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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:42:29 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:42:29 -0700 |
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diff --git a/13606-h/13606-h.htm b/13606-h/13606-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..865880a --- /dev/null +++ b/13606-h/13606-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,29071 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Voyages and Travels Volume 18</title> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {background: #ffffcc; margin:10%; text-align:justify} +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {color:green; text-align:center} +blockquote {font-size: .9em} +p.poem {text-align:center} +p.external {font-weight: bold} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13606 ***</div> + +<h2>A</h2> + +<h2>GENERAL</h2> + +<h2>HISTORY AND COLLECTION</h2> + +<h2>OF</h2> + +<h1>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS,</h1> + +<h2>ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER:</h2> + +<h2>FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS</h2> + +<h2>OF NAVIGATION, DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE,</h2> + +<h2>BY SEA AND LAND,</h2> + +<h2>FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<h2>BY</h2> + +<h2>ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S. EDIN.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<h2>ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS.</h2> + +<h2>VOL. XVIII.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<h2>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, NAVIGATION, AND +COMMERCE, FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE +NINETEENTH CENTURY.</h2> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>WILLIAM STEVENSON, ESQ.</h2> + +<h3>WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH:</h3> + +<h3>AND T. CADELL, LONDON.</h3> + +<h3>MDCCCXXIV.</h3> + +<h4>Printed by A. & B. Spottiswoode, New-Street-Square.</h4> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<h3>PREFACE.</h3> + +<p>The curiosity of that man must be very feeble and sluggish, and +his appetite for information very weak or depraved, who, when he +compares the map of the world, as it was known to the ancients, with +the map of the world as it is at present known, does not feel himself +powerfully excited to inquire into the causes which have +progressively brought almost every speck of its surface completely +within our knowledge and access. To develop and explain these causes +is one of the objects of the present work; but this object cannot be +attained, without pointing out in what manner Geography was at first +fixed on the basis of science, and has subsequently, at various +periods, been extended and improved, in proportion as those branches +of physical knowledge which could lend it any assistance, have +advanced towards perfection. We shall thus, we trust, be enabled to +place before our readers a clear, but rapid view of the surface of +the globe, gradually exhibiting a larger portion of known regions, +and explored seas, till at last we introduce them to the full +knowledge of the nineteenth century. In the course of this part of +our work, decisive and instructive illustrations will frequently +occur of the truth of these most important facts,--that one branch of +science can scarcely advance, without advancing some other branches, +which in their turn, repay the assistance they have received; and +that, generally speaking, the progress of intellect and morals is +powerfully impelled by every impulse given to physical science, and +can go on steadily and with full and permanent effect, only by the +intercourse of civilised nations with those that are ignorant and +barbarous.</p> + +<p>But our work embraces another topic; the progress of commercial +enterprise from the earliest period to the present time. That an +extensive and interesting field is thus opened to us will be evident, +when we contrast the state of the wants and habits of the people of +Britain, as they are depicted by Cæsar, with the wants and +habits even of our lowest and poorest classes. In Cæsar's time, +a very few of the comforts of life,--scarcely one of its meanest +luxuries,--derived from the neighbouring shore of Gaul, were +occasionally enjoyed by British Princes: in our time, the daily meal +of the pauper who obtains his precarious and scanty pittance by +begging, is supplied by a navigation of some thousand miles, from +countries in opposite parts of the globe; of whose existence +Cæsar had not even the remotest idea. In the time of +Cæsar, there was perhaps no country, the commerce of which was +so confined:--in our time, the commerce of Britain lays the whole +world under contribution, and surpasses in extent and magnitude the +commerce of any other nation.</p> + +<p>The progress of discovery and of commercial intercourse are +intimately and almost necessarily connected; where commerce does not +in the first instance prompt man to discover new countries, it is +sure, if these countries are not totally worthless, to lead him +thoroughly to explore them. The arrangement of this work, in carrying +on, at the same time, a view of the progress of discovery, and of +commercial enterprise, is, therefore, that very arrangement which the +nature of the subject suggests. The most important and permanent +effects of the progress of discovery and commerce, on the wealth, the +power, the political relations, the manners and habits, and the +general interests and character of nations, will either appear on the +very surface of our work, or, where the facts themselves do not +expose them to view, they will be distinctly noticed.</p> + +<p>A larger proportion of the volume is devoted to the progress of +discovery and enterprise among the ancients, than among the moderns; +or,--to express ourselves more accurately,--the period that +terminates with the discovery of America, and especially that which +comprehends the commerce of the Phoeniceans, of the Egyptians under +the Ptolemies, of the Greeks, and of the Romans, is illustrated with +more ample and minute details, than the period which has elapsed +since the new world was discovered. To most readers, the nations of +antiquity are known by their wars alone; we wished to exhibit them in +their commercial character and relations. Besides, the materials for +the history of discovery within the modern period are neither so +scattered, nor so difficult of access, as those which relate to the +first period. After the discovery of America, the grand outline of +the terraqueous part of the globe may be said to have been traced; +subsequent discoveries only giving it more boldness or accuracy, or +filling up the intervening parts. The same observation may in some +degree be applied, to the corresponding periods of the history of +commerce. Influenced by these considerations, we have therefore +exhibited the infancy and youth of discovery and commerce, while they +were struggling with their own ignorance and inexperience, in the +strongest and fullest light.</p> + +<p>At the conclusion of the work is given a select Catalogue of +Voyages and Travels, which it is hoped will be found generally +useful, not only in directing reading and inquiry, but also in the +formation of a library.</p> + +<p>This Historical Sketch has been drawn up with reference to, and in +order to complete Kerr's Collection of Voyages and Travels, and was +undertaken by the present Editor in consequence of the death of Mr. +Kerr. But though drawn up with this object, it is strictly and +entirely an independent and separate work.</p> + +<p>Kerr's Collection contains a great variety of very curious and +interesting early Voyages and Travels, of rare occurrence, or only to +be found in expensive and voluminous Collections; and is, moreover, +especially distinguished by a correct and full account of all Captain +Cook's Voyages.</p> + +<p>To the end of this volume is appended a Tabular View of the +Contents of this Collection; and it is believed that this Tabular +View, when examined and compared with the Catalogue, will enable +those who wish to add to this Collection such Voyages and Travels as +it does not embrace, especially those of very recent date, all that +are deserving of purchase and perusal.</p> + +<p>W. STEVENSON.<br> +March 30, 1824.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIII.</h2> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> +<p><a href="#ch01"><b>CHAPTER I.</b></a></p> + +<p>Historical Sketch of the Progress of Discovery and of Commercial +Enterprise, from the earliest records to the time of Herodotus</p> + +<p><a href="#ch02"><b>CHAPTER II.</b></a></p> + +<p>From the age of Herodotus to the death of Alexander the Great</p> + +<p><a href="#ch03"><b>CHAPTER III.</b></a></p> + +<p>From the Death of Alexander the Great to the time of Ptolemy the +Geographer; with a digression on the Inland Trade between India and +the Shores of the Mediterranean, through Arabia, from the earliest +ages</p> + +<p><a href="#ch04"><b>CHAPTER IV.</b></a></p> + +<p>From the time of Ptolemy to the close of the Fifteenth Century</p> + +<p><a href="#ch05"><b>CHAPTER V.</b></a></p> + +<p>From the close of the Fifteenth to the beginning of the Nineteenth +Century</p> + +<p><a href="#catalogue"><b>CATALOGUE.</b></a></p> + +<p>Preliminary Observations on the Plan and Arrangement pursued in +drawing up the Catalogue</p> + +<p>Instructions for Travellers</p> + +<p>Collections and Histories of Voyages and Travels</p> + +<p>Voyages and Travels round the World</p> + +<p>Travels, comprizing different Quarters of the Globe</p> + +<p>Voyages and Travels in the Arctic Seas and Countries</p> + +<p>Europe</p> + +<p>Africa</p> + +<p>Asia</p> + +<p>America</p> + +<p>Polynesia</p> + +<p>Australasia</p> + +<p><a href="#index1"><b>INDEX to the Catalogue.</b></a></p> + +<p><a href="#index2"><b>INDEX to the Historical Sketch.</b></a></p> + +<p><a href="#index3"><b>INDEX to the 17 Volumes of Voyages and +Travels</b></a></p> + +<p><a href="#contents"><b>CONTENTS of the 17 Volumes</b></a></p> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> + +<h3>ERRATA.</h3> + +<p>[Transcriber's Note: The errata listed after the Table of Contents +are marked in the text thus: [has->have]]</p> + +<pre> +Page 13. line 2. for <i>has</i> read <i>have</i>. + 6. for <i>near</i> read <i>nearly</i> + 28. 36. for <i>could sail</i> read <i>could formerly sail</i>. + 86. 6. for <i>Egypt</i> read <i>India</i>. + 87. 22. for <i>Leucke</i> read <i>Leuke</i>. + 102. 5. for <i>principal</i> read <i>principle</i>. + 213. 9. for <i>work</i> read <i>worm</i>. + 281. 28. for <i>Ebor</i> read <i>Ebn</i>. + 282. 20. for <i>Ebor</i> read <i>Ebn</i>. + 5O7. 22. for <i>as</i> read <i>than</i>. +</pre> + +<hr align="center" width="50%"> + +<p><a name="ch01" id="ch01"></a></p> + +<h2>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, &c. +&c.</h2> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, AND OF +COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE, FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDS, TO THE TIME OF +HERODOTUS. B.C. 450.</b></p> + +<p>The earliest traces of navigation and commerce are necessarily +involved in much obscurity, and are, besides, few and faint. It is +impossible to assign to them any clear and definite chronology; and +they are, with a few exceptions, utterly uncircumstantial. +Nevertheless, in a work like this, they ought not to be passed over +without some notice; but the notice we shall bestow upon them will +not be that either of the chronologist or antiquarian, but of a more +popular, appropriate, and useful description.</p> + +<p>The intercourse of one nation with another first took place in +that part of the world to which a knowledge of the original +habitation of mankind, and of the advantages for sea and land +commerce which that habitation enjoyed, would naturally lead us to +assign it. On the shores of the Mediterranean, or at no great +distance from that sea, among the Israelites, the Phoenicians, and +the Egyptians, we must look for the earliest traces of navigation and +commerce; and, in the only authentic history of the remotest period +of the world, as well as amidst the scanty and fabulous materials +supplied by profane writers, these nations are uniformly represented +as the most ancient navigators and traders.</p> + +<p>The slightest inspection of the map of this portion of the globe +will teach us that Palestine, Phoenicia, and Egypt were admirably +situated for commerce both by sea and land. It is, indeed, true that +the Phoenicians, by the conquests of Joshua, were expelled from the +greatest part of their territory, and obliged to confine themselves +to a narrow slip of ground between Mount Lebanon and the +Mediterranean; but even this confined territory presented +opportunities and advantages for commerce of no mean importance: they +had a safe coast,--at least one good harbour; and the vicinity of +Lebanon, and other mountains, enabled them to obtain, with little +difficulty and expence, a large supply of excellent materials for +shipbuilding. There are, moreover, circumstances which warrant the +supposition, that, like Holland in modern times, they were rather the +carriers of other nations, than extensively engaged in the commerce +of their own productions or manufactures. On the north and east lay +Syria, an extensive country, covered with a deep rich soil, producing +an abundant variety of valuable articles. With this country, and much +beyond it, to the east, the means and opportunities of communication +and commerce were easy, by the employment of the camel; while, on the +other hand, the caravans that carried on the commerce of Asia and +Africa necessarily passed through Phoenicia, or the adjacent parts of +Palestine.</p> + +<p>Egypt, in some respects, was still more advantageously situated +for commerce than Phoenicia: the trade of the west of Asia, and of +the shores of the Mediterranean lay open to it by means of that sea, +and by the Nile and the Red Sea a commercial intercourse with Arabia, +Persia, and India seemed almost to be forced upon their notice and +adoption. It is certain, however, that in the earliest periods of +their history, the Egyptians were decidedly averse to the sea, and to +maritime affairs, both warlike and commercial. It would be vain and +unprofitable to explain the fabulous cause assigned for this +aversion: we may, however, briefly and, incidentally remark that as +Osiris particularly instructed his subjects in cultivating the +ground; and as Typhon coincides exactly in orthography and meaning +with a word still used in the East, to signify a sudden and violent +storm, it is probable that by Typhon murdering his brother Osiris, +the Egyptians meant the damage done to their cultivated lands by +storms of wind causing inundations.</p> + +<p>As the situation of Palestine for commerce was equally favourable +with that of Phoenicia, it is unnecessary to dilate upon it. That the +Jews did not engage more extensively in trade either by sea or land +must be attributed to the peculiar nature of their government, laws, +and religion.</p> + +<p>Having thus briefly pointed out the advantages enjoyed by the +Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Jews for commercial intercourse, we shall +now proceed to notice the few particulars with which history supplies +us regarding the navigation and commerce of each, during the earliest +periods.</p> + +<p>I. There is good reason to believe that most of the maritime +adventures and enterprises which have rendered the Phoenicians so +famous in antiquity, ought to be fixed between the death of Jacob, +and the establishment of monarchy among the Israelites; that is, +between the years 1700 and 1095 before Christ; but even before this, +there are authentic notices of Phoenician commerce and navigation. In +the days of Abraham they were considered as a very powerful people: +and express mention is made of their maritime trade in the last words +of Jacob to his children. Moses informs us that Tarshish (wherever it +was situated) was visited by the Phoenicians. When this people were +deprived of a great portion of their territory by the Israelites +under Joshua, they still retained the city of Sidon; and from it +their maritime expeditions proceeded. The order of time in which they +took place, as well as their object and result, are very imperfectly +known; it seems certain, however, that they either regularly traded +with, or formed colonies or establishments for the purpose of trade +at first in Cyprus and Rhodes, and subsequently in Greece, Sicily, +Sardinia, Gaul, and the southern part of Spain. About 1250 years +before Christ, the Phoenician ships ventured beyond the Straits, +entered the Atlantic, and founded Cadiz. It is probable, also, that +nearly about the same period they formed establishments on the +western coast of Africa. We have the express authority of Homer, that +at the Trojan war the Phoenicians furnished other nations with many +articles that could contribute to luxury and magnificence; and +Scripture informs us, that the ships of Hyram, king of Tyre, brought +gold to Solomon from Ophir. That they traded to Britain for tin at so +early a period as that which we are now considering, will appear very +doubtful, if the metal mentioned by Moses, (Numbers, chap. xxxi. +verse 22.) was really tin, and if Homer is accurate in his statement +that this metal was used at the siege of Troy; for, certainly, at +neither of these periods had the Phoenicians ventured so far from +their own country.</p> + +<p>Hitherto we have spoken of Sidon as the great mart of Phoenician +commerce; at what period Tyre was built and superseded Sidon is not +known. In the time of Homer, Tyre is not even mentioned: but very +soon afterwards it is represented by Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and +the other prophets, as a city of unrivalled trade and wealth. +Ezekiel, who prophesied about the year 595 B.C. has given a most +picturesque description of the wealth of Tyre, all of which must have +proceeded from her commerce, and consequently points out and proves +its great extent and importance. The fir-trees of Senir, the cedars +of Lebanon, the oaks of Bashan, the ivory of the Indies, the fine +linen of Egypt, and the hyacinth and purple of the isles of Elishah, +are enumerated among the articles used for their ships. Silver, tin, +lead, and vessels of brass; slaves, horses, and mules; carpets, +ivory, and ebony; pearls and silk; wheat, balm, honey, oil and gums; +wine, and wool, and iron, are enumerated as brought into the port of +Tyre by sea, or to its fairs by land, from Syria, Damascus, Greece, +Arabia, and other places, the exact site of which is not known.[1] +Within the short period of fifteen or twenty years after this +description was written, Tyre was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar; and +after an obstinate and very protracted resistance, it was taken and +destroyed. The inhabitants, however, were enabled to retire during +the siege, with the greatest part of their property, to an island +near the shore, where they built New Tyre, which soon surpassed the +old city both in commerce and shipping.</p> + +<p>A short time previous to the era generally assigned to the +destruction of old Tyre, the Phoenicians are said to have performed a +voyage, which, if authentic, may justly be regarded as the most +important that the annals of this people record: we allude to the +circumnavigation of Africa. As this voyage has given rise to much +discussion, we may be excused for deviating from the cursory and +condensed character of this part of our work, in order to investigate +its probable authenticity. All that we know regarding it is delivered +to us by Herodotus; according to this historian, soon after Nechos, +king of Egypt, had finished the canal that united the Nile and the +Arabian Gulf, he sent some Phoenicians from the borders of the Red +Sea, with orders to keep always along the coast of Africa, and to +return by the pillars of Hercules into the northern ocean. +Accordingly the Phoenicians embarked on the Erythrean Sea, and +navigated in the southern ocean. When autumn arrived, they landed on +the part of Libya which they had reached, and sowed corn; here they +remained till harvest, reaped the corn, and then re-embarked. In this +manner they sailed for two years; in the third they passed the +pillars of Hercules, and returned to Egypt. They related that in +sailing round Libya, the sun was on their right hand. This relation, +continues Herodotus, seems incredible to me, but perhaps it will not +appear so to others. Before proceeding to an enquiry into the +authenticity of this maritime enterprize, it may be proper to explain +what is meant by the sun appearing on the right hand of the +Phoenician navigators. The apparent motion of the heavens being from +east to west, the west was regarded by the ancients as the foremost +part of the world; the north, of course, was deemed the right, and +the south the left of the world.</p> + +<p>The principal circumstance attending this narrative, which is +supposed to destroy or greatly weaken its credibility, is the short +period of time in which this navigation was accomplished: it is +maintained, that even at present, it would certainly require eighteen +months to coast Africa from the Red Sea to the straits of Gibraltar; +and "allowing nine months for each interval on shore, between the +sowing and reaping, the Phoenicians could not have been more than +eighteen months at sea."</p> + +<p>To this objection it may be replied, in the first place, that +between the tropics (within which space nearly the whole of the +navigation was performed) nine months is much too long a time to +allow for each interval on shore, between the sowing and the reaping: +and, secondly, that though the period occupied by the whole voyage, +and some of the circumstances attending it, may be inaccurately +stated, the voyage itself ought not to be wholly discredited on these +accounts.</p> + +<p>The very circumstance which the historian rejects as incredible, +is one of the strongest arguments possible in favour of the +tradition; though this alone is not decisive, for the Phoenicians +might have sailed far enough to the south to have observed the sun to +the north, even if they had not accomplished the navigation of +Africa. The strongest argument, however, in our opinion, in support +of the actual accomplishment of this circumnavigation, has been +unaccountably overlooked, in all the various discussion to which the +subject has given rise. It is evident that in most voyages, false and +exaggerated accounts may be given of the countries visited or seen, +and of the circumstances attendant upon the voyage; whereas, with +respect to this voyage, one most important and decisive particular +lay within reach of the observation of those who witnessed the +departure and arrival of the ships. If they sailed from the Red Sea, +and returned by the Mediterranean, they must have circumnavigated +Africa. It is obvious that if such a voyage was not performed, the +story must have originated with Herodotus, with those from whom he +received his information, or with those who were engaged in the +expedition, supposing it actually to have been engaged in, but not to +have accomplished the circumnavigation of Africa. The character of +Herodotus secures him from the imputation; and by none is he charged +with it:--Necho lived about six hundred and sixteen years before +Christ; consequently little more than two hundred years before +Herodotus; moreover, the communication and commerce of the Greeks +with Egypt, was begun in the time of Psammeticus, the immediate +predecessor of Necho, and was encouraged in a very particular manner +by Amasis (who died in 525), who married a Greek, and was visited by +Solon. From these circumstances, it is improbable that Herodotus, who +was evidently not disposed to believe the account of the appearance +of the sun, should not have had it in his power to obtain good +evidence, whether a ship that had sailed from the Red Sea, had +returned by the Mediterranean: if such evidence were acquired, it is +obvious, as has been already remarked, that the third source of +fabrication is utterly destroyed. Dr. Vincent is strongly opposed to +the authenticity of this voyage, chiefly on the grounds that such +ships as the ancients had, were by no means sufficiently strong, nor +their seamen sufficiently skilful and experienced, to have +successfully encountered a navigation, which the Portuguese did not +accomplish without great danger and difficulty, and that the alleged +circumnavigation produced no consequences.</p> + +<p>It may be incidentally remarked that the incredulity of Herodotus +with regard to the appearance of the sun to the north of the zenith, +is not easily reconcileable with what we shall afterwards shew was +the extent of his knowledge of the interior of Egypt. He certainly +had visited, or had received communications from those who had +visited Ethiopia as far south as eleven degrees north latitude. Under +this parallel the sun appears for a considerable part of the year to +the north. How, then, it may be asked, could Herodotus be incredulous +of this phenomenon having been observed by the Phoenician +circumnavigators. This difficulty can be solved by supposing either +that if he himself had visited this part of Africa, it was at a +season of the year when the sun was in that quarter of the heavens in +which he was accustomed to see it; or, if he received his information +from the inhabitants of this district, that they, not regarding the +periodical appearance of the sun to the north of the zenith as +extraordinary, did not think it necessary to mention it. It certainly +cannot be supposed that if Herodotus had either seen himself, or +heard from others, that the sun in Ethiopia sometimes appeared to the +north of the zenith, he would have stated in such decided terms, when +narrating the circumnavigation of the Phoenicians, that such a +phenomenon appeared to him altogether incredible.</p> + +<p>Before we return to the immediate subject of this part of our +work, we may be allowed to deviate from strict chronological order, +for the purpose of mentioning two striking and important facts, which +naturally led to the belief of the practicability of circumnavigating +Africa, long before that enterprise was actually accomplished by the +Portuguese.</p> + +<p>We are informed by Strabo, on the authority of Posidonius, that +Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who lived about one hundred and fifty years +before Christ, was induced to conceive the practicability of +circumnavigating Africa, from the following circumstance. As Eudoxus +was returning from India to the Red Sea, he was driven by adverse +winds on the coast of Ethiopia: there he saw the figure of a horse +sculptured on a piece of wood, which he knew to be a part of the prow +of a ship. The natives informed him that it had belonged to a vessel, +which had arrived among them from the west. Eudoxus brought it with +him to Egypt, and subjected it to the inspection of several pilots: +they pronounced it to be the prow of a small kind of vessel used by +the inhabitants of Gadez, to fish on the coast of Mauritania, as far +as the river Lixius: some of the pilots recognised it as belonging to +a particular vessel, which, with several others, had attempted to +advance beyond the Lixius, but had never afterwards been heard of. We +are further informed on the same authority, that Eudoxus, hence +conceiving it practicable to sail round Africa, made the attempt, and +actually sailed from Gadez to a part of Ethiopia, the inhabitants of +which spoke the same language as those among whom he had formerly +been. From some cause not assigned, he proceeded no farther: +subsequently, however, he made a second attempt, but how far he +advanced, and what was the result, we are not informed.</p> + +<p>The second fact to which we allude is related in the Commentary of +Abu Sird, on the Travels of a Mahommedan in India and China, in the +ninth century of the Christian era. The travels and commentary are +already given in the first volume of this work; but the importance of +the fact will, we trust, plead our excuse for repeating the passage +which contains it.</p> + +<p>"In our times, discovery has been made of a thing quite new: +nobody imagined that the sea which extends from the Indies to China, +had any communication with the sea of Syria, nor could any one take +it into his head. Now behold what has come to pass in our days, +according to what we have heard. In the Sea of Rum, or the +Mediterranean, they found the wreck of an Arabian ship which had been +shattered by tempest; for all her men perishing, and she being dashed +to pieces by the waves, the remains of her were driven by wind and +weather into the Sea of Chozars, and from thence to the canal of the +Mediterranean sea, and at last were thrown on the Sea of Syria. This +evinces that the sea surrounds all the country of China, and of +Sila,--the uttermost parts of Turkestan, and the country of the +Chozars, and then it enters at the strait, till it washes the shore +of Syria. The proof of this is deduced from the built of the ship we +are speaking of; for none but the ships of Sarif are so put together, +that the planks are not nailed, or bolted, but joined together in an +extraordinary manner, as if they were sewn; whereas the planking of +all the ships of the Mediterranean Sea, and of the coast of Syria, is +nailed and not joined together in the same way."</p> + +<p>When we entered on this digression, we had brought the historical +sketch of the discoveries and commerce of the Phoenicians down to the +period of the destruction of Old Tyre, or about six hundred years +before Christ. We shall now resume it, and add such particulars on +these subjects as relate to the period that intervened between that +event and the capture of New Tyre by Alexander the Great. These are +few in number; for though New Tyre exceeded, according to all +accounts, the old city in splendour, riches, and commercial +prosperity, yet antient authors have not left us any precise accounts +of their discoveries, such as can justly be fixed within the period +to which we have alluded. They seem to have advanced farther than +they had previously done along the west coast of Africa, and further +along the north coast of Spain: the discovery of the Cassiterides +also, and their trade to these islands for tin, (which we have shewn +could hardly have taken place so early as is generally supposed,) +must also have occurred, either immediately before, or soon after, +the building of New Tyre. It is generally believed, that the +Cassiterides were the Scilly Islands, off the coast of Cornwall. +Strabo and Ptolemy indeed place them off the coast of Spain; but +Diodorus Siculus and Pliny give them a situation, which, considering +the vague and erroneous ideas the antients possessed of the geography +of this part of the world, corresponds pretty nearly with the +southern part of Britain. According to Strabo, the Phoenicians first +brought tin from the Cassiterides, which they sold to the Greeks, but +kept (as was usual with them) the trade entirely to themselves, and +were utterly silent respecting the place from which they brought it. +The Greeks gave these islands the name of Cassiterides, or the Tin +Country; a plain proof of what we before advanced, that tin was +known, and generally used, previous to the discovery of these islands +by the Phoenicians.</p> + +<p>There is scarcely any circumstance connected with the maritime +history of the Phoenicians, more remarkable than their jealousy of +foreigners interfering with their trade, to which we have just +alluded. It seems to have been a regular plan, if not a fixed law +with them, if at any time their ships observed that a strange ship +kept them company, or endeavoured to trace their track, to outsail +her if practicable; or, where this could not be done, to depart +during the night from their proper course. The Carthaginians, a +colony of the Phoenicians, adopted this, among other maritime +regulations of the parent state, and even carried it to a greater +extent. In proof of this, a striking fact may be mentioned: the +master of a Carthaginian ship observing a Roman vessel following his +course, purposely ran his vessel aground, and thus wrecked his own +ship, as well as the one that followed him. This act was deemed by +the Carthaginian government so patriotic, that he was amply rewarded +for it, as well as recompensed for the loss of his vessel.</p> + +<p>The circumstances attending the destruction of New Tyre by +Alexander the Great are well known. The Tyrians united with the +Persians against Alexander, for the purpose of preventing the +invasion of Persia; this having incensed the conqueror, still further +enraged by their refusal to admit him within their walls, he resolved +upon the destruction of this commercial city. For seven months, the +natural strength of the place, and the resources and bravery of the +inhabitants, enabled them to hold out; but at length it was taken, +burnt to the ground, and all the inhabitants, except such as had +escaped by sea, were either put to death or sold as slaves.</p> + +<p>Little is known respecting the structure and equipment of the +ships which the Phoenicians employed in their commercial navigation. +According to the apocryphal authority of Sanconiatho, Ousous, one of +the most ancient of the Phoenician heroes, took a tree which was half +burnt, cut off its branches, and was the first who ventured to expose +himself on the waters. This tradition, however, probably owes its +rise to the prevalent belief among the ancients, that to the +Phoenicians was to be ascribed the invention of every thing that +related to the rude navigation and commerce of the earliest ages of +the world: under this idea, the art of casting accounts, keeping +registers, and every thing, in short, that belongs to a factory, is +attributed to their invention.[2] With respect to their vessels,-- +"Originally they had only rafts, or simple boats; they used oars to +conduct these weak and light vessels. As navigation extended itself, +and became more frequent, they perfected the construction of ships, +and made them of a much larger capacity. They were not long in +discovering the use that might be drawn from the wind, to hasten and +facilitate the course of a ship, and they found out the art of aiding +it by means of masts and sails." Such is the account given by Goguet; +but it is evident that this is entirely conjectural history: and we +may remark, by the bye, that a work otherwise highly distinguished by +clear and philosophical views, and enriched by considerable learning +and research, in many places descends to fanciful conjecture.</p> + +<p>All that we certainly know respecting the ships of the +Phoenicians, is, that they had two kinds; one for the purposes of +commerce, and the other for naval expeditions; and in this respect +they were imitated by all the other nations of antiquity. Their +merchant-ships were called Gauloi. According to Festus's definition +of this term, the gauloi were nearly round; but it is evident that +this term must be taken with considerable restriction; a vessel +round, or nearly so, could not possibly be navigated. It is most +probable that this description refers entirely to the shape of the +bottom or hold of the vessel; and that merchant ships were built in +this manner, in order that they might carry more goods; whereas the +ships for warfare were sharp in the bottom. Of other particulars +respecting the construction and equipment of the ships of the +Phoenicians, we are ignorant: they probably resembled in most things +those of Greece and Rome; and these, of which antient historians +speak more fully, will be described afterwards.</p> + +<p>The Phoenicians naturally paid attention to astronomy, so far at +least as might be serviceable to them in their navigation; and while +other nations were applying it merely to the purposes of agriculture +and chronology, by means of it they were guided through the +"trackless ocean," in their maritime enterprises. The Great Bear +seems to have been known and used as a guide by navigators, even +before the Phoenicians were celebrated as a sea-faring people; but +this constellation affords a very imperfect and uncertain rule for +the direction of a ship's course: the extreme stars that compose it +are more than forty degrees distant from the pole, and even its +centre star is not sufficiently near it. The Phoenicians, +experiencing the imperfection of this guide, seem first to have +discovered, or at least to have applied to maritime purposes, the +constellation of the Lesser Bear. But it is probable, that at the +period when they first applied this constellation, which is supposed +to be about 1250 years before Christ, they did not fix on the star at +the extremity of the tail of Ursa Minor, which is what we call the +Pole Star; for by a Memoir of the Academy of Sciences (1733. p. 440.) +it is shewn, that it would at that period be too distant to serve the +purpose of guiding their track.[3]</p> + +<blockquote>[1] Dr. Vincent, in the 2nd vol. of his Periplus of the +Erythrean Sea, has a very elaborate commentary on this chapter of +Ezekiel, in which he satisfactorily makes out the nature of most of +the articles mentioned in it, as well as the locality of the places +from which they are said to have come.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[2] One of the most celebrated gods of the Phoenicians +was Melcartus. He is represented as a great navigator, and as the +first that brought tin from the Cassiterides. His image was usually +affixed to the stern of their vessels.</blockquote> + +<blockquote>[3] In the time of Solomon, about two hundred years after +the period when it is supposed the Phoenicians began to direct their +course by the Lesser Bear,--it was 17 1/2 degrees from the North +Pole: in the time of Ptolemy, about one hundred and fifty years after +Christ, its distance had decreased to 12 degrees.</blockquote> + +<p>II. The gleanings in antient history respecting the maritime and +commercial enterprises, and the discoveries and settlements of the +Egyptians, during the very early ages, to which we are at present +confining ourselves, are few and unimportant compared with those of +the Phoenicians, and consequently will not detain us long.</p> + +<p>We have already noticed the advantageous situation of Egypt for +navigation and commerce: in some respects it was preferable to that +of Phoenicia; for besides the immediate vicinity of the +Mediterranean, a sea, the shores of which were so near to each other +that they almost prevented the possibility of the ancients, rude and +ignorant as they were of all that related to navigation and the +management of ships, deviating long or far from their route; besides +the advantages of a climate equally free from the clouded skies, long +nights and tempestuous weather of more northern regions, and from the +irresistible hurricanes of those within the tropics--besides these +favourable circumstances, which, the Egyptians enjoyed in common with +the Phoenicians, they had, running far into their territory, a river +easily navigable, and at no great distance from this river, and +bounding their country, a sea almost equally favourable for +navigation and commerce as the Mediterranean. Their advantages for +land journies were also numerous and great; though the vicinity of +the deserts seemed at first sight to have raised an effectual bar to +those countries which they divided from Egypt, yet Providence had +wisely and benevolently removed the difficulty arising from this +source, and had even rendered intercommunication, where deserts +intervened, more expeditious, and not more difficult, than in those +regions where they did not occur, by the creation of the camel, a +most benevolent compensation to the Egyptians for their vicinity to +the extensive deserts of Africa.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the advantageous situation of the Egyptians for +navigation, they were extremely averse, as we nave already remarked, +during the earliest periods of their history, to engage in sea +affairs, either for the purposes of war or commerce; nor did they +indeed, at any time, enter with spirit, or on a large scale, into +maritime enterprises.</p> + +<p>The superstitious and fabulous reasons assigned for this antipathy +of the Egyptians to the sea [has->have] been noticed before; +perhaps some other causes contributed to it, as well as the one +alluded to. Egypt is nearly destitute of timber proper for +ship-building: its sea-coasts are unhealthy, and do not appear to +have been inhabited [near->nearly] so early as the higher country: +its harbours are few, of intricate navigation, and frequently +changing their depth and direction; and lastly, the advantages which +the Nile presents for intercourse and traffic precluded the necessity +of applying to sea navigation and commerce.</p> + +<p>Some authors are of opinion that the ancient Egyptians did not +engage in navigation and commerce till the era of the Ptolemies; but +this is undoubtedly a mistake, since traces of their commercial +intercommunication with other nations may be found at a very early +period of history. It is probable, however, that for a long time they +themselves did not engage in commerce, but were merely visited by +traders from foreign countries; for at this era it was a maxim with +them, never to leave their own country. The low opinion they +entertained of commerce may be gathered from Herodotus, who mentions, +that the men disdained to meddle with it, but left it entirely to the +women.</p> + +<p>The earliest account we possess of traffic with Egypt, is to be +found in the Old Testament, where we are informed, that the +Midianites and Ismaelites traded thither as early as the time of +Jacob.</p> + +<p>Sesostris, who is generally supposed to have lived about 1650 +years before Christ, is by most writers described as the king who +first overcame the dislike of the Egyptians to the sea. That this +monarch engaged in many enterprises both by sea and land, not only +for conquest, but also for purposes of trade and colonization, there +can be no doubt; though it is impossible either to trace his various +routes, or to estimate the extent of his conquests or discoveries. +The concurrent testimony of Diodorus and Herodotus assign to him a +large fleet in the Red Sea; and according to other historians, he had +also a fleet in the Mediterranean. In order the more effectually to +banish the prejudices of the Egyptians against the sea, he is said to +have instituted a marine class among his subjects. By these measures +he seems to have acquired the sovereignty and the commerce of the +greater part of the shores of the Red Sea; along which his ships +continued their route, till, according to Herodotus, they were +prevented from advancing by shoals and places difficult to navigate; +a description which aptly applies to the navigation of this sea.</p> + +<p>His expeditions and conquests in other parts of the globe do not +fall within our object: one however must be noticed; we allude to the +settlement of the Egyptians at Colchos. Herodotus is doubtful whether +this was a colony planted by Sesostris, or whether part of his army +remained behind on the banks of the Phasis, when he invaded this part +of Asia. We allude to this colony, because with it were found, at the +time of the Argonautic expedition, proofs of the attention which +Sesostris had paid to geography, and of the benefits which that +science derived from him. "Tradition," Gibbon observes, "has +affirmed, with some colour of reason, that Egypt planted on the +Phasis a learned and polite colony, which manufactured linen, built +navies, and invented geographical maps." All the information we +possess respecting these maps is derived from Apollonius Rhodius, and +his scholiast: the substance of it is as follows: according to this +poet,--Phineas, king of Colchos, predicted to the Argonauts the +events which would accompany their return. Argus, one of the +Argonauts, explained that prediction to his companions, and told +them, that the route which they must keep was described on tables, or +rather on columns, which an Egyptian conqueror had before left in the +city of Oca, the capital of Colchis; on these columns, the whole +extent of the roads, and the limits of the land and sea were marked +out. An ingenious, and by no means an improbable inference, has been +drawn from this circumstance: that if Sesostris left such columns in +a part so remote from Egypt, it is to be supposed that they were more +numerous in Egypt itself. In short, though on a point like this it is +impossible to gain clear and undoubted testimony, we are, upon the +whole, strongly disposed to coincide in opinion with Gibbon, that +tradition has some colour of reason for affirming that the Egyptian +colony at Phasis possessed geographical maps.</p> + +<p>After the death of Sesostris, the Egyptians seem to have relapsed +into their former dislike to the sea: they indeed sent colonies into +Greece, and other parts; but these colonists kept up no relation with +the mother country. Their commerce was carried on, as it had been +before the time of Sesostris, by foreigners. The Old Testament +informs us, that in the time of Solomon many horses were brought from +Egypt: and, from the same authority, as well as from Herodotus and +Homer, we learn that the Phoenicians carried on a regular and +lucrative traffic with this country; and, indeed, for a long time, +about this period, they were the only nation to whom the ports of +Egypt were open. Of the navigation and commerce of the Red Sea they +were equally negligent; so that while none of their ships were seen +on it, it was covered with the fleets of the Syrians, Phoenicians, +and other nations.</p> + +<p>Bocchoris, who lived about seven hundred years before Christ, is +represented by historians as having imitated the maxims of Sesostris, +with respect to maritime affairs and commerce. Some of his laws on +these subjects are still extant; and they display his knowledge of, +and attention to, the improvement of his kingdom. By some of his +immediate successors the ancient maxims of the Egyptians, which led +them to avoid intercourse with strangers, were gradually done away; +but it is to Psammeticus, historians ascribe the most decisive +measures for rooting out this antipathy. In his reign the ports of +Egypt were first opened to foreign ships generally. He seems +particularly to have encouraged commercial intercourse with the +Greeks; though afterwards, either from some particular cause of +jealousy or dislike to this nation, or from the still operating +antipathy of the Egyptians to foreigners, the Greeks were not +permitted to enter any port except Naucratis, which they had been +suffered to build for the residence of their merchants and +convenience of their trade. This city lay on the Canopic branch of +the Nile; and if a vessel entered any other mouth of this river, the +master was obliged to return to the Canopic branch; or, if the wind +did not permit this, to unlade his vessel, and send his merchandize +to Naucratis by the country boats.</p> + +<p>From the time of Psammeticus, when the Greeks were allowed to +settle in Egypt, frequent intercourse and correspondence was kept up +between them and their countrymen in Greece; and from this +circumstance the Egyptian history may henceforth be more firmly +depended upon. It has already been remarked, that as the alleged +circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians took place during the +reign of Necho, the successor of Psammeticus, the grounds for its +authenticity are much stronger than if it had occurred previously to +the intercourse of the Greeks with Egypt.</p> + +<p>The employment of Phoenician mariners by Necho, to circumnavigate +Africa, bespeaks a monarch bent on maritime and commercial +enterprise; and there are other transactions of his reign which +confirm this character. It is said that Sesostris attempted to unite +by a canal the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, but that he did not +succeed in his attempt: Necho also made the attempt with as little +success. He next turned his thoughts to the navigation and commerce +of the Mediterranean and Red Sea, in each of which he had large +fleets.</p> + +<p>The superstitious antipathy of the Egyptians having been thus +broken through, and the recurrence of this antipathy secured against, +by the advantages they derived from navigation and commerce, the +Egyptian monarchs seem, as long as Egypt continued free, to have +directed their attention and resources, with considerable zeal and +success, to maritime affairs. Their strength by sea, as well as their +experience, may be estimated by an event during the reign of Apries, +the grandson of Necho: this monarch was engaged in war with the +Sidonians, Tyrians and Cypriots; he took the city of Sidon by storm, +and defeated both the Phoenicians and Cypriots in a sea fight. In +fact, during his reign the Egyptians had the command of the +Mediterranean Sea. It is probable, that if they had continued long +after this time an independent state, they would have been still more +celebrated and successful in their maritime and commercial affairs; +but in the year 525 before Christ, about seventy years after the +reign of Apries, Egypt was conquered by the Persians.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding, therefore, this temporary dereliction of their +antipathy to the sea, and intercourse with foreigners, the Egyptians +can scarcely be regarded as a nation distinguished for their maritime +and commercial enterprises; and they certainly by no means, either by +sea or land, took advantages of those favourable circumstances by +which their country seemed to be marked out for the attainment of an +extensive and lucrative commerce. It is well remarked by Dr. Vincent, +that "while Egypt was under the power of its native sovereigns Tyre, +Sidon, Arabia, Cyprus, Greece, Sicily, and Carthage, were all +enriched by the trade carried on in its ports, and the articles of +commerce which could be obtained there, and there only; the Egyptians +themselves were hardly known in the Mediterranean as the exporters of +their own commodities; they were the Chinese of the ancient world, +and the ships of all nations, except their own, laded in their +harbours." As soon, however, as it passed from the power of its +native sovereigns, and became subject successively to the Persians, +Macedonians, and Romans, it furnished large fleets, and, as we shall +afterwards notice, under the Greeks, Alexandria became one of the +principal commercial cities in the world. The Greek inhabitants of +Egypt were the carriers of the Mediterranean, as well as the agents, +factors, and importers of oriential produce. The cities which had +risen under the former system sank into insignificance; and so wise +was the new policy, and so deeply had it taken root, that the Romans, +upon the subjection of Egypt, found it more expedient to leave +Alexandria in possession of its privileges, than to alter the course +of trade, or to occupy it themselves.</p> + +<p>We possess scarcely any notices respecting the construction and +equipment of the Egyptian ships. According to Herodotus, they were +made of thorns twisted together, and their sails of rush mats: they +were built in a particular manner, quite different from those of +other nations, and rigged also in a singular manner; so that they +seem to have been the mockery of the other maritime states in the +Mediterranean. But this description can hardly apply to the Egyptian +ships, after they had become powerful at sea, though the expressions +of Herodotus seem to have reference to the Egyptian ships of his age. +There can be no doubt that the vessels that navigated the Nile, were +very rude and singular in their construction; and most probably the +description given by the historian ought to be regarded as +exclusively confined to them. They were built of the Egyptian thorn, +which seems to have been very extensively cultivated, especially in +the vicinity of Acanthus: planks of small dimensions were cut from +this tree, which were fastened together, or rather laid over one +another, like tiles, with a great number of wooden pins: they used no +ribs in the construction of their vessels: on the inside, papyrus was +employed for the purpose of stopping up the crevices, or securing the +joints. There was but one rudder; whereas the ships of the Greeks and +Romans had generally two; this passed quite through the keel. The +mast was made of Egyptian thorn, and the sail of papyrus. Indeed, +these two plants appear to have been the entire materials used in the +construction and rigging of their ships. They were towed up the Nile, +as they were not fit to stem its stream, except when a strong +favourable wind blew. Their mode of navigating these vessels down the +river was singular; they fastened a hurdle of tamarisk with a rope to +the prow of the vessel; which hurdle they strengthened with bands of +reeds, and let it down into the water; they also hung a stone, +pierced through the middle, and of a considerable weight, by another +rope, to the poop. By this means, the stream bearing on the hurdle, +carried down the boat with great expedition; the stone at the same +time balancing and keeping it steady. Of these vessels they had great +numbers on the river; some very large.</p> + +<p>III. The Jews were still more averse than the Egyptians to +intercourse with foreigners, and maritime and commercial enterprises; +indeed, their country was comparatively ill-situated for maritime +commerce. Josephus is not, however, quite correct, in stating that +Judea was not situated on the sea, and that the people of that +country did not carry on any trade, but that their whole thoughts +were turned to agriculture. The words of Jacob, on his death-bed, are +expressly against this opinion: in blessing his twelve sons, he says +of Zebulon, "he shall dwell at the haven of the sea, and he shall be +for an haven of ships;" and we know that the tribe of Zebulon was +extended to the sea shore, and to the gates of Sidon.</p> + +<p>It is not likely, that being in the immediate vicinity of this +commercial city, the Jews would not be stimulated to follow its +example, and endeavour to draw wealth from the same sources. Indeed, +the Old Testament expressly speaks of Joppa as the port of Judea and +Jerusalem, into which foreign articles, and especially many of the +materials used by Solomon in the building of the temple, were +imported.</p> + +<p>On the conquest of the Amalekites and Edomites by King David, the +Jews gained possession of some ports in the Red Sea; and during his +reign, and that of Solomon, the Jews certainly employed the ships of +their ally, Hiram king of Tyre, extensively in foreign commerce. +Indeed, the commerce of the Phoenicians from the Red Sea, appears to +have been carried on principally, if not entirely, from the harbours +in that sea belonging to the Jews, though there is no ground for +believing that the Jews themselves had any fleet on it, or were at +all engaged in its commerce. These short notices are all that history +supplies us with, on the subject of the navigation and commerce of +the Jews. From the Old Testament we may, however, collect materials, +by which we may estimate the progress they had made in geography. +About 500 years before Christ, they do not appear to have extended +their knowledge of the globe beyond Mount Caucasus to the north, the +entrance of the Red Sea to the south, and the Mediterranean +Archipelago to the west, besides Egypt, Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, +Arabia, and perhaps a small part of Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>Having thus given a sketch of the progress of discovery, and of +commercial enterprize by sea and land, among those nations who were +the most early in directing their attention to these points, we shall +next proceed to an account of the navigation and commercial +enterprizes of the Greeks and Romans; and as in this part of our work +we shall follow a more strictly chronological arrangement, the +navigation and commercial enterprizes of the Carthaginians will be +incidentally noticed in the order of time to which they belong. +Before, however, we proceed to this subject, it may be proper to +enter more particularly and fully than we have hitherto done, into a +description of the construction and equipment of the ancient ships, +since, so far as relates to the ships of the Greeks and Romans, we +possess much more ample materials for such a description, than +history supplies us with respecting the ships of the other nations of +antiquity.</p> + +<p>The traditionary story of the Phoenicians, that one of their +heroes was the first man who had the courage to expose himself upon +the waters, in a half burnt tree, stript of its branches, has already +been noticed. It is probable, however, that the first vessels had not +even so much resemblance to our present boats: indeed, conjecture, as +well as history, warrant us in believing that rafts were the most +ancient mode of conveyance on the water; and even in the time of +Pliny they were extensively employed, especially in the navigation of +rivers. Boats formed of slender rods or hurdles, and covered with +skins, seem also to have preceded the canoe, or vessel mode of a +single piece of timber. It is probable that a considerable time would +elapse before the means of constructing boats of planks were +discovered, since the bending of the planks for that purpose is not a +very obvious art. The Greeks ascribe this invention to a native of +Lydia; but at what period he lived, is not known. Among some nations, +leather was almost the only material used in the construction of +ships; and even in the time of Caesar, the Veneti, a people of +Brittany, distinguished as a maritime and commercial tribe, made +their sails of hides, and their tackle of thongs. In early ages, +also, the Greeks used the common rushes of their country, and the +Carthaginians, the spartum, or broom of Spain.</p> + +<p>But it is to the ships of Greece and Rome, when they were +constructed with more skill, and better adapted to navigation, that +we are to pay attention; and of those, only to such as were used for +commercial purposes. The latter were rounder and more capacious than +ships used for war; they were principally impelled by sails; whereas +the ships of war, though not wholly without sails, were chiefly +rowed. Another difference between them was, that ships of war +commonly had an helmet engraven on the top of their masts, and ships +for trade had a basket suspended on the top of their mast as a sign. +There seems to have been great variety in the construction of the +latter, according to the particular trade in which they were to be +engaged; and each ship of burden had its boat attached to it. The +name of the ship, or rather of its tutelary deity, was inscribed on +the stern: various forms of gods, animals, plants, &c. were also +painted on other parts. The inhabitants of Phoeacia, or Corsica, are +represented as the first who used pitch to fill up the seams, and +preserve the timber; sometimes wax was used for this purpose, or +rather it was mixed with the paint, to prevent its being defaced by +the sun, winds, or water. The principal instruments used in +navigation were the rudder, anchor, sounding line, cables, oars, +sails, and masts.</p> + +<p>It is evident from ancient authors, that the ships of the +Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and other people of antiquity, had +frequently more than one rudder; but it is not easy to perceive in +what way more than one could be applied to the same end for which the +rudder of modern ships is used. Small vessels had only one. Homer in +his Odyssey mentions only one, which was fastened, and perhaps +strengthened, so as to withstand the winds and waves on each side, +with hurdles, made of sallow or osier; at the same period the ships +of the Phoenicians had two rudders. When there were two, one was +fixed at each end; this, however, seems to have been the case only +where, as was not uncommon, the ships had two prows, so that either +end could go foremost. With respect to vessels of four rudders, as +two are described as being fixed to the sides, it is probable that +these resembled in their construction and object the pieces of wood +attached to the sides of small Dutch vessels and barges on the +Thames, and generally all vessels that are flat-bottomed, for the +purpose of preventing them from making much <i>lee way</i>, when they +are <i>working</i> against the wind.</p> + +<p>The first anchors were not made of iron, but of stone, or even of +wood; these were loaded with lead. According to Diodorus, the +Phoenicians, in their first voyages to Spain, having obtained more +silver than their ships could safely hold, employed some of it, +instead of lead, for their anchors. Very anciently the anchor had +only one fluke. Anacharsis is said to have invented an anchor with +two. Sometimes baskets full of stones, and sacks filled with sand, +were employed as anchors. Every ship had two anchors, one of which +was never used, except in cases of great danger: it was larger than +the other, and was called the sacred anchor. At the period of the +Argonautic expedition, it does not appear that anchors of any kind +but stone were known; though the scholiast upon Apollonius Rhodius, +quite at variance with the testimony of this author, mentions anchors +of iron with two flukes. It has been supposed that anchors were not +used by the Grecian fleet at the siege of Troy, because "the Greek +word which is used to mean an anchor, properly so called, is not used +in any of the poems of Homer." It is certain that iron anchors were +not then known; but it is equally certain that large stones were used +as anchors.</p> + +<p>Homer is entirely silent respecting any implement that would serve +the purpose of a sounding line; but it is expressly mention by +Herodotus as common in his time: it was commonly made of lead or +brass, and attached, not to a cord, but an iron, chain.</p> + +<p>In very ancient times the cables were made of leather thongs, +afterwards of rushes, the osier, the Egyptian byblus, and other +materials. The Veneti used iron cables; hence we see that what is +generally deemed an invention entirely modern, was known to a savage +nation in Gaul, in the time of Caesar. This nation was so celebrated +for the building and equipment of their vessels, which were, from all +accounts, better able to withstand the fury of the ocean than the +ships even of the Greeks and Romans, that Caesar gave orders for the +building of vessels, on the Loire, similar to those of the Veneti, +large, flat-bottomed, and high at the head and stern. Yet these +vessels, built on such an excellent model, and supplied with +chain-cables, had no sails but what were made of leather; and these +sails were never furled, but only bound to the mast. Besides cables, +the ancients had other ropes to fasten ships in the harbours: the +usual mode was to erect stones for this purpose, which were bored +through.</p> + +<p>In the time of Homer, the ships of the ancients had only one bank +of oars; afterwards two, three, four, five, and even nine and ten +banks of oars are said not to have been uncommon: but it is not easy +to understand in what manner so many oars could have been used: we +shall not enter on this question, which is still unresolved. The +Romans had seldom any vessels with more than five banks of oars. Such +vessels as were intended for lightness, had only one bank of oars; +this was particularly the case with the vessels of the Liburnians, a +piratical tribe on the Adriatic.</p> + +<p>The sails, in very ancient times, were made of leather; afterwards +of rushes. In the days of Agricola, the Roman sails were made of +flax: towards the end of the first century, hemp was in common use +among them for sails, ropes, and new for hunting. At first there was +only one sail in a ship, but afterwards there appear to have been +several: they were usually white, as this colour was deemed +fortunate; sometimes, however, they were coloured.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Trojan war, the Greek ships had only one mast, +which was lowered upon the deck when the ship was in harbour: near +the top of the mast a ribband was fastened to point out the direction +of the wind. In later times there seem to have been several masts, +though this is denied by some authors.</p> + +<p>It remains now to speak of the materials of which the ships were +built, their size, and their crews.</p> + +<p>The species of wood principally employed in the construction of +the Grecian ships were alder, poplar, and fir: cedar, pine, and +cypress, were also used. The Veneti, already mentioned as celebrated +for their ships, built them of oak; but theirs are the only vessels +of antiquity that seem to have been constructed of this kind of wood. +The timber was so little seasoned, that a considerable number of +ships are recorded as having been completely built and equipped in +thirty days, after the timber was cut down in the forest. In the time +of the Trojan war, no iron was used in the building of ships; the +planks were fastened to the ribs with cords.</p> + +<p>In the most ancient accounts of the Grecian ships, the only mode +by which we can form a conjecture of their size, is from the number +of men they were capable of holding. At the siege of Troy, Homer +describes the ships of the Beotians as the largest; and they carried, +he says, one hundred and twenty men. As Thucydides informs us that at +this period soldiers served as rowers, the number mentioned by Homer +must comprehend all the ship could conveniently accommodate. In +general the Roman trading vessels were very small. Cicero represents +those that could hold two thousand amphorae, or about sixty tons, as +very large; there were, however, occasionally enormous ships built: +one of the most remarkable for size was that of Ptolemy; it was four +hundred and twenty feet long, and if it were broad and deep in +proportion, its burden must have been upwards of seven thousand tons, +more than three times the burden of one of our first rates; but it is +probable that it was both flat bottomed and narrow. Of the general +smallness of the Greek and Roman ships, we need no other proof, than +that they were accustomed to draw them on land when in port, and +during the winter; and that they were often conveyed for a +considerable space over land. They were sometimes made in such a +manner that they could easily and quickly be taken to pieces, and put +together again. Thucydides asserts that the ships which carried the +Greeks to Troy were not covered; but in this he is contradicted by +Homer.</p> + +<p>The principal officer in ships intended for trade was the pilot: +he was expected to know the right management of the sails, rudder, +&c. the wind, and celestial bodies, the harbours, rocks, +quick-sands, and course to be steered. The Greeks were far behind the +Phoenicians in many parts of nautical knowledge: we have seen that +the latter at an early period changed the Greater for the Lesser +Bear, for the direction of their course; whereas the Greeks steered +by the Greater Bear. In very early periods it was the practice to +steer all day by the course of the sun, and at night to anchor near +the shore. Several stars were observed by the pilot for the purpose +of foretelling the weather, the principal of which were Arcturus, the +Dog Star, Orion, Castor and Pollux, &c. In the time of Homer, the +Greeks knew only the four cardinal winds; they were a long time +ignorant of the art of subdividing the intermediate parts of the +horizon, and of determining a number of rhombs sufficient to serve +the purposes of a navigation of small extent. Even so late as the +date of the Periphes of the Erythræan Sea, which Dr. Vincent +has fixed about the tenth year of Nero's reign, only eight points of +the compass are mentioned; these are the same as are marked upon the +temple of the winds at Athens. The utmost length to which the +ancients arrived in subdividing the compass, was by adding two +intermediate winds between each of the cardinal winds. We have +noticed these particulars relative to the winds and the +constellations, in order to illustrate the duty which the pilot had +to perform, and the difficulty and responsibility of his office, at a +period when navigators possessed such a small portion of experience +and knowledge.</p> + +<p>Besides the chief pilot, there was a subordinate one, whose duty +it was to keep a look out at the prow, to manage and direct the sails +and rowers, and to assist the principal pilot by his advice: the +directions of the subordinate pilot were conveyed to the rowers by +another officer, who seems to have answered to the boatswain of our +men of war. The rowers were enabled to pull all at once, or to keep +time, by a person who sung and played to them while they were +employed. During the night, or in difficult navigations, the charge +of the sounding lead, or of the long poles, which were used either +for the same purpose, or to push the ship off, when she got a-ground, +was committed to a particular officer. There were, besides, men whose +duty it was to serve out the victuals, to keep the ship's accounts, +&c.</p> + +<p>The usual day's sail of a ship of the ancients was five hundred +stadia, or fifty miles; and the course run over, when they sailed +night and day, double that space.</p> + +<p>We have confined ourselves, in this account of the ships of the +ancients, principally to those particulars that are connected with +the construction, equipment, &c. of those employed for commercial +purposes, and shall now proceed to a historical sketch of the +progress of discovery among the Greeks, from the earliest records to +the era of Herodotus, the father of geographical knowledge.</p> + +<p>The first maritime expedition of the Greeks, of which we have a +particular narration, and certainly one of the most celebrated in +ancient times, is the Argonautic expedition. As we purpose to go into +some length on the subject of this expedition, it may be proper to +defend ourselves from the charge of occupying too much space, and +giving too much attention to an enterprize generally deemed fabulous, +and so obscured by fable and uncertainty, as to be little capable of +illustration, and little conducive to the improvement of geographical +knowledge. This defence we shall borrow from a name deservedly high +among those who have successfully illustrated ancient geography, for +the happy and successful mutual adaptation of great learning and +sound judgment, and not less worthy of respect and imitation for his +candour and liberality: we allude to Dr. Vincent, the illustrator of +the Voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythræan +Sea.</p> + +<p>"The reality of the Argonautic expedition, (he observes in the +Preliminary Disquisition to the latter work), has been questioned; +but if the primordial history of every nation but one is tinctured +with the fabulous, and if from among the rest a choice is necessary +to be made, it must be allowed that the traditions of Greece are less +inconsistent than those of the more distant regions of the earth. +Oriental learning is now employed in unravelling the mythology of +India, and recommending it as containing the seeds of primæval +history; but hitherto we have seen nothing that should induce us to +relinquish the authority we have been used to respect, or to make us +prefer the fables of the Hindoos or Guebres, to the fables of the +Greeks. Whatever difficulties may occur in the return of the +Argonauts, their voyage to Colchis is consistent: it contains more +real geography than has yet been discovered in any record of the +Bramins or the Zendevesta, and is truth itself, both geographical and +historical, when compared with the portentous expedition of +Rám to Ceylon."</p> + +<p>In discussing the subject of the Argonautic expedition, we shall +successively consider its probable era--its supposed object--the +voyage to Colchis, and the various tracks by which the Argonauts are +said to have returned.</p> + +<p>I. Archbishop Usher fixes the era of this expedition at about 1280 +years before Christ: Sir Isaac Newton, on the other hand, fixes it +much later, about 937 years before Christ. His opinion is grounded +principally on a supposition, that the Greek sphere was invented by +two of the Argonauts, who delineated the expedition under the name of +Argo, one of the constellations. And as the equinoctial colure passed +through the middle of Aries, when that sphere was constructed, he +infers, by calculations of their retrograde motion from their place +then till the year A.D. 1690, that the expedition took place in 937 +before Christ. To this, however, there seem to be insurmountable +objections, which it is surprising did not occur to this great man. +The chief star in Argo is only 37 degrees from the south pole; and +the greatest part of the constellation is much nearer. The course of +the Argonauts from Greece to Colchis, necessarily lay between 39 and +45 degrees of north latitude. It will be evident to any person +acquainted with astronomy, that within these latitudes no star of the +first magnitude, or such as would attract observation, especially in +those times, could be visible. But, what is still more decisive +against the whole of Sir Isaac Newton's hypothesis, he takes for +granted that the sphere was invented by the Argonauts: if this indeed +could be proved, it would be easy to fix the era of the Argonautic +expedition; but till such proof is given, all that can be fairly +inferred from an inspection of this sphere is, that it was +constructed 937 years before Christ. We have dwelt upon this point, +because, thinking that the Argonautic expedition was not nearly so +late as Newton supposes, we hence regard it as, proportionally to its +antiquity, more creditable to the Greeks, and a stronger proof of +their advancement in maritime skill and enterprize.</p> + +<p>II. Its alleged object was the Golden Fleece: what that actually +was can only be conjectured;--that no commercial advantages would +tempt the people of that age is obvious, when we reflect on their +habits and manners;--that the precious metals would be a powerful +attraction, and would be regarded as cheaply acquired by the most +hazardous enterprizes, is equally obvious. If Sir Walter Raleigh, +sound as he was for his era in the science of political economy, was +so far ignorant of the real wealth of nations, as to be disappointed +when he did not find El Dorado in America, though that country +contained much more certain and abundant sources of wealth,--can we +be surprized if the Greeks, at the time of the Argonautic expedition, +could be stimulated to such an enterprize, only by the hope of +obtaining the precious metals? It may, indeed, be contended that +plunder was their object; but it does not seem likely that they would +have ventured to such a distance from Greece, or on a navigation +which they knew to be difficult and dangerous, as well as long, for +the sake of plunder, when there were means and opportunities for it +so much nearer home. We must equally reject the opinion of Suidas, +that the Golden Fleece was a parchment book, made of sheep-skin, +which contained the whole secret of transmuting all metals into gold; +and the opinion of Varro, that the Argonauts went to obtain skins and +other rich furs, which Colchis furnished in abundance. And the +remarks which we have made, also apply against the opinion of +Eustathius, that the voyage of the Argonauts was at once a commercial +and maritime expedition, to open the commerce of the Euxine Sea, and +to establish forts on its shore.</p> + +<p>Having rendered it probable, from general considerations, that the +object was the obtaining of the precious metals, we shall next +proceed to strengthen this opinion, by showing that they were the +produce of the country near the Black Sea. The gold mines to the +south of Trebizond, which are still worked with sufficient profit, +were a subject of national dispute between Justinian and Chozroes; +and, as Gibbon remarks, "it is not unreasonable to believe that a +vein of precious metal may be equally diffused through the circle of +the hills." On what account these mines were shadowed out under the +appellation of a Golden Fleece, it is not easy to explain. Pliny, and +some other writers, suppose that the rivers impregnated with +particles of gold were carefully strained through sheeps-skins, or +fleeces; but these are not the materials that would be used for such +a purpose: it is more probable that, if fleeces were used, they were +set across some of the narrow parts of the streams, in order to stop +and collect the particles of gold.</p> + +<p>III. It is said that there was an ancient law in Greece, which +forbad any ship to be navigated with more than fifty men, and that +Jason was the first who offended against this law. There can be +little doubt, from all the accounts of the ancients, that Jason's +ship was larger than the Greeks at that period were accustomed to. +Diodorus and Pliny represent it as the first ship of war which went +out of the ports of Greece; that it was comparatively large, well +built and equipped, and well navigated in all respects, must be +inferred from its having accomplished such a voyage at that era.</p> + +<p>In their course to the Euxine Sea, they visited Lemnos, +Samothrace, Troas, Cyzicum, Bithynia, and Thrace; these wanderings +must have been the result of their ignorance of the navigation of +those seas. From Thrace they directed their course, without further +wanderings, to the Euxine Sea. At the distance of four or five +leagues from the entrance to the sea, are the Cyanean rocks; the +Argonauts passed between them not without difficulty and danger; +before this expedition, the passage was deemed impracticable, and +many fables were told regarding them: their true situation and form +were first explored by the Argonauts. They now safely entered the +Euxine Sea, where they seem to have been driven about for some time, +till they discovered Mount Caucasus; this served as a land mark for +their entrance into the Phasis, when they anchored near OEa, the +capital of Colchis.</p> + +<p>IV. The course of the Argonauts to Colchis is well ascertained; +and the accessions to the geographical knowledge of that age, which +we derive from the accounts given of that course, are considerable. +But with respect to the route they followed on their return, there is +much contradiction and fable. All authors agree that they did not +return by the same route which they pursued in their outward voyage. +According to Hesiod, they passed from the Euxine into the Eastern +Ocean; but being prevented from returning by the same route, in +consequence of the fleet of Colchis blockading the Bosphorus, they +were obliged to sail round Ethiopia, and to cross Lybia by land, +drawing their vessels after them. In this manner they arrived at the +Gulph of Syrtis, in the Mediterranean. Other ancient writers conduct +the Argonauts back by the Nile, which they supposed to communicate +with the Eastern Ocean; while, by others, they are represented as +having sailed up the Danube to the Po or the Rhine.</p> + +<p>Amidst such obscure and evidently fictitious accounts, it may +appear useless to offer any conjecture; but there is one route by +which the Argonauts are supposed to have returned, in favour of which +some probability may be urged. All writers agree in opinion that they +did not return by the route they followed on going to the Euxine; if +this be true, the least absurd and improbable mode of getting back +into the Mediterranean is to be preferred: of those routes already +mentioned, all are eminently absurd and impossible. Perhaps the one +we are about to describe, may, in the opinion of some, be deemed +equally so; but to us it appears to have some plausibility. The +tradition to which we allude is, that the Argonauts sailed up some +sea or river from the Euxine, till they reached the Baltic Sea, and +that they returned by the Northern Ocean through the straits of +Hercules, into the Mediterranean. The existence of an ocean from the +east end of the Gulf of Finland to the Caspian or the Euxine Sea, was +firmly believed by Pliny, and the same opinion prevailed in the +eleventh century; for Adam of Bremen says, people [could +sail->could formerly sail] from the Baltic down to Greece. Now the +whole of that tract of country is flat and level, and from the sands +near Koningsberg, through the calcareous loam of Poland and the +Ukraine, evidently alluvial and of comparatively recent +formation.