a matter of
+taste which a man uses, but the split-cane rod is now rather more in
+favour, and for salmon-fishing it is in England usually built with a
+core of steel running from butt to tip and known as a "steel centre."
+How long the rod shall be is also a matter on which anglers differ,
+but from 16 ft. to 17 ft. 6 in. represents the limits within which
+most rods are preferred. The tendency is to reduce rather than to
+increase the length of the rod, which may be accounted for by the
+adoption of a heavy line. Early in the 19th century anglers used
+light-topped rods of 20 ft. and even more, and with them a light line
+composed partly of horse-hair; they thought 60 ft. with such material
+a good cast. Modern experience, however, has shown that a shorter rod
+with a heavier top will throw a heavy dressed silk line much farther
+with less exertion. Ninety feet is now considered a good fishing cast,
+while many men can throw a great deal more. In the United States,
+where rods have long been used much lighter than in England, the
+limits suggested would be considered too high. From 12 ft. 6 in. to 15
+ft. 6 in. is about the range of the American angler's choice, though
+long rods are not unknown with him. The infinite variety of reels,
+lines, gut collars[1] and other forms of tackle which is now presented
+to the angler's consideration and for his bewilderment is too wide a
+subject to be touched upon here. Something, however, falls to be said
+about flies. One of the perennially fruitful topics of inquiry is what
+the fish takes a salmon-fly to be. Beyond a fairly general admission
+that it is regarded as something endowed with life, perhaps resembling
+a remembered article of marine diet, perhaps inviting gastronomic
+experiment, perhaps irritating merely and rousing an impulse to
+destroy, the discussion has not reached any definite conclusion. But
+more or less connected with it is the controversy as to variety of
+colour and pattern. Some authorities hold that a great variety of
+patterns with very minute differences in colour and shades of colour
+is essential to complete success; others contend that salmon do not
+differentiate between nice shades of colour, that they only draw
+distinctions between flies broadly as being light, medium or dark in
+general appearance, and that the size of a fly rather than its colour
+is the important point for the angler's consideration. Others again
+go some way with the supporters of the colour-scheme and admit the
+efficacy of flies whose general character is red, or yellow, or black,
+and so on. The opinion of the majority, however, is probably based on
+past experience, and a man's favourite flies for different rivers
+and condition of water are those with which he or someone else has
+previously succeeded. It remains a fact that in most fly-books great
+variety of patterns will be discoverable, while certain old standard
+favourites such as the Jock Scott, Durham Ranger, Silver Doctor, and
+Thunder and Lightning will be prominent. Coming out of the region of
+controversy it is a safe generalization to say that the general rule
+is: big flies for spring fishing when rivers are probably high, small
+flies for summer and low water, and flies medium or small in autumn
+according to the conditions. Spring fishing is considered the cream of
+the sport. Though salmon are not as a rule so numerous or so heavy as
+during the autumn run, and though kelts are often a nuisance in the
+early months, yet the clean-run fish of February, March or April amply
+repays patience and disappointment by its fighting powers and its
+beauty. Summer fishing on most rivers in the British Islands is
+uncertain, but in Norway summer is the season, which possibly explains
+to some extent the popularity of that country with British anglers,
+for the pleasure of a sport is largely increased by good weather.
+
+Two methods of using the fly are in vogue, casting and harling. The
+first is by far the more artistic, and it may be practised either from
+a boat, from the bank or from the bed of the river itself; in the last
+case the angler wades, wearing waterproof trousers or wading-stockings
+and stout nail-studded brogues. In either case the fishing is similar.
+The fly is cast across and down stream, and has to be brought over the
+"lie" of the fish, swimming naturally with its head to the stream,
+its feathers working with tempting movement and its whole appearance
+suggesting some live thing dropping gradually down and across stream.
+Most anglers add to the motion of the fly by "working" it with short
+pulls from the rod-top. When a fish takes, the rise is sometimes seen,
+sometimes not; in any case the angler should not respond with the rod
+until he _feels_ the pull. Then he should _tighten_, not strike. The
+fatal word "strike," with its too literal interpretation, has caused
+many a breakage. Having hooked his fish, the angler must be guided by
+circumstances as to what he does; the salmon will usually decide
+that for him. But it is a sound rule to give a well-hooked fish no
+unnecessary advantage and to hold on as hard as the tackle will allow.
+Good tackle will stand an immense strain, and with this "a minute
+a pound" is a fair estimate of the time in which a fish should be
+landed. A foul-hooked salmon (no uncommon thing, for a fish not
+infrequently misses the fly and gets hooked somewhere in the body)
+takes much longer to land. The other method of using the fly, harling,
+which is practised on a few big rivers, consists in trailing the
+fly behind a boat rowed backward and forwards across the stream and
+dropping gradually downwards. Fly-fishing for salmon is also practised
+on some lakes, into which the fish run. On lakes the boat drifts
+slowly along a "beat," while the angler casts diagonally over the
+spots where salmon are wont to lie. Salmon may also be caught by
+"mid-water fishing," with a natural bait either spun or trolled
+and with artificial spinning-baits of different kinds, and by
+"bottom-fishing" with prawns, shrimps and worms. Spinning is usually
+practised when the water is too high or too coloured for the fly;
+trolling is seldom employed, but is useful for exploring pools which
+cannot be fished by spinning or with the fly; the prawn is a valuable
+lure in low water and when fish are unwilling to rise; while the worm
+is killing at all states of the river, but except as a last resource
+is not much in favour. There are a few waters where salmon have the
+reputation of not taking a fly at all; in them spinning or prawning
+are the usual modes of fishing. But most anglers, wherever possible,
+prefer to use the fly. The rod for the alternative methods is
+generally shorter and stiffer than the fly-rod, though made of like
+material. Twelve to fourteen feet represents about the range of
+choice. Outside the British Islands the salmon-fisher finds the
+headquarters of his sport in Europe in Scandinavia and Iceland, and in
+the New World in some of the waters of Canada and Newfoundland.
+
+[Footnote 1: The precise date when silkworm gut (now so important a
+feature of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys,
+in his _Diary_ (1667), mentions "a gut string varnished over" which
+"is beyond any hair for strength and smallness" as a new angling
+secret which he likes "mightily." In the third edition (1700) of
+Chetham's _Vade-Mecum_, already cited, appears an advertisement of
+the "East India weed, which is the only thing for trout, carp and
+bottom-fishing." Again, in the third edition of Nobbes's _Art of
+Trolling_ (1805), in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed
+by J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July 20,
+1801), in which it is stated that gut "is produced from the silkworm
+and not an Indian weed, _as has hitherto been conjectured_...." The
+word "gut" is employed before this date, but it seems obvious that
+silkworm gut was for a long time used under the impression that it was
+a weed, and that its introduction was a thing of the 17th century. It
+is probable, however, that vegetable fibre was used too; we believe
+that in some parts of India it is used by natives to this day. Pepys'
+"minikin" was probably cat-gut.]
+
+_Land-locked Salmon_.--The land-locked salmon (_Salmo salar sebago_)
+of Canada and the lakes of Maine is, as its name implies, now regarded
+by scientists as merely a land-locked form of the salmon. It does not
+often attain a greater size than 20 ft, but it is a fine fighter and
+is highly esteemed by American anglers. In most waters it does not
+take a fly so well as a spinning-bait, live-bait or worm. The methods
+of angling for it do not differ materially from those employed for
+other _Salmonidae_.
+
+_Pacific Salmon_.--Closely allied to _Salmo salar_ both in appearance
+and habits is the genus _Oncorhynchus_, commonly known as Pacific
+salmon. It contains six species, is peculiar to the North Pacific
+Ocean, and is of some importance to the angler, though of not nearly
+so much as the Atlantic salmon. The quinnat is the largest member of
+the genus, closely resembles _salar_ in appearance and surpasses him
+in size. The others, sockeye, humpback, cohoe, dog-salmon and masu,
+are smaller and of less interest to the angler, though some of them
+have great commercial value. The last-named is only found in the
+waters of Japan, but the rest occur in greater or less quantities
+in the rivers of Kamchatka, Alaska, British Columbia and Oregon. The
+problems presented to science by solar are offered by _Oncorhynchus_
+also, but there are variations in his life-history, such as the fact
+that few if any fish of the genus are supposed to survive their first
+spawning season. When once in the rivers none of these salmon is of
+very much use to the angler; as, though it is stated that they will
+occasionally take a fly or spoon in fresh water, they are not nearly
+so responsive as their Atlantic cousin and in many streams are
+undoubtedly not worth trying for. At the mouths of some rivers,
+however, where the water is distinctly tidal, and in certain bays of
+the sea itself they give very fine sport, the method of fishing for
+them being usually to trail a heavy spoonbait behind a boat. By this
+means remarkable bags of fish have been made by anglers. The sport is
+of quite recent development.
+
+[v.02 p.0027]
+
+_Sea-Trout_.--Next to the salmon comes the sea-trout, the other
+migratory salmonid of Europe. This is a fish with many local names and
+a good deal of local variation. Modern science, however, recognises
+two "races" only, _Salmo trutta_, the sea-trout proper, and _Salmo
+cambricus_ or _eriox_, the bull-trout, or sewin of Wales, which
+is most prominent in such rivers as the Coquet and Tweed. The
+life-history of sea-trout is much the same as that of salmon, and the
+fish on their first return from the sea in the grilse-stage are called
+by many names, finnock, herling and whitling being perhaps the best
+known. Of the two races _Salmo trutta_ alone is of much use to the
+fly-fisher. The bull-trout, for some obscure reason, is not at all
+responsive to his efforts, except in its kelt stage. Then it will take
+greedily enough, but that is small consolation. The bull-trout is a
+strong fish and grows to a great size and it is a pity that it is not
+of greater sporting value, if only to make up for its bad reputation
+as an article of food. Some amends, however, are made by its cousin
+the sea-trout, which is one of the gamest and daintiest fish on the
+angler's list. It is found in most salmon rivers and also in not a few
+streams which are too small to harbour the bigger fish, while there
+are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (where the fish is usually
+known as white trout) where the fishing is superb when the trout have
+run up into them. Fly-fishing for sea-trout is not a thing apart.
+A three-pounder that will impale itself on a big salmon-fly, might
+equally well have taken a tiny trout-fly. Many anglers, when fishing a
+sea-trout river where they run large, 5 lb or more, and where there is
+also a chance of a salmon, effect a compromise by using a light 13
+ft. or 14 ft. double-handed rod, and tackle not so slender as to make
+hooking a salmon a certain disaster. But undoubtedly to get the full
+pleasure out of sea-trout-fishing a single-handed rod of 10 ft. to 12
+ft. with reasonably fine gut and small flies should be used, and
+the way of using it is much the same as in wet-fly fishing for brown
+trout, which will be treated later. When the double-handed rod and
+small salmon-flies are used, the fishing is practically the same as
+salmon-fishing except that it is on a somewhat smaller scale. Flies
+for sea-trout are numberless and local patterns abound, as may be
+expected with a fish which has so catholic a taste. But, as with
+salmon-fishers so with sea-trout-fishers, experience forms belief and
+success governs selection. Among the small salmon-flies and loch-flies
+which will fill his book, the angler will do well to have a store of
+very small trout-flies at hand, while experience has shown that even
+the dry fly will kill sea-trout on occasion, a thing that is worth
+remembering where rivers are low and fish shy. July, August and
+September are in general the best months for sea-trout, and as they
+are dry months the angler often has to put up with indifferent sport.
+The fish will, however, rise in tidal water and in a few localities
+even in the sea itself, or in salt-water lochs into which streams run.
+Sea-trout have an irritating knack of "coming short," that is to
+say, they will pluck at the fly without really taking it. There are
+occasions, on the other hand, in loch-fishing where plenty of time
+must be given to the fish without tightening on it, especially if it
+happens to be a big one. Like salmon, sea-trout are to be caught with
+spinning-baits and also with the worm. The main controversy that is
+concerned with sea-trout is whether or no the fish captured in early
+spring are clean fish or well-mended kelts. On the whole, as sea-trout
+seldom run before May, the majority of opinion inclines to their being
+kelts.
+
+_Non-migratory Salmonidae_.--Of the non-migratory members of the
+_Salmonidae_ the most important in Great Britain is the brown trout
+(_Salmo fario_). Its American cousin the rainbow trout (_S. irideus_)
+is now fairly well established in the country too, while other
+transatlantic species both of trout and char (which are some of them
+partially migratory, that is to say, migratory when occasion offers),
+such as the steelhead (_S. rivularis_), fontinalis (_S. fonlinalis_)
+and the cut-throat trout (_S. clarkii_), are at least not unknown.
+All these fish, together with their allied forms in America, can be
+captured with the fly, and, speaking broadly, the wet-fly method will
+do well for them all. Therefore it is only necessary to deal with the
+methods applicable to one species, the brown trout.
+
+_Trout_.--Of the game-fishes the brown trout is the most popular,
+for it is spread over the whole of Great Britain and most of Europe,
+wherever there are waters suited to it. It is a fine sporting fish and
+is excellent for the table, while in some streams and lakes it grows
+to a very considerable size, examples of 16 lb from southern rivers
+and 20 lb from Irish and Scottish lakes being not unknown. One of the
+signs of its popularity is that its habits and history have produced
+some very animated controversies. Some of the earliest discussions
+were provoked by the liability of the fish to change its appearance
+in different surroundings and conditions, and so at one time many a
+district claimed its local trout as a separate species. Now, however,
+science admits but one species, though, to such well-defined varieties
+as the Loch Leven trout, the estuarine trout and the gillaroo, it
+concedes the right to separate names and "races." In effect all, from
+the great _ferox_ of the big lakes of Scotland and Ireland to
+the little fingerling of the Devonshire brook, are one and the
+same--_Salmo fario_.
+
+_Wet-Fly Fishing for Trout_.--Fly-fishing for trout is divided into
+three kinds: fishing with the artificial fly sunk or "wet," fishing
+with it floating or "dry" and fishing with the natural insect. Of the
+two first methods the wet fly is the older and may be taken first.
+Time was when all good anglers cast their flies downstream and thought
+no harm. But in 1857 W.C. Stewart published his _Practical Angler_, in
+which he taught that it paid better to fish up-stream, for by so doing
+the angler was not only less likely to be seen by the trout but was
+more likely to hook his fish. The doctrine was much discussed and
+criticized, but it gradually won adherents, until now up-stream
+fishing is the orthodox method where it is possible. Stewart was also
+one of the first to advocate a lighter rod in place of the heavy 12
+ft. and 13 ft. weapons that were used in the North in his time.
+There are still many men who use the long rod for wet-fly fishing in
+streams, but there are now more who find 10 ft. quite enough for their
+purpose. For lake-fishing from a boat, however, the longer rod is
+still in many cases preferred. In fishing rivers the main art is
+to place the right flies in the right places and to let them come
+naturally down with the stream. The right flies may be ascertained to
+some extent from books and from local wisdom, but the right places
+can only be learnt by experience. It does not, however, take long to
+acquire "an eye for water" and that is half the battle, for the haunts
+of trout in rapid rivers are very much alike. In lake-fishing chance
+has a greater share in bringing about success, but here too the right
+fly and the right place are important; the actual management of rod,
+line and flies, of course, is easier, for there is no stream to be
+reckoned with. Though there is little left to be said about wet-fly
+fishing where the fly is an imitation more or less exact of a natural
+insect, there is another branch of the art which has been stimulated
+by modern developments. This is the use of salmon-flies for big trout
+much in the same way as for salmon. In such rivers as the Thames,
+where the trout are cannibals and run very large, ordinary trout-flies
+are of little use, and the fly-fisher's only chance is to use a big
+fly and "work" it, casting across and down stream. The big fly has
+also been found serviceable with the great fish of New Zealand and
+with the inhabitants of such a piece of water as Blagdon Lake near
+Bristol, where the trout run very large. For this kind of fishing much
+stronger tackle and a heavier rod are required than for catching fish
+that seldom exceed the pound.
+
+[v.02 p.0028]
+
+_Dry Fly_.--Fishing with the floating fly is a device of southern
+origin, and the idea no doubt arose from the facts that on the placid
+south country streams the natural fly floats on the surface and that
+the trout are accustomed to feed on it there. The controversy "dry
+_versus_ wet" was long and spirited, but the new idea won the day
+and now not only on the chalk-streams, but on such stretches of even
+Highland rivers as are suitable, the dry-fly man may be seen testing
+his theories. These theories are simple and consist in placing before
+the fish an exact imitation of the insect on which it is feeding, in
+such a way that it shall float down exactly as if it were an insect
+of the same kind. To this end special tackle and special methods have
+been found necessary. Not only the fly but also the line has to float
+on the wafer; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane
+or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful; special precautions have
+to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not "drag";
+special casts have to be made to counteract awkward winds; and,
+lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the water is a
+matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many shades and
+colours. Many brains have busied themselves with the solution of these
+problems with such success that dry-fly fishing is now a finished art.
+The entomology of the dry-fly stream has been studied very deeply by
+Mr. F.M. Halford, the late G.S. Marryat and others, and improvements
+both in flies and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however,
+there has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing
+as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly
+work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather
+less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs much
+less--approximately 6 oz. to 10 ft. The light rod, it is urged, is
+much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary purposes.
+Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not "ordinary purposes,"
+that chalk-stream weeds are too strong and chalk-stream winds too wild
+for the light rod to be efficient against them. However, the light rod
+is growing in popular favour; British manufacturers are building rods
+after the American style; and anglers are taking to them more and
+more. The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in
+Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet in the
+United States or Canada.
+
+_Fishing with the Natural Fly._--The natural fly is a very killing
+bait for trout, but its use is not wide-spread except in Ireland.
+In Ireland "dapping" with the green drake or the daddy-longlegs is
+practised from boats on most of the big loughs. A light whole-cane rod
+of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is required with a floss-silk
+line light enough to be carried out on the breeze; the "dap"
+(generally two mayflies or daddy-longlegs on a small stout-wired hook)
+is carried out by the breeze and just allowed to touch the water. When
+a trout rises it is well to count "ten" before striking. Very heavy
+trout are caught in this manner during the mayfly season. In the North
+"creeper-fishing" is akin to this method, but the creeper is the
+larva of the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it is cast more like
+an ordinary fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes, however, the mature
+insect is used with equally good results. A few anglers still practise
+the old style of dapping or "dibbling" after the manner advised by
+Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing small overgrown brooks.
+A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and a grasshopper or almost
+any large fly will serve for bait.
+
+_Other Methods._--The other methods of taking trout principally
+employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river trout
+such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the best spinning
+or live bait, for great lake trout (_Jerox_) a small fish of their
+own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are numberless
+artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the Devon being
+perhaps the favourite. The use of the drop-minnow, which is trolling
+on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed more in the north of
+England than elsewhere. The worm is mostly deadly in thick water, so
+deadly that it is looked on askance. But there is a highly artistic
+mode of fishing known as "clear-water worming." This is most
+successful when rivers are low and weather hot, and it needs an expert
+angler to succeed in it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like
+a fly, and the method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy
+and difficulty. The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits
+which they will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots,
+caterpillars, small frogs, bread, there is very little the fish will
+not take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch
+trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm, and the
+tendency nowadays both in England and America is to restrict anglers
+where possible to the use of the artificial fly only.
+
+_Grayling._--The only other member of the salmon family in England
+which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling, a fish
+which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter. It can be
+caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same tackle as trout,
+which generally inhabit the same stream. Grayling will take most small
+trout-flies, but there are many patterns of fly tied specially for
+them, most of them founded on the red tag or the green insect. Worms
+and maggots are also largely used in some waters for grayling, and
+there is a curious contrivance known as the "grasshopper," which is a
+sort of compromise between the fly and bait. It consists of a leaded
+hook round the shank of which is twisted bright-coloured wool. The
+point is tipped with maggots, and the lure, half artificial, half
+natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked up and down in the
+water. In some places the method is very killing. The grayling has
+been very prominent of late years owing to the controversy "grayling
+_versus_ trout." Many people hold that grayling injure a trout stream
+by devouring trout-ova and trout-food, by increasing too rapidly and
+in other ways. Beyond, however, proving the self-evident fact that a
+stream can only support a given amount of fish-life, the grayling's
+opponents do not seem to have made out a very good case, for no real
+evidence of its injuring trout has been adduced.
+
+_Char._--The chars (_Sahelinus_) are a numerous family widely
+distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not very
+important to the angler. One well-defined species (_Sahelinus
+alpinus_) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but
+principally in Westmorland and Cumberland. It sometimes takes a small
+fly but is more often caught with small artificial spinning-baits. The
+fish seldom exceeds 1-1/2 lb in Great Britain, though in Scandinavia
+it is caught up to 5 lb or more. There are some important chars in
+America, _fontinalis_ being one of the most esteemed. Some members of
+the genus occasionally attain a size scarcely excelled by the
+salmon. Among them are the Great Lake trout of America, _Cristinomer
+namaycush_, and the Danubian "salmon" or huchen, _Salmo hucho_. Both
+of these fish are caught principally with spinning-baits, but both
+will on occasion take a salmon-fly, though not with any freedom
+after they have reached a certain size. An attempt has been made to
+introduce huchen into the Thames but at the time of writing the result
+cannot yet be estimated.
+
+_Pike_.--The pike (_Esox lucius_), which after the _Salmonidae_ is the
+most valued sporting fish in Great Britain, is a fish of prey pure and
+simple. Though it will occasionally take a large fly, a worm or other
+ground-bait, its systematic capture is only essayed with small fish
+or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is supposed to be the most
+deadly lure for big pike, probably because it is the method employed
+by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic and has been found
+quite successful enough by those who give it a fair and full trial.
+Trolling, the method of "sink and draw" with a dead bait, referred to
+previously in this article, is not much practised nowadays, though at
+one time it was very popular. It was given up because the traditional
+form of trolling-tackle was such that the bait had to be swallowed
+by the pike before the hook would take hold, and that necessitated
+killing all fish caught, whether large or small. The same objection
+formerly applied to live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook.
+Now, however, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in
+live-baiting, and the system is by some few anglers extended to the
+other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and are at their
+best in December. They grow to a very considerable size, fish of 20
+lb being regarded as "specimens" and an occasional thirty-pounder
+rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The heaviest pike caught with a
+rod in recent years which is sufficiently authenticated, weighed 37
+lb, but heavier specimens are said to have been taken in Irish lakes.
+River pike up to about 10 lb in weight are excellent eating.
+
+[v.02 p.0029]
+
+America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge of the
+great lake region (_Esox masquinongy_) is the most important. It is a
+very fine fish, excelling _Esox lucius_ both in size and looks. From
+the angler's point of view it may be considered simply as a large
+pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasionally reaches the
+weight of 80 lb or perhaps more. The pickerel (_Esox reticulatus_) is
+the only other of the American pikes which gives any sport. It reaches
+a respectable size, but is as inferior to the pike as the pike is to
+the muskelunge.
+
+_Perch_.--Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory fishes.
+The European perch (_Perca fluviatilis_) has a place by itself in the
+affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch by almost any
+method of fishing, and a large number of Walton's disciples have been
+initiated into the art with its help. Worms and small live-baits are
+the principal lures, but at times the fish will take small bright
+artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attractions such as boiled
+shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots, wasp-grubs, &c. are
+sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is one of the best methods of
+taking perch. Very occasionally, and principally in shallow pools, the
+fish will take an artificial fly greedily, a small salmon-fly being
+the best thing to use in such a case. A perch of 2 lb is a good fish,
+and a specimen of 4-1/2 lb about the limit of angling expectation.
+There have been rare instances of perch over 5 lb, and there are
+legends of eight-pounders, which, however, need authentication.
+
+_Black Bass_.--The yellow perch of America (_Perca flavescens_) is
+very much like its European cousin in appearance and habits, but it is
+not so highly esteemed by American anglers, because they are fortunate
+in being possessed of a better fish in the black bass, another member
+of the perch family. There are two kinds of black bass (_Micropterus
+salmoides_ and _Micropterus dolomieu_), the large-mouthed and the
+small-mouthed. The first is more a lake and pond fish than the second,
+and they are seldom found in the same waters. As the black bass is a
+fly-taking fish and a strong fighter, it is as valuable to the angler
+as a trout and is highly esteemed. Bass-flies are _sui generis_,
+but incline more to the nature of salmon-flies than trout-flies. An
+artificial frog cast with a fly-rod or very light spinning-rod is also
+a favourite lure. For the rest the fish will take almost anything in
+the nature of worms or small fish, like its cousin the perch. A 4 lb
+bass is a good fish, but five-pounders are not uncommon. Black bass
+have to some extent been acclimatized in France.
+
+The _ruffe_ or _pope_ (_Acerina vulgaris_) is a little fish common in
+the Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers. It is very
+like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which distinguish
+the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a golden olive
+background. It is not of much use to the angler as it seldom exceeds
+3 oz. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and similar baits
+greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is expecting better
+fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch, of which two species
+are of some importance to the angler, one the wall-eye of eastern
+America (_Stizostedion vitreum_) and the other the zander of Central
+Europe (_Sandrus lucioperca_). The last especially is a fine fighter,
+occasionally reaching a weight of 20 lb. It is usually caught by
+spinning, but will take live-baits, worms and other things of that
+nature. The Danube may be described as its headquarters. It is a fish
+whose sporting importance will be more realized as anglers on the
+continent become more numerous.
+
+_Cyprinidae_.--The carp family (_Cyprinidae_) is a large one and its
+members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes. In America
+the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c. are little
+esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful angler only, or
+as baits for the better fish in which the continent is so rich. In
+England, however, the _Cyprinidae_ have an honoured place in the
+affections of all who angle "at the bottom," while in Europe some of
+them have a commercial value as food-fishes. In India at least one
+member of the family, the mahseer, takes rank with the salmon as a
+"big game" fish.
+
+_Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream_.--The family as represented in England
+may be roughly divided into two groups, those which feed on the bottom
+purely and those which occasionally take flies. The first consists
+of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these carp, tench and bream are
+either river or pool fish, while the barbel is found only in rivers,
+principally in the Thames and Trent. The carp grows to a great size,
+20 lb being not unknown; tench are big at 5 lb; barbel have been
+caught up to 14 lb or rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 lb,
+while a fish of over 11 lb is on record. All these fish are capricious
+feeders, carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some
+waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and the
+angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport needs
+both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not quite so
+difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great quantities,
+and the other is generally to be enticed by the man who knows how to
+set about it. Two main principles have to be observed in attacking all
+these fish, ground-baiting and early rising. Ground-baiting consists
+in casting food into the water so as to attract the fish to a certain
+spot and to induce them to feed. Without it very little can be done
+with shy and large fish of these species. Early rising is necessary
+because they only feed freely, as a rule, from daybreak till about
+three hours after sun-rise. The heat of a summer or early autumn day
+makes them sluggish, but an hour or two in the evening is sometimes
+remunerative. The bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom,
+and it consists mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of
+various kinds; and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits
+such as small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of
+banana, &c. None of these fish feed well in winter.
+
+_Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub_.--The next group of _Cyprinidae_ consists
+of fish which will take a bait similar to those already mentioned and
+also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary angler's aspirations
+are roach about 2 lb, rudd about 2-1/2 lb, dace about 1 lb and chub
+about 5 lb. There are instances of individuals heavier than this, one
+or two roach and many rudd of over 3 lb being on record, while dace
+have been caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb are not
+unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather when
+they are near the surface, or early in the season when they are on
+the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the summer.
+Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species, but chub
+often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called "palmers,"
+which represent caterpillars, are generally used for them. The fly may
+be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and there is little to
+choose between the methods as regards effectiveness. Fly-fishing for
+these fish is a branch of angling which might be more practised than
+it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute for trout fishing.
+Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and give good sport all the
+winter.
+
+_Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, &c_.--The small fry of European waters,
+gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead, are
+principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-named
+species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a succulent dish.
+Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon and minnows, a maggot
+or small fly for bleak, and the rest are most easily caught in a
+small-meshed net. The loach is used principally in Ireland as a trout
+bait, and the other two are of small account as hook-baits, though
+sticklebacks are a valuable form of food for trout in lakes and pools.
+
+_Mahseer_.--Among the carps of India, several of which give good
+sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer (_Barbus mosal_),
+a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and strength. It reaches a
+weight of 60 lb and sometimes more and is fished for in much the same
+manner as salmon, with the difference that after about 10 lb it takes
+a spinning-bait, usually a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly.
+
+[v.02 p.0030]
+
+_Cat-fish_.--None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no example
+is found in England) are what may be called sporting fish, but several
+may be caught with rod and line. There are several kinds in North
+America, and some of them are as heavy as 150 lb, but the most
+important is the wels (_Silurus glanis_) of the Danube and
+neighbouring waters. This is the largest European fresh-water fish,
+and it is credited with a weight of 300 lb or more. It is a bottom
+feeder and will take a fish-bait either alive or dead; it is said
+occasionally to run at a spinning bait when used very deep.
+
+_Burbot_.--The burbot (_Lota vulgaris_) is the only fresh-water member
+of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only in a few
+slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often, probably
+because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only at night.
+It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most flesh or
+fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has similar
+characteristics.
+
+_Sturgeon_.--The sturgeons, of which there are a good many species in
+Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They are anadromous
+fishes of which little more can be said than that a specimen might
+take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia they are sometimes caught
+on long lines armed with baited hooks, and occasionally an angler
+hooks one. Such a case was reported from California in _The Field_ of
+the 19th of August 1905.
+
+_Shad_.--Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first is the
+shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allice and twaite
+(_Clupea alosa_ and _C. finta_), ascend one or two British and several
+continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the more common, and
+in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes gives very fair sport to
+anglers, taking worm and occasionally fly or small spinning bait. It
+is a good fighter, and reaches a weight of about 3 lb. Its sheen when
+first caught is particularly beautiful. America also has shads.
+
+_Flounder_.--The other is the flounder (_Pleuronectes flesus_), the
+only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long way
+up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and it will
+take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder of 1 lb is,
+in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are sometimes caught.
+
+_Eel_.--The eel (_Anguilla vulgaris_) is regarded by the angler more
+as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable size (and
+it often reaches a weight of 8 lb or more) it is a splendid fighter
+and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life history has
+long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it breeds in the sea
+and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found practically everywhere,
+and its occurrence in isolated ponds to which it has never been
+introduced by human agency has given rise to a theory that it travels
+overland as well as by water. The best baits for eels are worms and
+small fish, and the best time to use them is at night or in thundery
+or very wet weather.
+
+
+_Sea Angling._
+
+Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of tackle and
+method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences
+of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea
+angling may also be divided into three classes--fishing on the surface
+with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the
+bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and
+in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often
+have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in
+searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and
+stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the
+sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish
+occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of
+a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has
+been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
+American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish
+of this calibre.
+
+_Great Game Fishes_.--There are several giants of the sea which are
+regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being the
+tarpon (_Tarpon atlanticus_) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus thynnus),
+which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 lb and 251 lb
+respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 lb have been
+taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish
+of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of
+Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically
+all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used
+stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.
+
+_British Game Fishes_.--On a much smaller scale are the fishes most
+esteemed in British waters. The bass (_Labrax lupus_) heads the list
+as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 lb is a large
+one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or "school" bass
+up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes be caught with the fly (generally a
+roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they are really
+taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it is possible
+to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is
+required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore with
+fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again
+sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few methods
+and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account for
+them at times. The pollack (_Gadus pollachius_) and coal-fish (_Gadus
+virens_) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a weight of 20
+lb or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually, however,
+the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait, such as
+an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and
+especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and
+heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone
+to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (_Mugil
+capito_) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely
+difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet
+is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
+and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
+frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught
+close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule
+vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or ragworms are found to
+answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the
+tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish
+with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 lb in
+weight. The cod (_Gadus morhua_) grows larger and fights less gamely
+than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught with
+bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young
+cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel
+(_Scomber scomber_) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip of
+fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but it
+will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle are game
+fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb. Whiting and
+whiting-pout (_Gadus merlangus_ and _Gadus luscus_) both feed on or
+near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and are best sought
+with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three or four hooks at
+intervals above a lead which is called a "paternoster." If one or more
+of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle will do for different kinds
+of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs being the two species most
+often caught by anglers. The bream (_Pagellus centrodontus_) is
+another bottom-feeder which resembles the fresh-water bream both in
+appearance and habits. It is an early morning or rather a nocturnal
+fish, and grows to a weight of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed
+in mid-water or even close to the surface. The conger eel (_Conger
+vulgaris_) is another night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as
+it grows to a great size, and is very powerful. Strong tackle is
+essential for conger fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the
+darkness cannot be given any law. The bait must be on or near the
+bottom. There are, of course, many other fish which come to the
+angler's rod at times, but the list given is fairly complete as
+representing the species which are especially sought. Beside them are
+occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish
+and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and
+give plenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed.
+Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae, smelts
+_(Osmerus eperlanus),_ sea-trout, occasionally brown trout, and
+still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water either in
+sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished for
+with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with fragments of shrimp,
+ragworm, and other delicacies.
+
+[v.02 p.0031]
+
+
+MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.--_History and Literature:_
+Prof. A.N. Mayer, _Sport with Gun and Rod_ (New York and Edinburgh),
+with a chapter on "The Primitive Fish-Hook," by Barnet Phillips;
+Dr.R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with
+many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-books, &c.; H.
+Cholmondeley Pennell and others, _Fishing Gossip_ (Edinburgh, 1866),
+contains a paper on "Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the Earliest Date," by
+Jonathan Couch; C.D. Badham, _Prose Halieutics_ (London, 1854), full
+of curious lore, relating, however, more to ichthyophagy than angling;
+_The Angler's Note-Book and Naturalist's Record_ (London, 1st series
+1881, 2nd series 1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes
+containing much valuable matter on angling history, literature,
+and other topics; R. Blakey, _Angling Literature_ (London, 1856),
+inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a good deal of curious
+matter not to be found elsewhere; O. Lambert, _Angling Literature in
+England_ (London, 1881), a good little general survey; J.J.
+Manley, _Fish and Fishing_ (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing
+literature, &c.; R.B. Marston, _Walton and Some Earlier Writers on
+Fish and Fishing_ (London and New York, 1894); _Piscatorial Society's
+Papers_ (vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on "The Useful and
+Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S.C. Harding;
+_Super Flumina_ (Anon.; London, 1904), gives _passim_ useful
+information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell,
+_Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography
+of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R.B. Marston,
+1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete.
+
+
+_Methods and Practice._--General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,
+_A Book on Angling_ (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound
+text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H.C. Pennell
+and others, _Fishing--Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish_
+(Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, _The
+Book of the All-Round Angler_ (London, 1900); Horace G. Hutchinson
+and others, _Fishing (Country Life_ Series, 2 vols., London, 1904),
+contains useful ichthyological notes by G.A. Boulenger, a chapter on
+"The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr.J. Kingston Barton, and
+a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of Norway, by C.E.
+Radclyffe.
+
+
+_Salmon and Trout._--Major J.P. Traherne, _The Habits of the Salmon_
+(London, 1889); G.M. Kelson, _The Salmon Fly_ (London, 1895), contains
+instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A.E. Gathorne Hardy, _The
+Salmon_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898); Sir H. Maxwell,
+Bt., _Salmon and Sea Trout_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); Sir E.
+Grey, Bt., _Fly Fishing_ (Haddon Hall Library, London and New York,
+1899); W. Earl Hodgson, _Salmon Fishing_ (London, 1906), contains a
+series of coloured plates of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, _The
+Trout_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing:
+W.C. Stewart, _The Practical Angler_ (London, 1905), a new edition of
+an old but still valuable work; E.M. Tod, _Wet Fly Fishing_ (London,
+1903); W. Earl Hodgson, _Trout Fishing_ (London, 1905), contains
+a series of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly
+Fishing: F.M. Halford, _Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice_
+(London, 1902), the standard work on the subject; G.A.B. Dewar, _The
+Book of the Dry Fly_ (London, 1897). Grayling: T.E. Pritt, The Book
+of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H.A. Rolt, _Grayling Fishing in South
+Country Streams_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+_Coarse Fish._--C.H. Wheeley, _Coarse Fish_ (Angler's Library, London,
+1897); J.W. Martin, _Practical Fishing_ (London); _Float-fishing
+and Spinning_ (London, 1885); W. Senior and others, _Pike and Perch_
+("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A.J. Jardine, _Pike and
+Perch_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); H.C. Pennell, _The Book of
+the Pike_ (London, 1884); Greville Fennell, _The Book of the Roach_
+(London, 1884).
+
+
+_Sea Fishing._--J.C. Wilcocks, _The Sea Fisherman_ (London, 1884);
+John Bickerdyke (and others), _Sea Fishing_ (Badminton Library,
+London, 1895); _Practical Letters to Sea Fishers_ (London, 1902); F.G.
+Aflalo, _Sea Fish_ (Angler's Library, London, 1897); P.L. Haslope,
+_Practical Sea Fishing_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+_Tackle, Flies, &c._--H.C. Pennell, _Modern Improvements in Fishing
+Tackle_ (London, 1887); H.P. Wells, _Fly Rods and Fly Tackle_ (New
+York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, _The Fly-Fisher's Entomology_
+(London, 1883); F.M. Halford, _Dry Fly Entomology_ (London, 1902);
+_Floating Flies and How to Dress them_ (London, 1886); T.E. Pritt,
+_North Country Flies_ (London, 1886); H.G. M'Clelland, _How to tie
+Flies for Trout and Grayling_ (London, 1905); Capt. J.H. Hale, _How
+to tie Salmon Flies_ (London, 1892); F.G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and
+C.H. Wheeley. How to buy Fishing Tackle (London).
+
+
+_Ichthyology, Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c._--Dr. Francis Day, _Fishes
+of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1889); _British and
+Irish Salmonidae_ (London, 1887); Dr. A.C.L.G. Guenther, _Introduction
+to the Study of Fishes_ (London, 1880); Dr. D.S. Jordan, _A Guide to
+the Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York and London, 1905); F. Francis,
+_Practical Management of Fisheries_ (London, 1883); _Fish Culture_
+(London, 1865); F.M. Halford, _Making a Fishery_ (London, 1902); J.J.
+Armistead, _An Angler's Paradise_ (Dumfries, 1902); F. Mather, _Modern
+Fish-Culture_ (New York, 1899); Livingstone Stone, _Domesticated
+Trout_ (Charlestown and London, 1896).
+
+
+_Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c._--Great Britain:
+_The Angler's Diary_ (London), gives information about most important
+waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign waters, published
+annually; _The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide to Scotland_ (London),
+a good guide to angling in Scotland, published twice a year; Augustus
+Grimble, _The Salmon Rivers of Scotland_ (London, 1900, 4 vols.); _The
+Salmon Rivers of Ireland_ (London, 1903); _The Salmon and Sea Trout
+Rivers of England and Wales_ (London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series
+gives minute information as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history,
+catches, &c.; W.M. Gallichan, _Fishing in Wales_ (London, 1903);
+_Fishing in Derbyshire_ (London, 1905); J. Watson, _English Lake
+District Fisheries_ (London, 1899); C. Wade, _Exmoor Streams_ (London,
+1903); G.A.B. Dewar, _South Country Trout Streams_ (London, 1899);
+"Hi Regan," _How and Where to Fish in Ireland_ (London, 1900); E.S.
+Shrubsole, _The Land of Lakes_ (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in
+County Donegal. Europe: "Palmer Hackle," _Hints on Angling_ (London,
+1846), contains "suggestions for angling excursions in France and
+Belgium," but they are too old to be of much service; W.M. Gallichan,
+_Fishing and Travel in Spain_ (London, 1905); G.W. Hartley, _Wild
+Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod_ (Edinburgh, 1903), contains a
+chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, _Wegweiser fuer Angler
+durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schweiz_ (Berlin, 1877), a book
+of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of
+date in many particulars; _Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen
+Fischerei Zeitung)_, Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and
+huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (Munich, 1898), contains a certain
+amount of geographical information; E.B. Kennedy, _Thirty Seasons
+in Scandinavia_ (London, 1904), contains useful information about
+fishing; General E.F. Burton, _Trouting in Norway_ (London, 1897);
+Abel Chapman, _Wild Norway_ (London, 1897); F. Sandeman, _Angling
+Travels in Norway_ (London, 1895). America: C.F. Holder, _Big Game
+Fishes of the United States_ (New York, 1903); J.A. Henshall, _Bass,
+Pike, Perch and Pickerel_ (New York, 1903); Dean Sage and others,
+_Salmon and Trout_ (New York, 1902); E.T.D. Chambers, Angler's Guide
+to Eastern Canada (Quebec, 1899); Rowland Ward, _The English Angler in
+Florida_ (London, 1898); J. Turner Turner, _The Giant Fish of Florida_
+(London, 1902). India: H.S. Thomas, _The Rod in India_ (London, 1897);
+"Skene Dhu," _The Mighty Mahseer_ (Madras, 1906), contains a chapter
+on the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand:
+W.H. Spackman, _Trout in New Zealand_ (London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton,
+_Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland_ (Wellington, 1905), contains a
+valuable section on fishing waters.
+
+_Fishery Law._--G.C. Oke, _A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws_ (edited
+by J.W. Willis Band and A.C. M'Barnet, London, 1903).
+
+
+
+ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British people in the
+United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial
+descendants of the "ten tribes" forming the kingdom of Israel, large
+numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall
+of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a
+book called _Philo-Israel_) rests on premises which are deemed by
+scholars--both theological and anthropological--to be utterly unsound.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:--The French language (_q.v._) came over
+to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th
+century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary
+language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th
+century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became
+the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the
+French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established
+in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that
+of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which
+gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but,
+except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules
+of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language
+was subjected were the individual modifications of the various
+authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an
+Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist.
+The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th
+century, the author of the _Maniere de language_ calls "le plus bel et
+le plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole,
+qui soit au monde et de touz genz mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre
+(quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et
+loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels
+du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such that it
+was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session
+with an English speech. And although the Hundred Years' War led to a
+decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman
+literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes,
+to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th
+century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there
+too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.
+
+[v.02 p.0032]
+
+It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of
+Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to
+the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is
+generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to
+Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond
+quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more
+accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the
+Marshal in 1225 (published for the _Societe de l'histoire de France_,
+by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to
+the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters
+of his day. "He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to
+have known something of every tongue between'the Bay of Biscay and
+the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his
+day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in
+literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty,
+they always had either a bow or a book" (_Dict. of Nat. Biog._). Wace
+and Benoit de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and
+it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event
+with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of Thomas Becket,
+gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely
+Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of Beroul and Thomas
+respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the
+Anglo-Norman _romans d'aventure_. It is important to keep this fact in
+mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature
+has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them
+into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic
+literature.
+
+
+_Narrative Literature:_ (_a_) _Epic and Romance_.--The French epic
+came over to England at an early date. We know that the _Chanson
+de Roland_ was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess
+Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few _chansons de geste_. The _Pelerinage de
+Charlemagne_ (Koschwitz, _Altfranzoesische Bibliothek_, 1883) was, for
+instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British
+Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The
+oldest manuscript of the _Chanson de Roland_ that we possess is also
+a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less
+importance we may mention _La Chancun de Willame_, the MS. of which
+has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul
+Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic
+poetry in England did not actually inspire any new _chansons de
+geste_, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the
+epic style in which the tales of _Horn_, of _Bovon de Hampton_, of
+_Guy of Warwick_ (still unpublished), of _Waldef_ (still unpublished),
+and of _Fulk Fitz Warine_ are treated, is certainly partly due to this
+circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us
+only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous
+poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose
+similar to the transformations undergone by many of the _chansons de
+geste_ (cf. L. Brandin, _Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine_, London,
+1904).
+
+The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in
+the Breton romances and the _romans d'aventure_ even better than in
+the epic poetry of the period. The _Lay of Orpheus_ is known to us
+only through an English imitation; the _Lai du cor_ was composed by
+Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, Lund,
+1888). The _lais_ of Marie de France were written in England, and the
+greater number of the romances composing the _matiere de Bretagne_
+seem to have passed from England to France through the medium of
+Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the
+_Historia Regum Britanniae_ by Geoffrey of Monmouth ([+] 1154), passed
+into French literature, bearing the character which the bishop of
+St. Asaph had stamped upon them. Chretien de Troye's _Perceval_ (c.
+1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c.
+1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J.
+Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., _Societe des Anciens Textes_) from Geoffrey of
+Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages,
+and one of the most beautiful inventions of world-literature, the
+story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Beroul and Thomas,
+the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman
+(see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). One _Folie Tristan_
+was composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For
+all these questions see _Soc. des Anc. Textes_, Muret's ed. 1903;
+Bedier's ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan
+and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two
+_romans d'aventure_ of Hugh of Rutland, _Ipomedon_ (published by
+Koelbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and _Protesilaus_ (still
+unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of
+a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King
+Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The
+second poem is the sequel to _Ipomedon_, and deals with the wars and
+subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder,
+lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria.
+Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He
+saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria,
+and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently
+marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize
+Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his younger
+son (cf. Ward, _Cat. of Rom._, i. 728). To these two romances by an
+Anglo-Norman author, _Amadas et Idoine_, of which we only possess a
+continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed
+that the original was composed in England in the 12th century
+(_An English Miscellany presented to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his
+Seventy-fifth Birthday_, Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem
+on the _Life of Richard Coeur de Lion_ is lost, and an English version
+only has been preserved. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into
+England the _roman d'Alexandre_ in his _Roman de toute chevalerie_,
+many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English
+poems on Alexander, namely, _King Alisaunder_ (P. Meyer, _Alexandre
+le grand_, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, _Metrical Romances_,
+Edinburgh).
+
+(_b_) _Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales_.--In spite of the
+incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have
+only some half-dozen _fableaux_ written in England, viz. _Le chevalier
+a la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le
+chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le pretre
+d'Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orleans_ (Bedier, _Les Fabliaux_, 1895). As
+to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was
+that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated
+from _King Alfred_. In the _Contes moralises_, written by Nicole Bozon
+shortly before 1320 (_Soc. Anc. Textes_, 1889), a few fables bear a
+strong resemblance to those of Marie de France.
+
+The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been
+handed down to us in three collections:
+
+(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from
+William of Malmesbury ([+] 1143?) by Adgar in the 12th century
+("Adgar's Marien-Legenden," _Altfr. Biblioth_. ix.; J.A. Herbert,
+_Rom_. xxxii. 394).
+
+(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St. Edmund at
+Bury, who wrote _c_. 1250 three Mary Legends (_Rom_. xxix. 27).
+
+(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed _c_.
+1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been
+published in Suchier's _Bibliotheca Normannica_; in the _Altf. Bibl_.
+See also Mussafia, "Studien zu den mittelalterlichen Marien-legenden"
+in _Sitzungsh. der Wien. Akademie_ (t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii.,
+cxxix.).
+
+[v.02 p.0033]
+
+Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in
+Chardri's _Set dormans_ and _Josaphat, c._ 1216 (Koch, _Altfr. Bibl._,
+1880; G. Paris, _Poemes et legendes du moyen age_).
+
+(_c_) _History_.--Of far greater importance, however, are the works
+which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo-Norman
+historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote his _Estorie des
+Angles_ (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance, wife of Robert
+Fitz-Gislebert (_The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle,_ Hardy and
+Martin, i. ii., London, 1888). This history comprised a first part
+(now lost), which was merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
+_Historia regum Britanniae_, preceded by a history of the Trojan War,
+and a second part which carries us as far as the death of William
+Rufus. For this second part he has consulted historical documents, but
+he stops at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about
+which he might have been able to give us some first-hand information.
+Similarly, Wace in his _Roman de Rou et des dues de Normandie_ (ed.
+Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.), written 1160-1174, stops at
+the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before the period for which he
+would have been so useful. His _Brut_ or _Geste des Bretons_ (Le
+Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.), written in 1155, is merely a
+translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. "Wace," says Gaston Paris,
+speaking of the _Roman de Rou_, "traduit en les abregeant des
+historiens latins que nous possedons; mais ca et la il ajoute soit des
+contes populaires, par exemple sur Richard 1'er, sur Robert 1'er, soit
+des particularites qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce meme Robert le
+magnifique, sur l'expedition de Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent a son
+oeuvre un reel interet historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style
+clair, serre, simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, vous plait par sa
+saveur archaique et quelquefois par une certaine grace et une certaine
+malice."
+
+The _History of the Dukes of Normandy_ by Benoit de Sainte-More is
+based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the request of Henry II.
+about 1170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (ed. by Francisque
+Michel, 1836-1844, _Collection de documents inedits,_ 3 vols.). The
+43,000 lines which it contains are of but little interest to the
+historian; they are too evidently the work of a _romancier courtois,_
+who takes pleasure in recounting love-adventures such as those he has
+described in his romance of Troy. Other works, however, give us more
+trustworthy information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry
+II.'s _Conquest of Ireland_ in 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London,
+1837), which, together with the _Expugnatio hibernica_ of Giraud de
+Barri, constitutes our chief authority on this subject. The _Conquest
+of Ireland_ was republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the
+title of _The Song of Dermot and the Earl_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press).
+Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in the north of England in 1174,
+wrote an account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the
+Lion of Scotland and Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (_Chronicle of the
+reigns of Stephen_ ... III., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel,
+London, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to
+be compared in value with _The History of William the Marshal, Count
+of Striguil and Pembroke,_ regent of England from 1216-1219, which was
+found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (_Societe de l'histoire de
+France,_ 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of historiography
+was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of talent at the
+request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled from the notes
+of the marshal's squire, John d'Early ([+] 1230 or 1231), who shared
+all the vicissitudes of his master's life and was one of the executors
+of his will. This work is of great value for the history of the period
+1186-1219, as the information furnished by John d'Early is either
+personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals with the
+period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the
+author's ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes
+are amply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The style
+is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions short and
+picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most living pictures
+of medieval society. Very pale by the side of this work appear the
+_Chronique_ of Peter of Langtoft, written between 1311 and 1320, and
+mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307 (ed. by T. Wright,
+London, 1866-1868); the _Chronique_ of Nicholas Trevet (1258?-1328?),
+dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter of Edward I. (Duffus Hardy,
+_Descr. Catal._ III., 349-350); the _Scala Chronica_ compiled by
+Thomas Gray of Heaton ([+] _c._ 1369), which carries us to the year
+1362-1363 (ed. by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the
+_Black Prince,_ a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and
+relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by
+Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the different
+versions of the _Brutes,_ the form and historical importance of which
+have been indicated by Paul Meyer (_Bulletin de la Societe des Anciens
+Textes,_ 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F.W.D. Brie (_Geschichte und
+Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik, The Brute of England or The
+Chronicles of England,_ Marburg, 1905).
+
+Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of
+Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century), who
+gave also the _Secret des Secrets,_ a translation from a work wrongly
+attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next division (_Rom._
+xxiii. 314).
+
+_Didactic Literature_.--This is the most considerable, if not the most
+interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it comprises a
+large number of works written chiefly with the object of giving both
+religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman lords and ladies.
+The following list gives the most important productions arranged in
+chronological order:--
+
+Philippe de Thaun, _Comput, c_. 1119 (edited by E. Mall, Strassburg,
+1873), poem on the calendar; _Bestiaire, c_. 1130 (ed. by E. Walberg,
+Paris, 1900; cf. G. Paris, _Rom._ xxxi. 175); _Lois de Guillaume le
+Conquerant_ (redaction between 1150 and 1170, ed. by J.E. Matzke,
+Paris, 1899); _Oxford Psalter, c_. 1150 (Fr. Michel, _Libri Psalmorum
+versio antiqua gallica_, Oxford, 1860); _Cambridge Psalter, c_. 1160
+(Fr. Michel, _Le Livre des Psaumes,_ Paris, 1877); _London Psalter,_
+same as Oxford Psalter (cf. Beyer, _Zt. f. rom. Phil._ xi. 513-534;
+xii. 1-56); _Disticha Catonis_, translated by Everard de Kirkham and
+Elie de Winchester (Stengel, _Ausg. u. Abhandlungen_); _Le Roman de
+fortune_, summary of Boetius' _De consolatione philosophiae,_ by
+Simon de Fresne (_Hist. lit._ xxviii. 408); _Quatre livres des rois_,
+translated into French in the 12th century, and imitated in England
+soon after (P. Schloesser, _Die Lautverhaeltnisse der quatre livres des
+rois,_ Bonn, 1886; _Romania,_ xvii. 124); _Donnei des Amanz,_, the
+conversation of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the
+poet, of a purely didactic character, in which are included three
+interesting pieces, the first being an episode of the story of
+Tristram, the second a fable, _L'homme et le serpent,_ the third a
+tale, _L'homme et l'oiseau_, which is the basis of the celebrated
+_Lai de l'oiselet_ (_Rom._ xxv. 497); _Livre des Sibiles_ (1160);
+_Enseignements Trebor_, by Robert de Ho (=Hoo, Kent, on the left bank
+of the Medway) [edited by Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101; cf.
+G. Paris, _Rom._ xxxii. 141]; _Lapidaire de Cambridge_ (Pannier, _Les
+Lapidaires francais_); Frere Angier de Ste. Frideswide, _Dialogues,_
+29th of November 1212 (_Rom._ xii. 145-208, and xxix.; M.K. Pope,
+_Etude sur la langue de Frere Angier,_ Paris, 1903); _Li dialoge
+Gregoire le pape_, ed. by Foerster, 1876; _Petit Plet_, by Chardri,
+_c._ 1216 (Koch, _Altfr Bibliothek._ i., and Mussafia, _Z.f.r.P._
+iii. 591); _Petite philosophie, c._ 1225 (_Rom._ xv. 356; xxix.
+72); _Histoire de Marie et de Jesus (Rom._ xvi. 248-262); _Poeme
+sur l'Ancien Testament_ (_Not. et Extr._ xxxiv. 1, 210; _Soc. Anc.
+Textes_, 1889, 73-74); _Le Corset_ and _Le Miroir,_ by Robert de
+Gretham (_Rom._ vii. 345; xv. 296); _Lumiere as Lais,_ by Pierre de
+Peckham, _c._ 1250 (_Rom._ xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman redaction of
+_Image du monde, c._ 1250 (_Rom._ xxi. 481); two Anglo-Norman versions
+of _Quatre soeurs_ (Justice, Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th century (ed.
+by Fr. Michel, _Psautier d'Oxford,_ pp. 364-368, _Bulletin Soc. Anc.
+Textes,_ 1886, 57, _Romania,_ xv. 352); another _Comput_ by Rauef de
+Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer, _Archives des missions,_ 2nd series iv.
+154 and 160-164; _Rom._ xv. 285); _Le chastel d'amors,_ by Robert
+Grosseteste or Greathead, bishop of Lincoln ([+] 1253) [ed. by Cooke,
+_Carmina Anglo-Normannica_, 1852, Caxton Society]; _Poeme sur l'amour
+de Dieu et sur la haine du peche_, 13th century, second part (_Rom._
+xxix. 5); _Le mariage des neuf filles du diable_ (_Rom._ xxix. 54);
+_Ditie d' Urbain_, attributed without any foundation to Henry I. (P.
+Meyer, _Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes_, 1880, p. 73 and _Romania_ xxxii,
+68); _Dialogue de l'eveque Saint Julien et son disciple_ (_Rom._ xxix.
+21); _Poeme sur l'antichrist et le jugement dernier_, by Henri d'Arci
+(_Rom._ xxix. 78; _Not. et. Extr._ 35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington
+produced at the end of the 13th century his _Manuel des peches_, which
+was adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his _Handlying Sinne_
+(1303) [_Hist. lit._ xxviii. 179-207; _Rom._ xxix. 5, 47-53]; see
+Furnivall,_Robert of Brunne's Handlying Synne_ (Roxb. Club, 1862);
+in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon's _Contes moralises_ (see
+above); _Traite de naturesse_ (_Rom._ xiii. 508); _Sermons_ in verse
+(P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.); _Proverbes de bon enseignement_ (op.
+cit. xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of French.
+Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a treatise _a Madame Dyonise
+de Mountechensi pur aprise de langage_ (Wright, _A Volume of
+Vocabularies_; P. Meyer, _Rec. d'anc. textes_, p. 360 and _Romania_
+xxxii, 22); _Orthographia gallica_ (Sturzinger, _Altfr. Bibl._ 1884);
+_La maniere de language_, written in 1396 (P. Meyer, _Rev. crit.
+d'hist. et de litt._ nos. compl. de 1870); _Un petit livre pour
+enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun francois_, c. 1399
+(Stengel, _Z. fuer n.f. Spr. u. Litt._ i. 11). The important _Mirour
+de l'omme_, by John Gower, contains about 30,000 lines written in very
+good French at the end of the 14th century (Macaulay, _The Complete
+Works of John Gower_, i., Oxford, 1899).
+
+[v.02 p.0034]
+
+_Hagiography_.--Among the numerous lives of saints written in
+Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following, the list of
+which is given in chronological order:--_Voyage de Saint Brandan_ (or
+_Brandain_), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for Queen Aelis of
+Louvain (_Rom. St._ i. 553-588; _Z.f.r.P._ ii. 438-459; _Rom._ xviii.
+203. C. Wahlund, _Die altfr. Prosauebersetz. von Brendan's Meerfahrt_,
+Upsala, 1901); life of St. Catherine by Clemence of Barking (_Rom._
+xiii. 400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de
+Berneville (_Soc. Anc. Textes fr._, 1881; _Rom._ xi. and xxiii. 94);
+life of St. Nicholas, life of Our Lady, by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel,
+_Cod. Digby_, 66); Uhlemann, _Gram. Krit. Studien zu Wace's Conception
+und Nicolas_, 1878; life of St. George by Simon de Fresne (_Rom._ x.
+319; J.E. Matzke, _Public. of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of Amer._ xvii.
+1902; _Rom._ xxxiv. 148); _Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice_, by Marie de
+France (Jenkins, 1894; Eckleben, _Aelteste Schilderung vom Fegefeuer
+d.H. Patricius_, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906); _La vie de St. Edmund le
+Rei_, by Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (_Memorials of St. Edmund's
+Abbey_, edited by T. Arnold, ii. 1892; _Rom._ xxii. 170); Henri
+d'Arci's life of St. Thais, poem on the Antichrist, _Visio S. Pauli_
+(P. Meyer, _Not. et Extr._ xxxv. 137-158); life of St. Gregory the
+Great by Frere Angier, 30th of April 1214 (_Rom._ viii. 509-544; ix.
+176; xviii. 201); life of St. Modwenna, between 1225 and 1250 (Suchier,
+_Die dem Matthaeus Paris zugeschriebene Vie de St. Auban_, 1873, pp.
+54-58); Fragments of a life of St Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer,
+_Soc. Anc. Text. fr._, 1885); and another life of the same by Benoit
+of St. Alban, 13th century (Michel, _Chron. des ducs de Normandie;
+Hist. Lit._ xxiii. 383); a life of Edward the Confessor, written
+before 1245 (Luard, _Lives of Edward the Confessor_, 1858; _Hist.
+Lit._ xxvii. 1), by an anonymous monk of Westminster; life of
+St. Auban, c. 1250 (Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann, "Ueber die vie de
+St. Auban in Bezug auf Quelle," &c. _Rom. St._ iv. 543-626; ed. by
+Atkinson, 1876). _The Vision of Tnudgal_, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is
+preserved in MS. 312, Trinity College, Dublin; the MS. is of the
+14th century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (_La vision de
+Tondale_, ed. by Friedel and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this category we
+may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century (_Hist. Lit._ xxiii.
+436; Child, _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, 1888, p. v;
+Wolter, _Bibl. Anglo-Norm._, ii. 115). Other lives of saints were
+recognized to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer when examining the MSS.
+of the Welbeck library (_Rom._ xxxii. 637 and _Hist. Lit._ xxxiii.
+338-378).
+
+
+_Lyric Poetry._--The only extant songs of any importance are the
+seventy-one _Ballads_ of Gower (Stengel, _Gower's Minnesang_, 1886).
+The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character. Most of them
+have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer (_Bulletin de la Soc.
+Anc. Textes_, 1889; _Not. et Extr._ xxxiv; _Rom._ xiii. 518, t. xiv.
+370; xv. p. 254, &c.). Although so few have come down to us such songs
+must have been numerous at one time, owing to the constant intercourse
+between English, French and Provencals of all classes. An interesting
+passage in _Piers Plowman_ furnishes us with a proof of the extent to
+which these songs penetrated into England. We read of:
+
+  "... dykers and deluers that doth here dedes ille,
+  And dryuen forth the longe day with 'Deu, vous saue,
+  Dame Emme!'"           (Prologue, 223 f.)
+
+One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry written
+in the end of the 13th century, is the _Plainte d'amour_ (Vising,
+Goeteborg, 1905; _Romania_ xiii. 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4), and we may
+mention, merely as literary curiosities, various works of a lyrical
+character written in two languages, Latin and French, or English and
+French, or even in three languages, Latin, English and French. In
+_Early English Lyrics_ (Oxford, 1907) we have a poem in which a lover
+sends to his mistress a love-greeting composed in three languages,
+and his learned friend replies in the same style (_De amico ad amicam,
+Responcio_, viii and ix).
+
+
+_Satire_.--The popularity enjoyed by the _Roman de Renart_ and the
+Anglo-Norman version of the _Riote du Monde_ (_Z.f. rom. Phil._ viii.
+275-289) in England is proof enough that the French spirit of satire
+was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the fair sex presented the
+most attractive target for the shots of the satirists. However, an
+Englishman raised his voice in favour of the ladies in a poem entitled
+_La Bonte des dames_ (Meyer, _Rom._ xv. 315-339), and Nicole Bozon,
+after having represented "Pride" as a feminine being whom he supposes
+to be the daughter of Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked
+the women of his day in the _Char d'Orgueil_ (_Rom._ xiii. 516), also
+composed a _Bounte des femmes_ (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which he
+covers them with praise, commending their courtesy, their humility,
+their openness and the care with which they bring up their children.
+A few pieces of political satire show us French and English exchanging
+amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The _Roman des Francais_, by
+Andre de Coutances, was written on the continent, and cannot be quoted
+as Anglo-Norman although it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston
+Paris: _Trois versions rimees de l'evangile de Nicodeme, Soc. Anc.
+Textes_, 1885), it is a very spirited reply to French authors who had
+attacked the English.
+
+
+_Dramatic Literature_.--This must have had a considerable influence on
+the development of the sacred drama in England, but none of the
+French plays acted in England in the 12th and 13th centuries has been
+preserved. _Adam_, which is generally considered to be an Anglo-Norman
+mystery of the 12th century, was probably written in France at
+the beginning of the 13th century (_Romania_ xxxii. 637), and the
+so-called Anglo-Norman _Resurrection_ belongs also to continental
+French. It is necessary to state that the earliest English moralities
+seem to have been imitations of the French ones.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Apart from the works already mentioned see generally:
+Scheibner, "Ueber die Herrschaft der frz. Sprache in England"
+(Annaberg, Progr. der Koeniglichen Realschule, 1880, 38 f.); Groeber,
+_Grundr. der romanischen Philologie_, ii. iii. (Strassburg, 1902); G.
+Paris, _La Litt. fr. au moyen age_ (1905); _Esquisse historique de
+la litt. fr. au moyen age_ (1907); _La Litt. norm, avani l'annexion
+912-1204_ (Paris, 1899); "L'Esprit normand en Angleterre," _La
+Poesie au moyen age_ (2nd series 45-74, Paris, 1906); Thomas Wright,
+_Biographia britannica literaria_ (Anglo-Norman period, London, 1846);
+Ten Brink, _Geschichte der englischen Litteratur_ (Berlin, 1877, i.
+2); J.J. Jusserand, _Hist. litt. du peuple anglais_ (2nd ed. 1895,
+vol. i.); W.H. Schofield, _English Literature from the Norman Conquest
+to Chaucer_ (London, 1906); Johan Vising, _Franska Spraket i England_
+(Goeteborg, 1900, 1901, 1902).
+
+(L. BR.)
+
+
+[v.02 p.0035]
+
+ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of "the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle"; it would be more correct to say that there are four
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all grow out of a common
+stock, that in some even of their later entries two or more of them
+use common materials; but the same may be said of several groups
+of medieval chronicles, which no one dreams of treating as single
+chronicles. Of this fourfold Chronicle there are seven MSS. in
+existence; _C.C.C. Cant._ 173 (A); _Cott. Tib._ A vi. (B); _Cott.
+Tib._ B i. (C); _Cott. Tib._ B iv. (D); _Bodl. Laud. Misc._ 636 (E);
+_Cott. Domitian_ A viii. (F); _Cott. Otho_ B xi. (G). Of these G is
+now a mere fragment, and it is known to have been a transcript of A.
+F is bilingual, the entries being given both in Saxon and Latin. It
+is interesting as a stage in the transition from the vernacular to
+the Latin chronicle; but it has little independent value, being a
+mere epitome, made at Canterbury in the 11th or 12th century, of a
+chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it goes (to 977), is identical with
+C, both having been copied from a common original, but A, C, D, E have
+every right to be treated as independent chronicles. The relations
+between the four vary very greatly in different parts, and the neglect
+of this consideration has led to much error and confusion. The common
+stock, out of which all grow, extends to 892. The present writer sees
+no reason to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier
+local chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated,
+or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns; while
+for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and written,
+were utilized. Among the latter the chronological epitome appended to
+Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_ may be specially mentioned. But even
+this common stock exists in two different recensions, in A, B, C, on
+the one hand, and D, E on the other. The main points of difference are
+that in D, E (1) a series of northern annals have been incorporated;
+(2) the Bede entries are taken, not from the brief epitome, but from
+the main body of the _Eccl. Hist._ The inference is that, shortly
+after the compiling of this Alfredian chronicle, a copy of it was sent
+to some northern monastery, probably Ripon, where it was expanded in
+the way indicated. Copies of this northernized Chronicle afterwards
+found their way to the south. The impulse given by Alfred was
+continued under Edward, and we have what may be called an official
+continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C, D
+extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a separate
+document a short register of Mercian affairs during the same period
+(902-924), which might be called the acts of AEthelflaed, the famous
+"Lady of the Mercians," while D has incorporated it, not very
+skilfully, with the official continuation. Neither of these documents
+exists in E. From 925 to 975 all the chronicles are very fragmentary;
+a few obits, three or four poems, among them the famous ballad on
+the battle of Brunanburh, make up the meagre tale of their common
+materials, which each has tried to supplement in its own way. A has
+inserted a number of Winchester entries, which prove that A is a
+Winchester book. And this local and scrappy character it retains
+to 1001, where it practically ends. At some subsequent time it
+was transferred bodily to Canterbury, where it received numerous
+interpolations in the earlier part, and a few later local entries
+which finally tail off into the Latin acts of Lanfranc. A may
+therefore be dismissed. C has added to the common stock one or
+two Abingdon entries, with which place the history of C is closely
+connected; while D and E have a second group of northern annals
+901-966, E being however much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or
+not having access to, much both of the common and of the northern
+material which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are
+practically identical, and give a connected history of the Danish
+struggles under AEthelred II. This section was probably composed at
+Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too complicated
+to be expressed by any formula; sometimes all three agree together,
+sometimes all three are independent; in other places each pair in
+turn agree against the third. It may be noted that C is strongly
+anti-Godwinist, while E is equally pro-Godwinist, D occupying an
+intermediate position. C extends to 1066, where it ends abruptly, and
+probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is certainly mutilated. In
+its later history D is associated with some place in the diocese of
+Worcester, probably Evesham. In its present form D is a comparatively
+late MS., none of it probably much earlier, and some of it later, than
+1100. In the case of entries in the earlier part of the chronicles,
+which are peculiar to D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they
+may be late interpolations. E is continued to 1154. In its present
+form it is unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is
+full of Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later
+entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only the
+entries after 1121, where the first hand in the MS. ends, which were
+actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023-1067
+certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1121, was composed at
+St. Augustine's, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme interest
+and value, the writer being in close contact with the events which he
+describes. The later parts of E show a great degeneration in language,
+and a querulous tone due to the sufferings of the native population
+under the harsh Norman rule; "but our debt to it is inestimable; and
+we can hardly measure what the loss to English history would have
+been, if it had not been written; or if, having been written, it had,
+like so many another English chronicle, been lost."
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The above account is based on the introduction in vol.
+ii. of the Rev. C. Plummer's edition of _Two of the Saxon Chronicles
+Parallel_ (Clarendon Press, 1892, 1899); to which the student may
+be referred for detailed arguments. The _editio princeps_ of the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was by Abraham Wheloc, professor of Arabic at
+Cambridge, where the work was printed (1643-1644). It was based mainly
+on the MS. called G above, and is the chief source of our knowledge of
+that MS. which perished, all but three leaves, in the Cottonian fire
+of 1723. Edmund Gibson of Queen's College, Oxford, afterwards bishop
+of London, published an edition in 1692. He used Wheloc's edition, and
+E, with collations or transcripts of B and F. Both Wheloc and Gibson
+give Latin translations. In 1823 appeared an edition by Dr. Ingram, of
+Trinity College, Oxford, with an English translation. Besides A, B, E,
+F, Ingram used C and D for the first time. But both he and Gibson made
+the fatal error of trying to combine the disparate materials contained
+in the various chronicles in a single text. An improvement in this
+respect is seen in the edition made by Richard Price (d. 1833) for
+the first (and only) volume of _Monumenta Historica Britannica_ (folio
+1848). There is still, however, too much conflation, and owing to the
+plan of the volume, the edition only extends to 1066. A translation is
+appended. In 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe's six-text edition in the
+Rolls Series. Though not free from defects, this edition is absolutely
+indispensable for the study of the chronicles and the mutual relations
+of the different MSS. A second volume contains the translation. In
+1865 the Clarendon Press published _Two Saxon Chronicles (A and E)
+Parallel, with supplementary extracts from the others_, by the Rev.
+John Earle. This edition has no translation, but in the notes and
+introduction a very considerable advance was made. On this edition is
+partly based the later edition by the Rev. C. Plummer, already cited
+above. In addition to the translations contained in the editions
+already mentioned, the following have been issued separately. The
+first translation into modern English was by Miss Anna Gurney,
+privately printed in 1819. This was largely based on Gibson's edition,
+and was in turn the basis of Dr. Giles' translation, published in 1847,
+and often reprinted. The best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph
+Stevenson, in his series of _Church Historians of England_ (1853). Up
+to the Conquest it is a revision of the translation contained in _Mon.
+Hist. Brit._ From that point it is an independent translation.
+
+(C. PL.)
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON LAW. 1. The body of legal rules and customs which
+obtained in England before the Norman conquest constitutes, with
+the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine expression of Teutonic legal
+thought. While the so-called "barbaric laws" (_leges barbarorum_)
+of the continent, not excepting those compiled in the territory now
+called Germany, were largely the product of Roman influence, the
+continuity of Roman life was almost completely broken in the island,
+and even the Church, the direct heir of Roman tradition, did not carry
+on a continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a Roman
+province in the same sense as Tours or Reims. One of the striking
+expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the language in which
+the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are uniformly worded in
+English, while continental laws, apart from the Scandinavian, are all
+in Latin. The English dialect in which the Anglo-Saxon laws have been
+handed down to us is in most cases a common speech derived from West
+Saxon--naturally enough as Wessex became the predominant English
+state, and the court of its kings the principal literary centre from
+which most of the compilers and scribes derived their dialect and
+spelling. Traces of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the
+_Textus Roffensis_, the MS. of the Kentish laws, and Northumbrian
+dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions, while
+Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the conquest, Latin
+takes the place of English in the compilations made to meet the demand
+for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still applied in practice.