</p> + +<p>If the Trojan war happened, according to the Arundelian Marbles, +1209 years before Christ, this event must have been subsequent to the +Argonautic expedition only about fifty years: yet, in this short +space of time, the Greeks had made great advances in the art of ship +building, and in navigation. The equipment of the Argonautic +expedition was regarded, at the period it took place, as something +almost miraculous; yet the ships sent against Troy seem to have +excited little astonishment, though, considering the state of Greece +at that period, they were very numerous.</p> + +<p>It is foreign to our purpose to regard this expedition in any +other light than as it is illustrative of the maritime skill and +attainments of Greece at this era, and so far connected with our +present subject. The number of ships employed, according to Homer, +amounted to 1186: Thucydides states them at 1200; and Euripides, +Virgil, and some other authors, reduce their number to 1000. The +ships of the Boeotians were the largest; they carried 120 men each; +those of the Philoctetæ were the smallest, each carrying only +fifty men. Agamemnon had 160 ships; the Athenians fifty; Menelaus, +king of Sparta, sixty; but some of his ships seem to have been +furnished by his allies; whereas all the Athenian vessels belonged to +Athens alone. We have already mentioned that Thucydides is +contradicted by Homer, in his assertion that the Greek ships, at the +siege of Troy, had no decks; perhaps, however, they were only +half-decked, as it would appear, from the descriptions of them, that +the fore-part was open to the keel: they had a mainsail, and were +rowed by oars. Greece is so admirably situated for maritime and +commercial enterprize, that it must have been very early sensible of +its advantages in these respects. The inhabitants of the isle of +Egina are represented as the first people in Greece who were +distinguished for their intelligence and success in maritime traffic: +soon after the return of the Heraclidæ they possessed +considerable commerce, and for a long time they are said to have held +the empire of the adjoining sea. Their naval power and commerce were +not utterly annihilated till the time of Pericles.</p> + +<p>The Corinthians, who are not mentioned by Homer as having engaged +in the Trojan war, seem, however, not long afterwards, to have +embarked with great spirit and success in maritime commerce; their +situation was particularly favourable for it, and equally well +situated to be the transit of the land trade of Greece. Corinth had +two ports, one upon each sea. The Corinthians are said to have first +built vessels with three banks of oars, instead of galleys.</p> + +<p>Although the Athenians brought a considerable force against Troy, +yet they did not engage in maritime commerce till long after the +period of which we are at present treating.</p> + +<p>Of the knowledge which the Greeks possessed at this time, on the +subject of geography, we must draw our most accurate and fullest +account from the writings of Homer and Hesiod. The former represents +the shield of Achilles as depicting the countries of the globe; on it +the earth was figured as a disk surrounded by the ocean; the centre +of Greece was represented as the centre of the world; the disk +included the Mediterranean Sea, much contracted on the west, and the +Egean and part of the Euxine Seas. The Mediterranean was so much +contracted on this side, that Ithaca, and the neighbouring continent, +or at the farthest, the straits which separate Sicily from Italy, +were its limits. Sicily itself was just known only as the land of +wonders and fables, though the fable of the Cyclops, who lived in it, +evidently must nave been derived from some obscure report of its +volcano. The fables Homer relates respecting countries to the west of +Sicily, cannot even be regarded as having any connection with, or +resemblance to the truth. Beyond the Euxine also, in the other +direction, all is fable. Colchis seems to have been known, though not +so accurately as the recent Argonautic expedition might have led us +to suppose it would have been. The west coast of Asia Minor, the +scene of his great poem, is of course completely within his +knowledge; the Phoenicians and Egyptians are particularly described, +the former for their purple stuffs, gold and silver works, maritime +science and commercial skill, and cunning; the latter for their river +Egyptos, and their knowledge of medicine. To the west of Egypt he +places Lybia, where he says the lambs are born with horns, and the +sheep bring forth three times a year.</p> + +<p>In the Odyssey he conducts Neptune into Ethiopia; and the account +he gives seems to warrant the belief, that by the Ethiopians he meant +not merely the Ethiopians of Africa, but the inhabitants of India: we +know that the ancients, even so late as the time of Strabo and +Ptolemy, considered all those nations as Ethiopians who lived upon +the southern ocean from east to west; or, as Ptolemy expresses it, +that under the zodiac, from east to west, inhabit the inhabitants +black of colour. Homer represents these two nations as respectively +the last of men, one of them on the east and the other on the west. +From his description of the gardens of Alcinous, it may even be +inferred that he had received some information respecting the climate +of the tropical regions; for this description appears to us rather +borrowed from report, than entirely the produce of imagination.</p> + +<p>Close to the gates a spacious garden lies, From storms defended +and inclement skies. Four acres was th' allotted space of ground, +Fenc'd with a green enclosure all around, Tall thriving trees +confess'd the fruitful mould; The red'ning apple ripens here to gold. +Here the blue fig with luscious juice o'erflows, With deeper red the +full pomegranate glows, The branch here bends beneath the weighty +pear, And verdant olives flourish round the year. The balmy spirit of +the western gale Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail: Each +dropping pear a following pear supplies, On apples apples, figs on +figs arise: The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, The buds +to harden, and the fruits to grow; Here order'd vines in equal ranks +appear, With all th' united labours of the year; Some to unload the +fertile branches run, Some dry the black'ning clusters in the sun, +Others to tread the liquid harvest join, The groaning presses foam +with floods of wine. Here are the vines in early flow'r descry'd, +Here grapes discolour'd on the sunny side, And there in autumn's +richest purple dy'd. Beds of all various herbs, for ever green, In +beauteous order terminate the scene.</p> + +<p><i>Odyssey,</i> b. vii. v. 142.</p> + +<p>This description perfectly applies to the luxuriant and +uninterrupted vegetation of tropical climates.</p> + +<p>From the time of Homer to that of Herodotus, the Greeks spread +themselves over several parts of the countries lying on the +Mediterranean sea. About 600 years before Christ, a colony of Phocean +Greeks from Ionia, founded Massilia, the present Marseilles; and +between the years 500 and 430, the Greeks had established themselves +in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and even in some of the southern +provinces of Spain. They were invited or compelled to these +emigrations by the prospect of commercial advantages, or by intestine +wars; and they were enabled to accomplish their object by the +geographical and nautical charts, which they are said to have +obtained from the Phoenicians, and by means of the sphere constructed +by Anaximander the Milesian. The eastern parts of the Mediterranean, +however, seem still to have been unexplored. Homer tells us that none +but pirates ventured at the risk of their lives to steer directly +from Crete to Lybia; and when the Ionian deputies arrived at Egina, +where the naval forces of Greece were assembled, with an earnest +request that the fleet might sail to Ionia, to deliver their country +from the dominion of Xerxes, who was at that time attempting to +subdue Greece, the request was refused, because the Greeks were +ignorant of the course from Delos to Ionia, and because they believed +it to be as far from Egina to Samos, as from Egina to the Pillars of +Hercules.</p> + +<p><a name="ch02" id="ch02"></a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND COMMERCIAL +ENTERPRIZE, FROM THE AGE OF HERODOTUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE +GREAT, B.C. 324.</b></p> + +<p>From the scanty materials respecting the Phoenicians, with which +we are supplied by ancient history, it is evident that they founded +several colonies, either for the purpose of commerce, or, induced by +other motives, in different parts of Africa. Of these colonies, the +most celebrated was that of Carthage: a state which maintained an +arduous contest with Rome, during the period when the martial ardour +and enterprize of that city was most strenuously supported by the +stern purity of republican virtue, which more than once drove it to +the brink of ruin, and which ultimately fell, rather through the vice +of its own constitution and government, and the jealousies and +quarrels of its own citizens, and through the operation of extraneous +circumstances, over which it could have no controul, than from the +fair and unassisted power of its adversary.</p> + +<p>The era of the foundation of Carthage is unknown. According to +some writers, it was built so early as 1233 years before Christ; but +the more general, as well as more probable opinion, assigns it a much +later foundation--about 818 years before the Christian era. If this +opinion be correct, Rome and Carthage were founded nearly about the +same period. The circumstances which led to and accompanied the +foundation of Carthage, though related with circumstantial fulness by +the ancient poets, are by no means accurately know to authentic +history.</p> + +<p>The situation of Carthage was peculiarly favourable to commerce +and maritime enterprize; in the centre of the Mediterranean; in reach +of the east as well as of the west; the most fertile, and most highly +cultivated and civilized part of Africa in her immediate vicinity. +Carthage itself was built at the bottom of a gulph, on a peninsula, +which was about forty-five miles in circumference; and its strength +and security were further aided by the isthmus which connected this +peninsula to the main land, as it was little more than three miles +broad; by a projection of land on the west side, which was only half +a stadium in breadth; and by a lake or morass which lay on the +opposite side: this projection, which ran out considerably into the +sea, was naturally strong by the rocks with which it was covered, and +was rendered still stronger by art. In one point only had this +projection been neglected; this was an angle, which from the +foundation of the city had been overlooked, advancing into the sea +towards the western continent, as far as the harbours, which lay on +the same side of the city. There were two harbours, so placed and +constructed as to communicate with each other. They had one entrance, +seventy feet in breadth, which was shut up and secured by strong +chains stretched across it. One of these harbours was exclusively set +apart for merchant ships; and in its vicinity were to be found every +thing necessary for the accommodation of the seamen. In the middle of +the other harbour was an island called Cothon; though, according to +some writers, this was the name of the harbour itself. The word +Cothon, we are informed by Festus, (and his etymology is confirmed by +Bochart and Buxtorf,) signifies, in the oriental languages, a port +not formed by nature, but the result of labour and art. The second +harbour, as well as the island in it, seems to have been intended +principally, if not exclusively, for ships of war; and it was so +capacious, that of these it would contain 220. This harbour and +island were lined with docks and sheds, which received the ships, +when it was necessary to repair them, or protect them from the +effects of the weather. On the key were built extensive ranges of +wharfs, magazines, and storehouses, filled with all the requisite +materials to fit out the ships of war. This harbour seems to have +been decorated with some taste, and at some expence; so that both it +and the island, viewed at a distance, appeared like two extensive and +magnificent galleries. The admiral's palace, which commanded a view +of the mouth of the harbour and of the sea, was also a building of +considerable taste. Each harbour had its particular entrance into the +city: a double wall separated them so effectually, that the merchant +vessels, when they entered their own harbour, could not see the ships +of war; and though the admiral, from his palace, could perceive +whatever was doing at sea, it was impossible that from the sea any +thing in the inward harbour could be perceived.</p> + +<p>Nor were these advantages, though numerous and great, the only +ones which Carthage enjoyed as a maritime city; for its situation was +so admirably chosen, and that situation so skilfully rendered +subservient to the grand object of the government and citizens, that +even in case the accidents of war should destroy or dispossess them +of one of their harbours, they had it in their power, in a great +measure, to replace the loss. This was exemplified in a striking and +effective manner at the time when Scipio blocked up the old port; for +the Carthaginians, in a very short time, built a new one, the traces +and remains of which were plainly visible so late as the period when +Dr. Shaw visited this part of Africa.</p> + +<p>Carthage, at a comparatively early period of its history, +possessed a very large extent of sea coast, though in it there were +but few harbours fitted for commerce. The boundaries of the +Carthaginian dominions on the west were the Philænorum +Aræ, so called from two brothers of this name, who were buried +in the sand at this place, in consequence of a dispute between the +Carthaginians and the Cyreneans, respecting the boundaries of their +respective countries. On the other, or western side, the Carthaginian +dominions extended as far as the Pillars of Hercules, a distance, +according to Polybius, of 16,000 stadia, or 2000 miles; but, +according to the more accurate observations of Dr. Shaw, only 1420 +geographical miles.</p> + +<p>Next to Carthage itself, the city of Utica was most celebrated as +a place of commerce: it lay a short distance to the west of Carthage, +and on the same bay. It had a large and convenient harbour; and after +the destruction of Carthage, it became the metropolis of Africa +Propria. Neapolis was also a place of considerable trade, especially +with Sicily, from which the distance was so short, that the voyage +could be performed in two days and a night. Hippo was a frontier town +on the side of Numidia; though Strabo says, there were two of the +same name in Africa Propria. The Carthaginian Hippo had a port, +arsenal, storehouses, and citadel: it lay between a large lake and +the sea. We have already noticed the etymological meaning of the word +Cothon: that this meaning is accurate may be inferred from the word +being applied to several artificial harbours in the Carthaginian +dominion, besides that of Cartilage itself: it was applied to the +port of Adrumetum, a large city built on a promontory,--and to the +port of Thapsus, a maritime town, situated on a kind of isthmus, +between the sea and a lake. The artificial nature, of this latter +harbour is placed beyond all doubt, as there is still remaining a +great part of it built on frames: the materials are composed of +mortar and small pebbles, so strongly and closely cemented, that they +have the appearance, as well as durability, of solid rock. It is +singular, that in the dominions of Carthage, extending, as we have +seen, upwards of 1400 miles along the shores of the Mediterranean, +there should be no river of any magnitude or importance for commerce: +the Bagrada and the Catada alone are noticed by ancient historians, +and both of these were insignificant streams.</p> + +<p>Having thus pointed out the natural advantages for commerce +possessed by the Carthaginians, we shall next proceed to notice such +of their laws, and such parts of their political institutions, and +features of their character, as either indicated their bias for +commerce, or tended to strengthen it. The monarchical government of +Carthage was not of long continuance; it afterwards became +republican, though the exact form of the republic is not certainly +known. As late as the time of Aristotle, there seems to have been +such a complete and practical counterpoise of the powers in which the +supreme authority was vested, that, according to him, there had been +no instance from the foundation of the city, of any popular +commotions sufficient to disturb its tranquillity; nor, on the other +hand, of any tyrant, who had been able to destroy its liberty. This +sagacious philosopher foresaw the circumstance which would destroy +the constitution of Carthage; for when there was a disagreement +between the two branches of the legislature, the suffetes and the +senate, the question in dispute was referred to the people, and their +resolve became the law. Till the second and third wars between Rome +and Carthage, no fatal effects resulted from this principle of the +constitution; but during these, the people were frequently called +upon to exercise their dangerous authority and privileges; the senate +yielded to them; cabals and factions took place among those who were +anxious to please, for the purpose of guiding the people; rash +measures were adopted, the councils and the power of Carthage became +distracted and weak, and its ruin was precipitated and completed.</p> + +<p>But though to this defect in the constitution of Carthage its ruin +may partly be ascribed, there can be little doubt that commerce +flourished by means of the popular form of its government. Commerce +was the pursuit of all ranks and classes, as well as the main concern +and object of the government The most eminent persons in the state +for power, talents, birth, and riches, applied themselves to it with +as much ardour and perseverance as the meanest citizens; and this +similarity and equality of pursuit, as it sprang in some measure from +the republican equality of the constitution, so also it tended to +preserve it.</p> + +<p>The notices which we possess respecting the political institutions +of the Carthaginians are very scanty, and are almost entirely derived +from Aristotle: according to him they had a custom, which must at +once have relieved the state from those whom it could not well +support, and have tended to enlarge the sphere of their commercial +enterprize. They sent, as occasion required, colonies to different +parts, and these colonies, keeping up their connection with the +mother country, not only drew off her superabundant trade, but also +supplied her with many articles she could not otherwise have procured +at so easy and cheap a rate.</p> + +<p>The fertility and high state of cultivation of those parts of +Africa which adjoined Carthage, has already been alluded to; and +their exports consisted either of the produce of those parts, or of +their own manufactures. Of the former there were all kinds of +provisions; wax, oil, honey, skins, fruits, &c.; their principal +manufactures were cables, especially those fit for large vessels, +made of the shrub <i>spartum</i>; all other kinds of naval stores; +dressed leather; the particular dye or colour, called from them +punic, the preparation of which seems not to be known; toys, &c. +&c. From Egypt they imported flax, papyrus, &c.; from the Red +Sea, spices, drugs, perfumes, gold, pearls, &c.; from the +countries on the Levant, silk stuffs, scarlet and purple dyes, +&c.; and from the west of Europe their principal imports seem to +have been iron, lead, tin, and the other useful metals.</p> + +<p>Such was the commerce by sea, as far as the imperfect notices on +this subject, by the ancient historians, instruct us: but they also +carried on a considerable and lucrative commerce by land, especially +with the Persians and Ethiopians. The caravans of these nations +generally resorted to Carthage; the rarest and most esteemed articles +which they brought were carbuncles, which, by means of this traffic, +became so plenty in this city, that they were generally known by the +appellation of Carthaginian gems. The mode of selling by auction +seems to have been practised by this nation; at least there are +passages in the ancient authors, particularly one in Polybius, which +would naturally lead to the conclusion, that in the sale of their +merchandize, the Carthaginians employed a person to name and describe +their various kinds and qualities, and also a clerk to note down the +price at which they were sold. Their mode of trafficking with rude +nations, unaccustomed to commerce, as described by Herodotus, +strongly resembles that which has been often adopted by our +navigators, when they arrive on the coast of a savage people. +According to this historian, the Carthaginians trafficked with the +Lybians, who inhabited the western coast of Africa, in the following +manner: having conducted their vessels into some harbour or creek, +they landed the merchandize which they meant to exchange or dispose +of, and placed it in such a manner and situation, as exposed it to +the view of the inhabitants, and at the same time indicated the +purpose for which it was thus exposed. They afterwards lighted a fire +of such materials as caused a great smoke; this attracted the Lybians +to the spot, who laid down such a quantity of gold as they deemed an +adequate price for the merchandize, and then retired. The +Carthaginians next approached and examined the gold: if they deemed +it sufficient, they took it away, and left the merchandize; if they +did not, they left both. In the latter event, the Lybians again +returned, and added to the quantity of gold; and this, if necessary, +was repeated, till the Carthaginians, by taking it away, shewed that +in their judgment it was an adequate price for their goods. During +the whole of this transaction, no intercourse or words passed, nor +did the Carthaginians even touch the gold, nor the Lybians the +merchandize, till the former took away the gold.</p> + +<p>The earliest notice we possess of a commercial alliance formed by +the Carthaginians, fixes it a very few years before the birth of +Herodotus: it was concluded between them and the Romans about the +year 503 before Christ. The Carthaginians were the first nation the +Romans were connected with out of Italy. Polybius informs us, that in +his time (about 140 years before Christ) this treaty, written in the +old language of Rome, then nearly unintelligible, was extant on the +base of a column, and he has given a translation of it: the terms of +peace between the Carthaginians and their allies, and the Romans and +their allies, were to the following purport. The latter agreed not to +sail beyond the fair promontory, (which lay, according to our +historian, a very short distance to the north of Carthage,) unless +they were driven beyond it by stress of weather, or by an enemy's +vessel. In case they were obliged to land, or were shipwrecked, they +were not to take or purchase any thing, except what they might need, +to repair their ships, or for the purpose of sacrifice. And in no +case, or under no pretext, were they to remain on shore above five +days. The Roman merchants were not to pay any higher, or other duty, +than what was allowed by law to the common crier and his clerk, +already noticed, who, it appears from this treaty, were bound to make +a return to government of all the goods that were bought or sold in +Africa and Sardinia. It was moreover provided, that if the Romans +should visit any places in Sicily, subject to the Carthaginians, they +should be civilly treated, and have justice done them in every +respect. On the other hand, the Carthaginians bound themselves not to +interfere with any of the Italian allies, or subjects of the Romans; +nor build any fort in their territory. Such were the principal +articles in this commercial treaty; from it, it appears, that so +early as the year 503 before Christ, the first year after the +expulsion of the Tarquins, and twenty-eight years before the invasion +of Greece by Xerxes, the Carthaginians were in possession of +Sardinia, and part of Sicily;--that they were also acquainted with, +and had visited the coasts of Italy; and there are expressions in the +treaty, which render it highly probable that the Carthaginians had, +before this period, attempted to establish, either for commerce or +conquest, colonies and forts in Italy: it is also evident that they +were acquainted with the art of fortification.</p> + +<p>Though it will carry us rather out of chronological order, it may +be proper to notice in this place a second treaty of commerce between +the Carthaginians and Romans, which was entered into about 333 years +before Christ, during the consulship of Valerius Corvus, and Popilius +Laenas. The Carthaginians came to Rome for the purpose of concluding +this treaty: it differed in some particulars from the former, and was +to the following effect. The Romans and their allies were to possess +the friendship of the people of Carthage, the Tyrians, and the +inhabitants of Utica, provided they carried on no hostilities against +them, and did not trade beyond the fair promontory, Mastica and +Tarseium. In case the Carthaginians should take any town in Italy, +not under the jurisdiction of the Romans, they might plunder it, but +after that they were to give it up to the Romans. Any captives taken +in Italy, who in any Roman port should be challenged by the Romans as +belonging to any state in amity with Rome, were to be immediately +restored. The Romans, in case they put into the harbours of the +Carthaginians, or their allies, to take in water or other +necessaries, were not to be molested or injured; but they were not to +carry on any commerce in Africa or Sardinia; nor even land on those +coasts, except to purchase necessaries, and refit their ships: in +such cases, only five days were allowed them, at the expiration of +which they were to depart. But, in the towns of Sicily belonging to +the Carthaginians, and even in the city of Carthage itself, the +Romans were permitted to trade, enjoying the same rights and +privileges as the Carthaginians; and, on the other hand, the +Carthaginians were to be allowed to traffic in Rome on terms equally +favourable.</p> + +<p>It is not our intention, because it would be totally foreign to +the object and nature of this work, to give a history of Carthage; +but only to notice such events and transactions, supplied by its +history, as are illustrative of the commercial enterprise of by far +the most enterprising commercial nation of antiquity. In conformity +to this plan, we shall briefly notice their first establishment in +Spain, as it was from the mines of this country that they drew great +wealth, and thus were enabled, not only to equip formidable fleets +and armies, but also to extend their traffic very considerably.</p> + +<p>The city of Cadiz, was founded by the Phoenicians, as well as +Carthage; and as there was a close connection between most of the +Phoenician colonies, it is probable that some time before the +Carthaginians established themselves in Spain, they traded with the +people of Cadiz: at any rate it is certain, that when the latter were +hard pressed by the Spaniards, they applied to the Carthaginians for +assistance: this was readily given, and being effectual, the +Carthaginians embraced the opportunity, and the pretext thus afforded +for establishing themselves in the part of Spain adjoining Cadiz. It +is singular, however, that though the Carthaginians were in +possession of Majorca and Minorca from so remote an antiquity, "that +their first arrival there is prior to every thing related of them by +any historian now extant," yet they do not seem to have established +themselves on the main land of Spain till they assisted the people of +Cadiz. With respect to the other foreign possessions of the +Carthaginians, we have already seen that, at the period of their +first treaty with the Romans, they occupied Sardinia and part of +Sicily; and there are several passages in the ancient historians, +particularly in Herodotus, which render it highly probable that they +had establishments in Corsica about the same time. Malta and its +dependent islands were first peopled by the Phoenicians, and seem +afterwards to have fallen into the possession of the +Carthaginians.</p> + +<p>Of the particular voyages undertaken by the Carthaginians, for the +purpose either of discovery or of commercial enterprise, we possess +little information; as, however, these topics are most particularly +within the scope of our work, it will be indispensable to detail all +the information relating to them which can be collected. The voyages +of Hamilcar or Himilco, as he is called by some historians, and of +Hanno, are the most celebrated, or, rather, to speak more accurately, +the only voyages of the Carthaginians of which we possess any +details, either with regard to their object or consequences. Himilco, +who was on officer in the navy of Carthage, was sent by the senate to +explore the western coasts of Europe: a journal of his voyage, and an +account of his discoveries, were, according to the custom of the +nation, inscribed in the Carthaginian annals. But the only +information respecting them which we now possess, is derived from the +writings of the Latin poet Rufus Festus Avienus. This poet flourished +under Theodosius, A.D. 450, translated the Phænomena of Aratus, +and Dionysius's Description of the World, and also wrote an original +poem, on the sea coasts. In the last he mentions Himilco, and +intimates that he saw the original journal of his voyage in the +Carthaginian annals. According to the account of Festus, the voyage +of Himilco lasted four months, or rather he sailed for the space of +four months, towards the north, and arrived at the isles Ostrymnides +and the coast of Albion. In the extracts given by Avienus from the +journal of Himilco, frequent mention is made of lead and tin, and of +ships cased with leather (or, more probably, entirely made of that +material, like the coracles still used by the Greenlanders, and even +in Wales, for crossing small rivers). In these parts, he adds, the +East Rymni lived, with whom the people of Tartessus and Carthage +traded: we have given this appellation to the inhabitants of the +isles Ostrymnides, because in the first part of the latter word, the +Teutonic word, OEst, distinctly appears.</p> + +<p>Hanno was sent by the senate to explore the western coast of +Africa, and to establish Carthaginian colonies wherever he might deem +it expedient or advantageous. He sailed from Carthage with a fleet of +60 vessels, each rowed with 50 oars, and had besides, a convoy +containing 30,000 persons of both sexes. He wrote a relation of his +voyage, a fragment of a Greek version of which is still remaining, +and has lately been illustrated by the learning and ingenuity of Dr. +Falconer of Bath: his voyage is also cited by Aristotle, Pomponius +Mela, and Pliny. The era at which it was performed, and the extent of +the voyage, have given rise to much discussion. Isaac Vossius fixes +the date of it prior to the age of Homer: Vossius the father, +subsequent to it: Wesseling doubts whether it was even prior to +Herodotus. Campomanes fixes it about the 93d Olympiad: and Mr. +Dodwell somewhere between the 92d and the 129th Olympiad. According +to Pliny, Hanno and Himilco were contemporaries; the latter author +mentions the commentaries of Hanno, but in such a manner as if he had +not seen, and did not believe them.</p> + +<p>With respect to the extent of his voyage along the western coast +of Africa, some modern writers assert, without any authority, that he +doubled the Cape of Good Hope: this assertion is made in direct +unqualified terms by Mickle the translator of the Lusiad. Other +writers limit the extent of his navigation to Cape Nun; while, +according to other geographers, he sailed as far as Cape Three +Points, on the coast of Guinea. That there should be any doubt on the +subject appears surprising; for, as Dr. Vincent very justly remarks, +we have Hanno's own authority to prove that he never was within 40 +degrees of the Cape.</p> + +<p>That the Carthaginians, before the voyage of Hanno, had discovered +the Canary Islands, is rendered highly probable, from the accounts of +Diodorus Siculus, and Aristotle: the former mentions a large, +beautiful, and fertile island, to which the Carthaginians, in the +event of any overwhelming disorder, had determined to remove their +government; and Aristotle relates that they were attracted to a +beautiful island in such numbers, that the senate were obliged to +forbid any further emigration to it on pain of death.</p> + +<p>The voyages of the Carthaginians were, from the situation of their +territory, and the imperfect state of geography and navigation at +that period, usually confined to the Mediterranean and to the western +shores of Africa and Europe; but several years antecedent to the date +usually assigned to the voyages of Himilco and Hanno, a voyage of +discovery is said to have been accomplished by the king of a nation +little given to maritime affairs. We allude to the voyage of Scylax, +undertaken at the command of Darius the son of Hystaspes, about 550 +years before Christ. There are several circumstances respecting this +voyage which deserve attention or examination; the person who +performed it, is said by Herodotus, (from whom we derive all our +information on the subject), to have been a native of Caryandria, or +at least an inhabitant of Asia Minor: he was therefore most probably +a Greek: he was a geographer and mathematician of some eminence, and +by some writers is supposed to have first invented geographical +tables. According to Herodotus, Darius, after his Scythian +expedition, in order to facilitate his design of conquest in the +direction of India, resolved, in the first place, to make a discovery +of that part of the world. For this purpose he built and fitted out a +fleet at Cespatyrus, a city on the Indus, towards the upper part of +the navigable course of that river. The ships, of course, first +sailed to the mouth of the Indus, and during their passage the +country on each side was explored. The directions given to Scylax +were, after he entered the ocean, to steer to the westward, and thus +return to Persia. Accordingly, he is said to have coasted from the +mouth of the Indus to the Straits of Babelmandel, where he entered +the Red Sea; and on the 30th month from his first embarking he landed +at Egypt, at the same place from which Necho, king of that country, +had despatched the Phoenicians to circumnavigate Africa. From Egypt, +Scylax returned to Susa, where he gave Darius a full account of his +expedition.</p> + +<p>The reality of this voyage, or at least the accuracy of some of +the particulars it records, has been doubted. Scylax describes the +course of the Indus to the east; whereas it runs to the south-west. +It is also worthy of remark, that as Darius, before the voyage of +Scylax, was master of the Attock, Peukeli, and Multan, he needed no +information respecting the route to India, as every conqueror has +followed this very obvious and easy route. Dr. Vincent also objects +to the authority of this voyage, or rather to the track assigned to +it: "I cannot believe," he observes, "from the state of navigation in +that age, that Scylax could perform a voyage round India, from which +the bravest of Alexander's navigators shrunk, or that men who had +explored the desert coast of Gadrosia, should be less daring than an +experienced native of Caryandria. They returned with amazement from +the sight of Mussenden and Ras-al-had, while Scylax succeeded without +a difficulty upon record. But the obstacles to such a voyage are +numerous; first, whether Pactzia be Peukeli, and Caspatyrus, Multan: +secondly, if Darius were master of Multan, whether he could send a +ship or a fleet down the sea, through tribes, where Alexander fought +his way at every step: thirdly, whether Scylax had any knowledge of +the Indian Ocean, the coast, or the monsoon: fourthly, if the coast +of Gadrosia were friendly, which is doubtful, whether he could +proceed along the coast of Arabia, which must be hostile from port to +port: these and a variety of other difficulties which Nearchus +experienced, from famine, from want of water, from the construction +of his ships, and from the manners of the natives, must induce an +incredulity in regard to the Persian account, whatever respect we may +have to the fidelity of Herodotus."</p> + +<p>Such are the objections urged by Dr. Vincent to the authority of +this voyage. In some of the particular objections there may be +considerable force; but with respect to the general ones, from the +manners or hostility of the natives inhabiting the coasts along which +the voyage was performed, they apply equally to the voyages of the +Carthaginians along the western coasts of Africa and Europe, and +indeed to all the voyages of discovery, or distant voyages of the +ancients. It may be added, that according to Strabo, Posidonius +disbelieved the whole history of Scylax. In the Geographi Minores of +Hudson, a voyage ascribed to Scylax is published; but great doubts +are justly entertained on the subject of its authenticity. Dodwell is +decidedly against it. The Baron de Sainte Croix, in a dissertation +read before the Academy of Inscriptions, defends the work which bears +the name of Scylax as genuine. Dr. Vincent states one strong +objection to its authenticity: mention is made in it of Dardanus, +Rhetium, and Illium, in the Troad; whereas there is great doubt +whether Rhetium was in existence in the time of the real Scylax: +besides, it is remarkable that nothing is said respecting India in +the treatise now extant. That the original and genuine work described +India is, however, undoubted, on the authority of Aristotle, who +mentions that there was such a person as Scylax, that he had been in +India, and that his account of that country was extant in his +(Aristotle's) time.</p> + +<p>In fact, the work which we possess under the name of Scylax, is +evidently a collection of the itineraries of ancient navigators: it +may have been drawn up by the Scylax whom Darius employed, though, if +that were the case, it is very extraordinary he should not have +included the journal of his own voyage; or his name, as that of a +celebrated geographer may have been put to it; or there may have been +another geographer of that name. The collection is evidently +imperfect; what is extant contains the coasts of the Palus Maeotis, +the Euxine, the Archipelago, the Adriatic, and all the Mediterranean, +with the west coast of Africa, as far as the isle of Cerne, which he +asserts to be the limit of the Carthaginian navigation and commerce +in that direction. The sea, according to him, is not navigable +further to the south than this island, on account of the thick weeds +with which it was covered. The mention of this impediment is adduced +by D'Anville to prove the reality of the Carthaginian voyages to the +south: it is not, indeed, true, that the sea is impassable on account +of these weeds to modern navigators, but it is easy to conceive that +the timidity and inexperience of the ancients, as well as the +imperfect construction of their vessels, would prevent them from +proceeding further south, when they met with such a singular +obstacle. If a ship has not <i>much way</i> through the water, these +weeds will impede her course. It has been very justly remarked, that +if the latitude where these weeds commence was accurately determined, +it would fix exactly the extent of the voyages of the Carthaginians +in this direction. The weed alluded to is probably the fucus natans, +or gulf-weed.</p> + +<p>Hitherto the knowledge that the ancients possessed of the +habitable world, had not been collected by any writer, and is to be +gathered entirely from short, vague, and evidently imperfect +narrations, scattered throughout a great number of authors. Herodotus +has been celebrated as the father of history; he may with equal +justice be styled the father of geographical knowledge: he flourished +about 474 years before Christ. In dwelling upon the advances to +geographical knowledge which have been derived from him, it will be +proper and satisfactory, before we explain the extent and nature of +them, to give an account of the sources from which he derived his +information; those were his own travels, and the narrations or +journals of other travellers. A great portion of the vigour of his +life seems to have been spent in travelling; the oppressive tyranny +of Lygdamis over Halicarnassus, his native country, first induced or +compelled him to travel; whether he had not also imbibed a portion of +the commercial activity and enterprize which distinguished his +countrymen, is not known, but is highly probable. We are not informed +whether his fortune were such as to enable him, without entering into +commercial speculations, to support the expences of his travels; it +is evident, however, from the extent of his travels, as well as from +the various, accurate, and, in many cases, most important +information, which he acquired, that these expences must have been +very considerable. From his work it is certain that he was endowed +with that faculty of eliciting the truth from fabulous, imperfect, or +contradictory evidence, at all times so necessary to a traveller, and +indispensably so at the period when he travelled, and in most of the +countries where his enquiries and his researches were carried on. His +great and characteristic merit consists in freeing his mind from the +opinions which must have previously occupied it;--in trusting +entirely either to what e himself saw, or to what he learned from the +best authority;--always, however, bringing the information acquired +in this latter mode to the test of his own observation and good +sense. It is from the united action and guidance of these two +qualifications--individual observation and experience gained by most +patient and diligent research and enquiry on the spot, and a high +degree of perspicacity, strength of intellect, and good sense, +separating the truth from the fable of all he learnt from the +observation and experience of others, that Herodotus has justly +acquired so high degree of reputation, and that in almost every +instance modern travellers find themselves anticipated by him, even +on points in which such a coincidence was the least likely.</p> + +<p>His travels embraced a variety of countries. The Greek colonies in +the Black Sea were visited by him: he measured the extent of that +sea, from the Bosphorus to the mouth of the river Phasis, at the +eastern extremity. All that track of country which lies between the +Borysthenes and the Hypanis, and the shores of the Palus Maeotis, he +diligently explored. With respect to the Caspian, his information +affords a striking proof of his accuracy, even when gained, as it was +in this instance, from the accounts of others. He describes it +expressly as a sea by itself, unconnected with any other: its length, +he adds, is as much as a vessel with oars can navigate in fifteen +days: its greatest breadth as much as such a vessel can navigate in +eight days. It may be added, as a curious proof and illustration of +the decline of geographical knowledge, or, at least, of the want of +confidence placed in the authority of Herodotus by subsequent ancient +geographers, that Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny, represent the +Caspian Sea as a bay, communicating with the great Northern Ocean; +and that even Arrian, who, in respect to care and accuracy, bears no +slight resemblance to Herodotus, and for some time resided as +governor of Cappadocia, asserts that there was a communication +between the Caspian Sea and the Eastern Ocean.</p> + +<p>But to return from this digression to the geographical knowledge +of Herodotus, as derived from his own travels, he visited Babylon and +Susa, and while there, or perhaps in excursions from those places, +made himself well acquainted with the Persian empire. The whole of +Egypt was most diligently and thoroughly explored by him, as well as +the Grecian colonies planted at Cyrene, in Lybia. He traced the +course of the river Ister, from its mouth nearly as far as its +source. The extent of his travels in Greece is not accurately known; +but his description of the Straits of Thermopylae is evidently the +result of his own observation. All these countries, together with a +portion of the south of Italy, were visited by him. The information +which his history conveys respecting other parts of the world was +derived from others: in most cases, it would seem, from personal +enquiries and conversation with them, so that he had an opportunity +of rendering the information thus acquired much more complete, as +well as satisfactory, than it would have been if it had been derived +from their journals.</p> + +<p>Herodotus trusted principally or entirely to the information he +received, with respect to the interior of Africa and the north of +Europe, and Asia to the east of Persia. While he was in Egypt he +seems to have been particularly inquisitive and interested respecting +the caravans which travelled into the interior of Africa; and +regarding their equipment, route, destination, and object, he has +collected a deal of curious and instructive information. On the +authority of Etearchus, king of the Ammonians, he relates a journey +into the interior of Africa, undertaken by five inhabitants of the +country near the Gulf of Libya; and, in this journey, there is good +reason to believe that the river Niger is accurately described, at +least as far as regards the direction of its course.</p> + +<p>It is evident from the introduction to his third book that the +Greek merchants of his time were eminently distinguished for their +courage, industry, and abilities; that in pursuit of commercial +advantages they visited very remote and barbarous countries in the +north-eastern parts of Europe, and the adjacent parts of Asia; and +that the Scythians permitted the Greek merchants of the Euxine to +penetrate farther to the east and north "than we can trace their +progress by the light of modern information." To them Herodotus was +much indebted for the geographical knowledge which he displays of +those parts of the world; and it is by no means improbable that the +spirit of commercial enterprize which invited the Greek merchants on +the Euxine to penetrate among the barbarous nations of the +north-east, also led them far to the east and south-east; and that +from them, as well as from his personal enquiries, while at Babylon +and Susa, Herodotus derived much of the information with which he has +favoured us respecting the country on the Indus, and the borders of +Cashmere and Arabia. Having thus pointed out the sources from which +Herodotus derived his geographical knowledge, we shall now sketch the +limits of that knowledge, as well as mention in what respects he +yielded to the fabulous and absurd notions of his contemporaries.</p> + +<p>He fails most in endeavouring to give a general and combined idea +of the earth; even where his separate sketches are clear and +accurate, when united they lose both their accuracy and clearness. He +seems to doubt whether he should divide the world into three parts; +and at last, having admitted such a division, he makes the rivers +Phasis and Araxes, and the Caspian Sea, the boundaries between Europe +and Asia; and to Europe he assigns an extent greater than Asia and +Libya taken together. His knowledge of the west of Europe was very +imperfect: in some part he fixes the Cassiterides, from which the +Phoenicians derived their tin. The Phoenician colony of Gadez was +known to him. His geography extended to the greater part of Poland +and European Russia. Such appear to have been its limits with respect +to Europe; and such the general notion he entertained of this quarter +of the world. As to Asia, he believed that a fleet sent by Darius had +circumnavigated it from the Indus to the confines of Egypt; but +though his general idea of it was thus erroneous, he possessed +accurate information respecting it from the confines of Europe to the +Indus. Of the countries to the east of that river, as well as of the +whole of the north and southern parts of it, he was completely +ignorant. He particularly notices that the Eastern Ethiopians, or +Indians, differ from those of Africa by their long hair, as opposed +to the woolly head of the African. In his account of India he +interweaves much that is fabulous; but in the same manner as modern +discoveries in geography have confirmed many things in Herodotus +which were deemed errors in his geography, so it has been ascertained +that even his fables have, in most instances, a foundation in fact. +With regard to Africa, his knowledge of Egypt, and of the country to +the north of it, seems to have been very accurate, and more minute +and satisfactory than his knowledge of any other part of the world. +It is highly probable that he was acquainted with the course of the +western branch of the Nile, as far as the 11th degree of latitude. He +certainly knew the real course of the Niger. On the east coast of +Africa he was well acquainted with the shores of the Arabian Gulph; +but though he sometimes mentions Carthage, and describes the traffic +carried on, without the intervention of language, between the +Carthaginians and a nation beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which we +nave already mentioned in treating of the commerce of the +Carthaginians, yet he seems to have been unacquainted with any point +between Carthage and the Pillars of Hercules.</p> + +<p>In the history of Herodotus, there is an account of a map +constructed by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, when he proposed to +Cleomenes, king of Sparta, to attack Darius, king of Persia, at Susa; +from this account, the vague, imperfect, and erroneous ideas +entertained in his time of the relative situations and distances of +places, as well as of the extremely rude and feeble advances which +had been made towards the construction of maps, may be inferred. +Major Rennell, in his Illustrations of Herodotus, has endeavoured to +ascertain from his history the parallel and meridian of +Halicarnassus, the birth-place of the historian. According to him, +they intersect at right angles over that town, cutting the 37th +degree of north latitude, and the 45-1/2 of east longitude, from the +Fortunate Islands.</p> + +<p>For a considerable period after the time of Herodotus, the +ancients seem to have been nearly stationary in their knowledge of +the world. About 368 years before Christ, Eudoxus, of Cnidus, whose +desire of studying astronomy induced him to visit Egypt, Asia, and +Italy, who first attempted to explain the planetary motions, and who +is said to have discovered the inclination of the moon's orbit, and +the retrograde motion of her nodes, is celebrated as having first +applied geographical observations to astronomy; but he does not +appear to have directed his researches or his conjectures towards the +figure or the circumference of the earth, or the distances or +relative situations of any places on its surface.</p> + +<p>Nearly about the same period that Eudoxus died Aristotle +flourished. This great philosopher, collecting and combining into one +system of geographical knowledge the discoveries and observations of +all who had preceded him, stamped on them a dignity and value they +had not before possessed, as well as rendered them less liable to be +forgotten or misapplied: he inferred the sphericity of the earth from +the observations of travellers, that the stars seen in Greece were +not visible in Cyprus or Egypt; and thus established the fundamental +principle of all geography. But though this science, in its most +important branch, derived much benefit from his powerful mind, yet it +was not advanced in its details. He supposed the coasts of Spain not +very distant from those of India; and he even embraced a modified +notion of Homer's Ocean River, which had been ridiculed and rejected +by Herodotus; for he describes the habitable earth as a great oval +island, surrounded by the ocean, terminated on the west by the river +Tartessius, (supposed to be the Guadelquiver,) on the east by the +Indus, and on the north by Albion and Ierne, of which islands his +ideas were necessarily very vague and imperfect. In some other +respects, however, his knowledge was more accurate: he coincides with +Herodotus in his description of the Caspian Sea, and expressly states +that it ought to be called a great lake, not a sea. A short period +before Aristotle flourished, that branch of geography which relates +to the temperature of different climates, and other circumstances +affecting health, was investigated with considerable diligence, +ingenuity, and success, by the celebrated physician Hippocrates. In +the course of his journeys, with this object in view, he seems to +have followed the plan and the route of Herodotus, and sometimes to +have even penetrated farther than he did.</p> + +<p>Pytheas, of Marseilles, lived a short time before Alexander the +Great: he is celebrated for his knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, +philosophy, and geography, and for the ardour and perseverance with +which either a strong desire for information, or the characteristic +commercial spirit of his townspeople, or both united, carried him +forward in the path of maritime discovery. The additions, however, +which he made to geography as a science, or to the sciences +intimately connected with it, are more palpable and undisputed, than +the extent and discoveries of his voyages.</p> + +<p>He was the first who established a distinction of climate by the +length of days and nights: and he is said to have discovered the +dependence of the tides upon the position of the moon, affirming that +the flood-tide depended on the increase of the moon, and the ebb on +its decrease. By means of a gnomon he observed, at the summer +solstice at Marseilles, that the length of the shadow was to the +height of the gnomon as 120 to 41-1/5; or, in other words, that the +obliquity of the ecliptic was 23:50. He relates, that in the country +which he reached in his voyage to the north, the sun, at the time of +the summer solstice, touched the northern part of the horizon: he +pointed out three stars near the pole, with which the north star +formed a square; and within this square, he fixed the true place of +the pole. According to Strabo, he considered the island of Thule as +the most western part of the then known world, and reckoned his +longitude from thence.</p> + +<p>With respect to the extent and discoveries of his voyage to the +north, there is great difference of opinion. The veracity of Pytheas +is utterly denied by Strabo and Polybius, and is strongly suspected +by Dr. Vincent: on the other hand, it has found able supporters in +D'Anville, Huet, Gessner, Murray of Goettingen, Gosselin, and Malte +Brun; and in our opinion, though it may not be easy to ascertain what +was really the country which be reached in his voyage, and though +some of the particulars he mentions may be fabulous, or +irreconcileable with one another, yet it seems carrying scepticism +too far to reject, on these accounts, his voyage as altogether a +fiction.</p> + +<p>The account is, that Pytheas departed from Marseilles, coasted +Spain, France, and the east or north-east side of Britain, as far as +its northern extremity. Taking his departure from this, he continued +his voyage, as he says, to the north, or perhaps to the north-east; +and after six days' navigation, he arrived at a land called Thule, +which he states to be 46,300 stadia from the equator. So far there is +nothing improbable or inconsistent; but when he adds, that being +there at the summer solstice, he saw the sun touching the northern +point of the horizon, and at the same time asserts that the day and +night were each of six months' continuance, there is a palpable +contradiction: and when he adds, that millet was cultivated in the +north of this country, and wheat in the south, and that honey +abounded, he mentions productions utterly incompatible with his +description of the climate and latitude.</p> + +<p>As, however, this voyage forms an important epoch in the history +of discovery, it may be proper to endeavour to ascertain what country +the Thule of Pytheas really was. We have already observed, that the +day's sail of an ancient vessel was 500 stadia, or 50 miles; +supposing the largest stadia of 666-2/3 equal to one degree of the +equator, if the vessel sailed during the night as well as day, the +course run was, on an average, 1000 stadia, or 100 miles. Now, as the +voyage from the extremity of Britain to Thule was of course not a +coasting voyage, and as the nights in that latitude, at the season of +the year when the voyage was made, were very short, (Pytheas says the +night was reduced to two or three hours) we must suppose that he +sailed night as well as day; and consequently, that in six days he +had sailed 600 miles, either directly north or to east or west of the +north, for his exact course cannot well be made out.</p> + +<p>What country lies 600 miles to the north or the north-east of the +extremity of Britain? None exactly in this direction: if, however, we +suppose that Pytheas could not fix exactly the point of the compass +which he steered, (a supposition by no means improbable, considering +the ignorance of the ancients,) and that his course tended to the +west of the north, 600 miles would bring him nearly to Greenland. +There were, however, other stadia besides those by which we computed +the day's sail of the ancients; and though the stadia we have taken +are more generally alluded to by the ancients, yet it may be proper +to ascertain what results will be produced if the other stadia are +supposed to have been used in this instance. The stadia we have +already founded our calculations upon will bring us to the latitude +of 69° 27': the latitude of the southernmost point of Greenland +is very nearly 70°. But the description given by Pytheas of the +productions of the country by no means coincides with Greenland. At +the same time, other parts of his description agree with this +country; particularly when he says, that there the sea, the earth, +and the air, seem to be confounded in one element. In the south of +Greenland the longest day is two months which does not coincide with +Pytheas' account; though this, as we have already pointed out, is +contradictory with itself.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider what will be the result if we suppose that a +different stadia were employed: the next in point of extent to that +on which we have already founded our conjectures, (there being 700 +equal to one degree of the equator) will bring him to the latitude of +66° 8'; the latitude of the northernmost part of Iceland is +66° 30', coinciding with this result as nearly as possible. The +description of the climate agrees with Pytheas' description; but not +his account of the length of the day, nor of the productions of the +country. Of the third kind of stadia, 833-1/3 were equal to one +degree of the equator; calculating that 1000 of these were sailed +during a day and night's voyage, Pytheas would arrive in the latitude +of 55° 34', at the end of six days. This, however, is absolutely +at variance with the fact, that he took his departure from the +northernmost point of Britain, and would in fact bring him back from +it to the entrance of the Frith of Forth. It is supposed, however, +that this is the real latitude; but that the west coast of Jutland is +the country at which he arrived. But this obliges us to believe that +his course from the northern extremity of Britain, instead of being +north or north-east, or indeed at all to the north, was in fact +south-west; a supposition which cannot be admitted, unless we imagine +that the ancients were totally ignorant of the course which they +steered. On the other hand, Pytheas' description of the productions +of Thule agrees with Jutland; the culture of millet in the north, and +of wheat in the south, and the abundance of honey: there is also, +about a degree to the north of the latitude of 55° 34', a part of +the coast still denominated Thyland; and in the ancient language of +Scandinavia, Thiuland. The account of Pytheas, that near Thule, the +sea, air, and earth, seemed to be confounded in one element, is +supposed by Malte Brun to allude to the sandy downs of Jutland, whose +hills shift with the wind; the marshes, covered with a crust of sand, +concealing from the traveller the gulf beneath, and the fogs of a +peculiarly dense nature which frequently occur. We must confess, +however, that the course having been north, or north-east, or +north-west, for this latitude of course may be allowed in +consideration of the ignorance or want of accuracy of the ancients, +never can have brought Pytheas to a country lying to the south-west +of the extremity of Britain.</p> + +<p>We are not assisted in finding out the truth, if, instead of +founding our calculations and conjectures on the distance sailed in +the six days, we take for their basis the distance which Pytheas +states Thule to be from the equator. This distance, we have already +mentioned, was 46,300 stadia; which, according as the different kinds +of stadia are calculated upon, will give respectively the latitude of +the south of Greenland, of the north of Iceland, or of the west coast +of Jutland; or, in other words, the limit of Pytheas' voyage will be +determined to be in the same latitude, whether we ascertain it by the +average length of the day and night's sail of the vessels of the +ancients, or by the distance from the equator which he assigns to +Thule. It may be proper to state, that there is a district on the +coast of Norway, between the latitudes of 60° and 62°, called +Thele, or Thelemarle. Ptolemy supposes this to have been the Thule of +Pytheas, Pliny places it within three degrees of the pole, +Eratosthenes under the polar circle. The Thule discovered by +Agricola, and described by Tacitus, is evidently either the Orkney or +the Shetland Islands.</p> + +<p>It may appear presumptuous as well as useless, after this display +of the difficulties attending the question, to offer any new +conjecture; and many of our renders may deem it a point of very minor +importance, and already discussed at too great length. It is obvious, +from the detail into which we have entered, that no country exists in +the latitude which must be assigned to it, whether we fix that +latitude by Pytheas' statement of the distance of Thule from the +equator, or by the space sailed over in six days, the productions of +which at all agree with those mentioned by Pytheas. On the other +hand, we cannot suppose that his course was south-west, and not at +all to the north, which must have been the case, if the country at +which he arrived in sailing from the northern extremity of Britain, +was Jutland. The object must, therefore, be to find out a country the +productions of which correspond with those mentioned by Pytheas; for, +with regard to those, he could not be mistaken: and a country +certainly not the least to the south of the northern part of Britain. +As it is impossible that he could have reached the pole, what he +states respecting the day and night being each six months long must +be rejected; and his other account of the length of the day, deduced +from his own observation of the sun, at the time of the summer +solstice, touching the northern point of the horizon, must be +received. If we suppose that this was the limit of the sun's course +in that direction (which, from his statement, must be inferred), this +will give us a length of day of about twenty hours, corresponding to +about sixty-two degrees of north latitude. The next point to be +ascertained is the latitude of his departure from the coast of +Britain. There seems no good reason to believe, what all the +hypothesis we have examined assume, that Pytheas sailed along the +whole of the east coast of Britain: on the other hand, it seems more +likely, that having passed over from the coast of France to the coast +of Britain, he traced the latter to its most eastern point, that is, +the coast of Norfolk near Yarmouth; from which place, the coast +taking a sudden and great bend to the west, it is probable that +Pytheas, whose object evidently was to sail as far north as he could, +would leave the coast and stretch out into the open sea. Sailing on a +north course, or rather with a little inclination to the east of the +north, would bring him to the entrance of the Baltic. We have already +conceived it probable that the country he describes lay in the +latitude of about 62°, and six days' sail from the coast of +Norfolk would bring him nearly into this latitude, supposing he +entered the Baltic. The next point relates to the productions of the +country: millet, wheat, and honey, are much more the characteristic +productions of the countries lying on the Gulf of Finland, than they +are of Jutland; and Pytheas' account of the climate also agrees +better with the climate of this part of the Baltic, than with that of +Jutland.</p> + +<p>That Pythias visited the Baltic, though perhaps the Thule he +mentions did not lie in this sea, is evident from the following +extract from his journal, given by Pliny:--"On the shores of a +certain bay called Mentonomon, live a people called Guttoni: and at +the distance of a day's voyage from them, is the island Abalus +(called by Timæus, Baltea). Upon this the waves threw the +amber, which is a coagulated matter cast up by the sea: they use it +for firing, instead of wood, and also sell it to the neighbouring +Teutones." The inhabitants on the coast of the Baltic, near the Frish +or Curish Sea (which is probably the bay Pytheas describes) are +called in the Lithuanian language, Guddai: and so late as the period +of the Crusades, the spot where amber is found was called Wittland, +or Whiteland; in Lithuanian, Baltika. From these circumstances, as +well as from the name <i>Baltea</i> given by Timaeus to the island +mentioned by Pytheas, as the place where amber is cast up by the +waves, there appears no doubt that Pytheas was in the Baltic Sea, +though his island of Thule might not be there. As amber was in great +repute, even so early as the time of Homer, who describes it as being +used to adorn the golden collars, it is highly probable that Pytheas +was induced to enter the Baltic for the purpose of obtaining it: in +what manner, or through whose means, the Greeks obtained it in +Homer's time, is not known.</p> + +<p>After all, the question is involved in very great obscurity; and +the circumstance not the most probable, or reconcileable with a +country even not further north than Jutland is, that, in the age of +Pytheas, the inhabitants should have been so far advanced in +knowledge and civilization, as to have cultivated any species of +grain.</p> + +<p>Till the age of Herodotus the light of history is comparatively +feeble and broken; and where it does shine with more steadiness and +brilliancy, its rays are directed almost exclusively on the warlike +operations of mankind. Occasionally, indeed, we incidentally learn +some new particulars respecting the knowledge of the ancients in +geography: but these particulars, as must be obvious from the +preceding part of this volume, are ascertained only after +considerable difficulty; and when ascertained, are for the most part +meagre, if not obscure. In the history of Herodotus, we, for the +first time, are able to trace the exact state and progress of +geographical knowledge; and from his time, our means of tracing it +become more accessible, as well as productive of more satisfactory +results. Within one hundred years after this historian flourished, +geography derived great advantages and improvement from a +circumstance which, at first view, would have been deemed adverse to +the extension of any branch of science: we allude to the conquests of +Alexander the Great. This monarch seems to have been actuated by a +desire to be honoured as the patron of science, nearly as strong as +the desire to be known to posterity as the conquerer of the world: +the facilities he afforded to Aristotle in drawing up his natural +history, by sending him all the uncommon animals with which his +travels and his conquests supplied him, is a striking proof of this. +With respect to his endeavours to extend geographical +knowledge,--this was so intimately connected with his plans of +conquest, that it may appear to be ascribing to him a more honourable +motive than influenced him, if we consider the improvement that +geography received through his means as wholly unconnected with his +character as a conquerer: that it was so, in some measure, however is +certain; for along with him he took several geographers, who were +directed and enabled to make observations both on the coasts and the +interior of the countries through which they passed; and from their +observations and discoveries, a new and improved geography of Asia +was framed. Besides, the books that till his time were shut up in the +archives of Babylon and Tyre were transferred to Alexandria; and thus +the astronomical and hydrographical observations of the Phoenicians +and Chaldeans, becoming accessible to the Greek philosophers, +supplied them with the means of founding their geographical knowledge +on the sure basis of mathematical science, of which it had hitherto +been destitute.</p> + +<p>The grand maxim of Alexander in his conquests was, to regard them +as permanent, and as annexing to his empire provinces which were to +form as essential parts of it as Macedonia itself. Influenced by this +consideration and design, he did not lay waste the countries he +conquered, as had been done in the invasions of Persia, by Cimon the +Athenian and the Lacedemonians: on the contrary, the people, and +their religion, manners, and laws were protected. The utmost order +and regularity were observed; and it is a striking fact, "that his +measures were taken with such prudence, that during eight years' +absence at the extremity of the East, no revolt of consequence +occurred; and his settlement of Egypt was so judicious, as to serve +as a model to the Romans in the administration of that province at +the distance of three centuries."</p> + +<p>The voyage of Nearchus from Nicea on the Hydaspes, till he arrived +in the vicinity of Susa (which we shall afterwards more particularly +describe); the projected voyage, the object of which was to attempt +the circumnavigation of Arabia; the survey of the western side of the +Gulf of Persia, by Archias, Androsthenes, and Hiero, of which +unfortunately we do not possess the details; the projected +establishment of a direct commercial intercourse between India and +Alexandria; and the foundation of this city, which gave a new turn +and a strong impulse to commerce, as will be more particularly shown +afterwards;--are but a few of the benefits geography and commerce +received from Alexander, or would have received, had not his plans +been frustrated by his sudden and early death at the age of 33.</p> + +<p>We have the direct testimony of Patrocles, that Alexander was not +content with vague and general information, nor relied on the +testimony of others where he could observe and judge for himself; and +in all cases in which he derived his information from others, he was +particularly careful to select those who knew the country best, and +to make them commit their intelligence to writing. By these means, +united to the reports of those whom he employed to survey his +conquests, "all the native commodities which to this day form the +staple of the East Indian commerce, were fully known to the +Macedonians." The principal castes in India, the principles of the +Bramins, the devotion of widows to the flames, the description of the +banyan-tree, and a great variety of other particulars, sufficiently +prove that the Macedonians were actuated by a thirst after knowledge, +as well as a spirit of conquest; and illustrate as well as justify +the observation made to Alexander by the Bramin mandarin, "You are +the only man whom I ever found curious in the investigation of +philosophy at the head of an army."</p> + +<p>When Alexander invaded India, he found commerce flourishing +greatly in many parts of it, particularly in what are supposed to be +the present Multan, Attock, and the Panjob. He every where took +advantage of this commerce, not by plundering and thus destroying it +for the purpose of filling his coffers, but by nourishing and +increasing it, and thus at once benefitting himself and the +inhabitants who wore engaged in it. By means of the commerce in which +the natives of the Panjob were engaged on the Indus, Alexander +procured the fleet with which he sailed down that river. This fleet +is supposed to have consisted of eight hundred vessels, only thirty +of which were ships of war, the remainder being such as were usually +employed in the commerce of the Indus. Even before he reached this +river, he had built vessels which he had sent down the Kophenes to +Taxila. By the completion of his campaign at the sources of the +Indus, and by his march and voyage down the course of that river, he +had traced and defined the eastern boundary of his conquests: the +line of his march from the Hellespont till the final defeat of +Darius, and his pursuit of that monarch, had put him in possession of +tolerably accurate knowledge of the northern and western boundaries; +the southern provinces alone remained to be explored: they had indeed +submitted to his arms; but they were still, for all the purposes of +government and commerce, unknown.</p> + +<p>"To obtain the information necessary for the objects they had in +view, he ordered Craterus, with the elephants and heavy baggage, to +penetrate through the centre of the empire, while he personally +undertook the more arduous task of penetrating the desert of +Gadrosia, and providing for the preservation of the fleet. A glance +over the map will show that the route of the army eastward, and the +double route by which it returned, intersect the whole empire by +three lines, almost from the Tigris to the Indus: Craterus joined the +division under Alexander in the Karmania; and when Nearchus, after +the completion of his voyage, came up the Posityris to Susa, the +three routes through the different provinces, and the navigation +along the coast, might be said to complete the survey of the +empire."</p> + +<p>The two divisions of his army were accompanied on their return to +Susa by Beton and Diognetus, who seem to have united the character +and duties of soldiers and men of science; or, perhaps, were like the +quarter-masters- general of our armies. It appears from Strabo and +Pliny, in whose time the surveys drawn by Beton and Diognetus were +extant, that they reduced the provinces through which they passed, as +well as the marches of the army, to actual measurement; and thus, the +distances being accurately set down, and journals faithfully kept, +the principles of geographical science, next in importance and +utility to astronomical observations, were established. The journals +of Beton and Diognetus, the voyage of Nearchus, and the works of +Ptolemy, afterwards king of Egypt, and Aristobulus, who accompanied +Alexander in his expedition and wrote his life, all prove that the +authority or the example of the sovereign influenced the pursuits of +his officers and attendants; and it is highly to the credit of their +diligence and accuracy, that every increase of geographical knowledge +tends to confirm what they relate respecting the general appearance +and features of the countries they traversed, as well as the position +of cities, rivers, and mountains.</p> + +<p>Alexander appears to have projected or anticipated an intercourse +between India and the western provinces of his dominions in Egypt, +not only by land but by sea: for this latter purpose he founded two +cities on the Hydaspes and one on the Axesimes, both navigable +rivers, which fall into the Indus. And this also, most probably, was +one reason for his careful survey of the navigation of the Indus +itself. When he returned to Susa, he surveyed the course of the +Tigris and Euphrates. The navigation near the mouths of those rivers +was obstructed by cataracts, occasioned by walls built across them by +the ancient monarchs of Persia, in order to prevent their subjects +from defiling themselves by sailing on the ocean[4]: these +obstructions he gave directions to be removed. Had he lived, +therefore, the commodites of India would have been conveyed from the +Persian Gulf into the interior provinces of his Asiatic dominions, +and to Alexandria by the Arabian Gulf.</p> + +<blockquote>[4] The object of these dykes is supposed by Niebuhr to +have been very different: be observes that they were constructed for +the purpose of keeping up the waters to inundate the contiguous +level: he found these dykes both in the Euphrates and Tigris. And +Tavernier mentions one, 120 feet high, in the fall between Mosul and +the great Zab.</blockquote> + +<p>To conclude in the words of Dr. Vincent: "The Macedonians obtained +a knowledge both of the Indus and the Ganges: they heard that the +seat of empire was, where it always has been, on the Ganges or Indus: +they acquired intelligence of all the grand and leading features of +Indian manners, policy, and religion [and he might have added, +accurate information respecting the geography of the western parts of +that country]: they discovered all this by penetrating through +countries, where, possibly, no Greek had previously set his foot; and +they explored the passage by sea which first opened the commercial +intercourse with India to the Greeks and Romans, through the medium +of Egypt and the Red Sea, and finally to the Europeans, by the Cape +of Good Hope." When we reflect on the character and state of the +Macedonians, prior to the reign of Alexander, and the condition into +which they sunk after his death, we shall, perhaps, not hesitate to +acknowledge that Alexander infused his own soul into them; and that +history, ancient or modern, does not exhibit any similiar instance of +such powerful individual influence on the character and fate of a +nation. Alexander himself has always been honoured by conquerors, and +is known to mankind only, as the first of conquerors; but if military +renown and achievements had not, unfortunately for mankind, been more +prized than they deserved, and, on this account, the records of them +been carefully preserved, while the records of peaceful transactions +were neglected and lost, we should probably have received the full +details of all that Alexander did for geographical science and +commerce; and in that case his character would have been as highly +prized by the philosopher and the friend of humanity, civilization, +and knowledge, as it is by the powerful and ambitious.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the details of one of the geographical and commercial +expeditions undertaken by order of Alexander are still extant; we +allude to the voyage of Nearchus. Of this voyage we are now to speak; +and as it is curious and important, not merely on account of the +geographical knowledge it conveys, but also from the insight it gives +us into the commercial transactions of the countries which he +visited, we shall give rather a full abstract of it, availing +ourselves of the light which has been thrown upon it by the learned +and judicious researches of Dr. Vincent.</p> + +<p>It was on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Beyah, that +Alexander's army mutinied, and refused to proceed any farther +eastward. In consequence of this insurmountable obstacle to his +plans, he resolved to return to the Hydaspes, and carry into +execution his design of sailing down it into the Indus, and thence by +the ocean to the Persian Gulf. He had previously given orders to his +officers, when he had left the Hydaspes to collect, build, and equip +a sufficient number of vessels for this enterprise; and they had been +so diligent and successful, that on his return he found a numerous +fleet assembled. Nearchus was appointed to command the fleet: but +Alexander himself resolved to accompany it to the mouth of the +river.