+
+[v.02 p.0036]
+
+2. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the manner of
+their publication. They would fall into three divisions: (1) laws and
+collections of laws promulgated by public authority; (2) statements of
+custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules and enactments. To
+the first division belong the laws of the Kentish kings, AEthelberht,
+Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed; those of Ine of Wessex, of Alfred,
+Edward the Elder, AEthelstan,[1] Edmund, Edgar, AEthelred and Canute;
+the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum and the so-called treaty between
+Edward and Guthrum. The second division is formed by the convention
+between the English and the Welsh _Dunsaetas_, the law of the
+Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the fragments
+of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The third division would
+consist of the collections of the so-called _Pseudo-leges Canuti_, the
+laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I., and the great compilation
+of the _Quadripartitus_, then of a number of short notices and
+extracts like the fragments on the "wedding of a wife," on oaths,
+on ordeals, on the king's peace, on rural customs (_Rectitudines
+singularum personarum_), the treatises on the reeve (_gerefa_) and on
+the judge (_dema_), formulae of oaths, notions as to wergeld, &c. A
+fourth group might be made of the charters, as they are based on
+Old English private and public law and supply us with most important
+materials in regard to it. Looking somewhat deeper at the sources
+from which Old English law was derived, we shall have to modify our
+classification to some extent, as the external forms of publication,
+although important from the point of view of historical criticism, are
+not sufficient standards as to the juridical character of the various
+kinds of material. Direct statements of law would fall under the
+following heads, from the point of view of their legal origins: i.
+customary rules followed by divers communities capable of formulating
+law; ii. enactments of authorities, especially of kings; iii. private
+arrangements made under recognized legal rules. The first would
+comprise, besides most of the statements of custom included in the
+second division according to the first classification, a great many
+of the rules entered in collections promulgated by kings; most of the
+paragraphs of AEthelberht's, Hlothhere's, and Eadric's and Ine's
+laws, are popular legal customs that have received the stamp of royal
+authority by their insertion in official codes. On the other hand,
+from Withraed's and Alfred's laws downwards, the element of enactment
+by central authority becomes more and more prominent. The kings
+endeavour, with the help of secular and clerical witan, to introduce
+new rules and to break the power of long-standing customs (e.g. the
+precepts about the keeping of holidays, the enactments of Edmund
+restricting private vengeance, and the solidarity of kindreds as to
+feuds, and the like). There are, however, no outward signs enabling
+us to distinguish conclusively between both categories of laws in the
+codes, nor is it possible to draw a line between permanent laws and
+personal ordinances of single sovereigns, as has been attempted in the
+case of Frankish legislation.
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Judicia civitatis Lundoniae_ are a gild statute
+confirmed by King AEthelstan.]
+
+3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at
+our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in the
+distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us of primary
+importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books are almost
+entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated to the background.
+While it is impossible to give here anything like a complete or
+exact survey of the field--a task rendered almost impossible by the
+arbitrary manner in which paragraphs are divided, by the difficulty
+of making Old English enactments fit into modern rubrics, and by the
+necessity of counting several times certain paragraphs bearing on
+different subjects--a brief statistical analysis of the contents of
+royal codes and laws may be found instructive.
+
+We find roughly 419 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and procedure
+as against 91 concerned with questions of private law and civil
+procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many as 238 are taken
+up with tariffs of fines, while 80 treat of capital and corporal
+punishment, outlawry and confiscation, and 101 include rules of
+procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses apply to rights of
+property and possession, 13 to succession and family law, 37 to
+contracts, including marriage when treated as an act of sale; 18 touch
+on civil procedure. A subject which attracted special attention was
+the law of status, and no less than 107 paragraphs contain disposition
+dictated by the wish to discriminate between the classes of society.
+Questions of public law and administration are discussed in 217
+clauses, while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart
+from purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it
+is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that are
+dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administration comes
+in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for 13 clauses. Police
+regulations are very much to the fore and occupy no less than 72
+clauses of the royal legislation. As to church matters, the most
+prolific group is formed by general precepts based on religious and
+moral considerations, roughly 115, while secular privileges conferred
+on the Church hold about 62, and questions of organization some 20
+clauses.
+
+The statistical contrasts are especially sharp and characteristic when
+we take into account the chronological sequence in the elaboration of
+laws. Practically the entire code of AEthelberht, for instance, is a
+tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject continues to occupy
+a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, Ine and Alfred,
+whereas it appears only occasionally in the treaties with the Danes,
+the laws of Withraed, Edward the Elder, AEthelstan, Edgar, Edmund and
+AEthelred. It reappears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the
+latter is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The system of
+"compositions" or fines, paid in many cases with the help of kinsmen,
+finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period of English
+history and loses its vitality later on in consequence of the growth
+of central power and of the scattering of maegths. Royalty and the
+Church, when they acquire the lead in social life, work out a
+new penal system based on outlawry, death penalties and corporal
+punishments, which make their first appearance in the legislation of
+Withraed and culminate in that of AEthelred and Canute.
+
+As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into the period
+preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties with the Danes,
+the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the lines of an opposition
+between twelvehynd-men and twyhynd-men, paving the way towards
+the feudal distinction between the free and the unfree. In the
+arrangements of the commonwealth the clauses treating of royal
+privileges are more or less evenly distributed over all reigns, but
+the systematic development of police functions, especially in regard
+to responsibility for crimes, the catching of thieves, the suppression
+of lawlessness, is mainly the object of 10th and 11th century
+legislation. The reign of AEthelred, which witnessed the greatest
+national humiliation and the greatest crime in English history, is
+also marked by the most lavish expressions of religious feeling and
+the most frequent appeals to morality. This sketch would, of course,
+have to be modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the
+unofficial fragments of customary law in the same way as the
+paragraphs of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to
+tabulate the indirect evidence as to legal rules. But, imperfect as
+such statistics may be, they give us at any rate some insight into the
+direction of governmental legislation.
+
+4. The next question to be approached concerns the pedigree of
+Anglo-Saxon law and the latter's natural affinities. What is its
+position in the legal history of Germanic nations? How far has it been
+influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially by Roman and Canon
+law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes, especially the Kentish and the
+West Saxon ones, disclose a close relationship to the barbaric laws
+of Lower Germany--those of Saxons, Frisians, Thuringians. We find a
+division of social ranks which reminds us of the threefold gradation
+of Lower Germany (edelings, frilings, lazzen-eorls, ceorls, laets),
+and not of the twofold Frankish one (_ingenui Franci, Romani_), nor
+of the minute differentiation of the Upper Germans and Lombards. In
+subsequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the
+capitularies' legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on one
+hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, AEthelstan and Edgar on the
+other, a resemblance called forth less by direct borrowing of
+Frankish institutions than by the similarity of political problems
+and condition. Frankish law becomes a powerful modifying element
+in English legal history after the Conquest, when it was introduced
+wholesale in royal and in feudal courts. The Scandinavian invasions
+brought in many northern legal customs, especially in the districts
+thickly populated with Danes. The Domesday survey of Lincolnshire,
+Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk, &c., shows remarkable deviations
+in local organization and justice (lagmen, sokes), and great
+peculiarities as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and
+a few charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law
+(_nidings-vaerk_), special usages as to fines (_lahslit_), the keeping
+of peace, attestation and sureties of acts (_faestermen_), &c. But, on
+the whole, the introduction of Danish and Norse elements, apart from
+local cases, was more important owing to the conflicts and compromises
+it called forth and its social results,--than on account of any
+distinct trail of Scandinavian views in English law. The Scandinavian
+newcomers coalesced easily and quickly with the native population.
+
+[v.02 p.0037]
+
+The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the Saxon
+period: we notice neither the transmission of important legal
+doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes, nor the
+continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage. But indirectly
+Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant influence through the
+medium of the Church, which, for all its insular character, was still
+permeated with Roman ideas and forms of culture. The Old English
+"books" are derived in a roundabout way from Roman models, and the
+tribal law of real property was deeply modified by the introduction of
+individualistic notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of
+women, &c. Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased the
+store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national isolation of the
+English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse with France
+and Italy.
+
+5. It would be useless to attempt to trace in a brief sketch
+the history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of
+Anglo-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an outline of a
+few particularly characteristic subjects.
+
+(a) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless one
+realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and privilege.
+Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or latent but
+susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to as the expression
+of the juridical consciousness of the people at large or of the
+communities of which it is composed. It is tribal in its origin, and
+differentiated, not according to boundaries between states, but on
+national and provincial lines. There may be the folk-right of West and
+East Saxons, of East Angles, of Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians,
+Danes, Welshmen, and these main folk-right divisions remain even when
+tribal kingdoms disappear and the people is concentrated in one or
+two realms. The chief centres for the formulation and application of
+folk-right were in the 10th and 11th centuries the shire-moots, while
+the witan of the realm generally placed themselves on the higher
+ground of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-right
+ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of contracts,
+the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated by folk-right;
+the reeves employed by the king and great men were supposed to take
+care of local and rural affairs according to folk-right. The law had
+to be declared and applied by the people itself in its communities,
+while the spokesmen of the people were neither democratic majorities
+nor individual experts, but a few leading men--the twelve eldest
+thanes or some similar quorum. Folk-right could, however, be broken
+or modified by special law or special grant, and the fountain of such
+privileges was the royal power. Alterations and exceptions were, as
+a matter of fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves,
+and chiefly by the Church. Thus a privileged land-tenure was
+created--bookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set
+at nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations of
+grants and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of the
+hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were conferred.
+In process of time the rights originating in royal grants of privilege
+overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many respects, and became
+themselves the starting-point of a new legal system--the feudal one.
+
+(b) Another feature of vital importance in the history of Anglo-Saxon
+law is its tendency towards the preservation of peace. Society
+is constantly struggling to ensure the main condition of its
+existence--peace. Already in AEthelberht's legislation we find
+characteristic fines inflicted for breach of the peace of householders
+of different ranks--the ceorl, the eorl, and the king himself
+appearing as the most exalted among them. Peace is considered not so
+much a state of equilibrium and friendly relations between parties,
+but rather as the rule of a third within a certain region--a house,
+an estate, a kingdom. This leads on one side to the recognition of
+private authorities--the father's in his family, the master's as to
+servants, the lord's as to his personal or territorial dependents.
+On the other hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes
+its course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we witness in
+Anglo-Saxon law the gradual evolution of more and more stringent and
+complete rules in respect of the king's peace and its infringements.
+
+(c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us the
+individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain
+commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the fellows
+of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities. The most
+elementary of these groups is the _maegth_, the association of agnatic
+and cognatic relations. Personal protection and revenge, oaths,
+marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over settlement, and good
+behaviour, are regulated by the law of kinship. A man's actions are
+considered not as exertions of his individual will, but as acts of the
+kindred, and all the fellows of the maegth are held responsible for
+them. What began as a natural alliance was used later as a means of
+enforcing responsibility and keeping lawless individuals in
+order. When the association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary
+associations--guilds--appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers
+associated in mutual defence and support, and they had to share in
+the payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in for
+certain forms of collective responsibility, because they presented
+groups of people associated in their economic and legal interests.
+
+(d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and
+intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation of
+the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about the sale of
+cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about the pursuit
+of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify sales of
+chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending peaceful
+intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement of and substitute
+for collective responsibility. The _hlaford_ and his _hiredmen_ are
+an institution not only of private patronage, but also of police
+supervision for the sake of laying hands on malefactors and suspected
+persons. The _landrica_ assumes the same part in a territorial
+district. Ultimately the laws of the 10th and 11th centuries show
+the beginnings of the frankpledge associations, which came to act so
+important a part in the local police and administration of the feudal
+age.
+
+The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their intrinsic
+importance in any system of law, they are, as it were, made prominent
+by the documents themselves, as they are constantly referred to in the
+latter.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editions_: Liebermann, _Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen_
+(1903, 1906) is indispensable, and leaves nothing to be desired as
+to the constitution of the texts. The translations and notes are,
+of course, to be considered in the light of an instructive, but not
+final, commentary. R. Schmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (2nd ed.,
+Leipzig, 1858) is still valuable on account of its handiness and the
+fulness of its glossary. B. Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes of
+England_ (1840) is not very trustworthy. _Domesday Book_, i. ii. (Rec.
+Comm.); _Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici_, i.-vi. ed. J.M. Kemble
+(1839-1848); _Cartularium Saxonicum_ (up to 940), ed. W. de Gray
+Birch (1885-1893); J. Earle, _Land Charters_ (Oxford, 1888); Thorpe,
+_Diplomatarium Anglicanum; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters_, edited
+by the Ordnance Survey and by the British Museum; Haddan and Stubbs,
+_Councils of Great Britain_, i.-iii. (Oxford, 1869-1878).
+
+[v.02 p.0038]
+
+_Modern works_.--Konrad Maurer, _Ueber Angelsachsische
+Rechtsverhaltnisse, Kritische Ueberschau_ (Munich, 1853 ff.), still
+the best account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law; _Essays on
+Anglo-Saxon Law_, by H. Adams, H.C. Lodge, J.L. Laughlin and E. Young
+(1876); J.M. Kemble, _Saxons in England_; F. Palgrave, _History of the
+English Commonwealth_; Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_,
+i.; Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, i.; H. Brunner,
+_Zur Rechtsgeschichte der romisch-germanischen Urkunde_ (1880); Sir
+F. Pollock, _The King's Peace_ (Oxford Lectures); F. Seebohm; _The
+English Village Community_; Ibid. _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_;
+Marquardsen, _Haft und Burgschaft im Angelsachsischen Recht_;
+Jastrow, "Ueber die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven," Gierke's
+_Untersuchungen_, i.; Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, iv.; F.W. Maitland,
+_Domesday and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); H.M. Chadwick, _Studies on
+Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (1905); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland" in
+the _English Historical Review_, 1893; "Romanistische Einflusse im
+Angelsaechsischen Recht: Das Buchland" in the _Melanges Fitting_, 1907;
+"The Transfer of Land in Old English Law" in the _Harvard Law Review_,
+1907.
+
+(P. Vi.)
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXONS. The term "Anglo-Saxon" is commonly applied to that
+period of English history, language and literature which preceded the
+Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time of King Alfred, who seems
+to have frequently used the title _rex Anglorum Saxonum_ or _rex
+Angul-Saxonum_. The origin of this title is not quite clear. It is
+generally believed to have arisen from the final union of the various
+kingdoms under Alfred in 886. Bede (_Hist. Eccl._ i. 15) states
+that the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia,
+Northumbria, &c.) belonged to the Angli, while those of Essex, Sussex
+and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons (_q.v._), and those of Kent
+and southern Hampshire from the Jutes (_q.v._). Other early writers,
+however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither in language
+nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable differences
+between the two former groups, though in custom Kent presents most
+remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. Still more curious is
+the fact that West Saxon writers regularly speak of their own nation
+as a part of the _Angelcyn_ and of their language as _Englisc_, while
+the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that
+of Bernicia. On the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the
+distinction drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East
+Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli and the
+Saxons were different nations originally; but from the evidence at our
+disposal it seems likely that they had practically coalesced in very
+early times, perhaps even before the invasion. At all events the term
+_Angli Saxones_ seems to have first come into use on the continent,
+where we find it, nearly a century before Alfred's time, in the
+writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon). There can be little
+doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish the Teutonic
+inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons of the continent.
+
+See W.H. Stevenson, _Asser's Life of King Alfred_ (Oxford, 1904,
+pp. 148 ff.); H. Munro Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_
+(Cambridge, 1907); also BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_.
+
+(H.M.C.)
+
+
+
+ANGOLA, the general name of the Portuguese possessions on the west
+coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception of the
+enclave of Kabinda (_q.v._) the province lies wholly south of the
+river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it extends along
+the coast from the southern bank of the Congo (6 deg. S., 12 deg. E.) to the
+mouth of the Kunene river (17 deg. 18' S., 11 deg. 50' E.). The coast-line is
+some 900 m. long. On the north the Congo forms for 80 m. the boundary
+separating Angola from the Congo Free State. The frontier thence
+(in 5 deg. 52' S.) goes due east to the Kwango river. The eastern
+boundary--dividing the Portuguese possessions from the Congo State and
+Barotseland (N.W. Rhodesia)--is a highly irregular line. On the south
+Angola borders German South-West Africa, the frontier being drawn
+somewhat S. of the 17th degree of S. latitude. The area of the
+province is about 480,000 sq. m. The population is estimated (1906) at
+4,119,000.
+
+The name Angola (a Portuguese corruption of the Bantu word _Ngola_)
+is sometimes confined to the 105 m. of coast, with its hinterland,
+between the mouths of the rivers Dande and Kwanza, forming the central
+portion of the Portuguese dominions in West Africa; in a looser manner
+Angola is used to designate all the western coast of Africa south
+of the Congo in the possession of Portugal; but the name is now
+officially applied to the whole of the province. Angola is divided
+into five districts: four on the coast, the fifth, Lunda, wholly
+inland, being the N.E. part of the province. Lunda is part of the
+old Bantu kingdom of Muata Yanvo, divided by international agreement
+between Portugal and the Congo Free State.
+
+The coast divisions of Angola are Congo on the N. (from the river
+Congo to the river Loje), corresponding roughly with the limits of
+the "kingdom of Congo" (see _History_ below); Loanda, which includes
+Angola in the most restricted sense mentioned above; Benguella
+and Mossamedes to the south. Mossamedes is again divided into two
+portions--the coast region and the hinterland, known as Huilla.
+
+
+_Physical Features_.--The coast is for the most part flat, with
+occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but one
+deep inlet of the sea--Great Fish Bay (or Bahia dos Tigres), a little
+north of the Portuguese-German frontier. Farther north are Port
+Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while shallower bays are
+numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to
+unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance
+varying from 30 to 100 m. This region is in general sparsely watered
+and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of
+Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate
+mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly
+abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the
+sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from
+4000 to 6000 ft. It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains,
+and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls
+away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges
+into a barren sandy desert. A large number of rivers make their way
+westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are
+unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene,
+separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the
+plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the
+coast, as Tala Mugongo (4400 ft.), Chella and Vissecua (5250 ft. to
+6500 ft.). In the district of Benguella are the highest points of the
+province, viz. Loviti (7780 ft.), in 12 deg. 5' S., and Mt. Elonga (7550
+ft.). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo-Cabaza (3300
+ft.). From the tableland the Kwango and many other streams flow north
+to join the Kasai (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which
+in its upper course forms for fully 300 m. the boundary between Angola
+and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers
+belong either to the Zambezi system, or, like the Okavango, drain to
+Lake Ngami.
+
+
+_Geology_.--The rock formations of Angola are met with in three
+distinct regions: (1) the littoral zone, (2) the median zone formed
+by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast, (3) the
+central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient crystalline
+rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones and
+conglomerates considered to be of Palaeozoic age. The outcrops are
+largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is composed largely of
+crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous
+rocks. The littoral zone contains the only fossiliferous strata. These
+are of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, the latter rocks resting on a
+reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe
+Grande region (near Benguella) are of Albian age and belong to the
+_Acanthoceras mamillari_ zone. The beds containing _Schloenbachia
+inflata_ are referable to the Gault. Rocks of Tertiary age are met
+with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with
+gypsum, copper and sulphur of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be
+of Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly basalts, form a line
+of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossamedes.
+Nepheline basalts and liparites occur at Dombe Grande. The presence
+of gum copal in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is
+characteristic of certain regions.
+
+[v.02 p.0039]
+
+_Climate._--With the exception of the district of Mossamedes, the
+coast plains are unsuited to Europeans. In the interior, above 3300
+ft., the temperature and rainfall, together with malaria, decrease.
+The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating. The mean annual
+temperature at Sao Salvador do Congo is 72.5 deg. F.; at Loanda, 74.3 deg.;
+and at Caconda, 67.2 deg.. The climate is greatly influenced by the
+prevailing winds, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are
+distinguished--the cool, from June to September; and the rainy,
+from October to May. The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is
+accompanied by violent storms.
+
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--Both flora and fauna are those characteristic of
+the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguella the
+coast region is rich in oil-palms and mangroves. In the northern part
+of the province are dense forests. In the south towards the Kunene are
+regions of dense thorn scrub. Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but
+in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the
+ruthless methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species
+most common are various root rubbers, notably the _Carpodinus
+chylorrhiza._ This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very
+widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The coffee, cotton and
+Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the tobacco plant flourishes
+in several districts. Among the trees are several which yield
+excellent timber, such as the tacula (_Pterocarpus tinctorius_), which
+grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the
+Angola mahogany. The bark of the musuemba (_Albizzia coriaria_) is
+largely used in the tanning of leather. The mulundo bears a fruit
+about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and
+containing scarlet pips like a pomegranate. The fauna includes the
+lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
+buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other kinds of antelope, wild pig,
+ostrich and crocodile. Among fish are the barbel, bream and African
+yellow fish.
+
+
+_Inhabitants._--The great majority of the inhabitants are of
+Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the
+pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The
+best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who
+dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who
+occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the
+Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living
+on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the
+Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of
+Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the
+upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of
+Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the
+majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo
+and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the
+Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and
+possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as
+symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native
+has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona.
+Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The
+dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest
+construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in
+an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of
+palm or other leaves.
+
+
+_Chief Towns._--The chief towns are Sao Paulo de Loanda, the capital,
+Kabinda, Benguella and Mossamedes (_q.v._). Lobito, a little north of
+Benguella, is a town which dates from 1905 and owes its existence to
+the bay of the same name having been chosen as the sea terminus of a
+railway to the far interior. Noki is on the southern bank of the Congo
+at the head of navigation from the sea, and close to the Congo Free
+State frontier. It is available for ships of large tonnage, and
+through it passes the Portuguese portion of the trade of the lower
+Congo. Ambriz--the only seaport of consequence in the Congo district
+of the province--is at the mouth of the Loje river, about 70 m. N.
+of Loanda. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between Loanda and
+Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of Mossamedes and S. of
+the town of that name.
+
+In the interior Humpata, about 95 m. from Mossamedes, is the chief
+centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none but native towns
+containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants and often enclosed by a ring
+of sycamore trees. Ambaca and Malanje are the chief places in the
+fertile agricultural district of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda,
+with which they are in railway communication. Sao Salvador (pop. 1500)
+is the name given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town
+of the "kingdom of Congo." It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and is
+about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki, in 6 deg.
+15' S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected in the 16th
+century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls were destroyed
+in the closing years of the 19th century and the stone used to build
+government offices. There is a fort, built about 1850, and a small
+military force is at the disposal of the Portuguese resident. Bembe
+and Encoje are smaller towns in the Congo district south of Sao
+Salvador. Bihe, the capital of the plateau district of the same
+name forming the hinterland of Benguella, is a large caravan centre.
+Kangomba, the residence of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda
+is in the hill country S.E. of Benguella.
+
+
+_Agriculture and Trade._--Angola is rich in both agricultural and
+mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are mealies and
+manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco plants. The
+chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels and palm-oil,
+cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust, cotton, ivory and
+gum are also exported. The chief imports are food-stuffs, cotton and
+woollen goods and hardware. Considerable quantities of coal come
+from South Wales. Oxen, introduced from Europe and from South Africa,
+flourish. There are sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a
+few other manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends
+on the "jungle" products obtained through the natives and from the
+plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured labour, the
+labourers being generally "recruited" from the far interior. The trade
+of the province, which had grown from about L800,000 in 1870 to
+about L3,000,000 in 1905, is largely with Portugal and in Portuguese
+bottoms. Between 1893 and 1904 the percentage of Portuguese as
+compared with foreign goods entering the province increased from 43 to
+201%, a result due to the preferential duties in force.
+
+The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe, and deposits
+on the M'Brije and the Cuvo and in various places in the southern
+part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the Lucalla affluent of the
+Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao;
+gold in Lombije and Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native
+blacksmiths are held in great repute.