</p> + +<p>On the 23d of October, 327 years before Christ, the fleet sailed +from Nicoea, on the Hydaspes, a city built by Alexander on the scite +of the battle in which he defeated Porus. The importance which he +attached to this expedition, as well as his anxiety respecting its +skilful conduct and final issue, are strongly painted by Arrian, to +whom we are indebted for the journal of Nearchus. Alexander at first +did not know whom to trust with the management of the expedition, or +who would undertake it. when the length of the voyage, the +difficulties and dangers of a barren and unknown coast, the want of +harbours, and the obstacles in the way of obtaining provisions, were +considered. In this state of anxiety, doubt, and expectation, +Alexander ordered Nearchus to attend him, and consulted him on the +choice of a commander. "One," said he, "excuses himself, because he +thinks the danger insuperable; others are unfit for the service from +timidity; others think of nothing but how to get home; and many I +cannot approve for a variety of other reasons." "Upon hearing this," +says Nearchus, "I offered myself for the command: and promised the +king, that under the protection of God, I would conduct the fleet +safe into the Gulf of Persia, if the sea were navigable, and the +undertaking within the power of man to perform." The only objection +that Alexander made arose from his regard for Nearchus, whom he was +unwilling to expose to the dangers of such a voyage; but Nearchus +persisting, and the king being convinced that the enterprise, if +practicable, would be achieved by the skill, courage, and +perseverance of Nearchus, at length yielded. The character of the +commander, and the regard his sovereign entertained for him, removed +in a great degree the apprehension that the proposed expedition was +desperate: a selection of the best officers and most effective men +was now soon made; and the fleet was not only supplied with every +thing that was necessary, but equipped in a most splendid manner. +Onesicritus was appointed pilot and master of Alexander's own ship; +and Evagoras was secretary of the fleet. The officers, including +these and Nearchus, amounted to 33; but nearly the whole of them, as +well as the ships which they commanded, proceeded no farther than the +mouth of the Indus. The seamen were natives of Greece, or the Grecian +Islands, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cyprians, Ionians, &c. The fleet +consisted of 800 ships of war and transports, and about 1200 gallies. +On board of these, one-third of the army, which consisted of 120,000 +men, embarked; the remainder, marching in two divisions, one on the +left, the other on the right of the river.</p> + +<p>"The voyage down the river is described rather as a triumphal +procession, than a military progress. The size of the vessels, the +conveyance of horses aboard, the number, and splendour of the +equipment, attracted the natives to be spectators of the pomp. The +sound of instruments, the clang of arms, the commands of the +officers, the measured song of the modulators, the responses of the +mariners, the dashing of the oars, and these sounds frequently +reverberated from overhanging shores, are all scenery presented to +our imagination by the historians, and evidently bespeak the language +of those who shared with pride in this scene of triumph and +magnificence."</p> + +<p>No danger occurred to alarm them or impede their passage, till +they arrived at the junction of the Hydaspes with the Akesines. At +this place, the channel of the river became contracted, though the +bulk of water was of course greatly increased; and from this +circumstance, and the rapidity with which the two rivers unite, there +is a considerable current, as well as strong eddies; and the noise of +the rushing and confined waters, is heard at some distance. This +noise astonished or alarmed the seamen so much, that the rowers +ceased to row, and the modulators to direct and encourage them by +their chant, till the commanders inspired them with confidence; and +they plied the oars with their utmost strength in order to stem the +current, and keep the vessels as steady and free from danger as +possible. The eddy, however, caught the gallies, which from their +length were more exposed to it than the ships of war: two of them +sank, many more were damaged, while Alexander's own ship was +fortunate enough to find shelter near a projecting point of land. At +the junction of the Akesines with the Indus, Alexander founded a +city; of which, however, no traces at present remain.</p> + +<p>On the arrival of Alexander at Pattala, near the head of the Delta +of the Indus, he seems to have projected the formation of a +commercial city; and for this purpose, ordered the adjoining country +to be surveyed: his next object was to sail down the western branch +of the river. With this view he left Pattala with all his gallies, +some of his half-decked vessels, and his quickest sailing transports, +ordering at the same time a small part of his army to attend his +fleet. Considerable difficulties arose, and some loss was sustained +from his not being able to procure a native pilot, and from the swell +in the river, occasioned by a violent wind blowing contrary to the +stream. He was at length compelled to seize some of the natives, and +make them act as pilots. When they arrived near the confluence of the +Indus with the sea, another storm arose; and as this also blew up the +river, while they were sailing down with the current and the tide, +there was considerable agitation in the water. The Macedonians were +alarmed, and by the advice of their pilots ran into one of the creeks +of the river for shelter: at low tide, the vessels being left +aground, the sharp-built gallies were much injured.</p> + +<p>The astonishment of the Macedonians was greatly excited when they +saw the waters of the river and of the sea ebb and flow. It is well +known, that in the Mediterranean the tides are scarcely perceptible. +The flux and reflux of the Euripus, a narrow strait which separates +the island of Euboea from the coast of Beotia, could give them no +idea of the regularity of the tides; for this flux and reflux +continued for eighteen or nineteen days, and was uncommonly unsettled +the rest of the month. Besides, the tides at the mouth of the Indus, +and on the adjacent coast, are very high, and flow in with very great +force and rapidity; and are known in India, in the Bay of Fundy, and +in most other places where this phenomenon occurs, by the name of the +Bore; and at the mouth of the Severn, by the name of Hygre, or Eagre. +Herodotus indeed, mentions, that in the Red Sea there was a regular +ebb and flow of the sea every day; but as Dr. Robertson very justly +observes, "among the ancients there occur instances of inattention to +facts, related by respectable authors, which appear surprising in +modern times." Even so late as the time of Caesar, a spring tide in +Britain, which occasioned great damage to his fleet, created great +surprize, and is mentioned as a phenomenon with which he and his +soldiers were unacquainted.</p> + +<p>Soon after Alexander had repaired the damage that his fleet had +sustained, he surveyed two islands lying at the west mouth of the +Indus; and afterwards leaving the river entirely, entered the ocean, +either for the purpose of ascertaining himself whether it were +actually navigable, or, as Arrian conjectures, in order to gratify +his vanity by having it recorded, that he had navigated the Indian +Ocean.</p> + +<p>Having accomplished this object, he returned to Pattala, where he +had directed a naval arsenal to be formed, intending to station a +fleet at this place. The eastern branch of the Indus was yet +unexplored. In order, that an accurate knowledge of it might be +gained, Alexander resolved to explore it himself: accordingly, he +sailed from Pattala till he arrived at a large bay or lake, which +probably, however, was only a number of the smaller branches of the +Indus, overflowing their banks. The passage from this place to the +ocean, he ascertained to be more open and convenient than that by the +western branch. He does not seem, however, to have advanced into the +ocean by it; but having landed, and proceeded along the coast, in the +direction of Guzerat and Malabar, three days' march, making +observations on the country, and directing wells to be sunk, he +re-embarked, and returned to the head of the bay. Here he again +manifested his design of establishing a permanent station, by +ordering a fort to be built, a naval yard and docks to be formed, and +leaving a garrison and provisions for four months.</p> + +<p>Before the final departure of Alexander with his convoy from +Pattala, he directed Nearchus to assume the entire command of the +fleet, and to sail as soon as the season would permit. Twelve months, +within a few days, elapsed between the departure of the fleet from +Nicaea, and the sailing of Nearchus from the Indus; the former having +taken place, as we have already observed, on the 23d of October, in +the year 327 before Christ, and the latter on the 2d of October, in +the year 326 B.C. Only about nine months, however, had elapsed in the +actual navigation of the Indus and its tributary streams; and even +this period, which to us appears very long, was considerably extended +by the operations of the army of Alexander, as well as by the slow +sailing of such a large fleet as he conducted.</p> + +<p>In consequence, it is supposed, of the prevalence of the +north-east monsoon, Nearchus, after having reached the ocean (which, +however, he could not effect till he had cut a passage for his fleet +through a sand bank or bar at the mouth of the Indus), was obliged to +lie in a harbour which he called Port Alexander, and near which he +erected a fort on the 3d of November; about which time we know that +the monsoon changes. Nearchus again set sail. About the 8th of this +month he reached the river Arabis, having coasted along among rocks +and islands, the passage between which was narrow and difficult. The +distance between this river and the Indus is nearly eighty miles, and +the fleet had occupied almost forty days in completing the navigation +of this space. During the greater part of this time, they were very +scantily supplied with provisions, and seem, indeed, to have depended +principally on the shell-fish found on the coast. Soon after leaving +the mouth of the Arabis, they were obliged, by the nature of the +shore and the violence of the wind, to remain on board their ships +for two nights; a very unusual as well as inconvenient and +uncomfortable circumstance for the ancients. We have already +described their ships as either having no deck, or only a kind of +half-deck, below which the cables were coiled. Under this deck there +might be accommodation for part of the crew; but in cases where all +were obliged to remain on board at night, the confinement must have +been extremely irksome, as well as prejudicial to their health. At +the end of these two days, they were enabled to land and refresh +themselves; and here they were joined by Leonatus, one of Alexander's +generals, who had been despatched with some troops to watch and +protect their movements, as far on their course as was practicable. +He brought a supply of provisions, which had become very necessary. +On leaving this place, their progress became much more rapid than it +had been before, owing probably to the wind having become more +regularly and permanently favourable.</p> + +<p>As it is our intention, in giving this short abstract of the +voyage of Nearchus, to select only such particulars as illustrate the +mode of navigation practised among the ancients--the progress of +discovery, or the state of commerce,--we shall pass over every topic +or fact not connected with these. We cannot, however, refrain from +giving an account of the transactions of the fleet at the river +Tomerus, when it arrived on the 21st of November, fifty days after it +left the Indus; as on reading it, our readers will be immediately +struck with the truth of Dr. Vincent's observation, that it bears a +very strong resemblance to the landing of a party from the Endeavour, +in New Zealand, under protection of the ship's guns. We make use of +Dr. Vincent's translation, or rather abstract:--</p> + +<p>"At the Tomerus the inhabitants were found living on the low +ground near the sea, in cabins which seemed calculated rather to +suffocate their inhabitants than to protect them from the weather; +and yet these wretched people were not without courage. Upon sight of +the fleet approaching, they collected in arms on the shore, and drew +up in order to attack the strangers on their landing. Their arms were +spears, not headed with iron, but hardened in the fire, nine feet +long; and their number about 600. Nearchus ordered his vessels to lay +their heads towards the shore, within the distance of bow-shot; for +the enemy had no missile weapons but their spears. He likewise +brought his engines to bear upon them, (for such it appears he had on +board,) and then directed his light-armed troops, with those who were +the most active and the best swimmers, to be ready for commencing the +attack. On a signal given, they were to plunge into the sea: the +first man who touched ground was to be the point at which the line +was to be formed, and was not to advance till joined by the others, +and the file could be ranged three deep. These orders were exactly +obeyed; the men threw themselves out of the ships, swam forward, and +formed themselves in the water, under cover of the engines. As soon +as they were in order, they advanced upon the enemy with a shout, +which was repeated from the ships. Little opposition was experienced; +for the natives, struck with the novelty of the attack, and the +glittering of the armour, fled without resistance. Some escaped to +the mountains, a few were killed, and a considerable number made +prisoners. They were a savage race, shaggy on the body as well as the +head, and with nails so long and of such strength, that they served +them as instruments to divide their food, (which consisted, indeed, +almost wholly of fish,) and to separate even wood of the softer kind. +Whether this circumstance originated from design, or want of +implements to pare their nails, did not appear; but if there was +occasion, to divide harder substances, they substituted stones +sharpened, instead of iron, for iron they had none. Their dress +consisted of the skins of beasts, and some of the larger kinds of +fish."</p> + +<p>Along the coast of the Icthyophagi, extending from Malan to Cape +Jaser, a distance, by the course of the fleet, of nearly 625 miles, +Nearchus was so much favoured by the winds and by the straightness of +the coast, that his progress was sometimes nearly 60 miles a day. In +every other respect, however, this portion of the voyage was very +unfortunate and calamitous. Alexander, aware that on this coast, +which furnished nothing but fish, his fleet would be in distress for +provisions, and that this distress would be greatly augmented by the +scarcity of water which also prevailed here, had endeavoured to +advance into this desolate tract, to survey the harbours, sink wells, +and collect provisions. But the nature of the country rendered this +impracticable; and his army became so straightened for corn +themselves, that a supply of it, which he intended for the fleet, and +on which he had affixed his own seal, was seized by the men whom he +had ordered to protect and escort it to the coast. At last he was +obliged to give up all attempts of relieving Nearchus; and after +struggling 60 days with want of water,--during which period, if he +himself had not, at the head of a few horse, pushed on to the coast, +and there obtained a supply, by opening the sands, his whole army +must have perished,--he with great difficulty reached the capital of +this desert country. Nearchus, thus left to himself, was indebted to +the natives for the means of discovering water, by opening the sands, +as the king had done; but to the Greeks, who regarded the want of +bread as famine, even when its place was supplied by meat, the fish +the natives offered them was no relief.</p> + +<p>We have already remarked, that the real character of Alexander +will be much elevated in the opinion of men of humanity and +philosophers, if the particulars we possess of his endeavours to +improve the condition of those he conquered, and to advance the +interests of science, scanty and imperfect as they are, were more +attentively considered, and had not been neglected and overlooked in +the glare of his military achievements. His march through the deserts +of Gadrosia has been ascribed solely to vanity; but this imputation +will be removed, and must give way to a more worthy impression of his +motives on this occasion, when it is stated, that it was part of the +great design which he had formed of opening a communication between +his European dominions and India by sea; and that as the +accomplishment of this design mainly depended on the success of the +expedition committed to Nearchus, it was a paramount object with him +to assist the fleet, which he thrice attempted, even in the midst of +his own distress in the deserts.</p> + +<p>On their arrival at the river Kalama, which is supposed to be the +Churmut, 60 days after their departure from the Indus, they at length +obtained from the natives some sheep; but the flesh of it, as well as +the fowls which they obtained, had a very fishy taste--the sheep, +fowls, and inhabitants, all feeding on fish, there being no herbage +or trees of any kind, except a few palm-trees. On the next day, +having doubled a cape, they anchored in a harbour called Mosarna, +where they found a pilot, who undertook to conduct the fleet to the +Gulf of Persia. It would appear from Arrian, that the intercourse +between this place and the Gulf was frequent, the voyage less +dangerous, and the harbours on the coast better known. Owing to these +favourable circumstances, the skill of the pilot, and the breeze +which blew from the land during the night, their course was more +rapid; and they sailed by night as well as day. The coast, however, +still continued barren, and the inhabitants unable to supply them +with any thing but fish till they arrived at Barna on the 64th day: +here the inhabitants were more civilized; they had gardens producing +fruit-trees, flowers, myrtle, &c., with which the Greek sailors +formed garlands to adorn their hair.</p> + +<p>On the 69th day, December 9., they arrived at a small town, the +name of which is not given; nor is it possible to fix its scite. What +occurred here we shall give in the words of Dr. Vincent:--</p> + +<p>"When the fleet reached this place, it was totally without bread +or grain of any kind; and Nearchus, from the appearance of stubble in +the neighbourhood, conceived hopes of a supply, if he could find +means of obtaining it; but he perceived that he could not take the +place by assault, and a siege the situation he was in rendered +impracticable. He concerted matters, therefore, with Archias, and +ordered him to make a feint of preparing the fleet to sail; while he +himself, with a single vessel, pretending to be left behind, +approached the town in a friendly manner, and was received hospitably +by the inhabitants. They came out to receive him upon his landing, +and presented him with baked fish, (the first instance of cookery he +had yet seen on the coast,) accompanied with cakes and dates. These +he accepted with proper acknowledgments, and informed them he wished +for permission to see the town: this request was granted without +suspicion; but no sooner had he entered, than he ordered two of his +archers to take post at the gate, and then mounting the wall +contiguous, with two more and his interpreter, he made the signal for +Archias, who was now under weigh to advance. The natives instantly +ran to their arms; but Nearchus having taken an advantageous +position, made a momentary defence till Archias was close at the +gate, ordering his interpreter to proclaim at the same time, that if +they wished their city to be preserved from pillage, they must +deliver up their corn, and all the provisions which the place +afforded. These terms were not rejected, for the gate was open, and +Archias ready to enter: he took charge of this post immediately with +the force which attended him; and Nearchus sent proper officers to +examine such stores as were in the place, promising the inhabitants +that, if they acted ingenuously, they should suffer no other injury. +Their stores were immediately produced, consisting of a kind of meal, +or paste made of fish, in great plenty, with a small quantity of +wheat and barley. This, however insufficient for his wants, Nearchus +received: and abstaining from farther oppression, returned on board +with his supply."</p> + +<p>The provisions he obtained here, notwithstanding the consumption +of them was protracted by occasionally landing and cutting off the +tender shoots of the head of the wild palm-tree, were so completely +exhausted in the course of a few days, that Nearchus was obliged to +prevent his men from landing, under the apprehension, that though the +coast was barren, their distress on board would have induced them not +to return. At length, on the 14th of December, on the seventy-fourth +day of their departure, they reached a more fertile and hospitable +shore, and were enabled to procure a very small supply of provisions, +consisting principally of corn, dried dates, and the flesh of seven +camels. Nearchus mentions the latter evidently to point out the +extreme distress to which they were reduced. As it is evident that +this supply would be soon exhausted, we are not surprised that +Nearchus, in order to reach a better cultivated district, should urge +on his course as rapidly as possible; and accordingly we find, that +he sailed at a greater rate in this part of his voyage than he ever +had done before. Having sailed day and night without intermission, in +which time he passed a distance of nearly sixty-nine miles, he at +length doubled the cape, which formed the boundary of the barren +coast of the Icthyophagi, and arrived in the district of Karmania. At +Badis, the first town in this district, which they reached on the +17th of December, after a voyage of 77 days, they were supplied with +corn, wine, and every kind of fruit, except olives, the inhabitants +being not only able but willing to relieve their wants.</p> + +<p>The length of the coast of the Icthyophagi is about 462 miles; +and, as Nearchus was twenty-one days on this coast, the average rate +of sailing must have been twenty-one miles a day. The whole distance, +from the Indus to the cape which formed the boundary of Karmania, is +about 625 miles: this distance Nearchus was above seventy days in +sailing. It must be recollected, however, that when he first set out +the monsoon was adverse, and that for twenty-four days he lay in +harbour: making the proper deductions for these circumstances, he was +not at sea more than forty days with a favourable wind; which gives +rather more than fifteen miles a day. The Houghton East Indiaman made +the same run in thirteen days; and, on her return, was only five days +from Gomeroon to Scindy Bay.</p> + +<p>The manners of the wretched inhabitants have occasionally been +already noticed; but Nearchus dwells upon some further particulars, +which, from their conformity with modern information, are worthy of +remark. Their ordinary support is fish, as the name of Icthyophagi, +or fish-eaters, implies; but why they are for this reason specified +as a separate tribe from the Gadrosians, who live inland, does not +appear. Ptolomy considers all this coast as Karmania, quite to +Mosarna; and whether Gadrosia is a part of that province, or a +province itself, is a matter of no importance; but the coast must +have received the name Nearchus gives it from Nearchus himself; for +it is Greek, and he is the first Greek who explored it. It may, +perhaps, be a translation of a native name, and such translations the +Greeks indulged in sometimes to the prejudice of geography. "But +these people, though they live on fish, are few of them fishermen, +for their barks are few, and those few very mean and unfit for the +service. The fish they obtain they owe to the flux and reflux of the +tide, for they extend a net upon the shore, supported by stakes of +more than 200 yards in length, within which, at the tide of ebb, the +fish are confined, and settle in the pits or in equalities of the +sand, either made for this purpose or accidental. The greater +quantity consists of small fish; but many large ones are also caught, +which they search for in the pits, and extract with nets. Their nets +are composed of the bark or fibres of the palm, which they twine into +a cord, and form like the nets of other countries. The fish is +generally eaten raw, just as it is taken out of the water, at least +such as are small and penetrable; but the larger sort, and those of +more solid texture, they expose to the sun, and pound them to a paste +for store: this they use instead of meal or bread, or form them into +a sort of cakes or frumenty. The very cattle live on dried fish, for +there is neither grass nor pasture on the coast. Oysters, crabs, and +shell-fish, are caught in plenty; and though this circumstance is +specified twice only in the early part of the voyage, there is little +doubt but these formed the principal support of the people during +their navigation. Salt is here the production of nature, by which we +are to understand, that the power of the sun in this latitude, is +sufficient for exhalation and crystallization, without the additional +aid of fire; and from this salt they formed an extract which they +used as the Greeks use oil. The country, for the most part, is so +desolate, that the natives have no addition to their fish but dates: +in some few places a small quantity of grain is sown; and there bread +is their viand of luxury, and fish stands in the rank of bread. The +generality of the people live in cabins, small and stifling: the +better sort only have houses constructed with the bones of whales, +for whales are frequently thrown upon the coast; and, when the flesh +is rotted off, they take the bones, making planks and doors of such +as are flat, and beams or rafters of the ribs or jaw-bones; and many +of these monsters are found fifty yards in length." Strabo confirms +the report of Arrian, and adds, that "the vertebræ, or socket +bones, of the back, are formed into mortars, in which they pound +their fish, and mix it up into a paste, with the addition of a little +meal."--(Vincent's Nearchus, p. 265.)</p> + +<p>Dr. Vincent, in this passage, does not seem to be aware that no +whale was ever found nearly so long as fifty yards, and that half +that length is the more common size of the largest whales, even in +seas more suitable to their nature and growth. That the animal which +Nearchus himself saw was a whale, there can be little doubt: while he +was off Kyiza, the seamen were extremely surprised, and not a little +alarmed, at perceiving the sea agitated and thrown up, as Arrian +expresses it, as if it were forcibly lifted up by a whirlwind. The +pilot informed them that it was occasioned by the whales blowing; +this information, however, does not seem to have quieted their fears: +they ceased rowing, the oars dropped from their hands, and Nearchus +found himself under the necessity of exerting all his presence of +mind and authority to recall them to their duty. He gave directions +to steer towards the place where the sea was lifted up: in their +advance the crew shouted all together, dashed the water with their +oars, and sounded their trumpets. The whales were intimidated, sunk +on the near approach of the vessels, and, though they rose again +astern, and renewed their blowing, they now excited no alarm.</p> + +<p>The Gulf of Persia, which Nearchus was now about to enter, +comprehends the coasts of Karmania, Persis, and Susiana. Nothing +important occurred till the vessels arrived off Cape Mussenden in +Karmania, where they anchored: at this place Nearchus and Onesicritus +differed in opinion relative to the further prosecution of the +voyage; the latter wished to explore this cape, and extend the voyage +to the Gulf of Arabia. The reason he assigned was, that they knew +more of this gulf, than of the Gulf of Persia; and that, as Alexander +was master of Egypt, in the former gulf they would meet with more +assistance than in the latter. Nearchus, on the contrary, insisted +that Alexander's plan in directing, this voyage should be exactly +pursued: this plan was, to obtain a knowledge of the coast, with such +harbours, bays, and islands, as might occur in the course of the +voyage; "to ascertain whether there were any towns bordering on the +ocean, and whether the country was habitable or desert." The opinion +of Nearchus prevailed, and the voyage was pursued according to its +original course and purpose.</p> + +<p>As Nearchus had reason to believe that the army of Alexander was +at no great distance, he resolved to land, form a naval camp, and to +advance himself into the interior, that he might ascertain this +point. Accordingly, on the 20th of December, the 80th day after his +departure, he formed a camp near the river Anamis; and having secured +his ships, proceeded in search of Alexander. The first intelligence +of their sovereign, however, seems to have been obtained +accidentally. The crew of Nearchus were strolling up the country, +when some of them met with a man whose dress and language instantly +discovered that he was a Greek: the joy of meeting with a countryman +was greatly heightened when he informed them that the army which he +had lately left, was encamped at no great distance, and that the +governor of the province was on the spot. As soon as Nearchus learnt +the exact situation of the army, he hastened towards it; but the +governor, eager to communicate to Alexander intelligence of his +fleet, anticipated him. Alexander was exceedingly pleased; but when +several days elapsed, and Nearchus did not arrive, he began to doubt +the truth of what the governor had told him, and at last ordered him +to be imprisoned.</p> + +<p>[Illustration]</p> + +<p>In the mean time Nearchus was prosecuting his journey along with +Archias and five or six others, when he fortunately fell in with a +party from the army, which had been sent out with horses and +carriages for his accommodation. The admiral and his attendants, from +their appearance, might have passed unnoticed. Their hair long and +neglected, their garments decayed, their countenance pale and +weather-worn, and their persons emaciated by famine and fatigue, +scarcely raised the attention of the friends they had encountered. +They were Greeks, however; and if Greeks, it was natural to inquire +after the army, and where it was now encamped. An answer was given to +their inquiry; but still they were neither recognized by the party, +nor was any question asked in return. Just as they were separating +from each other, "Assuredly," says Archias, "this must be a party +sent out for our relief, for on what other account can they be +wandering about the desert? There is nothing strange in their passing +us without notice, for our very appearance is a disguise. Let us +address them once more, and inform them who we are, and learn from +them on what service they are at present employed." Nearchus approved +of this advice, and approaching them again, inquired which way they +were directing their course. "We are in search of Nearchus and his +people," replied the officer: "And I am Nearchus," said the admiral; +"and this is Archias. Take us under your conduct, and we will +ourselves report our history to the king." They were accordingly +placed in the carriages, and conducted towards the army without +delay. While they were upon their progress, some of the horsemen, +impatient to carry the news of this happy event, set off to the camp +to inform the king, that Nearchus and Archias were arrived with five +or six of his people; but of the rest they had no intelligence. This +suggested to Alexander that perhaps these only were preserved, and +that the rest of the people had perished, either by famine or +shipwreck; nor did he feel so much pleasure in the preservation of +the few, as distress for the loss of the remainder. During this +interval, Nearchus and his attendants arrived. It was not without +difficulty that the king discovered who they were, under the disguise +of their appearance; and this circumstance contributed to confirm him +in his mistake, imagining that both their persons and their dress +bespoke ship wreck, and the destruction of the fleet. He held out his +hand, however, to Nearchus, and led him aside from his guards and +attendants without being able to utter a word. As soon as they were +alone, he burst into tears, and continued weeping for a considerable +time; till, at length recovering in some degree his +composure,--"Nearchus," says he, "I feel some satisfaction in finding +that you and Archias have escaped; but tell me where and in what +manner did my fleet and my people perish?" "Your fleet," replied +Nearchus, "are all safe,--your people are safe; and we are come to +bring you the account of their preservation." Tears, but from a +different source, now fell much faster from his eyes. "Where then are +my ships?" says he. "At the Anamis," replied Nearchus; "all safe on +shore, and preparing for the completion of their voyage." "By the +Lybian Ammon and Jupiter of Greece, I swear to you," rejoined the +king, "I am more happy at receiving this intelligence, than in being +conqueror of all Asia; for I should have considered the loss of my +fleet and the failure of this expedition, as a counterbalance to all +the glory I have acquired." Such was the reception of the admiral; +while the governor, who was the first bearer of the glad tidings, was +still in bonds: upon the sight of Nearchus, he fell at his feet, and +implored his intercession. It may be well imagined that his pardon +was as readily granted as it was asked.--(Vincent's Nearchus, p. +312.)</p> + +<p>Sacrifices, games, and a festival ensued; and when these were +ended, Alexander told Nearchus that he would expose him to no further +hazard, but despatch another to carry the fleet to Susa. "I am bound +to obey you," replied the admiral, "as my king, and I take a pleasure +in my obedience; but if you, wish to gratify me in return, suffer me +to retain my command, till I have completed the expedition. I shall +feel it as an injustice, if, after having struggled through all the +difficulties of the voyage, another shall finish the remainder almost +without an effort, and yet reap the honour of completing what I have +begun." Alexander yielded to this just request, and about the end of +the year Nearchus rejoined his fleet.</p> + +<p>By the 6th of January, B.C. 345, he reached the island of Kataia, +which forms the boundary between Karmania and Persis. The length of +the former coast is rather more than three hundred miles: the time +occupied by Nearchus in this part of his voyage was about twelve +days. He arrived at Badis, the first station in Karmania, on the 7th +of December; at Anamis on the 10th; here he remained three days. His +journey to the camp, stay there, return, and preparations for again +sailing, may have occupied fifteen days. Three hundred miles in +twelve days is at the rate of twenty-five miles a day.</p> + +<p>Hitherto the voyage of Nearchus has afforded no information +respecting the commerce of the ancients. The coasts along which he +sailed were either barren and thinly inhabited by a miserable and +ignorant people, or if more fertile and better cultivated, Nearchus' +attention and interest were too keenly occupied about the safety of +himself and his companions, to gather much information of a +commercial nature. The remainder of his voyage, however, affords a +few notices on this subject; and to these we shall attend.</p> + +<p>In the island of Schitwar, on the eastern side of the Gulf of +Persia, Nearchus found the inhabitants engaged in a pearl fishery: at +present pearls are not taken on this side of the Gulf. At the Rohilla +point a dead whale attracted their attention; it is represented as +fifty cubits long, with a hide a cubit in thickness, beset with +shell-fish, probably barnacles or limpets, and sea-weeds, and +attended by dolphins, larger than Nearchus had been accustomed to see +in the Mediterranean Sea. Their arrival at the Briganza river affords +Dr. Vincent an opportunity of conjecturing the probable draught of a +Grecian vessel of fifty oars. At ebb-tide, Arrian informs us, the +vessels were left dry; whereas at high tide they were able to +surmount the breakers and shoals. Modern travellers state that the +flood-tide rises in the upper part of the Gulf of Persia, nine or ten +feet: hence it may be conjectured that the largest vessel in the +fleet drew from six to eight feet water. The next day's sail brought +them from the Briganza to the river Arosis, the boundary river +between Persis and Susiana, the largest of the rivers which Nearchus +had met with in the Gulf of Persia. The province of Persis is +described by Nearchus as naturally divided into three parts. "That +division which lies along the side of the Gulf is sandy, parched, and +sterile, bearing little else but palm-trees." To the north and +north-east, across the range of mountains, the country improves +considerably in soil and climate; the herbage is abundant and +nutritious; the meadows well watered; and the vine and every kind of +fruit, except the olive, flourishes. This part of the province is +adorned by the parks and gardens of the kings and nobles; the rivers +flow from lakes of pure water, abounding in water-fowl of all +descriptions; horses and cattle feed on the rich pastures, while in +the woods there is abundance of animals for the chace. To this the +third division of Persis forms a striking contrast. This lies farther +north, a mountainous district, wild and rugged, inhabited by +barbarous tribes: the climate is so cold, that the tops of the +mountains are constantly covered with snow.</p> + +<p>The coast of Susiana, along which Nearchus was now about to sail, +he represents as difficult and dangerous, from the number of shoals +with which it was lined. As he was informed that it would not be easy +to procure water while he was crossing the mouths of the streams +which divide the Delta, he took in a supply for five days before he +left the Arosis. On account of the shoals which stretch a +considerable way out to sea, they could not approach the coast, and +were consequently obliged to anchor at night, and sleep on board. In +order to pass this dangerous coast with the least risk, they formed a +line by single ships, each following in order, through a channel +marked by stakes; in the same manner, Arrian remarks, as the passage +between Leukas and Akarnania in Greece, except that at Leukas there +is a firm sand, so that a ship takes no damage, if she runs ashore: +whereas in this passage there was deep mud on both sides, in which a +vessel grounding stuck fast; and if her crew endeavoured to get her +off by going overboard, they sunk above the middle in the mud. The +extent of this difficult passage was thirty-seven miles, at the end +of which Nearchus came to an anchor at a distance from the coast. +Their course next day was in deep water, which continued till they +arrived, after sailing a day and a half, at a village at the mouth of +the Euphrates: at this village there was a mart for the importation +of the incenses of Arabia. Here Nearchus learnt that Alexander was +marching to Susa; this intelligence determined him to return back, to +sail up the Pasi-Tigris, and join him near that city. At Aginis he +entered the Pasi-Tigris, but he proceeded only about nine miles to a +village which he describes as populous and flourishing; here he +determined to wait, till he received further information respecting +the exact route of the army. He soon learnt that Alexander with his +troops was at a bridge which he had constructed over the Pasi-Tigris, +at the distance of about one hundred and twenty miles: at this place +Nearchus joined him. Alexander embraced Nearchus with the warmth of a +friend; and his reception from all ranks was equally gratifying and +honourable. Whenever he appeared in the camp, he was saluted with +acclamations: sacrifices, games, and every other kind of festivity +celebrated the success of his enterprize. Nearly five months had been +occupied in performing the voyage from the mouth of the Indus--a +voyage which a modern vessel could perform in the course of three +weeks.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the junction of the fleet and army, Alexander +crossed the Pasi-Tigris, and proceeded to Susa: here he distributed +rewards and honours among his followers for their long, arduous, +faithful, and triumphant services. Those officers who had served as +guards of Alexander's person received crowns of gold; and the same +present was made to Nearchus as admiral, and to Onesicritus as +navigator of the fleet.</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned that Alexander projected the +circumnavigation of Arabia to the Red Sea, in order to complete the +communication between India and Egypt, and through Egypt with Europe. +Nearchus was selected for this enterprize; its execution, however, +was prevented by the death of Alexander. That he was extremely +anxious for its completion, is evident from the personal trouble he +took in the preparations for it, and in the necessary preliminary +measures. In order that he might himself take a view of the Gulf of +Persia, he embarked on board a division of his fleet, and sailed down +the same stream which Nearchus had sailed up. At the head of the +Delta, the vessels which had suffered most in Nearchus' voyages were +directed to proceed with the troops they had on board, through a +canal which runs into the Tigris, Alexander himself proceeding with +the lightest and best sailing vessels through the Delta to the +sea.</p> + +<p>Soon after his return to Opis, where the mutiny of his troops took +place, Alexander gave another proof of his attention to maritime +affairs; for he despatched Heraclides into Hyrcania, with orders to +cut timber and prepare a fleet for the purpose of exploring the +Caspian Sea--an attempt which, like that of the projected voyage of +Nearchus up the Arabian Gulf, was prevented by Alexander's death. In +the mean time Nearchus had been collecting the vessels that were +destined for his expedition; they were assembled at Babylon: to this +city also were brought from Phoenicia forty-seven vessels which had +been taken to pieces, and so conveyed over land to Thapsacus. Two of +these were of five banks, three of four, twelve of three, and thirty +rowed with fifteen oars on a side. Others likewise were ordered to be +built on the spot of cypress, the only wood which Babyloni afforded; +while mariners were collected from Phoenicia, and a dock was directed +to be cut capable of containing one thousand vessels, with buildings +and arsenals in proportion to the establishment. To accomplish this +extensive design, Alexander had sent one of his officers to Phoenicia +with 500 talents (about 106,830 <i>l</i>.) to buy slaves fit for the +oar, and hire mariners. These preparations were so extensive, that it +seems highly probable that Alexander meant to conquer Arabia, as well +as explore the navigation of the Arabian Gulf; and indeed his plan +and policy always were to unite conquest with discovery. As soon as +he had put these preparations in a proper train, he again embarked, +and sailed down the Euphrates as far as Pallacopas. The immediate +object of this voyage is not exactly known. As the Euphrates flows +over the adjacent country at certain seasons, the Persian monarchs +had cut a canal at Pallacopas, which diverted its superfluous waters +into a lake, where they were employed to flood the land. This and +similar canals had been long neglected; but as Alexander seems to +have fixed on Babylon as the future capital of his empire, it was +necessary to restore the canals to their original utility, in order +that the ground on both sides of the Euphrates might be drained or +flooded at the proper season. This may have been the only object of +Alexander's voyage, or it may have been connected with the projected +voyage of Nearchus. It is certain, however, that by his directions +the principal canal was much improved; indeed it was in reality cut +in a more convenient and suitable place; for the soil where it had +been originally cut was soft and spongy, so that much labour and time +were required to restore the waters to their course, and secure its +mouth in a safe and firm manner. A little lower down, the soil was +much more suitable, being strong and rocky; here then Alexander +ordered the opening of the canal to be made: he afterwards entered it +with his fleet, and surveyed the whole extent of the lake with which +it communicated. On the Arabian side of the Gulf, he ordered a city +to be built: immediately afterwards he returned to Babylon, where he +died.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, and while Nearchus was at Babylon, three vessels +were sent down the Arabian side of the Gulf, to collect such +information as might be useful to him in his projected voyage. One +was commanded by Archias, who proceeded as far as Tylos, or Bahrein, +the centre of the modern pearl fishery. A short distance from the +mouth of the Euphrates, Archias discovered two islands; on one of +which a breed of goats and sheep was preserved, which were never +killed, except for the purpose of sacrifice. The second vessel sailed +a little way round the coast of Arabia. The third, which was +commanded by Hiero of Soli, went much farther than either of the +other two, for it doubled Cape Mussendoon, sailed down the coast +below Moscat, and came in sight of Cape Ras-el-hed: this cape he was +afraid to double. On his return he reported that Arabia was much more +extensive than had been imagined. None of these vessels proceeded so +far as to be of much service to Nearchus, or to carry into effect the +grand object of Alexander: for his instructions to Hiero in +particular were, to circumnavigate Arabia; to go up the Red Sea; and +reach the Bay of Hieropolis, on the coast of Egypt. All these vessels +were small, having only fifty oars, and therefore not well calculated +for such a long and hazardous navigation.</p> + +<p>At the time when Alexander was seized with the illness which +occasioned his death, Nearchus was ready to sail, and he himself, +with the army, was to accompany him as far as was practicable, in the +same manner as he had done from the Indus to the Tigris: two days +before the fever commenced, he gave a grand entertainment to Nearchus +and his officers.</p> + +<p>Only a very few circumstances regarding Nearchus are known after +the death of Alexander: he was made governor of Lycia and Pamphylia, +and seems to have attached himself to the fortunes of Antigonus. +Along with him, he crossed the mountains of Loristan, when he marched +out of Susiana, after his combat with Eumenes. In this retreat he +commanded the light-armed troops, and was ordered in advance, to +drive the Cosseams from their passes in the mountains. When Antigonus +deemed it necessary to march into Lesser Asia, to oppose the progress +of Cassander, he left his son Demetrius, with part of his army, in +Syria; and as that prince was not above 22 years old, he appointed +him several advisers, of whom Nearchus was one. It is by no means +improbable that the instructions or the advice of Nearchus may have +induced Demetrius to survey with great care the lake of Asphaltes, +and to form a computation of the profit of the bitumen which it +afforded, and of the balm which grew in the adjacent country, and may +have contributed to his love for and skill in ship-building; for +after he was declared king of Macedonia, he built a fleet of five +hundred gallies, several of which had fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen +benches of oars. We are informed that they were all built by the +particular contrivance of Demetrius himself, and that the ablest +artizans, without his directions, were unable to construct such +vessels, which united the pomp and splendour of royal ships to the +strength and conveniences of ordinary ships of war. The period and +circumstances of the death of Nearchus are not known. Dr. Vincent +supposes that he may have lost his life at the battle of Ipsus, where +Antigonus fell: or, after the battle, by command of the four kings +who obtained the victory. Previous to his grand expedition, it +appears that he was a native of Crete, and enrolled a citizen of +Amphipolis, it is supposed, at the time when Philip intended to form +there a mart for his conquests in Thrace. He soon afterwards came to +the court of Philip, by whom he and some others were banished, +because he thought them too much attached to the interests of +Alexander in the family dissensions which arose on the secession of +Olympias, and some secret transactions of Alexander in regard to a +marriage with a daughter of a satrap of Caria. On the death of +Philip, Nearchus was recalled, and rewarded for his sufferings by the +favour of his sovereign.</p> + +<p><a name="ch03" id="ch03"></a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCIAL +ENTERPRIZE, FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, TO THE TIME OF +PTOLEMY THE GEOGRAPHER, A.D. 150.--WITH A DIGRESSION ON THE INLAND +TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND THE SHORES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN, THROUGH +ARABIA, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES.</b></p> + +<p>For several centuries after the death of Alexander, the impulse +and direction of discovery and commercial enterprize continued +towards the countries of the East. Of his successors, Seleucus +Nicanor and some of the Ptolemies of Egypt prosecuted his plans of +commerce with this part of the world with the most zeal and success. +Seleucus, after the death of Alexander, obtained possession of those +provinces of his empire which were comprized under the name of Upper +Asia; he, therefore, naturally regarded the conquered districts of +India as belonging to him. In order to secure these, and at the same +time to derive from them all the political and commercial advantages +which they were capable of bestowing, he marched into India; and it +is supposed that he carried his arms into districts that had not been +visited by Alexander. The route assigned to his march is obscurely +given; but it seems to point out the country from the Hyphasis to the +Hysudrus, from thence to Palibothra, at the junction of the Saone and +the Ganges, or, perhaps, where Patna now stands. There is no good +reason to believe, with some authors, that he reached the mouth of +the Ganges. Seleucus was stopt in his progress by the intelligence +that Antigonus was about to invade his dominions; but before he +retraced his steps towards the Euphrates, he formed a treaty with the +Indian king Sandracottus, who resided at Palibothra: and afterwards +sent Megasthenes, who had some knowledge of the country, from having +accompanied Alexander, as his ambassador to him. In this city, +Megasthenes resided several years, and on his return he published an +account of that part of India; fragments of this account are given by +Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Arrian; and though it contains many +false and fabulous stories, yet these are intermixed with much that +is valuable and correct. He gives a faithful picture of the Indian +character and manners; and his account of the geography and +dimensions of India is curious and accurate. Some further insight +into these countries was derived from the embassy of Daimachus, to +the son and successor of Sandracottus; this terminated the connection +of the Syrian monarchs with India which was probably wrested from +them soon after the death of Seleucus. At the time when this monarch +was assassinated, Pliny informs us, that he entertained a design of +joining the Euxine and Caspian seas, by means of a canal; he was +undoubtedly the most sagacious of the Syrian kings, and the only one +who imitated Alexander in endeavouring to unite conquest with +commerce.</p> + +<p>But it is to the Egyptian successors of Alexander that we must +look for the systematic extension of commerce; towards which they +were in a manner impelled by the highly favourable situation of +Alexandria. It has justly been observed by Harris, in his Collection +of Voyages, that most of the cities founded by the Syrian kings +existed little longer than their founders; and, perhaps, with the +exception of Antioch, on the Orontes, and Seleucia, on the Tigris, +none of them, from the situation in which they were built, and the +countries by which they were surrounded, could under any +circumstances be of long duration. With respect to the cities founded +by Alexander it was quite otherwise. The Alexandria of Paropamisus +may still be traced in Candahar; and the Alexandria on the Iaxartes, +in Cogend: and the Alexandria of Egypt, after surviving the +revolutions of empires for eighteen ages, perished at last, (as a +commercial city,) only in consequence of a discovery which changed +the whole system of commerce through the world.</p> + +<p>On the destruction of Tyre, Alexander sought for a situation on +which he might build a city that would rival it in the extent of its +commerce; and he quickly perceived the advantages that would be +derived from the seat of commerce being established near one of the +branches of the Nile. By means of this river his projected city would +command at once the commerce of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. It +was, however, necessary to select a spot near the mouths of the Nile, +which would secure these advantages in the highest degree, and which +would at the same time be of the highest importance in a military +point of view, and afford a harbour constantly accessible. The site +of Alexandria combined all these advantages: on three sides it has +the sea, or the lake Mareotis, which, according to Strabo, was nearly +300 stadia long, and 150 broad; the country adjoining this lake was +fertile, and by means of it, and natural or artificial channels, +there was a communication with the Delta and Upper Egypt. Between +this lake and the Canopic branch of the Nile, Alexander built his +city: to less sagacious minds this site would have appeared improper +and injudicious in some respects; for the sea-coast from Pelusium to +Canopus is low land, not visible at a distance; the navigation along +this coast, and the approach to it, is dangerous, and the entrance +into the mouths of the Nile, at some seasons, is extremely hazardous. +But these disadvantages the genius of Alexander turned to the benefit +of his city, by the erection of the Pharos, and the plan of a double +harbour, which was afterwards completed by the Ptolemies; for he thus +united in a single spot the means of defence and facility of +access.</p> + +<p>Denocrates, a Macedonian architect, who proposed to Alexander to +cut Mount Athos in the form of a statue holding a city in one hand, +and in the other a bason, into which all the waters of the mountain +should empty themselves, was employed by that monarch to build and +beautify Alexandria. Its site was on a deep and secure bay, formed by +the shore on the one side, and the island of Pharos on the other; in +this bay numerous fleets might lie in perfect safety, protected from +the winds and waves. The form in which the city was built was that of +a Macedonian chlamys, or cloak; the two ports, one of which only was +built by Alexander, though both (as has been already observed) were +projected by him, were formed and divided from each other by a moat a +mile long, which stretched from the isle of Pharos to the continent: +that harbour which lay to the north was called the Great Harbour, and +the other, to the west, was called Eunostus, or the Safe Return. In +order to secure the vessels from the storms of the Mediterranean, +even more effectually than they could be by the natural advantages of +these harbours, the piers on each side were bent like a bar, so that +only a small space was left for the entrance of vessels.</p> + +<p>The successors of Alexander in the Egyptian empire followed his +example, in nourishing commerce and improving Alexandria. Ptolemy, +the son of Lagus, as soon as he took possession of Egypt, established +the seat of government there, and succeeded, partly by harsh and +despotic measures, and partly by offering great advantages, and by +his just and humane character, to draw thither a great number of +inhabitants. He began, and his son completed, the famous watch-tower +in the island of Pharos; the causeway which united it to the main +land, already mentioned, was built by Dexiphanes. Sostratus, the son +of this architect, was employed to erect the watch-tower: the design +of this tower was to direct the vessels which entered the harbour, +and it was justly reckoned one of the wonders of the world. It was a +large and square structure of white marble, on the top of which fires +were constantly kept burning for the direction of sailors. The +building of this tower cost 800 talents, which, if they were Attic +talents, were equivalent to 165,000 <i>l</i>. sterling, but if +they were Alexandrian, to double that sum. This stupendous and most +useful undertaking was completed in the fortieth year of the reign of +Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and in first year of the reign of Ptolemy +Philadelphus; and at the same time that Sostratus finished it, his +father, Dexiphanes, finished the mole, which united the island of +Pharos to the continent. The inscription on the tower was, "King +Ptolemy to the Gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors;" but +Sostratus put this inscription on the mortar, while underneath he +cut, in the solid marble, the following inscription, "Sostratus the +Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods, the saviours, for the +benefit of sailors." In process of time the mortar wore off, the +first inscription disappeared along with it, and the second +inscription became visible.</p> + +<p>The erection of the tower of Pharos was by no means the only +service the first Ptolemy did to commerce; throughout all his reign +he manifested great attention to it and maritime affairs, as well as +to those sciences by which they might be improved and advanced. As +soon as he had made himself master of Palestine, Syria, and +Phoenicia, he turned his thoughts to the conquest of Cyprus: this +island abounded in wood, of which Egypt was almost destitute; and on +this account, as well as on account of its situation, in the bosom, +as it were, of the Levant, it was of the utmost importance to a +maritime power. He succeeded in obtaining possession of this valuable +island, and thus improved and enlarged the commercial advantages of +Egypt. His next step, with this view, was to invite the sailors of +Phoenicia to his new capital. His increasing power, especially at +sea, roused the envy of Antigonus, who, by extraordinary exertions, +in the course of twelve months built and equipped a fleet, which was +able to cope with the naval power of Ptolemy. It is foreign to our +purpose to notice the wars between them, except in so far as they are +connected with the commercial history of Alexandria. This city was +benefited by these wars, for Antigonus, in his progress, had driven +many of the inhabitants of Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia from their +native lands: to these Ptolemy gave great encouragement, and +extraordinary privileges and immunities, which induced them to settle +in Alexandria, where they followed their mercantile or commercial +pursuits. The report of these advantages granted to foreigners, led +Jews, Greeks and Macedonians to flock to Egypt, by which means the +population and wealth of that country, and particularly of its +capital, were greatly augmented.</p> + +<p>The foundation of the museum and library of Alexandria, both of +which contributed so essentially to science and to the establishment +of the Alexandrian school of philosophy, which, as we shall +afterwards perceive, produced men that greatly advanced geographical +knowledge, is another proof of the wise and comprehensive character +of Ptolemy's mind.</p> + +<p>But Ptolemy rather prepared the way for the advancement of +commerce and maritime discovery, than contributed directly to them +himself: fortunately, his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was a worthy +successor, and emulous of treading in his father's steps. About the +beginning of his reign, Tyre, the ancient station of the trade with +India, again reared its head as a commercial city, and engaged +extensively and successfully in this lucrative traffic. It became +necessary, therefore, in order to draw it from Tyre and to secure its +centering in Alexandria, to extend the facilities and advantages of +this city for this traffic. With this view, Ptolemy sent travellers +to penetrate into the interior of his dominions, bordering on the Red +Sea, by land, while his fleet was exploring the coast: he began to +make a canal, 100 cubits broad and 30 deep, between Arsinoe on the +Red Sea, and the eastern branch of the Nile, in order to complete a +water-communication between India and Alexandria. This canal, +however, was never completed; probably on account of the tedious and +difficult navigation towards the northern extremity of the Red Sea. +He therefore altered his plan, and instead of Arsinoe fixed on Myos +Hormos, as the port from which the navigation to India should +commence. The same reason which induced him to form this port; led +him afterwards to the establishment of Berenice; he was farther led +to this, as Berenice was lower down in the Red Sea, and consequently +ships sailing from it reached the ocean sooner and with less +difficulty. It appears, however, that till the Romans conquered +Egypt, the greatest portion of the trade between Alexandria and +[Egypt->India] was carried on through Myos Hormos. The route in +the time of Ptolemy and his successors was as follows: vessels passed +up the Canopic branch of the Nile to Memphis, and thence to Coptus; +from Coptus the goods were transported in caravans to Myos Hormos: +from this port the vessels sailed for Africa, or Arabia in the month +of September, and for India in July. As the country over which the +caravans travelled was the desart of Thebais, which is almost +destitute of water, Ptolemy ordered springs to be searched for, wells +to be dug, and caravanseras to be erected.</p> + +<p>In order to protect his merchant ships in the Mediterranean and +the Red Sea, he fitted out two great fleets, one of which he +constantly kept in each sea. That in the Mediterranean was very +numerous, and had several ships of an extraordinary size: two of them +in particular had 30 oars on a side, one 20, four 14, two 12, +fourteen 11, thirty 9, &c., besides a great number of vessels of +four oars and three oars on a side. With these fleets he protected +the commerce of his subjects, and kept in subjection most of the +maritime provinces of Asia Minor; viz. Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia and +Caria. The names of some of the most celebrated geographers who were +patronized by this monarch, have been handed down to us: Pliny +mentions Dalion, Bion, Boselis, and Aristocreon, as having visited +Ethiopia, and contributed to the geographical knowledge of that +country; and Simonides as having resided five years at Meroe. +Timosthenes lived in this reign: he published a description of the +known sea-ports, and a work on the measure of the earth. He sailed +down the coast of Africa, probably as far as Madagascar, certainly +lower down than the Egyptians traded under the Ptolemies, or even +under the Romans.</p> + +<p>The reign of Ptolemy Euergetes was equally distinguished, with, +those of his predecessors, by attention to commerce, and a desire to +extend it. As the navigation of the Red Sea had now become a source +of great wealth to his subjects, he deemed it necessary to free it as +much as possible from the pirates that infested it's coasts; for this +purpose, as well as to preserve a communication between Egypt and the +countries which extended to its mouth, he established governors from +the isthmus of Suez, along the Arabian and African coasts, as far as +the straits of Babelmandeb; and planted colonies of Greeks and +Egyptians to carry on the commerce, and protect the interests of his +subjects. But the most extraordinary instance of his enterprising +spirit is to be found in his conquest (evidently for the purpose of +facilitating and securing the commerce of the Red Sea) of part of +Abyssinia. The proof of this, indeed, rests entirely on an +inscription found at Aduli, which there can be no doubt is the +harbour and bay of Masuah; the only proper entrance, according to +Bruce, into Abyssinia. The inscription to which we have alluded was +extant in the time of Cosmas (A.D. 545), by whom it was seen. From +it, Ptolemy appears to have passed to the Tacazze, which he calls the +Nile, and to have penetrated into Gojam, in which province the +fountains of the Nile are found. He made roads, opened a +communication between this country and Egypt, and during this +expedition obliged the Arabians to pay tribute, and to maintain the +roads free from robbers and the sea from pirates; subduing the whole +coast from [Leucke->Leuke] Come to Sabea. The inscription adds: +"In the accomplishment of this business I had no example to follow, +either of the ancient kings of Egypt, or of my own family; but was +the first to conceive the design, and to carry it into execution. +Thus, having reduced the whole world to peace under my own authority, +I came down to Aduli, and sacrificed to Jupiter, to Mars, and to +Neptune, imploring his protection for all who navigate these +seas."</p> + +<p>Ptolemy Euergetes was particularly attentive to the interests of +the library at Alexandria. The first librarian appointed by Ptolemy +the successor of Alexander, was Zenodotus; on his death, Ptolemy +Euergetes invited from Athens Eratosthenes, a citizen of Cyrene, and +entrusted to him the care of the library: it has been supposed that +he was the second of that name, or of an inferior rank in learning +and science, because he is sometimes called Beta; but by this +appellation nothing else was meant, but that he was the second +librarian of the royal library at Alexandria. He died at the age of +81, A.C. 194. He has been called a second Plato, the cosmographer and +the geometer of the world: he is rather an astronomer and +mathematician than a geographer, though geography is indebted to him +for some improvements in its details, and more especially for helping +to raise it to the accuracy and dignity of a science. By means of +instruments, which Ptolemy erected in the museum at Alexandria, he +ascertained the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 51' 20". He +is, however, principally celebrated as the first astronomer who +measured a degree of a great circle, and thus approximated towards +the real diameter of the earth.</p> + +<p>The importance of this discovery will justify us in entering on +some details respecting the means which this philosopher employed, +and the result which he obtained.</p> + +<p>It is uncertain whether the well at Syene, in Upper Egypt, which +he used for this purpose, was dug by his directions, or existed +previously. Pliny seems to be of the former opinion; but there is +reason to believe that it had a much higher antiquity. The following +observations on its structure by Dr. Horsley, Bishop of Rochester, +are ingenious and important. "The well, besides that it was sunk +perpendicularly, with the greatest accuracy, was, I suppose, in shape +an exact cylinder. Its breadth must have been moderate, so that a +person, standing upon the brink, might safely stoop enough over it to +bring his eye into the axis of the cylinder, where it would be +perpendicularly over the centre of the circular surface of the water. +The water must have stood at a moderate, height below the mouth of +the well, far enough below the mouth to be sheltered from the action +of the wind, that its surface might be perfectly smooth and +motionless; and not so low, but that the whole of its circular +surface might be distinctly seen by the observer on the brink. A well +formed in this manner would afford, as I apprehend, the most certain +observation of the sun's appulse to the zenith, that could be made +with the naked eye; for when the sun's centre was upon the zenith, +his disc would be seen by reflection on the water, in the very middle +of the well,--that is, as a circle perfectly concentric with the +circle of the water; and, I believe, there is nothing of which the +naked eye can judge with so much precision as the concentricity of +two circles, provided the circles be neither very nearly equal, nor +the inner circle very small in proportion to the outer."</p> + +<p>Eratosthenes observed, that at the time of the summer solstice +this well was completely illuminated by the sun, and hence he +inferred that the sun was, at that time, in the zenith of this place. +His next object was to ascertain the altitude of the sun, at the same +solstice, and on the very same day, at Alexandria. This he effected +by a very simple contrivance: he employed a concave hemisphere, with +a vertical style, equal to the radius of concavity; and by means of +this he ascertained that the arch, intercepted between the bottom of +the style and the extreme point of its shadow, was 7° 12'. This, +of course, indicated the distance of the sun from the zenith of +Alexandria. But 7° 12' is equal to the fiftieth part of a great +circle; and this, therefore, was the measure of the celestial arc +contained between the zeniths of Syene and Alexandria. The measured +distance between these cities being 5000 stadia, it followed, that +5000 X 50 = 250,000, was, according to the observations of +Eratosthenes, the extent of the whole circumference of the earth.</p> + +<p>If we knew exactly the length of the stadium of the ancients, or, +to speak more accurately, what stadium is referred to in the accounts +which have been transmitted to us of the result of the operations of +Eratosthenes, (for the ancients employed different stadia,) we should +be able precisely to ascertain the circumference which this +philosopher ascribed to the earth, and also, whether a nearer +approximation to the truth was made by any subsequent or prior +ancient philosopher. The circumference of the earth was conjectured, +or ascertained, by Aristotle, Cleomedes, Posidonius, and Ptolemy +respectively, to be 400, 300, 240, and 180 thousand stadia. It is +immediately apparent that these various measures have some relation +to each other, and probably express the same extent; measured in +different stadia; and this probability is greatly increased by +comparing the real distances of several places with the ancient +itinerary distances.</p> + +<p>The observation of Eratosthenes respecting the obliquity of the +ecliptic (though undoubtedly not so immediately or essentially +connected with our subject as his observation of the circumference of +the earth) is too important to be passed over entirely without +notice. He found the distance between the tropics less than 53° +6', and greater than 52° 96', which gives a mean of 23° 51' +for the obliquity of the ecliptic. The observations of Hipparchus +(who flourished at Alexandria about 140 years before Christ, and whom +we shall have occasion to mention more particularly afterwards) +coincided with those of Eratosthenes. Plutarch, however, who died +A.D. 119, informs us, that, in his time, the gnomons at Syene were no +longer shadowless on the day of the summer solstice. As the interval +between Eratosthenes and Plutarch was only about 512 years, Bishop +Morsley has very naturally expressed his doubts of the accuracy of +Plutarch's assertion. He says, that the change in the obliquity of +the ecliptic in this interval was only 2' 36". "A gnomon, therefore, +at Syene, of the length of twelve inches, if it cast no shadow on the +day of the solstice in the time of Eratosthenes, should have cast a +shadow in the time of Plutarch of the length only of 9/1000th, or not +quite 1/100th part of an inch. The shadow of a perpendicular column +of the height of 100 feet would have been 9/10ths of an inch." As, +however, the ancients do not appear to have constructed gnomons of +such a size, and as gnomons of inferior size would have given a +shadow scarcely perceptible, it is probable that Plutarch is mistaken +in his assertion; or, at any rate, that the very small variation +which did take place between his time and that of Eratosthenes (if it +were observed at all) was ascertained by means of the well itself, +which would point it out much more distinctly and accurately than any +gnomon the ancients can be supposed to have used.</p> + +<p>We are also indebted to Eratosthenes for the first regular +parallel of latitude, and also for tracing a meridian. His parallel +of latitude began at the Straits of Gibraltar, and passed eastward +through Rhodes to the mountains of India; the intermediate places +being carefully set down. His meridian line passed through Rhodes and +Alexandria, as far as Syene and Meroe. Meroe, on this account, became +an object of the greatest interest and importance to all the +succeeding ancient geographers and astronomers, and they have taken +the utmost labour and care to ascertain its latitude accurately. +Strabo informs us, that Eratosthenes constructed a map of the world; +but he does not give such particulars as will enable us to trace the +extent of his geographical knowledge. At the extremity of the world +to the east, bounded by the ocean, Thina was placed in the map of +Eratosthenes, in the parallel of Rhodes; a parallel which passes +through the empire of China, within the Great Wall. Eratosthenes, +according to Strabo, (to whom we are indebted for nearly all we know +respecting this philosopher,) asserts that Thina had been, previously +to the construction of his map, incorrectly placed in the more +ancient maps. His information respecting Meroe or Abyssinia, is most +probably derived from Dalion, Aristocreon, and Bion, who had been +sent by Ptolemy Philadelphus and his successors into that country, or +from Timosthenes, who sailed down the coast of Africa as low as +Cerne. His information on the subject of India (which, however, as +far as regards oriental commerce, is very confused) must have been +derived from the Macedonians. There is little doubt that the library +of Alexandria afforded him access to all the knowledge which then +existed respecting the various countries of the globe; but the turn +of his mind led him rather to astronomical than geographical studies; +or rather, perhaps, he directed his labours and his talents to the +discovery of the figure and circumference of the earth, thinking, +that till this was effected, the delineation of the habitable world, +and the relative position of different countries, must be very +inaccurate as well as incomplete. This opinion regarding +Eratosthenes, that he was more of a geometrician than a geographer, +seems to be confirmed by the testimony of Marcian of Heraclia, who +informs us, that Eratosthenes took the whole work of Timosthenes, +preface and all, as it stood, and in the very same words. If this +account be accurate, it is probable that Eratosthenes' knowledge of +Thina, and his being able to correct the erroneous position of this +country in more ancient maps, was derived from Timosthenes, who had +commanded the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus on the Indian Ocean.</p> + +<p>If we reflect on the rude and imperfect state of science at this +period, the paucity and inadequacy of the instruments by means of +which it might be improved, and the superstitions and prejudices +which opposed the removal of error or the establishment of truth, we +shall not be disposed to question the justice of the panegyric +pronounced by Pliny on Eratosthenes. This author, after detailing all +that was then known on the subject of the circumference of the earth, +and on the distances which had been ascertained by actual +admeasurement, or approximated by analogy or probable conjecture, +between the most remarkable places on its surface, adds, that +Eratosthenes, whose acuteness and application had advanced him far in +every branch of knowledge, but who had outstripped all his +predecessors or contemporaries in that particular branch which was +connected with the admeasurement of the earth, had fixed its +circumference at 250,000 stadia; a bold and almost presumptuous +enterprize, (<i>improbum ausum</i>) but which had been conducted +with so much judgment, and on such sound principles, that it +commanded and deserved our credit. Hipparchus, who was distinguished +for his correctness and diligence in every part of geometrical and +astronomical science, and who had specially exerted those qualities +in his endeavours to correct the errors of Eratosthenes, had been +able to add only the comparatively small extent of 25,000 stadia to +the computation of Eratosthenes.--<i>Plin. Nat. Hist.</i> lib. ii. c. +108.</p> + +<p>Eratosthenes seems, from the nature of his studies, not to have +availed himself so much as he might have done of the treasures +contained in the Alexandrian library under his care, to correct or +extend the geographical knowledge of his contemporaries. The same +observation will not apply to Agatharcides, who was president of the +library after Eratosthenes. The exact time at which he flourished is +not known: according to Blair, he was contemporary with Eratosthenes, +though younger than him, and flourished 177 A.C., Eratosthenes having +died at the age of eighty-one, in the year 194 A.C. Dodwell, however, +fixes him at a later period; viz. 104 A.C.; but this date must be +erroneous, because Artemidorus of Ephesus, who evidently copies +Agatharcides, undoubtedly lived 104 A.C. Agatharcide's was born at +Cnidus in Caria: no particulars are known respecting him, except that +he was president of the Alexandrian library, in the reign of Ptolemy +Philometor, if he flourished 177 A.C.; and in the reign of Ptolemy +Lathyrus, if, according to Dodwell, he did not flourish till 104 +A.C.</p> + +<p>The only work of his which is preserved, is a Treatise on the +Erythraean Sea; and this we possess only in the Bibliotheca of +Photius, and incorporated in the history of Diodorus Siculus. The +authority of Agatharcides was very high among the ancients. Strabo, +Pliny, and Diodorus, always mention him with the utmost respect, and +place implicit confidence in his details. Diodorus expressly states +that Agatharcides and Artemidorus (who, as we have already mentioned, +was merely his copyist) are the only authors who have written truth +concerning Egypt and Ethiopia; and Strabo follows him in all that +relates to the latter country, the countries lying to the south of +Egypt, and the western coast of Arabia. In fact, for nearly 200 +years, the ancient historians and geographers drew all the +information they possessed respecting the portions of the world +embraced in the work of Agatharcides from that work. It has been well +observed, "that when Pliny speaks of the discoveries on the coast of +Malabar in his own age, and adds, that the names he mentions are new, +and not to be found in previous writers, we ought to consider him as +speaking of all those who had followed the authority of the +Macedonians, or the school of Alexandria; of which, in this branch of +science, Eratosthenes and Agatharcides were the leaders." From the +circumstance that Strabo appeals very frequently to the authority of +Eratosthenes, in conjunction with that of Agatharcides, it has been +conjectured, that the work of the latter contains all that the former +knew, with the addition of his own information; and this conjecture +is highly probable, considering that Agatharcides had access to the +sources whence Eratosthenes drew his information; to the works of +Eratosthenes themselves, which of course would be deposited in the +Alexandrian library; and to all the additional works which had +enriched the library from the time of Eratosthenes, as well as the +additional information which the extensive commerce of Alexandria +would supply.</p> + +<p>The work of Agatharcides, therefore, having been in such +estimation by the ancient historians and geographers, and the only +source from which, during 200 years, they drew their information, and +having been compiled by a person, who, it is probable, had better and +fuller means of rendering it accurate and complete than any of his +contemporaries enjoyed; it will be proper to give a pretty full +abstract of the most interesting and important part of its +contents.</p> + +<p>The veracity of this author was questioned by Plutarch, from his +narrating a circumstance, which, to us of the present day, is a +strong confirmation of the truth and accuracy of his information. +Agatharcides takes notice of the worm which is formed in the legs, +and which insinuates itself there in such a manner, that it is +necessary to wind it out with the utmost caution. Plutarch ridicules +and rejects this story, and says it never has happened, and never +will. But that such a worm exists, and that when it insinuates itself +into the leg it must be drawn out with the utmost caution, lest the +smallest portion of it remain, and thus produce disease, is directly +and fully attested by all the travellers, and particularly by Bruce, +who carried with him to the grave the marks and effects of the attack +of this species of worm.</p> + +<p>But the most curious and important portion of the work of +Agatharcides on the Red Sea, relates to Abyssinia; for in this work +we meet with the first genuine characteristics of this nation. He +specifies particularly the gold mines wrought by the kings of Egypt +on the coast of the Red Sea;--the process which they followed to +procure and separate this metal;--the sufferings which the miners +underwent in their operations are painted in very strong language: +"The multitude of bones still found in these excavations, he says, is +incredible, of wretches crushed by the falling-in of the earth, as +must naturally happen in a loose and crumbling soil." He adds a +circumstance, to which there are many parallel in our own country, in +those mines which are supposed to have been wrought by the Romans; +viz. the tools of copper found in these gold mines, supposed to have +been used by the native Egyptians, prior to the conquest of Egypt by +the Persians. The next particular mentioned by Agatharcides, +respecting the Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea, is very conclusive, +with respect to his accuracy and credibility. In Meroe, or Abyssinia, +he says, they hunt elephants and hamstring them, and afterwards cut +the flesh out of the animal alive: he adds, that the inhabitants are +so extremely fond of the flesh of the elephant, thus procured, that +when Ptolemy would have paid any price to purchase these animals +alive, as he wanted them for his army, the Abyssinian hunters refused +his offer, declaring that not all the wealth of Egypt would tempt +them to forego their favourite and delicious repast. It is a +remarkable fact, that the credit of Bruce on this topic should thus +be confirmed by a writer who lived nearly 2000 years before him, of +whose writings we possess only a very short treatise, and of whose +life we know scarcely a single particular. It may be added, that +Strabo, in a passage, in which he is apparently copying Agatharcides, +mentions [Greek: Kreophagoi] and as he would scarcely particularize +the fact of a native eating the flesh of animals cooked, it is to be +presumed, he means raw flesh. In the same place he mentions the +<i>excisio feminarum</i>.</p> + +<p>Every reader of Brace's Travels in Abyssinia must remember the +fly, called Tsalpsalza, an insect more formidable than the strongest +or most savage wild beasts: "As soon as the buzzing of this insect is +heard, the utmost alarm and trepidation prevails; the cattle forsake +their food and run wildly about the plain, till at length they fall +down, worn out with terror, hunger and fatigue; even the camel, +elephant and rhinoceros, are not safe from the attacks of this +formidable insect." This fly is described by Agatharcides in the same +manner as by Bruce. The ensete tree of Bruce, the leaves of which +resemble the banana, with fruit like figs, but not eatable, with a +trunk esculent till it reaches its perfect growth and is full of +leaves, resembles in some of its particulars a tree described by +Agatharcides. This author also describes the locusts, as generally +used for food; the troglodytes; the rhinoceros; the cameleopard; what +he calls sphinxes, but which are represented as tame, and are +supposed to be apes, distinguished from the common ape in the face +being smooth and without hair. He also mentions an animal he calls +crocetta, which is described as being between a wolf and a dog, and +as imitating the human voice; these particulars seem to point it out +as the hyena, though some suppose it to be the jackall. It deserves +to be remarked, that the animals enumerated by Agatharcides as +natives of Abyssinia, are all named in the same manner, as well as +depicted on the celebrated Palestrine Mosaic.</p> + +<p>In his description of the coast of the Red Sea he commences with +Arsinoe, and goes down the western side as far as Ptolemais Theron; a +place so called, because elephants were there hunted and taken, and +are still, according to Bruce. Agatharcides adds, that the usual +navigation was to this place for elephants. He notices Myos Hormos, +but not Berenice; he has even mentioned the islands at the straits of +Babelmandeb, and the prodigies which in his time, and much later, +were supposed to lie beyond them. There is, however, one part of his +work, in which he seems to indicate the curvature of the African +coast to the east beyond the straits; but it is doubtful whether in +this place he is speaking of the coast within or without the +straits.</p> + +<p>In his description of the coast between Myos Hormos and Ptolemais, +he points out a bay, which, both from the identity of the name, and +the circumstances respecting it which he narrates, undoubtedly is the +Foul Bay of the moderns. Strabo, who, as we have already stated, +borrows freely and frequently from Agatharcides, describes this bay +as full of shoals and breakers, and exposed to violent winds; and he +adds, that Berenice lies at the bottom of it. The accuracy of our +author, even when he is opposed by the testimony of Bruce, is fully +proved in what he relates of the coast below Foul Bay: after +mentioning two mountains, which he calls the Bulls, he particularly +adverts to the dangerous shoals which often proved fatal to the +elephant ships on their passage to and from Ptolemais. Bruce says no +such shoals exist; but, as is justly observed by Dr. Vincent; the +correctness of the ancients respecting them, especially Eratosthenes, +Agatharcides and Artemidorus, is fully borne out by the danger and +loss to which many English ships have been exposed by reason of these +very shoals.</p> + +<p>The description of Agatharcides of this side of the coast of the +Red Sea, reaches no lower down than Ptolemais; this circumstance is +remarkable, since we have seen that, from the inscription found at +Aduli there can be no doubt that Ptolemy Euergetes had conquered +Abyssinia, and established a commerce considerably lower down than +Ptolemais Theron. As, however, we have not the original, and perhaps +not the entire work of Agatharcides, we cannot infer any thing, +either respecting his ignorance or inattention, from this +omission.</p> + +<p>Agatharcides, having thus described this coast, returns from +Ptolemais to Myos Hormos, and passing the Bay of Arsinoe, crosses to +Phoenicum, in the Elanitic Gulf, and describes the coast of Arabia as +far as Sabea. Almost the very first particular noticed by him in this +part of his work, bears evidence to his accuracy as a geographer. He +states that, at the entrance of the Elanitic Gulph there are three +islands, one of which is dedicated to Isis: he describes them as, +"covering several harbours on the Arabian shore. To these islands +succeeds the rocky coast of Thamudeni, where, for more than 1000 +stadia, there is no harbour, no roadsted in which a vessel could +anchor, no bay into which she could run for shelter, no point of land +which could protect her; so that those who sail alone this part of +the coast are exposed to certain destruction, if they should be +overtaken by a storm." Yet these islands lying in such a conspicuous +situation, and of such importance to the mariner, and this coast so +dangerous to him, do not appear to have been noticed in any European +chart or description, till, after the lapse of twenty centuries, they +were restored to geography by Mr. Irwin.</p> + +<p>As one of our principal objects is to do justice to the accuracy +of the ancient geographers, by pointing out instances of the extreme +care which many of them took to obtain correct information we shall +adduce one other proof of this accuracy and care in Agatharcides. +This author particularly describes the sea as having a white +appearance off the coast of Arabia; on this point he was well +informed though the circumstance is treated as fabulous by the +ancients, and even by some of the moderns; but more observant modern +travellers confirm this phenomenon. It is well observed by Dr. +Vincent, that we are every day lessening the bulk of the marvellous +imputed to the ancients; and as our knowledge of the east increases, +it is possible that the imputation will be altogether removed.</p> + +<p>The account which Agatharcides gives of Sabæa is very +curious and important; and, as we shall afterwards have occasion to +make use of it, in endeavouring to prove that, in very early ages, +the Arabians supplied the western world with the productions of the +east, we shall extract here what he says of Sabæa from the +translation of Dr. Vincent.</p> + +<p>"Sabæa, (says Agatharcides,) abounds with every production +to make life happy in the extreme: its very air is so perfumed with +odours, that the natives are obliged to mitigate the fragrance by +scents that have an opposite tendency, as if nature could not support +even pleasure in the extreme. Myrrh, frankincense, balsam, cinnamon, +and casia are here produced, from trees of extraordinary magnitude. +The king, as he is, on the one hand, entitled to supreme honour, on +the other, is obliged to submit to confinement in his palace; but the +people are robust, warlike, and able mariners: they sail in very +large vessels to the country where the odoriferous commodities are +produced; they plant colonies there, and import from thence the +larimna, an odour no where else to be found. In fact, there is no +nation on the earth so wealthy as the Gerrheans and Sabeans, as being +in the centre of all the commerce that passes between Asia and +Europe. These are the nations which have enriched the kingdom of +Ptolemy: these are the nations that furnish the most profitable +agencies to the industry of the Phoenicians, and a variety of +advantages which are incalculable. They possess themselves every +profusion of luxury, in articles of plate and sculpture, in furniture +of beds, tripods, and other household embellishments, far superior in +degree to any thing that is seen in Europe: their expence of living +rivals the magnificence of princes: their houses are decorated with +pillars glistening with gold and silver: their doors are crowned with +vases and beset with jewels: the interior of their houses corresponds +with the beauty of their outward appearance, and all the riches of +other countries are here exhibited in a variety of profusion. Such a +nation, and so abounding in superfluity, owes its independence to its +distance from Europe; for their luxurious manners would soon render +them a prey to the European sovereigns, who have always troops on +foot prepared for any conquest; and who, if they could find the means +of invasion, would soon reduce the Sabeans to the condition of their +agents and factors; whereas they are now obliged to deal with them as +principals."</p> + +<p>The importance and the bearing of these curious facts, first +brought to our notice by Agatharcides, as well as the inferences +which may be drawn from them regarding the mode in which the ancients +obtained their commodities of India, will call our particular +attention afterwards: at present we shall merely notice the +characteristic and minute picture which Agatharcides has drawn of the +Sabeans, and the just notions he had formed on the nature of a +commerce, of which all the other writers of antiquity seemed to have +been utterly ignorant.</p> + +<p>Beyond Sabæa to the east, Agatharcides possessed no +information, though, like all the ancients, he is desirous of +supplying his want of it by indulging in the marvellous: it is, +however, rather curious that, among other particulars, undoubtedly +unfounded, such as placing the Fortunate islands off the coast beyond +Sabæa, and his describing the flocks and herds as all white, +and the females as polled;--he describes that whiteness of the sea, +to which we have already alluded, as confirmed by modern travellers. +From these unfounded particulars, our author soon emerges again into +the truth; for he describes the appearance of the different +constellations, and especially notices that to the south of +Sabæa there is no twilight in the morning; but when he adds, +that the sun, at rising, appears like a column--that it casts no +shadow till it has been risen an hour, and that the evening twilight +lasts three hours after it has set; it is obvious that the +information of that age (of which we may justly suppose the library +of Alexandria was the great depository) did not extend beyond +Sabæa.</p> + +<p>That Agatharcides had access to and made ample use of the journal +of Nearchus (of which we have given such a complete abstract), is +evident from various parts of his work; but it is also evident, by +comparing his description of those countries and their inhabitants, +which had been visited and described by Nearchus, that he had access +to other sources of intelligence, by means of which he added to the +materials supplied by the latter.</p> + +<p>It will be recollected that Nearchus describes in a particular +manner, the Icthyophagi of Gadrosia: Agatharcides also describes +Icthyophagi, though it is not clear whether he means to confine his +description to those of Gadrosia, or to extend it to others on the +coast of Arabia and Africa. The mode practised by the Icthyophagi, +according to him, is exactly that which was practised by them in +catching fish, according to Nearchus: he also coincides with that +author in various other particulars respecting the use of the bones +of whales, or other large fish, in the construction of their houses; +their ignorance and barbarism, their dress and mode of life. All this +he probably borrowed from Nearchus; but he adds one circumstance +which indubitably proves, that the knowledge of the eastern part of +the world had considerably advanced since the era of Alexander: he +expressly states, that beyond the straits that separate Arabia from +the opposite coast, there are an immense number of islands, +scattered, very small, and scarcely raised above the surface of the +ocean. If we may advert to the situation assigned to these islands, +on the supposition that the straits which separate Arabia from the +opposite coast, mean the entrance to the Gulph of Persia, we shall +not be able to ascertain what these islands are; but if in addition +to the circumstances of their being scattered, very small, and very +low, we add what Agatharcides also notices, that the natives have no +other means of supporting life but by the turtles which are found +near them in immense numbers, and of a very large size, we shall be +disposed, with Dr. Vincent, to consider these as the Maldive Islands. +It may be objected to this supposition, that the Maldives are +situated at a very great distance from the straits that separate +Arabia from the opposite coast; but a cursory acquaintance with the +geographical descriptions of the ancients will convince us, that +their information respecting the situation of countries was +frequently vague and erroneous, (as indeed it must have been, +considering the imperfect means they possessed of measuring or even +judging of distances, especially by sea) while, at the same time, +their information respecting the nature of the country, the +productions of its soil, and the manners, &c. of its inhabitants, +was surprisingly full and accurate. In identifying places mentioned +by the ancients, we should therefore be guided more by the +descriptions they give, than by the locality they assign to them. +Agatharcides, it is true, adds that these islands extend along the +sea, which washes Gadrosia and India; but he probably had very +confused notions of the extent and form of India; and, at any rate, +giving the widest latitude to the term, the same sea may be said to +wash Gadrosia and the Maldive Islands. If these are the islands +actually meant by Agatharcides, it is the earliest notice of them +extant.</p> + +<p>Our concern with Agatharcides relates only to the geographical +knowledge which his writings display; and even of that we can only +select such parts as are most important, and at the same time point +out and prove the advances of geographical knowledge, and of +commercial enterprize; before, however, we leave him, we may add one +fact, not immediately relating to our peculiar subject, which he +records: after stating that the soil of Arabia was, as it were, +impregnated with gold, and that lumps of pure gold were found there +from the size of an olive to that of a nut, he adds, that iron was +twice, and silver ten times, the value of gold. If he is accurate in +the proportionate values which he respectively assigns to these +metals, it proves the very great abundance of gold; since, in most of +the nations of antiquity, the values of gold and silver were the +reverse of what they were in Arabia, gold being ten times the value +of silver. The comparative high value of iron to gold is still more +extraordinary, and seems to indicate not only a great abundance of +the latter metal, but also a great scarcity of the former, or a very +great demand for it in consequence of the extended and improved state +of those arts and manufactures in which iron is an essential +requisite, and which indicate an advanced degree of knowledge and +civilization. We are not aware of a similar fact, with respect to the +proportionate value of iron and silver, being recorded of any other +nation of antiquity. It is not to be supposed, however, that the +cheapness of gold, measured by iron and silver, could long continue +in Arabia, unless we believe that their intercourse with other +nations was very limited; because a regular and extensive intercourse +would soon assimilate, in a great degree at least, the value of gold +measured by iron and silver, as it existed in Arabia, to its value, +as measured by the same metals in those countries with which Arabia +traded.</p> + +<p>But to return from this slight digression;--Artemidorus has been +already mentioned as a geographer subsequent to Agatharcides, who +copied Agatharcides, and from whom Diodorus Siculus and Strabo in +their turns copied. There were two ancient writers of this name born +at Ephesus; the one to whom we have alluded, is supposed to have +lived in the reign of Ptolemy Lathyrus, A.C. 169; by others he is +brought down to A.C. 104. Little is known respecting him; nor does he +seem to have added much to geographical science or knowledge: he is +said by Pliny to have first applied the terms of length and breadth, +or latitude and longitude. By comparing those parts of Diodorus +Siculus and Strabo, which they avowedly copy from him, with the track +of Agatharcides: in the Red Sea, we are enabled to discover only a +few additions of importance to the geographical knowledge supplied by +the former: Agatharcides, it will be remembered, brings his account +of the African side of the Red Sea no lower down than Ptolemais: he +does not even mention the expedition of Ptolemy Euergetes to Aduli; +nor the passage of the straits, though Eratosthenes, as cited by +Strabo, proves that it was open in his time. In the time of +Artemidorus, however, the trade of Egypt on the coast of Africa had +reached as low down as the Southern Horn; that this trade was still +in its infancy, is apparent from a circumstance mentioned by Strabo, +on the authority of Artemidorus; that at the straits the cargo was +transferred from ships to boats; bastard cinnamon, perhaps casia +lignea or hard cinnamon, is specified as one of the principal +articles which the Egyptians obtained from the coast of Africa, when +they passed the straits of Babelmandeb.</p> + +<p>The next person belonging to the Alexandrian school, to whom the +sciences on which geography rest, as well as geography itself, is +greatly indebted, was Hipparchus. Scarcely any particulars are known +respecting him: even the exact period in which he flourished, is not +accurately fixed; some placing him 159 years, others 149, and others +again bringing him down to 129 years before Christ. He was a native +of Nice in Bithynia, but spent the greater part of his life at the +court of one of the Ptolemies. It is supposed that he quitted his +native place in consequence of some ill treatment which he had +received from his fellow citizens: at least we are informed by +Aurelius Victor, that the emperor Marcus Aurelius obliged the +inhabitants of Nice to send yearly to Rome a certain quantity of +corn, for having beaten one of their citizens, by name Hipparchus, a +man of great learning and extraordinary accomplishments. They +continued to pay this tribute to the time of Constantine, by whom it +was remitted. As history does not inform us of any other person of +note of this name, a native of Nice in Bithynia, it is highly +probable that this was the Hipparchus, the astronomer and geographer. +That it was not unusual for conquerors and sovereigns to reward or +punish the descendants of those who had behaved well or ill to +celebrated men who had flourished long previously, must be well known +to those conversant with ancient history. The respect paid to the +memory of Pindar, by the Spartans, and by Alexander the Great, when +they conquered Thebes, is a striking instance of the truth of this +observation.</p> + +<p>Hipparchus possessed the true spirit of philosophy: having +resolved to devote himself to the study of astronomy, his first +general [principal->principle] was to take nothing for granted; +but setting aside all that had been taught by former astronomers, to +begin anew, and examine and judge for himself: he determined not to +admit any results but such as were grounded either in observations +and experiments entirely new, made by himself or on a new examination +of former observations, conducted with the utmost care and caution. +In short, he may justly be regarded as one of the first philosophers +of antiquity who had a slight glimpse of the grand maxim, which +afterwards immortalized Bacon, and which has introduced modern +philosophers to a knowledge of the most secret and most sublime +operations of nature.</p> + +<p>One of his first endeavours was, to verify the obliquity of the +ecliptic, as settled by Eratosthenes: he next fixed, as accurately as +possible, the latitude of Alexandria; but it would lead us far from +the object of our work, if we were even briefly to mention his +discoveries in the science of pure astronomy. We must confine +ourselves to those parts of his discoveries which benefitted +geography, either directly or indirectly. After having, as +successfully as his means and the state of the science would permit +him to do, fixed the position of the stars, he transferred the method +which he had employed for this purpose to geography: he was the first +who determined the situation of places on the earth, by their +latitudes and longitudes, with any thing like accuracy. The latitude, +indeed, of many places had been fixed before; and the means of doing +it were sufficiently simple and obvious: but with respect to some +general and safe mode of ascertaining the longitudes, the ancient +philosophers before Hipparchus, were ignorant of it. He employed for +this purpose the eclipses of the moon. After having ascertained the +latitudes and longitudes of a great many places, he proposed to draw +up a catalogue of terrestial latitudes and longitudes, but this he +was not able to accomplish: he had set the example, however and it +was followed by subsequent astronomers. He fixed on the Fortunate +Islands, which are supposed to be the Canaries, for his first +meridian. His principal works most probably were destroyed in the +conflagration of the Alexandrian library. His catalogue of the stars +is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy; and his commentary on Aratus +and Eudoxus is still extant.</p> + +<p>Such is a brief sketch of the advantages which geography, as +founded on astronomy, derived from the labours of Hipparchus. We +possess little information respecting his ideas of the form of the +earth, or the relative position or extent of the different quarters +and countries on the surface of the globe. He seems to have been the +first who conceived the idea of a southern continent, uniting Africa +and India: he had evidently some information, though very vague and +erroneous, of India, beyond the Ganges. On the east coast of Africa, +his knowledge did not extend beyond Cape Guardaferi. On the whole, +geography is more indebted to him for his discoveries in astronomy, +and, above all, for his setting the example of carefully ascertaining +facts, and not indulging, so much as his predecessors had done, in +conjectures and hypotheses, than for any actual discoveries or +advances he made in it. The eulogium which Pliny has pronounced on +him is very eloquent, and fully deserved. "Hipparchus can scarcely +receive too high praise: he has proved, more satisfactorily than any +other philosopher, that man is allied to heaven, and his soul derived +from on high. In his time, more than one new star was discovered, or +rather appeared for the first time; and this induced him to believe, +that future ages might witness stars for the first time moving from +the immense regions of space, within the limits of our observation. +But the grandeur and boldness of Hipparchus's mind rested not here: +he attempted, and in some measure succeeded in doing, what seems +above human knowledge and power: he numbered the stars, laid down +rules by which their rising and setting might be ascertained +beforehand; and, finally, he constructed an apparatus on which the +position of each star was accurately given, and a miniature picture +of the heavens, with the motions of the celestial bodies, their +rising and setting, increase and diminution. He thus may be said to +have left the heavens as a legacy to that man, if any such were to be +found, who could rival him and follow his steps."</p> + +<p>From the time of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy the geographer, the +Alexandrian school, though rich in philosophers, who devoted their +studies and labour to other branches of physical and metaphysical +science, did not produce one, who improved geography, or the sciences +on which it depends, with the exception of Posidonius. This +philosopher, who belonged to the sect of the Stoics, was born at +Apamea in Syria: he usually resided at Rhodes, and was the friend of +Pompey and Cicero. The former, on his return from Syria, came thither +to attend his lectures. Arriving at his house, he forbad his lictor +to knock, as was usual, at the door; and paid homage to philosophy, +by lowering the fasces at the abode of Posidonius. Pompey, being +informed that he was at that time ill of the gout, visited him in his +confinement, and expressed himself very much disappointed that he +could not have the benefit of his lectures. Posidonius, thus honoured +and flattered, in spite of his pain, delivered a lecture in the +presence of his noble visitor; the subject of which was to prove, +that nothing is good which is not honourable. Cicero informs us, that +he also attended his lectures; and according to Suidas Marcellus, +brought him to Rome in the year of the city 702; in this, however, +Suidas is not supported by other and contemporary writers.</p> + +<p>We are indebted to Cleomedes for most of what we know of his +opinions and discoveries; with such as relate to morals or to pure +astronomy, we have no concern. But he was of service also to +geography. He measured an arc of the terrestrial meridian; but his +operation, as far as we can judge by the details which have reached +us, was far from exact, and of course his result could not be +accurate; it would appear, however, that his object was rather to +verify the ancient measures of the earth, particularly that of +Eratosthenes, and that he found them to agree nearly with his own. He +explained the ebbing and flowing of the sea, from the motion of the +moon, and seems to have been the first who observed the law of this +phenomenon. In order to represent the appearance of the heavens, +Cicero informs us that he constructed a kind of planetarium, by means +of which he exhibited the apparent motion of the sun, moon, and +planets round the earth. It is on the authority of Posidonius, that +Strabo relates the voyage of Eudoxus of Cyzicum from the Persian Gulf +round Africa to Cadiz, which we have already mentioned.</p> + +<p>Having thus exhibited a view of the discoveries in geography, the +advances in the sciences connected with it, and the commercial +enterprises of the Egyptians, while under the dominion of the +Ptolemies, it will be proper, before beginning an account of the +geographical knowledge and commercial enterprises of the Romans (who, +by their conquest of Egypt, may be said to have absorbed all the +geographical knowledge, as well as all the commerce of the world, at +that period), to recapitulate the extent of the Egyptian geography +and commerce, especially towards the east We shall direct our +retrospect to this quarter, because the commodities of the east being +most prized, it was the grand object of the sovereigns and merchants +of Egypt, to extend and facilitate the intercourse with that quarter +of the globe as much as possible. And we are induced to undertake the +retrospect, because the exact limit of the geographical knowledge and +commercial enterprise of the Ptolemies is differently fixed by +different authors: some maintaining that the Egyptians had a regular +and extensive trade directly with India, and of course, were well +acquainted with the seas and coasts beyond the Red Sea; while other +authors maintain, that they never passed the straits of Babelmandeb, +and that even within the straits, their geographical knowledge and +commercial enterprises were very limited.</p> + +<p>It cannot be doubted that commerce and the spirit of discovery +flourished with more vigour, and pushed themselves to a greater +distance in the reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and Ptolemy +Euergetes, than in the reign of any of their successors. If, +therefore, there are no proofs or traces of a direct and regular +trade with India in their time, we may safely conclude it did not +exist in Egypt, previously to the conquest of that country by the +Romans.</p> + +<p>We are well aware, that there are great authorities opposed to the +opinion which we hold; but these authorities are modern; they are +not, we think, supported by the ancient writers, and in opposition to +them, we can place the authority of Dr. Vincent, a name of the very +greatest weight in questions of this nature. The authorities we +alluded to in support of the opinion, that there was a direct trade +with India under the Ptolemies, are Huet, in his History of the +Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients; Dr. Robertson, in his +Disquisition on India, and Harris, or perhaps, more properly +speaking, Dr. Campbell, in his edition of Harris's Collection of +Voyages and Travels. Huet, as is justly remarked by Dr. Vincent, +drops the prosecution of the question at the very point he ought to +introduce it; and afterwards countenances, or seems to countenance, +the opposite opinion. Dr. Robertson bestows much labour, ingenuity, +and learning in support of the opinion, that under the Ptolemies, a +direct trade was carried on with India; yet, after all, he concludes +in this manner: "it is probable that their voyages were circumscribed +within very narrow limits, and that under the Ptolemies no +considerable progress was made in the discovery of India:" and when +he comes to the discovery of the Monsoon by Hippalus and the +consequent advantage taken of it to trade directly to India, by +sailing from shore to shore, he acknowledges that all proofs of a +more early existence of such a trade are wanting. Dr. Campbell +virtually gives up his support of the opinion, that a direct trade +was carried on under the Ptolemies, in the same manner.</p> + +<p>We have already remarked, that the strongest spirit of enterprize +that distinguished Egypt existed in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus +and Ptolemy Euergetes; that these monarchs pushed their discoveries, +and extended their commercial connections much farther than any of +their predecessors; and that therefore, if a direct and regular +communication between Egypt and India did not take place in their +reigns, we may be assured it was unknown to the Egyptians at the +period of the Roman conquest. To their reigns, then, we shall +principally direct our enquiries.</p> + +<p>That Ptolemy Philadelphus was extremely desirous to improve the +navigation of the Red Sea, is evident from his having built Myos +Hormos, or rather improved it, because it was more convenient than +Arsinoe, on account of the difficulty of navigating the western +extremity of that sea: he afterwards fixed on Berenice in preference +to Myos Hormos, when the navigation and commerce on this sea was +extended and improved, since Berenice being lower down, the +navigation towards the straits was shorter, as well as attended with +fewer difficulties and dangers. But there is no evidence that his +fleets, which sailed from Berenice, were destined for India, or even +passed the Straits of Babelmandeb. It is, however, not meant to be +asserted that no vessels passed these straits in the time of this +Ptolemy. On the contrary, we know that his admiral, Timosthenes, +passed the straits as low as Cerne, which is generally supposed to be +Madagascar; but commerce, which in our times, directed by much +superior skill and knowledge, as well as stimulated by a stronger +spirit of enterprize and rivalship, and a more absorbing love of +gain, immediately follows in the track of discovery, was then +comparatively slow, languid, and timid as well as ignorant; so that +it is not surprizing that it did not follow the track of Timosthenes. +Ptolemy Philadelphus also pushed his discoveries by land as far as +Meroc: he opened the route between Coptus and Berenice, establishing +ports and opening wells; and from these and other circumstances he +seems to have been actuated by a stronger wish to extend commerce, +and to have formed more plans for this purpose, than any of his +successors.</p> + +<p>Ptolemy Euergetes directed his thoughts more to conquest than to +commerce, though he rendered the former, in some degree, useful and +subservient to the latter. After having passed the Nile, and subdued +the nations which lay on the confines of Egypt, he compelled them to +open a road of communication between their country and Egypt. The +frankincense country was the next object of his ambition: this he +subdued; and having sent a fleet and army across the Red Sea into +Arabia, he compelled the inhabitants of the district to maintain the +roads free from robbers, and the sea from pirates--a proof that these +people had made some advances in seafaring matters, and also of the +attention paid by Euergetes to the navigation of the Red Sea, as well +as to the protection of land commerce. Indeed the whole of his +progress to Aduli, which we have more particularly mentioned in +another place, was marked as much by attention to commerce as by the +love of conquest; but though by this enterprize he rendered both the +coasts of the Red Sea tributary, and thus better adapted to commerce, +there is no proof that he passed the Straits of Babelmandeb. It is +true, indeed, that he visited Mosullon, which lies beyond the +straits, but not by sea, having marched by land to that place, +through the interior of Abyssinia and Adel. From the whole of this +enterprize of Euergetes we may justly infer, that though he +facilitated the intercourse by land between Egypt and those parts of +Africa which lay immediately beyond the straits, yet his ships did +not pass the straits, and that in his reign the discoveries of +Timosthenes had not been followed up or improved for the purpose of +trading by sea with the coast of Africa. The navigation of the whole +of the Red Sea, at least on the Arabian side, from Leuake Kome to +Sabaea, was undoubtedly known and frequently used at this period; but +this was its utmost limit.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Ptolemy Philometor, when Agatharcides lived, the +commercial enterprizes of the Egyptians had begun rather to languish; +on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, they did indeed extend to Sabaea, +as in the time of Euergetes; but there is evidence that on the +opposite coast they did not go so low, as in the reign of the latter +sovereign. Agatharcides makes no mention of Berenice; according to +his account, Myos Hormos had again become the emporium, and the only +trade from that part seems to have been for elephants to Ptolemais +Theron. It may, indeed, be urged that Berenice was not, properly +speaking, a harbour, but only an open bay, to which the ships did not +come from Myos Hormos, till their cargoes were completely ready. But +that Myos Hormos was the great point of communication with Coptus is +evident from the account which Agatharcides gives of the caravan road +between these two places. Even so late as the time of Strabo, this +road was much more frequented than the road between Coptus and +Berenice: of the latter he merely observes, that Philadelphus opened +it with his army, established ports, and sunk Wells; whereas he +particularly describes the former road, as being seven or eight days' +journey, formerly performed on camels in the night, by observation of +the stars, and carrying water with them. Latterly, he adds, deep +wells had been sunk, and cisterns formed for holding water. Every +detail of the road to Berenice is Roman, and relates to periods +considerably posterior to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans--a +proof that the plan of Philadelphus, of substituting Berenice for +Myos Hormos, had not been regularly adopted by his successors, nor +till the Romans had firmly and permanently fixed themselves in +Egypt.</p> + +<p>In the extract we have already given from Agatharcides respecting +Arabia, he expressly mentions that the Gerrheans and Sabeans are the +centre of all the commerce that passes between Asia and Europe, and +that these are the nations which have enriched the Ptolemais: this +statement, taken in conjunction with the fact that his description of +the coast of the Red Sea reaches no farther than Sabaea on the one +side, and Ptolemais Theron on the other, seems decisive of the truth +of the opinion, that in the time of Philometor the Egyptians did not +trade directly to India. It may be proper to add, that in the +extracts from Agatharcides, given by Photius, it is expressly +mentioned that ships from India were met with by the Egyptian ships +in the ports of Sabaea. The particulars of this trade between India +and Egypt, by means of the Arabians, will be afterwards detailed, and +its great antiquity traced and proved; at present we have alluded to +it merely to bear us out in our position, that Indian ships, laden +with Indian commodities, frequenting the ports of Sabaea, and those +ports being described by Agatharcides as the limits of his knowledge +of this coast of the Red Sea, we are fully justified in concluding, +that, in the reign of Philometor, there was not only no direct trade +to India, but no inducement to such trade; and that 146 years after +the death of Alexander, the Greek sovereigns of Egypt had done little +to complete what that monarch had projected, and in part accomplished +by the navigation of Nearchus--the communication by sea between +Alexandria and India.</p> + +<p>Under the successors of Philometor, the trade in the Red Sea +languished rather than increased, and the full benefits of it were +not reaped till some time after the Roman conquest. Even in the time +of Strabo, the bulk of the trade still passed by Coptus to Myos +Hormos. We are aware of a passage in this author, which, at first, +sight seems to contradict the position we have laid down, and to +prove, that at least in his time, there was a direct and not +unfrequent navigation between the Red Sea and India. He expressly +states, that in the course of six or seven years, 120 ships had +sailed from Myos Hormos to India: but on this it may be observed, in +the first place, that he begins his description of India, with +requesting his readers to peruse what he relates concerning it with +indulgence, as it was a country very remote, and few persons had +visited it; and even with regard to Arabia Felix, he says, that the +knowledge of the Romans commenced with the expedition of his friend +Ælius Gallus into that country;--facts not very consistent with +his statement that 120 ships had sailed in six or seven years to +India: secondly, he expressly mentions, that formerly scarcely twenty +ships dared to navigate the Red Sea, so far as to shew themselves +beyond the straits; but we can hardly suppose that skill, enterprize, +and knowledge, had increased so rapidly as to extend within a very +few years navigation, not merely beyond the straits, but even to +India; we say a few years, for certainly, at the time when the Romans +conquered Egypt, the straits were not usually passed: lastly, the +name India was used so vaguely by the ancients, even by Strabo +occasionally, that it is not improbable he meant by it, merely the +coast of Arabia, beyond the straits. It is well asked by Dr. Vincent, +in reference to this account of Strabo, might not that geographer, +from knowing the ships brought home Indian commodities, have supposed +that they sailed to India, when in reality they went no farther than +Hadramant, in Arabia, or Mosullon, on the coast of Africa, where they +found the produce of India?</p> + +<p>It is not, however, meant to be denied that a few vessels, in the +time of Ptolemies, reached some part of India from the Red Sea, by +coasting all the way. The author of the Periplus of the Red Sea, +informs us that, before the discovery of the monsoon, by Hippalus, +small vessels had made a coasting voyage from Cana, in Arabia, to the +Indies. But these irregular and trifling voyages are deserving of +little consideration, and do not militate against the position we +have laid down and endeavoured to prove, that in the time of the +Ptolemies the commerce of Egypt was confined within the limits of the +Red Sea, partly from the want of skill and enterprize, and from the +dangers that were supposed to exist beyond the straits, but +principally because the commodities of India could be procured in the +ports of Sabæa.</p> + +<p>Many instances have already been given of the patronage which the +Ptolemies bestowed on commerce, of the facilities and advantages they +afforded, and of the benefits which the science of geography derived +from the library and observatory of Alexandria: every instrument +which could facilitate the study of astronomy was purchased by the +Ptolemies and placed in that observatory, for they were fully aware +of the dependency of a full and accurate knowledge of geography, as a +science, on a full and accurate knowledge of astronomy. With respect +to commerce, the advancement of which, may fairly be supposed to have +had some weight in their patronage of these sciences, they encouraged +it as much as possible to centre in Alexandria, and with citizens of +Egypt, by making it a standing law of the country, that no goods +should pass through the capital, either to India or Europe, without +the intervention of an Alexandrian factor, and that even when foreign +merchants resided there, they should employ the same agency. The +roads and canals they formed, and the care they took to keep the Red +Sea free from pirates, are further proofs of their regard for +commerce.</p> + +<p>And justly was it held by the Ptolemies in high estimation, for +from it they derived their immense wealth. We are informed by Strabo, +that the revenue of Alexandria, in the worst of times, was 12,500 +talents, equivalent to nearly two millions and a half sterling; and +if this was the revenue under the last and most indolent of the +Ptolemies, what must it have been under Ptolemy Philadelphus, or +Ptolemy Euergetes? But the account given by Appian of the treasure of +the Ptolemies is still more extraordinary: the sum he mentions is +740,000 talents, or £191,166,666, according to Dr. Arbuthnot's +computation; we should be disposed to doubt the accuracy of this +statement, did we not know that Appian was a native of Alexandria, +and did he not moreover inform us, that he had extracted his account +from the public records of that city. When we consider that this +immense sum was accumulated by only two of the Ptolemies, Ptolemy +Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that the latter maintained two +great fleets, one in the Mediterranean, and the other in the Red Sea, +besides an army of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse; and that he had +300 elephants, 2000 armed chariots, and an armoury at Alexandria, +stocked with 300,000 complete suits of armour, and all other +necessary weapons and implements of war,--we shall form some idea of +the extent and fruitfulness of Egyptian commerce, from which the +whole, or nearly the whole, of this immense wealth must have been +derived.</p> + +<p>Having thus brought our historical sketch of the progress of +discovery and commercial enterprize among the Egyptians down to the +period of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans, we shall, in the next +place, revert to the Romans themselves, in whom, at the date of their +conquest of this country, the geographical knowledge and the commerce +of the whole world may justly be said to have centered. As, however, +we have hitherto only adverted to the Romans, in our account of the +discoveries and commerce of the Carthaginians, it will be proper to +notice them in a much more detailed and particular manner. We shall, +therefore, trace, their geographical knowledge, their discoveries and +their commerce, from the foundation of Rome, to the period of their +conquest of Egypt; and in the course of this investigation, we shall +give a sketch of the commerce of those countries which successively +fell under their dominion--omitting such as we have already noticed: +by this plan, we shall be enabled to trace the commerce of all the +known world at that time, down to the period when Rome absorbed the +whole.</p> + +<p>The account which Polybius gives, that before the first +Carthaginian war the Romans were entirely ignorant of, and +inattentive to sea affairs--if by this statement he means to assert +that they were unacquainted with maritime commerce, as well as +maritime warfare, is expressly contradicted by the treaties between +Rome and Carthage, which we have already given in our account of the +commerce of Carthage. The first of those treaties was made 250 years +before the first Punic war; and the second, about fifty years before +it. Besides, it is not probable that the Romans should have been +entirely ignorant of, and inattentive to maritime commerce for so +long a period; since several nations of Italy, with which they were +at first connected, and which they afterwards conquered, were very +conversant in this commerce, and derived great consideration, power, +and wealth from it.</p> + +<p>The Romans had conquered Etruria, and made themselves masters of +the Tuscan powers both by sea and land, before the commencement of +the first Punic war; and though at this period, the Tuscans were not +so celebrated for their commerce as they had been, yet the shipping +and commerce they did possess, must have fallen into the power of the +Romans; and we can scarcely suppose that these, together with the +facilities which the Tuscans enjoyed for commerce, by means of their +ports, and their skill and commercial habits and connections, would +be entirely neglected by their conquerors. Besides, there are several +old Roman coins, by some supposed to have been as old as the time of +the kings, and certainly prior to the first Punic war, on the +reverses of which different parts of ships are visible. Now, as the +Roman historians are diffuse in the accounts they give of the wars of +the Romans, but take no notice of their commercial transactions, we +may safely conclude, from their not mentioning any maritime wars, or +expeditions of a date so early as these coins, that the ships at that +period preserved by the Romans, and deemed of such consequence as to +be struck on their coins, were employed for the purposes of +commerce.</p> + +<p>The Tuscans and the Grecian colonies in the south of Italy, +certainly had made great progress in commerce at an early period; and +as,--if their example did not stimulate the Romans to enterprises of +the same kind,--the Romans, at least when they conquered them, became +possessed of the commerce which they then enjoyed, it will be proper +to take a brief view of it.</p> + +<p>If we may credit the ancient historians, the Etrurians or +Tyrrhenians, even before the reign of Minos, had been for a long time +masters of the greatest part of the Mediterranean Sea, and had given +their name to the Tyrrhenian Sea, upon which they were situate. +Piracy, as well as commerce, was followed by them; and they became at +last so expert, successful, and dangerous, for their piracies, that +they were attacked, and their maritime power greatly abridged, by the +Carthaginians and the Sicilians. Their most famous port was Luna, +which was situated on the Macra, a river which, flowing from the +Apennines, divided Liguria from Etruria, and fell into the Tyrrhenian +Sea. There seems good reason to believe that Luna was a place of +great trade before the Trojan war; it was extremely capacious, and in +every respect worthy of the commercial enterprise and wealth of the +Tuscans. Populonium, a city which was situate on a high promontory of +the same name, that ran a considerable way into the sea, also +possessed a very commodious harbour, capable of receiving a great +number of ships. It had an arsenal well supplied with all kinds of +naval stores, and a quay for shipping or landing merchandize. One of +the principal articles of export consisted in copper vessels, and in +arms, machines, utensils, &c. of iron: these metals were at first +supplied to the inhabitants from the island of Æthalia (now +Elba); but the copper-mines there failing, iron alone, from the same +island, was imported for the purpose of their various manufactures; +the trade in these flourished in very remote times, and continued in +the days of Aristotle and Strabo.</p> + +<p>But the most direct and unequivocal testimony to the power of the +Tuscans, and that that power was principally, if not entirely, +derived from their maritime skill and commerce, is to be found in +Livy. This historian informs us, "that before the Roman empire, the +Tuscan dominions extended very far both by sea and land, even to the +upper and lower sea, by which Italy is surrounded, in form of an +island. Their very names are an argument for the vast power of this +people; for the Italian natives call the one the Tuscan Sea, and the +other the Adriatic, from Adria, a Tuscan colony. The Greeks call them +the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas. This people, in twelve cities, +inhabited the country extending to both seas; and by sending out +colonies equal in number to the mother cities, first on this side of +the Apennines towards the lower sea, and afterwards as many on the +other side, possessed all the country beyond the Po, even to the +Alps, except the corner belonging to the Venetians, who dwelt round a +bay of the sea." Homer, Heraclides, Aristides, and Diodorus Siculus, +all concur in their representations of the maritime power and +commercial opulence of the Tuscans at a very early period. Diodorus +Siculus expressly says, that they were masters of the sea; and +Aristides, that the Indians were the most powerful nation in the +east, and the Tuscans in the west.</p> + +<p>Of the Grecian colonies in the south of Italy, that of Tarentum +was the most celebrated for its commerce. Polybius expressly informs +us, that Tarentum, their principal city, was very prosperous and +rich, long before Rome made any figure, and that its prosperity and +riches were entirely the fruit of the extensive and lucrative trade +they carried on, particularly with Greece. The city of Tarentum stood +on a peninsula, and the citadel, which was very strong, was built on +the narrowest and extremest part of it; on the east was a small bay, +on the west the main sea; the harbour is represented by ancient +historians as extremely large, beautiful and commodious. Its vicinity +to Greece, Sicily, and Africa, afforded it great opportunities and +facilities for commerce. The inhabitants are represented by some +authors as having been the inventors of a particular kind of ship, +which retained in some degree the form of a raft or float. Their +government, which at first was aristocratical, was afterwards changed +to a democracy; and it is to this popular form of government that +their prosperity and wealth are ascribed. The number of people in the +whole state amounted to 300,000; Tarentum had twelve other cities +under its dominion. Besides a considerable fleet in the Mediterranean +Sea, they had constantly on foot a very large army, principally of +mercenaries. Eighteen years before the first Punic war, the Romans +had entered into a maritime treaty with the Tarentines; according to +this treaty, neither party were to navigate beyond the Cape of +Lacinia. Soon afterwards, however, the Roman fleet accidentally +appearing near Tarentum, the inhabitants took the alarm, sunk four of +the ships, killed or took prisoners the commander and some other +officers, sold the seamen for slaves, and behaved with great +insolence to the ambassador whom the Romans sent to remonstrate and +demand satisfaction. They were soon, however, obliged to submit to +the superior power of the Romans. In the second Punic war, it was +finally subdued, and a Roman colony planted there.</p> + +<p>The Spinetes, Liburnians, and Locrians, were also celebrated for +their skill in naval affairs, and for their commerce, before Rome +manifested the slightest wish to distinguish herself in this manner. +Indeed, the situation of Italy naturally turned the attention of its +inhabitants (especially of those who were early civilized, as the +Tuscans, or those who had emigrated from a civilized country, as the +nations in the south of Italy,) to naval affairs and maritime +commerce. Washed by three seas, the Adriatic on the north-east, the +Tyrrhenian on the west, and the Ionian on the south, Italy enjoyed +advantages possessed by few nations of antiquity. Of the first of +these seas, the Spinetes became masters, of the second the Tuscans, +and of the third the Tarentines. The Spinetes, were originally +Pelasgi, who had emigrated and settled by chance rather than design, +on the south banks of the Po. Spina, their capital, was situated on +the north side of the southernmost mouth of that river. We do not +possess any particular account of their commerce, but that it +rendered them powerful and rich we are assured; and their dominion +over the Adriatic is a decisive proof of the former, while their +magnificent offerings to Delphos may as justly be deemed a proof of +the latter. Spina was strong both by nature and art, on the sea side, +but the reverse on the land side; so that at last it was abandoned by +its inhabitants not being able to withstand the attacks of their +neighbours, who were either jealous of their prosperity, or attracted +to the assault by the love of plunder. In the reign of Augustus it +was reduced to a small village; and the branch of the Po, on which it +was situated, had changed its course so much, that it was then +upwards of fifteen miles distant from the sea, on the shore of which +it had been built. The gradual alteration in the course of the river, +it is probable, contributed with the other cause already mentioned to +reduce it to comparative insignificance.</p> + +<p>Opposite to the Spinetes across the Adriatic, on the coast of +Dalmatia, the Liburnians dwelt. In some respects their coast was +preferable to that of Italy for maritime affairs, as it is studded +with islands, which afforded shelter to ships, and likewise possessed +many excellent harbours; but the Liburnians, as well as most of the +inhabitants of Illyria, were more eager after piracy than commerce; +and, as we shall afterwards see, carried their piracies to such a +daring and destructive extent, that the Romans were compelled to +attack them. Their devotedness to piracy explains what to Mons. Huet +appears unaccountable. He observes, that it is remarkable that +neither the Dalmatians, who were powerful at sea by means of their +port Salona, which was their capital, nor the Liburnians themselves, +according to all appearance, had the use of money among them. +Commerce cannot be carried on to great extent, or in a regular and +expeditious manner, by natives ignorant of the use of money; but +money seems to be not at all requisite to the purposes of piracy. The +Liburnian ships, or more properly speaking, those ships which were +denominated Liburnian, from having been invented and first employed +by this people, were of two kinds; one large, fit for war and long +voyages, but at the same time built light and for quick sailing. +After the victory of Actium, which Augustus gained in a great measure +by means of these ships, few were built by the Romans of any other +construction. The other Liburnian vessels were small, for fishing and +short voyages; some of these were made with osiers and covered with +hides. But strength and lightness, and quick sailing, were the +qualities by which the Liburnian ships were chiefly distinguished and +characterised.</p> + +<p>At what precise period the Romans directed their attention to +maritime affairs we are not accurately informed: that the opinion of +Polybius on this subject is not well founded, is evident from several +circumstances. He says, that before the first Punic war the Romans +had no thought of the sea; that Sicily was the first country, out of +Italy, in which they ever landed; and that, when they went to that +island to assist the Mamertines, the vessels which they employed in +that expedition were hired, or borrowed from the Tarentines, the +Locrians, &c. He is correct in his statement that Sicily was the +first country in which the Romans had any footing; but that he is +inaccurate with respect to the period when the Romans first applied +themselves to maritime affairs, will appear from the following +facts.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the Romans (as we have already shown in our +account of the Carthaginian commerce,) had several treaties with the +Carthaginians, which may properly be called commercial treaties, +before the first Punic war. The earliest treaty, according to +Polybius himself, was dated about 250 years before the war; and in +this treaty the voyages undertaken by the Romans on account of trade +to Africa, Sardinia, and that part of Sicily at that time possessed +by the Carthaginians, are expressly mentioned and regulated. The +second treaty, about 100 years before the first Punic war, is not so +specific respecting commerce. The third treaty, occasioned by the +invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, points out a decline in the naval power +of the Romans; for it stipulates, that the Carthaginians should +furnish them with ships, if required, either for trade or war. +Secondly, seventy-four years before the first Punic war, the Romans +having subdued the Antiates, and thus become masters of their fleet, +among which were six armed with beaks, the tribune was ornamented +with these beaks, the ships to which they belonged were burnt, and +the others were brought to Rome and laid upon the place allotted to +the building and preservation of ships. Lastly, the circumstances +which gave rise to the war between the Romans and Tarentines, to +which we have already adverted, plainly prove that Polybius is wrong +in his assertion. Valerius, who commanded the Roman fleet, which was +attacked by the Tarentines, according to Livy, was one of the +<i>duumviri navales</i>, officers who had been already appointed +nearly thirty years (that is, nearly fifty years before the first +Punic war), on the motion of Decius Mus, expressly for the purpose of +equipping, repairing, and maintaining the fleets.</p> + +<p>From these circumstances, it appears that the Romans possessed +ships both for war and commerce, previous to the commencement of +their wars with the Carthaginians, though it is extremely probable +that their commerce was very limited, and for the most part carried +on in vessels belonging to the other maritime nations of Italy, and +that their ships of war were very small and rude in their +construction and equipment.</p> + +<p>It is foreign to the object of this work to enter into a detail of +the wars between the Romans and the Carthaginians: but as the great +efforts of the Romans to become powerful at sea were made during +these wars; as these efforts, being successful, laid the foundation +of the future commerce of Rome; and as by the destruction of +Carthage, in some measure caused by the naval victories gained by the +Romans, the most commercial nation of antiquity was utterly ruined, +and their commerce transferred to Rome, it will be proper briefly to +notice the naval contests between these rival powers during the three +wars in which they were engaged.</p> + +<p>The first Punic war was occasioned by a desire on the part of the +Carthaginians to enlarge and secure their acquisitions in Sicily, and +to preserve their dominion of the sea, and by a determination on the +part of the Romans to check the progress of the Carthaginians in that +island, so immediately adjoining the continent of Italy. An +opportunity soon occurred, which seemed to promise to each the +accomplishment of their respective objects: the Mamertines, being +hard pursued by Hiero king of Syracuse, and shut up in Messina, the +only city which remained to them, were divided in opinion; some were +for accepting the protection offered them by Hannibal, who at that +time commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily; others were for +calling in the aid of the Romans. Both these powers gladly accepted +the proffered opportunity of extending their conquests, and checking +their rival.</p> + +<p>The consul Appius Claudius, was ordered by the senate to proceed +to Sicily: previously to his departure, he despatched Caius Claudius, +a legionary tribune, with a few vessels to Rhegium, principally, it +would seem, to reconnoitre the naval force of the Carthaginians. The +consul himself soon followed with a small fleet, hired principally +from the Tarentines, Locrians, and Neapolitans. This fleet being +attacked by the Carthaginian fleet, which was not only much more +numerous, but better equipped and manned, and a violent storm rising +during the engagement, which dashed many of the Roman vessels in +pieces among the rocks, was completely worsted. The Carthaginians, +however, restored most of the vessels they captured, only +expostulating with the Romans on the infraction of the treaty at that +time subsisting between the two republics. This loss was in some +measure counterbalanced by Claudius capturing, on his voyage back to +Rhegium, a Carthaginian quinquireme, the first which fell into the +possession of the Romans, and which served them for a model. +According to other historians, however, a Carthaginian galley, +venturing too near the shore, was stranded, and taken by the Romans; +and after the model of this galley, the Romans built many of their +vessels.</p> + +<p>Claudius was not in the least discouraged by his defeat, observing +that he could not expect to learn the art of navigation without +paying dear for it; but having repaired his fleet, he sailed again +for Sicily, and eluding the vigilance of the Carthaginian admiral, +arrived safe in the port of Messina.</p> + +<p>After the alliance formed between the Romans and Hiero king of +Syracuse, and the capture of Agrigentium, they resolved to use all +their efforts for the entire subjugation of Sicily. As, however, the +Carthaginians were extremely powerful by sea, they could not hope to +accomplish this object, unless they were able to cope with them on +that element. They resolved, therefore, no longer to trust in any +degree to hired vessels, but to build and equip a formidable fleet of +their own. Powerfully actuated by this resolution, they began the +arduous undertaking with that ardour and spirit of perseverance, +which so eminently distinguished them; they deemed it absolutely +necessary to have 120 ships. Trees were immediately cut down in the +forests, and the timber brought to the sea shore: and the whole +fleet, according to Polybius, was not only built, but perfectly +equipped and ready for sea, in two months from the time the trees +were felled. Of the 120 vessels of which it was composed, 100 had +five benches of rowers, and 20 of them had three benches.</p> + +<p>There was, however, another difficulty to be overcome. It was +absolutely necessary that the men, who were to navigate and fight +these ships, should possess some knowledge of their art; but it was +in vain to expect that with the Carthaginians, so powerful and +watchful at sea, the Roman ships would be permitted to cruise safely +long enough to make them practised sailors and fighters. To obviate +this difficulty, they had recourse, according to Polybius, to a +singular but tolerably effectual mode. "While some men were employed +in building the galleys, others, assembling those who were to serve +in the fleet, instructed them in the use of the oar after the +following manner: they contrived benches on the shore in the same +fashion and order as they were to be in the galleys, and placing +their seamen, with their oars, in like manner on the benches, an +officer, by signs with his hand, instructed them how to dip their +oars all at the same time, and how to recover them out of the water. +By this means they became acquainted with the management of the oar; +and as soon as the vessels were built and equipped, they spent some +time in practising on the water, what they had learnt ashore."</p> + +<p>The necessity of possessing a fleet adequate to cope with that of +the Carthaginians became more and more apparent; for though the +Romans had obtained possession of all the inland cities in Sicily, +the Carthaginians compensated for this by having the ascendancy by +sea, and in the cities on the coast. The Roman fleet was commanded by +Cornelius Scipio, who put to sea with seventeen ships, in order to +secure at Messina reception and security for the whole fleet; but his +enterprise was unfortunate; for, being deceived by false information, +he entered the port of Lipara, where he was blockaded by the enemy, +and obliged to surrender. This partial loss, however, was soon +counterbalanced by a naval victory; for the remainder of the Roman +fleet, amounting to 103 sail, being encountered by a Carthaginian +fleet under Hannibal, who despising the Romans, had advanced to the +contest with only fifty galleys, succeeded in capturing or destroying +the whole of them.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, the senate had appointed Duilius commander of +the fleet; and his first object was to survey it accurately, and, if +possible, to improve the construction or equipment of the vessels, if +they appeared defective, either for the purpose of sailing or +fighting. It seemed to him, on examining them, that they could not be +easily and quickly worked during an engagement, being much heavier +and more unwieldy than those of the Carthaginians. As this defect +could not be removed, he tried whether it could not be compensated; +and an engineer in the fleet succeeded in this important object, by +inventing that machine which was afterwards called <i>corvus</i>.</p> + +<p>The immediate purpose which this machine was to serve is clearly +explained by all the ancient authors who mention it: its use was to +stop the enemy's ships as soon as the Roman vessels came up with +them, and thus to give them an opportunity of boarding them; but the +construction and mode of operation of these machines it is not easy +to ascertain from the descriptions of ancient authors. Polybius gives +the following description of them: "They erected on the prow of their +vessels a round piece of timber, about one foot and a half in +diameter, and about twelve feet long, on the top of which a block or +pully was fastened. Round this piece of timber a stage or platform +was constructed, four feet broad, and about eighteen feet long, which +was strongly fastened with iron. The entrance was lengthways, and it +could be moved about the piece of timber, first described, as on a +spindle, and could be hoisted within six feet of the top. Round this +there was a parapet, knee high, which was defended with upright bars +of iron, sharpened at the end. Towards the top there was a ring, +through which a rope was fastened, by means of which they could raise +and lower the engine at pleasure. With this machine they attacked the +enemy's vessels, sometimes on their bow, and sometimes on their +broadside. When they had grappled the enemy with these iron spikes, +if the ships happened to swing broadside to broadside, then the +Romans boarded them from all parts; but when they were obliged to +grapple them on the bow, they entered two and two, by the help of +this engine, the foremost defending the forepart, and those who +followed the flanks, keeping the boss of their bucklers level with +the top of the parapet."</p> + +<p>From this description of the corvus, it is evident that it had two +distinct uses to serve: in the first place, to lay hold of and +entangle the enemy's ships; and, secondly, after it had accomplished +this object, it served as a means of entering the enemy's vessels, +and also as a protection while the boarding was taking place. With +respect to the question, whether the <i>harpagones</i> or manus +ferrææ; were the same with the <i>corvi</i>, it appears +to us that the former were of much older invention, as they certainly +were much more simple in their construction; and that, probably, the +engineer who invented the corvi, borrowed his idea of them from the +harpagones, and in fact incorporated the two machines in one engine. +The harpagones were undoubtedly grappling irons, but of such light +construction that they could be thrown by manual force; but they were +of no other service; whereas the corvi were worked by machinery, and +served, as we have shown, not only to grapple, but to assist and +protect the boarders. We have been thus particular in our account of +the corvus, because it may fairly be regarded as having essentially +contributed to the establishment of the Roman naval power over that +of the Carthaginians.</p> + +<p>After Duilius had made a trial of the efficacy of this machine, he +sailed in quest of the enemy. The Carthaginians, despising the Romans +as totally inexperienced in naval affairs, did not even take the +trouble or precaution to draw up their ships in line of battle, but +trusting entirely to their own superior skill, and to the greater +lightness of their ships, they bore down on the Romans in disorder. +They, however, were induced, for a short time, to slacken their +advance at the sight of the corvi; but not giving the Romans credit +for any invention which could counterbalance their want of skill, +experience, and self-confidence, they again pushed forward and +attacked the Romans. They soon suffered, however, the consequences of +their rashness: the Romans, by means of their corvi, grappled their +ships so closely and steadily, that the fight resembled much more a +land than a sea battle; and thus feeling themselves, as it were, on +their own element, while their enemies seemed to themselves no longer +to be fighting in ships, the confidence of the former rose, while +that of the latter fell, from the same cause, and nearly in the same +proportion. The result was, that the Romans gained a complete +victory. The loss of the Carthaginians is variously related by the +Roman writers: this is extraordinary, since they must have had access +to the best possible authority; the inscription of the Columna +Rostrata of Duilius, which is still preserved at Rome. According to +this inscription, Duilius fitted out a fleet in sixty days, defeated +the Carthaginians, commanded by Hannibal, at sea, took from them +thirty ships, with all their rigging, and the septireme which carried +the admiral himself; sunk thirty, and took several prisoners of +distinction. When Hannibal saw the Romans about to enter his +septireme, he leaped into a small boat and escaped.</p> + +<p>A circumstance occurred during this engagement which clearly +manifested the ardour and perseverance, by means of which the Romans +had already become expert, not only in the management of their ships, +but also in the use of their corvi. It has already been noticed that +the Carthaginians bore down on them in disorder, each ship +endeavouring to reach them as soon as possible, without waiting for +the rest: among the foremost was Hannibal. After the defeat of this +part of the fleet, the rest, amounting to 120, having come up, +endeavoured to avoid the fate of their companions by rowing as +quickly as possible round the Roman ships, so as not to allow them to +make use of the corvi. But the Romans proved themselves to be even +more expert seamen than their enemies; for, though their vessels were +much heavier, they worked them with so much ease, celerity, and +skill, that they presented the machines to the enemy on whatever side +they approached them.</p> + +<p>The vanquished Hannibal was disgraced by his country; whereas the +victorious Roman was honoured and rewarded by the senate, who were +fully sensible of all the advantages derived by a naval victory over +the Carthaginians. The high and distinguished honour of being +attended, when he returned from supper, with music and torches, which +was granted for once only to those who triumphed, was continued to +Duilius during life. To perpetuate the memory of this victory, medals +were struck, and the pillar, to which we have already alluded, was +erected in the forum. This pillar, called Columna Rostrata, from the +beaks of the ships which were fastened to it, was discovered in the +year 1560, and placed in the capital.</p> + +<p>In the year after this splendid victory the Romans resolved to +attempt the reduction of Corsica and Sardinia; for this purpose L. +Cornelius Scipio sailed with a squadron under his command. He easily +succeeded in reducing Corsica; but it appears, from an inscription on +a stone which was dug up in the year 1615, in Rome, that he +encountered a violent storm off the coast of that island, in which +his fleet was exposed to imminent danger. The words of the +inscription are, "He took the city of Aleria and conquered Corsica, +and built a temple to the tempests, with very good reason." This +storm is not mentioned in any of the ancient authors. Scipio was +obliged to be more cautious in his attempts on Sardinia, but +afterwards the Romans succeeded in gaining possession of this +island.</p> + +<p>The Romans having thus acquired Corsica and Sardinia, and all the +maritime towns of Sicily, determined to invade, or at least to alarm, +the African dominions of Carthage. Accordingly Sulpicius, who +commanded their fleet, circulated a report that he intended to sail +for the coasts of Africa: this induced the Carthaginians to put to +sea; but after the hostile fleets had approached each other, and were +about to engage, a storm arose and separated them, and obliged them +both to take shelter in the ports of Sardinia. As soon as it abated, +Sulpicius put to sea again, surprised the Carthaginians, and captured +or destroyed most of their ships.</p> + +<p>Five years after the victory of Duilius, the Romans were able to +put to sea a fleet of 330 covered gallies. Ten of these were sent to +reconnoitre the enemy, but approaching too near, they were attacked +and destroyed. This unfortunate event did not discourage the consul +Attilius Regulus, who commanded: on the contrary, he resolved to wipe +off this disgrace by signalizing his consulship in a remarkable +manner. He was ordered by the senate to cross the Mediterranean, and +invade Carthage. The Roman fleet, which consisted of 330 galleys, on +board of each of which were 120 soldiers and 300 rowers, was +stationed at Messina: from this port they took their departure, +stretching along the coast of Sicily, till they doubled Cape +Pachynum, after which they sailed directly to Ecnomos. The +Carthaginian fleet consisted of 360 sail, and the seamen were more +numerous, as well as more skilful and experienced, than those of the +Romans: it rendezvoused at Heraclea, not far from Ecnomos. Between +these two places the hostile fleets met, and one of the most +obstinate and decisive battles ensued that are recorded in ancient +history. As Polybius has given a very particular account of the +manner in which the respective fleets were drawn up, and of all the +incidents of the battle, we shall transcribe it from him, because the +issue of it may justly be regarded as having proved the Roman +superiority at sea, and because the details of this accurate +historian will afford us a clear insight into the naval engagements +of the ancients.</p> + +<p>As there were 330 ships, and each ship had on board 300 rowers, +and 120 soldiers, the total number of men in the fleet amounted +140,000. The whole fleet was formed into four divisions: the first +was called the first legion; the second, the second; and the third, +the third legion. The fourth division had a different name; they were +called triarians: the triarii who were on board this division, being +old soldiers of approved valour, who, in land battles, formed the +third line of the legion, and hence obtained their appellation. The +first division was drawn up on the right, the second on the left, and +the third in the rear of the other two, in such a manner that these +three divisions formed a triangle, the point of which was the two +gallies, in which were the consuls, in front of their respective +squadrons, parallel to the third legion, which formed the base of the +triangle, and in the rear of the whole fleet; the triarian division +was drawn up, but extended in such a manner as to out-flank the +extremes of the base. Between the triarian division and the other +part of the squadron, the transports were drawn up, in order that +they might be protected from the enemy, and their escape accelerated +and covered in case of a defeat; on board of the transports were the +horses, and baggage of the army.</p> + +<p>According to Polybius, the seamen and troops on board the +Carthaginian fleet amounted to 150,000 men. Their admiral waited to +see the disposition of the Roman fleet before he formed his own in +order of battle; he divided it into four squadrons, drawn up in one +line; one of these was drawn up very near the shore, the others +stretched far out to sea, apparently for the purpose of out-flanking +the Romans. The light vessels were on the right, under the command of +Hanno; the squadron on the left, which was formed of heavier vessels, +was under the command of Hamilcar.</p> + +<p>It is evident from this description of the order of battle of the +Carthaginians, that their line, being so much extended, could easily +be broken; the Romans perceiving this, bore down on the middle with +their first and second divisions. The Carthaginians did not wait the +attack, but retired immediately with the intention of drawing the +Romans after them, and thus by separating, weakening their fleet. The +Romans, thinking the victory was their own, pushed after the flying +enemy, thus weakening their third division, and at the same time +exposing themselves to an attack while they were scattered. The +Carthaginians, perceiving that their manoeuvre had so far succeeded, +tacked about, and engaged with their pursuers. But the Romans, by +means of their corvi, which they were now very skilful in using, +grappled with the enemy, and as soon as they had thus rendered the +engagement similar to a land battle, they overcame them.