+
+
+_Communications._--There is a regular steamship communication between
+Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which port is within
+sixteen days' steam of Lisbon. There is also a regular service between
+Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and Southampton. The Portuguese line is
+subsidized by the government. The railway from Loanda to Ambaca and
+Malanje is known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It is of metre
+gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was intended to
+carry the line across the continent to Mozambique, but when the line
+reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1894 that scheme was abandoned. The railway
+had created a record in being the most expensive built in tropical
+Africa--L8942 per mile. A railway from Lobito Bay, 25 m.N. of
+Benguella, begun in 1904, runs towards the Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It
+is of standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) and is worked by an English
+company. It is intended to serve the Katanga copper mines. Besides
+these two main railways, there are other short lines linking the
+seaports to their hinterland. Apart from the railways, communication
+is by ancient caravan routes and by ox-wagon tracks in the southern
+district. Riding-oxen are also used. The province is well supplied
+with telegraphic communication and is connected with Europe by
+submarine cables.
+
+[v.02 p.0040]
+
+_Government and Revenue._--The administration of the province is
+carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who acts
+under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon. At the
+head of each district is a local governor. Legislative powers, save
+those delegated to the governor-general, are exercised by the home
+government. Revenue is raised chiefly from customs, excise duties
+and direct taxation. The revenue (in 1904-1905 about L350,000)
+is generally insufficient to meet expenditure (in 1904-1905 over
+L490,000)--the balance being met by a grant from the mother country.
+Part of the extra expenditure is, however, on railways and other
+reproductive works.
+
+
+_History._--The Portuguese established themselves on the west coast
+of Africa towards the close of the 15th century. The river Congo was
+discovered by Diogo Cam or Cao in 1482. He erected a stone pillar at
+the mouth of the river, which accordingly took the title of Rio de
+Padrao, and established friendly relations with the natives, who
+reported that the country was subject to a great monarch, Mwani Congo
+or lord of Congo, resident at Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not
+long in making themselves influential in the country. Goncalo de Sousa
+was despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first missionaries
+entered the country in his train. The king was soon afterwards
+baptized and Christianity was nominally established as the national
+religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at Bonza Congo (renamed Sao
+Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes.
+Of the prosperity of the country the Portuguese have left the most
+glowing and indeed incredible accounts. It was, however, about this
+time ravaged by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior,
+and Portuguese influence gradually declined. The attention of the
+Portuguese was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern
+districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop's seat was removed to Sao
+Paulo de Loanda and Sao Salvador declined in importance. In the 18th
+century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and France, steps were
+taken towards re-establishing Portuguese authority in the northern
+regions; in 1758 a settlement was formed at Encoje; from 1784 to 1789
+the Portuguese carried on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the
+district immediately south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at
+Quincollo on the Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of
+Bembe. Until, however, the "scramble for Africa" began in 1884, they
+possessed no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz,
+which was first occupied in 1855. At Sao Salvador, however, the
+Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the native
+princes who had real authority was a potentate known as Dom Pedro
+V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the help of a Portuguese
+force, and reigned over thirty years. In 1888 a Portuguese resident
+was stationed at Salvador, and the kings of Congo became pensioners of
+the government.
+
+Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now constitutes the
+province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam during 1482 and
+the three following years. The first governor sent to Angola was Paulo
+Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz, who reduced to submission the
+region south of the Kwanza nearly as far as Benguella. The city of
+Loanda was founded in 1576, Benguella in 1617. From that date the
+sovereignty of Portugal over the coast-line, from its present southern
+limit as far north as Ambriz (7 deg. 50' S.) has been undisputed save
+between 1640 and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel
+the Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic
+development of the country was not entirely neglected and many useful
+food products were introduced, the prosperity of the province was
+very largely dependent on the slave trade with Brazil, which was not
+legally abolished until 1830 and in fact continued for many years
+subsequently.
+
+In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily refused
+to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north of
+Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese sovereignty over
+both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty, meeting with opposition
+in England and Germany, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with
+the Congo Free State, Germany and France in 1885-1886 (modified in
+details by subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province,
+except in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotseland (N.W.
+Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguese agreement
+of 1891 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy in 1905 (see
+AFRICA: _History)_. Up to the end of the 19th century the hold of
+Portugal over the interior of the province was slight, though its
+influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins. The abolition of
+the external slave trade proved very injurious to the trade of the
+seaports, but from 1860 onward the agricultural resources of the
+country were developed with increasing energy, a work in which
+Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the definite partition of
+Africa among the European powers, Portugal applied herself with some
+seriousness to exploit Angola and her other African possessions.
+Nevertheless, in comparison with its natural wealth the development
+of the country has been slow. Slavery and the slave trade continued
+to flourish in the interior in the early years of the 20th century,
+despite the prohibitions of the Portuguese government. The extension
+of authority over the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not
+accomplished without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a
+Portuguese column lost over 300 men killed, including 114 Europeans,
+in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from the
+German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe and
+were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their southern
+neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905 and again in
+1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region.
+
+
+_AUTHORITIES._--E. de Vasconcellos, _As Colonias Portuguesas_ (Lisbon,
+1896-1897); J.J. Monteiro, _Angola and the River Congo_ (2 vols.
+London, 1875); Viscount de Paiva Manso, _Historia do Congo....
+(Documentos_) (Lisbon, 1877); _A Report of the Kingdom of Congo_
+(London, 1881), an English translation, with notes by Margarite
+Hutchinson, of Filippo Pigafetta's _Relatione del Reame di Congo_
+(Rome, 1591), a book founded on the statements and writings of
+Duarte Lopez; Rev. Thos. Lewis, "The Ancient Kingdom of Kongo" in
+_Geographical Journal,_ vol. xix. and vol. xxxi. (London, 1902 and
+1908); _The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell of Leigh in Angola
+and the Adjoining Regions_ (London, 1901), a volume of the Hakluyt
+Society, edited by E.G. Ravenstein, who gives in appendices the
+history of the country from its discovery to the end of the 17th
+century; J.C. Feo Cardozo, _Memorias contendo ... a historia dos
+governadores e capitaens generaes de Angola, desde 1575 ate 1825_
+(Paris, 1825); H.W. Nevinson, _A Modern Slavery_ (London, 1906), an
+examination of the system of indentured labour and its recruitment;
+_Ornithologie d'Angola_, by J.V. Barboza du Bocage (Lisbon, 1881);
+"Geologie des Colonies portugaises en Afrique," by P. Choffat, in
+_Com. d. service geol. du Portugal._ See also the annual reports on
+the _Trade of Angola,_ issued by the British Foreign Office.
+
+
+
+ANGORA, or ENGURI. (1) A city of Turkey (anc. _Ancyra)_ in Asia,
+capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep, rocky
+hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of the
+Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria (Sangarius), about 220 m.
+E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old
+citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town
+is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses
+constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however, many
+fine remains of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most
+remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on the walls of
+which is the famous _Monumentum Ancyranum_ (see ANCYRA). Ancyra was
+the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes which
+settled in Galatia in the 3rd century B.C., and became the capital of
+the Roman province of Galatia when it was formally constituted in
+25 B.C. During the Byzantine period, throughout which it occupied a
+position of great importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs;
+then it fell into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen
+years by the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks
+in 1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora,
+in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made prisoner by
+the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 1415 it was recovered by the Turks under
+Mahommed I., and since that period has belonged to the Ottoman empire.
+In 1832 it was taken by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is
+connected with Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair,
+grain and yellow berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town
+is noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an
+agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British consul.
+Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians, largely Roman
+Catholic Armenians, about 9400; Jews, 400).
+
+[v.02 p.0041]
+
+(2) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which includes most
+of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural country, depending for
+its prosperity on its grain, wool (average annual export, 4,400,000
+ft), and the mohair obtained from the beautiful Angora goats (average
+annual clip, 3,300,000 lb). The fineness of the hair may perhaps be
+ascribed to some peculiarity in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable
+that the cats, dogs and other animals of the country are to a certain
+extent affected in the same way, and that they all lose much of their
+distinctive beauty when taken from their native districts. The only
+important industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh.
+There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
+springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average annual
+exports 1896-1898, L920,762; imports, L411,836. Pop. about 900,000
+(Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being Christians, with a few
+hundred Jews).
+
+(J.G.C.A.)
+
+See C. Ritter, _Erdkunde van Asien_ (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V.
+Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_, t, i. (1891); Murray's _Handbook to Asia
+Minor_ (1895); and other works mentioned under ANCYRA.
+
+
+
+ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF (1573-1650), the natural son of
+Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born on the 28th of April
+1573, at the castle of Fayet in Dauphine. His father dying in the
+following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother
+and successor, Henry III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His
+mother married Francois de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her
+daughters, Henriette, marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the
+mistress of Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and
+was destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
+attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made grand
+prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large
+estates left by Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he took his
+title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from
+the vows of the order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of
+Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorency. In 1589
+Henry III. was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles
+to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was
+made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns
+during the early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king
+and the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
+to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the
+dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of which was
+to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The
+conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Auvergne were arrested and Biron
+was executed. Auvergne after a few months' imprisonment was released,
+chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the
+duchess of Angouleme and his father-in-law. He then entered into
+fresh intrigues with the court of Spain, acting in concert with
+the marchioness of Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604
+d'Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same
+time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
+convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against
+the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Auvergne
+remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree
+of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived
+him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still
+retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his
+rank of colonel-general of horse, and despatched against one of the
+disaffected nobles, the duke of Longueville, who had taken Peronne.
+Next year he commanded the forces collected in the Ile de France, and
+obtained some successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in
+1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angouleme. Soon after he was engaged
+on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
+treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large forces
+assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after in 1635,
+during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the French army in
+Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-general of the army. He
+appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of
+Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married
+Francoise de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had
+no children and survived her husband until 1713. Angouleme himself
+died on the 24th of September 1650. By his first wife he had three
+children: Henri, who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his
+father as duke of Angouleme and was colonel-general of light cavalry
+and governor of Provence; and Francoise, who died in 1622.
+
+The duke was the author of the following works:--(i)_Memoires_, from
+the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arques (1589-1593)
+published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his _Choix de
+chroniques_ (1836) and by Petitot in his _Memoires_ (1st series, vol.
+xliv.); (2) _Les Harangues, prononces en assemblee de MM. les princes
+protestants d'Allemagne_, par Monseigneur le duc d' Angouleme (1620);
+(3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torres. To him has
+also been ascribed the work, _La generale et fidele Relation de tout
+ce qui s'est passe en l'isle de Re, envoyee par le roi a la royne sa
+mere_ (Paris, 1627).
+
+
+
+ANGOULEME, a city of south-western France, capital of the department
+of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway between Bordeaux
+and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 30,040. The town proper occupies an elevated
+promontory, washed on the north by the Charente and on the south
+and west by the Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more
+important of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory
+joins the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.
+
+The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel beneath
+the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angouleme is
+encircled by boulevards known as the _Remparts_, from which fine views
+may be obtained in all directions. Within the town the streets are
+often dark and narrow, and, apart from the cathedral and the hotel
+de ville, the architecture is of little interest. The cathedral of
+St. Pierre (see CATHEDRAL), a church in the Byzantine-Romanesque style,
+dates from the 11th and 12th centuries, but has undergone frequent
+restoration, and was partly rebuilt in the latter half of the igth
+century by the architect Paul Abadie. The facade, flanked by two
+towers with cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary
+and sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The crossing
+is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the north transept by
+a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The hotel de ville, also by
+Abadie, is a handsome modern structure, but preserves two towers of
+the chateau of the counts of Angouleme, on the site of which it is
+built. It contains museums of paintings and archaeology. Angouleme is
+the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public
+institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
+council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
+the Bank of France. It also has a lycee, training-colleges, a school
+of artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
+of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been connected
+since the 14th century. Most of the mills are situated on the banks
+of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the town. The subsidiary
+industries, such as the manufacture of machinery and wire fabric,
+are of considerable importance. Iron and copper founding, brewing,
+tanning, and the manufacture of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron
+goods, gloves, boots and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on.
+Commerce is carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.
+
+Angouleme (_Iculisma_) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths in
+507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In 1360 it
+was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English; they were,
+however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V., who granted
+the town numerous privileges. It suffered much during the Wars of
+Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture by the Protestants
+under Coligny.
+
+[v.02 p.0042]
+
+The countship of Angouleme dated from the 9th century, the most
+important of the early counts being William Taillefer, whose
+descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century. Withdrawn
+from them on more than one occasion by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it
+passed to King John of England on his marriage with Isabel, daughter
+of Count Adhemar, and by her subsequent marriage in 1220 to Hugh X.
+passed to the Lusignan family, counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh
+XIII. in 1302 without issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In
+1394 the countship came to the house of Orleans, a member of which,
+Francis I., became king of France in 1515 and raised it to the rank
+of duchy in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards
+changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
+Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-Antoine,
+eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.
+
+See A.F. Lievre, _Angouleme: histoire, institutions et monuments_
+(Angouleme, 1885).
+
+
+
+ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corresponding to-day to
+the department of Charente. Its capital was Angouleme.
+
+See _Essai d'une bibliotheque historique de l'Angoumois,_ by E.
+Castaigne (1845).
+
+
+
+ANGRA, or ANGRA DO HEROISMO ("Bay of Heroism," a name given it in
+1829, to commemorate its successful defence against the Miguelist
+party), the former capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
+Azores, and chief town of an administrative district, comprising the
+islands of Terceira, St. George and Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra
+is built on the south coast of Terceira in 38 deg. 38' N. and in 27 deg. 13'
+W. It is the headquarters of a military command, and the residence of
+a Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
+military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of little
+commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a celebrated naval
+station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by the promontory
+of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbouring ports of Ponta
+Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is not large, and consists
+chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and other fruit. Angra served
+as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of Portugal from 1830 to 1833.
+
+
+
+ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in 26 deg. 38' S.,
+15 deg. E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. F.A.E. Luederitz, of
+Bremen, established a trading station here in 1883, and his agent
+concluded treaties with the neighbouring chiefs, who ceded large
+tracts of country to the newcomers. On the 24th of April 1884 Luderitz
+transferred his rights to the German imperial government, and on the
+following 7th of August a German protectorate over the district was
+proclaimed. (See AFRICA, Sec.5, and GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) Angra
+Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Luederitz Bay, and the adjacent
+country is sometimes called Luederitzland. The harbour is poor. At the
+head of the bay is a small town, whence a railway, begun in 1906, runs
+east in the direction of Bechuanaland. The surrounding country
+for many miles is absolute desert, except after rare but terrible
+thunderstorms, when the dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly
+filled with a turbulent stream, the water finding its way into the
+bay.
+
+The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with others north
+and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867 and added to Cape
+Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin Island are in the bay;
+Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird islands are to the north; Halifax,
+Long, Possession, Albatross, Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef
+islands are to the south. On these islands are guano deposits; the
+most valuable is on Ichaboe Island.
+
+
+
+ANGSTROeM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist, was born on
+the 13th of August 1814 at Loegdoe, Medelpad, Sweden. He was educated at
+Upsala University, where in 1839 he became _privat docent_ in physics.
+In 1842 he went to Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience
+in practical astronomical work, and in the following year ht became
+observer at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial
+magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity and
+declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by the
+Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed till
+shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data obtained
+by the Swedish frigate "Eugenie" on her voyage round the world in
+1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857)
+in the chair of physics at Upsala, and there he died on the 21st of
+June 1874. His most important work was concerned with the conduction
+of heat and with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, _Optiska
+Undersoekningar,_ presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he
+not only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
+spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from the
+gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of
+resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same
+refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement, as Sir
+E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford medal of the
+Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental principle of spectrum
+analysis, and though for a number of years it was overlooked it
+entitles him to rank as one of the founders of spectroscopy. From 1861
+onwards he paid special attention to the solar spectrum. He announced
+the existence of hydrogen, among other elements, in the sun's
+atmosphere in 1862, and in 1868 published his great map of the normal
+solar spectrum which long remained authoritative in questions of
+wave-length, although his measurements were inexact to the extent
+of one part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
+standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in 1867, to
+examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and detected and measured
+the characteristic bright line in its yellow green region; but he was
+mistaken in supposing that this same line, which is often called by
+his name, is also to be seen in the zodiacal light.
+
+His son, KNUT JOHAN ANGSTROeM, was born at Upsala on the 12th of
+January 1857, and studied at the university of that town from 1877
+to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he was appointed
+lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in 1885, but in 1891
+returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became professor of physics. He
+especially devoted himself to investigations of the radiation of heat
+from the sun and its absorption by the earth's atmosphere, and to that
+end devised various delicate methods and instruments, including his
+electric compensation pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus
+for obtaining a photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum
+(1895).
+
+
+
+ANGUIER, FRANCOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612-1686), French
+sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in Normandy. Their
+apprenticeship was served in the studio of Simon Guillain. The chief
+works of Francois are the monument to Cardinal de Berulle, founder of
+the Carmelite order, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which
+all but the bust has been destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II.,
+last duc de Montmorency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures
+of the triumphal arch at the Porte St. Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
+as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group of the
+Nativity in the church of Val de Grace was reckoned his masterpiece.
+From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of the sculpture and
+decoration in this church, and it was he who superintended the
+decoration of the apartments of Anne of Austria in the old Louvre. F.
+Fouquet also employed him for his chateau in Vaux.
+
+See Henri Stein, _Les freres Anguier_ (1889), with catalogue of
+works, and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, _Deux
+sculpteurs Normands: les freres Anguier_ (1889).
+
+
+
+ANGUILLA, or SNAKE, a small island in the British Indies, part of the
+presidency of St. Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
+Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is situated in 18 deg. 12' N. and 63 deg.
+5' W., about 60 m. N.W. of St Kitts, is 16 m. long and has an area of
+35 sq. m. The destruction of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in
+the almost complete deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land
+is in the hands of peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes,
+peas, beans, corn, &c., and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate
+of lime and salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the
+principal exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island
+of St. Thomas.
+
+[v.02 p.0043]
+
+
+ANGULATE (Lat. _angulus_, an angle), shaped with corners or angles;
+an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of stems, leaves
+and wings.
+
+
+
+ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of
+the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven
+brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Celtic line ended with
+Matilda (_fl._ 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who married
+in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of three
+earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being
+summoned to the English parliament. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl,
+co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third
+creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her
+own right, and widow of Thomas, 13th earl of Mar. By an irregular
+connexion with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's
+sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
+(_c._ 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son,
+to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken
+prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was his
+great-grandson.
+
+
+
+ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (_c._ 1450-_c._ 1514), the famous
+"Bell the Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded his father, George
+the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made warden of the east
+marches, but the next year he joined the league against James III. and
+his favourite Robert Cochrane at Lauder, where he earned his nickname
+by offering to bell the cat, _i.e._ to deal with the latter, beginning
+the attack upon him by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing
+him with others of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he
+joined Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV.
+of England on the 11th of February 1483, signing the convention at
+Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the English
+king. In March however they returned, outwardly at least, to their
+allegiance, and received pardons for their treason. Later Angus was
+one of the leaders in the rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488,
+which ended in the latter's death. He was made one of the guardians of
+the young king James IV. but soon lost influence, being superseded by
+the Homes and Hepburns, and the wardenship of the marches was given
+to Alexander Home. Though outwardly on good terms with James, he
+treacherously made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by
+which he undertook to govern his relations with James according
+to instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle,
+commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the condition
+of receiving English estates in compensation. In October 1491 he
+fortified his castle of Tantallon against James, but was obliged to
+submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate and Hermitage Castle for the
+lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he was again in favour, received various
+grants of lands, and was made chancellor, which office he retained
+till 1498. In 1501 he was once more in disgrace and confined to
+Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 1513, at which he
+was not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was
+appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died at the
+close of this year, or in 1514. He was married three times, and by his
+first wife had four sons and several daughters. His third son, Gavin
+Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately noticed.
+
+
+
+ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, the 6th earl (_c._ 1489-1557), son of George,
+master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded on his
+grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret (d. 1513),
+daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell; and in 1514 he
+married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland, widow of James IV.,
+and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this latter act he stirred up the
+jealousy of the nobles and the opposition of the French party, and
+civil war broke out. He was superseded in the government on the
+arrival of John Stewart, duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus
+withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the
+queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he
+joined Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for
+London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her
+once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland
+on Albany's departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency.
+Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence, Angus had formed a connexion
+with a daughter of the laird of Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect
+of her by refusing to support his claims for power and by secretly
+trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his
+own against the attempts of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, to
+dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom Margaret now
+sided against her husband, deprived him of power. The regent took the
+government into his own hands; Angus was charged with high treason in
+December, and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France,
+whence he succeeded in escaping to London in 1524. He returned to
+Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with
+whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have
+anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, Angus forced
+his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated
+to Tantallon. He now organized a large party of nobles against
+Margaret with the support of Henry VIII., and in February 1525 they
+entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a lord of
+the articles, was included in the council of regency, bore the king's
+crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held
+the chief power. In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches,
+and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July the
+guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed period
+till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to retire, and
+advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents. He
+now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining
+over some of his antagonists, including Arran and the Hamiltons,
+and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming
+chancellor. "None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor
+Douglas's man."[1] The young king James, now fourteen, was far from
+content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded,
+and several attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus
+completely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with
+10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling. His successes
+were consummated by a pacification with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528
+he was busy in restoring order through the country. In the latter
+year, on the 11th of March, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her
+divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover,
+Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however,
+James succeeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with
+Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed Angus and
+all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his
+person. Angus, having fortified himself in Tantallon, was attainted
+and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts of James to subdue
+the fortress failed, and on one occasion Angus captured the royal
+artillery, but at length it was given up as a condition of the truce
+between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge
+with Henry, obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry
+engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus had
+been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir
+George Douglas of Pittendriech (_d._ 1552), master of Angus, a far
+cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and lands were also
+declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of
+Kilspindie (_d._ 1535), who had been a friend of James and was known
+by the nickname of "Greysteel." These took refuge in exile. James
+avenged himself on such Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's
+third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the charge
+of communicating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her
+estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for conspiring against
+the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the Castle Hill,
+Edinburgh, on the 17th of July 1537. Her innocence has been generally
+assumed, but Tytler (_Hist, of Scotland_, iv. pp. 433, 434) considered
+her guilty. Angus remained in England till 1542, joining in the
+attacks upon his countrymen on the border, while James refused all
+demands from Henry VIII. for his restoration, and kept firm to his
+policy of suppressing and extirpating the Douglas faction. On James
+V.'s death in 1542 Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions
+from Henry to accomplish the marriage between Mary and Edward. His
+forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored, and he was made a
+privy councillor and lieutenant-general. In 1543 he negotiated the
+treaty of peace and marriage, and the same year he himself married
+Margaret, daughter of Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly afterwards strife
+between Angus and the regent Arran broke out, and in April 1544
+Angus was taken prisoner. The same year Lord Hertford's marauding
+expedition, which did not spare the lands of Angus, made him join the
+anti-English party. He entered into a bond with Arran and others to
+maintain their allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the
+mission sent to France to offer the latter's hand. In July 1544 he
+was appointed lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished
+himself on the 27th of February 1545 in the victory over the
+English at Ancrum Moor. He still corresponded with Henry VIII., but
+nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and peace
+treaty, and on the 10th of September commanded the van in the great
+defeat of Pinkie, when he again won fame. In 1548 the attempt by
+Lennox and Wharton to capture him and punish him for his duplicity
+failed, Angus escaping after his defeat to Edinburgh by sea, and
+Wharton being driven back to Carlisle. Under the regency of Mary of
+Lorraine his restless and ambitious character and the number of his
+retainers gave cause for frequent alarms to the government. On the
+31st of August 1547 he resigned his earldom, obtaining a regrant _sibi
+et suis haeredibus masculis et suis assignatis quibuscumque_. His
+career was a long struggle for power and for the interests of his
+family, to which national considerations were completely subordinate.
+He died in January 1557. By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only
+surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew, 4th earl of Lennox,
+and was mother of Lord Darnley. He was succeeded by his nephew David,
+son of Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech.
+
+[Footnote 1: Lindsay of Pitscottie (1814), ii. 314.]
+
+[v.02 p.0044]
+
+
+ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555-1588), was the
+son of David, 7th earl. He succeeded to the title and estates in 1558,
+being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl of Morton, a Presbyterian.
+In 1573 he was made a privy councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574
+lieutenant-general of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and
+steward of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave
+a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter, made a
+vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of high treason
+on the 2nd of June 1581. He now entered into correspondence with the
+English government for an invasion of Scotland to rescue Morton,
+and on the latter's execution in June went to London, where he
+was welcomed by Elizabeth. After the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus
+returned to Scotland and was reconciled to James, but soon afterwards
+the king shook off the control of the earls of Mar and Gowrie,
+and Angus was again banished from the court. In 1584 he joined
+the rebellion of Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the
+insurgents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at
+Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of projects
+against the Scottish government, encouraged by Elizabeth, who regarded
+the banished lords as friends of the English and antagonists of the
+French interest. In February 1585 they came to London, and cleared
+themselves of the accusation of plotting against James's life; a plan
+was prepared for their restoration and for the overthrow of James
+Stewart, earl of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained
+an easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king in
+November, and secured from James the restoration of their estates and
+the control of the government. In 1586 Angus was appointed warden of
+the marches and lieutenant-general on the border, and performed good
+services in restoring order; but he was unable to overcome the king's
+hostility to the establishment of Presbyterian government. In January
+1586 he was granted the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon
+him by his uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1588. He was succeeded
+in the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the 5th earl.
+(For the Morton title, see MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th EARL OF.)
+
+
+WILLIAM DOUGLAS, 10th earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of William, the
+9th earl (1533-1591). He studied at St. Andrews University and joined
+the household of the earl of Morton. Subsequently, while visiting the
+French court, he became a Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on
+his return, disinherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he
+succeeded to his father's titles and estates in 1591, and though in
+1592 he was disgraced for his complicity in Lord Bothwell's plot,
+he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king's
+lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however, he was
+asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and other lords
+against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and protesting his absolute
+rejection of Spanish offers, while in October he signed the Spanish
+Blanks (see ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY, 9th EARL OF) and was imprisoned (on
+the discovery of the treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in
+January 1593. He succeeded on the 13th in escaping by the help of his
+countess, joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north.
+They were offered an act of "oblivion" or "abolition" provided
+they renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these
+conditions they were declared traitors and "forfeited." They remained
+in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them on Aberdeen
+roused James's anger. Huntly and Erroll were subdued by James himself
+in the north, and Angus failed in an attempt upon Edinburgh in concert
+with the earl of Bothwell. Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced
+their religion, declared themselves Presbyterians, and were restored
+to their estates and honours. Angus was again included in the privy
+council, and in June 1598 was appointed the king's lieutenant
+in southern Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and
+conducted the "Raid of Dumfries," as the campaign against the
+Johnstones was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the
+advancement of Huntly to a marquisate, recanted, resisted all the
+arguments of the ministers to bring him to a "better mind," and was
+again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 he withdrew to France, and
+died in Paris on the 3rd of March 1611. He was succeeded by his son
+William, as 11th earl of Angus, afterwards 1st marquis of Douglas
+(1580-1660). The title is now held by the dukes of Hamilton.
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--_The Douglas Book_, by Sir W. Fraser (1885); _History
+of the House of Douglas and Angus_, by D. Hume of Godscroft (1748,
+legendary in some respects); _History of the House of Douglas_, by Sir
+H. Maxwell (1902).
+
+
+
+ANGUSSOLA or ANGUSSCIOLA, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait painter of the
+latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona about 1535, and
+died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the invitation of Philip II.,
+she visited the court of Madrid, where her portraits elicited great
+commendation. Vandyck is said to have declared that he had derived
+more knowledge of the true principles of his art from her conversation
+than from any other source. She painted several fine portraits of
+herself, one of which is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting
+are to be seen at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who were
+also celebrated artists.
+
+
+
+ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of the German
+empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of the two duchies
+Anhalt-Dessau-Coethen and Anhalt-Bernburg, and comprising all the
+various Anhalt territories which were sundered apart in 1603. The
+country now known as Anhalt consists of two larger portions--Eastern
+and Western Anhalt, separated by the interposition of a part
+of Prussian Saxony--and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian
+territory, viz. Alsleben, Muehlingen, Dornburg, Goednitz and
+Tilkerode-Abberode. The eastern and larger portion of the duchy
+is enclosed by the Prussian government district of Potsdam (in
+the Prussian province of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merseburg
+(belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western or smaller
+portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt) is also enclosed by
+the two latter districts and, for a distance of 5 m. on the west,
+by the duchy of Brunswick. The western portion of the territory is
+undulating and in the extreme south-west, where it forms part of the
+Harz range, mountainous, the Ramberg peak attaining a height of 1900
+ft. From the Harz the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and
+between this river and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile
+country. The portion of the duchy lying east of the Elbe is mostly a
+flat sandy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at
+intervals, by bog-land and rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief river,
+and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from east to west,
+receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The navigable Saale takes
+a northerly direction through the western portion of the eastern part
+of the territory and receives, on the right, the Fuhne and, on the
+left, the Wipper and the Bode. The climate is on the whole mild,
+though somewhat inclement in the higher regions to the south-west. The
+area of the duchy is 906 sq. m., and the population in 1905 amounted
+to 328,007, a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is
+divided into the districts of Dessau, Coethen, Zerbst, Bernburg and
+Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and that of
+Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four, viz. Dessau,
+Bernburg, Coethen and Zerbst, have populations exceeding 20,000. The
+inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly belong to the upper Saxon race,
+are, with the exception of about 12,000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews,
+members of the Evangelical (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical
+authority is the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members,
+elected for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on internal
+matters touching the organization of the church. The Roman Catholics
+are under the bishop of Paderborn. There are within the duchy four
+grammar schools (gymnasia), five semi-classical and modern schools,
+a teachers' seminary and four high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole
+surface, land under tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and
+forest to 25%. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit,
+vegetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops. The land
+is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal domains and the
+large estates especially so. The pastures on the banks of the Elbe
+yield cattle of excellent quality. The forests are well stocked
+with game, such as deer and wild boar, and the open country is well
+supplied with partridges. The rivers yield abundant fish, salmon (in
+the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys. The country is rich in lignite, and
+salt works are abundant. Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief
+are its sugar factories, distilleries, breweries and chemical works.
+Commerce is brisk, especially in raw products--corn, cattle, timber
+or wool. Coal (lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of
+export. The trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads,
+its navigable rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in
+connexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of commerce in
+Dessau.
+
+[v.02 p.0045]
+
+
+_Constitution_.--The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law, proclaimed
+on the 17th of September 1859 and subsequently modified by various
+decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The duke, who bears the
+title of "Highness," wields the executive power while sharing the
+legislation with the estates. The diet (_Landtag_) is composed of
+thirty-six members, of whom two are appointed by the duke, eight are
+representatives of landowners paying the highest taxes, two of the
+highest assessed members of the commercial and manufacturing classes,
+fourteen of the other electors of the towns and ten of the rural
+districts. The representatives are chosen for six years by indirect
+vote and must have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duke
+governs through a minister of state, who is the praeses of all the
+departments--finance, home affairs, education, public worship and
+statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 1905-1906
+placed the expenditure of the estate at L1,323,437. The public debt
+amounted on the 30th of June 1904 to L226,300. By convention with
+Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a contingent of the Prussian
+army. Appeal from the lower courts of the duchy lies to the appeal
+court at Naumburg in Prussian Saxony.
+
+
+_History_.--During the 11th century the greater part of Anhalt was
+included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 12th century it came
+under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg. Albert was
+descended from Albert, count of Ballenstedt, whose son Esico (d. 1059
+or 1060) appears to have been the first to bear the title of count of
+Anhalt. Esico's grandson, Otto the Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the
+father of Albert the Bear, by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of
+Brandenburg. When Albert died in 1170, his son Bernard, who received
+the title of duke of Saxony in 1180, became count of Anhalt. Bernard
+died in 1212, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his son
+Henry, who in 1218 took the title of prince and was the real founder
+of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death in 1252 his three sons
+partitioned the principality and founded respectively the lines of
+Aschersleben, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family ruling in Aschersleben
+became extinct in 1315, and this district was subsequently
+incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of Halberstadt. The last
+prince of the line of Anhalt-Bernburg died in 1468 and his lands
+were inherited by the princes of the sole remaining line, that of
+Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging to this branch of the family
+had been divided in 1396, and after the acquisition of Bernburg
+Prince George I. made a further partition of Zerbst. Early in the 16th
+century, however, owing to the death or abdication of several
+princes, the family had become narrowed down to the two branches
+of Anhalt-Coethen and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of
+Anhalt-Coethen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation,
+and after the battle of Muehlberg in 1547 was placed under the ban and
+deprived of his lands by the emperor Charles V. After the peace
+of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality, but as he was
+childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen the princes of
+Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1516) left three sons,
+John II., George III., and Joachim, who ruled their lands together
+for many years, and who, like Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed
+doctrines, which thus became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three
+brothers divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst,
+Ploetzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only temporary, as
+the acquisition of Coethen, and a series of deaths among the ruling
+princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John II., to unite the whole
+of Anhalt under his rule in 1570.
+
+Joachim Ernest died in 1586 and his five sons ruled the land in common
+until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the lines of Dessau,
+Bernburg, Ploetzkau, Zerbst and Coethen were refounded. The principality
+was ravaged during the Thirty Years' War, and in the earlier part of
+this struggle Christian I. of Anhalt-Bernburg took an important part.
+In 1635 an arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt,
+which gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family,
+who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This
+proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining an
+appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European
+politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Coethen became extinct, and
+according to a family compact this district was inherited by Lebrecht
+of Anhalt-Ploetzkau, who surrendered Ploetzkau to Bernburg, and took
+the title of prince of Anhalt-Coethen. In the same year the princes
+of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family became extinct its
+lands should be equally divided between the remaining branches. This
+arrangement was carried out after the death of Frederick Augustus
+of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793, and Zerbst was divided between the three
+remaining princes. During these years the policy of the different
+princes was marked, perhaps intentionally, by considerable uniformity.
+Once or twice Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the
+house was loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia
+provided Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment
+and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family
+prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius of
+Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II., and
+after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princes took
+this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807, they
+supported Napoleon until 1813, when they transferred their
+allegiance to the allies; in 1815 they became members of the Germanic
+Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluctantly, the Prussian
+_Zollverein_.
+
+[v.02 p.0046]
+
+Anhalt-Coethen was ruled without division by a succession of princes,
+prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was both a soldier and a
+scholar; and after the death of Prince Charles at the battle of
+Semlin in 1789 it passed to his son Augustus II. This prince sought to
+emulate the changes which had recently been made in France by dividing
+Coethen into two departments and introducing the Code Napoleon. Owing
+to his extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and
+successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the finances
+was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under Louis's
+successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and brought the Jesuits
+into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew worse and led to the
+interference of the king of Prussia and to the appointment of a
+Prussian official. When the succeeding prince, Henry, died in 1847,
+this family became extinct, and according to an arrangement between
+the lines of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg, Coethen was added to
+Dessau.
+
+Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its princes had
+added several districts to their lands; and in 1812, on the extinction
+of a cadet branch, it was again united under a single ruler. The
+feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became duke in 1834, and the
+disturbed state of Europe in the following decade, led to considerable
+unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was occupied by Prussian troops. A
+number of abortive attempts were made to change the government, and
+as Alexander Charles was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of
+Anhalt-Dessau took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually
+in 1859 a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau
+jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were united
+under the rule of Leopold.
+
+Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 1632, but was quickly reunited;
+and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I. (see ANHALT-DESSAU,
+LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF), the famous soldier who was generally known
+as the "Old Dessauer." The sons of Leopold's eldest son were excluded
+from the succession on account of the marriage of their father being
+morganatic, and the principality passed in 1747 to his second son,
+Leopold II. The unrest of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the
+interference of the Prussians and to the establishment of the new
+constitution in 1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 1871, had
+the satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his
+rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one _Landtag_
+for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for Prussia against
+Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the possession of the ducal
+estates between the duke and the _Landtag_ broke the peace of the
+duchy, but this was settled in 1872. In 1871 Anhalt became a state of
+the German Empire. Leopold IV. was followed by his son Frederick I.,
+and on the death of this prince in 1904 his son Frederick II. became
+duke of Anhalt.
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--F. Knoke, _Anhaltische Geschichte_ (Dessau, 1893);
+G. Krause, _Urkunden, Aktenstucke und Briefe zur Geschichte der
+anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fuersten unter dem Drucke des 30 jahrigen
+Krieges_ (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, _Codex diplomaticus
+Anhaltinus_ (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, _Das Herzogthum Anhalt
+historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt_ (Dessau, 1867).
+
+
+
+ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF (1676-1747), called the "Old
+Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal in the Prussian
+army, was the only surviving son of John George II., prince of
+Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676 at Dessau. From
+his earliest youth he was devoted to the profession of arms, for which
+he educated himself physically and mentally. He became colonel of a
+Prussian regiment in 1693, and in the same year his father's death
+placed him at the head of his own principality; thereafter, during the
+whole of his long life, he performed the duties of a sovereign prince
+and a Prussian officer. His first campaign was that of 1695 in
+the Netherlands, in which he was present at the siege of Namur. He
+remained in the field to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs
+of the principality being managed chiefly by his mother, Princess
+Henriette Catherine of Orange. In 1698 he married Anna Luise Foese,
+an apothecary's daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and
+earnest opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of
+a princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long and
+happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern nature of
+her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf of his subjects,
+and after the death of Leopold's mother she performed the duties of
+regent when he was absent on campaign. Often, too, she accompanied him
+into the field. Leopold's career as a soldier in important commands
+begins with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. He had
+made many improvements in the Prussian army, notably the introduction
+of the iron ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the
+head of a Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of
+Kaiserswerth and Venlo. In the following year (1703), having obtained
+the rank of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn
+and distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Hoechstaedt, in
+which the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under
+Marshal Villars (September 20, 1703). In the campaign of 1704
+the Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and
+subsequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by his
+conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian corps to join
+Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the 16th of August he displayed his
+bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano. In the following year he
+added to his reputation in the battle of Turin, where he was the first
+to enter the hostile entrenchments (September 7, 1706). He served
+in one more campaign in Italy, and then went with Eugene to join
+Marlborough in the Netherlands, being present in 1709 at the siege
+of Tournay and the battle of Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the
+command of the whole Prussian contingent at the front, and in 1712, at
+the particular desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had
+served with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal.
+Shortly before this he had executed a _coup de main_ on the castle
+of Moers, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of the
+king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected with
+absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot being
+fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William I.,
+the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members of
+the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715) he
+accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of 40,000 men,
+and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle on the island
+of Ruegen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of Stralsund which
+followed was equally skilful, and the great results of the war
+to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leadership in the
+campaign. In the years of peace, and especially after a court quarrel
+(1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he devoted himself to the
+training of the Prussian army. The reputation it had gained in the
+wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave no hint of its coming glory,
+and it was even in 1740 accounted one of the minor armies of Europe.
+That it proved, when put to the test, to be by far the best military
+force existing, may be taken as the summary result of Leopold's work.
+The "Old Dessauer" was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age
+of stern discipline, and the technical training of the infantry, under
+his hand, made them superior to all others in the proportion of five
+to three (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). He was essentially an
+infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but he
+suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to
+be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at Mollwitz.
+Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfriedberg and Leuthen
+himself, but had it not been for the incomparable infantry trained by
+the "Old Dessauer" he would never have had the opportunity of doing
+so. Thus Leopold, heartily supported by Frederick William, who was
+himself called the great drill-master of Europe, turned to good
+account the twenty years following the peace with Sweden. During this
+time two incidents in his career call for special mention: first,
+his intervention in the case of the crown prince Frederick, who
+was condemned to death for desertion, and his continued and finally
+successful efforts to secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian
+army; and secondly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on
+the Rhine, where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the
+office of field marshal of the Empire.
+
+[v.02 p.0047]
+
+With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick succeeded to
+the Prussian throne, and a few months later took place the invasion
+and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the long Silesian wars and
+the test of the work of the "Old Dessauer's" lifetime. The prince
+himself was not often employed in the king's own army, though his sons
+held high commands under Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold,
+who was reputed, since the death of Eugene, the greatest of living
+soldiers, somewhat difficult to manage, and the prince spent most of
+the campaigning years up to 1745 in command of an army of observation
+on the Saxon frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was
+now over seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most
+brilliant of his long career. A combined effort of the Austrians and
+Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter campaign
+towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration of the Prussians.
+Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main army and hastened
+towards Dresden. But before he had arrived, Leopold, no longer in
+observation, had decided the war by his overwhelming victory of
+Kesselsdorf (December 14, 1745). It was his habit to pray before
+battle, for he was a devout Lutheran. On this last field his words
+were, "O Lord God, let me not be disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou
+wilt not help me, do not help these scoundrels, but leave us to try it
+ourselves." With this great victory Leopold's career ended. He retired
+from active service, and the short remainder of his life was spent at
+Dessau, where he died on the 7th of April 1747.
+
+He was succeeded by his son, LEOPOLD II., MAXIMILIAN, PRINCE OF
+ANHALT-DESSAU (1700-1751), who was one of the best of Frederick's
+subordinate generals, and especially distinguished himself by the
+capture of Glogau in 1741, and his generalship at Mollwitz, Chotusitz
+(where he was made general field marshal on the field of battle),
+Hohenfriedberg and Soor.
+
+Another son, PRINCE DIETRICH OF ANHALT-DESSAU (d. 1769), was also a
+distinguished Prussian general.
+
+But the most famous of the sons was PRINCE MORITZ OF ANHALT-DESSAU
+(1712-1760), who entered the Prussian army in 1725, saw his first
+service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35),
+and in the latter years of the reign of Frederick William held
+important commands. In the Silesian wars of Frederick II., Moritz,
+the ablest of the old Leopold's sons, greatly distinguished himself,
+especially at the battle of Hohenfriedberg (Striegau), 1745. At
+Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by the young Prince Moritz that
+carried the Austrian lines and won the "Old Dessauer's" last fight. In
+the years of peace preceding the Seven Years' War, Moritz was employed
+by Frederick the Great in the colonizing of the waste lands of
+Pomerania and the Oder Valley. When the king took the field again in
+1756, Moritz was in command of one of the columns which hemmed in the
+Saxon army in the lines of Pirna, and he received the surrender of
+Rutowski's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at relief.
+Next year Moritz underwent changes of fortune. At the battle of Kolin
+he led the left wing, which, through a misunderstanding with the
+king, was prematurely drawn into action and failed hopelessly. In
+the disastrous days which followed, Moritz was under the cloud of
+Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious victory of Leuthen (December
+5, 1757) put an end to this. At the close of that day, Frederick
+rode down the lines and called out to General Prince Moritz,
+"I congratulate you, Herr Feldmarschall!" At Zorndorf he again
+distinguished himself, but at the surprise of Hochkirch fell wounded
+into the hands of the Austrians. Two years later, soon after his
+release, his wound proved mortal.
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Varnhagen von Ense, _Preuss. biographische Denkmale_,
+vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1872); _Militar Konversations-Lexikon_, vol. ii.
+(Leipzig, 1833); Anon., _Fuerst Leopold I. von Anhalt und seine Sohne_
+(Dessau, 1852); G. Pauli, _Leben grosser Helden_, vol. vi.; von
+Orlich, _Prinz Moritz von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Berlin, 1842); Crousatz,
+_Militarische Denkwurdigkeiten des Fuersten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_
+(1875); supplements to _Militaer Wochenblatt_ (1878 and 1889); Siebigk,
+_Selbstbiographie des Fuersten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau,
+1860 and 1876); Hosaeus, _Zur Biographie des Fuersten Leopold von
+Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau, 1876); Wuerdig, _Des Alten Dessauers Leben und
+Taten_ (3rd ed., Dessau, 1903); _Briefe Konig Friedrich Wilhelms I. an
+den Fuersten L._ (Berlin, 1905).
+
+
+
+ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more commonly
+occurring gypsum in containing no water of crystallization, being
+anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaSO_{4}. It crystallizes in the
+orthorhombic system, and has three directions of perfect cleavage
+parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with
+the orthorhombic barium and strontium sulphates, as might be expected
+from the chemical formulae. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat
+rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The
+hardness is 3-1/2 and the specific gravity 2.9. The colour is white,
+sometimes greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the
+three cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the
+ordinary vitreous type.
+
+Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with gypsum; it
+was, for instance, first discovered, in 1794, in a salt mine near
+Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical specimens of the
+mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is the same, are Stassfurt
+in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex in Switzerland. At all these
+places it is only met with at some depth; nearer the surface of the
+ground it has been altered to gypsum owing to absorption of water.
+
+From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as crystals
+of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or
+potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is one of the several
+methods by which the mineral has been prepared artificially, and
+is identical with its mode of origin in nature, the mineral having
+crystallized out in salt basins.
+
+The name anhydrite was given by A.G. Werner in 1804, because of the
+absence of water, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum.
+Other names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former,
+an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance
+was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted
+concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular
+variety, from Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the
+latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes.
+
+(L.J.S.)
+
+
+
+ANI (anc. _Abnicum_), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in Russian
+Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an altitude of 4390 ft.,
+between the Arpa-chai (_Harpasus_) and a deep ravine. In 961 it became
+the capital of the Bagratid kings of Armenia, and when yielded to the
+Byzantine emperor (1046) it was a populous city, known traditionally
+as the "city with the 1001 churches." It was taken eighteen years
+later by the Seljuk Turks, five times by the Georgians between 1125
+and 1209, in 1239 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an
+earthquake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in
+ruins, and amongst the remains are a "patriarchal" church finished in
+1010, two other churches, both of the 11th century, a fourth built in
+1215, and a palace of large size.
+
+See Brosset, _Les Ruines d'Ani_ (1860-1861).
+
+
+
+ANICETUS, pope c. 154-167. It was during his pontificate that
+St. Polycarp visited the Roman Church.
+
+
+
+ANICHINI, LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a native of
+Ferrara, lived at Venice about 1550. Michelangelo pronounced his
+"Interview of Alexander the Great with the high-priest at Jerusalem,"
+"the perfection of the art." His medals of Henry II. of France and
+Pope Paul III. are greatly valued.
+
+
+
+ANILINE, PHENYLAMINE, or AMINOBENZENE, (C_{6}H_{5}NH_{2}), an organic
+base first obtained from the destructive distillation of indigo in
+1826 by O. Unverdorben (_Pogg. Ann._, 1826, 8, p. 397), who named it
+crystalline. In 1834, F. Runge (_Pogg. Ann._, 1834, 31, p. 65; 32,
+p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which produced a beautiful
+blue colour on treatment with chloride of lime; this he named kyanol
+or cyanol. In 1841, C.J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with
+caustic potash it yielded an oil, which he named aniline, from the
+specific name of one of the indigo-yielding plants, _Indigofera anil_,
+_anil_ being derived from the Sanskrit _n[=i]la_, dark-blue, and
+_n[=i]l[=a]_, the indigo plant. About the same time N.N. Zinin found
+that on reducing nitrobenzene, a base was formed which he named
+benzidam. A.W. von Hofmann investigated these variously prepared
+substances, and proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took
+their place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine. Pure
+aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless,
+melting at -8 deg. and boiling at 184 deg. C. On exposure to air it absorbs
+oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour; it ignites
+readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses a somewhat
+pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly
+acrid poison.
+
+[v.02 p.0048]
+
+Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids. Aniline
+hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which become greenish
+on exposure; it is the "aniline salt" of commerce. The sulphate forms
+beautiful white plates. Although aniline is but feebly basic, it
+precipitates zinc, aluminium and ferric salts, and on warming expels
+ammonia from its salts. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides
+to form secondary and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide
+it gives sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2},
+which may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C_{6}H_{5}CNS, and
+triphenyl guanidine, C_{6}H_{5}N: C(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2}. Sulphuric acid
+at 180 deg. gives sulphanilic acid, NH2.C_{6}H_{4}.SO_{3}H. Anilides, compounds
+in which the amino group is substituted by an acid radical, are
+prepared by heating aniline with certain acids; antifebrin or
+acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and aniline. The
+oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated. In alkaline
+solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid produces the
+violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into
+quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts
+(especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and
+potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potassium permanganate in neutral
+solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to
+azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline
+black. Hypochlorous acid gives para-amino phenol and para-amino
+diphenylamine (E. Bamberger, _Ber._, 1898, 31, p. 1522).