</p> + +<p>While these things were going on between Hamilcar with the left +wing of the Carthaginian fleet, and the first and second divisions of +the Romans, Hanno, with his light vessels, which formed the right +wing, attacked the triarians, and the ships which were drawn up near +the shore, attacked the third legion and the transports. These two +attacks were conducted with so much spirit and courage, that many of +the triarians, transports, and third legion were driven on shore, and +their defeat would probably have been decisive, had not the Roman +first and second divisions, which had defeated and chased to a +considerable distance the Carthaginians opposed to them, returned +most opportunely from the chace, and supported them. The +Carthaginians were no longer able to withstand their enemies, but +sustained a signal defeat; thirty of their vessels having been sunk, +and sixty-three taken. The immediate result of this victory was, that +the Romans landed in Africa without opposition.</p> + +<p>The next victory obtained by the Romans over the Carthaginians was +achieved soon after the defeat and captivity of Regulus, and was +justly regarded by them as an ample compensation for that disaster. +It was a wise and politic maxim of the Roman republic never to appear +cast down by defeat, but, on the contrary, to act in such a case with +more than their usual confidence and ardour. Acting on this maxim +they equipped a fleet and sent it towards Africa, immediately after +they learnt the defeat of Regulus. The Carthaginians, who were +endeavouring to take all possible advantage of their victory, by +expelling the Romans from Africa, as soon as the news arrived of the +sailing of this fleet, abandoned the seige of Utica, before which +they had sat down,--refitted their old ships, built several new ones, +and put to sea. The hostile fleets met near Cape Herme, the most +northern point of Africa, a little to the north-east of Carthage. +They were again unsuccessful on what they had formerly justly +regarded as their own element. One hundred and four of their ships +were captured, and 15,000 men, soldiers, and rowers, were killed in +the action.</p> + +<p>This victory, however, proved of little benefit to the Romans in +their grand enterprise of establishing a firm and permanent footing, +in Africa; for, in consequence of their inability to obtain a regular +supply of provisions for their army, they were obliged soon +afterwards to evacuate Clupea and Utica, the principal places they +held there, and to re-embark their troops for Italy.</p> + +<p>In order to make up for this hard necessity, they resolved to land +in Sicily on their return, and, if possible, reduce some cities which +the Carthaginians still retained in that island. Such was the plan of +the consuls, but it was vehemently opposed by the pilots of the +fleet, who represented to them, that as the season was far advanced, +the most prudent measure would be to sail directly for Italy, and not +go round the northern coast of Sicily, as the consuls wished. The +latter, however, persisted in their resolution; the consequences were +extremely fatal; a most violent storm arose, during which the greater +part of the fleet was destroyed or rendered completely useless, +either foundering, or being driven on shore. All the sea coast from +Camarina to Pachynum, was covered with dead bodies of men and horses, +as well as with the wrecks of the ships. The exact number of ships +that were lost is differently represented by different authors, but +according to the most accurate account, out of 370 which composed the +fleet, only eighty escaped. Besides the destruction of these vessels, +a numerous army was lost, with all the riches of Africa, which had +been amassed and deposited in Clupea, by Regulus, and which was in +the act of being conveyed to Rome.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians, animated by the news of this event, resolved to +attempt the subjugation of Sicily, Africa being now liberated from +the enemy. But the Romans, by incredible efforts, fitted out a new +fleet in the short space of three months, consisting of 120 ships; +which, with the old vessels which had escaped, made up a fleet of 250 +sail. With these, they passed over to Sicily, where they were +successful in reducing the Carthaginian capital in that island.</p> + +<p>The next year they sent to sea a fleet of 260 ships to attempt the +reduction of Lilibæum, but this place being found too strong, +the consuls directed their course to the eastern coast of Africa, on +which they carried on a predatory warfare. Having filled their ships +with the spoils, they were returning to Italy, when they narrowly +escaped shipwreck. On the coast of Africa, there were two sand-banks, +called the Greater and Lesser Syrtes, which were very much dreaded by +the ancients, on account of their frequently changing places; +sometimes being easily visible, and at other times considerably below +the water. On the Lesser Syrtes the Roman fleet grounded; fortunately +it was low water, and moderate weather at the time, so that on the +return of flood tide, the vessels floated off, with little or no +damage, but the consuls were dreadfully alarmed.</p> + +<p>This, however, was only a prelude to real disaster: the fleet +arrived safe at Panormus, where they remained a short time. On their +departure for Italy, the wind and weather were favourable till they +reached Cape Palinurus; here a dreadful storm arose, in which 160 +galleys, and a considerable number of transports, were lost. This +second storm seems to have so dispirited the Roman senate, that they +resolved to confine their efforts to land, and accordingly a decree +was issued, that, as it seemed the will of the gods that the Romans +should not succeed against their enemy by sea, no more than fifty +vessels should in future be equipped; and that these should be +employed exclusively in protecting the coasts of Italy, and in +transporting troops to Sicily.</p> + +<p>This decree, however, was not long acted upon; for the +Carthaginians, perceiving that the Romans no longer dared to meet +them at sea, made such formidable preparations for invading Sicily, +by equipping a fleet of 200 sail, and raising an army of 30,000 men, +besides 140 elephants, that the Romans, being reduced to the +alternative of either losing that valuable island, or of again +encountering their enemy at sea, resolved on the latter measure. +Accordingly a new fleet was built, consisting of 240 galleys, and +sixty smaller vessels, and Lilibæum was besieged by sea and +land. This city was deemed impregnable, and as it was the only place +of retreat for the Carthaginian armies in Sicily, it was defended +with the utmost obstinacy.</p> + +<p>During this siege, two bold and successful enterprises were +undertaken for the purpose of supplying the garrison with provisions. +The Romans had shut up the port so closely, that the governor could +have no communication with Carthage: nevertheless, Hannibal, the son +of Hamilcar, resolved to enter it with a supply of provisions. With +this intention, he anchored with a few vessels under an island near +the coast, and as soon as a strong south wind arose, he set all sail, +and plied his oars with so much vigour and alacrity, that he passed +safely through the midst of the Roman fleet, and landed 10,000 men +and a considerable quantity of provisions. Having succeeded thus far, +and being convinced that the Romans would be on the alert to prevent +his sudden escape, he resolved to intimidate them, if possible, by +the open boldness of the attempt; and in this also he succeeded.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards the harbour was again so closely blockaded, +that the senate of Carthage were quite uninformed of the state and +resources of the garrison. In this emergency, a Rhodian, of the name +of Hannibal, undertook to enter the harbour, and to come back to +Carthage with the requisite and desired intelligence. The Roman fleet +lay at anchor, stretched across the mouth of the harbour. Hannibal, +following the example of his namesake, with a very light galley of +his own, concealed himself near one of the islands which lie opposite +to Lilibæum. Very early in the morning, before it was light, +with a favourable wind blowing rather strong, he succeeded in getting +through the Roman fleet, and entered the port. The consul, mortified +at this second enterprise, ordered ten of his lightest vessels to lie +as close as possible to each other, across the mouth of the harbour; +and that they might not be taken by surprise and unprepared, he +further directed that the men should constantly have their oars in +their hands, stretched out, so as to be ready to plunge them into the +water at a moment's warning. The skill and experience of the Rhodian, +however, and the extreme lightness and celerity of his vessel, +rendered all these precautions unavailing; for, not content with +securing his escape, he mocked the Romans, by often lying to till +they came near him, and then rowing round them. The Carthaginian +senate were now able to have frequent communication with the garrison +by means of this Rhodian: his success, and the recompence which +rewarded it, induced several Carthaginians to make the same attempt. +They were all successful except one, who, not knowing the force and +direction of the currents, was carried by them ashore, and fell into +the power of the Romans. The Rhodian still continued to pass between +the besieged and Carthage; but his good fortune was near an end. The +Romans had fitted out the Carthaginian galley which they had +captured, and "waited with impatience for a fresh insult from the +Rhodian: it was not long before he entered the port in the night +time, according to custom, and was preparing to sail out in broad +day, not knowing that the Romans were now masters of a galley which +was as good a sailer as his own. He weighed anchor with great +confidence, and sailed out of the port in sight of the enemy's fleet, +but was greatly surprized to see the Romans pursue him close, and at +length come up with him, notwithstanding the lightness of his vessel. +He had now no way left but to engage them, which he did with an +undaunted bravery; but the Romans, who were all chosen men, soon put +an end to the dispute. The Rhodian vessel was boarded and taken with +all her crew. The Romans being now in possession of two light +galleys, shut up the port so effectually, that no Carthaginian ever +after attempted to enter it."</p> + +<p>The following year the Romans were obliged to convert the siege +into a blockade, in consequence of the Carthaginians having succeeded +in destroying all their works. One of the consuls was P. Claudius +Pulcher, an obstinate and ambitious man, who, contrary to the advice +of those who were better skilled in maritime affairs, and better +acquainted with the Carthaginians than he was, determined to surprize +Drepanon, where the Carthaginian admiral was posted. Claudius had +under his command a fine and formidable fleet of 120 galleys; with +these he sailed from before Lilibæum in the night time, having +taken on board a great number of the best troops employed in the +blockade of that place. At break of day, Asdrubal, the Carthaginian +admiral, was surprized to perceive the hostile fleet approaching +Drepanon: he formed his plan immediately, preferring an immediate +engagement to the certainty of being shut up in the harbour. +Accordingly, with ninety ships, he sailed out, and drew them up +behind some rocks which lay near the harbour. As the Romans had not +perceived him come out, they continued to sail on without forming +themselves into line of battle, when as they were about to enter the +harbour, the Carthaginians attacked them, with such celerity and +vigour, that, being taken quite unprepared, they were thrown into +confusion. Claudius might still have saved his fleet by immediate +flight, but this he absolutely refused to do, notwithstanding the +strong and urgent remonstrances of his officers. By great exertions +the Roman fleet was formed into line of battle, on a lee shore, and +close to rocks and shoals. It was on this occasion, that the Romans' +veneration for auguries was so dreadfully shocked, by Claudius +exclaiming, when the sacred chickens refused to feed, "If they will +not feed, let them drink," at the same time ordering them to be +thrown into the sea. The bad omen, and the sacrilegious insult, added +to the situation in which they were placed, and their want of +confidence in Claudius, seemed to have paralysed the efforts of the +Romans: they fought feebly: the enemy boarded their ships without +difficulty or resistance; so that ninety vessels were either taken or +driven ashore, 8,000 of their seamen and soldiers were killed, and +20,000 taken prisoners. As soon as Claudius perceived the probable +result of the battle, he fled precipitately with thirty vessels. The +Carthaginians did not lose a single ship or man on this occasion. +This was the most signal and disastrous defeat which the Romans had +suffered at sea since the commencement of the war. According to +Polybius, Claudius was tried, condemned, and very severely +punished.</p> + +<p>The other consul, Lucius Pullus, was not more successful, though +his want of success did not, as in the case of Claudius, arise from +ignorance and obstinacy. He was ordered to sail from Syracuse with a +fleet of 120 galleys, and 800 transports, the latter laden with +provisions and stores for the army before Lilibaeum. As the army was +much pressed for necessaries, and the consul himself was not ready to +put to sea directly, he sent the quaestors before him with a small +squadron. The Carthaginians, who were very watchful, and had the best +intelligence of all the Romans were doing, having learnt that the +consul was at sea with a large fleet, sent 100 galleys to cruize off +Heraclea. As soon as the squadron under the quaestors came in sight, +the Carthaginian admiral, though he mistook it for the consular +fleet, yet resolved to engage it: but the quaestors, having received +orders not to hazard a battle if they could possibly avoid, took +refuge behind some rocks, where they were attacked by the enemy. The +Romans defended themselves so well with balistae and other engines, +which they had erected on the rocks, that the Carthaginian admiral, +after having captured a few transports, was obliged to draw off his +fleet.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, the light vessels, employed on the lookout, +informed him that the whole consular fleet were directing their +course for Lilibaeum: his obvious plan was to engage this fleet +before it could join that of the quæstors; he therefore steered +his course to meet them. But the consul was equally averse with the +quaestors to hazard the supply of the army by a battle, and he, +therefore, also took shelter near some rocks. The Carthaginian +admiral was afraid to attack him in this position, but resolved to +watch him: while thus employed his pilots observed certain +indications of an approaching storm, which induced him to take +shelter on the other side of Cape Pachynum. He had scarcely doubled +the cape, when the storm arose with such violence that the whole +Roman fleet was destroyed. According to Polybius, not one vessel, not +even a plank, was saved out of a fleet which consisted of 120 galleys +and 800 transports.</p> + +<p>Two such losses occurring during the same consulate, induced the +Romans again to resolve to desist from all naval enterprizes and +preparations, so that for some time no public fleet was equipped. +This resolution, however, yielded to the conviction that they could +not hope even to retain their possessions in Sicily, or even to +secure their commerce on the coasts of Italy, if they did not +endeavour to cope with the Carthaginians by sea. But as the senate +thought it would appear derogatory to their dignity and consistency +to equip a public fleet, after they had a second time resolved +solemnly and officially not to do so, they passed a decree, by which +all the Roman citizens who were able and so disposed, were permitted +to build, equip, and arm vessels at their own expence; with these +ships they were directed to land on the coast of Africa, for the +purpose of pillage, the fruit of which was to be their own private +gain. The senate even went further to evade, by a pitiful subterfuge +their own decree, for they lent the few ships which still remained to +the republic, to private citizens, on condition that they should keep +them in repair, and make them good if they were lost. By these +measures a very considerable fleet was equipped, which committed +great depredations on the coast of Africa. Emboldened by their +predatory warfare, they resolved to attempt a more arduous +enterprize. One of the most celebrated of the Carthaginian harbours +was that of Hippo; besides the port there was a citadel, and large +arsenals for naval stores, &c. As the inhabitants were much +engaged in commerce, there were in the town always a considerable +quantity of merchandize. This port the privateer squadron determined +to enter. The inhabitants, aware of their design, stretched a very +strong chain across the harbour mouth; but it did not avail; for the +Roman ships broke through it, took possession of the town and ships, +burnt most of them, and returned safe with an immense booty. This +success was quickly followed by another, for as they were re-entering +Panormus, they fell in with a Carthaginian fleet loaded with +provisions for Hamilcar, who commanded in Sicily, and captured +several of the transports. These advantages began to inspire the +Romans with renewed confidence and hopes that their naval disasters +were at an end, and that the gods had at length permitted them to +become masters of the sea, when the privateer fleet, after having +gained a considerable victory over a Carthaginian squadron, near the +coast of Africa, was almost totally destroyed in a storm.</p> + +<p>For a few years afterwards, the Romans seem to have desisted +entirely from maritime enterprizes; but in the year of the city 516, +they changed their plan, as it was indeed evident that unless they +were masters at sea, they must be content to lose the island of +Sicily. In order, however, that the Roman armies might not suffer by +their losses at sea, it was decreed that the new fleet should be +manned with hired troops. There was still another difficulty to +overcome; the protracted war with Carthage, and the heavy and +repeated losses which they had suffered during it, had nearly +exhausted the Roman treasury; from it therefore could not possibly be +drawn the sums requisite for the proper and effective equipment of +such a fleet as would be adequate to meet that of the enemy. This +difficulty was removed by the patriotism of all ranks and classes of +the citizens. The senators set the example; the most wealthy of whom +built, each at his own cost, a quinquereme: those who were not so +wealthy joined together, three or four of them fitting out a single +galley. By these means a fleet of 200 large vessels was made ready +for any expedition, the state having bound themselves to repay the +individuals whenever her finances were adequate to such an expence. +This fleet was not only very numerous and well equipped, but most of +the vessels which composed it were built on an entirely new model, +which combined an extraordinary degree of celerity with strength. The +model was taken from that light Rhodian galley, which we have already +mentioned, as having been employed by its owner, Hannibal, in +conveying intelligence between Carthage and Lilibæum, and which +was afterwards captured by the Romans. The command of this fleet was +given to the consul Lutatius: and the great object to be accomplished +was the reduction of Lilibæum, which still held out. The first +step of the consul was to occupy all the sea-ports near this place: +the town of Drepanon, however, resisting his efforts, he resolved +rather to decide its fate, and that of Sicily in general, by a sea +battle, than to undertake a regular siege.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians soon gave him an opportunity of acting in this +manner, for they sent to sea a fleet of 400 vessels, under the +command of Hanno. In the building and equipment of this fleet, the +senate of Carthage had nearly exhausted all their means; but though +their fleet was numerically much greater than that of Rome, in some +essential respects it was inferior to it. Most of the seamen and +troops on board it were inexperienced and undisciplined; and the +ships themselves were not to be compared, with regard to the union of +lightness and strength, with the Roman vessels, as they were now +built. Besides, the Romans trusted entirely to themselves-- the +Carthaginians, in some measure, to their allies or to hired seamen. +The Romans, though firm and determined, were not rashly confident; +whereas the Carthaginians even yet regarded their adversaries with +feelings of contempt.</p> + +<p>The hostile fleets met off Hiera, one of the Aeolian islands. The +Carthaginian admiral's first object was to reach Eryx, a city which +had lately been taken by Hamilcar, there to unload his vessels, and +after having taken on board Hamilcar and the best of his troops, to +sail again in quest of the Roman fleet. But the consul prevented this +design from being carried into execution, by coming up with the +Carthaginians, as we have just stated, off Hiera, while they were +steering for Eryx. As the wind was favourable for the Romans, they +were extremely anxious to commence the engagement immediately; but +before they had formed into order of battle, it changed, blew hard, +and a heavy sea arose. The determination of the consul to engage was +for a short time shaken by this circumstance, but he reflected that +though the sea was rough, the enemy's ships were heavily laden, and +therefore would suffer more from it than his ships would; while if, +on the other hand, he delayed the engagement till the Carthaginians +reached Eryx, they would then have lighter vessels, as well as a +greater number of experienced seamen and soldiers on board of them. +These considerations determined him to fight immediately, and +accordingly he gave orders for the line of battle to be formed. The +battle was of very short duration, and terminated decidedly in favour +of the Romans. The loss of the Carthaginians is variously stated, +but, according to Polybius, who is the best authority for every thing +relating to the Punic wars, the Romans sunk fifty of their vessels, +and captured seventy, with all their crews. The remainder would +probably have been either captured or destroyed, had not the wind +again changed, and enabled them to save themselves by flight.</p> + +<p>The consequences of this defeat, in the capitulation of Hamilcar, +which, in a manner, determined the fate of Sicily, were so +disheartening to the Carthaginians, that they were obliged to submit +to a disadvantageous and dishonorable peace. Among other terms, it +was stipulated that they should evacuate all the places they held in +Sicily, and entirely quit that island; that they should also abandon +all the small islands that lie between Italy and Sicily; and that +they should not approach with their ships of war, either the coasts +of Italy or any of the territories belonging to the Romans or their +allies.</p> + +<p>Soon after the conclusion of the first Punic war, a circumstance +occurred which nearly renewed the hostilities. The Carthaginians were +engaged in a bloody and arduous contest with their Mercenaries, and +the Roman merchants supplied the latter with military stores and +provisions. While engaged in this unlawful enterprize, several of +them were captured by the Carthaginians, and their crews detained as +prisoners of war. The senate of Carthage, however, were not then in a +condition to offend the Romans; they therefore restored both the +ships and their crews. During this war between the Carthaginians and +the Mercenaries, the latter having obtained possession of Sardinia, +(which though formerly conquered by the Romans, had been restored to +the Carthaginians,) offered to put the Romans in possession of it. At +first the senate refused to occupy it; but they soon changed their +mind, and accepted the offer, and moreover obliged the Carthaginians +to pay the expence of the armament by which it was occupied, and the +further sum of 1200 talents.</p> + +<p>Sicily, which immediately after the conclusion of the Punic war, +was made a Roman province, and Sardinia, were the first territories +which the Romans possessed out of Italy. In conformity with our plan, +we shall enquire into the advantages they brought to the commerce of +the Romans, before we proceed to the naval occurrences of the second +Punic war.</p> + +<p>Sicily was anciently called Sicania, Trinâcria, and +Triquetra; its three promontories are particularly celebrated in the +classic authors; viz. Lilibæum on the side of Africa; Pachynum +on the side of Greece, and Pelorum towards Italy. Its vicinity to the +continent of Italy, and the resemblance of their opposite shores, +gave rise to an opinion among the ancients that it was originally +joined to Italy. Pliny particularly mentions their separation, as a +circumstance beyond all doubt. The dangers which were supposed to +beset mariners in their passage through the narrow strait which +divides it from Italy, on one side of which was Sylla, and on the +other Charybdis, sufficiently point out the ignorance and +inexperience of the ancients in the construction and management of +their ships.</p> + +<p>The principal town on the eastern coast of Sicily, opposite +Greece, was Messana, now called Messina: it was the first which the +Romans possessed in the island: it was one of the most wealthy and +powerful cities in ancient Sicily. Taurominium stood near Mount +Taurus, on the river Taurominius; the coast in its vicinity was +anciently called Coproea, because the sea was supposed to throw up +there the wrecks of such vessels as were swallowed up by Charybdis. +The hills near this city were famous for the excellent grapes they +produced. On a gulph in the Ionian Sea, called Catana, stood a city +of the same name; it was one of the richest and most powerful cities +in the island.</p> + +<p>But by far the most celebrated city in this island for its +advantageous situation, the magnificence of its buildings, its +commerce, and the wealth of its inhabitants, was Syracuse. According +to Thucydides, in his time it might justly be compared to Athens, +even when that city was at the height of its glory; and Cicero +describes it as the greatest and most wealthy of all the cities +possessed by the Greeks. Its walls were eighteen miles in +circumference, and within them were in fact four cities united into +one. It seems also to have possessed three harbours: the great +harbour was nearly five thousand yards in circumference, and the +entrance to it five hundred yards across; it was formed on one side +by a point of the island Ortygia, and on the other by another small +island, on each of which were forts. The second harbour was divided +from the greater by an island of inconsiderable extent; both these +were surrounded with warehouses, arsenals, and other buildings of +great magnificence. The river Anapis emptied itself into the great +harbour; at the mouth of this river was the castle of Olympia. The +third harbour stood a little above the division of the city called +Acradina. The island of Ortygia, which formed one of the divisions, +was joined to the others by a bridge.</p> + +<p>The other maritime towns of consequence were Agrigentum, +Lilibaeum, and Drepanum; though the first stood at a short distance +from the sea, yet being situated between and near two rivers, it +conveniently imported all sorts of provisions and merchandize. +Lilibaeum was famous for its port, which was deemed a safe retreat +for ships, either in case of a storm, or to escape from an enemy. +During the wars between the Romans and Carthaginians, the former +repeatedly attempted to render it inaccessible and useless by +throwing large stones into it, but they were always washed away by +the violence of the sea, and the rapidity of the current. Drepanum, +which had an excellent harbour, was much resorted to by foreign +ships, and possessed a very considerable commerce.</p> + +<p>The Greeks were the first who colonized Sicily; and they founded +Syracuse and other towns. About the same period the Phoenicians +settled on the coast for the purposes of commerce; but they seem to +have retired soon after the Greek colonies began to flourish and +extend themselves. The Carthaginians, who generally pushed their +commerce into all the countries with which their parent state had +traded, seem to have visited Italy as merchants or conquerors at a +very early period; but when their first visit took place in either +character is not known. The treaty between them and the Romans, (to +which we have had occasion to refer more than once,) which was formed +in the year after the expulsion of the Tarquins, expressly stipulated +that the Romans, who should touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily +which belonged to the Carthaginians, should be received there in the +same manner as the Carthaginians themselves. They must, however, soon +afterwards have been driven out of the island; for at the time of the +invasion of Greece by Xerxes, (which happened about thirty years +after the expulsion of the Tarquins,) Gelon, the king of Syracuse, +expressly states that they no longer possessed any territory there, +in a speech which he made to the ambassadors of Athens and Sparta, +the Cathaginians having united with Xerxes, and he having offered to +ally himself with the Greeks. The circumstances and even the very +nature of the victory which Gelon gained over the Carthaginians, +which ended in their expulsion from Sicily, cannot accurately be +ascertained: but from a comparison of the principal authorities on +this point, it would, appear that it was a naval victory; or at least +that the Carthaginian fleet was defeated as well as their army. Their +loss by sea was enormous, amounting to nearly the whole of their +ships of war and transports, the former consisting of 2000 and the +latter of 3000.</p> + +<p>Such is a short sketch of the island of Sicily, so far as its +commercial facilities and its history are concerned previously to its +conquest by the Romans. It was peculiarly valuable to them on account +of its extreme fertility in corn; and by this circumstance it seems +to have been distinguished in very early times; for there can be no +doubt that by its being represented by the poets as the favourite +residence of the goddess Ceres, the fertility of the island in corn, +as well as its knowledge of agriculture, were intended to be +represented. When Gelon offered to unite with the Greeks in their war +with Xerxes, one of his proposals was that he would furnish the whole +Greek army with corn, during all the time of hostilities, if they +would appoint him commander of their forces. In the latter period of +the Roman republic, it became their principal dependence for a +regular supply of corn.</p> + +<p>Sardinia seems to have been as little explored by and known to the +ancients, as it is to the moderns. The treaty between the +Carthaginians and Romans, the year after the expulsion of the +Tarquins, proves that the former nation possessed it at that time. +Calaris, the present Cagliari, was the principal town in it. From the +epithet applied to it by Horace, in one of his odes, <i>Opima</i>, it +must have been much more fertile in former times than it is at +present; and Varro expressly calls it one of the granaries of Rome. +Its air, then, as at present, was in most parts very unwholsome; and +it is a remarkable circumstance that the character of the Sardi, who, +after the complete reduction of the island by Tiberius Sempronius +Gracchus, were brought to Rome in great numbers, and sold as slaves, +and who were proverbial for their worthlessness, is still to be +traced in the present inhabitants; for they are represented as +extremely barbarous, and so treacherous, and inhospitable, that they +have been called the Malays of the Mediterranean. The island of +Corsica, which, indeed, generally followed the fate of Sardinia, was +another of the fruits of the first Punic war which the Romans reaped, +in some degree favourable to their commerce. It possessed a large and +convenient harbour, called Syracusium. The Carthaginians must have +reduced it at an early period, since, according to Herodotus, the +Cyrnians (the ancient name for the inhabitants), were one of the +nations that composed the vast army, with which they invaded Sicily +in the time of Gelon.</p> + +<p>During the interval between the first and second Punic wars, the +Roman commerce seems to have been gradually, but slowly extending +itself, particularly in the Adriatic: we do not possess, however, any +details on the subject, except a decisive proof of the attention and +protection which the republic bestowed upon it, in repressing and +punishing the piracies of the Illyrians and Istrians. These people, +who were very expert and undaunted seamen, enriched themselves and +their country by seizing and plundering the merchant vessels which +frequented the Adriatic and adjacent Mediterranean sea; and their +piracies were encouraged, rather than restrained by their sovereigns. +At the period to which we allude, they were governed by a queen, +named Teuta, who was a woman of a bold and enterprising spirit: the +Roman merchants, who traded, in the Adriatic, had frequently been +plundered and cruelly treated by her subjects; upon this, the Roman +senate sent two ambassadors to her, to insist that she should put a +stop to these measures. The Romans had also other grounds of +complaint against her and her subjects; for the latter extended their +piracies to the allies of Rome, as well as to the Romans themselves, +and the former was at that time besieging the island of Issa, in the +Adriatic, which was under the protection of the republic. The +inhabitants of this island seem to have been rather extensively +engaged in commerce, and were celebrated for building a kind of light +ships, thence called <i>Issaei lembi</i>.</p> + +<p>Teuta received and treated the Roman ambassadors with great scorn +and haughtiness; she promised, indeed, that she would no longer +authorise the piracies of her subjects; but, with regard to +restraining them, she would not do it, as they enjoyed a perfect and +full right to benefit themselves as much as possible, and in every +way they could, by their skill and superiority in maritime affairs. +On the ambassadors' replying in rather threatening language, she +ordered one of them to be put to death.</p> + +<p>For a short time Teuta was alarmed at the probable consequences of +her conduct, and endeavoured to avert them by submission; but, the +Romans being otherwise engaged, and she having experienced some +successes over the Acheans, her haughtiness and confidence revived, +and she sent a fleet to assist in the reduction of Issa. Upon this, +the Romans resolved to act with immediate vigour; and they had little +difficulty in compelling Teuta to sue for peace. It was granted to +her, on condition that not more than three ships of war should at any +one time sail beyond Lyssus, on the frontier of Macedonia, and that +the islands of Corcyra, Issa, and Pharos, together with Dyrrhachium +should be given up to the Romans.</p> + +<p>It was not, however, to be supposed that the Illyrians and +Istrians, who had been so long accustomed to piracy, and who in fact +derived nearly all their wealth from this source, would totally +abstain from it. A few years after this treaty of peace, they resumed +their depredations, which they carried on with so much audacity and +disregard to the power of Rome, that they even seized the ships that +were laden with corn for Rome. As this commerce was one of the +greatest consequence to the Romans, in which the Roman government, as +well as individuals, principally embarked, and on the regularity and +safety of which the subsistence and tranquillity of the city itself +depended, the senate resolved to punish them more effectually; and +this resolution was strengthened by the Illyrians having broken the +terms of the peace by sending no fewer than 50 vessels of war beyond +the prescribed limits, as far as the Cyclades. The consequence of the +new war which the Romans waged against them, was the reduction of +Istria and of Illyricum Proper.</p> + +<p>The destruction of Saguntum by the Carthaginians was the cause of +the second Punic war. At what period the Carthaginians first +established themselves in Spain, is not known. Their principal object +in colonizing and retaining it, undoubtedly may be found in the +richness of its mines, and the fertility of its soil. According to +Diodorus Siculus, they were principally enabled to equip and support +their numerous, and frequently renewed fleets, by the silver which +they drew from these mines. And Strabo expressly informs us, that +when the Carthaginians first colonized Spain, silver was in such +abundance, and so easily obtained, that their most common utensils, +and even the mangers for their horses, were made of it. One mine of +extreme richness is particularly described by Pliny: according to +him, it yielded 300 pounds of silver in a day. There are other +circumstances which point out the extreme value of Spain to whoever +possessed it, and lead us to the motives which induced the Romans to +use all their efforts to wrest it from the Carthaginians. It cannot +be doubted that the Carthaginians drew from it all the wealth, in +various shapes, which it could possibly supply; and yet we know that +in the short space of nine years, 111,542 pounds weight of silver, +4095 of gold, besides coin, were brought out of it by the Roman +praetors, who governed it. Scipio, when he returned to Rome, brought +from Spain 14,342 pounds weight of silver, besides coin, arms, and +corn, &c. to an immense amount. And Lentulus returned from this +country with 44,000 pounds of silver, and 2550 of gold, besides the +coin, &c., which was divided among his soldiers. Manlius brought +with him 1200 pounds of silver, and about 30 of gold. Cornelius +Lentulus, who was praetor of Hither Spain for two years, brought with +him 1515 pounds of gold, and 2000 of silver, besides a large amount +of coin, while the praetor of Farther Spain returned with 50,000 +pounds of silver. And these immense sums, as we have already stated, +were brought away in the space of nine years.</p> + +<p>Cornelius Scipio was sent into Spain at the commencement of the +second Punic war. Of the events of this war, however, we shall +confine ourselves exclusively to such as were maritime, and which +trace the steps of the Roman superiority at sea, and, consequently, +of the advancement and extension of their commerce. The exertions of +the rival nations to contest the empire of the sea were very great: +the Romans equipped 220 quinqueremes, and twenty other light vessels, +beside 160 galleys, and twenty light vessels, which were employed to +transport troops to Africa. Their allies, the Syracusans, also, were +active and alert in the equipment of a fleet to assist their allies, +the Romans; and Hiero, their king, had the good fortune to give an +auspicious commencement to the war, by capturing some Carthaginian +ships, part of a fleet, whose object was to plunder the coasts of +Italy, but which had been dispersed by a storm. The Carthaginians +were equally unfortunate in their second maritime enterprise against +Lilibaeum, for the Syracusans and Romans, having learnt their +intention, anchored before the mouth of the harbour. The +Carthaginians, finding that they could not, as they expected, +surprise the place, drew up their fleet in line of battle, a little +way out at sea: the allies immediately got under weigh; a battle +ensued, in which the Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of +seven ships. These successes, however, were dreadfully +counterbalanced by the advance of Hannibal into Italy, and the +decisive victories which he obtained in the very heart of the Roman +territories. Under these circumstances, maritime affairs were +naturally disregarded.</p> + +<p>Of the actual state of the Roman commerce about this time we know +very little, but that it was lucrative, may fairly be inferred from +the following circumstance:--A little before the commencement of the +second Punic war, Caius Flaminnus was extremely desirous to obtain +the support and good will of the populace; with this object in view, +he joined the tribunes of the people in passing a law, which is +called the Flaminian, or Claudian law. By it, the senators, who had +been accustomed to acquire considerable wealth by fitting out ships +and trading, were expressly forbidden to possess or hire any vessel +above the burden of 300 amphorae or eight tons, and not more than one +vessel even of that small tonnage. This vessel was allowed them, and +was deemed sufficient to bring the produce of their farms to Rome. By +the same law, the scribes, and the clerks, and attendants of the +quæstors, were prohibited from trading; and thus the liberty of +commerce was exclusively confined to the plebeians.</p> + +<p>Whilst Hannibal threatened the Romans in the vicinity of Rome +itself, they had neither leisure, inclination, or means, to cope with +the Carthaginians by sea; at length, however, Marcellus, having +checked the enemy in Italy, maritime affairs were again attended to. +Scipio, who had been successful in Spain, resolved to attempt the +reduction of New Carthage: this place was situated, like Old +Carthage, on a peninsula betwixt a port and a lake: its harbour was +extremely commodious, and large enough to receive and shelter any +fleet. As it was the capital of the Carthaginian dominions in Spain, +here were deposited all their naval stores, machines used in war, +besides immense treasures. It was on this account extremely well +fortified, and to attempt to take it by a regular siege seemed to +Scipio impracticable: he, therefore, formed a plan to take it by +surprise, and this plan he communicated to C. Lælius, the +commander of the fleet, who was his intimate friend. The Roman fleet +was to block up the port by sea, while Scipio was to blockade it by +land. The ignorance of the Romans with regard to one of the most +common and natural phenomena of the sea, is strongly marked in the +course of this enterprise. Scipio knew that when the tide ebbed, the +port of New Carthage would become dry and accessible by land; but his +soldiers, and even his officers, were ignorant of the nature of the +tides, and they firmly believed that Neptune had wrought a miracle in +their favour, when, according to Scipio's prediction, the tide +retired, and the army was thus enabled to capture the town, the walls +of which on that side were extremely low, the Carthaginians having +directed all their attention and efforts to the opposite side. The +capture of New Carthage depressed, in a great degree, the spirits, as +well as weakened the strength of the Carthaginians in Spain: eighteen +galleys were captured in the port, besides 113 vessels laden with +naval stares; 40,000 bushels of wheat, 260,000 bushels of barley, a +large number of warlike machines of all descriptions, 260 cups of +gold, most of which weighed a pound, 18,300 pounds weight of silver, +principally coin, besides brass money, were among the spoils.</p> + +<p>About the year of Rome 556, Scipio had succeeded in reducing all +Spain. It does not appear, however, that the Romans were thus enabled +greatly to extend their commerce; indeed, at this period, we have no +evidence that any other town in Spain, except Gades, possessed any +considerable trade. This island and city were situated in a gulph of +the same name, between the straits of Gibraltar and the river Boetis; +and, from the remotest period of which we possess any records, was +resorted to by foreigners for the purposes of commerce. Gradually, +however, the inhabitants of Spain, under the Roman government, +enriched themselves and their conquerors by their industry: large +quantities of corn, wine, and oil were exported, besides wax, honey, +pitch, vermilion, and wool. The oil and wool were deemed equal, if +not superior, to those of any other part of the world: the excellent +quality of the wool is a strong fact, against an opinion entertained +by many, that the fineness of the Spanish was originally derived from +the exportation of some English sheep to Spain, since it appears to +have been celebrated even in the time of the Romans: how important +and lucrative an object it was considered, may be collected from the +attention that was paid to the breed of sheep; a ram, according to +Strabo, having been sold for a talent, or nearly 200 <i>l</i>. Horace +incidentally gives evidence of the commercial wealth of Spain in his +time, when he considers the master of a Spanish trading vessel and a +person of great wealth as synonimous terms.</p> + +<p>As Hannibal still continued in Italy, the senate of Rome resolved +to send Scipio into Italy, with a discretionary power to invade +Africa from that island. He lost no time in equipping a fleet for +these purposes, and his efforts were so well seconded by the zeal and +activity of the provinces and cities, many of which taxed themselves +to supply iron, timber, cloth for sails, corn, &c. that, in forty +days after the timber was felled, Scipio had a fleet of thirty new +galleys.</p> + +<p>Soon after he landed in Sicily, he resolved to invade Africa: for +this purpose his fleet was collected in the port of Lilibæum. +Never was embarkation made with more order and solemnity: the +concourse of people who came from all parts to see him set sail, and +wish him a prosperous voyage, was prodigious. Just before he weighed +anchor, he appeared on the poop of his galley, and, after an herald +had proclaimed silence, addressed a solemn prayer to the gods. It is +foreign to our purpose to give any account of the campaign in Africa, +which, it is well known, terminated in the utter defeat of the +Carthaginians, who were obliged to sue for peace. This was granted +them on very severe terms: all the cities and provinces which they +possessed in Africa previously to the war, they were indeed permitted +to retain, but they were stripped of Spain, and of all the islands in +the Mediterranean; all their ships of war, except ten galleys, were +to be delivered up to the Romans; and, for the future, they were not +to maintain above that number at one time: even the size of their +fishing boats and of their trading vessels was regulated. In the +course of fifty years ten thousand talents were to be paid to the +Romans. During a short truce which preceded the peace, the +Carthaginians had seized and plundered a Roman squadron, which had +been dispersed by a storm, and driven near Carthage; as a +satisfaction for this, they were obliged to pay the Romans 25,000 +pounds weight of silver. The successful termination of the second +Punic war gave to the Romans complete dominion of the sea, on which +they maintained generally 100 galleys. Commerce flourished, +particularly that most important branch, the trade in corn, with +which Rome, at this period, is said to have been so plentifully +furnished, that the merchants paid their seamen with it.</p> + +<p>The power of the Romans at sea was now so well established, that +no foreign power could hope to attack, or resist them, unless they +were expert navigators, as well as furnished with a numerous fleet. +Under this impression, Philip king of Macedon, who had long been +jealous and afraid of them, applied himself sedulously to maritime +affairs. As it was about this period that the Romans began to turn +their thoughts to the conquest of Greece, it may be proper to take a +retrospective view of the maritime affairs and commerce of that +country. An inspection of the map of Greece will point out the +advantages which it possessed for navigation and commerce. Lying +nearly in the middle of the Mediterranean, with the sea washing three +of its sides; possessed of almost innumerable inlets and bays, it was +admirably adapted to ancient commerce. Its want of large and +navigable rivers, which will always limit its commerce in modern +times, presented no obstacle to the small vessels in which the +ancients carried on their trade; as they never navigated them during +the winter, and from their smallness and lightness, they could easily +drag them on shore.</p> + +<p>Athens, the most celebrated state in Greece for philosophy, +literature, and arms, was also the most celebrated for commerce. The +whole of the southern angle of Attica consisted of a district called +Parali, or the division adjacent to the sea. In the other districts +of Attica, the soldiers of the republic were found: this furnished +the sailors; fishing and navigation were the chief employments of its +inhabitants. About 46 miles distant from the Piraeus, stood Sunium, +the most considerable town in this district: it possessed a double +harbour in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The principal commerce of Attica, however, was carried on at +Athens: this city had three harbours: the most ancient was that of +Phalerum, distant from the city, according to some authors, 35 +stadia; according to others only 20 stadia. It was nearer Athens than +the other two, but smaller, and less commodious. Munichea was the +name of the second harbour: it was formed in a promontory not far +distant from the Pirasus, a little to the east of Athens, and +naturally a place of great strength; it was afterwards, at the +instance of Thrasybulus, rendered still stronger by art. But by far +the most celebrated harbour of Athens was the Piraeus. The republic +of Athens, in order to concentrate its military and mercantile fleets +in this harbour, abandoned that of Phalerum, and bent all their +efforts to render the Piraeus as strong and commodious as possible. +This occurred in the time of Themistocles; by whose advice both the +town and the harbour were inclosed with a wall, about seven miles and +a half long, and sixty feet high. Themistocles' intention was to have +made it eighty cubits high, but in this he was opposed. Before this +connecting wall was built, the Piraeus was about three miles distant +from the city. As the strength of the wall was of the utmost +importance, it was built of immense square stones, which were +fastened together with iron or leaden cramps. It was so broad that +two waggons could have been driven along it. The Pireus contained +three docks; the first called Cantharus, the second Aphrodisium, and +the third Zea. There were likewise five porticos, and two forums. The +Piraeus was so celebrated for its commerce, that it became a +proverbial saying in Greece, "Famine does not come from the +Piræus." The extent and convenience of the Piræus may be +judged of from this circumstance, that under the demagogue Lycurgus, +the whole naval force of the nation, amounting to 400 triremes, were +safely and easily laid up in its three harbours.</p> + +<p>Before the time of Themistocles, Athens does not appear to have +devoted her attention or resources to maritime affairs: but this +celebrated general not only rendered the Piræus stronger and +more commodious, but also procured a decree, which enabled him to add +twenty ships to the fleet annually. The sums arising from the sale of +the privileges of working the mines, or the eventual profits of the +mines, which had formerly been distributed among the people, were, +through his influence, set apart for the building of ships. +Afterwards a law was passed, which taxed all the citizens who +possessed land, manufactories, or money in trade or with their +bankers; these classes of the citizens were also obliged to keep up, +and increase, if occasion required it, the naval force of the +republic. When it was necessary to fit out an armament, as many +talents as there were galleys to be built and equipped, were raised +in each of the ten tribes of Athens. The money thus collected was +given to the captains of the galleys, to be expended in the +maintenance of the crew. The republic furnished the rigging and +sailors: two captains were appointed to each galley, who served six +months each.</p> + +<p>Although the vessels employed by the Athenians both for war and +commerce were small compared with those of modern days, and their +merchant ships even much smaller than those of the Phoenicians, if we +may judge by the description given by Xenophon of a Phoenician +merchant vessel in the Piræus, yet the expence attending their +equipment was very great. We learn from Demosthenes, that the light +vessels could not be kept in commission, even if the utmost attention +was paid to economy, and no extraordinary damage befel them, for a +smaller sum than about 8000 <i>l</i>. annually; of course, such +vessels as from their size, strength, and manning, were capable of +standing the brunt of an engagement, must have cost more than double +that sum.</p> + +<p>In the time of Demosthenes, the trade of Athens seems to have been +carried on with considerable spirit and activity; the greater part of +the money of the Athenians having been employed in it. From one of +his orations we learn, that in the contract executed when money was +lent for this purpose, the period when the vessel was to sail, the +nature and value of the goods with which she was loaded, the port to +which she was to carry them, the manner in which they were to be sold +there, and the goods with which she was to return to Athens, were all +specifically and formally noticed. In other particulars the contracts +varied: the money, lent was either not to be repaid till the return +of the vessel, or it was to be repaid as soon as the outward goods +were sold at the place to which she was bound, either to the agent of +the lender, or to himself, he going there for that express purpose. +The interest of money so lent varied: sometimes it rose as high as 30 +per cent: it seems to have depended principally on the risks of the +voyage.</p> + +<p>In another oration of Demosthenes we discover glimpses of what by +many has been deemed maritime insurance, or rather of the fraud at +present called barratry, which is practised to defraud the insurer: +but, as Park in his learned Treatise on Marine Insurance has +satisfactorily proved, the ancients were certainly ignorant of +maritime insurance; though there can be no doubt frauds similar to +those practised at present were practised. According to Demosthenes, +masters of vessels were in the habit of borrowing considerable sums, +which they professed to invest in a cargo of value, but instead of +such a cargo, they took on board sand and stones, and when out at +sea, sunk the vessel. As the money was lent on the security either of +the cargo or ship, or both, of course the creditors were defrauded: +but it does not appear how they could, without detection, substitute +sand or stones for the cargo.</p> + +<p>The Athenians passed a number of laws respecting commerce, mostly +of a prohibitory nature. Money could not be advanced or lent on any +vessel, or the cargo of any vessel, that did not return to Athens, +and discharge its cargo there. The exportation of various articles, +which were deemed of the first necessity, was expressly forbidden: +such as timber for building, fir, cypress, plane, and other trees, +which grew in the neighbourhood of the city; the rosin collected on +Mount Parnes, the wax of Mount Hymettus--which two articles, +incorporated together, or perhaps singly, were used for daubing over, +or caulking their ships. The exportation of corn, of which Attica +produced very little, was also forbidden; and what was brought from +abroad was not permitted to be sold any where except in Athens. By +the laws of Solon, they were allowed to exchange oil for foreign +commodities. There were besides a great number of laws respecting +captains of ships, merchants, duties, interest of money, and +different kinds of contracts. One law was specially favourable to +merchants and all engaged in trade; by it a heavy fine, or, in some +cases, imprisonment, was inflicted on whoever accused a merchant or +trader of any crime he could not substantiate. In order still farther +to protect commerce, and to prevent it from suffering by litigation, +all causes which respected it could be heard only during the period +when vessels were in port. This period extended generally to six +months--from April to September inclusive--no ships being at sea +during the other portion of the year.</p> + +<p>The taxes of the Athenians, so far as they affected commerce, +consisted of a fifth, levied on the corn and other merchandize +imported, and also on several articles which were exported from +Athens. These duties were generally farmed. In an oration of +Andocides, we learn that he had farmed the duty on foreign goods +imported for a term of three years, at twelve talents annually. In +consequence of these duties, smuggling was not uncommon. The +inhabitants of the district called Corydale were celebrated for +illicit traffic: there was a small bay in this district, a little to +the north of Piræus, called. Thieves' Harbour, in which an +extensive and lucrative and contraband trade was carried on; ships of +different nations were engaged in it. Demosthenes informs us, that +though this place was within the boundaries of Attica, yet the +Athenians had not the legal power to put a stop to traffic by which +they were greatly injured, as the inhabitants of Corydale, as well as +the inhabitants of every other state, however small, were sovereigns +within their own territory.</p> + +<p>In an oration of Isocrates an operation is described which bears +some resemblance to that performed by modern bills of exchange. A +stranger who brought grain to Athens, and who, we may suppose, wished +to purchase goods to a greater amount than the sale of his grain +would produce, drew on a person living in some town on the Euxine, to +which the Athenians were in the habit of trading. The Athenian +merchant took this draft; but not till a banker in Athens had become +responsible for its due payment.</p> + +<p>The Athenian merchants were obliged, from the nature of trade in +those ancient times, to be constantly travelling from one spot to +another; either to visit celebrated fairs, or places where they hoped +to carry on an advantageous speculation. We shall afterwards notice +more particularly the Macedonian merchant mentioned by Ptolemy the +Geographer, who sent his clerks to the very borders of China; and +from other authorities we learn that the Greek merchants were +accurately informed respecting the interior parts of Germany, and the +course of most of the principal rivers in that country. The trade in +aromatics, paints, cosmetics, &c., was chiefly possessed by the +Athenians, who had large and numerous markets in Athens for the sale +of these articles. Even in the time of Hippocrates, some of the +spices of India were common in the Peloponnesus and Attica; and there +is every reason to believe that most of these articles were +introduced into Greece in consequence of the journeys of their +merchants to some places of depôt, to which they were brought +from the East.</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned that the importation of corn into a +country so unfertile as Attica, was a subject of the greatest moment, +and to which the care and laws of the republic were most particularly +directed. There were magistrates, whose sole business and duty it was +to lay in corn for the use of the city; and other magistrates who +regulated its price, and fixed also the assize of bread. In the +Piræus there were officers, the chief part of whose duty it was +to take care that two parts at least of all the corn brought into the +port should be carried to the city. Lysias, in his oration against +the corn merchants, gives a curious account of the means employed, by +them to raise its price, very similar to the rumours by which the +same effect is often produced at present: an embargo, or prohibition +of exporting it, by foreigners, an approaching war, or the capture or +loss of the vessels laden with it, seem to have been the most +prevalent rumours. Sicily, Egypt, and the Crimea were the countries +which principally supplied Attica with this necessary article. As the +voyage from Sicily was the shortest, as well as exposed to the least +danger, the arrival of vessels with corn from this island always +reduced the price; but there does not appear to have been nearly such +quantities brought either from it or Egypt, as from the Crimea. The +Athenians, therefore, encouraged by every possible means their +commerce with the Cimmerian Bosphorus. One of the kings of that +country, Leucon II., who reigned about the time of Demosthenes, +favoured them very much. As the harbours were unsafe and +inconvenient, he formed a new one, called Theodosia, or, in the +language of the country, Ardauda: he likewise exempted their vessels +from paying the duty on corn, to which all other vessels were subject +on exporting it--this duty amounted to a thirtieth part,--and allowed +their merchants a free trade to all parts of his kingdom. In return, +the Athenians made him and his children citizens of Athens, and +granted to such of his subjects as traded in Attica the same +privileges and exemptions which their citizens enjoyed in Bosphorus. +It was one of the charges against Demosthenes, by his rival, the +orator Dinarchus, that the sons and successors of Leucon sent yearly +to him a thousand bushels of wheat. Besides the new port of +Theodosia, the Athenians traded also to Panticapæum for corn: +the quantity they exported is stated by Demosthenes to have amounted +to 400,000 mediniri, or bushels, yearly, as appeared from the custom +books; and this was by far the greatest quantity of corn they +received from foreign countries. Lucian, indeed, informs us that a +ship, which, from his description, must have been about the size of +our third-rates, contained as much corn as maintained all Attica for +a twelvemonth; but, in the time of this author, Athens was not nearly +so populous as it had been: and besides, as is justly remarked by +Hume, it is not safe to trust to such loose rhetorical +illustrations.</p> + +<p>From a passage in Thucydides we may learn that the Athenians +derived part of their supply of corn from Euboea; this passage is +also curious as exhibiting a surprising instance of the imperfection +of ancient navigation. Among the inconveniences experienced by the +Athenians, from the fortifying of Dacelia by the Lacedemonians, this +historian particularly mentions, as one of the most considerable, +that they could not bring over their corn from Euboea by land, +passing by Oropus, but were under the necessity of embarking it, and +sailing round Cape Sunium; and yet the water carriage could not be +more than double the land carriage.</p> + +<p>The articles imported by the Athenians from the Euxine Sea, +besides corn, were timber for building, slaves, salt, honey, wax, +wool, leather, and goat-skins; from Byzantium and other ports of +Thrace and Macedonia, salt fish and timber; from Phrygia and Miletus, +carpets, coverlets for beds, and the fine wool, of which their cloths +were made; from the islands of Egean Sea, wine and different fruits; +and from Thrace, Thessaly, Phrygia, &c., a great number of +slaves.</p> + +<p>The traffic in slaves was, next to that in corn, of the greatest +consequence to the Athenians, for the citizens were not in sufficient +numbers, and, if they had been, were not by any means disposed, to +cultivate the land, work the mines, and carry on the various trades +and manufactures. The number of slaves in Attica, during the most +flourishing period of the republic, was estimated at 400,000: of +these the greater part had been imported; the rest were natives of +Greece, whom the fate of arms had thrown into the hands of a +conqueror irritated by too obstinate a resistance. The slaves most +esteemed, and which brought the highest price, were imported from +Syria and Thrace, the male slaves of the former country, and the +females of the latter: the slaves from Macedonia were the least +valued. The price of a slave seems to have been extremely low, as +Xenophon mentions that some were sold at Athens for half an Attic +mina, or rather more than thirty shillings: those, however, who had +acquired a trade, or were otherwise particularly useful, were valued +at five minæ, or about fifteen pounds.</p> + +<p>Our idea of the commerce of Athens, and of Greece in general, +would be very imperfect and inadequate if we neglected to notice +their fairs. It has been ingeniously supposed, that at the celebrated +games of Greece, such as those of Olympia, &c., trade was no +subordinate object; and this idea is certainly confirmed by various +passages in ancient authors. Cicero expressly informs us, that even +so early as the age of Pythagoras, a great number of people attended +the religious games for the express purpose of trading. At Delphi, +Nemæa, Delos, or the Isthmus of Corinth, a fair was held almost +every year. The amphyctionic fairs were held twice a year. In the +time of Chrysostom, these lairs were infamously distinguished for a +traffic in slaves, destined for public incontinence. The amphyctionic +spring fair was held at Delphi, and at Thermopylæ in the +autumn; in fact, at the same times that the deputies from the states +of Greece formed the amphyctionic council;--another proof that +wherever large assemblies of people took place in Greece, for +religious or political purposes, advantage was taken of them to carry +on traffic. At the fairs of Thermopylæ medicinal herbs and +roots, especially hellebore, were sold in large quantities. One +principal reason why the religious games or political assemblies of +the states were fixed upon to hold fairs was, that during them all +hostilities were suspended; and every person might go with his +merchandize in safety to them, even through an enemy's country. The +priests, so far from regarding these fairs as a profanation of the +religions ceremonies, encouraged them; and the priests of Jupiter, in +particular, advanced large sums on interest to such merchants as had +good credit, but had not sufficient money with them.</p> + +<p>The island of Delos calls for our particular attention, as the +grand mart of the Athenians, as well as of the rest of Greece, and of +the other countries in the Mediterranean, which at this period were +engaged in commerce. The peace of this island always remained +undisturbed, from an opinion that it was under the special protection +of Apollo and Diana; and when the fleets of enemies met there, out of +respect to the sacredness of the place, they forbore all manner of +hostilities. There were also other circumstances which contributed to +render it a place of great importance to commerce: its commodious +situation for the navigation from Europe into Asia; its festivals, +which brought immense crowds to it (and as we have just observed, +wherever a multitude of Greeks were collected, by superstitious rites +or amusements, commerce was mingled with their duties and pursuits); +and the bias which its original, or at least its very early +inhabitants, had to commerce: all these combined to render it a place +of great importance to commerce. Its trade consisted chiefly in +slaves: according to Strabo, in the time of Perseus, king of +Macedonia, above 10,000 slaves came in and went out daily. The corn, +wine, and other commodities of the neighbouring islands; the scarlet +linen tunics, manufactured in the island of Amorgos; the rich purple +stuffs of Cos; the highly esteemed alum of Melos, and the valuable +copper, which the mines, of Delos itself (that had been long worked,) +and the elegant vases, manufactured from this copper,--were the +principal commodities exported from Delos. In return and exchange, +foreign merchants brought the produce and manufactures of their +respective countries; so that the island became, as it were, the +storehouse of the treasures of nations; and the scene, during this +mixture of religious festivals and commercial enterprise, was +peculiarly gay and animated. The inhabitants were, by an express law, +which is noticed by Athenæus, obliged to furnish water to all +the strangers who resorted thither; to which, it would appear, they +added, either gratuitously, or for a small remuneration, cakes and +other trifling eatables.</p> + +<p>The Athenians were so anxious to protect and extend the commerce +carried on in Delos, that they gave encouragement to such strangers +to settle there as were conversant in commerce, as well as strictly +guarded its neutrality and privileges. On the destruction of Tyre, +and afterwards of Carthage, events which gave a new direction to the +commerce of the Mediterranean, a great number of merchants from these +cities fled to Delos, where they were taken under the protection of +the Athenians; and it appears by an inscription found in the 17th +century, that the Tyrians formed a company of merchants and +navigators there. The Romans traded to it, even before their war with +Philip, king of Macedon. After the restoration of Corinth, the +Athenians used all their efforts to keep up the commerce of Delos; +but the wars of Mithridates put an end to it; and in a very short +period afterwards, it seems to have been entirely abandoned by the +merchants of all nations, and, as a commercial place, to have fallen +into utter neglect and decay.</p> + +<p>Corinth, next to Athens, demands our notice, as one of the most +commercial cities of Greece. The Corinthian dominions were extremely +small, their extent from east to west being about half a degree, and +from north to south about half that space: according to the +geographer Scylax, a vessel might sail from one extremity to the +other in a day. It had no rivers of any note, and few rich plains, +being in general uneven, and but moderately fertile. The situation of +Corinth itself, however, amply compensated for all these +disadvantages: it was built on the middle of the isthmus of the same +name, at the distance of about 60 stadia on either side from the sea; +on one side was the Saronic Gulf, on the other the sea of Crissa. On +the former was the port of Lechæum, which was joined to the +city by a double wall, 12 stadia in length; on the latter sea, was +the port of Cinchræa, distant from Corinth 70 stadia. There +was, besides, the port and castle of Cromyon, about 120 stadia +distant from the capital. Hence, it will appear that Corinth +commanded the trade of all the eastern part of the Mediterranean by +the port of Cinchræa; and of the Ionian sea, by that of +Lechæum. But the Corinthians possessed other advantages; for +their citadel was almost impregnable, commanded from its situation +both these seas, and stood exactly in the way of communication by +land between one part of Greece and the other. The other states, +however, would not permit the Corinthians to interdict them the +passage of the Isthmus; but they could not prevent them from taking +advantage of their situation, by carrying on an extensive and +lucrative commerce. The Isthmian games, which were celebrated at +Corinth, also contributed very much to its splendour and opulence, +and drew additional crowds to it, who, as usual, mingled commerce +with religion. According to Thucydides, Corinth had been a city of +great traffic, even when the Greeks confined their trade to land: at +this period, the Corinthians imposed a transit duty on all +commodities, which entered or left the Peloponnessus by the Isthmus. +But the extended knowledge and enterprise of the Greeks, and, above +all, the destruction of the pirates which infested the narrow seas, +led them to prefer sea carriage part of the way. The reason why they +did not transport their goods the whole passage by sea, may be found +in their ignorance and fears: their inexperienced mariners and frail +ships could not succeed in doubling Cape Malea in Laconia; off which, +and between it and Crete, the sea was frequently very boisterous. +Hence, the merchants were under the necessity of transporting, by +land carriage, their goods to the seas which formed the Isthmus. Such +as came from Italy, Sicily, and the countries to the west, were +landed at Lechæum; while the merchandize from Asia Minor, +Phoenicia, and the islands in the Egean Sea, were landed at the port +of Cinchræa. The breadth of the Isthmus was so small that the +goods were easily and quickly conveyed from one harbour to the other; +and afterwards the Corinthians succeeded in transporting the ships +themselves.</p> + +<p>At first it would appear that the Corinthians contented themselves +with the wealth derived from their city being the great mart of +commerce, and from the duties which they imposed: but they soon began +to engage very extensively and with great spirit in trade themselves. +Several kinds of manufactures were encouraged, which were highly +valued by foreign nations, especially coverlets for beds, and brass +and earthen-ware vessels. But their most valuable manufacture +consisted in a metal compounded of copper and a small quantity of +gold and silver, which was extremely brilliant, and scarcely liable +to rust or decay. From this metal they made helmets, &c., little +figures, cups, vessels, &c., which were highly esteemed, not only +on account of the metal of which they were formed, but still more on +account of the tasteful foliage and other ornaments with which they +were covered. Their earthen-ware was ornamented in the same beautiful +and tasteful manner.</p> + +<p>All these were exported by the Corinthians in great quantities, +and formed very lucrative articles of trade. Paper and sailcloth from +Egypt; ivory from Lybia; leather from Cyrene; incense from Syria; +dates from Phoenicia; carpets from Carthage; corn and cheese from +Sicily; apples and pears from Euboea;--filled the warehouses of +Corinth.</p> + +<p>As soon as Corinth resolved to participate in maritime commerce, +she applied herself to this object with great industry and success: +she built ships of a novel form, and first produced galleys with +three benches of oars; and history assures us that the Greeks +obtained their first maritime experience during the naval war between +the Corinthians and the inhabitants of Corfu; and by their +instruction the Samians put to sea those powerful fleets for which +they were distinguished.</p> + +<p>Besides Athens and Corinth, there were no states in ancient +Greece, the consideration of whose maritime and commercial affairs +will detain us long. Lacedæmonia was favourably situated in +these respects; but either her laws, or the disposition and pursuits +of her inhabitants, prevented her from taking advantage of her +situation. All the south part of Laconia was encompassed by the sea, +and on the east and north-east was the Argelic Bay: on its coasts +were a great number of capes, the most celebrated of which were those +of Malea and Tanara; they were also furnished with a great number of +sea-port towns and commodious harbours. In consequence of the capes +extending far into the sea, and the deepness of some of the bays, the +ancients took three days to navigate the length of the coast in +vessels wrought by oars, following, as they generally did, all the +windings of the land. The little river Pameros, which divided Beotia +from Laconia, formed one extremity, and the port of Prais, on the +Gulf of Argelis, formed the other. The most difficult and dangerous +part of this navigation consisted in doubling Cape Malea.</p> + +<p>The most convenient and frequented sea-ports in Laconia were +Trinassus and Acria, situated on each side the mouth of the Eurotas; +and Gythium, not far from Trinassus, at the mouth of a small river on +the Laconic Gulf. The mouth of this river, which was navigable up to +Sparta, was defended by a citadel, the ruins of which were remaining +in the time of Pausanias. As the Lacedæmonians regarded this +town as their principal port, in which their naval forces, as well as +the greater part of their merchant ships assembled, they employed +considerable labour and expence in rendering it commodious and safe; +for this purpose they dug a very spacious basin which, on one side +was defended by motes, and on the other by numerous fortifications: +the strength of these may be judged of from the circumstance, that +even after the armies of Sparta had been utterly defeated by +Epaminondas, and Philip, the son of Demetrius, neither of these +conquerors could capture this sea-port. In it were deposited all the +requisites for their naval force, and from it sailed their merchant +ships with cargoes to Crete, Africa, and Egypt; to all of which +countries, according to Thucydides, the Lacedæmonians carried +on a lucrative and regular traffic. Another of their sea-ports was +Epidaurus, situated on the Gulf of Argos, in the eastern part of +Laconia. The country round it contained many vineyards, the wine of +which was exported in considerable quantities, and supplied other +parts of Greece. This district is still celebrated for its wine, +called Malvasia, (or Malmsey,) a corruption from Maleates, the +ancient name of this part of Laconia.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the supposed aversion of the Spartans +to maritime affairs, which, according to some authors, arose from +Lycurgus having prohibited them from building vessels, or employing +sailors; but this idea is unfounded, and seems to have arisen from +the fact, that their kings were prevented, by a positive law, from +commanding the fleets. That the Spartans engaged in commerce, we +have, as has been just stated, the express testimony of Thucydides; +and there is abundant evidence that they had always armed vessels +during their wars; and even so early as the time of Croesus, they +sent some troops to Satnos, and plundered that island: and in later +times, they used such efforts to equip vessels, in order to gain the +mastery of the seas, that, according to Xenophon, they entirely +neglected their cavalry. They were stimulated to this line of conduct +by Alcibiades, who advised the kings, ephori, and the nation at +large, to augment their marine, to compel the ships of all other +nations to lower their flag to theirs, and to proclaim themselves +exclusive masters of the Grecian seas. Isocrates informs us, that, +before Alcibiades came to Lacedaemon, the Spartans, though they had a +navy, expended little on it; but afterwards they increased it almost +daily. The signal defeat they sustained at the battle of Cnidus, +where Conon destroyed their whole fleet, not only blasted their hopes +of becoming masters of the seas, but, according to Isocrates, led to +their defeat at the battle of Leuctra.</p> + +<p>Off the coast of Laconia, and about forty stadia from Cape Malea, +lies the island of Cythera; the strait between it and the mainland +was deemed by the ancients extremely dangerous in stormy weather; and +indeed its narrowness, and the rocks that lay off Cape Malea must, to +such inexperianced navigators, have been very alarming. The +Phoenicians are supposed to have had a settlement in this island: +afterwards it became an object of great consequence to the +Lacedaemonians, who fortified, at great expence, and with much labour +and skill, its two harbours, Cythera and Scandea. The convenience of +these harbours to the Lacedaemonians compensated for the sterility of +the island, which was so great that when the Athenians conquered it, +they could raise from it only four Attic talents annually. The chief +employment and source of wealth to the inhabitants consisted in +collecting a species of shell-fish, from which an inferior kind of +Tyrian dye was extracted. There were several fisheries on the +mainland of Laconia for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>Some of the other Greek islands require a short and general +notice, on account of the attention they paid to maritime affairs. +Corcyra was inhabited by skilful mariners, who, in the time of +Herodotus, possessed a greater number of ships than any other people +in Greece, with the exception of the Athenians; and, according to +Thucydides, at one period they were masters of the Mediterranean Sea. +On the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, they fitted out a fleet of sixty +ships, with which they promised to assist their countrymen; but, +instead of this, their ships anchored in a place where they could see +the result of the battle of Salamis, and when they ascertained that +the Greeks were victorious, they pretended that they had been +prevented from affording the promised succours by contrary winds, so +that they could not double Cape Malea. Of the commerce of this island +we have no particulars detailed by ancient writers.</p> + +<p>Egina, in the Saronic Gulf, acquired great wealth from the +cultivation of commerce: in the time of the Persian war, they +equipped a very powerful and well-manned fleet for the defence of +Greece; and at the battle of Salamis they were adjudged to have +deserved the prize of valour. According to Elian, they were the first +people who coined money.</p> + +<p>The island of Euboea possessed excellent harbours, from which, as +it was very fertile, the Athenians exported large quantities of corn. +This island is divided from the mainland of Greece by the Euripus, +which the ancients represented to be so extremely narrow, that a +galley could scarcely pass through it: its frequent and irregular +tides were, also the subject of their wonder, and the cause of them, +of their fruitless researches and conjectures. It hits several +promontories, the doubling of one of which, Cape Catharius, was +reckoned by the ancients very dangerous, on account of the many rocks +and whirlpools on the const. Of all the cities of Euboea, Chalcis was +the most famous: its inhabitants applied themselves, at a very early +period, to navigation, and sent numerous colonies to Thrace, Macedon, +Italy, &c. In the vicinity of another of its towns, Carystus, +there were quarries of very fine marble, the exportation of which +seems to have been a lucrative trade: in the same part of the island +also was found the asbestos. Euboea possessed several rich copper and +iron mines; and as the inhabitants were very skilful in working these +metals, the exportation of armour, and various vessels made from +them, was also one important branch of their commerce.</p> + +<p>Of the numerous colonies sent out by the Greeks, we shall notice +only those which were established for the purposes of commerce, or +which, though not established for this express purpose, became +afterwards celebrated for it. None of the Athenian colonies, which +they established expressly for the purpose of trading with the +capital, was of such importance as Amphipolis. This place was +situated at the mouth of the river Strymon, on the borders of +Macedonia. The country in its vicinity was very fertile in wood, and +from it, for a considerable length of time, the Athenians principally +derived timber for building their fleets: they also levied on its +inhabitants a heavy tribute in silver coin. As this city was well +situated for commerce, and the Athenians, wherever they went, or were +settled, were eager in pursuit of gain, their colonists in Amphipolis +extended their trade, on one side into Thrace, and on the other into +Macedonia. They were enabled, in a great measure, to monopolize the +commerce of both these countries, at least those parts of them which +were contiguous, from the situation of their city on the Strymon; of +which river they held, as it were, the key, so that nothing could +depart from it without their consent. The ancients represent this +river as frequently exhibiting immense logs of wood floating down it, +which had been felled either on Mount Rhodope, or in the forests of +Mount Hemus. The Athenians retained this important and valuable +colony till the time of Philip, the father of Alexander, by whom it +was taken from them.</p> + +<p>The island of Samos may justly be regarded as a Grecian colony; +having been chiefly inhabited by the Iones, to whose confederacy it +belonged. Its situation between the mainland of Asia and the island +of Icaria, from both of which it is separated by very narrow straits, +which were the usual course for the ancient vessels in their voyage +from the Black Sea to Syria and Egypt, rendered it the resort of +pirates, as well as celebrated for its ships and commerce. The city +of Samos, as described by the ancients, seems to have been a place of +great consequence. Herodotus mentions three things for which it was +remarkable in his time; one of which was a mole or pier, 120 feet +long, which formed the harbour, and was carried two furlongs into the +sea. The principal design of this mole was to protect ships from the +south wind, to which they would otherwise have been much exposed. +Hence it would appear, that even at this early period, they had made +great advances in commerce, otherwise they would neither have had the +disposition or ability to build such a mole. But we have the express +testimony of Thucydides, that even at a much earlier period,--nearly +300 years before the Peloponnesian war,--the Samians gave great +encouragement to shipbuilding, and employed Aminodes, the Corinthian, +who was esteemed the most skilful ship-builder of his time; and +Herodotus speaks of them as trading to Egypt, Spain, &c., before +any of the other Greeks, except Sostrates, of Egina, were acquainted +with those countries. The same author informs us, that the Samians +had a settlement in Upper Egypt, and that one of their merchant +ships, on its passage thither, was driven by contrary winds, beyond +the Pillars of Hercules, to the island of Tartessus, which till then +was unknown to the Greeks. This island abounded in gold; of the value +of which, the inhabitants were so utterly ignorant, that they readily +allowed the Samians to carry home with them sixty talents, or about +13,500 <i>l</i>. According to Pliny, they first built vessels fit to +transport cavalry. We are not informed of what articles their exports +and imports consisted, except that their earthen-ware was in great +repute among the ancients, in their most splendid entertainments, and +was exported in great quantities for this purpose. The Samian earth, +from which these vessels were made, was itself also exported, on +account of its medicinal properties. It is well known that the +victory obtained by the Greeks over the Persians, at the sea-fight of +Mycale, was chiefly owing to the Samians.</p> + +<p>The commerce of the Black Sea was of so much importance and value +to the Greeks, that we cannot be surprised that they founded several +colonies on its shores, and in the adjacent countries. Heraclea, in +this sea, is said to have been founded by the Beotians: the +inhabitants availed themselves of their situation to engage very +extensively in maritime affairs and in commerce, so that in a short +time they were not inferior in wealth or power to any of the Greek +states in Asia. When Xenophon was obliged to retreat after his +expedition into Asia Minor, the Heracleans supplied him with ships, +to transport his army into Greece. Their maritime strength and skill, +or their commercial pursuits, involved them in almost every maritime +war, their friendship and support being sought after by all the +Asiatic princes. When the war broke out between Ptolemy and +Antigonus, they sent to the assistance of the former a numerous +fleet, all of which were well equipped and manned. Some were of an +extraordinary size, especially one, which had on each side 800 oars, +besides 1200 fighting men.</p> + +<p>Trapezus was a Greek city, in Pontus, situated on a peninsula, in +the Black Sea, where it begins to turn to the east: it had a large +and convenient port, and carried on a considerable trade. But the +most celebrated of the Grecian colonies in this part of the world, +was Byzantium: it was anciently founded by the Megareans, and +successively rebuilt by the Milesians and other nations of Greece. +Its harbour, which was in fact an arm of the Bosphorus, obtained, at +a very remote period, the appellation of the Golden Horn; most of the +recesses, which were compared to the horn of a stag, are now filled +up. The epithet "golden" was given to it as expressive of the riches, +which (to use the language of Gibbon) every wind wafted from the most +distant countries into its secure and capacious port. Never was there +a happier or more majestic situation. The river Lycus, which was +formed by the junction of two small streams, pouring into the +harbour, every tide, a regular supply of fresh water, cleansed the +bottom; while the tides in those seas being very trifling, the +constant depth of the harbour allowed goods to be landed on the quay +without the assistance of boats: and in some parts, the depth near +the shore was so considerable, that the prows of the vessels touched +the houses, while they were fully afloat. The distance from the mouth +of the river to that of the harbour, or the length of this arm of the +Bosphorus is seven miles; the entrance, about 500 yards broad, was +defended, when necessary, by a strong chain drawn across it. The city +of Byzantium was situated on a promontory, nearly of a triangular +form; on the point of the promontory stood the citadel. The walls of +the city itself were very strong, but not so lofty towards the sea as +towards the land, being on the former side defended by the waves, and +in some places by the rocks on which they were built, and which +projected into the sea.</p> + +<p>Thus favoured by nature, and strengthened by art, and situated in +a territory abounding in grain and fruits, Byzantium was crowded with +merchants, and supported and enriched by an active and flourishing +commerce: its harbour, which was sheltered on every side from +tempests, besides being easy of access and capacious, attracted to it +ships from all the states of Greece, while its situation at the head +of the strait enabled, and seemed to authorize it to stop and subject +to heavy duties, the foreign merchants who traded to the Euxine, or +to reduce the nations who depended on the countries bordering on this +sea for their supplies of corn to great difficulties, and in some +cases, even to famine. On these accounts the Athenians and +Lacedaemonians were generally rivals for its alliance and friendship. +Besides the necessary article of grain and abundance of rich and +valuable fruit, the Byzantines derived great wealth from their +fisheries: these were carried on with great spirit, enterprize, and +success. A surprising quantity of fish was caught in the harbour +itself, in autumn, when they left the Euxine for the Archipelago; and +in the spring, on their return to Pontus. A great many people were +employed both in this fishery, and in the curing of the fish: great +sums were derived from this source, as well as from the sale of salt +provisions; for the quality of which, Byzantium was in greater renown +than even Panticapeum. The only disadvantage under which the +Byzantines laboured, to counterbalance the excellence of their +harbour, the fertility of their soil, the productiveness of their +fisheries, and the extent of their commerce, arose from the frequent +excursions of the Thracians, who inhabited the neighbouring +villages.</p> + +<p>There were many other Grecian colonies on the Bosphorus and the +adjacent seas. Panticapeum, built by the Milesians, according to +Strabo, the capital of the European Bosphorus, with which, as has +been already mentioned, the Athenians carried on a considerable +trade. Theodosia, also mentioned before, was likewise formed and +colonized by the Milesians: its port could contain 100 ships. Tanais, +on the Cimmerian Bosphorus; Olbia and Borysthenes, both situated near +the mouth of the river from which the latter took its name; Panagorea +and Hermonassa on the Bosphorus, and several others. Besides these +colonies in this part of the world, the Greeks founded others, for +the express purposes of commerce; as Syracuse, in Sicily; Marseilles, +in Gaul, the mother of several colonies established on the +neighbouring coasts, and, as we shall afterwards notice, a place of +very considerable wealth, consequence, and strength, derived entirely +from commerce, as well as the seat of the arts and sciences; Cyrene, +an opulent city in Africa, and Naucratis, situated on one of the +mouths of the Nile. They likewise formed settlements in Rhodes and +Crete, in the islands of the Egean Sea, on the opposite coasts of +Asia, &c.; most of which were of importance to the mother +country, from the facilities they offered to the extension of its +commerce.</p> + +<p>The war between the Romans, and Philip king of Macedon, which +intervened between the second and third Punic war, first afforded the +former an opportunity and an excuse for interfering in the affairs of +Greece. Till the time of Philip, the father of Alexander, Macedonia +does not appear to have had any connexion with the rest of this +celebrated portion of the ancient world; the Greeks, indeed, regarded +its inhabitants as savages; but from that period, Macedonia became +the most important and influential state in Greece. Its boundaries +varied at different periods of its history: it seems originally to +have been bounded on the east by the Egean Sea; on the south by +Thessaly and Epirus; on the west by the Ionian Sea; and on the north +by the river Strymon, at the mouth of which, as has been already +mentioned, the Athenians founded one of their most flourishing and +useful colonies. The princes of Macedonia viewed with jealousy, but +for a long time were unable to prevent the states of Greece from +forming colonies in the immediate vicinity of their dominions: their +union, however, with the king of Persia, when he first fixed his +ambition on Greece, was rewarded by a great accession of territory, +which enabled them to contest the possession of the sea-coasts with +the most powerful of the Greek republics. They then extended their +territories to the Eastern Sea, but there were till the reign of +Philip, the father of Alexander, several nations between them and the +Adriatic, all of which were subdued by him; and thus this sea became +their western boundary.</p> + +<p>Some of the most celebrated cities of Macedonia were founded by +foreign nations. Epidamnus, which was seated at the entrance of the +Ionian Gulf, was a colony of the Corcyrians: it was the occasion of a +fierce naval war between them and the Corinthians, generally called +the Corinthian war. Apollonia, distant seven miles from the sea, on +the river Laus, was a Corinthian colony: it was renowned for its +excellent laws. On another part of the coast of the Adriatic were the +sea-ports of Elyma and Bullis. The district of Paraxis, which was +full of gulfs and inlets formed by the Egean Sea, had several ports, +but none of any repute. From this description of Macedonia and its +principal sea coasts and ports, it is evident that it possessed many +advantages for commerce and naval affairs, which, however, were never +embraced till the period when the Romans first turned their thoughts +to Greece. Had its sovereigns been disposed to engage in commerce, +the Adriatic, with its extensive and safe haven of Epidamnus, in +which there were several ports, would have opened the trade to Italy; +the Egean Sea, still more advantageous, would have secured the trade +of Greece and Asia, by means of its spacious bays, one of which, the +Sinus Thermæus, was at least sixty miles long.</p> + +<p>The produce of Macedonia also would have favoured its commerce; +the soil was every where fruitful, and, especially near the sea, +abounding in corn, wine, and oil: its principal riches, however, +consisted in its mines of almost all kinds of metals, but +particularly of gold. In the district of Pieria, it is said, there +were found large quantities of this metal in the sand, sometimes in +lumps of considerable size: but by far the most productive and +valuable mines of gold were in the mountain Pangæus, in a +district which Philip, the father of Alexander, added to Macedonia. +The people who inhabited the country near the river Strymon derived +great wealth from these mines, and it was the knowledge of this, as +much as the facility of obtaining timber, which induced the Athenians +to found their colony near this river. The Thracians drove the +Athenians from this part of Macedonia, and Philip expelled them: he +paid great attention to the working of the mines; and by employing +persons well skilled in this and in refining the ore, he rendered +them so extremely valuable, that, according to ancient authors, he +obtained the empire of Greece principally by means of the immense +sums he drew from them, amounting annually, according to Diodorus, to +1000 talents of gold. When the Romans reduced Macedonia, they +expressly forbade the inhabitants from working the mines of gold or +silver, or refining either of those metals; permitting them, however, +to manufacture any other metal.</p> + +<p>The princes of Macedonia previous to Philip, the father of +Alexander, notwithstanding the great advantage for maritime affairs +and commerce afforded by the sea-coasts, bays, harbours, &c., +neither practised nor understood them: this arose in a great measure +from their being continually engaged in wars, or having their ports +occupied or blocked up by the maritime states of Greece. Philip was +the first who freed his country from these evils and inconveniences; +but his thoughts were too intently and constantly fixed on other +objects to allow him to turn his attention to maritime affairs or +commerce. Alexander, as we have already seen, bestowed much care on +his fleet, while engaged in the conquest of Asia; and when he died at +Babylon, had formed the design of placing his fleets, in every port +of his dominions, on a regular and extensive scale. But the +advantages of Macedonia for commerce were neglected in the midst of +his vast plans elsewhere, and the Macedonians, at the period of his +death, were still inattentive to maritime affairs.</p> + +<p>Philip, the antagonist of the Romans, of whose power and success +he was not only jealous but apprehensive, as soon as he resolved to +engage in hostilities with them, applied himself to maritime affairs. +His determination seems to have been fixed when he learnt that the +Romans had been defeated at the Lake of Thrasymenus: he instantly +formed the plan of invading Illyrium, and then crossing over to +Italy. But the latter step could not be taken, nor, indeed, could he +expect to cope with the Romans, till he had formed a fleet, and +trained his subjects to the management of it. At this period the +Macedonians seem to have had some merchant ships; for we are informed +that a petty king of Illyria seized some of them in the port of +Leucas, and also all that his squadron met with on the coast of +Greece, as far as Malea. This insult and attack afforded Philip an +excellent reason for declaring war against Illyricum: he began by +exercising the Macedonians in the art of navigation; he built ships +after the Illyrian manner, and he was the first king of Macedonia +that put to sea 100 small vessels at one time.</p> + +<p>He was urged still more strongly to go on with his plan of +invading Italy, when he learnt the result of the battle of +Cannæ; he immediately formed an alliance with Hannibal, and +engaged to invade Italy with 200 sail of ships, and plunder its +eastern coasts: in return for this service he was to retain all the +islands in the Adriatic, lying near the coast of Macedonia, that he +might subdue.</p> + +<p>His first naval enterprize was the siege of Oricum on the coast of +Epirus, and of Apollonia on the coast of Macedonia, both of which he +carried on at the same time, with 120 ships of two banks of oars. He +was, however, successfully opposed by the Roman consul Laevinus, who +obliged him to burn great part of his fleet, and raise the siege of +Doth the places.</p> + +<p>About twelve years afterwards, or about 200 years before Christ, +Philip engaged in a maritime war with Attalus, king of Pergamus, and +the Rhodians, near the isle of Chio: the fleet of Philip consisted of +fifty-three decked vessels and 150 gallies; besides these he had +several ships called pristis, from the figure of a large fish which +was affixed to, or engraved on their bows, either to distinguish +them, or as a mark of their swift sailing. The fleet of his opponents +consisted of sixty-five covered ships, besides those of their allies, +the people of Byzantium.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding, however, the exertions he made to acquire a naval +force equal to that of the Romans, and the experience which his +subjects gradually obtained in maritime affairs, he was not able to +sustain their attacks, either by land or sea, but was compelled in a +very few years to sue for peace. This he obtained, on the condition, +that he should deliver up to the Romans all his covered gallies, and +reserve to himself only a few smaller vessels: he was permitted, +however, to retain one galley of sixteen banks of oars, a vessel +rather for shew than use.</p> + +<p>The success of the Romans, the extent of their conquests, and the +ambitious views, which seemed wider and wider in proportion to their +successes, alarmed Antiochus, king of Syria, who, not intimidated by +the fate of Philip, resolved to declare war against them. They were +never averse to engage in hostilities. The fleet of Antiochus +consisted of 100 ships; that of the Romans was nearly equal in +number; the ships of Antiochus, however, were inferior to those of +his opponents in respect to strength and size, though surpassing them +in swiftness. The hostile fleets met and engaged on the coast of +Ionia; that of Antiochus was defeated, and would have been utterly +captured or destroyed, had it not been for the swiftness of the +vessels. In order to repair his loss, Antiochus sent for additional +vessels from Sicily and Phoenicia; but these were taken on their +passage by the Rhodians, who were at this time in alliance with the +Romans. The Rhodians, however, in their turn were attacked and +defeated by the fleet of Antiochus, near Samos, whither they had gone +to join a Roman squadron.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Romans had collected a fleet of eighty ships, +and with these they fought one hundred ships of their opponent off +the coast of Ionia; the victory of the former was decisive, all the +ships of Antiochus being captured or destroyed. This disaster, in +connection with a signal defeat he sustained by land, compelled him +to submit; and the Romans, always attentive to their maritime +interests, which however they had not hitherto pushed nearly to the +extent which they might have done, refused to grant him peace, except +on the conditions, that he should cede all that part of Asia which +lies between the sea and Mount Taurus; that he should give up all his +vessels except ten; and that these should not, on any account, sail +beyond the promontories of Cilicia. The Romans, extremely strict, and +even severe, in enforcing the conditions of peace, not only destroyed +fifty covered galleys, but, the successor of Antiochus having built +additional vessels to the ten he was by treaty allowed to keep, they +compelled him to burn them.</p> + +<p>The temporary success of the Carthaginians against the Romans +induced Philip, king of Macedon, to engage in that war which proved +his ruin. The advice of Hannibal, when an exile at the court of +Antiochus, likewise led to the disastrous war of that monarch with +the same people; and by the advice of Hannibal also, Prusias, king of +Bythinia, was engaged in hostilities with them. This king seems to +have paid considerable attention to naval and commercial affairs, for +both of which, indeed, his territories were admirably suited. In +conjunction with the Rhodians, he made war against the inhabitants of +Byzantium, and obliged them to remit the tax which they had been +accustomed to levy on all vessels that sailed to or from the Euxine +Sea, The maritime war between this sovereign and the Romans, who were +at this time in alliance with Eumenes, king of Pergamus, offers +nothing deserving our notice, except a stratagem executed by +Hannibal. In order to compensate for the inferiority of Prusias' +fleet, Hannibal ordered a great many serpents to be collected; these +were put into pots, which, during the engagement, were thrown into +the enemy's ships. The alarm and consternation occasioned by this +novel and unexpected mode of warfare, threw his opponents into +disorder, and compelled them to save themselves by flight.</p> + +<p>The conquest of all the islands on the coast of Greece, from +Epirus to Cape Malea, by the Romans, was the result of a naval war, +in which they engaged with the Etolians, a people who, at this time, +were so powerful at sea, and so much addicted to piracy, as to have +drawn upon themselves the jealousy and the vengeance of the Romans. +This extension of their dominions was followed by a successful war +with the Istrians, which made them masters of all the western parts +of the Mediterranean Sea; and by an equally successful war with +Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, who was compelled to deliver up his +fleet to them, as well as all the sea-ports of consequence on the +coast of Sparta.</p> + +<p>The Rhodians hitherto had been generally in alliance with the +Romans; but differences arose between them during the war between the +latter and Perseus, king of Macedon.</p> + +<p>The island of Rhodes was remarkably well situated for maritime +commerce; and its inhabitants did not fail to reap all the advantages +in this respect which nature had so kindly bestowed on them. It +appears from Homer, that in his time there were three cities in the +island; but during the Peloponnesian war, the greater part of the +inhabitants, having formed the resolution to settle in one place, +built the city of Rhodes, after the designs of the same Athenian +architect, who built the Piræus. This city was situated on the +east coast of the island, at the foot of a hill, in the form of an +amphitheatre: it possessed a very convenient and safe harbour, at the +entrance of which there were two rocks; and on these, which were +fifty feet asunder, the famous Colossus was placed. The arsenals of +Rhodes were filled with every thing requisite for the defence of the +city, or the equipment of a large fleet: its walls, which were +extremely high, were defended by towers: its houses were built of +stone: in short, the whole city presented a striking picture of +wealth, magnificence, and beauty, for which it was not less indebted +to art and commerce than to nature.</p> + +<p>Before the era of the Olympiads, the Rhodians applied themselves +to maritime affairs: for many years they seem to have been masters of +the Mediterranean Sea; and their code of maritime laws became the +standard with all the maritime nations of antiquity, by which all +controversies regarding maritime affairs were regulated. There is +great doubt among the learned, whether what still exist as the +fragments of these laws are genuine: we know, however, that the +Romans had a law which they called Lex Rhodia; according to some, +this contained the regulations of the Rhodians concerning naval +affairs; according to others, however, only one clause of the law, +<i>de jactu</i>, about throwing goods overboard in a storm, was +borrowed from the Rhodians.</p> + +<p>Besides the commerce in which they themselves were engaged, the +constant arrival of ships from Egypt to Greece, and from Greece to +Egypt, the island being situated exactly in the passage between these +countries, contributed much to their wealth. As this encreased, they +formed settlements and colonies in many places; at Parthenope and +Salapia, in Italy; Agrigentum and Geta, in Sicily; Rhodes, on the +coast of Spain, near the foot of the Pyrenees, &c. They were +particularly celebrated for and attentive to the construction of +their vessels; aiming principally at lightness and speed, the +discipline observed on board of them, and the skill and ability of +their captains and pilots. All these things were under the direct +management and controul of magistrates, appointed for the express +purpose, who were excessively attentive and even rigid in the +execution of their duty. Whoever entered certain places in the +arsenals without permission, was punished with death.</p> + +<p>A few of the most remarkable events in the maritime history of +Rhodes, prior to their dispute with the Romans, call for some general +and cursory notice. Till the foundation of the city of Rhodes, which, +as we have already stated, took place during the Peleponnesian war, +there is scarcely any thing to attract our attention: a short time +before this, the republican form of government was established, and +the trade and navigation of the Rhodians seem to have acquired a +fresh impulse and spirit. But their enterprizes were soon checked by +Artemisia, queen of Caria, gaining possession of their city: this she +effected by a stratagem. The Rhodians invaded Caria with a design of +gaining possession of Halicarnassus: by the direction of the queen, +the inhabitants made a signal that they surrendered; the Rhodians +suspecting no treachery, and delighted with their apparent success, +left their fleet to take possession of the town; in the meantime, the +queen brought her fleet from an adjoining creek, by means of some +canal or other inland communication, to the port where the Rhodian +vessels lay, and quietly took them. This disaster was the cause of +another, still more calamitous to the Rhodians; for Artemisia sailed +with the Rhodian ships to Rhodes, and the inhabitants, under the +belief that their fleet was returning victorious, permitted the enemy +to land and to seize the city. To what cause the Rhodions were +indebted for the restoration of their liberty and independence we are +not informed; but it was owing, either to the interference of the +Athenians, or the death of Artemisia.</p> + +<p>From the period of these events, which occurred about 350 years +before Christ, till the reign of Alexander the Great, the Rhodians +enjoyed profound and uninterrupted tranquillity; their commerce +extended, and their wealth encreased. To this conqueror they offered +no resistance, but of their own accord surrendered their cities and +harbours; as soon, however, as they learnt that he was dead, they +resumed their independence. About this time the greater part of their +city was destroyed by a dreadful inundation, which would have swept +the whole of it away, if the wall between it and the sea had not been +broken down by the force of the waters, and thus given them free +passage. This misfortune seems only to have encouraged the +inhabitants to attend still more closely and diligently to commerce, +which they carried on with so much industry and skill, and in such a +profitable manner, that they soon rebuilt their city, and repaired +all the losses they had sustained. Their alliance was courted by all +their neighbours; but they resolved to adhere to a strict neutrality, +and thus, while war raged among other nations, they were enabled to +profit by that very circumstance, and thus became one of the most +opulent states of all Asia. Their commerce, as well as that of all +the states on the Mediterranean, being much molested and injured by +the pirates, they undertook, of their own accord, and at their own +expence, to root them out; and in this they completely succeeded.</p> + +<p>But that commerce, on account of which they were so very anxious +to keep at peace, involved them in war. Their most lucrative trade +was with Egypt. When hostilities began between Ptolemy and Antigonus, +the latter insisted that they should join him; this they refused to +do; upon which his fleet blockaded Rhodes, to prevent their commerce +with Egypt. The Rhodians were thus compelled to act against him in +their own defence, in order to free their harbour. The raising of the +blockade, and the defeat of his fleet, incensed Antiochus; and to the +remonstrances and entreaties of the Rhodians to be permitted to +remain at peace, he replied, "that they must declare war against +Ptolemy, admit his fleet into their harbour, and give hostages for +the performance of these articles." War now was inevitable, and great +preparations for it were made on both sides: the attack on the city +was committed by Antigonus to his son Demetrius; for this purpose he +collected a fleet of 200 ships of war, 170 transports with 40,000 men +on board, and 1000 vessels laden with provisions, stores, warlike +engines, etc. This immense armament was composed partly of pirates +and mercenaries, who were induced to join Demetrius, by the hope of +partaking in the plunder of Rhodes. It is foreign to our purpose to +enter on the details of this memorable siege: the Rhodians trusted +principally to their own valour and resources; from Ptolemy, however, +they received most ample and seasonable supplies of provisions: at +one time he sent them 300,000 measures of corn; a few days afterwards +Cassandra sent them 100,000 bushels of barley, and Lysimachus 400,000 +bushels of corn, and as many of barley: these supplies, the valour of +the inhabitants, and the ill success of some new and immense engines, +on which Demetrius had mainly depended, at length induced him to +raise the siege and make peace with the Rhodians.</p> + +<p>The Rhodians endeavoured to make up for the time they had lost, +and the money they had expended, during their war with Antiochus, by +applying themselves entirely to navigation and commerce; so that, +according to Polybius, they became masters of the sea, and the most +opulent and flourishing state of those times. The next war in which +they were engaged was occasioned entirely by their attention and +regard to their commercial interests. We have already slightly +noticed this war; but in this place it will be proper to go more into +detail respecting it. The people of Byzantium determined to lay a +toll on all ships that traded to the Euxine, in order to defray an +annual tribute which they were obliged to pay to the Greeks. As one +of the most important and lucrative branches of the commerce of +Rhodes was to the countries lying on this sea, they were much +aggrieved by this toll, and endeavoured to persuade the Byzantines to +take it off, but in vain. Under these circumstances, they, in +conjunction with Prusias, king of Bythinia, declared war against the +Byzantines; and while their ally took Hieron, which seems to have +been a great mart of the Byzantines, and the resort of most of the +merchants trading to these parts, the Rhodians, with a powerful +fleet, ravaged their coasts, and seized all their ships trading to +the Euxine. The war was at length terminated under the mediation of +the king of the Thracian Gauls; the Byzantines agreeing to take off +the toll.</p> + +<p>Their success in this war was counterbalanced by a dreadful +earthquake, which threw down the Colossus, destroyed the arsenal, and +damaged part of the walls and city. As the Rhodians, however, were +much esteemed by most of their neighbours, who found their prosperity +intimately connected with the prosperity of Rhodes, they soon +recovered from these calamities and losses. Hiero, king of Syracuse, +gave them 100 talents, and exempted them from all duties and taxes. +Ptolemy gave them also the like sum, besides one million measures of +wheat, and timber, etc. requisite for building fifty ships. Antiochus +exempted all their vessels, which traded to his ports, from every +kind of tax and duty. They received from other princes presents or +privileges of equal importance and value; so that, in a very short +time, they recovered their former opulence and trade, and rebuilt +their walls, etc.</p> + +<p>Their alliance with Attalus, king of Pergamus, involved them in a +war with Philip king of Macedonia, and was the cause of their forming +an alliance with the Romans. In this war the Rhodian fleet, in +conjunction with the fleets of their allies, gained several victories +over the fleet of Philip. The latter was at length obliged to sue to +the Romans for peace, and they, in fixing the terms, included the +Rhodians, to whom were ceded Stratonice, and the greater part of +Caria. In the meantime Antiochus and the Romans had commenced +hostilities, and the Rhodians were again involved in them: almost at +their very commencement, their fleet was surprized by a stratagem of +Antiochus's admiral, and of thirty ships of war of which it +consisted, only seven escaped.</p> + +<p>They soon, however, repaired their losses, and fitted out another +fleet, with which they put to sea, for the purpose of preventing the +junction of Hannibal with Antiochus's ships: the former had +thirty-seven large ships; the Rhodian fleet was nearly equal in +numbers, but inferior in size. The hostile fleets met off the coast +of Pamphilia. The battle was obstinate: at first, by an oversight of +the Rhodian admiral, some disorder occurred in part of his fleet; but +this was soon repaired, and a decisive victory obtained. Part of +Hannibal's fleet was captured, and the rest blocked up in the +harbours of Pamphilia. The defeat of Antiochus, both at sea and land, +by the Romans, to which we have already adverted, obliged this +monarch to sue for peace, in which the Rhodians were included.</p> + +<p>We have now arrived at that period of the history of Rhodes when +the first difference arose between that city and the Romans: the +latter suspected that the Rhodians favoured Perseus king of Macedon, +with whom they were at war, and were moreover displeased at their +presuming to interfere with them in his favour. In order to watch +their inclinations and motions, the senate sent three commissioners +to Rhodes: these found a fleet of forty galleys, which there was +reason to believe had been intended to act against the Romans; but +which, by the advice of the chief magistrate, were, on the arrival of +the commissioners, ordered to sea, to act in union with them. Scarce, +however, were the commissioners departed, when the Rhodians became +lukewarm in the cause of the Romans; and although they sent a few of +their galleys to join the Roman admiral, they kept the greatest +number in port, waiting the issue of the war between them and the +king of Macedonia. As soon as they heard of the defeat of the former +in Thessaly, they entered into negotiations with Perseus, and at the +same time sent ambassadors to Rome, who complained, that in +consequence of the war between Perseus and the Romans, the navigation +and commerce of Rhodes was greatly injured, their island deprived of +provisions and other necessaries, and the customs and duties which +their maritime situation formerly afforded them kept back, from their +no longer being able to sail with safety along the coasts of Asia, +where they used to levy the most important and productive of +them.</p> + +<p>After the defeat of Perseus, they ceased to remonstrate, and +became submissive to the Romans. It is probable, however, that the +Romans would have seized this opportunity of attacking them, had not +Cato spoken very strongly in their favour: in consequence of his +arguments and influence, and by the cession of Lycia and Caria, they +were again admitted to an alliance with the Romans.</p> + +<p>The advantages they derived from this alliance were so great, that +they resisted the promises and the threats of Mithridates, when he +engaged in hostilities with the Romans. This monarch, therefore, +resolved to employ his whole force by sea and land against them: they +were not however dismayed, but placed a firm reliance on their skill +in maritime affairs. They divided their fleet into three squadrons: +one drawn up in a line protected the entrance of the harbour; and the +other two, at a greater distance from the shore, were stationed to +watch the approach of the enemy. Mithridates also divided his fleet, +which was more numerous than that of the Rhodians, into three +squadrons; one of these he himself commanded, on board of a +quinquereme, and directed to attack the squadron which was protecting +the port. The Rhodians gradually retired before the enemy, till they +came close to the mouth of the harbour: Mithridates in vain +endeavoured to break their line, and force an entrance; in all his +attempts he was defeated with considerable loss; and his land forces, +which he had embarked in transports, being dispersed in a storm, he +was obliged to retire from before the city.</p> + +<p>The Romans acknowledged the benefits they derived from the valour +of the Rhodians on this occasion; and they again experienced it, in +the war which Pompey carried on against the Cilician pirates, though +that commander took all the merit to himself. In the civil war +between him and Caesar, they assisted the former with a numerous +fleet, under the command of one of their best seamen, who +distinguished himself above all Pompey's captains, and gained very +considerable advantages over Caesar's fleet. On the death of Pompey +they joined Csesar: this exposed them to the hostility of Cassius; +they endeavoured to pacify him by promising to recal the ships they +had sent to the assistance of Caesar, but he demanded the delivery of +their whole fleet, and that he should be put in possession of their +harbour and city. To these terms they would not accede, but prepared +for war, by equipping a fleet of thirty-three ships, and placing it +under the command of one of their best officers. A battle ensued +which was fought on both sides with great skill and bravery; but the +Rhodians were obliged to yield to the superior number of the Roman +fleet, and to return to the harbour, having lost two of their ships, +and the rest being very much damaged. It is remarked by the ancient +historians who relate this battle, that it was the first time the +Rhodians were fairly overcome in a sea-fight.</p> + +<p>Cassius followed up his success by bringing against Rhodes a fleet +of eighty ships of war, and 200 transports. Against this formidable +armament the Rhodians again put to sea, and a second battle ensued, +which was more obstinately contested than the first: the Romans +however were again victorious, and the city of Rhodes was blocked up +by sea and land. Its fate was soon determined; for some of the +inhabitants, dreading a famine, opened the gates to the Romans. +Cassius, besides other severe terms, obliged the Rhodians to deliver +up all their ships, and all their public treasures; the temples were +plundered, and 8000 talents extorted from private individuals, +besides a fine of 500 levied on the city.</p> + +<p>From this time till the reign of Vespasian, when the island became +a Roman province, it was sometimes oppressed, and sometimes favoured +by the Romans; according, as Tacitus remarks, as they obliged them +with their assistance in foreign wars, or provoked them with their +seditions at home.</p> + +<p>In order to complete the maritime history of Rhodes, we have +rather advanced beyond the period to which we had brought down our +notices of the Roman navigation and commerce: these therefore we +shall now resume at the war between Perseus king of Macedonia and the +Romans. Perseus harassed the coasts of Italy, plundered and sunk all +their ships, while they found it difficult to oppose him by sea, or +protect their coasts, for want of a fleet. This induced them to +prepare for service fifty vessels; but though their allies augmented +this number, the Romans do not seem to have performed any thing of +consequence by sea. This is attributed principally to the +circumstance, that the fleet, on examination, was discovered to be in +bad condition, neither equipped sufficiently in stores or provisions, +and the seamen who were to have navigated it were either dead or +absent, while those who did appear were ill paid and worse clothed; +these facts sufficiently demonstrate the little care which the +Romans, even at this period, bestowed on maritime affairs. The defeat +of Perseus at Pidna, and his subsequent capture by the Romans in the +island of Samothrace, rendered it unnecessary for them to supply the +deficiences of their fleet. The immense ship, which, as we have +already mentioned, Philip, Perseus's father, employed in his war +against the Romans, was taken on this occasion; and Paulus Emilius, +the consul, sailed up the Tiber in it: it had 16 banks of oars. Many +other ships of large size were also captured; these were brought to +Rome, and drawn into the Campus Martius.</p> + +<p>One of the allies of the unfortunate Perseus was the king of +Illyria, who was powerful at sea, and ravaged the coasts of Italy +opposite to his dominions. While the consul was sent against Perseus, +the management of the naval war against the Illyrians was committed +to the praetor: as he was well aware of the maritime force of his +opponent, he acted with great caution; his first success, in +capturing some of their snips, induced him to land all his forces in +Illyria, where, after an obstinate battle, he compelled the king to +surrender at discretion. Macedonia and Illyria were thus reduced to +the state of Roman provinces; but the Romans regarded these victories +as of importance, more on account of the accession they made to their +territories, than on account of the advantages which they might +thence derive to their commerce or their naval power: so little, +indeed, did they regard them in the latter point of view, that they +gave the 220 ships which were surrendered to them by the king of +Illyria, to the inhabitants of Cephalonia, of Apollonia, and +Dyrrhachium, who at the time were much celebrated for their trade and +navigation. Although their seacoasts had been repeatedly ravaged, we +are informed by Polybius, that, from the time of Philip, king of +Macedonia, till long after the defeat of Perseus, they entirely +neglected the coasts of Illyria, from which, till this country was +subdued by them, their own coasts were generally invaded, and by +means of the ports and produce of which, after it became a Roman +province, they might greatly have augmented their navy and +commerce.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians had been gradually recovering from the losses +which they had sustained during the second Punic war, and witnessed +with satisfaction their enemies involved in constant hostilities, in +the hope that the issue of these would prove fatal to them, or, at +least, so far weaken them, as to enable them to oppose Rome with more +success than they had hitherto done. While the war was carried on +between the Romans and the Macedonians, they made great, but secret, +preparations to regain their former power; but the Romans, who always +kept a watchful and jealous eye on the operations of all their +rivals, were particularly nearsighted with regard to whatever was +doing by the Carthaginians. They received information that at +Carthage there was deposited a large quantity of timber, and of other +naval stores: on learning this, Cato, their inveterate enemy, who had +been sent into Africa, to mediate between them and Masinissa, with +whom they were at war, went to Carthage himself, where he examined +every thing with a malicious eye. On his return to Rome, he reported +that Carthage was again become excessively rich,--that her magazines +were filled with all kinds of warlike stores,--that her ports were +crowded with ships, and that by her war with Masinissa, she was only +preparing to renew the war against Rome. His exhortations to his +countrymen to anticipate the Carthaginians, by immediately commencing +hostilities, had no effect at first; but being frequently repeated, +and intelligence being received, that preparations were making at +Carthage for an open declaration of war, and that the Carthaginians +were fitting out a fleet, contrary to the terms of their treaty with +the Romans; and this information being confirmed by the report of +deputies sent to Carthage; war was declared against Carthage in the +year of Rome 605. The Carthaginians endeavoured to pacify the Romans +by surrendering to them their cities, lands, rivers, &c., in +short, by a complete surrender of whatever they possessed, as well as +of themselves. At first the Romans appeared disposed to abstain from +war on these conditions; and the Carthaginians actually delivered up +all their arms and warlike engines, and witnessed the burning of +their fleet; but the Romans, having thus degraded them, and stript +them in a great measure of the means of defence, now insisted that +Carthage itself should be destroyed, and that the inhabitants should +build a city at the distance of five leagues from, the sea. Indignant +at these demands, they resolved to sustain a siege; and, in a very +short time, they made immense preparations for defending their city. +At first they gained some success over the Romans; for their fleet +having come very near the shore, to transport the troops, who were +suffering from the vicinity of the marshes, to a healthier spot, the +Carthaginians fitted out a great number of fire ships, filled with +tar, sulphur, bitumen, &c., and taking advantage of a favourable +wind, they sent them among the Roman fleet, great part of which was +thus destroyed.</p> + +<p>But these and other successes did not ultimately avail them: +Scipio who had been chosen consul, arrived in Africa, and Carthage +was immediately strictly blocked up by sea and land. His exertions +were indeed astonishing; as the new port of Carthage was effectually +shut up by the Roman fleet, so that no assistance or provisions could +enter by it; and as lines of circumvallation were formed on land, the +consul's great object was to block up the old port. The Romans were +masters of the western neck of land, which formed one side of its +entrance; from this to the other side they built a mole, ninety feet +broad at bottom, and eighty at top; when this was completed, the old +port was rendered quite inaccessible and useless.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians on their part, imagined and executed works as +surprising as those of the Romans: deprived of both their ports, they +dug, in a very short time, a new harbour, from which they cut a +passage to the sea; and they built and equipped a fleet of fifty +ships, which put to sea through this new harbour. The Romans were +astonished when they beheld a fleet, of the existence or possibility +of which they had no conception, advancing out of a harbour, the +formation of which equally astonished them, and this fleet daring to +hazard an engagement. The battle continued during the whole day, with +little advantage on either side; but, notwithstanding all their +efforts, and some partial and temporary successes, Carthage was at +length compelled to submit to Scipio, and was at first plundered, and +afterwards destroyed. The Romans burnt the new fleet which the +Carthaginians had built: indeed, in general, instead of augmenting +their own naval force, when they subdued any of their maritime +enemies, they either destroyed their ships or bestowed them on some +of their allies; a certain proof, as Huet remarks, of the very little +regard they paid to sea affairs.</p> + +<p>We are expressly informed, in the Life of Terence, generally +ascribed to Suetonius, that before the destruction of Carthage, the +Romans did not trade to Africa: but though his words are express, +they must not be taken literally; for we have already proved, that in +the treaties between Rome and Carthage at a very early period, the +voyages undertaken by the Romans, on account of trade, to Sicily, +Sardinia, and parts of Africa are expressly mentioned in diem, and +the people of Utica are particularized as the allies of the Romans, +and a people with whom they traded. It is certain, however, that the +author of the Life of Terence is correct, if he merely meant, that +till after the destruction of Carthage the Romans had no regular +commerce with Africa. From the date of this event, it became of great +importance, though confined chiefly to slaves, most of whom were +brought from Africa, to the island of Delos: this, as has been +already stated, was a great depôt for them, as well as other +kinds of merchandize. The capture of Carthage and of Corinth, which +took place nearly at the same time, increased considerably the number +of slaves for sale.</p> + +<p>Still, however, though the Romans now began to be sensible of the +value of commence, they did little to protect it; for soon after the +termination of the third Punic war, the Mediterranean swarmed with +pirates, who plundered the merchant ships of all nations. These +pirates belonged principally to the Balearic islands, to Cilicia and +to Crete. In one of the Balearic islands, called Minor by the +ancients, the present Minorca, there were two cities built near the +mouths of convenient harbours; the inhabitants of these carried on a +considerable commerce, and at the same time engaged in piracy. They +were uncommonly active and daring in this pursuit, attacking and +robbing every ship they met with; they even had the courage, or the +rashness, to oppose the Roman fleet, under the command of the consul +Metellus; but they were beaten, and for a time obliged to abstain +from their piratical proceedings.</p> + +<p>They were soon again, however, emboldened to resume them, by the +assistance and example of the inhabitants of Crete and Cilicia. This +latter country, situated in Asia Minor, and possessing a sea-coast +which extended along the Mediterranean, from east to west, nearly 250 +miles, was fertile beyond most parts of Asia Minor; though on the +coast, it was reckoned unhealthy. The principal commercial town was +Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, between Issus and the +straits that lead from Cilicia into Syria; its situation being very +favourable for carrying on trade to all the western parts of the +Mediterranean, as well as to Egypt, the Euxine, &c. it soon +became one of the most flourishing cities in the world. But the +Cilicians were not content with lawful and regular trade: in the time +of the Mithridatic war, and even before it, they began to plunder the +neighbouring coasts; and being successful in these predatory +expeditions, they extended them as far as the coasts of Greece and +Italy, on which they landed, and carried off a great number of the +inhabitants, whom they sold as slaves. The Romans at length deemed it +absolutely necessary to act with vigour against them. Publius +Servilius, who was employed on this occasion, defeated them in a +sea-battle, and took most of their strong-holds. For a short time +afterwards, they abstained from their predatory excursions; but, as +we shall soon have occasion to notice, they resumed them whenever +they had repaired their losses, and thought the Romans otherwise +employed.</p> + +<p>The island of Crete was regarded by the ancients as difficult of +access; most of its harbours were exposed to the wind; but as it was +easy for ships to sail out of them, when the wind was moderate and +favourable, they were convenient for commerce to almost any part of +the then commercial world. The ancients, according to Strabo, +reckoned that ships which sailed from the eastern part of Crete would +arrive in Egypt in three or four days; and, according to Diodorus +Siculus, in ten days they would arrive at the Pulus Mæotis. The +principal seaports were Bithynia, which had a very convenient haven; +and Heracles, the seaport of the Gnossians. To these, merchants from +all parts of the world resorted. There were, besides, a great many +creeks and bays. This island would have been much more commercial and +flourishing than it actually was, considering its favourable +situation, &c., had it not been divided into a great number of +independent states, who were jealous of each other's prosperity, and +almost constantly at war amongst themselves. In very early times, +when the whole island was subject to one sovereign, the Cretans were +powerful at sea; they had subjected even before the Trojan war, some +of the islands in the Egean Sea, and formed colonies and commercial +establishments on the coasts of Asia Minor and Europe. At the +breaking out of the Trojan war, they sent eighty ships to the +assistance of the Greeks. But as soon as the island was divided into +independent republics, their navigation and commerce seem to have +declined. Their piratical expeditions were conducted with so much +boldness and success, especially at the time when the Romans were +engaged in hostilities with Mithridates, that they determined to curb +them. Anthony, the father of Marc Anthony, was appointed to execute +their vengeance; but, too confident of success, he was beaten by the +Cretans in a sea-battle. This naturally encouraged them to carry on +their piracies on a greater scale, and with more boldness; but their +triumph was of short duration, for Metellus, the proconsul, having +defeated their forces, united with those of the Cilician pirates, +landed on the island, and subdued the whole of it.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, Mithridates, who had been very instrumental in +encouraging the pirates to commit depredations on the Roman vessels +and coasts, was vigorously preparing for war with the republic. His +naval force, formed partly of his own ships, and partly from those of +most of the maritime states, all of whom were jealous and afraid of +the Romans, and regarded Mithridates as their protector and +deliverer, insulted even the coasts of Italy. We have already noticed +his unsuccessful sea-fight with the Rhodians, almost the only people +who continued faithful to the Romans. The latter, at length, were +fully sensible of the absolute necessity of forming such a fleet as +would enable them successfully to oppose Mithridates, who was master, +not only of Asia, but of all Greece, and the adjacent islands, except +Rhodes. Sylla was employed against him; but as he had very few ships, +he sent Lucullus to Syria, Egypt, Lybia, and Cyprus, to collect a +fleet. From Ptolemy, who was afraid of the power of Mithridates, and, +perhaps, jealous of the Romans, he received no vessels; but from the +other quarters he received considerable supplies of ships and +experienced mariners. It is probable, however, that by sea the Romans +would not have been able to cope with Mithridates, had not that +monarch been beaten by land, and had not his admiral, Archelaus, +delivered up the fleet under his command to Sylla. In the meantime, +Mithridates was blocked up in Pitane, a city near Troy, from which he +could not have escaped, if Lucullus had brought his fleet against it; +this, however, out of jealousy to the Roman general Fimbria, he +refused to do, contenting himself with naval operations. In these he +was successful, gaining two victories over Mithridates's fleet, near +the coast of Troy. These defeats, and the treachery of Archelaus, +nearly annihilated the maritime force of Mithridates. But this +monarch was not easily dispirited; in a short time he collected +another fleet, and invaded Bithynia. It was therefore necessary for +the Romans to send a fleet thither, which they did, under the command +of Cotta. This fleet, however, was far inferior to that of the king, +which consisted of 400 ships of thirty oars, besides a great many +smaller vessels. On learning this, Lucullus, who had the chief +command, ordered Cotta to remain in the harbour of Chalcedon; but +Mithridates, relying on his strength, sailed into the very harbour, +and burnt the Roman fleet. The loss of the Romans consisted of sixty +ships, and 8000 of their mariners slain, besides 4500 taken +prisoners. As this success of Mithridates encouraged the cities of +Asia to revolt, Lucullus resolved, if possible, to counterbalance it +with still more decisive success on his part by land; he accordingly +besieged him in his camp. Being reduced to great straits, Mithridates +was forced to escape by sea towards Byzantium; but on his voyage he +was overtaken by a violent storm, in which sixty of his ships were +sunk; he himself must have perished, if he had not been rescued by a +pirate, who landed him safe in Pontus. Mithridates still had a small +float of fifty ships, on board of which were 10,000 land forces. +These were at sea; but with what object does not appear: they were +met, however, near Lemnos, by a Roman squadron, and entirely +defeated; thirty-two of them being captured, and the rest sunk. On +receiving information of this victory, the Roman senate ordered +Lucullus to be paid 3000 talents to repair and augment his fleet; but +he refused them, answering, "that with the succours he could get from +their allies, he should be able to gain the dominion of the sea, and +conquer Mithridates:" at the same time he sent to Rome 110 galleys, +armed with beaks. Mithridates, however, was still formidable at sea, +and continued so, till the Romans gained another victory over him, +near the island of Tenedos, in which they took and sunk sixty ships: +after this, he was not able to fit out another fleet. As the +remainder of the war between him and the Romans was entirely confined +to land operations, we shall pass it by, and proceed to the other +naval enterprizes of the Romans about this period.</p> + +<p>The war with Mithridates employed the attention and the resources +of the Romans so completely, that the pirates again infested the +Mediterranean seas without control. Their numbers and force were +greatly augmented by the destruction of Carthage and Corinth; for the +inhabitants of these cities, having neither a place of retreat, nor +the means of subsistence, naturally turned their thoughts to piracy, +having been accustomed to sea affairs, and to commerce. In this they +were encouraged by Mithridates, and assisted by some persons of +considerable rank and wealth. The inability of the Romans to attend +to them, and the success and encouragement they obtained, induced +them to conduct their piracies on a regular, systematic, and +extensive plan. Their ships were constantly at sea: all commerce was +interrupted; with their 1000 galleys--for so numerous were they--they +exercised a complete sovereignty over all the coasts of the +Mediterranean. They formed themselves into a kind of commonwealth, +selected magistrates and officers, who appointed each fleet its +respective station and object, and built watch-towers, arsenals, and +magazines. They depended chiefly on Cilicia for the necessary +supplies for their fleets. Emboldened by their success, and by the +occupation afforded to the Romans by Mithridates, they ravaged the +whole line of the Italian coast; sacked the towns and temples, from +which they expected a considerable booty; plundered the country seats +on the sea-shore; carried off the inhabitants for slaves; blocked up +all the ports of the republic; ventured as far as the entrance of the +Tiber; sunk part of the Roman fleet at Ostia, and even threatened +Rome itself, which they more than once deprived of its ordinary and +necessary subsistence. The scarcity of provisions was, indeed, not +confined to Rome; but no vessel venturing to sea in the Mediterranean +without being captured, it extended to those parts of Asia and Africa +which lie on that sea. Their inveteracy, however, was principally +directed against the Roman commerce, and the Romans themselves. If +any of their captives declared himself to be a Roman, they threw +themselves in derision at his feet, begging his pardon, and imploring +his protection; but after they had insolently sported with their +prisoner, they often dressed him in a toga, and then, casting out a +ship's ladder, desired him to return home, and wished him a good +journey. If he refused to leap into the sea, they threw him +overboard, saying, "that they would not by any means keep a free-born +Roman in captivity!"</p> + +<p>In order to root out this dreadful evil, Gabinius, the tribune of +the people, proposed a law, to form, what he called, the proconsulate +of the seas. This law, though vigorously opposed at first, eventually +was carried. The person to whom this new office was to be entrusted, +was to have maritime power, without control or restriction, over all +the seas, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Thracian Bosphorus, and +the countries lying on these seas, for fifty miles inland: he was to +be empowered to raise as many seamen and troops as he deemed +necessary, and to take, out of the public treasury, money sufficient +to pay the expence of paying them, equipping the ships, and executing +the objects of the law. The proconsulate of the seas was to be vested +in the same person for three years.</p> + +<p>As Gabinius was the known friend of Pompey, all Pompey's enemies +strenuously opposed this law, as evidently intended to confer +authority on him; but the people not only passed it, but granted +Pompey, who was chosen to fill the office, even more than Gabinius +had desired, for they allowed him to equip 500 ships, to raise +120,000 foot, and to select out of the senate twenty senators to act +as his lieutenants.</p> + +<p>As soon as Pompey was vested with the authority conferred by this +law, he put to sea; and, by his prudent and wise measures, not less +than by his activity and vigour, within four months (instead of the +three years which were allowed him) he freed the seas from pirates, +having beaten their fleet in an engagement near the coast of Cilicia, +and taken or sunk nearly 1000 vessels, and made himself master of 120 +places on the coast, which they had fortified: in the whole of this +expedition he did not lose a single ship. In order effectually to +prevent the pirates from resuming their depredations, he sent them to +people some deserted cities of Cilicia.</p> + +<p>It might have been supposed that as the Romans had suffered so +much from the pirates, and as Rome itself was dependent for +subsistence on foreign supplies of corn, which could not be regularly +obtained, while the pirates were masters of the seas, they would have +directed their attention more than they did to maritime affairs and +commerce, especially after the experience they had had of the public +calamities which might thus be averted. This, however, was not the +case, even after the war against the pirates, which was so +successfully terminated by Pompey; for Pompey's son, who opposed the +triumvirate, by leaguing with the pirates, (of what nation we are not +informed,) repeatedly, during his warfare, reduced the city of Rome +to great straits for want of corn.</p> + +<p>As the operations by sea which he carried on, in conjunction with +the pirates, are the last recorded in history, by means of which Rome +was reduced to such straits, and as this repeated proof of the +absolute necessity of rendering her independent of any maritime power +for supplies of corn, seems to have been the chief inducement with +Augustus to establish regular and powerful corn fleets, we shall +notice them in this place, though rather posterior to the period of +Roman history at which we have arrived.</p> + +<p>The younger Pompey, it would appear, was sensible that his +father's fame and fortune had been first established by his success +at sea: this induced him to apply himself to maritime affairs, and, +when he resolved to oppose the triumvirate, to trust principally to +his experience and force by sea, to oblige them to comply with his +terms. Accordingly, he built several ships, some of which are said to +have been covered with leather: he associated himself with all the +pirates he could meet with; and, when sufficiently powerful, he took +possession of Sardinia, Sicily, and Corcyra, made himself master of +the whole Mediterranean sea, and intercepted all the convoys which +were carrying provisions and other necessaries to Rome. The +occupation of Sicily enabled him to prevent any corn from being +shipped from that island, and to intercept all that came from the +eastern ports of the Mediterranean. His possession of Sardinia and +Corcyra enabled him to intercept all that came from the west, while +he captured all that came from Africa by his squadrons, which were +constantly cruising in that direction.</p> + +<p>It may easily be imagined, that when Rome was deprived of her +supplies of corn from Sicily, Africa, and the Euxine, she could not +long subsist, without being threatened with famine: this was actually +the case, the inhabitants were near starving, and it became necessary +for the triumvirate to relieve them, either by conquering Pompey, or +coming to terms with him. But Rome alone did not suffer: the rest of +Italy was also deprived, in a great measure, of provisions, and its +coasts insulted and plundered. Octavianus, one of the triumvirate, at +first resolved, with the advice of Anthony, to raise a naval force, +and oppose Pompey; but when he attempted to lay a tax on the +inhabitants of Rome and the rest of Italy, though it was to prevent +them from starving, they resisted it with so much violence and +determination, that he was obliged to abandon the measure.</p> + +<p>As, however, the famine still continued, the triumvirate agreed to +come to an accommodation with Pompey: the principal terms were, that +the latter should retain possession of Sicily, Sardinia,. &c.; +and that he should moreover receive Peloponnesus; that he might +endeavour to obtain the consulate; that the dignity of Pontifex +Maximus should be granted him; that he should be paid 70,000 great +sesterces out of his father's confiscated estate; and that such of +his companions as chose should be allowed to return. On his part, he +promised, that he would no longer interrupt the Roman trade and +navigation; that he would no longer build ships, nor make descents on +the coasts of Italy, nor receive the slaves who fled to him; and that +he would immediately send to Rome the corn he had detained, oblige +the Sicilians to pay annually the tribute of corn due to Rome by that +island, and clear the seas of all the pirates.</p> + +<p>From these terms it may be seen how dependent Rome, even at this +period, was on foreign supplies of corn, and how weak she was at sea. +Pompey and the triumvirate seem neither to have been sincere in this +treaty: the former, who still retained the title of governor of the +maritime coasts, had derived too great advantage from his superiority +at sea, and his connection with the pirates, easily to relinquish +either; while, on the other hand, the triumvirate could not regard +themselves as masters of the republic, so long as Pompey had it in +his power to starve the city of Rome. They, therefore, soon +quarrelled; upon which Pompey caused his old ships to be refitted, +and new ones to be built; and, when he had got a sufficient force, he +again blocked up the ports of Italy, and reduced the inhabitants of +the capital to the utmost distress for want of provisions. +Octavianus, (Augustus Cæsar,) to whom the protection of Italy +was assigned, had neither the courage nor the means to oppose Pompey, +who, probably, would speedily have forced the triumvirate, to grant +him conditions still more favourable than the former ones, had it not +been for the defection of one of his admirals. As he was an officer +of great valour and experience in maritime affairs, and carried over +with him the numerous fleet which he commanded, Augustus was +emboldened and rendered better able to cope with Pompey by sea. The +latter, rather enraged than intimidated by this defection, sent +another of his admirals, who had always been jealous of the one who +had gone over to Augustus, with a numerous fleet, to ravage the +coasts of Italy. On his return, he fell in with a fleet of Augustus, +on board of which was his rival. An obstinate battle ensued: at first +Pompey's fleet was worsted; but in the issue it was victorious, and +the greater number of Augustus' ships were sunk, captured, or driven +on shore. As soon as Augustus learnt the issue of this battle, he +resolved to sail from Tarentum, where he then was, pass the straits +of Messina, and reinforce the shattered remains of his squadron; but, +while he was in the straits, his ships were attacked by Pompey +himself, and most of them sunk or dashed to pieces: with great +difficulty he escaped. He was now in a dreadful situation; without +ships or money; while the inhabitants of Rome were on the point of +rising against his authority, for want of corn. In this extremity he +applied to Anthony, who immediately came to his aid with 300 sail of +ships. As Anthony needed land-forces, which, under the present +circumstances, were of no use to Augustus, they agreed to an +interchange: Augustus gave Anthony two legions; and Anthony, on his +part, left with Augustus 100 armed galleys. In addition to these, +Octavia obtained from her husband twenty small ships, as a +reinforcement to her brother.</p> + +<p>Augustus, though now superior in naval force to Pompey, (for his +ships were more numerous, as well as larger and stronger, though not +so light and expeditious, nor so well manned,) was not willing to +expose himself any more to the hazards of a sea-fight: he therefore +appointed Agrippa commander-in-chief of his navy, with directions to +cruise off Mylæ, a city on the northern coast of Sicily, where +Pompey had assembled all his naval forces. As the possession of this +important island was absolutely necessary to the reduction of +Pompey's power, and the relief and supply of the city of Rome, +Augustus, Lepidus, and another general were to invade it in three +different places, while Agrippa was watching Pompey's fleet. The +whole of Augustus's expeditions sailed from different ports of Italy +at the same time; but they had scarcely put to sea, when a violent +storm arose, in which a great number of his ships perished. On this +occasion Augustus behaved with great presence of mind and judgment: +his first object and care was to send Mæcenas to Rome, to +prevent the disturbances which the intelligence of this disaster +might occasion there: Mæcenas succeeded in his mission +completely. In the meantime Augustus went in person to the several +ports, into which his ships had escaped from the storm, encouraged +and rewarded the workmen, and soon got his fleet refitted and ready +for sea. In his second attempt to invade Sicily, which he put in +execution as soon as his fleet was repaired, he was more successful +than in his first; and Agrippa considerably weakened Pompey's naval +forces, by defeating one of his admirals, from whom he captured +thirty galleys. Pompey was still so formidable at sea, at least to +the fears of Augustus, that, when he appeared unexpectedly on the +coast of Sicily with his fleet, the latter was completely +intimidated: apprehending that Pompey would land and attack his camp, +he deserted it and went on board his fleet. Pompey, however, who +always preferred naval enterprizes, attacked the fleet, put it to +flight at the first onset, captured most of the ships, and burnt and +sunk the remainder. Augustus with difficulty escaped in a boat; but, +instead of returning to his camp, in Sicily, he fled to Italy, +attended only by one domestic.</p> + +<p>As soon as he recovered from his alarm, he, in conjunction with +Lepidus, determined to attack Messina, in which place Pompey had +deposited all his stores, provisions, and treasure. The city +accordingly was closely invested, both by sea and land. Pompey, in +this emergency, challenged Augustus to decide the war by a sea-fight, +with 300 ships on each side. Augustus acceding to this proposal, both +fleets were drawn up in line of battle, between Mylæ and +Naulocus; the land forces having agreed to suspend hostilities, and +wait the event of the engagement. Agrippa, who commanded Augustus's +fleet, fought with great bravery, and was as bravely opposed by +Pompey; their respective officers and men emulated their example. For +a considerable time, the event was doubtful; but, at last, Pompey's +fleet was defeated: only seventeen of his vessels escaped, the rest +were taken or burnt. This victory Agrippa obtained at an easy rate, +not more than three of his snips being sunk or destroyed. Augustus, +who, according to all accounts, behaved in a most cowardly manner +during the battle, was so fully sensible of the obligations he was +under to Agrippa, that he immediately honoured him with a blue +standard and a rostral crown, that is, a crown, the flower-work of +which represented the beaks of galleys, and afterwards, when he +became emperor, he raised him, by rank and honours, above all his +other subjects. According to Livy, and some other authors, the +rostral crown had never been given in any preceding wars, nor was it +afterwards bestowed; but Pliny is of a different opinion, he says +that it was given to M. Varro, in the war against the pirates, by +Pompey.</p> + +<p>After this signal and decisive defeat of his fleet, Pompey fled +from Sicily to Asia, where he attempted to raise disturbances; but he +was defeated, taken prisoner, and put to death.</p> + +<p>We must now look back to the naval and commercial history of Rome, +immediately after the defeat of the pirates by Pompey the Great. The +immediate consequence of his success against them was the revival of +trade among the people who inhabited the coasts of the Mediterranean; +but the Romans, intent on their plans of conquest, or engaged in +civil wars, had little share in it The very nature and extent, +however, of their conquests, by making them masters of countries +which were either commercial, or which afforded articles of luxury, +gradually led them to become more commercial. Hitherto, their +conquests and their alliances had been confined almost entirely to +the nations on the Mediterranean, or within a short distance of that +sea: but Julius Cæsar directed his ambition to another district +of the world; and Gaul was added to the Roman dominions.</p> + +<p>Transalpine Gaul comprehended Flanders, Holland, Switzerland, and +part of Germany, as well as France, Its situation, having the ocean +to the north and west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south, was +particularly favourable to commerce; and though, when Caesar +conquered it, its inhabitants in general were very ignorant and +uncivilized, yet we have his express authority, that the knowledge +they possessed of foreign countries, and commodities from abroad, +made them abound in all sorts of provisions. About 100 years before +the Christian era, the Romans, under pretence of assisting the people +of Marseilles, carried their arms into Gaul, and conquered the +district to the south of the Rhine.</p> + +<p>This part of Gaul, long before the Romans invaded it, was +celebrated for its commerce, which was carried on very extensively at +the port of Marseilles. We have already mentioned, that this city was +founded, or, at least, greatly increased by the Greeks. As the +colonists could not, from the narrow boundaries of their territory, +and the barrenness of the soil, support themselves by their own +industry on land, they applied themselves to the sea: at first, as +fishermen; then, as pirates; and afterwards, as merchants. For forty +years they are said to have been the most warlike, as well as the +most commercial people who frequented the Mediterranean, and were +celebrated for the excellent construction and equipment, both of +their merchant ships, and their ships of war. Their maritime laws and +institutions were nearly as much celebrated and respected as those of +the Rhodians. The wealth which the inhabitants of Marseilles had +acquired by commerce, and which was contained or displayed in their +fleets, arsenals, and magazines, and in their public buildings, drew +upon them the envy of their more savage and poorer neighbours; and it +is probable they would have fallen a prey to their more warlike +habits, had they not formed an alliance with the Romans, who sent an +army to their assistance. The commander of this army, after defeating +their enemies, granted them all the harbours, and the whole +sea-coast, between their city and the confines of Italy; and thus at +once secured their safety and extended their territory. A short time +afterwards, Marius conferred on them another benefit, not inferior in +importance and utility. While he was waiting for the Cimbri in +Transalpine Gaul, he was under great difficulty to procure provisions +up the Rhone, in consequence of the mouth of the river being +obstructed with sand-banks. To remedy this inconvenience, he +undertook a great and laborious work, which, from him, was called +Fossa Marina: this was a large canal, beginning at his camp, near +Arles, and carried on to the sea, which was fed with water from the +Rhone; through this canal, the largest transports could pass. After +his victory over the Cimbrians, Marius gave this canal to the people +of Marseilles, in return for the support and supplies they had +afforded him in his war against them. As there was no passage into +the interior of this part of Gaul, except either through the Rhone or +this canal, the Marseillians, who were now masters of both, enriched +themselves considerably, partly by the traffic they carried on, and +partly by the duties they levied on all goods which were sent up the +canal and the river. In the civil war between Pompey and Cæsar, +they took part with the former, who, in return, gave them all the +territory on the western bank of the Rhone. Cæsar, exasperated +at their hostility towards him, and at their ingratitude (for he, on +the conquest of Gaul, had enlarged their territories, and augmented +their revenues), blocked up their port by sea and land, and soon +obliged them to surrender. He stripped their arsenals of arms, and +obliged them to deliver up all their ships, as well as deprived them +of the colonies and towns that were under their dominion.