+
+The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness with
+which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs. The
+discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W.H. Perkin was the first of
+a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by hundreds.
+Reference should be made to the articles DYEING, FUCHSINE, SAFRANINE,
+INDULINES, for more details on this subject. In addition to dyestuffs,
+it is a starting-product for the manufacture of many drugs, such
+as antipyrine, antifebrin, &c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing
+nitrobenzene with iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the
+product. The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the
+benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In commerce three
+brands of aniline are distinguished--aniline oil for blue, which
+is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular
+quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidines; and aniline
+oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine, and
+is obtained from the distillate (_echappes_) of the fuchsine fusion.
+Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are colourless liquids prepared by
+heating aniline, aniline hydro-chloride and methyl alcohol in
+an autoclave at 220 deg.. They are of great importance in the colour
+industry. Monomethyl aniline boils at 193-195 deg.; dimethyl aniline at
+192 deg..
+
+
+
+ANIMAL (Lat. _animalis_, from _anima_, breath, soul), a term first
+used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used to
+designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other branch
+known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm, and the series
+of investigations by which it was established that the cell was a
+fundamental structure essentially alike in both animals and plants
+(see CYTOLOGY), there was a vague belief that plants, if they could
+really be regarded as animated creatures, exhibited at the most a
+lower grade of life. We know now that in so far as life and living
+matter can be investigated by science, animals and plants cannot be
+described as being alive in different degrees. Animals and plants
+are extremely closely related organisms, alike in their fundamental
+characters, and each grading into organisms which possess some of
+the characters of both classes or kingdoms (see PROTISTA). The actual
+boundaries between animals and plants are artificial; they are
+rather due to the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually
+resident in objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that
+the animal cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous
+material, whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate
+material--cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food to
+repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material which,
+by chemical change, may liberate the energy which appears in the
+processes of life. The food is alike in both cases; it consists of
+water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate material and proteid
+material. Both animals and plants take their water and inorganic salts
+directly as such. The animal cell can absorb its carbohydrate and
+proteid food only in the form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is
+dependent, in fact, on the pre-existence of these organic substances,
+themselves the products of living matter, and in this respect the
+animal is essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life.
+The plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing
+chlorophyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both
+carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic salts; if
+it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is dependent on
+pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable of absorbing,
+like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able to build up its
+proteid food from material chemically simpler than proteid. On these
+basal differences are founded most of the characters which make the
+higher forms of animal and plant life so different. The animal body,
+if it be composed of many cells, follows a different architectural
+plan; the compact nature of its food, and the yielding nature of its
+cell-walls, result in a form of structure consisting essentially of
+tubular or spherical masses of cells arranged concentrically round the
+food-cavity. The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and
+the attenuated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and
+necessary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed to
+the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened laminae
+and elongated branching growths. The distinctions between animals and
+plants are in fact obviously secondary and adaptive, and point clearly
+towards the conception of a common origin for the two forms of life, a
+conception which is made still more probable by the existence of many
+low forms in which the primary differences between animals and plants
+fade out.
+
+An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm of which
+does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires for its
+existence proteid material obtained from the living or dead bodies of
+existing plants or animals. The common use of the word animal as
+the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to bird or reptile or fish, is
+erroneous.
+
+The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the article
+ZOOLOGY.
+
+(P.C.M.)
+
+
+
+ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the
+temperature of the animal body.
+
+The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat,
+and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss
+of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively shown by the fact that
+both in summer and winter their mean temperature remains the same. But
+it was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data
+on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found
+that local differences were present, since heat production and heat
+loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the
+circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of
+the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the temperature
+of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal
+organs. Also for such results to be comparable they must be made in
+the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature
+of internal parts, or in women and some animals the vagina, uterus or
+bladder.
+
+[v.02 p.0049]
+
+Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use.
+More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin.
+
+
+_Warm and Cold Blooded Animals_.--By numerous observations upon men
+and animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between
+the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals lies in the
+constancy of the temperature of the former, and the variability of
+the temperature of the latter. Those animals high in the scale of
+evolution, as birds and mammals, have a high temperature almost
+constant and independent of that of the surrounding air, whereas
+among the lower animals there is much variation of body temperature,
+dependent entirely on their surroundings. There are, however, certain
+mammals which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer,
+but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such are the
+hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested that two groups
+should be known as "animals of permanent heat at all atmospheres" and
+"animals of a heat variable with every atmosphere," but later
+Bergmann suggested that they should be known as "homoiothermic" and
+"poikilothermic" animals. But it must be remembered there is no hard
+and fast line between the two groups. Also, from work recently done
+by J.O. Wakelin Barratt, it has been shown that under certain
+pathological conditions a warm-blooded (homoiothermic) animal
+may become for a time cold-blooded (poikilothermic). He has shown
+conclusively that this condition exists in rabbits suffering from
+rabies during the last period of their life, the rectal temperature
+being then within a few degrees of the room temperature and varying
+with it. He explains this condition by the assumption that the nervous
+mechanism of heat regulation has become paralysed. The respiration and
+heart-rate being also retarded during this period, the resemblance
+to the condition of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland
+Simpson has shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal
+tends to take the same temperature as that of its environment. He
+demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized with
+ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradually
+falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point (about
+25 deg. C. in the monkey), the employment of an anaesthetic is no longer
+necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and incapable of
+being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact, narcotized
+by cold, and is in a state of what may be called "artificial
+hibernation." Once again this is explained by the fact that the
+heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered with. Similar results
+have been obtained from experiments on cats. These facts--with
+many others--tend to show that the power of maintaining a constant
+temperature has been a gradual development, as Darwin's theory of
+evolution suggests, and that anything that interferes with the due
+working of the higher nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for
+the time being, on to a lower plane of evolution.
+
+
+[Illustration: Chart showing diurnal variation in body temperature,
+ranging from about 37.5 deg. C. from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., and falling to
+about 36.3 deg. C. from 2 A.M to 6 A.M.]
+
+
+_Variations in the Temperature of Man and some other Animals_.--As
+stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained
+with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the
+temperature of man varies between 36 deg. C. and 38 deg. C., or if the
+thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36.25 deg. C. and 37.5 deg. C.
+In the mouth the reading would be from .25 deg. C. to 1.5 deg. C. higher than
+this; and in the rectum some .9 deg. C. higher still. The temperature of
+infants and young children has a much greater range than this, and is
+susceptible of wide divergencies from comparatively slight causes.
+
+Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that appear to be
+cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits and puppies, if removed from
+their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their body heat until
+their temperature has fallen to within a few degrees of that of the
+surrounding air. But such animals are at birth blind, helpless and in
+some cases naked. Animals who are born when in a condition of greater
+development can maintain their temperature fairly constant. In strong,
+healthy infants a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but
+in that of weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary
+or falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and
+young immature animals is the imperfect development of the nervous
+regulating mechanism.
+
+The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty and
+again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is passed the
+temperature begins to rise again, and by about the eightieth year is
+as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has been observed dependent
+on the periods of rest and activity, the maximum ranging from 10 A.M.
+to 6 P.M., the minimum from 11 P.M. to 3 A.M. Sutherland Simpson and
+J.J. Galbraith have recently done much work on this subject. In their
+first experiments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked
+and regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by
+reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed.
+The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and
+activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; in
+monkeys which are active during the night and resting during the day,
+the body temperature is highest at night and lowest through the day.
+They then made observations on the temperature of animals and birds of
+nocturnal habit, where the periods of rest and activity are naturally
+the reverse of the ordinary through habit and not from outside
+interference. They found that in nocturnal birds the temperature
+is highest during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest
+during the period of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is
+lower and the range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That
+the temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that
+of man and other homoiothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs
+earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also
+that the curves obtained from rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite
+similar to those from man. The mean temperature of the female was
+higher than that of the male in all the species examined whose sex had
+been determined.
+
+
+Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight
+depression--alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise and
+variations of external temperature within ordinary limits cause very
+slight change, as there are many compensating influences at work,
+which are discussed later. Even from very active exercise the
+temperature does not rise more than one degree, and if carried to
+exhaustion a fall is observed. In travelling from very cold to very
+hot regions a variation of less than one degree occurs, and the
+temperature of those living in the tropics is practically identical
+with those dwelling in the Arctic regions.
+
+[v.02 p.0050]
+
+_Limits compatible with Life._--There are limits both of heat and cold
+that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider limits that a
+cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme
+a cold is to lessen metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of
+heat. Both katabolic and anabolic changes share in the depression, and
+though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. This
+diminished metabolism tells first on the central nervous system,
+especially the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness.
+Both heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished, drowsiness
+supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the sleep of
+death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end,
+and a death somewhat similar to that of asphyxia takes place. In some
+recent experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and
+Percy T. Herring, they found them unable to survive when the
+rectal temperature was reduced below 16 deg. C. At this low temperature
+respiration became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually
+continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very
+irregular, apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared to
+be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had
+taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other hand, too high a
+temperature hurries on the metabolism of the various tissues at such
+a rate that their capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm
+produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts the metabolic capital of the
+respiratory centre. The rate of the heart is quickened, the beats then
+become irregular and finally cease. The central nervous system is also
+profoundly affected, consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls
+into a comatose condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All
+these changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute
+fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure depends on
+many things, but no one can survive a temperature of 45 deg. C. (113 deg. F.)
+or above for very long. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor
+at about 50 deg. C., and obviously should this temperature be reached the
+sudden rigidity of the whole body would render life impossible. H.M.
+Vernon has recently done work on the death temperature and paralysis
+temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found
+that animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very
+similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being
+38.5 deg. C., Fishes 39 deg., Reptilia 45 deg., and various Molluscs 46 deg.. Also
+in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between death
+temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body,
+_Cestus_ having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in
+its body. But in the higher animals his experiments tend to show
+that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical
+characters of the protoplasm, and hence greater variation in the
+extreme temperature compatible with life.
+
+
+_Regulation of Temperature._--The heat of the body is generated by the
+chemical changes--those of oxidation--undergone not by any particular
+substance or in any one place, but by the tissues at large. Wherever
+destructive metabolism (katabolism) is going on, heat is being set
+free. When a muscle does work it also gives rise to heat, and if
+this is estimated it can be shown that the muscles alone during their
+contractions provide far more heat than the whole amount given out
+by the body. Also it must be remembered that the heart--also a
+muscle,--never resting, does in the 24 hours no inconsiderable amount
+of work, and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat.
+From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of
+the body is supplied by the muscles. These are essentially the
+"thermogenic tissues." Next to the muscles as heat generators come the
+various secretory glands, especially the liver, which appears never to
+rest in this respect. The brain also must be a source of heat, since
+its temperature is higher than that of the arterial blood with which
+it is supplied. Also a certain amount of heat is produced by the
+changes which the food undergoes in the alimentary canal before it
+really enters the body. But heat while continually being produced is
+also continually being lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces.
+And it is by the constant modification of these two factors, (1)
+heat production and (2) heat loss, that the constant temperature of
+a warm-blooded animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through
+the faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from
+the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following are
+approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these
+various channels (different authorities give somewhat different
+figures):--faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin
+(conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it is clear
+the chief means of loss are the skin and the lungs. The more air that
+passes in and out of the lungs in a given time, the greater the loss
+of heat. And in such animals as the dog, who do not perspire easily by
+the skin, respiration becomes far more important.
+
+But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin, which
+regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and also by the
+nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation of the cutaneous
+vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood through the skin, and
+so tends to cool the body, and _vice versa_. Also the special nerves
+of perspiration can increase or lessen heat loss by promoting or
+diminishing the secretions of the skin. There are greater difficulties
+in the exact determination in the amount of heat produced, but there
+are certain well-known facts in connexion with it. A larger living
+body naturally produces more heat than a smaller one of the same
+nature, but the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion
+to its bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate.
+Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the smaller
+animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat. And in the
+struggle for existence this has become so.
+
+Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate of
+production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is reached
+from about the 6th to the 9th hour. If sugar be included in the meal
+the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later. Muscular work
+very largely increases the production of heat, and hence the more
+active the body the greater the production of heat.
+
+But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the production and
+loss of heat are themselves probably regulated by the central nervous
+system, there being a thermogenic centre--situated above the spinal
+cord, and according to some observers in the optic thalamus.
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--M.S. Pembrey, "Animal Heat," in Schafer's _Textbook
+of Physiology_ (1898); C.R. Richet, "Chaleur," in _Dictionnaire de
+physiologie_ (Paris, 1898); Hale White, Croonian Lectures, _Lancet_,
+London, 1897; Pembrey and Nicol, _Journal of Physiology_, vol. xxiii.,
+1898-1899; H.M. Vernon, "Heat Rigor," _Journal of Physiology_, xxiv.,
+1899; H.M. Vernon, "Death Temperatures," _Journal of Physiology_,
+xxv., 1899; F.C. Eve, "Temperature on Nerve Cells," _Journal of
+Physiology_, xxvi., 1900; G. Weiss, _Comptes Rendus, Soc. de Biol._,
+lii., 1900; Swale Vincent and Thomas Lewis, "Heat Rigor of Muscle,"
+_Journal of Physiology_, 1901; Sutherland Simpson and Percy Herring,
+"Cold and Reflex Action," Journal of Physiology, 1905; Sutherland
+Simpson, _Proceedings of Physiological Soc._, July 19, 1902;
+Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith, "Diurnal Variation of Body
+Temperature," _Journal of Physiology_, 1905; _Transactions Royal
+Society Edinburgh_, 1905; _Proc. Physiological Society_, p. xx., 1903;
+A.E. Boycott and J.S. Haldane, _Effects of High Temperatures on Man._
+
+
+
+ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the
+worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a "god-body,"
+at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or
+even the use of a respectful name for the living animal at the other
+end. Added to this, in many works on the subject we find reliance
+placed, especially for the African facts, on reports of travellers who
+were merely visitors to the regions on which they wrote.
+
+[v.02 p.0051]
+
+
+_Classification_.--Animal cults may be classified in two ways:
+(A) according to their outward form; (B) according to their inward
+meaning, which may of course undergo transformations.
+
+(A) There are two broad divisions: (1) all animals of a given species
+are sacred, perhaps owing to the impossibility of distinguishing the
+sacred few from the profane crowd; (2) one or a fixed number of a
+species are sacred. It is probable that the first of these forms is
+the primary one and the second in most cases a development from it due
+to (i.) the influence of other individual cults, (ii.) anthropomorphic
+tendencies, (iii.) the influence of chieftainship, hereditary and
+otherwise, (iv.) annual sacrifice of the sacred animal and mystical
+ideas connected therewith, (v.) syncretism, due either to unity of
+function or to a philosophic unification, (vi.) the desire to do
+honour to the species in the person of one of its members, and
+possibly other less easily traceable causes.
+
+(B) Treating cults according to their meaning, which is not
+necessarily identical with the cause which first led to the
+deification of the animal in question, we can classify them under ten
+specific heads: (i.) pastoral cults; (ii.) hunting cults; (iii.) cults
+of dangerous or noxious animals; (iv.) cults of animals regarded as
+human souls or their embodiment; (v.) totemistic cults; (vi.) cults
+of secret societies, and individual cults of tutelary animals;
+(vii.) cults of tree and vegetation spirits; (viii.) cults of ominous
+animals; (ix.) cults, probably derivative, of animals associated with
+certain deities; (x.) cults of animals used in magic.
+
+(i.) The pastoral type falls into two sub-types, in which the species
+(_a_) is spared and (_b_) sometimes receives special honour at
+intervals in the person of an individual. (See _Cattle, Buffalo_,
+below.)
+
+(ii.) In hunting cults the species is habitually killed, but (_a_)
+occasionally honoured in the person of a single individual, or (_b_)
+each slaughtered animal receives divine honours. (See _Bear_, below.)
+
+(iii.) The cult of dangerous animals is due (_a_) to the fear that the
+soul of the slain beast may take vengeance on the hunter, (_b_) to a
+desire to placate the rest of the species. (See _Leopard_, below.)
+
+(iv.) Animals are frequently regarded as the abode, temporary or
+permanent, of the souls of the dead, sometimes as the actual souls
+of the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons: (_a_) the
+kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead
+relatives; (_b_) they wish at the same time to secure that their
+kinsmen are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering.
+(See _Serpent_, below.)
+
+(v.) One of the most widely found modes of showing respect to animals
+is known as totemism (see TOTEM AND TOTEMISM), but except in decadent
+forms there is but little positive worship; in Central Australia,
+however, the rites of the Wollunqua totem group are directed towards
+placating this mythical animal, and cannot be termed anything but
+religious ceremonies.
+
+(vi.) In secret societies we find bodies of men grouped together with
+a single tutelary animal; the individual, in the same way, acquires
+the nagual or individual totem, sometimes by ceremonies of the nature
+of the bloodbond.
+
+(vii.) Spirits of vegetation in ancient and modern Europe and in China
+are conceived in animal form. (See _Goat_, below.)
+
+(viii.) The ominous animal or bird may develop into a deity. (See
+_Hawk_, below.)
+
+(ix.) It is commonly assumed that the animals associated with certain
+deities are sacred because the god was originally theriomorphic; this
+is doubtless the case in certain instances; but Apollo Smintheus,
+Dionysus Bassareus and other examples seem to show that the god may
+have been appealed to for help and thus become associated with the
+animals from whom he protected the crops, &c.
+
+(x.) The use of animals in magic may sometimes give rise to a kind
+of respect for them, but this is of a negative nature. See, however,
+articles by Preuss in _Globus_, vol. lxvii., in which he maintains
+that animals of magical influence are elevated into divinities.
+
+
+_Animal Cults._
+
+_Bear_.--The bear enjoys a large measure of respect from all savage
+races that come in contact with it, which shows itself in apologies
+and in festivals in its honour. The most important developments of
+the cult are in East Asia among the Siberian tribes; among the Ainu of
+Sakhalin a young bear is caught at the end of winter and fed for
+some nine months; then after receiving honours it is killed, and the
+people, who previously show marks of grief at its approaching fate,
+dance merrily and feast on its body. Among the Gilyaks a similar
+festival is found, but here it takes the form of a celebration in
+honour of a recently dead kinsman, to whom the spirit of the bear
+is sent. Whether this feature or a cult of the hunting type was the
+primary form, is so far an open question. There is a good deal of
+evidence to connect the Greek goddess Artemis with a cult of the bear;
+girls danced as "bears" in her honour, and might not marry before
+undergoing this ceremony. The bear is traditionally associated with
+Bern in Switzerland, and in 1832 a statue of Artio, a bear goddess,
+was dug up there.
+
+_Buffalo_.--The Todas of S. India abstain from the flesh of their
+domestic animal, the buffalo; but once a year they sacrifice a bull
+calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males.
+
+_Cattle_.--Cattle are respected by many pastoral peoples; they live
+on milk or game, and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.
+Conspicuous among Egyptian animal cults was that of the bull, Apis. It
+was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old Apis died a new
+one was sought; the finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four
+months' education at Nilopolis. Its birthday was celebrated once a
+year; oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it; women
+were forbidden to approach it when once its education was finished.
+Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After death it was
+mummified and buried in a rock-tomb. Less widespread was the cult of
+the Mnevis, also consecrated to Osiris. Similar observances are found
+in our own day on the Upper Nile; the Nuba and Nuer worship the bull;
+the Angoni of Central Africa and the Sakalava of Madagascar keep
+sacred bulls. In India respect for the cow is widespread, but is of
+post-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of
+the cow are important in magic.
+
+_Crow_.--The crow is the chief deity of the Thlinkit Indians of N.W.
+America; and all over that region it is the chief figure in a group of
+myths, fulfilling the office of a culture hero who brings the light,
+gives fire to mankind, &c. Together with the eagle-hawk the crow plays
+a great part in the mythology of S.E. Australia.
+
+_Dog_.--Actual dog-worship is uncommon; the Nosarii of western Asia
+are said to worship a dog; the Kalangs of Java had a cult of the red
+dog, each family keeping one in the house; according to one authority
+the dogs are images of wood which are worshipped after the death of a
+member of the family and burnt after a thousand days. In Nepal it
+is said that dogs are worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja.
+Among the Harranians dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers
+of the mystae.
+
+_Elephant_.--In Siam it is believed that a white elephant may contain
+the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha; when one is taken the
+capturer is rewarded and the animal brought to the king to be kept
+ever afterwards; it cannot be bought or sold. It is baptized and feted
+and mourned for like a human being at its death. In some parts of
+Indo-China the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure
+people after death; it is therefore feted by a whole village. In
+Cambodia it is held to bring luck to the kingdom. In Sumatra the
+elephant is regarded as a tutelary spirit. The cult of the white
+elephant is also found at Ennarea, southern Abyssinia.
+
+_Fish_.--Dagon seems to have been a fish-god with human head and
+hands; his worshippers wore fish-skins. In the temples of Apollo and
+Aphrodite were sacred fish, which may point to a fish cult. Atargatis
+is said to have had sacred fish at Askelon, and from Xenophon we read
+that the fish of the Chalus were regarded as gods.
+
+_Goat_.--Dionysus was believed to take the form of a goat, probably as
+a divinity of vegetation. Pan, Silenus, the Satyrs and the Fauns were
+either capriform or had some part of their bodies shaped like that of
+a goat. In northern Europe the wood spirit, Ljesche, is believed to
+have a goat's horns, ears and legs. In Africa the Bijagos are said to
+have a goat as their principal divinity.
+
+_Hare_.--In North America the Algonquin tribes had as their chief
+deity a "mighty great hare" to whom they went at death. According to
+one account he lived in the east, according to another in the north.
+In his anthropomorphized form he was known as Menabosho or Michabo.
+
+[v.02 p.0052]
+
+_Hawk_.--In North Borneo we seem to see the evolution of a god in the
+three stages of the cult of the hawk among the Kenyahs, the Kayans and
+the sea Dyaks. The Kenyahs will not kill it, address to it thanks
+for assistance, and formally consult it before leaving home on an
+expedition; it seems, however, to be regarded as the messenger of the
+supreme god Balli Penyalong. The Kayans have a hawk-god, Laki Neho,
+but seem to regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, Laki
+Tenangan. Singalang Burong, the hawk-god of the Dyaks, is completely
+anthropomorphized. He is god of omens and ruler of the omen birds; but
+the hawk is not his messenger, for he never leaves his house; stories
+are, however, told of his attending feasts in human form and flying
+away in hawk form when all was over.
+
+_Horse_.--There is some reason to believe that Poseidon, like other
+water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a horse. In
+the cave of Phigalia Demeter was, according to popular tradition,
+represented with the head and mane of a horse, possibly a relic of the
+time when a non-specialized corn-spirit bore this form. Her priests
+were called Poloi (colts) in Laconia. In Gaul we find a horse-goddess,
+Epona; there are also traces of a horse-god, Rudiobus. The Gonds in
+India worship a horse-god, Koda Pen, in the form of a shapeless stone;
+but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The horse or
+mare is a common form of the corn-spirit in Europe.
+
+_Leopard_.--The cult of the leopard is widely found in West Africa.
+Among the Ewe a man who kills one is liable to be put to death;
+no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed leopard is
+worshipped. On the Gold Coast a leopard hunter who has killed his
+victim is carried round the town behind the body of the leopard; he
+may not speak, must besmear himself so as to look like a leopard and
+imitate its movements. In Loango a prince's cap is put upon the head
+of a dead leopard, and dances are held in its honour.
+
+_Lion_.--The lion was associated with the Egyptian gods R[=e] and
+Horus; there was a lion-god at Baalbek and a lion-headed goddess
+Sekhet. The Arabs had a lion-god, Yaghuth. In modern Africa we find a
+lion-idol among the Balonda.
+
+_Lizard_.--The cult of the lizard is most prominent in the Pacific,
+where it appears as an incarnation of Tangaloa. In Easter Island a
+form of the house-god is the lizard; it is also a tutelary deity in
+Madagascar.