</p> + +<p>The Marseillians, in the pursuit of commerce, made several voyages +to distant, and, till then, unknown parts of the world: of these, the +voyage of Pytheas, the extent, direction, and discoveries of which we +have already investigated, was the most remarkable and celebrated. +Euthymenes, another Marseillian navigator, is said to have advanced +to the south, beyond the line; but little credit seems due to the +very imperfect accounts which we possess of his voyage. The +Marseillians also planted several colonies on the coasts of Gaul, +Italy, and Spain, viz. Nicæa, Antipolis (Antibes,) Telo Martius +(Toulon,) &c.</p> + +<p>Arelas (Arles) was also a place of some trade, and celebrated for +its manufactures, especially its embroidery, and its curious and rich +works in gold and silver. It was at this place that Cæsar +built, in the short period of thirty days, the twelve galleys which +he used in blocking up the port of Marseilles; and he manned them +with its inhabitants;--a proof, as Huet observes, that they were well +versed in maritime affairs at this time.</p> + +<p>Narbo Marcius (Narbonne) was founded by Marius: it soon became, +according to Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, a place of very great +trade. The British tin, besides other articles, was brought by +land-carriage through the centre of Gaul, and exported, either from +it or Marseilles, to the different countries on the Mediterranean. It +derived great importance and wealth, from its being a convenient +place of rest and refreshment for the Roman troops, as they passed +from the Pyrennees to the Alps, or from the Alps to the Pyrennees. +Its harbour was crowded with ships from Africa, Spain, Italy, +&c.; but, in the latter ages of the Roman Empire, it fell into +decay, principally in consequence of the course of the river being +changed, so that it no longer ran through it. The Romans endeavoured +to supply this misfortune, by cutting a canal to the sea, the traces +and remains of which are still visible.</p> + +<p>Lugdunum (Lyons), at the confluence of the Rhone and Arar, was +founded by Manucius Plancus, after the death of Julius Caesar. In the +time of Augustus, according to Strabo, it had increased so much, by +means of its commerce, that it was not inferior to any city in Gaul, +except Narbonne. Indeed, not long after the entire conquest of Gaul +by the Romans, the advantages which that country might derive, with +respect to foreign commerce, and internal trade, by its rivers, seem +to have been fully and clearly understood. The head of the Saone +being near to that of the Moselle and the Seine, merchandize was +easily conveyed by land from one of these rivers to the other. The +Rhone also received many goods by means of the rivers which joined +it, which were conveyed, not only to the Saone, but also to the +Loire, in carriages. The Seine brought up goods almost as far as the +Moselle, from which they were conveyed to the Rhine. In the fourth +year of Nero's reign, the commander of the Roman army in Gaul joined +the Saone and the Moselle by a canal; and, though these canals were +generally made by the Romans, for purposes connected with the army, +yet they were soon applied to commerce. The merchandize of the Saone +was brought by land carriage to the Seine, and by it conveyed to the +ocean, and thence to Britain. There seems to have been regular and +established companies of watermen on these rivers, whose business it +was to convey goods on them: an ancient inscription at Lyons mentions +Tauricius of Vannes, as the general overseer of the Gallic trade, the +patron or head of the watermen on the Seine and Loire, and the +regulator of weights, measures, and carriages; and other ancient +inscriptions state, that the government of the watermen who navigated +the Rhone and the Saone, was often bestowed on Roman knights.</p> + +<p>Besides the ports on the Mediterranean, or on the rivers which +flow into that sea, the Gauls in Cæsar's time, or shortly +afterwards, seem to have had several, ports on the ocean. Cæsar +reckons the present Nantz, though at some distance from the sea, as +inhabited by people who were skilled in maritime affairs; and he +expressly informs us, that he built his ships at a port at the mouth +of the Seine, when he was preparing to invade Britain. In his wars +against the Vanni he brought ships from the present provinces of +Saintoinge and Poitou, which we may thence conclude were inhabited by +people skilled in maritime affairs. In later times, there was a marsh +filled with sea-water, not far from Bourdeaux, which made that city a +convenient port, and a place of considerable commerce. Strabo +mentions a town of some commerce, situated on the Loire, which he +represents as equal in size to Narbonne and Marseilles; but what town +that was has not been ascertained.</p> + +<p>The most powerful and commercial, however, of all the tribes of +Gaul, that inhabited the coasts near the ocean, in the time of +Cæsar, were the Vanni. These people carried on an extensive and +lucrative trade with Britain, which was interrupted by the success of +Cæsar, (who obliged them, as well as the other tribes of Gaul, +to give him hostages,) and which they apprehended was likely to be +still further injured by his threatened invasion of Britain; in order +to prevent this, as well as to liberate themselves, they revolted +against the Romans. As Cæsar was sensible that it would be +imprudent and unsafe to attempt the invasion of Britain, so long as +the Vanni were unsubdued and powerful at sea, he directed his +thoughts and his endeavours to build and equip such a fleet as would +enable him successfully to cope with them on their own element. In +building his ships, he followed the model of those of his enemies, +which were large, flat-bottomed, and high in the head and stern: they +were strong-built, and had leathern sails, and anchors with iron +chains. They had a numerous squadron of such vessels, which they +employed chiefly in their trade with Britain: they seem also to have +derived considerable revenue from the tribute which they levied on +all who navigated the adjacent seas, and to have possessed many ports +on the coast. Besides their own fleet, the Britons, who were their +allies, sent ships to their assistance; so that their united force +amounted to 220 sail, well equipped, and manned by bold and expert +seamen.</p> + +<p>To oppose this formidable fleet, Caesar ordered ships to be built +on the Loire, and the rivers running into it, exactly, as we have +just stated, after the model of the ships of the Vanni; for he was +informed, or learnt by experience, that the vessels which were used +in the Mediterranean were not fit for navigating and fighting on the +ocean, but that such as were employed on the latter must be built, +not only stronger, but flat-bottomed, and high at the head and stern, +in order to withstand the fury of the waves and winds, which was +greater in the ocean than in the Mediterranean, and at the same time +to sail up the rivers, or in very shallow water, and to take the +ground, without injury or danger. Not being able, however, to build +in time a sufficient number of ships in Gaul, after the model of +those of the Vanni, he was under the necessity of bringing some from +the south coast of Gaul, and other parts of the Mediterranean Sea; he +also collected all the experienced pilots he could meet with, who +were acquainted with the coasts, and with the management of such +ships, and exercised a sufficient number of men at the oar, to +navigate them.</p> + +<p>These preparations were all indispensably requisite; for in the +battle which ensued, the Vanni and their allies fought their ships +with a skill and a valour of which the Romans had not had any +previous example; and they would certainly have been beaten, if they +had not, by means of sharp engines, cut the ropes and sails of the +hostile fleet, and thus rendered their ships unmanageable: in this +state they were easily and speedily captured. As the Vanni had on +this occasion mustered all their forces, their defeat put an end to +their resistance, and removed Caesar's principal obstacle to the +invasion of Britain.</p> + +<p>The motives which induced Caesar to invade Britain can only be +conjectured, if, indeed, any other motive operated on his mind +besides ambition, and the love of conquest and glory; stimulated by +the hope of subduing a country, which seemed the limit of the world +to the west, and which was in a great measure unknown. He was, +probably, also incited by his desire to punish the Britons for having +assisted the Vanni; and Suetonius adds, that he was desirous of +enriching himself with British pearls, which were at that time in +high repute.</p> + +<p>Before he undertook this expedition, which, even to Caesar, +appeared formidable, he resolved to learn all he could respecting +Britain. For this purpose, he collected the merchants who traded +thither from all parts of Gaul; but they could afford him no +satisfactory information. They had visited only the opposite coast of +Britain; of the other parts of the country, of its extent, its +inhabitants, &c., they were utterly ignorant. Under these +circumstances, therefore, he sent one of his officers in a galley, +who, after being absent five days, during which however he had not +ventured to land, returned to Caesar, and acquainted him with the +little he had observed.</p> + +<p>Caesar resolved to invade Britain immediately: for this purpose, +he ordered eighty transports to take on board two legions; and the +cavalry to be embarked in eighteen more, at a port a few miles off. +The enterprize was attended with considerable difficulty, from the +opposition of the Britons, and the large ships of the Romans not +being able to approach very near the land. It was however successful, +and the Britons sued for and obtained peace.</p> + +<p>This they were soon induced to break, in consequence of Caesar's +fleet being greatly injured by a storm; and the violence of the wind +raising the tide very high, the Roman sailors, unaccustomed to any +tides except the very trifling ones of the Mediterranean, were still +more alarmed and dispirited. The Britons, after attacking one of the +legions, ventured on a still bolder enterprize, for they endeavoured +to force the Roman camp: in this attempt they were defeated, and +again obliged to sue for peace. This was granted, and Caesar returned +to Gaul. But the Britons not fulfilling the conditions of the peace, +Caesar again invaded their country with 600 ships and twenty-eight +galleys; he landed without opposition, and defeated the Britons. His +fleet again encountered a storm, in which forty ships were lost, and +the rest greatly damaged. In order to prevent a similar accident, he +drew all his ships ashore, and enclosed them within the +fortifications of the camp. After this, he had no further naval +operations with the Britons.</p> + +<p>It will now be proper to consider the state of Britain at the +period of its invasion by the Romans, with respect to its navigation +and commerce. It is the generally received opinion, that the Britons, +at the time of the invasion of their island by Caesar, had no ships +except those which he and other ancient authors, particularly Solinus +and Lucan, describe. These were made of light and pliant wood, their +ribs seem to have been formed of hurdles, and they were lined as well +as covered (so far as they were at all decked) with leather. They +had, indeed, masts and sails; the latter and the ropes were also made +of leather; the sails could not be furled, but, when necessary, were +bound to the mast. They were generally, however, worked with oars, +the rowers singing to the stroke of their oars, sometimes accompanied +by musical instruments. These rude vessels seem not to have been the +only ones the Britons possessed, but were employed solely for the +purpose of sailing to the opposite coasts of Gaul and of Ireland. +They were, indeed, better able to withstand the violence of the winds +and waves than might be supposed from the materials of which they +were built. Pliny expressly states that they made voyages of six days +in them; and in the life of St Columba, (in whose time they were +still used, the sixth century,) we are informed of a vessel lined +with leather, which went with oars and sails, sailing for fourteen +days in a violent storm in safety, and gaining her port. The passage +therefore in these boats across the Irish Channel, could not be so +very dangerous as it is represented by Solinus.</p> + +<p>But notwithstanding the authority of Caesar, Pliny, Solinus, and +Lucan, who mention only these leathern vessels, and that the poet +Avienus, who lived in the fourth century, expressly states, that even +in his time the Britons had no ships made of timber, but only boats +covered with leather or hides; there are circumstances which must +convince us that they did possess larger, stronger, and more powerful +ships. Caesar informs us, that the Britons often assisted the Gauls, +both by land and sea; and we have seen that they sent assistance to +the Vanni, in their sea-fight against Caesar; but it is not to be +supposed that their leathern boats, small and weak as they were, +could have been of any material advantage in an engagement with the +Roman ships. Besides, the Britons, who inhabited the coast opposite +to Gaul, carried on, as we have remarked, a considerable and regular +trade with the Vanni; it is, therefore, reasonable to presume, that +they would learn from this tribe, the art of building ships like +theirs, which were so well fitted for these seas, as well as for war, +that Caesar built vessels after their model, when he formed the +determination of opposing them by sea.</p> + +<p>The Britons, however, certainly did not themselves engage much in +the traffic with Gaul, and therefore could not require many vessels +of either description for this purpose. From the earliest period, of +which we have any record, till long after the invasion by Caesar, the +commodities of Britain seem to have been exported by foreign ships, +and the commodities given in exchange brought by these.</p> + +<p>In our account of the commerce of the Phoenicians, their trade to +Britain for tin has been described. Pliny, in his chapter on +inventions and discoveries, states that this metal was first brought +from the Cassiterides by Midacritus, but at what period, or of what +nation he was, he does not inform us. This trade was so lucrative, +that a participation in it was eagerly sought by all the commercial +nations of the Mediterranean, and even by the Romans, who, as we have +seen, were not at this period, much given to commerce. This is +evident, by the well known fact, of one of their vessels endeavouring +to follow the course of a Phoenician or Carthaginian vessel, in her +voyage to Britain. The Greeks of Marseilles, according to Polybius, +first followed, successfully, the course of the Phoenicians, and, +about 200 years before Christ, began to share with them in the tin +trade. Whether, at this period, they procured it exclusively by +direct trade with Britain, is not known; but afterwards, as we have +already mentioned, Marseilles became one of the principal depots for +this metal, which was conveyed to it through Gaul, and exported +thence by sea.</p> + +<p>If we may believe Strabo, the Romans had visited Britain before it +was invaded by Caesar, as he expressly mentions that Publius Crassus +made a voyage thither: if he means P. Crassus the younger, he was one +of Caesar's lieutenants in Gaul; and, as he was stationed in the +district of the Vanni, it is not improbable that he passed from +thence into Britain; or he may have been sent by Caesar, at the same +time that Volusenus was sent, and for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>However this may be, there was no regular intercourse between +Britain and Rome till some time after Caesar's invasion; in the time +of Tiberius, however, and probably earlier, the commerce of Britain +was considerable. Strabo, who died at the beginning of that emperor's +reign, informs us, that corn, cattle, gold, silver, tin, lead, hides, +and dogs, were the commodities furnished by the Britons. The tin and +lead, he adds, came from the Cassiterides. According to Camden, 800 +vessels, laden with corn, were freighted annually to the continent; +but this assertion rests on very doubtful authority, and cannot be +credited if it applies to Britain, even very long after the Roman +conquest. Though Strabo expressly mentions gold and silver among the +exports, yet Caesar takes notice of neither; and Cicero, in his +epistles, writing to his friend, respecting Britain, states, on the +authority of his brother, who was there, that there were neither of +these metals in the island. The dogs of Britain formed a very +considerable and valuable article of export; they seem to have been +known at Rome even before Caesar's expedition: the Romans employed +them in hunting, and the Gauls in hunting and in their wars: they +were of different species. Bears were also exported for the +amphitheatres; but their exportation was not frequent till after the +age of Augustus. Bridle ornaments, chains, amber, and glass ware, are +enumerated by Strabo among the exports from Britain; but, according +to other authors, they were imported into it. Baskets, toys made of +bone, and oysters, were certainly among the exports; and, according +to Solinus, gagates, or jet, of which Britain supplied a great deal +of the best kind. Chalk was also, according to Martial, an article of +export: there seems to have been British merchants whose sole +employment was the exportation of this commodity, as appears by an +ancient inscription found in Zealand, and quoted by Whitaker, in his +history of Manchester. This article was employed as a manure on the +marshy land bordering on the Rhine. Pliny remarks that its effect on +the land continued eighty years. The principal articles imported into +Britain were copper and brass, and utensils made of these metals, +earthen ware, salt, &c. The traffic was carried on partly by +means of barter, and partly by pieces of brass and iron, unshaped, +unstamped, and rated by weight. The duties paid in Gaul, on the +imports and exports of Britain, formed, according to Strabo, the only +tribute exacted from the latter country by the Romans in his +time.</p> + +<p>Of that part of Europe which lies to the north of Gaul, the +Romans, at the period of which we are treating, knew little or +nothing, though some indirect traffic was carried on with Germany. +The feathers of the German geese were preferred to all others at +Rome; and amber formed a most important article of traffic. This was +found in great abundance on the Baltic shore of Germany: at first, it +seems to have been carried the whole length of the continent, to the +Veneti, who forwarded it to Rome. Afterwards, in consequence of the +great demand for it there, and its high price, the Romans sent people +expressly to purchase it in the north of Germany: and their land +journies, in search of this article, first made them acquainted with +the naval powers of the Baltic. The Estii, a German tribe, who +inhabited the amber country, gathered and sold it to the Roman +traders, and were astonished at the price they received for it. In +Nero's time it was in such high request, that that emperor resolved +to send Julianus, a knight, to procure it for him in large +quantities: accordingly, a kind of embassy was formed, at the head of +which he was placed. He set out from Carnuntum, a fortress on the +banks of the Danube, and after travelling, according to Pliny, 600 +miles, arrived at the amber coast. There he bought, or received as a +present, for the emperor, 13,000 pounds weight, among which was one +piece that weighed thirteen pounds. The whole of this immense +quantity served for the decoration of one day, on which Nero gave an +entertainment of gladiators. In the time of Theodoric, king of the +Goths, the Estii sent that monarch a large quantity of amber, as the +most likely present by means of which they could obtain his alliance. +They informed the ambassadors, whom he sent with a letter +acknowledging this present, that they were ignorant whence the amber +came, but that it was thrown upon their coast by the sea, a fact +which exactly agrees with what occurs at present.</p> + +<p>Whether the Estii, with whom the Romans carried on this traffic, +were a maritime nation, we are not informed; but there was another +nation or tribe of Germans on the Baltic, of whose maritime character +some notices are given. These were the Sitones, who, according to +Tacitus, had powerful fleets; their ships were built with two prows, +so as to steer at both ends, and prevent the necessity of putting +about; their oars were not fixed, like those of the Mediterranean +vessels, but loose, so that they could easily and quickly be shifted: +they used no sails. The people of Taprobane (Ceylon)--the Byzantines, +and, on some occasions, the Romans also, employed vessels, like those +of the Sitones, which could be steered at both ends.</p> + +<p>One of the most considerable revolutions in the maritime and +commercial affairs of Rome, was brought about by the battle of +Actium. The fleet of Anthony was composed chiefly of ships belonging +to the Egyptians, Tyrians, and other nations of the east, and +amounted, according to some accounts, to 200 sail, whereas the fleet +of Augustus consisted of 400 sail. Other authors estimate them +differently; but all agree that the ships of Anthony were much +larger, stronger, and loftier, than those of Caesar: they were +consequently more unwieldy. We have the express testimony of +Plutarch, that it was principally this victory which convinced Caesar +of the advantages and extraordinary use of the Liburnian ships; for +though they had been employed before this time in the Roman fleet, +yet they had never been so serviceable in any previous battle. +Augustas, therefore, as well as most of the succeeding emperors of +Rome, scarcely built any other ships but those according to the +Liburnian model.</p> + +<p>One of the first objects of Augustus, after he had obtained the +empire, was to secure the command of the sea: he made use of the +ships which he had captured from Anthony to keep the people of Gaul +in subjection; and he cleared the Mediterranean of the pirates which +infested it and obstructed commerce. He formed two fleets, one at +Ravenna, and the other at Misenum; the former to command the eastern, +the latter the western division of the Mediterranean: each of these +had its own proper commanders, and to each was attached a body of +several thousand mariners. Ravenna, situated on the Adriatic, about +ten or twelve miles from the most southern of the seven mouths of the +Po, was not a place of much consequence till the age of Augustus: +that emperor, observing its advantages, formed at the distance of +about three miles from the old town and nearer the sea, a capacious +harbour, capable of containing 250 ships of war. The establishment +was on a large and complete scale, consisting of arsenals, magazines, +barracks, and houses for the ship-carpenters, &c.: the principal +canal, which was also formed by Augustus, and took its name from him, +carried the waters of the river through the middle of Ravenna to the +entrance of the harbour. The city was rendered still stronger by art +than nature had formed it. As early as the fifth or sixth centuries +of the Christian era the port was converted, by the retreat of the +sea, into dry ground, and a grove of pines grew where the Roman fleet +had anchored.</p> + +<p>Besides the principal ports of Ravenna and Misenum, Augustus +stationed a very considerable force at Frejus, on the coast of +Provence, forty ships in the Euxine, with 3000 soldiers; a fleet to +preserve the communication between Gaul and Britain, another near +Alexandria, and a great number of smaller vessels on the Rhine and +the Danube. As soon as the Romans had constant and regular fleets, +instead of the legionary soldiers, who used to fight at sea as well +as at land, a separate band of soldiers were raised for the sea +service, who were called Classiarii; but this service was reckoned +less honourable than that of the legionary soldiers.</p> + +<p>The period at which we are arrived seems a proper one to take a +general view of the commerce of the Roman empire; though, in order to +render this view more complete, it will be necessary in many +instances to anticipate the transactions posterior to the reign of +Augustus. We shall, therefore, in the first place, give a statement +of the extent of the Roman empire when it had reached its utmost +limits; secondly, an account of its roads and communications by land; +and, lastly, an abstract of the principal imports into it, and the +laws and finances, so far as they respect its commerce.</p> + +<p>1. The empire, at the death of Augustus, was bounded on the west +by the Atlantic ocean, on the north by the Rhine and the Danube, on +the east by the Euphrates, and on the south by the deserts of Arabia +and Africa. The only addition which it received during the first +century was the province of Britain: with this addition it remained +till the reign of Trajan. That emperor conquered Dacea, and added it +to the empire: he also achieved several conquests in the east; but +these were resigned by his successor Adrian. At this period, +therefore, the Roman empire may be considered as having attained its +utmost limits. It is impossible to ascertain the number of people +that were contained within these limits. In the time of Claudius the +Roman citizens were numbered; they amounted to 6,945,000: if to these +be added the usual proportion of women and children, the number will +be encreased to about 20,000,000. If, therefore, we calculate, as we +may fairly do, that there were twice as many provincials as there +were citizens with their wives and children, and that the slaves were +at least equal in number to the provincials, the total population of +the Roman empire will amount to 120,000,000.</p> + +<p>Our ideas of the vastness and wealth of the empire will be still +farther encreased, if we regard the cities which it contained, though +it is impossible to decide in most instances the extent and +population of many places which were honoured with the appellation of +cities. Ancient Italy is said to have contained 1197, Gaul 1200, of +which many, such as Marseilles, Narbonne, Lyons, &c. were large +and flourishing; Spain 300, Africa 300, and Asia Proper 500, of which +many were very populous.</p> + +<p>2. All these cities were connected with one another and with Rome +itself by means of the public highways: these issuing from the forum, +traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by +the frontiers of the empire. The great chain of communication formed +by means of them from the extreme north-west limit of the empire, +through Rome to the south-east limit, was in length nearly 4000 +miles. These roads were formed in the most substantial manner, and +with astonishing labour and expence; they were raised so as to +command a prospect of the adjacent country; on each side was a row of +large stones for foot passengers. The miles were reckoned from the +gates of the city and marked on stones: at shorter distances there +were stones for travellers to rest on, or to assist those who wished +to mount their horses: there were cross roads from the principal +roads. The care and management of all the roads were entrusted only +to men of the highest rank. Augustus himself took charge of those +near Rome, and appointed two men of prætorian rank to pave the +roads: at the distance of five or six miles houses were built, each +of which was constantly provided with forty horses; but these could +only be used in the public service, except by particular and express +authority. By means of the relays thus furnished, the Romans could +travel along their excellent roads 100 miles a day: they had no +public posts. Augustus first introduced public couriers among the +Romans; but they were employed only to forward the public despatches, +or to convey public intelligence of great and urgent importance.</p> + +<p>Such was the facililty of communication by land from all parts of +the empire to Rome, and from each part to all the other parts: nor +was the communication of the empire less free and open by sea than it +was by land. "The provinces surrounded and enclosed the +Mediterranean; and Italy, in the shape of an immense promontory, +advanced into the midst of that great lake." From Ostia, situated at +the mouth of the Tiber, only sixteen miles from the capital, a +favourable wind frequently carried vessels in seven days to the +straits of Gibraltar, and in nine or ten to Alexandria, in Egypt.</p> + +<p>3. In enumerating the principal articles imported into Rome, for +the use of its immense and luxurious population, we shall, +necessarily, recapitulate, in some degree, what has already been +stated in giving an account of the commerce of the different +countries which were conquered by the Romans. But this objection, we +conceive, will be abundantly counterbalanced by the connected and +complete view which we shall thus be enabled to give of the commerce +of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p>Before, however, we enter on this subject, we shall briefly +consider the ideas entertained by the Romans on the subject of +commerce. We have already had occasion incidentally to remark that +the Romans thought meanly of it, and that their grand object in all +their conquests was the extension of their territory; and that they +even neglected the commercial facilities and advantages, which they +might have secured by their conquests. This was most decidedly the +case during the time of the republic. The statue of Victory, which +was erected in the port of Ostia, and the medals of the year of Rome +630, marked on the reverse with two ships and a victory, prove that +at this period the Roman fleets that sailed from this port were +chiefly designed for war. The prefects of the fleet were not +employed, nor did they consider it as their duty to attend to +commerce, or to the merchant ships, except so far as to protect them +against the pirates. Of the low opinion entertained by the Romans +respecting commerce we have the direct testimony of Cicero: writing +to his son on the subject of professions, he reprobates and condemns +all retail trade as mean and sordid, which can be carried on +successfully only by means of lying. Even the merchant, unless he +deals very extensively, he views with contempt; if, however, he +imports from every quarter articles of great value and in great +abundance, and sells them in a fair and equitable manner, his +profession is not much to be contemned; especially if, after having +made a fortune, he retires from business, and spends the rest of his +life in agricultural pursuits: in this case, he deserves even +positive praise. There is another passage of Cicero, quoted by Dr. +Vincent, in his Periplus, in which the same sentiments are expressed: +he says, "Is such a man, who was a merchant and neighbour of Scipio, +greater than Scipio because he is richer?" Pliny, also, though in his +natural history he expatiates in praise of agriculture and gardening, +medicine, painting and statuary, passes over merchandize with the +simple observation that it was invented by the Phoenicians. In the +periplus of the Erythrean sea, and in the works of Ptolemy, &c. +the names of many merchants and navigators occur; but they are all +Greeks. Even after the conquest of Egypt, which gave a more +commercial character to the Roman manners, habits and mode of +thinking than they previously possessed, no Roman was permitted to +engage in the trade of that country.</p> + +<p>Although, however, mercantile pursuits were thus underrated and +despised by the warlike portion of the nation, as well as by the +philosophers, yet they were followed by those who regarded gain as +the principal object of life. The wealth of merchants became +proverbial: immense numbers of them followed the armies, and fixed in +the provinces subdued or allied,--the <i>Italici generis homines</i>, +who were agents, traders, and monopolizers, such as Jugurtha took in +Zama, or the 100,000 Mithridates slaughtered in Asia Minor, or the +merchants killed at Genabum (Orleans).</p> + +<p>In the passage quoted from Cicero de Officiis, he expressly +mentions the merchant who <i>imports</i>; but he does not once allude +to exportation. Indeed, the commerce of the Romans, in the most +luxurious period of the empire, was entirely confined to importation, +and may, with few exceptions, be designated as consisting in the +expenditure of the immense revenue they derived from their conquests, +and the immense fortunes of individuals, in the necessaries, +comforts, and, above all, the luxuries of the countries which they +had conquered.</p> + +<p>By far the most extensive and important trade which the Romans +carried on at all periods of their history, was the conveyance of +corn and other provisions to the capital. The contiguous territory at +no time was sufficient to supply Rome with corn; and, long before the +republic was destroyed, even Italy was inadequate to this purpose. As +the population encreased, and the former corn fields were converted +into pleasure-grounds or pasture, the demand for corn was +proportionally encreased, and the supply from the neighbourhood +proportionally diminished. But there was another circumstance which +rendered a regular and full supply of corn an object of prime +importance: the influence of the patron depended on his largesses of +corn to his clients; and the popularity, and even the reign of an +emperor, was not secure, unless he could insure to the inhabitants +this indispensable necessary of life. There were several laws +respecting the distribution of corn: by one passed in the year of +Rome 680, five bushels were to be given monthly to each of the poorer +citizens, and money was to be advanced annually from the treasury, +sufficient to purchase 800,000 bushels of wheat, of three different +qualities and prices. By the Sempronian law, this corn was to be sold +to the poor inhabitants at a very low price; but by the Clodian law +it was to be distributed <i>gratis</i>: the granaries in which this +corn was kept were called Horrea Sempronia. The number of citizens +who received corn by public distribution, in the time of Augustus, +amounted to 200,000. Julius Caesar had reduced the number from +320,000 to 150,000. It is doubtful whether five bushels were the +allowance of each individual or of each family; but if Dr. Arbuthnot +be correct in estimating the <i>modius</i> at fourteen pounds, the +allowance must have been for each family, amounting to one quarter +seven bushels, and one peck per annum.</p> + +<p>We have dwelt on these particulars for the purpose of pointing out +the extreme importance of a regular and full supply of corn to Rome; +and this importance is still further proved by the special +appointment of magistrates to superintend this article. The prefect, +or governor of the market, was an ancient establishment in the Roman +republic; his duty was to procure corn: on extraordinary occasions, +this magistrate was created for this express purpose, and the powers +granted him seem to have been increased in the latter periods of the +republic, and still more, after the republic was destroyed. Pompey, +who held this office, possessed greater power and privileges than his +immediate predecessor, and in a time of great scarcity. Augustus, +himself, undertook the charge of providing the corn: it was at the +same time determined, that for the future, two men of the rank of +praetors should be annually elected for this purpose; four were +afterwards appointed. It would seem, however, that even their +appointment became an ordinary and regular thing: the emperors +themselves superintended the procuring of corn, for one of their +titles was that of commissary-general of corn.</p> + +<p>Besides this magistrate, whose business was confined to the buying +and importing of corn, there were two aediles, first appointed by +Julius Caesar, whose duty it was to inspect the public stores of corn +and other provisions.</p> + +<p>Till the time of Julius Caesar, the foreign corn for the supply of +Rome was imported into Puteoli, a town of Campania, between Baiae and +Naples, about seventy miles from the capital. As this was very +inconvenient, Caesar formed the plan of making an artificial harbour +at the mouth of the Tiber, at Ostia. This plan, however, was not at +this time carried into execution: Claudius, however, in consequence +of a dreadful famine which raged at Rome, A.D. 42, resolved to +accomplish it. He accordingly dug a spacious basin in the main land; +the entrance to which was formed and protected by artificial moles, +which advanced far into the sea; there was likewise a little island +before the mouth of the harbour, on which a light-house was built, +after the model of the Pharos of Alexandria. By the formation of this +harbour, the largest vessel could securely ride at anchor, within +three deep and capacious basins, which received the northern branch +of the Tiber, about two miles from the ancient colony of +Ostïa.</p> + +<p>Into this port corn arrived for the supply of Rome from various +countries; immense quantities of wheat were furnished by the island +of Sicily. Egypt was another of the granaries of the capital of the +world; according to Josephus, it supplied Rome with corn sufficient +for one-third of its whole consumption: and Augustus established +regular corn voyages from Alexandria to the capital. Great quantities +were also imported from Thrace, and from Africa Proper. The ships +employed in the corn trade, especially between Egypt and Rome, were +the largest of any in the Mediterranean: this probably arose from the +encouragement given to this trade by Tiberius, and afterwards +increased by Claudius. The former emperor gave a bounty of about +fourpence on every peck of corn imported: and Claudius, during the +time of the famine, made the bounty so great as, at all events, and +in every instance, to secure the importers a certain rate of profit. +He also used all his efforts to persuade the merchants to import it +even in winter, taking upon himself all the losses, &c. which +might arise from risking their ships and cargoes, at a time of the +year when it was the invariable practice of the ancients to lay the +former up. Whenever an emperor had distinguished himself by a large +importation of corn, especially, if by this means a famine was +avoided or removed, medals seem to have been struck commemorative of +the circumstance; thus, on several medals there is a figure of a +ship, and the words <i>Annona Aug</i>. or <i>Ceres Aug</i>. Many of +these were struck under Nero, and Antoninus Pius. During the time of +the republic, also, similar medals were struck, with the figure of a +prow of a ship, and an inscription shewing the object for which the +fleets had been sent.</p> + +<p>Having been thus particular in describing the importation of corn, +we shall notice the imports of other articles in a more cursory +manner. The northern parts of Italy furnished salt pork, almost +sufficient for the whole consumption of Rome, tapestry, and woollen +cloths, wool, and marble; to convey the latter, there were ships of a +peculiar form and construction; steel, crystal, ice, and cheese.</p> + +<p>From Liguria, Rome received wood for building, of a very large +size, ship timber, fine and beautiful wood for tables, cattle, hides, +honey, and coarse wool. Etruria, also, supplied timber, cheese, wine, +and stone; the last was shipped at the ports of Pisa and Luna. Pitch +and tar were sent from Brutium; oil and wine from the country of the +Sabines. Such were the principal imports from the different parts of +Italy.</p> + +<p>From Corsica, timber for ship building; from Sardinia, a little +corn and cattle; from Sicily, besides corn,--wine, honey, salt, +saffron, cheese, cattle, pigeons, corals, and a species of emerald. +Cloth, but whether linen or cotton is uncertain, was imported from +Malta; honey, from Attica. Lacedemon supplied green marble, and the +dye of the purple shell-fish. From the Grecian islands, there were +imported Parian marble, the earthenware of Samos, the vermilion of +Lemnos, and other articles, principally of luxury. Thrace supplied +salted tunnies, the produce of the Euxine Sea, besides corn. The +finest wool was imported from Colchis, and also hemp, flax, pitch, +and fine linens: these goods, as well as articles brought overland +from India, were shipped from the port of Phasis. The best cheese +used at Rome, was imported from Bithynia. Phrygia supplied a stone +like alabaster, and the country near Laodicea, wool of excellent +quality, some of which was of a deep black colour. The wine drank at +Rome, was principally the produce of Italy; the best foreign wine, +was imported from Ionia. Woollen goods, dyed with Tyrian purple, were +imported from Miletus, in Caria. An inferior species of diamond, +copper, resin, and sweet oil were imported from Cyprus. Cedar, gums, +balsam, and alabaster, were supplied by Syria, Phoenicia, and +Palestine. Glass was imported from Sidon, as well as embroidery and +purple dye, and several kinds of fish, from Tyre. The goods that were +brought from India, by the route of Palmyra, were shipped for Rome, +from the ports of Syria. Egypt, besides corn, supplied flax, fine +linen, ointments, marble, alabaster, salt, alum, gums, paper, cotton +goods, some of which, as well as of their linens, seem to have been +coloured or printed, glass ware, &c. The honey lotus, the lotus, +or nymphæa of Egypt, the stalk of which contained a sweet +substance, which was considered as a luxury by the Egyptians, and +used as bread, was sometimes carried to Rome; it was also used as +provision for mariners. Alexandria was the port from which all the +produce and manufactories of Egypt, as well as all the ports which +passed through this country from India, were shipped. In consequence +of its becoming the seat of the Roman government in Egypt, of the +protection which it thus received, and of its commerce being greatly +extended by the increased wealth and luxury of Rome, its extent and +population were greatly augmented; according to Diodorus Siculus, in +the time of Augustus, from whose reign it became the greatest +emporium of the world, it contained 300,000 free people.</p> + +<p>That part of Africa which was formerly possessed by the +Carthaginians, besides corn, sent to Rome, honey, drugs, marble, the +eggs and feathers of the ostrich, ostriches, elephants, and lions; +the last for the amphitheatre. From Mauritania, there were exported +to the capital, timber of a fine grain and excellent quality, the +exact nature of which is not known; this was sold at an enormous +rate, and used principally for making very large tables.</p> + +<p>Spain supplied Rome with a very great number and variety of +articles; from the southern parts of it were exported corn, wine, +oil, honey, wax, pitch, scarlet dye, vermilion, salt, salted +provisions, wool, &c. From the eastern part of the north of Spain +were exported salted provisions, cordage made of the <i>spartum</i>, +silver, earthenware, linen, steel, &c. The Balearic islands +exported some wine. The trade of Spain to Rome employed a great +number of vessels, almost as many as those which were employed in the +whole of the African trade; this was especially the case in the +reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Even in the time of Julius Caesar, +Spain had acquired great wealth, principally by her exports to Rome. +The ports from which the greatest part of these commodities were +shipped, were Cadiz, New Carthage, and a port at the mouth of the +Boetis, where, for the security of the shipping, a light-house had +been built. Cadiz was deemed the rival of Alexandria in importance, +shipping, and commerce; and so great was the resort of merchants, +&c. to it, that many of them, not being able to build houses for +want of room on the land, lived entirely upon the water.</p> + +<p>From Gaul, Rome received gold, silver, iron, &c. which were +sent as part of the tribute; also linens, corn, cheese, and salted +pork. Immense flocks of geese travelled by land to Rome. The chief +ports which sent goods to Rome were Marseilles, Arles, and Narbonne, +on the Mediterranean; and on the Ocean, Bourdeau, and the port of the +Veneti. It appears that there were a considerable number of Italian +or Roman merchants resident in Gaul, whose principal trade it was to +carry the wine made in the south of this province, up the Rhine, and +there barter it for slaves.</p> + +<p>From Britain, Rome was supplied with tin, lead, cattle, hides, +ornaments of bone, vessels made of amber and glass, pearls, slaves, +dogs, bears, &c. The tin was either shipped from the island of +Ictis (Isle of Wight), or sent into Gaul: most of the other articles +reached Rome through Gaul. The principal article brought to Rome was +amber.</p> + +<p>We now come to the consideration of the articles with which Asia +supplied Rome; these, as may be easily imagined, were principally +articles of luxury. The murrhine cups, of the nature of which there +has been much unsatisfactory discussion, according to Pliny, came +from Karmania in Parthia; from Parthia they came to Egypt, and thence +to Rome. It is probable, however, that they came, in the first +instance, from India, as they are expressly mentioned by the author +of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, as brought down from the +capital of Guzerat, to the port of Baragyza. These cups were first +seen at Rome, in the triumphal procession of Pompey, when he returned +from the shores of the Caspian Sea. They sold at enormous prices; and +were employed at the tables only of the great and wealthy, as cups +for drinking; they were in general of a small size. One, which held +three pints, sold for nearly 14,000 <i>l</i>.; and Nero gave nearly +59,000 <i>l</i>. for another. So highly were they prized, that, in the +conquest of Egypt, Augustus was content to select, for his own share, +out of all the spoils of Alexandria, a single murrhine cup.[5] +Precious stones and pearls were imported from Persia and Babylonia; +the latter country also furnished the wealthy Romans with +<i>triclinaria</i>, which was furniture of some description, but +whether quilts, carpets, or curtains is not ascertained. Persia +supplied also incense of a very superior quality. The various and +valuable commodities with which Arabia supplied the profusion and +luxury of Rome, reached that capital from the port of Alexandria in +Egypt. We cannot enumerate the whole of them, but must confine +ourselves to a selection of the most important and valuable. Great +demand, and a high rate of profits necessarily draw to any particular +trade a great number of merchants; it is not surprising, therefore, +that the trade in the luxuries of the east was so eagerly followed at +Rome. Pliny informs us, that the Roman world was exhausted by a drain +of 400,000 <i>l</i>. a year, for the purchase of luxuries, equally +expensive and superfluous; and in another place, he estimates the +rate of profit made at Rome, by the importation and sale of oriental +luxuries at 100 per cent.</p> + +<blockquote>[5] The most probable opinion is, that they were made of +fluat of lime, or Derbyshire spar.</blockquote> + +<p>Arabia furnished diamonds, but these were chiefly of a small size, +and other gems and pearls. At Rome the diamond possessed the highest +value; the pearl, the second; and the emerald, the third. Nero used +an emerald as an eye-glass for short sight. But though large and very +splendid diamonds brought a higher price at Rome than pearls, yet the +latter, in general, were in much greater repute; they were worn in +almost every part of the dress, by persons of almost every rank. The +famous pearl ear-rings of Cleopatra were valued at 161,458 <i>l</i>., +and Julius Caesar presented the mother of Brutus with a pearl, for +which he paid 48,457 <i>l</i>. Frankincense, myrrh, and other precious +drugs, were also brought to Rome from Arabia, through the port of +Alexandria. There was a great demand at Rome for spices and +aromatics, from the custom of the Romans to burn their dead, and also +from the consumption of frankincense, &c. in their temples. At +the funeral of Sylla 210 bundles of spices were used. Nero burnt, at +the funeral of Poppaea, more cinnamon and cassia than the countries +from which they were imported produced in one year. In the reign of +Augustus, according to Horace, one whole street was occupied by those +who dealt in frankincense, pepper, and other aromatics. Frankincense +was also imported into Rome from Gaza, on the coast of Palestine; +according to Pliny, it was brought to this place by a caravan, that +was sixty-two days on its journey: the length of the journey, frauds, +impositions, duties; &c. brought every camel's load to upward of +22 <i>l</i>.; and a pound of the best sort sold at Rome for ten +shillings. Alexandria, however, was the great emporium for this, as +well as all the other produce of India and Arabia. Pliny is express +and particular on this point, and takes notice of the precautions +employed by the merchants there, in order to guard against +adulteration and fraud. Cinnamon, another of the exports of Arabia to +Rome, though not a production of that country, was also in high +repute, and brought an extravagant price. Vespasian was the first who +dedicated crowns of cinnamon, inclosed in gold filagree, in the +Capitol and the Temple of Peace; and Livia dedicated the root in the +Palatine Temple of Augustus. The plant itself was brought to the +emperor Marcus Aurelius in a case seven feet long, and was exhibited +at Rome, as a very great rarity. This, however, we are expressly +informed came from Barbarike in India. It seems to have been highly +valued by other nations as well as by the Romans: Antiochus Epiphanes +carried a few boxes of it in a triumphal procession: and Seleucus +Callinicus presented two minae of it and two of cassia, as a gift to +the king of the Milesians. In the enumeration of the gifts made by +this monarch, we may, perhaps, trace the comparative rarity and value +of the different spices of aromatics among the ancients: of +frankincense he presented ten talents, of myrrh one talent, of cassia +two pounds, of cinnamon two pounds, and of costus one pound. +Frankincense and myrrh were the productions of Arabia; the other +articles of India; of course the former could be procured with much +less difficulty and expence than the latter. Spikenard, another +Indian commodity, also reached Rome, through Arabia, by means of the +port of Alexandria. Pliny mentions, that both the leaves and the +spices were of great value, and that the odour was the most esteemed +in the composition of all unguents. The price at Rome was 100 denarii +a pound. The markets at which the Arabian and other merchants bought +it were Patala on the Indus, Ozeni, and a mart on or near the +Ganges.</p> + +<p>Sugar, also, but of a quality inferior to that of India, was +imported from Arabia, through Alexandria, into Rome. The Indian +sugar, which is expressly mentioned by Pliny, as better and higher +priced, was brought to Rome, but by what route is not exactly known, +probably by means of the merchants who traded to the east coast of +Africa; where the Arabians either found it, or imported it from +India. In the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, and likewise in the +rescript of the Roman emperors, relative to the articles imported +into Egypt from the East, which was promulgated by Marcus Aurelius +and his son Commodus, about the year A.D. 176, it is denominated +cane-honey, otherwise called sugar (sacchar). So early, therefore, as +the Periplus (about the year A.D. 73,) the name of sacchar was known +to the Romans, and applied by them to sugar. This word does not occur +in any earlier author, unless Dioscorides lived before that period, +which is uncertain. It may be remarked, that the nature, as well as +the proper appellation of sugar, must have been but imperfectly, and +not generally known, even at the time of the rescript, otherwise the +explanatory phrase, honey made from cane, would not have been +employed.</p> + +<p>The first information respecting sugar was brought to Europe by +Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander. In a passage quoted from his +journal by Strabo, it is described as honey made from reeds, there +being no bees in that part of India. In a fragment of Theophrastus, +preserved by Photius, he mentions, among other kinds of honey, one +that is found in reeds. The first mention of any preparation, by +which the juice of the reed was thickened, occurs in Eratosthenes, as +quoted by Strabo, where he describes roots of large reeds found in +India, which were sweet to the taste, both when raw and boiled. +Dioscorides and Pliny describe it as used chiefly, if not entirely, +for medical purposes. In the time of Galen, A.D. 131, it would appear +to have become more common and cheaper at Rome; for he classes it +with medicines that may be easily procured. It seems probable, that +though the Arabians undoubtedly cultivated the sugar-cane, and +supplied Rome with sugar from it, yet they derived their knowledge of +it from India; for the Arabic name, shuker, which was adopted by the +Greeks and Romans, is formed from the two middle syllables of the +Sanskrit word, ich-shu-casa.</p> + +<p>But to return from this digression to the view of the imports into +Rome: Ethiopia supplied the capital with cinnamon of an inferior +quality; marble, gems, ivory; the horns of the rhinoceros and +tortoiseshell. The last article was in great demand, and brought a +high price: it was used for ornament, for furniture; as beds, tables, +doors, &c.; not only in Italy, but in Greece and Egypt: the +finest sort was sold for its weight of silver. It was imported not +only from Ethiopia but also from the east coast of Africa, and +reached Rome even from Malabar and Malacca. The opsian stone +mentioned in the Periplus, and the opsidian stone described by Pliny, +are stated in both these authors to have come from Ethiopia; but +whether they were the same, and their exact nature, are not known. +The opsian is described as capable of receiving a high polish, and on +that account as having been used by the Emperor Domitian to face a +portico. Pliny describes it as employed to line rooms in the same +manner as mirrors; he distinguishes it from a spurious kind, which +was red, but not transparent. The dye extracted from the purple shell +fish was imported into Rome from Getulia, a country on the south side +of Mauritania.</p> + +<p>Rome was supplied with the commodities of India chiefly from +Egypt; but there were other routes by which also they reached the +capital: of these it will be proper to take some notice.</p> + +<p>The most ancient communication between India and the countries on +the Mediterranean was by the Persian Gulf, through Mesopotamia, to +the coasts of Syria and Palestine. To facilitate the commerce which +was carried on by this route, Solomon is supposed to have built +Tadmor in the wilderness, or Palmyra: the situation of this place, +which, though in the midst of barren sands, is plentifully supplied +with water, and has immediately round it a fertile soil, was +peculiarly favorable; as it was only 85 miles from the Euphrates, and +about 117 from the nearest part of the Mediterranean. By this route +the most valuable commodities of India, most of which were of such +small bulk as to beat the expence of a long land carriage, were +conveyed. From the age of Nebuchadnezzar to the Macedonian conquest, +Tiredon on the Euphrates was the city at which this commercial route +began, and which the Babylonians made use of, as the channel of their +oriental trade. After the destruction of Tyre by that monarch, a +great part of the traffic which had passed by Arabia, or the Red Sea, +through Idumea and Egypt, and that city, was diverted to the Persian +Gulf, and through his territories in Mesopotamia it passed by Palmyra +and Damascus, through Syria to the west. After the reduction of +Babylon by Cyrus, the Persians, who paid no attention to commerce, +suffered Babylon and Ninevah to sink into ruin; but Palmyra still +remained, and flourished as a commercial city. Under the +Seleucidæ it seems to have reached its highest degree of +importance, splendour, and wealth; principally by supplying the +Syrians with Indian commodities. For upwards of two centuries after +the conquest of Syria by the Romans it remained free, and its +friendship and alliance were courted both by them and the Parthians. +During this period we have the express testimony of Appian, that it +traded with both these nations, and that Rome and the other parts of +the empire received the commodities of India from it. In the year +A.D. 273, it was reduced and destroyed by Aurelian, who found in it +an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious stones. From +this period, it never revived, or became a place of the least +importance or trade.</p> + +<p>On the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the commercial communication +between India and Europe returned to Arabia in the south, and to the +Caspian and the Euxine in the north: there seem to have been two +routes by these seas, both of great antiquity. In describing one of +them, the ancient writers are supposed to have confounded the river +Ochus, which falls into the Caspian, with the Oxus, which falls into +the lake of Aral. On this supposition, the route may be traced in the +following manner: the produce and manufactuers of India were +collected at Patala, a town near the mouth of the Indus; they were +carried in vessels up this river as far as it was navigable, where +they were landed, and conveyed by caravans to the Oxus: being again +shipped, they descended this river to the point where it approached +nearest to the Ochus, to which they were conveyed by caravans. By the +Ochus they were conveyed to the Caspian, and across it to the mouth +of the river Cyrus, which was ascended to where it approached nearest +the Phasis: caravans were employed again, till the merchandize were +embarked at Serapana on the Phasis, and thus brought to the Black +Sea. According to Pliny, Pompey took great pains to inform himself of +this route; and he ascertained, that by going up the Cyrus the goods +would be brought within five day's journey of the Phasis. There seems +to have been some plan formed at different times, and thought of by +the Emperor Claudius, to join Asia to Europe and the Caspian Sea, by +a canal from the Cimmerian Bosphorus to the Caspian Sea.</p> + +<p>The route which we have thus particularly described was sometimes +deviated from by the merchants: they carried their goods up the Oxus +till it fell into lake Aral; crossing this, they transported them in +caravans to the Caspian, and ascending the Wolga to its nearest +approach to the Tanais, they crossed to the latter by land, and +descended it to the sea of Azoph.</p> + +<p>Strabo describes another route: viz. across the Caucasus, from the +Caspian to the Black Sea; this writer, however, must be under some +mistake, for camels, which he expressly says were employed, would be +of no use in crossing the mountains; it is probable, therefore, that +this land communication was round by the mouth of the Caspian,--a +route which was frequented by the merchants of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>As the Euxine Sea was the grand point to which all these routes +tended, the towns on it became the resort of an immense number of +merchants, even at very early ages; and the kingdoms of Prusias, +Attalus, and Mithridates were enriched by their commerce. Herodotus +mentions, that the trade of the Euxine was conducted by interpreters +of seven different languages. In the time of Mithridates, 300 +different nations, or tribes, met for commercial purposes at +Dioscurias in Colchis; and soon after the Romans conquered the +countries lying on the Euxine, there were 130 interpreters of +languages employed in this and the other trading towns. The Romans, +however, as soon as they became jealous, or afraid, of the power of +the Parthians, would not suffer them, or any other of the northern +nations, to traffic by the Euxine; but endeavoured, as far as they +could, to confine the commerce of the East to Alexandria: the +consequence was, that even so early as the age of Pliny, Dioscurias +was deserted.</p> + +<p>The only article of import into Rome that remains to be considered +is silk: the history of the knowledge and importation of this article +among the ancients, and the route by which it was obtained, will +comprise all that it will be necessary to say on this subject.</p> + +<p>The knowledge of silk was first brought into Europe through the +conquests of Alexander the Great. Strabo quotes a passage from +Nearchus, in which it is mentioned, but apparently confounded, with +cotton. It is well known that Aristotle obtained a full and accurate +account of all the discoveries in natural history which were made +during the conquests of Alexander, and he gives a particular +description of the silk worm; so particular, indeed, that it is +surprising how the ancients could, for nearly 600 years after his +death, be ignorant of the nature and origin of silk. He describes the +silk worm as a horned worm, which he calls bombyx, which passes +through several transformations, and produces bombytria. It does not +appear, however, that he was acquainted either with the native +country of this [work->worm], or with such a people as the Seres; +and this is the only reason for believing that he may allude entirely +to a kind of silk made at Cos, especially as he adds, that some women +in this island decomposed the bombytria, and re-wove and re-spun it. +Pliny also mentions the bombyx, and describes it as a natiye of +Assyria; he adds, that the Assyrians made bombytria from it, and that +the inhabitants of Cos learnt the manufacture from them. The most +propable supposition is, that silk was spun and wove in Assyria and +Cos, but the raw material imported into these countries from the +Seres; for the silk worm was deemed by the Greeks and Romans so +exclusively and pre-eminently the attribute of the Sinae, that from +this very circumstance, they were denominated seres, or silk worms, +by the ancients.</p> + +<p>The next authors who mention silk are Virgil, and Dionysius the +geographer; Virgil supposed the Seres to card their silk from +leaves,--<i>Velleraque ut foliis depectunt tentuia +Seres</i>.--Dionysius, who was sent by Augustus to draw up an account +of the Oriental regions, says, that rich and valuable garments were +manufactured by the Seres from threads, finer than those of the +spider, which they combed from flowers.</p> + +<p>It is not exactly known at what period silk garments were first +worn at Rome: Lipsius, in his notes on Tacitius, says, in the reign +of Julius Csesar. In the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, a law +was made, that no man should dishonor himself by wearing a silken +garment. We have already stated the opinion entertained by Pliny +respecting the native country of the silk worm; this author condemns +in forcible, though affected language, the thirst of gain, which +explored the remotest parts of the earth for the purpose of exposing +to the public eye naked draperies and transparent matrons. In his +time, slight silks, flowered, seem to have been introduced into +religious ceremonies, as he describes crowns, in honour of the +deities, of various colours, and highly perfumed, made of silk. The +next author who mentions silk is Pausanias; he says, the thread from +which the Seres form their web is not from any kind of bark, but is +obtained in a different way; they have in their country a spinning +insect, which the Greeks call seer. He supposes that the insect lived +five years, and fed on green haulm: by the last particular, it is not +improbable he meant the leaves of the mulberry tree. For 200 years +after the age of Pliny, the use of silk was confined to the female +sex, till the richer citizens, both of the capital and the provinces, +followed the example of Heliogabalus, the first man, who, according +to Lampridius, wore <i>holosericum</i> that is, a garment which was +all of silk. From this expression, however, it is evident, that +previous to this period the male inhabitants of Rome had been in the +habit of wearing garments made of silk mixed with linen or +woollen.</p> + +<p>Hitherto there is no intimation in ancient authors of the price of +silk at Rome; in the time of Aurelian, however, that is towards the +end of the third century, we learn the high price at which it was +rated, in an indirect manner. For when the wife of that Emperor +begged of him to permit her to have but one single garment of purple +silk; he refused it, saying, that one pound of silk sold at Rome for +12 ounces, or its weight of gold. This agrees with what is laid down +in the Rhodian maritime laws, as they appear in the eleventh book of +the Digests, according to which unmixed silk goods paid a salvage, if +they were saved without being damaged by the sea water, of ten per +cent., as being equal in value to gold.</p> + +<p>In about 100 years after the reign of Aurelian, however, the +importation of silk into Rome must have increased very greatly; for +Ammianus Marcellinus, who flourished A.D. 380, expressly states that +silk, which had formerly been confined to the great and rich, was, in +his time, within the purchase of the common people. Constantinople +was founded about forty years before he wrote; and it naturally found +its way there in greater abundance than it had done, when Rome was +the capital of the empire.</p> + +<p>From this time, till the middle of the sixth century, we have no +particular information respecting the silk trade of the Roman empire. +At this period, during the reign of Justinian, silk had become an +article of very general and indispensible use: but the Persians had +occupied by land and sea the monopoly of this article, so that the +inhabitants of Tyre and Berytus, who had all along manufactured it +for the Roman market, were no longer able to procure a sufficient +supply, even at an extravagant price. Besides, when the manufactured +goods were brought within the Roman territories, they were subject to +a duty of ten per cent. Justinian, under these circumstances, very +impolitically ordered that silk should be sold at the rate of eight +pieces of gold for the pound, or about 3 <i>l</i>. 4s. The consequence +was such as might have been expected: silk goods were no longer +imported; and to add to the injustice and the evil, Theodora, the +emperor's wife, seized all the silk, and fined the merchants very +heavily. It was therefore necessary, that Justinian should have +recourse to other measures to obtain silk goods; instead, however, of +restoring the trade of Egypt, which at this period had fallen into +utter decay, and sending vessels directly from the Red Sea to the +Indian markets, where the raw material might have been procured, he +had recourse to Arabia and Abyssinia. According to Suidas, he wished +the former to import the silk in a raw state, intending to +manufacture it in his own dominions. But the king of Abyssinia +declined the offer; as the vicinity of the Persians to the Indian +markets for silk enabled them to purchase it at a cheaper rate than +the Abyssinians could procure it. The same obstacle prevented the +Arabians from complying with the request of Justinian.</p> + +<p>The wealthy and luxurious Romans, therefore, must have been +deprived of this elegant material for their dresses, had not their +wishes been gratified by an unexpected event. Two Persian monks +travelled to Serindi, where they had lived long enough to become +acquainted with the various processes for spinning and manufacturing +silk. When they returned, they communicated their information to +Justinian; and were induced, by his promises, to undertake the +transportation of the eggs of the silk-worm, from China to +Constantinople. Accordingly, they went back to Serindi, and brought +away a quantity of the eggs in a hollow cane, and conveyed them +safely to Constantinople. They superintended and directed the +hatching of the eggs, by the heat of a dunghill: the worms were fed +on mulberry leaves: a sufficient number of butterflies were saved to +keep up the stock; and to add to the benefits already conferred, the +Persian monks taught the Romans the whole of the manufacture. From +Constantinople, the silk-worms were conveyed to Greece, Sicily, and +Italy. In the succeeding reign, the Romans had improved so much in +the management of the silk-worms, and in the manufacture of silk, +that the Serindi ambassadors, on their arrival in Constantinople, +acknowledged that the Romans were not inferior to the natives of +China, in either of these respects. It may be mentioned, in further +proof of the opinion already given, that the silk manufactures of Cos +were not supplied from silk-worms in that island, that we have the +express authority of Theophanes and Zonaras, that, before silk-worms +were brought to Constantinople, in the reign of Justinian, no person +in that city knew that silk was produced by a worm. This, certainly, +would not have been the case, if there had been silk-worms so near +Constantinople as the island of Cos is. All the authors whom we have +quoted, (with the exception of Aristotle, Pliny, and Pausanias,) +including a period of six centuries, supposed that silk was made from +fleeces growing upon trees, from the bark of trees, or from flowers. +These mistakes, may, indeed, have arisen from the Romans having heard +of the silk being taken from the mulberry and other trees, on which +the worms feed; but, however they originated, they plainly prove that +the native country of the silk-worm was at a very great distance from +Rome, and one of which they had very little knowledge.</p> + +<p>Having thus brought the history of this most valuable import into +Rome, down to the period, when, in consequence of the Romans having +acquired the silk-worm, there existed no longer any necessity to +import the raw materials; we shall next proceed to investigate the +routes by which it was brought from the Seres to the western parts of +Asia, and thence to Rome. It is well ascertained, that the silk +manufacture was established at Tyre and Berytus, from a very early +period; and these places seem to have supplied Rome with silk stuffs. +But, by what route did silk arrive thither, and to the other +countries, so as to be within the immediate reach of the +Romans?--There were two routes, by which it was introduced to Europe, +and the contiguous parts of Asia: by land and sea.</p> + +<p>The route by sea is pointed out in a clear and satisfactory +manner, by some of the ancient authors, particularly the author of +the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. In enumerating the exports from +Nelkundah, he particularly mentions silk stuffs, and adds, that they +were brought to this place from countries further to the east. +Nelkundah was a town in Malabar, about twelve miles up a small river, +at the mouth of which was the port of Barake; at this port, the +vessels of the ancients rode till their lading was brought down from +Nelkundah. This place seems to have been the centrical mart between +the countries that lie to the east and west of Cape Comorin, or the +hither and further peninsula of India; fleets sailed from it to +Khruse, which there is every reason to believe was part of the +peninsula of Malacca; and we have the authority of Ptolemy, that +there was a commercial communication between it and the northern +provinces of China. But at a later period than the age of the +Periplus, silk was brought by sea from China to Ceylon, and thence +conveyed to Africa and Europe. Cosmos, who lived in the sixth +century, informs us, that the Tzenistæ or Chinese, brought to +Ceylon, silks, aloes, cloves, and sandal wood. That his +Tzenistsæ, are the Chinese, there can be no doubt; for he +mentions them as inhabiting a country producing silk, beyond which +there is no country, for the ocean encircles it oh the east. From +this it is evident that the Tzenistæ of this author, and the +Seres of the ancients, are the same; and in specifying the imports +into Ceylon, he mentions silk thread, as coming from countries +farther to the east, particularly from the Chinese. We thus see by +what sea route silk was brought from China to those places with which +the western nations had a communication; it was imported either into +the peninsula of Malacca by sea, and thence by sea to Nelkundah, +whence it was brought by a third voyage to the Red Sea; or it was +brought directly from China to Ceylon, from which place there was a +regular sea communication also with the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>The author of the Periplus informs us, that raw as well as +manufactured silk were conveyed by land through Bactria, to Baraguza +or Guzerat, and by the Ganges to Limurike; according to this first +route, the silks of China must have come the whole length of Tartary, +from the great wall, into Bactria; from Bactria, they passed the +mountains to the sources of the Indus, and by that river they were +brought down to Patala, or Barbarike, in Scindi, and thence to +Guzerat: the line must have been nearly the same when silk was +brought to the sources of the Ganges; at the mouth of this river, it +was embarked for Limurike in Canara. All the silk, therefore, that +went by land to Bactria, passed down the Indus to Guzerat; all that +deviated more to the east, and came by Thibet, passed down the Ganges +to Bengal.</p> + +<p>A third land route by which silk was brought to the Persian +merchants, and by them sold to the Romans, was from Samarcand and +Bochara, through the northern provinces of China, to the metropolis +of the latter country: this, however, was a long, difficult, and +dangerous route. From Samarcand to the first town of the Chinese, was +a journey of from 60 to 100 days; as soon as the caravans passed the +Jaxartes, they entered the desert, in which they were necessarily +exposed to great privations, as well as to great risk from the +wandering tribes. The merchants of Samarcand and Bochara, on their +return from China, transported the raw or manufactured silk into +Persia; and the Persian merchants sold it to the Romans at the fairs +of Armenia and Nisibis.</p> + +<p>Another land route is particularly described by Ptolemy: according +to his detail, this immense inland communication began from the bay +of Issus, in Cilicia; it then crossed Mesopotamia, from the Euphrates +to the Tigris, near Hieropolis: it then passed through part of +Assyria and Media, to Ecbatana and the Caspian Pass; after this, +through Parthia to Hecatompylos: from this place to Hyrcania; then to +Antioch, in Margiana; and hence into Bactria. From Bactria, a +mountainous country was to be crossed, and the country of the +Sacæ, to Tachkend, or the Stone Tower. Near this place was the +station of those merchants who traded directly with the Seres. The +defile of Conghez was next passed, and the region of Cosia or Cashgar +through the country of the Itaguri, to the capital of China. Seven +months were employed on this journey, and the distance in a right +line amounted to 2800 miles. That the whole of this journey was +sometimes performed by individuals for the purchase of silk and other +Chinese commodities, we have the express testimony of Ptolemy; for he +informs us, that Maes, a Macedonian merchant, sent his agent through +the entire route which we have just described. It is not surprising, +therefore, that silk should have borne such an exorbitant price at +Rome; but it is astonishing that any commodity, however precious, +could bear the expence of such a land carriage.</p> + +<p>The only other routes by land, by which silk was brought from +China into Europe, seem to have corresponded, in the latter part of +their direction, with the land routes from India, already described. +Indeed, it may naturally be supposed, that the Indian merchants, as +soon as they learned the high prices of silk at Rome, would purchase +it, and send it along with the produce and manufactures of their own +country, by the caravans to Palmyra, and by river navigation to the +Euxine: and we have seen, that on the capture of Palmyra, by +Aurelian, silk was one of the articles of plunder.</p> + +<p>We are now to take notice of the laws which were passed by the +Romans for the improvement of navigation and commerce; and in this +part of our subject we shall follow the same plan and arrangement +which we have adopted in treating of the commerce itself; that is, we +shall give a connected view of these laws, or at least the most +important of them, from the period when the Romans began to interest +themselves in commerce, till the decline of the empire.</p> + +<p>These laws may be divided into three heads: first, laws relating +to the protection and privileges allowed to mariners by the Roman +emperors; secondly, laws relating to particular fleets; and lastly, +laws relating to particular branches of trade.</p> + +<p>1. The fifth title of the thirteenth book of the Theodosian code +of laws entirely relates to the privileges of mariners. It appears, +from this, that by a law made by the Emperor Constans, and confirmed +by Julian, protection was granted to them from all personal injuries; +and it was expressly ordered, that they should enjoy perfect +security, and be defended from all sort of violence and injustice. +The emperor Justinian considered this law so indispensably necessary +to secure the object which it had in view, that he not only adopted +it into his famous code, but decreed that whoever should seize and +apply the ships of mariners, against their wishes, to any other +purpose than that for which they were designed, should be punished +with death. In the same part of his code, he repeats and confirms a +law of the emperors Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, inflicting +death on any one who should insult seafaring men. In another law, +adopted into the same code from the statutes of former emperors, +judges and magistrates are forbidden, on pain of death, to give them +any manner of trouble. They were also exempted from paying tribute, +though the same law which exempts them, taxes merchants. No person +who had exercised any mean or dishonourable employment was allowed to +become a mariner; and the emperors Constantine and Julian raised them +to the dignity of knights, and, shortly afterwards, they were +declared capable of being admitted into the senate.</p> + +<p>As a counterbalance to those privileges and honours, it appears, +that mariners, at least such of them as might be required for the +protection of the state, were obliged to conform themselves to +certain rules and conditions, otherwise the laws already quoted did +not benefit them. They were obliged to possess certain lands; and, +indeed, it would seem that the profession and privileges of a mariner +depended on his retaining these lands. When these lands were sold, +the purchaser was obliged to perform towards the state all those +services which were required of a mariner, and in return he obtained +all the privileges, dignities, and exemptions granted to that class +of men. This, however, was productive of great inconvenience to the +state; since, if the lands were purchased by persons ignorant of +maritime affairs, they could not be so effective as persons +accustomed to the sea. From this consideration a law was passed, that +when such lands as were held on condition of sea-service passed into +the possession of those who were unaccustomed to the sea, they should +revert to their original owners. It was also ordered, that such +privileged mariners should punctually perform all services required +of them by the state; that they should not object to carry any +particular merchandize; that they should not take into their vessels +above a certain quantity of goods, in order that they might not, by +being over laden, be rendered unfit for the service of the state; and +that they should not change their employment for any other, even +though it were more honourable or lucrative. The whole shipping, and +all the seamen, seem thus to have been entirely under the management +and controul of the state; there were, however, a few exceptions. +Individuals, who possessed influence sufficient, or from other +causes, were permitted to possess ships of their own, but only on the +express condition that the state might command them and the services +of their crews, whenever it was necessary. The legal rate of interest +was fixed by Justinian at six per cent.; but for the convenience and +encouragement of trade, eight was allowed on money lent to merchants +and manufacturers; and twelve on the risk of bottomry.