+
+_Mantis_.--Cagn is a prominent figure in Bushman mythology; the mantis
+and the caterpillar, Ngo, are his incarnations. It was called the
+"Hottentots' god" by early settlers.
+
+_Monkey_.--In India the monkey-god, Hanuman, is a prominent figure; in
+orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm. Monkeys are said to be
+worshipped in Togo. At Porto Novo, in French West Africa, twins have
+tutelary spirits in the shape of small monkeys.
+
+_Serpent_.--The cult of the serpent is found in many parts of the Old
+World; it is also not unknown in America; in Australia, on the other
+hand, though many species of serpent are found, there does not appear
+to be any species of cult unless we include the Warramunga cult of the
+mythical Wollunqua totem animal, whom they seek to placate by rites.
+In Africa the chief centre of serpent worship was Dahomey; but the
+cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to
+the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah
+the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent
+worshippers, and ended by adopting from them the cult which they
+at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a serpent
+temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes; every python of the danh-gbi
+kind must be treated with respect, and death is the penalty for
+killing one, even by accident. Danh-gbi has numerous wives, who until
+1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was
+excluded; a python was carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as
+a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ewe was
+also conceived to have the form of a snake; his messenger was said to
+be a small variety of boa; but only certain individuals, not the whole
+species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa the serpent is looked
+upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives; among the Amazulu, as
+among the Betsileo of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the
+abode of certain classes; the Masai, on the other hand, regard each
+species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe.
+
+In America some of the Amerindian tribes reverence the rattlesnake as
+grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause
+tempest. Among the Hopi (Moqui) of Arizona the serpent figures largely
+in one of the dances. The rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez
+temple of the sun; and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a serpent-god.
+The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the
+pre-Inca days; and in Chile the Araucanians made a serpent figure in
+their deluge myth.
+
+Over a large part of India there are carved representations of cobras
+(N[=a]gas) or stones as substitutes; to these human food and flowers
+are offered and lights are burned before the shrines. Among the
+Dravidians a cobra which is accidentally killed is burned like a human
+being; no one would kill one intentionally; the serpent-god's image is
+carried in an annual procession by a celibate priestess.
+
+Serpent cults were well known in ancient Europe; there does not, it
+is true, appear to be much ground for supposing that Aesculapius was
+a serpent-god in spite of his connexion with serpents. On the other
+hand, we learn from Herodotus of the great serpent which defended the
+citadel of Athens; the Roman _genius loci_ took the form of a serpent;
+a snake was kept and fed with milk in the temple of Potrimpos, an old
+Slavonic god. To this day there are numerous traces in popular belief,
+especially in Germany, of respect for the snake, which seems to be a
+survival of ancestor worship, such as still exists among the Zulus and
+other savage tribes; the "house-snake," as it is called, cares for the
+cows and the children, and its appearance is an omen of death, and the
+life of a pair of house-snakes is often held to be bound up with that
+of the master and mistress themselves. Tradition says that one of the
+Gnostic sects known as the Ophites caused a tame serpent to coil round
+the sacramental bread and worshipped it as the representative of the
+Saviour. See also SERPENT-WORSHIP.
+
+_Sheep_.--Only in Africa do we find a sheep-god proper; Ammon was the
+god of Thebes; he was represented as ram-headed; his worshippers held
+the ram to be sacred; it was, however, sacrificed once a year, and its
+fleece formed the clothing of the idol.
+
+_Tiger_.--The tiger is associated with Siva and Durga, but its cult is
+confined to the wilder tribes; in Nepal the tiger festival is known as
+Bagh Jatra, and the worshippers dance disguised as tigers. The Waralis
+worship Waghia the lord of tigers in the form of a shapeless stone. In
+Hanoi and Manchuria tiger-gods are also found.
+
+_Wolf_.--Both Zeus and Apollo were associated with the wolf by the
+Greeks; but it is not clear that this implies a previous cult of
+the wolf. It is frequently found among the tutelary deities of
+North American dancing or secret societies. The Thlinkits had a god,
+Khanukh, whose name means "wolf," and worshipped a wolf-headed image.
+
+
+AUTHORITIES.--For a fuller discussion and full references to these
+and other cults, that of the serpent excepted, see N.W. Thomas
+in Hastings' _Dictionary of Religions_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
+Campbell's _Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom_; Maclennan's _Studies_
+(series 2); V. Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_. For the
+serpent, see Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples_, p. 54; _Internat. Archiv_,
+xvii. 113; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 239; Fergusson, _Tree and
+Serpent Worship_; Maehly,_Die Schlange im Mythus_; Staniland Wake,
+_Serpent Worship, &c._; _16th Annual Report of the American Bureau of
+Ethnology_, p. 273, and bibliography, p. 312. For the bull, &c., in
+Egypt, see EGYPT: _Religion_.
+
+(N.W.T.)
+
+
+
+ANIME, an oleo-resin (said to be so called because in its natural
+state it is infested with insects) which is exuded from the locust
+tree, _Hymenaea coumaril_, and other species of _Hymenaea_ growing
+in tropical South America. It is of a pale brown colour, transparent,
+brittle, and in consequence of its agreeable odour is used for
+fumigation and in perfumery. Its specific gravity varies from 1.054 to
+1.057. It melts readily over the fire, and softens even with the heat
+of the mouth; it is insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol.
+It is allied to copal in its nature and appearance, and is much used
+by varnish-makers. The name is also given to Zanzibar copal (_q.v._).
+
+[v.02 p.0053]
+
+
+
+ANIMISM (from _animus_, or _anima_, mind or soul), according to
+the definition of Dr. E.B. Tylor, the doctrine of spiritual beings,
+including human souls; in practice, however, the term is often
+extended to include panthelism or animatism, the doctrine that a
+great part, if not the whole, of the inanimate kingdom, as well as all
+animated beings, are endowed with reason, intelligence and volition,
+identical with that of man. This latter theory, which in many cases
+is equivalent to personification, though it may be, like animism, a
+feature of the philosophy of peoples of low culture, should not be
+confused with it. But it is difficult in practice to distinguish the
+two phases of thought and no clear account of animatism can yet be
+given, largely on the ground that no people has yet been discovered
+which has not already developed to a greater or less extent an
+animistic philosophy. On theoretical grounds it is probable that
+animatism preceded animism; but savage thought is no more consistent
+than that of civilized man; and it may well be that animistic and
+panthelistic doctrines are held simultaneously by the same person. In
+like manner one portion of the savage explanation of nature may have
+been originally animistic, another part animatistic.
+
+
+_Origin_.--Animism may have arisen out of or simultaneously with
+animatism as a primitive explanation of many different phenomena; if
+animatism was originally applied to non-human or inanimate objects,
+animism may from the outset have been in vogue as a theory of the
+nature of man. Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which the
+savage was led to believe in animism have been given by Dr. Tylor,
+Herbert Spencer, Mr. Andrew Lang and others; an animated controversy
+arose between the former as to the priority of their respective
+lists. Among these phenomena are: trance (_q.v._) and unconsciousness,
+sickness, death, clairvoyance (_q.v._), dreams (_q.v._), apparitions
+(_q.v._) of the dead, wraiths, hallucinations (_q.v._), echoes,
+shadows and reflections.
+
+Primitive ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time
+the origin of them, are best illustrated by an analysis of the terms
+applied to it. Readers of Dante know the idea that the dead have
+no shadows; this was no invention of the poet's but a piece of
+traditionary lore; at the present day among the Basutos it is held
+that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his
+shadow falls on the water, for a crocodile may seize it and draw him
+in; in Tasmania, North and South America and classical Europe is
+found the conception that the soul--[Greek: skia], _umbra_--is somehow
+identical with the shadow of a man. More familiar to the Anglo-Saxon
+race is the connexion between the soul and the breath; this
+identification is found both in Aryan and Semitic languages; in Latin
+we have _spiritus_, in Greek _pneuma_, in Hebrew _ruach_; and the
+idea is found extending downwards to the lowest planes of culture in
+Australia, America and Asia. For some of the Red Indians the Roman
+custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty
+but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body.
+Other familiar conceptions identify the soul with the liver (see OMEN)
+or the heart, with the reflected figure seen in the pupil of the eye,
+and with the blood. Although the soul is often distinguished from
+the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of
+unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul; in
+South Australia _wilyamarraba_ (without soul) is the word used for
+insensible. So too the autohypnotic trance of the magician or _shaman_
+is regarded as due to his visit to distant regions or the nether
+world, of which he brings back an account. Telepathy or clairvoyance
+(_q.v._), with or without trance, must have operated powerfully to
+produce a conviction of the dual nature of man, for it seems probable
+that facts unknown to the automatist are sometimes discovered by means
+of crystal-gazing (_q.v._), which is widely found among savages, as
+among civilized peoples. Sickness is often explained as due to the
+absence of the soul; and means are sometimes taken to lure back the
+wandering soul; when a Chinese is at the point of death and his soul
+is supposed to have already left his body, the patient's coat is held
+up on a long bamboo while a priest endeavours to bring the departed
+spirit back into the coat by means of incantations. If the bamboo
+begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to
+hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the moribund has
+returned (see AUTOMATISM). More important perhaps than all these
+phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the daily period of
+sleep with its frequent concomitant of fitful and incoherent ideas and
+images. The mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that
+its state was not identical with that of waking; when, in addition,
+the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands, from
+which, as modern psychical investigations suggest, he may even
+have brought back veridical details, the conclusion must have been
+irresistible that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not
+the body. In a minor degree revival of memory during sleep and similar
+phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to the
+same result. Dreams are sometimes explained by savages as journeys
+performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid by other persons,
+by animals or objects to him; hallucinations, possibly more frequent
+in the lower stages of culture, must have contributed to fortify
+this interpretation, and the animistic theory in general. Seeing the
+phantasmic figures of friends at the moment when they were, whether
+at the point of death or in good health, many miles distant, must have
+led the savage irresistibly to the dualistic theory. But hallucinatory
+figures, both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of
+the living; from the reappearance of dead friends or enemies primitive
+man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal
+part of man which survived the dissolution of the body. The soul was
+conceived to be a facsimile of the body, sometimes no less material,
+sometimes more subtle but yet material, sometimes altogether
+impalpable and intangible.
+
+
+_Animism and Eschatology_.--The psychological side of animism has
+already been dealt with; almost equally important in primitive creeds
+is the eschatological aspect. In many parts of the world it is held
+that the human body is the seat of more than one soul; in the island
+of Nias four are distinguished, the shadow and the intelligence, which
+die with the body, a tutelary spirit, termed _begoe_, and a second
+which is carried on the head. Similar ideas are found among the
+Euahlayi of S.E. Australia, the Dakotas and many other tribes. Just as
+in Europe the ghost of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard
+or the place of death, although more orthodox ideas may be held and
+enunciated by the same person as to the nature of a future life,
+so the savage, more consistently, assigns different abodes to the
+multiple souls with which he credits man. Of the four souls of a
+Dakota, one is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village,
+a third goes into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls,
+where its lot may depend on its rank in this life, its sex, mode of
+death or sepulture, on the due observance of funeral ritual, or many
+other points (see ESCHATOLOGY). From the belief in the survival of the
+dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, &c., at the
+grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later
+as an act of worship (see ANCESTOR WORSHIP). The simple offering of
+food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate
+system of sacrifice; even where ancestor-worship is not found, the
+desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead
+to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, &c., to the breaking or
+burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the ferryman's
+toll, a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the travelling
+expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the
+soul to the land of the dead; the soul may return to avenge its death
+by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself;
+there is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become
+malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the
+haunted spot; the woman who dies in child-birth becomes a _pontianak_,
+and threatens the life of human beings; and man resorts to magical or
+religious means of repelling his spiritual dangers.
+
+
+_Development of Animism_.--If the phenomena of dreams were, as
+suggested above, of great importance for the development of animism,
+the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine of human
+psychology, cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general
+philosophy of nature. Not only human beings but animals and objects
+are seen in dreams; and the conclusion would be that they too have
+souls; the same conclusion may have been reached by another line of
+argument; primitive psychology posited a spirit in a man to account,
+amongst other things, for his actions; a natural explanation of
+the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the
+operations and volitions of spirits.
+
+[v.02 p.0054]
+
+
+_Animal Souls._--But apart from considerations of this sort, it is
+probable that animals must, early in the history of animistic beliefs,
+have been regarded as possessing souls. Education has brought with it
+a sense of the great gulf between man and animals; but in the lower
+stages of culture this distinction is not adequately recognized, if
+indeed it is recognized at all. The savage attributes to animals the
+same ideas, the same mental processes as himself, and at the same time
+vastly greater power and cunning. The dead animal is credited with a
+knowledge of how its remains are treated and sometimes with a power of
+taking vengeance on the fortunate hunter. Powers of reasoning are not
+denied to animals nor even speech; the silence of the brute creation
+may be put down to their superior cunning. We may assume that man
+attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he
+claimed one for himself. It is therefore not surprising to find that
+many peoples on the lower planes of culture respect and even worship
+animals (see TOTEM; ANIMAL WORSHIP); though we need not attribute
+an animistic origin to all the developments, it is clear that the
+widespread respect paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and
+much of the cult of dangerous animals, is traceable to this principle.
+With the rise of species, deities and the cult of individual animals,
+the path towards anthropomorphization and polytheism is opened and the
+respect paid to animals tends to lose its strict animistic character.
+
+
+_Plant Souls._--Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so
+primitive man often credits trees and plants with souls in both human
+or animal form. All over the world agricultural peoples practise
+elaborate ceremonies explicable, as Mannhardt has shown, on animistic
+principles. In Europe the corn spirit sometimes immanent in the crop,
+sometimes a presiding deity whose life does not depend on that of the
+growing corn, is conceived in some districts in the form of an ox,
+hare or cock, in others as an old man or woman; in the East Indies
+and America the rice or maize mother is a corresponding figure; in
+classical Europe and the East we have in Ceres and Demeter, Adonis
+and Dionysus, and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can
+readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit. Forest trees, no less
+than cereals, have their indwelling spirits; the fauns and satyrs
+of classical literature were goat-footed and the tree spirit of the
+Russian peasantry takes the form of a goat; in Bengal and the East
+Indies wood-cutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the tree
+which they cut down; and in many parts of the world trees are
+regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a process of
+syncretism has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree spirits tend
+to become detached from the trees, which are thenceforward only their
+abodes; and here again animism has begun to pass into polytheism.
+
+
+_Object Souls._--We distinguish between animate and inanimate nature,
+but this classification has no meaning for the savage. The river
+speeding on its course to the sea, the sun and moon, if not the stars
+also, on their never-ceasing daily round, the lightning, fire, the
+wind, the sea, all are in motion and therefore animate; but the savage
+does not stop short here; mountains and lakes, stones and manufactured
+articles, are for him alike endowed with souls like his own; he
+deposits in the tomb weapons and food, clothes and implements, broken,
+it may be, in order to set free their souls; or he attains the same
+result by burning them, and thus sending them to the Other World for
+the use of the dead man. Here again, though to a less extent than in
+tree cults, the theriomorphic aspect recurs; in the north of Europe,
+in ancient Greece, in China, the water or river spirit is horse or
+bull-shaped; the water monster in serpent shape is even more widely
+found, but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit
+of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too; the
+immanent spirit of the earlier period becomes the presiding genius
+or local god of later times, and with the rise of the doctrine of
+separable souls we again reach the confines of animism pure and
+simple.
+
+
+_Spirits in General._--Side by side with the doctrine of separable
+souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief in
+a great host of unattached spirits; these are not immanent souls which
+have become detached from their abodes, but have every appearance
+of independent spirits. Thus, animism is in some directions little
+developed, so far as we can see, among the Australian aborigines;
+but from those who know them best we learn that they believe in
+innumerable spirits and bush bogies, which wander, especially at
+night, and can be held at bay by means of fire; with this belief may
+be compared the ascription in European folk belief of prophylactic
+properties to iron. These spirits are at first mainly malevolent;
+and side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile
+beings. At a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no
+longer unfriendly, nor yet all non-human spirits; as fetishes (see
+FETISHISM), naguals (see TOTEM), familiars, gods or demi-gods (for
+which and the general question see DEMONOLOGY), they enter into
+relations with man. On the other hand there still subsists a belief in
+innumerable evil spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena
+of possession (_q.v._), lycanthropy (_q.v._), disease, &c. The fear of
+evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see
+EXORCISM), designed to banish them from the community.
+
+
+_Animism and Religion._--Animism is commonly described as the most
+primitive form of religion; but properly speaking it is not a religion
+at all, for religion implies, at any rate, some form of emotion (see
+RELIGION), and animism is in the first instance an explanation of
+phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them,
+a philosophy rather than a religion. The term may, however, be
+conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which man
+endeavours to set up relations between himself and the unseen powers,
+conceived as spirits, but differing in many particulars from the gods
+of polytheism. As an example of this stage in one of its aspects may
+be taken the European belief in the corn spirit, which is, however,
+the object of magical rather than religious rites; Dr. Frazer has thus
+defined the character of the animistic pantheon, "they are restricted
+in their operations to definite departments of nature; their names
+are general, not proper; their attributes are generic rather than
+individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits
+of each class, and the individuals of a class are much alike; they
+have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions
+are current as to their origin, life and character." This stage of
+religion is well illustrated by the Red Indian custom of offering
+sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling
+spirits connected with them; the rite is only performed in the
+neighbourhood of the object, it is an incident of a canoe or other
+voyage, and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe
+passage past the object in question; the spirit to be propitiated
+has a purely local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited
+nature. Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods
+of fetishism (_q.v._), naguals or familiars, genii and even the dead
+who receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods
+comes the age of polytheism; the belief in elemental spirits may still
+persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult.
+
+
+_Animism and the Origin of Religion._--Two animistic theories of the
+origin of religion have been put forward, the one, often termed the
+"ghost theory," mainly associated with the name of Herbert Spencer,
+but also maintained by Grant Allen, refers the beginning of religion
+to the cult of dead human beings; the other, put forward by Dr. E.B.
+Tylor, makes the foundation of all religion animistic, but
+recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic gods. Although
+ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the cult of the dead, has in many
+cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them, we have no
+warrant, even in these cases, for asserting its priority, but rather
+the reverse; not only so, but in the majority of cases the pantheon is
+made up by a multitude of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form,
+which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate; sun gods and moon
+goddesses, gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above
+all gods of the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any
+period in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with
+ghost gods, but in Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods
+are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men;
+they are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never died; we
+have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the dead as the
+origin of religion in this area; this conclusion is the more probable,
+as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said
+to exist in Australia.
+
+[v.02 p.0055]
+
+The more general view that polytheistic and other gods are the
+elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds,
+is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be
+neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are
+hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general
+conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of
+the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions
+has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the
+original form of the objects of religious emotion; in this connexion
+it must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get
+precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of
+low culture, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves
+are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed out above,
+the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of
+material. Where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of
+matter, it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods
+are spiritual or material. Even, therefore, if we can say that at the
+present day the gods are entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible
+to maintain that they have been spiritualized _pari passu_ with the
+increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the
+greater prominence of eschatological beliefs. The animistic origin of
+religion is therefore not proven.
+
+
+_Animism and Mythology_.--But little need be said on the relation of
+animism and mythology (_q.v._). While a large part of mythology has
+an animistic basis, it is possible to believe, _e.g._ in a sky world,
+peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by spirits of the dead; the
+latter may even be entirely absent; the mythology of the Australians
+relates largely to corporeal, non-spiritual beings; stories of
+transformation, deluge and doom myths, or myths of the origin of
+death, have not necessarily any animistic basis. At the same time,
+with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings, this
+field of mythology is immensely widened, though it cannot be said
+that a rich mythology is necessarily genetically associated with or
+combined with belief in many spiritual beings.
+
+
+_Animism in Philosophy_.--The term "animism" has been applied to many
+different philosophical systems. It is used to describe Aristotle's
+view of the relation of soul and body held also by the Stoics and
+Scholastics. On the other hand monadology (Leibnitz) has also been
+termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a
+view mainly associated with G.E. Stahl and revived by F. Bouillier
+(1813-1899), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive
+principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced
+back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a
+directive force which guides energy without altering its amount.
+An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the
+belief in the world soul, held by Plato, Schelling and others.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Tyler, _Primitive Culture_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
+_Id_. on Burial Customs in _J.A. I_. xv.; Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_;
+G.A. Wilken, _Het Animisme_; Koch on the animism of S. America in
+_Internationales Archiv_, xiii., Suppl.; Andrew Lang, _Making of
+Religion_; Skeat, _Malay Magic_; Sir G. Campbell, "Spirit Basis of
+Belief and Custom," in _Indian Antiquary_, xxiii. and succeeding
+volumes; _Folklore_, iii. 289. xi. 162; Spencer, _Principles of
+Sociology_; _Mind_ (1877), 141, 415 et seq. For animism in philosophy,
+Stahl, _Theoria_; Bouillier, _Du Principe vital_.
+
+(N.W.T.)
+
+
+
+ANIMUCCIA, GIOVANNI, Italian musical composer, was born at Florence in
+the last years of the 15th century. At the request of St. Filippo Neri
+he composed a number of _Laudi_, or hymns of praise, to be sung after
+sermon time, which have given him an accidental prominence in musical
+history, since their performance in St. Filippo's Oratory eventually
+gave rise (on the disruption of 16th century schools of composition)
+to those early forms of "oratorio" that are not traceable to the
+Gregorian-polyphonic "Passions." St. Filippo admired Animuccia so
+warmly that he declared he had seen the soul of his friend fly upwards
+towards heaven. In 1555 Animuccia was appointed _maestro di capella_
+at St. Peter's, an office which he held until his death in 1571. He
+was succeeded by Palestrina, who had been his friend and probably his
+pupil. The manuscript of many of Animuccia's compositions is still
+preserved in the Vatican Library. His chief published works were
+_Madrigali e Motetti a quattro e cinque voci_ (Ven. 1548) and _Il
+primo Libra di Messe_ (Rom. 1567). From the latter Padre Martini has
+taken two specimens for his _Saggio di Contrapunto_. A mass from the
+_Primo Libra di Messe_ on the _canto fermo_ of the hymn _Conditor
+alme siderum_ is published in modern notation in the _Anthologie des
+maitres religieux primitifs_ of the _Chanteurs de Saint Gervais_. It
+is solemn and noble in conception, and would be a great work but for a
+roughness which is more careless than archaic.
+
+PAOLO ANIMUCCIA, a brother of Giovanni, was also celebrated as a
+composer; he is said by Fetis to have been _maestro di capella_ at S.
+Giovanni in Laterano from the middle of January 1550 until 1552, and
+to have died in 1563.
+
+
+
+ANISE (_Pimpinella Anisum_), an umbelliferous plant found in Egypt and
+the Levant, and cultivated on the continent of Europe for medicinal
+purposes. The officinal part of the plant is the fruit, which consists
+of two united carpels, called a cremocarp. It is known by the name
+of aniseed, and has a strong aromatic taste and a powerful odour.
+By distillation the fruit yields the volatile oil of anise, which is
+useful in the treatment of flatulence and colic in children. It may
+be given as _Aqua Anisi_, in doses of one or more ounces, or
+as the _Spiritus Anisi_, in doses of 5-20 minims. The main
+constituent of the oil (up to 90%) is anethol, C_{10}H_{12}O or
+C_{6}H_{4}[1.4](OCH_{3})(CH:CH.CH_{3}.) It also contains methyl
+chavicol, anisic aldehyde, anisic acid, and a terpene. Most of the oil
+of commerce, however, of which anethol is also the chief constituent,
+comes from _Illicium verum_ (order _Magnoliaceae_, sub-order
+_Wintereae_), indigenous in N.E. China, the star-anise of _liqueur_
+makers. It receives its name from its flavour, and from its fruit
+spreading out like a star. The anise of the Bible (Matt. xxiii. 23) is
+_Anethum_ or _Peucedanum graveolens_, _i.e._ dill (_q.v._).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1, by Various
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