</p> + +<p>2. There are several laws in the Theodosian code which relate to +the different fleets of the empire: the Eastern fleet, the principal +port of which was Seleucia, a city of Syria, on the Orontes, by which +were conveyed to Rome and Constantinople, all the oriential +merchandize that came by the land route we have described to Syria, +was particularly noticed, as well as some smaller fleets depending on +it, as the fleet of the island of Carpathus. The privileges granted +to the African fleet are expressly given to the Eastern fleet.</p> + +<p>In another part of the code of Justinian, the trade between the +Romans and Persians is regulated: the places were the fairs and +markets are to be kept are fixed and named; these were near the +confines of the two kingdoms; and these confines neither party was +allowed to pass.</p> + +<p>From a law of the emperor Constans, inserted in the Theodosian +code, it appears that some of the ships which came from Spain to Rome +were freighted for the service of the state; and these are +particularly regulated and privileged in this law.</p> + +<p>There were several laws made also respecting the fleet which the +emperors employed for the purpose of collecting the tribute and +revenue, and conveying it to Home and Constantinople. The law of the +emperors Leo and Zeno, which is inserted in the Justinian code, +mentions the fleet which was kept to guard the treasures: and by +another law, taken from the Theodosian code, we learn, that the +guards of the treasures, who went in this fleet, were officers under +the superintendent of the imperial revenue.</p> + +<p>3. We have already mentioned the dependence of Rome on foreign +nations for corn, and the encouragement given, during the republic +and in the early times of the empire, to the importation of this +necessary article. In the Theodosian and Justinian code, +encouragement to the importation of it seems still to have been a +paramount object, especially from Egypt; for though from an edict of +Justinian it would appear that the cargoes from this country, of +whatever they consisted, were guarded and encouraged by law, yet we +know that the principal freight of the ships which traded between +Alexandria and Rome and Constantinople was corn, and that other +merchandize was taken on board the corn fleets only on particular +occasions, or, where it was necessary, to complete the cargoes. Among +the other edicts of Justinian, regulating the trade of Egypt, there +is one which seems to have been passed in consequence of the abuses +that had crept into the trade of corn and other commodities, which +were shipped from Alexandria for Constantinople. These abuses arose +from the management of this trade being in the hands of a very few +persons: the emperor therefore passed a law, dividing the management +into different branches, each to be held by separate individuals. +From the code of Justinian we also learn, that corn was embarked from +other ports of Egypt besides Alexandria, by private merchants; but +these were not permitted to export it without permission of the +emperor, and even then not till after the imperial fleet was fairly +at sea. The importance of the corn trade of Egypt fully justified +these laws; for at this period Constantinople was annually supplied +with 260,000 quarters of wheat from this country.</p> + +<p>The resources of the Romans were principally derived from the +tribute levied on the conquered countries; but in part also from +duties on merchandize: in the latter point of view, alone, they fall +under our notice. No custom duties seem to have been imposed till the +time of Augustus; but in his reign, and that of his immediate +successors, duties were imposed on every kind of merchandize which +was imported into Rome; the rate varied from the eighth to the +fortieth part of the value of the article. The most full and minute +list of articles of luxury on which custom duties were levied, is to +be found in the rescript of the emperors Marcus and Commodus, +relating to the goods imported into Egypt from the East. In the +preamble to this rescript it is expressly declared, that no blame +shall attach to the collectors of the customs, for not informing the +merchant of the amount of the custom duties while the goods are in +transit; but if the merchant wishes to enter them, the officer is not +to lead him into error. The chief and most valuable articles on +which, by this rescript, duties were to be levied, were cinnamon, +myrrh, pepper, ginger, and aromatics; precious stones; Parthian and +Babylonian leather; cottons; silks, raw and manufactured: ebony, +ivory, and eunuchs.</p> + +<p>Till the reign of Justinian, the straits of the Bosphorus and +Hellespont were open to the freedom of trade, nothing being +prohibited but the exportation of arms for the service of the +barbarians: but the avarice, or the profusion of that emperor, +stationed at each of the gates of Constantinople a praetor, whose +duty it was to levy a duty on all goods brought into the city, while, +on the other hand, heavy custom duties were exacted on all vessels +and merchandize that entered the harbour. This emperor also exacted +in a most rigorous manner, a duty in kind: which, however, had +existed long before his time: we allude to the annona, or supply of +corn for use of the army and capital. This was a grievous and +arbitrary exaction: rendered still more so "by the partial injustice +of weights and measures, and the expence and labour of distant +carriage." In a time of scarcity, Justinian ordered an extraordinary +requisition of corn to be levied on Thrace, Bithynia, and Phrygia; +for which the proprietors, (as Gibbon observes,) "after a wearisome +journey, and a perilous navigation received so inadequate a +compensation, that they would have chosen the alternative of +delivering both the corn and price at the doors of their +granaries."</p> + +<p>Having thus given a connected and general view of the Roman +commerce, we shall next proceed to investigate the progress of +geographical knowledge among them. In our chronological arrangement +of this progress, incidental and detached notices respecting their +commerce will occur, which, though they could not well be introduced +in the general view, yet will serve to render the picture of it more +complete.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the principal accessions to geographical +knowledge among the Romans, at least till their ambition was +satinted, or nearly so, by conquest, must have been derived from +their military expeditions. It is only towards the time of Augustus +that we find men, whose sole object in visiting foreign countries was +to become acquainted with their state, manners, &c.</p> + +<p>Polybius is one of the earliest authors who give us a glimpse of +the state of geographical knowledge among the Romans, about the +middle of the second century before Christ, the period when he +flourished. lie was the great friend of Scipio, whom he accompanied +in his expedition against Carthage. From his enquiries while in +Africa, he informed himself of the geography of the northern parts of +that quarter of the world; and he actually visited the coast as far +as Mount Atlas, or Cape Nun, beyond which, however, he does not seem +to have proceeded. He wrote a Periplus, or account of his voyage, +which is not in existence, but is referred to and quoted by Pliny. He +possessed also more accurate information of the western coasts of +Europe than was had before; derived, it would appear, from the +voyages of some Romans. Yet, with all this knowledge of what we may +deem distant parts, Polybius was ignorant of the real shape of Italy, +which he describes as stretching from east to west; a mistake which +seems to have originated with him, and was copied by Strabo.</p> + +<p>Varro, who was Pompey's lieutenant during the war against the +pirates, and obtained a naval crown on that occasion, among the +almost infinite variety of topics on which he wrote, was the author +of a work on navigation; unfortunately, however, only the title of it +is extant: had it yet remained, it would have thrown much light on +the state of navigation, geography, and commerce among the Romans in +his time.</p> + +<p>Julius Caesar's attention to science in the midst of his wars and +perils is well known. He first formed the idea of a general survey of +the whole empire; and for this purpose obtained a decree of the +senate. The survey was finished by Augustus: the execution of it was +committed to three Greek geographers. The survey of the eastern +portion of the empire was committed to Zenodoxus, who completed it, +in fourteen years, five months, and nine days. The northern division +was finished by Theodoras in twenty years, eight months, and ten +days: and the southern division was finished in twenty-five years, +one month, and ten days. This survey, with the supplementary surveys +of the new provinces, as they were conquered and added to the empire, +formed the basis of the geography of Ptolemy. It appears from +Vegetius, that every governor of a province was furnished with a +description of it, in which were given the distance of places, the +nature of the roads, the face of the country, the direction of the +rivers, &c.: he adds, that all these were delineated on a map as +well as described in writing. Of this excellent plan for the +itineraries and surveys of the Roman empire, from which the ancient +geographers obtained their fullest and most accurate information, +Julius Cæsar was the author.</p> + +<p>Julius Cæsar certainly added much to geographical knowledge +by his conquests of Gaul and Britain: his information respecting the +latter, however, as might be expected, is very erroneous. Yet, that +even its very northern parts were known by name to the Romans soon +after his death, is apparent, from this circumstance, that Diodorus +Siculus, who died towards the middle of the reign of Augustus, +mentions Orkas; which, he says, forms the northern extremity of the +island of Britain. This is the very first mention of any place in +Scotland by any writer.</p> + +<p>One of the first objects of Augustus, after he had reduced Egypt, +was to explore the interior of Africa, either for the purpose of +conquest, or to obtain the precious commodities, especially +frankincense and aromatics, which he had learned were the produce of +those countries. Ælius Gallus was selected by the emperor for +this expedition, and he was accompanied by the geographer Strabo; +who, however, has not given such accurate information of the route +which was pursued as might have been expected. This is the more to be +lamented, as Pliny informs us that the places which were visited +during this expedition are not to be found in authors previous to his +time.</p> + +<p>Gallus was directed by the emperor to explore Ethiopia, the +country of the Troglodytæ and Arabia. The expedition against +Ethiopia, which Gallus entrusted to Petronius, we shall afterwards +examine, confining ourselves at present to the proceedings and +progress of Gallus himself. His own force consisted of 10,000 men, to +which were added 500, supplied by Herod, king of the Jews; and 1000 +Nabathians from Petra; besides a fleet of eighty ships of war and 130 +transports. Syllæus, the minister of the king of the +Nabathians, undertook to conduct the expedition; but as it was not +for the interest either of his king or country that it should +succeed, he betrayed his trust, and, according to Strabo, was +executed at Rome for his treachery on this occasion. His object was +to delay the expedition as much as possible: this he effected by +persuading Gallus to prepare a fleet, which was unnecessary, as the +army might have followed the route of the caravans, through a +friendly country, from Cleopatris, where the expedition commenced, to +the head of the Elanitic Gulf. The troops, however, were embarked, +and, as the navigation of the Sea of Suez was intricate, the fleet +was fifteen days in arriving at Leuke Kome: here, in consequence of +the soldiers having become, during their voyage, afflicted with +various disorders, and the year being far advanced, Gallus was +obliged to remain till the spring. Another delay was contrived by +Syllæus on their leaving Leuke Kome. After this, they seem to +have proceeded with more celerity, and with very little opposition +from the natives, till they came to a city of some strength: this +they were obliged to besiege in regular form; but, after lying before +it for six days, Gallus was forced, for want of water, to raise the +siege, and to terminate the expedition. He was told that at this time +he was within two days' journey of the land of aromatics and +frankincense, the great object which Augustus had in view. On his +retreat, he no longer trusted to Syllæus, but changed the route +of the army, directing it from the interior to the coast. At Nera, in +Petræa, the army embarked, and was eleven days in crossing the +gulf to Myos Hormos: from this place it traversed the country of the +Troglodytes to Coptus, on the Nile. Two years were spent in this +unfortunate expedition. It is extremely difficult to fix on the limit +of this expedition, but it is probable that the town which Gallus +besieged, and beyond which he did not penetrate, was the capital of +the Mineans. From the time of this expedition, the Romans always +maintained a footing on the coast of the Red Sea; and either during +the residence of Gallus at Leuke Kome, or soon afterwards, they +placed a garrison in this place, where they collected the customs, +gradually extending their conquests and their geographical knowledge +down the Gulf, till they reached the ocean. This seems to have been +the only beneficial consequence resulting from the expedition of +Gallus.</p> + +<p>We must now attend to the expedition of Petronius against the +Ethiopians. This was completely successful, and Candakè, their +queen, was obliged, as a token of her submission, to send ambassadors +to Augustus, who was at that time in the island of Samos. About this +period the commerce of the Egyptians,--which, in fact, was the +commerce of the Romans,--was extended to the Troglodytes,--with whom +previously they had carried on little or no trade.</p> + +<p>The first account of the island of Ceylon, under the name of +Taprobane, was brought to Europe by the Macedonians, who had +accompanied Alexander into the east. It is mentioned, and a short +description given of it, by Onesicritus and Eratosthenes. Iambulus, +however, who lived in the time of Augustus, is the first author who +enters into any details regarding it; and though much of what he +states is undoubtedly fabulous, yet there are particulars +surprizingly correct, and such as confirm his own account, that he +actually, visited the island. According to Diodorus Siculus, he was +the son of a merchant, and a merchant himself; and while trading in +Arabia for spices, he was taken prisoner and carried into Arabia, +whence he was carried off by the Ethiopians, and put into a ship, +which was driven by the monsoon to Ceylon. The details he mentions, +that are most curious and most conformable to truth, are the stature +of the natives and the flexibility of their joints; the length of +their ears, bored and pendant; the perpetual verdure of the trees; +the attachment of the natives to astronomy; their worship of the +elements, and particularly of the sun and moon; their cotton +garments; the men having one wife in common; the days and nights +being equal in length; and the Calamus, or Maiz. It is extraordinary, +howeve'r, that Iambulus never mentions cinnamon, which, as he was a +dealer in spices, it might have been supposed would have attracted +his particular attention.</p> + +<p>One of the most celebrated geographers among the ancients, +flourished during the reign of Augustus;--we allude to Strabo: his +fundamental principles are, the globosity of the earth, and its +centripetal force; he also lays down rules for constructing globes, +but he seems ignorant of the mode of fixing the position of places by +their latitude or longitude, or, at least, he neglects it. In order +to render his geographical knowledge more accurate and complete, he +travelled over most of the countries between Armenia on the east and +Etruria on the west, and from his native country, on the borders of +the Euxine sea, to the borders of Ethiopia. The portion of the globe +which he describes, is bounded on the north by the Baltic, on the +east by the Ganges, on the south by the mouth of the river Senegal, +and on the west by Spain. In describing the countries which he +himself had visited, he is generally very accurate, but his accounts +of those he had not visited, are frequently erroneous or very +incomplete. His information respecting Ceylon and the countries of +the Ganges, seems to have been derived entirely from the statements +brought to Europe by the generals of Alexander.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Claudius, the knowledge of the Romans respecting +the interior of Africa, was slightly extended by the expedition of +Suetonius Paulinus; he was the first Roman who crossed Mount Atlas, +and during the winter penetrated through the deserts, which are +described as formed of black dust, till he reached a river called the +Niger. Paulinus wrote an account of this expedition, which, however, +is not extant: Pliny quotes it. In the reign of Claudius, also, the +island of Ceylon became better known, in consequence of an accident +which happened to the freedman of a Roman, who farmed the customs in +the Red Sea. This man, in the execution of his duty, was blown off +the coast of Arabia, across the ocean to Taprobane, or Ceylon; here +he was hospitably received by the king, and after a residence of six +months was sent back, along with ambassadors, to Claudius. They +informed the emperor that their country was very extensive, populous, +and opulent, abounding in gold, silver, and pearls. It seems probable +that the circumstance of the freedman having been carried to Ceylon +by a steady and regular wind, and this man and the ambassadors having +returned by a wind directly opposite, but as steady and regular, had +some influence in the discovery of the monsoon. As this discovery led +necessarily to a direct communication between Africa and India, and +grea'ly enlarged the knowledge of the Romans respecting the latter +country, as well as their commercial connections with it, it will be +proper to notice it in a particular manner.</p> + +<p>This important discovery is supposed to have been made in the +seventh year of the reign of Claudius, answering to the forty-seventh +of the Christian era. The following is the account given of it by the +author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, as translated by Dr. +Vincent:</p> + +<p>"The whole navigation, such as it has been described from Adan in +Arabia Felix and Kanè to the ports of India, was performed +formerly in small vessels, by adhering to the shore and following the +indention of the coast; but Hippalus was the pilot who first +discovered the direct course across the ocean, by observing the +position of the ports and the general appearance of the sea; for, at +the season when the annual winds peculiar to our climate settle in +the north, and blow for a continuance upon our coast from the +Mediterranean, in the Indian ocean the wind is constantly to the +south west; and this wind has in those seas obtained the name of +Hippalus, from the pilot who first attempted the passage by means of +it to the east.</p> + +<p>"From the period of that discovery to the present time, vessels +bound to India take their departure either from Kanè on the +Arabian, or from Cape Arometa on the African side. From these points +they stretch out to the open sea at once, leaving all the windings of +the gulfs and bays at a distance, and make directly for their several +destinations on the coast of India. Those that are intended for +Limurike waiting some time before they sail, but those that are +destined for Barugaza, or Scindi, seldom more than three days."</p> + +<p>If we may credit Pliny, the Greek merchants of Egypt for some +years after the discovery of the monsoon, did not venture further out +to sea than was absolutely necessary, by crossing the widest part of +the entry of the Persian Gulf, to reach Patala at the mouth of the +Indus; but they afterwards found shorter routes, or rather stretched +more to the south, so as to reach lower down on the coast of India: +they also enlarged their vessels, carried cargoes of greater value, +and in order to beat off the pirates, which then as at present +infested this part of the Indian coast, they put on board their +vessels a band of archers. Myos Hormos, or Berenice, was the port on +the Red Sea from which they sailed; in forty days they arrived at +Musiris, on the west coast of India. The homeward passage was begun +in December or January, when the north east monsoon commenced; this +carried them to the entrance of the Red Sea, up which to their port +they were generally favored by southerly winds.</p> + +<p>As there is no good reason to believe that the ancients made +regular voyages to India, previously to the discovery of the +monsoons; yet, as it is an undoubted fact that some of the exclusive +productions of that country, particularly cinnamon, were obtained by +them, through their voyages on the Red Sea; it becomes an important +and interesting enquiry, by what means these productions were brought +to those places on this sea, from which the Romans obtained them. In +our opinion, the Arabians were the first who introduced Indian +productions into the west from the earliest period to which history +goes back, and they continued to supply the merchants who traded on +the Red Sea with them, till, by the discovery of the monsoon, a +direct communication was opened between that sea and India.</p> + +<p>At least seventeen centuries before the Christian era, we have +undoubted evidence of the traffic of the Arabians in the spices, +&c. of India; for in the 27th chapter of Genesis we learn, that +the Ishmaelites from Gilead conducted a caravan of camels laden with +the spices of India, and the balsam and myrrh of Hadraumaut, in the +regular course of traffic to Egypt for sale. In the 30th chapter of +Exodus, cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, frankincense, &c. are mentioned, +some of which are the exclusive produce of India; these were used for +religious purposes, but at the same time the quantities of them +specified are so great, that it is evident they must have been easily +obtained. Spices are mentioned, along with balm and other productions +of Canaan, in the present destined by Jacob for Joseph. These +testimonies from holy writ are perfectly in unison with what we learn +from Herodotus; this author enumerates oriental spices as regularly +used in Egypt for embalming the dead.</p> + +<p>It is sufficiently evident, therefore, that, at a very early +period, the productions of India were imported into Egypt. That the +Arabians were the merchants who imported them, is rendered highly +probable from several circumstances. The Ishmaelites, mentioned in +the 37th chapter of Genesis, are undoubtedly the Nabathians, whose +country is represented by all the geographers, historians, and poets, +as the source of all the precious commodities of the east; the +ancients, erroneously supposing that cinnamon, which we know to be an +exclusive production of India, was the produce of Arabia, because +they were supplied with it, along with other aromatics, from that +country. The proof that the Nabathians and the Ishmaelites are the +same, is to be found in the evident derivation of the former name, +from Nebaioth, the son of Ishmael. The traditions of the Arabians +coincide with the genealogy of the Scriptures, in regarding Joktan, +the fourth son of Shem, as the origin of those trihes which occupied +Sabæa and Hadraumaut, or the incense country; Ishmael as the +father of the families which settled in Arabia Deserta; and Edom as +the ancestor of the Idumeans, who settled in Arabia Petræa.</p> + +<p>Eight hundred years before the Christian era, the merchandize of +the Sabeans is particularly noticed by the prophet Isaiah; and even +long before his time, we are informed, that there were no such spices +as the Queen of Sheba gave to Solomon. That Sheba is Sabæa, or +Arabia Felix, we learn from Ezekiel:--"The merchants of Sheba and +Ramah, they were thy merchants: they occupied in thy fairs with chief +of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold." Six hundred +and fifty years after Isaiah bore his testimony to the commerce of +Sabæa, we have the authority of Agatharcides, that the +merchants of this country traded to India; that the great wealth and +luxury of Sabæa were principally derived from this trade; and +that, at the time when Egypt possessed the monopoly of the Indian +trade, with respect to Europe, the Sabeans enjoyed a similar +advantage with regard to Egypt.</p> + +<p>Having thus established the fact, that, from the earliest period +of which we have any record, the Arabians were the merchants who +brought the cinnamon, &c. of India into the west, we must, in the +next place, endeavour to ascertain by what means and route this +commerce was carried on; and we think we can prove that the +communication between Arabia and India, at a very early period, was +both by sea and land.</p> + +<p>There were many circumstances connected with Arabia and the +Arabians, which would necessarily turn their thoughts to maritime +affairs, and when they had once embarked in maritime commerce, would +particularly direct it to India. The sea washed three sides of the +peninsula of Arabia: the Arabians were not, like the Egyptians, +prejudiced, either by their habits or their religion, against the +sea. The monsoons must have been perceived by them, from part of the +sea-coast lying within their influence; and it can hardly be supposed +that a sea-faring people would not take advantage of them, to embark +in such a lucrative trade as that of India. "There is no history +which treats of them which does not notice them as pirates, or +merchants, by sea, as robbers, or traders, by land. We scarcely touch +upon them, accidentally, in any author, without finding that they +were the carriers of the Indian Ocean." From the earliest period that +history begins to notice them, Sabæa, Hadraumaut, and Oman, are +described as the residences of navigators; and as these places are, +in the earliest historians, celebrated for their maritime commerce, +it is reasonable to suppose that they were equally so before the +ancient historians acquired any knowledge of them.</p> + +<p>We cannot go farther back, with respect to the fact of the +Arabians being in India, than the voyage of Nearchus; but in the +journal of this navigator, we find manifest traces of Arabian +navigators on the coast of Mekran, previous to his expedition: he +also found proofs of their commerce on the coast of Gadrosia, and +Arabic names of places--a pilot to direct him, and vessels of the +country in the Gulf of Persia. Large ships from the Indus, Patala, +Persis, and Karmania came to Arabia, as early as the time of +Agatharcides; and it is probable that these ships were navigated by +Arabians, as the inhabitants of India were not, at this time, and, +indeed, never have been celebrated for their maritime enterprize and +skill. The same author mentions a town, a little without the Red Sea, +from whence, he says, the Sabeans sent out colonies or factories into +India, and to which the large ships he describes came with their +cargoes from India. This is the first historical evidence to prove +the establishment of Arabian factories and merchants in the ports of +India. In the time of Pliny, the Arabians were in such numbers on the +coast of Malabar, and at Ceylon, that, according to that author, the +inhabitants of the former had embraced their religion, and the ports +of the latter were entirely in their power. Their settlements and +commerce in India are repeatedly mentioned in the Periplus of the +Erythrean Sea, and likewise their settlements down the coast of +Africa to Rhaptum, before it was visited by the Greeks from Egypt. +For, besides their voyages from India to their own country, they +frequently brought Indian commodities direct to the coast of Africa. +At Sabaea, the great mart of the Arabian commerce with India, the +Greeks, as late as the reign of Philometor, purchased the spices and +other productions of the east. As there was a complete monopoly of +them at this place, in the hands of the Arabians, the Greek +navigators and merchants were induced, in the hopes of obtaining them +cheaper, to pass the Straits of Babelmandeb, and on the coast of +Africa they found cinnamon and other produce of India, which had been +brought hither by the Arabian traders.</p> + +<p>The evidence of the land trade between Arabia and India, from a +very early period, is equally clear and decisive: Petra, the capital +of Arabia Petrea, was the centre of this trade. To it the caravans, +in all ages, came from Minea, in the interior of Arabia, and from +Gherra, in the Gulf of Persia,--from Hadraumaut, on the Ocean, and +some even from Sabaea. From Petra, the trade again spread in every +direction--to Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, through Arsinoe, Gaza, +Tyre, Jerusalem, Damascus, and other places of less consequence, all +lying on routes terminating in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The Gherrheans, who were a Babylonian colony settled in that part +of Arabia, which extends along the south coast of the Persian Gulf, +are the earliest conductors of caravans upon record. They are first +mentioned by Agatharcides, who compares their wealth with that of the +Sabeans, and describes them as the agents for all the precious +commodities of Asia and Europe: he adds that they brought much wealth +into Syria, and furnished a variety of articles, which were +afterwards manufactured or resold by the Phoenicians. But the only +route by which Syria and Phoenicia could have been supplied by them, +was through Petra. The particular articles with which their caravans +were loaded, according to Strabo, were the produce of Arabia, and the +spices of India. Besides the route of their caravans, across the +whole peninsula to Petra, it appears that they sometimes carried +their merchandize in boats up the Euphrates to Babylon, or even 240 +miles higher up, to Thapsacus, and thence dispersed it in all +directions by land.</p> + +<p>The exact site of the country of the Mineans cannot be certainly +fixed; but it is probable that it was to the south of Hedjaz, to the +north of Hadraumaut, and to the eastward of Sabaea. According to +Strabo, their caravans passed in seventy days from Hadraumaut to +Aisla, which was within ten miles of Petra. They were laden with +aloes, gold, myrrh, frankincense, and other aromatics.</p> + +<p>We can but faintly and obscurely trace the fluctuations in the +trade of Petra, in the remote periods of history. We know that +Solomon was in possession of Idumea, but whether it was subdued by +Nebuchadnezzar is doubtful. This sovereign, however, seems to have +formed some plan of depriving the Gherrheans of the commerce of the +Gulf of Persia. He raised a mound to confine the waters of the +Tigris: he built a city to stop the incursions of the Arabs, and +opened a communication between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. After +this there is no account of Idumea till some years subsequent to the +death of Alexander the Great: at this period two expeditions were +sent into it against its capital, Petra, by Antigonus, both of which +were unsuccessful. These expeditions were undertaken about the years +308 and 309 before Christ. The history of Idumea, from this period, +is better ascertained: harassed by the powerful kingdoms of Syria and +Egypt,--contiguous to both of which it lay,--it seems to have been +governed by princes of its own, who were partly independent, and +partly under the influence of the monarchs of Syria and Egypt. About +sixty-three years before Christ, Pompey took Petra; and, from that +period, the sovereigns of Idumea were tributary to the Romans. This +city, however, still retained its commerce, and was in a flourishing +condition, as we are informed by Strabo, on the authority of his +friend Athenedorus, who visited it about thirty-six years after it. +He describes it as built on a rock, distinguished, however, from all +the rocks in that part of Arabia, from being supplied with an +abundant spring of water. Its natural position, as well as art, +rendered it a fortress of importance in the desert. He represents the +people as rich, civilized, and peaceable; the government as regal, +but the chief power as lodged in a minister selected by the king, who +had the title of the king's brother. Syllaeus, who betrayed Elius +Gallus, appears to have been a minister of this description.</p> + +<p>The next mention that occurs of the trade of Petra is in the +Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, the date of which, though uncertain, +there is good reason to fix in Nero's reign. According to this work, +Leuke Kome, at the mouth of the Elanitic Gulf, was the point of +communication with Petra, the capital of the country, the residence +of Malachus, the king of the Nabathians. "Leuke Kome, itself, had the +rank of a mart in respect to the small vessels which obtained their +cargoes in Arabia, for which reason there was a garrison placed in +it, under the command of a centurion, both for the purpose of +protection, and in order to collect a duty of twenty-five in the +hundred." In the reign of Trajan, Idumea was reduced into the form of +a Roman province, by one of his generals; after this time it not does +fall within our plan to notice it, except merely to state, that its +subjection does not seem to have been complete or permanent, for +during the latter empire, there were certainly sovereigns of this +part of Arabia, in some degree independent, whose influence and +alliance were courted by the Romans and Persians, whenever a war was +about to commence between these two powers.</p> + +<p>From this sketch of the trade of the Arabians from the earliest +period, we may conclude, in the first place, that when navigation was +in its infancy, it was confined, or almost entirely so, to a land +trade carried on by caravans; and that Petra was the centre to which +these caravans tended from the east and the south, bringing with them +from the former the commodities of India, and from the latter the +commodities of the more fertile part of Arabia. From Petra, all these +goods were again transported by land to the shores of the +Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the second place, when navigation +became more commonly known and practised, (and there is good reason +to believe that it was known and practised among the Arabians, +especially those near the Persian Gulf, at a very early period,) a +portion of the Indian commodities, which before had been carried by +land to Petra were brought by sea to Sabaea. It appears that in the +age of Agatharcides, the monopoly of the trade between India and +Europe by this route was wholly possessed by the Sabeans; that, in +order to evade the effects of this monopoly, the Greeks of Egypt +found their way to Aden and Hadraumaut, in Arabia, and to Mosullon on +the coast of Africa. Here they met with other Arabians, who at this +time also traded to India, and sold them Indian goods at a cheaper +rate. And, lastly, we have seen that these ports on the southern +coast of Arabia, and on the coast of Africa, were frequented by the +merchants of Egypt, till, by the discovery of the monsoon, their +ships were enabled to sail directly to India. It is undoubtedly true +that before this discovery, single ships occasionally reached India +by adhering to the coast all the way, but the direct communication +was very rare. After the nature of the monsoon was thoroughly +understood, and it was ascertained that complete dependence could be +placed on its steadiness and regularity, and that by its change, the +ships could be brought as safely and quickly back from India, as they +had reached it, the ancients, who at first only ventured to the mouth +of the Indus, gradually made their way down the western coast of the +Indian peninsula.</p> + +<p>The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a work which has been +frequently referred to, is rich in materials to illustrate the +geographical knowledge and the commercial enterprize of the ancients +in the part of the world to which it relates. We have already +assigned its date to the age of Nero. Our limits will prevent us from +giving a full account of this work; we shall therefore, in the first +place, give a short abstract of the geographical knowledge which it +displays, and in the next place, illustrate from it, the nature of +the commerce carried on, on the Red Sea, the adjacent coasts of +Africa and Arabia, and the ports of India, which are noticed in +it.</p> + +<p>At the time of Strabo, the geography of the ancients did not +extend, on the eastern coast of Africa, further to the south than a +promontory called Noti Cornu, (the Southern Horn,) which seems to +have been in about 12-1/2 degrees north latitude. Beyond this an arid +coast, without ports or fresh water, arrested the progress of +navigation; but it appears by the Periplus, that this promontory was +now passed, and commerce had extended to the port of Rhapta and the +isle of Menutias, which are supposed to correspond with Babel Velho +and the island of Magadoxa. The author of the Periplus, who seems to +have been a merchant personally acquainted with most of the places he +describes, had heard of, but not visited the promontory Prasum: he +represents the ocean beyond Rhapta as entirely unknown, but as +believed to continue its western direction, and after having washed +the south coast of Ethiopia, to join the Western Ocean. The whole of +the west coast of India, from the Indus to Trapobane, is minutely +described in the Periplus. Some of the particulars of the manners and +customs of the inhabitants coincide in a striking manner with those +of the present day; this observation applies, among other points, to +the pirates between Bombay and Goa.</p> + +<p>Dr. Vincent, in his learned commentary on the Periplus, gives it +as his opinion, that the author of the Periplus never went further +than Nelkundah himself, that is, to the boundary between the +provinces of Canara and Malabar. The east coast of the Indian +peninsula is not traced so minutely nor so accurately as the west +coast, though there are names and descriptions in the Periplus, from +which it may fairly be inferred, that the author alludes to Cavary, +Masulapatam, Calingapatam, Coromandel, and other places and districts +of this part of India. The countries beyond the Ganges, the Golden +Chersonese, and the countries towards China, are very obscurely +noticed in the Periplus, though the information he gives respecting +the trade carried on in these parts is much more minute and accurate. +His description of the direction of the coast of India, is on the +whole, surprisingly consonant to truth: according to him, it tends +from north to south, as far as Colchos (Travancore); at this place it +bends to the east, and afterwards to the north; and then again a +little to the east, as far as the Ganges. He is the first author in +whom can clearly be traced the name of the great southern division of +India: his term is Dachanabades,--Dachan signifying south, and abad a +city; and Decan is still the general name of all the country to the +south of Baroche, the boundary assigned by the author. The +particulars he mentions of the bay of Cutch, of Cambay, of Baroche, +and of the Ghauts, may also be mentioned as proofs of his accuracy +with respect to those parts of India, which he visited in person.</p> + +<p>Having thus given a sketch of the geographical knowledge contained +the Periplus, we shall next attend to the commercial information +which it conveys. As this work is divided into two distinct parts, +the first comprising the coast of the Red Sea, and of Africa, from +Myos Hormos on the former, to Rhapta in the latter: and the second +part, beginning at the same place, and including the whole coast of +Arabia, both that which lies on the Red Sea, and that which lies on +the Ocean, and then stretching from the Gulf of Persia to Guzerat, +describing the coast of Malabar, as far as Ceylon, we shall, in our +abstract of the commercial intelligence it contains, enumerate the +principal imports and exports of the most frequented marts in Africa, +(including the Red Sea,) Arabia, and India.</p> + +<p>I. The Red Sea and Africa. Myos Hormos is described as the first +port of Egypt on the Red Sea; as it lies in twenty-seven degrees +north latitude, and Rhapta, the boundary of the Periplus to the +south, in nearly ten degrees south latitude, the distance between +them will be about 2,500 miles. It is to be supposed, that every +thing relating to the geography, navigation, and commerce of the Red +Sea, from Myos Hormos to Aduli, on the western side, and Moosa, on +the eastern side of it, was well known to the merchants of Egypt, as +the author of the Periplus gives no circumstantial account of any +port, till he arrives at these places. It appears, also, that till +the ships arrived at these places, they kept the mid-channel of the +Red Sea, and, consequently, there was no occasion, or indeed, +opportunity of describing the intermediate ports. We have already +mentioned, that Myos Hormos was fixed on by Ptolemy Philadelphus, in +preference to Arsinoe, because the navigation of the western part of +the Red Sea, on which the latter was placed, was intricate and +tedious. Berenice was afterwards selected, as being still lower down: +but it is worthy of remark, that neither Berenice, nor Ptolemais +Theron, another port of the Ptolemies, were harbours, but merely +roadsteads, though from our author's description, there were an +almost infinite number of safe harbours, creeks, bays, &c. in +every part of the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>Aduli, the first port on the west side of the Red Sea, and the +port of communication with Axuma, was, in the age of the Periplus, +subject to the same prince, who possessed the whole coast, from +Berenice. The exports from this place were confined to ivory, brought +from the interior on both sides of the Nile; the horns of the +rhinoceros, and tortoise-shell. The imports were very numerous, +forming an assortment, as Dr. Vincent justly observes, as specific as +a modern invoice: the principal articles were, cloth, manufactured in +Egypt, unmilled, for the Barbarian market. The term, Barbarii, was +applied to the Egyptians, to the whole western coast of the Red Sea, +and was derived from Barbar, the native name of the country inhabited +by the Troglodytes, Icthyophagi, and shepherds: as these were much +hated and dreaded by the Egyptians, Barbarii became a term of +reproach and dread, and in this sense it was adopted by the Greeks +and Romans, and has passed into the modern European languages. But to +return from this digression,--the other imports were robes, +manufactured at Arsinoe; cloths dyed, so as to imitate the Tyrian +purple; linens, fringed mantles, glass or crystal, murrhine cups, +orichalchum, or mixed metal for trinkets and coin; brass vessels for +cooking, the pieces of which, when they happened to be broken, were +worn by the women as ornaments; iron, for weapons and other purposes; +knives, daggers, hatchets, &c.; brass bowls, wine, oil, gold and +silver plate, camp cloaks, and cover-lids: these formed the principal +articles of import from Myos Hormos, and as they are very numerous, +compared with the exports, it seems surprising that coin should also +have been imported, but that this was the case, we are expressly told +by the author of the Periplus, who particularizes Roman currency, +under the name of Denarii. The following articles imported into +Aduli, must have come through Arabia, from India: Indian iron; Indian +cottons; coverlids, and sashes made of cotton; cotton cloth, dyed the +colour of the mallow-flower, and a few muslins.</p> + +<p>The Periplus next passes without the Straits of Babelmandeb: on +the African side, four principal marts are mentioned, to all of which +the epithet of Tapera, is applied, signifying their position beyond +the straits. The first of these marts is Abalitis: as this place had +no port, goods were conveyed to the ships in boats and rafts; they +were also employed by the natives, in carrying on a trade with the +opposite ports of Arabia: what they imported from Arabia, is not +specified; but they exported thither gums, a small quantity of ivory, +tortoise-shell, and myrrh of the finest quality. This last article +being purchased by the Greek merchants, in Sabæa, was regarded +by them as a native production of that part of Arabia, when, in +reality, as we learn from the Periplus, it was the produce of Africa. +There were imported into Abalitis, from Egypt, flint glass, and glass +vessels unsorted; unripe grapes from Diospolis, which were used to +make the rob of grapes; unmilled cloths, for the Barbaric market; +corn, wine, and tin; the last article must have come from +Britain.</p> + +<p>The next mart is Malao, likewise a roadstead; the imports were the +same as those of Abalitis, with the addition of tunics; cloaks +manufactured at Arsinoe, milled and dyed; iron, and a small quantity +of specie: the exports were, myrrh, frankincense, cassia, inferior +cinnamon, substituted for the oriential; gum, and a few slaves. The +only article of export peculiar to the third mart, Mundus, was a +fragrant gum, which seems to have grown only in its vicinity.</p> + +<p>The fourth and last mart mentioned as lying on the African side of +the channel, which opens from the Straits of Babelmandeb, is +Mosullon; this was the most important mart on the whole coast, and +that which gave a specific name to the trade of the ancients: the +imports were numerous, comprising, besides those already mentioned, +some that were peculiar to this place, such as vessels of silver, a +small quantity of iron, and flint glass: the exports were, cinnamon, +of an inferior quality; the quantity of this article is noticed as so +great, that larger vessels were employed in the trade of this port, +expressly for conveying it, than were seen in the other ports of +Africa. We are informed by Pliny, that Mosullon was a great market +for cinnamon,--and it would seem, from its being conveyed in large +vessels by sea, that it came from Arabia. The cinnamon mentioned in +the Periplus, is, indeed, particularized as of an inferior quality, +which is directly at variance with the authority of Dioscorides, who +expressly states that the Mosulletic species is one of prime quality; +if this were the case, it must have been Indian. The other exports +were gums, drugs, tortoise-shell, incense, frankincense, brought from +distant places; ivory, and a small quantity of myrrh. The abundance +of aromatic articles, which the Greeks procured on this part of the +coast, induced them to give the name of Aromatic to the whole +country, and particularly to the town and promontory at the eastern +extremity of it. Cape Aromata, the Gardefan of the moderns, is not +only the extreme point east of the continent of Africa, but also +forms the southern point of entrance on the approach to the Red Sea, +and is the boundary of the monsoon. At the marts between Mosullon and +this Cape, no articles of commerce are specified, except +frankincense, in great abundance and of the best quality, at +Alkannai. At the Cape itself, there was a mart, with an exposed +roadsted; and to the south of it, was another mart; from both these, +the principal exports consisted of various kinds of aromatics.</p> + +<p>At Aromata, the Barbaria of the ancients, or the Adel of the +moderns, terminates; and the coast of Azania, or Agan, begins. The +first mart on this coast is Opone, from which there were exported, +besides the usual aromatics and other articles, slaves of a superior +description, chiefly for the Egyptian market, and tortoise-shell, +also of a superior sort, and in great abundance. There was nothing +peculiar in the imports. In this part of his work, the author of the +Periplus, mentions and describes the annual voyage between the coast +of Africa and India: after enumerating the articles imported from the +latter country, which consisted chiefly of corn, rice, butter; oil of +Sesanum; cotton, raw and manufactured sashes; and honey from the +cane, called sugar; he adds, that "many vessels are employed in this +commerce, expressly for the importation of these articles, and +others, which have a more distant destination, sell part of their +cargoes on this coast, and take in the produce in return." This seems +to be the first historical evidence of a commercial intercourse +between India and Africa, independent of the voyages of the Arabians; +and as the parts from which the ships sailed to India, lay within the +limits of the monsoon, it most probably was accomplished by means of +it, and directly from land to land, without coasting round by the +Gulf of Persia. The ports on the west coast of India, to which the +trade was carried on, were Ariake and Barugaza, in Guzerat and +Concan.</p> + +<p>No mart is mentioned after Opone, till we arrive at Rhapta. This +place was so named by the Greeks, because the ships employed by the +inhabitants were raised from a bottom composed of a single piece of +wood, and the sides were sewed to it, instead of being nailed. In +order to preserve the sewing, the whole outside was covered over with +some of the gums of the country. It is a circumstance worthy of +notice, that when the Portuguese first visited this coast, they found +ships of exactly the same materials and construction. At Rhapta, the +customs were farmed by the merchants of Moosa, though it was subject +to one of the princes of Yeman. Arabian commanders and supercargoes +were always employed in their ships, from their experience in the +navigation: the imports of Rhapta were, lances, principally +manufactured at Moosa; axes, knives, awls, and various kinds of +glass: the exports were, ivory, inferior to the Aduli ivory, but +cheap, and in great abundance; the horns of the rhinoceros, tortoise +shell, superior to any of this coast, but not equal to the Indian; +and an article called Nauplius, the nature of which is not known.</p> + +<p>At the period when the Periplus was written, the coast was unknown +beyond Rhapta; at this place, therefore, the journal of this voyage +terminates; but this place, there is every reason to believe that the +author visited in person.</p> + +<p>The commencement of the second voyage is from Berenice: from this +port he conducts us to Myos Hormos, and there across the Red Sea to +Leuke Kome in Arabia. This port we have already noticed as in the +possession of the Romans, and forming the point of communication with +Petra. We have also stated from our author, that at Leuke Kome the +Romans kept a garrison, and collected a duty of twenty-five per cent. +on the goods imported and exported. From it to the coast below Burnt +Island, there was no trade carried on, in consequence of the dangers +of the navigation from rocks, the want of harbours, the poverty and +barbarism of the natives, who seem to have been pirates, and the want +of produce and manufactures.</p> + +<p>In the farthest bay of the east or Arabian coast of the Red Sea, +about thirty miles from the straits, was Moosa, the regular mart of +the country, established, protected, and privileged as such by the +government. It was not a harbour, but a road with good anchorage on a +sandy bottom. The inhabitants were Arabians, and it was much resorted +to by merchants, both on account of the produce and manufactures of +the adjacent country, and on account of its trade to India. The +imports into Moosa were principally purple cloth of different +qualities and prices; garments made in the Arabian manner, with +sleeves, plain and mixed; saffron; an aromatic rush used in medicine; +muslins, cloaks, quilts, but only a few plain, and made according to +the fashion of the country; sashes of various colours; some corn and +wine, and coin to pay for the balance of trade. In order to +ingratiate the sovereigns of the country, horses, mules, gold plate, +silver plate richly embossed, splendid robes, and brass goods were +also imported, expressly as presents to them. One of these sovereigns +was styled the friend of the Roman emperors. Embassies were +frequently sent to him from Rome, and it is probable that for him the +presents were chiefly designed. The exports from Moosa were myrrh of +the best quality, gum, and very pure and white alabaster, of which +boxes were made; there was likewise exported a variety of articles, +the produce and manufacture of Aduli, which were brought from that +place to Moosa.</p> + +<p>We are next directed to the ports beyond the Straits of +Babelmandeb. The wind in passing them is described as violent, coming +on in sudden and dangerous squalls, in consequence of its confinement +between the two capes which formed the entrance to the straits. The +first place beyond them, about 120 miles to the east, described in +the Periplus, is a village called Arabia Felix: this, there is every +reason to believe, is Aden. It is represented in the Periplus as +having been a place of great importance before the fleets sailed +directly from India to Egypt, or from Egypt to the east. Till this +occurred, the fleets from the east met in this harbour the fleets +from Egypt. This description and account of it exactly corresponds +with what Agatharcides relates: he says it received its name of +Eudaimon, (<i>fortunate,</i>) on account of the ships from India and +Egypt meeting there, before the merchants of Egypt had the courage to +venture further towards the eastern marts. Its importance seems to +have continued in some degree till it was destroyed by the Romans, +probably in the time of Claudius: the object and reason of this act +was to prevent the trade, which in his time had begun to direct its +course to India, from reverting to this place.</p> + +<p>About 200 miles to the east of Aden was the port of Kane. The +country in its vicinity is represented as producing a great quantity +of excellent frankincense, which was conveyed to Kane by land in +caravans, and by sea in vessels, or in rafts which were floated by +means of inflated skins. This was a port of considerable trade; the +merchants trading to Baragyza, Scindi, Oman, and Persis, as well as +to the ports in Africa, beyond the straits. The goods imported were +principally from Egypt, and consisted of a small quantity of wheat, +wine, cloaths for the Arabian market, common, plain, and mixed; +brass, tin, Mediterranean coral, which was in great repute in India, +so that the great demand for it prevented the Gauls in the south of +France, according to Pliny, from adorning their swords, &c. with +it, as they were wont to do; storax, plate, money, horses, statues or +images, and cloth. The exports were confined to the produce of the +country, especially frankincense and aloes. At Syagros, which is +described as a promontory fronting the east, and the largest in the +world, there was a garrison for the protection of the place, which +was the repository of all the incense collected in these parts.</p> + +<p>The island of Dioscorides (Socotra) is next described. It was +inhabited on its northern side, (the only part of it that was then +inhabited,) by a few Arabians, Indians, and Greeks, who seem to have +fixed a permanent or temporary abode here, for the purpose of +obtaining tortoise-shell: this was much prized, being of a yellow +colour, very hard and durable, and used to make cases, boxes, and +writing tables; this and dragon's blood were its chief productions. +In exchange for them, there were imported rice, corn, Indian cotton +goods, and women slaves.</p> + +<p>The first mart beyond Cape Syagros is Moscha, which is represented +as much resorted to on account of the sacchalitic incense which is +imported there. This was so extremely abundant that it lay in heaps, +with no other protection than that which was derived from the gods, +for whose sacrifices it was intended. It is added that it was not +possible for any person to procure a cargo of it without the +permission of the king; and that the vessels were observed and +searched so thoroughly, that not a single grain of it could be +clandestinely exported. The intercourse between this port and Kane +was regular; and besides this, it was frequented by such ships as +arrived from India too late in the season: here they continued during +the unfavourable monsoon, exchanging muslins, corn, and oil, for +frankincense. A small island, which is supposed to be the modern +Mazeira, was visited by vessels from Kane to collect or purchase +tortoise-shell: the priests in the island are represented in the +Periplus as wearing aprons made of the fibres of the cocoa tree: this +is the earliest mention of this tree.</p> + +<p>Moçandon, the extreme point south of the Gulf of Persia, +was the land from which the Arabians, (to use a maritime phrase) took +their departure, with various superstitious observances, imploring a +blessing on their intended voyage, and setting adrift a small toy, +rigged like a ship, which, if dashed to pieces, was supposed to be +accepted by the god of the ocean, instead of their ship.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to determine from the Periplus, whether the +author was personally acquainted with the navigation, ports, and +trade of the Gulf of Persia: the probability is that he was not, as +he mentions only two particulars connected with it; the pearl +fishery, and the town of Apologus, a celebrated mart at the mouth of +the Euphrates; the pearl fishery he describes as extending from +Moçandon to Bahrain. Apologus is the present Oboleh, on the +canal that leads from the Euphrates to Basra.</p> + +<p>If the author of the Periplus did not enter the Gulf of Persia, he +certainly stretched over, with the monsoon, either to Karmania, or +directly to Scindi, or to the Gulf of Cambay; for at these places the +minuteness of information which distinguishes the journal again +appears.</p> + +<p>Omana in Persia is the first mart described; it lay in the +province of Gadrosia, but as it is not mentioned by Nearchus, who +found Arabs in most other parts of the province, we may conclude that +it was founded after his time. The trade between this place and +Baragaza in India, was regular and direct, and the goods brought from +the latter to the former, seems afterwards to have been sent to +Oboleh at the head of the Gulf; the imports were brass, sandal-wood; +timber, of what kind is not specified; horn, ebony; this is the first +port the trade of which included ebony and sandal-wood: frankincense +was imported from Kane. The exports to Arabia and Baragaza were +purple cloth for the natives; wine, a large quantity of dates, gold, +slaves, and pearls of an inferior quality.</p> + +<p>The first place in India to which the merchants of Egypt, while +they followed the ancient course of navigation by coasting, were +accustomed to trade, was Patala on the Indus; for we have admitted +that single vessels occasionally ventured beyond the Straits of +Babelmandeb, before the discovery of the monsoon, though the trade +from Egypt to India, previously to that discovery, was by no means +frequent or regular. The goods imported into Patala were woollen +cloth of a slight fabric, linen, woven in checquer work, some +precious stones, and some kind of aromatics unknown in India, +probably the produce of Africa or Arabia; coral, storax, glass +vessels of various descriptions, some plate, money, and wine. From +Patala, the Egyptian merchants brought spices, gems of different +kinds, particularly sapphires, silk stuffs, silk thread, cotton +cloths, and pepper. As Patala is not mentioned in the Periplus, it is +probable it was abandoned for Baragaza, a far more considerable mart +on the same coast, and most probably Baroche on the Nerbuddah.</p> + +<p>Before describing Baragaza, however, the author of the Periplus +mentions two places on the Indus, which were frequented for the +purposes of commerce: the first near the mouth of the river, called +Barbarike; and the other higher up, called Minagara: the latter was +the capital of a kingdom which extended as far as Barogaza. As the +king of this country was possessed of a place of such consequence to +the merchants as Baragaza, and as from his provinces, or through +them, the most valuable cargoes were obtained, it was of the utmost +moment that his good will and protection should be obtained and +preserved. For this purpose there were imported, as presents for him, +the following articles, all expensive, and the very best of their +kind: plate of very great value; musical instruments; handsome +virgins for the haram; wine of the very best quality; plain cloth, +but of the finest sort; and perfumes. Besides these presents, there +were likewise imported a great quantity of plain garments, and some +mixed or inferior cloth; topazes, coral, storax, frankincense, glass +vessels, plate, specie, and wine. The exports were costus, a kind of +spice; bdellium, a gum; a yellow dye, spikenard, emeralds, sapphires, +cottons, silk thread, indigo, or perhaps the indicum of Pliny, which +was probably Indian ink: skins are likewise enumerated, with the +epithet <i>serica</i> prefixed to them, but of what kind they were +cannot be determined: wine is specified as an article of import into +this and other places; three kinds of it are particularized: wine +from Laodicea in Syria, which is still celebrated for its wine; +Italian wine, and Arabian wine. Some suppose that the last was palm +or toddy wine, which seems to have been a great article of trade.</p> + +<p>We come now to Baragaza: the author first mentions the produce of +the district; it consisted of corn, rice, oil of Sesamum, ghee or +butter, and cotton: he then, in a most minute and accurate manner, +describes the approach to the harbour; the extraordinarily high +tides, the rapidity with which they roll in and again recede, +especially at the new moon, the difficult pilotage of the river, are +all noticed. On account of these dangers and difficulties, he adds, +that pilots were appointed by the government, with large boats, well +manned, who put to sea to wait the approach of ships. These pilots, +as soon as they come on board, bring the ship's head round, and keep +her clear of the shoals at the mouth of the river; if necessary, they +tow the ship from station to station, where there is good anchorage; +these stations were called Basons, and seem to have been pools +retaining the water, after the tide had receded from other parts. The +navigation of the river was performed only as long as the tide was +favorable; as soon as it turned, the ships anchored in these +stations.</p> + +<p>The sovereign to whom Baragaza belonged is represented as so very +anxious to render it the only mart, that he would not permit ships to +enter any of his other harbours; if they attempted it, they were +boarded and conducted to Baragaza; at this place were collected all +the produce and manufactures of this part of India: some of which +were brought down the river Nerbuddah; others were conveyed across +the mountains by caravans. The merchandize of Bengal, and even of the +Seres, was collected here, besides the produce of Africa, and of the +countries further to the south in India. The whole arrangement of +this place was correspondent to this extensive commerce, for the +author informs us, that such was the despatch in transacting +business, that a cargo could be entirely landed and sold, and a new +cargo obtained and put on board in the space of three days.</p> + +<p>From Ozeni to the east of Baragaza, formerly the capital of the +country, there was brought to the latter place for exportation, +chiefly the following articles: onyx stones, porcelaine, fine +muslins, muslins dyed of the colour of the melon, and common cotton +in great quantities: from the Panjab there were brought for +exportation, spikenard of different kinds, costus, bdellium, ivory, +murrhine cups, myrrh, pepper, &c. The imports were wine, of all +the three sorts already mentioned, brass, tin, lead, coral, topazes, +cloth of different kinds, sashes, storax, sweet lotus, white glass, +stibium, cinnabar, and a small quantity of perfumes: a considerable +quantity of corn was also imported; the denarius, both gold and +silver, exchanging with profit against the coin of the country, on +account of its greater purity.</p> + +<p>From Baragaza the author proceeds to a description of the coast of +the Decan, which, as we have already mentioned, is remarkable for its +accuracy, as well as for its first mentioning the appellation Decan. +At the distance of twenty days' journey to the south lies Plithana, +and ten days' journey to the east of this is Tagara, both marts of +great consequence, and the latter the capital of the country. From +these are brought down, through difficult roads, several articles to +Baragaza, particularly onyx stones from Plithana, and cottons and +muslin from Tagara "If we should now describe, (observed Dr. Vincent) +the arc of a circle from Minnagar, on the Indus, through Ougein to +Dowlatabad on the Godavery, of which Baroche should be the centre, we +might comprehend the extent of the intelligence acquired by the +merchant of the Periplus. But allowing that this was the knowledge of +the age, and not of the individual only, where is this knowledge +preserved, except in this brief narrative? which, with all the +corruption of its text, is still an inestimable treasure to all those +who wish to compare the first dawning of our knowledge in the east +with the meridian light which we now enjoy by the intercourse and +conquests of the Europeans. An arc of this sort comprehends near +three degrees of a great circle: and if upon such a space, and at +such a distance from the coast, we find nothing but what is confirmed +by the actual appearance of the country, at the present moment, great +allowance is to be made for those parts of the work which are less +conspicuous, for the author did certainly not visit every place which +he mentions; and there are manifest omissions in the text, as well as +errors and corruptions."</p> + +<p>The province of Canara, called by the author of the Periplus +Limurike, follows in his description the pirate coast; after +Limurike, he describes Pandion, corresponding with what is at present +called Malabar Proper; this is succeeded by Paralia and Comari, and +the description of the west coast of India is terminated by the pearl +fishery and Ceylon. There were several small ports in Limurike +frequented by the country ships; but the only mart frequented by +vessels from Egypt was Musiris: it was likewise a great resort of +native vessels from Ariake or Concan. The articles imported were +nearly the same as those at Baragaza, but the exports from it were +more numerous and valuable: this seems to have arisen from its lying +nearer to the eastern and richer parts of India. The principal +exports were, pearls in great abundance and extraordinary beauty; a +variety of silk stuffs; rich perfumes; tortoise-shell; different +kinds of transparent gems, especially diamonds; and pepper in large +quantites, and of the best quality.</p> + +<p>The port of Nelkundah, which, as we have already remarked, was the +limit of our author's personal knowledge, was a place of very great +trade; it was much frequented, principally on account of the betel +and pepper, which were procured there on very reasonable terms: the +pepper is distinguished, in the list of its imports, as the pepper of +Cottonara. Besides this article and betel, the only exports were, +pearls, ivory, silks, spikenard, precious stones, and tortoise-shell; +the imports were chiefly specie, topazes, cloth, stibium, coral, +glass, brass, tin, lead, wine, corn, &c.</p> + +<p>The ports to the south of Nelkundah are described in a cursory +manner in the Periplus; they were frequented principally by the +country ships, which carried on a lucrative trade between them and +the ports in the north of India. The exports of the island of +Trapobane, or Ceylon, are particularized as consisting chiefly of +pearls, gems, tortoise-shells, and muslins: cinnamon is not named; an +almost decisive proof, if other proof were wanting, that the author +of the Periplus had never visited this island. That trading voyages +were carried on by the natives from the southern ports of India, not +only to the northern ports of the western side of that country, but +also to the eastern ports in the Bay of Bengal, and to the farther +peninsula itself, we are expressly informed, as our author mentions +vessels of great bulk adapted to the voyages made to the Ganges and +the Golden Chersonese, in contradistinction to other and smaller +vessels employed in the voyages to Limurike.</p> + +<p>Of the remainder of the Periplus little notice is requisite, the +account of the countries beyond Cape Comorin being entirely drawn +from report, and consequently erroneous, both in respect to geography +and commerce. In some particulars regarding the latter, however, it +is surprisingly accurate: the Gangetic muslins are praised as the +finest manufacture of the sort, and Gangetic spikenard is also +noticed; the other articles of traffic in the ports on the Ganges +were betel and pearls. Thina is also mentioned as a city, in the +interior of a country immediately under the north, at a certain point +where the sea terminates; from this city both the raw material and +manufactured silks are brought by land through Bactria to Baragaza, +or else down the Ganges, and thence by sea to Limurike: the routes we +have already described. The means of approach to Thina are +represented as very difficult; some merchants, however, came from it +to a great mart which is annually held near it. The Sesatoe, who from +the description of them are evidently Tartars, frequent this mart +with their wives and children. "They are squat and thick-set, with +their face broad and their nose greatly depressed. The articles they +bring for trade are of great bulk, and inveloped in mats made of +rushes, which, in their outward appearance, resemble the early leaves +of the vine. Their place of assembly is between their own borders and +those of China; and here spreading out their mats, they hold a fair +for several days, and at the conclusion of it, return to their own +country in the interior. Upon their retreat the Thinæ, who have +continued on the watch, repair to the spot and collect the mats which +the strangers left behind at their departure; from these they pick +out the haulm, and drawing out the fibres, spread the leaves double, +and make them into balls, and then pass the fibres through them. Of +these balls there are three sorts, in this form they take the name of +Malabathrum."</p> + +<p>On this account Dr. Vincent very justly remarks, that we have +here, upon the whole, a description of that mode of traffic, which +has always been adopted by the Chinese, and by which they to this +hour trade with Russia, Thibet, and Ava.</p> + +<p>Many of the particulars which we have given on the subject of the +Roman trade are supplied by Pliny, who wrote his natural history when +Rome was in its most flourishing state under the reign of Vespasian. +His works consist of thirty-seven books, the first six comprise the +system of the world and the geography as it was then known. After +examining the accounts of Polybius, Agrippa, and Artemidorus, he +assigns the following comparative magnitudes to the three great +divisions of the earth. Europe rather more than a third, Asia about a +fourth, and Africa about a fifth of the whole. With few exceptions, +his geographical knowledge of the east and of the north, the parts of +the world of which the ancients were the most ignorant, was very +inaccurate: he supposes the Ganges to be the north-eastern limit of +Asia, and that from it the coast turned to the north, where it was +washed by the sea of Serica, between which and a strait, which he +imagined formed a communication from the Caspian to the Scythian +ocean, he admits but a very small space. According to the system of +Pliny, therefore, the ocean occupied the whole county of Siberia, +Mogul Tartary, China, &c. He derived his information respecting +India from the journals of Nearchus, and the other officers of +Alexander; and yet such is his ignorance, or the corrupt state of the +text, or the vitiated medium through which he received his +information, that it is not easy to reconcile his account with that +of Nearchus. Salmasius, indeed, charges him with confounding the east +and west in his description of India. His geography, in the most +important particular of the relative distances of places, is rendered +of very little utility or authority, from the circumstance pointed +out and proved by D'Anville, that he indiscriminately reckons eight +stadia to the mile, without reference to the difference between the +Greek and Roman stadium. He has, however, added two articles of +information to the geographical and commercial knowledge of the east +possessed before his time; the one is the account of the new course +of navigation from Arabia to the coast of Malabar, which has been +already described; the other is a description of Trapobane, or +Ceylon, which, though inaccurate and obscure in many points, must be +regarded as a real and important addition to the geographical +knowledge of the Romans.</p> + +<p>Pliny's geography of the north is the most full and curious of all +antiquity. After describing the Hellespont, Moeotis, Dacia, Sarmatia, +ancient Scythia, and the isles in the Euxine Sea, and proceeding last +from Spain, he passes north to the Scythic Ocean, and returns west +towards Spain. The coast of part of the Baltic seems to have been +partly known to him; he particularly mentions an island called +Baltia, where amber was found; but he supposes that the Baltic Sea +itself was connected with the Caspian and Indian Oceans. Pliny is the +first author who names Scandinavia, which he represents as an island, +the extent of which was not then known; but by Scandinavia there is +reason to believe the present Scandia is meant. Denmark may probably +be rcognised in the Dumnor of this author, and Norway in Noligen. The +mountain Soevo, which he describes as forming a vast bay called +Codanus, extending to the promontory of the Cimbri, is supposed by +some to be the mountains that run along the Vistula on the eastern +extremity of Germany, and by others to be that chain of mountains +which commence at Gottenburgh. The whole of his information +respecting the north seems to have been drawn from the expeditions of +Drusus, Varus, and Germanicus, to the Elbe and the Weser, and from +the accounts of the merchants who traded thither for amber.</p> + +<p>Tacitus, who died about twenty years after Pliny, seems to have +acquired a knowledge of the north more accurate in some respects than +the latter possessed. In his admirable description of Germany, he +mentions the Suiones, and from the name, as well as other +circumstances, there can be little doubt that they inhabited the +southern part of modern Sweden.</p> + +<p>The northern promontory of Scotland was known to Diodorus Siculus +under the name of Orcas; but the insularity of Britain was certainly +not ascertained till the fleet sent out by Agricola sailed round it, +about eighty-four years after Christ. Tacitus, who mentions this +circumstance, also informs us, that Ireland, which was known by name +to the Greeks, was much frequented in his time by merchants, from +whose information he adds, that its harbours were better known than +those of Britain: this statement, however, there is much reason to +question, as in the time of Cæsar, all that the Romans knew of +Ireland was its relative position to Britain, and that it was about +half its size.</p> + +<p>The emperor Trajan, who reigned between A.D. 98 and A.D. 117, was +not only a great conqueror, carrying the Roman armies beyond the +Danube into Dacia, and into Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, and +thus extending and rendering more accurate the geographical knowledge +of his subjects; but he was also attentive to the improvement and +commercial prosperity of the empire. He made good roads from one end +of the empire to the other; he constructed a convenient and safe +harbour at Centum Cellæ (Civita Vecchia), and another at Ancona +on the Adriatic: he dug a new and navigable canal, which conveyed the +waters of the Nahar-Malcha, or royal canal of Nebuchadnezzar, into +the river Tigris; and he is supposed to have repaired or renewed the +Egyptian canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. He also gave +directions and authority to Pliny, who was appointed governor of +Pontus and Bithynia, to examine minutely into the commerce of those +provinces, and into the revenues derived from it, and other +sources.</p> + +<p>The emperor Adrian passed nearly the whole of his reign in +visiting the different parts of his dominions: he began his journey +in Gaul, and thence into Germany; he afterwards passed into Britain. +On his return to Gaul, he visited Spain; on his next journey he went +to Athens, and thence into the east; and on his second return to +Rome, he visited Sicily; his third journey comprised the African +provinces; his fourth was employed in again visiting the east; from +Syria he went into Arabia, and thence into Egypt, where he repaired +and adorned the city of Alexandria, restoring to the inhabitants +their former privileges, and encouraging their commerce. On his +journey back to Rome, he visited Syria, Thrace, Macedonia, and +Athens. By his orders, an artificial port was constructed at +Trebizond on a coast destitute by nature of secure harbours, from +which this city derived great wealth and splendour.</p> + +<p>The only writer in the time of Adrian, from whom we can derive any +additional information respecting the geography and trade of the +Romans, is Arrian. He was a native of Nicodemia, and esteemed one of +the most learned men of his age; to him we are indebted for the +journal of Nearchus's voyage, an abstract of which has been given. +His accuracy as a geographer, is sufficiently established in that +work, and indeed, in almost all the particulars respecting India, +which he has detailed in his history of the expedition of Alexander +the Great; and in his Indica, which may be regarded as an appendix to +that history. He lived at Rome, under the emperors Adrian, Antoninus, +and Marcus Aurelius, and was preferred to the highest posts of +honour, and even to the consulship. In the year A.D. 170, he was +appointed governor of Pontus, by Adrian, for the special purpose of +opposing the Alani, who were invading that part of the empire. His +situation and opportunities as governor, enabled him to derive the +most accurate and particular information respecting the Euxine Sea, +which he addressed in a letter to Adrian; this Periplus, as it is +called, "contains whatever the governor of Pontus had seen, from +Trebizond to Dioscurias; whatever he had heard from Dioscurias to the +Danube and whatever he knew from the Danube to Trebizond."</p> + +<p>The letter begins with the arrival of Arrian at Trebizond, at +which place, the artificial port already noticed was then forming. At +Trebizond he embarked, and surveyed the eastern coast of the Euxine +Sea, visiting every where the Roman garrisons. His course led him +past the mouth of the Phasis, the waters of which, he remarks, +floated a long time on those of the sea, by reason of their superior +lightness. A strong garrison was stationed at the mouth of this +river, to protect this part of the country against the Barbarians; he +adds, however, in his letter, that the new suburbs which had been +built by the merchants and veterans, required some additional +defence, and that he had, accordingly, for the greater security of +the place, strengthened it with a new ditch: he ended his voyage at +Sebastapolis, the most distant city garrisoned by the Romans. The +description of the coasts of Asia, from Byzantium to Trebizond, and +another of the interior, from Sebastapolis to the Bosphorus +Cimmerius, and thence to Byzantium, is added to his voyage. The great +object of this minute and accurate survey was to enable the emperor +to take what measures he might deem proper, in case he designed to +interfere in the affairs of the Bosphorus, as well as to point out +the means of defence against the Alani, and other enemies of the +Roman power.</p> + +<p>We have contented ourselves with this short abstract of the +Periplus of the Euxine, because we have already given all the +important information it contains on the subject of the commerce of +this sea. It is very inferior in merit to the Periplus of the Euxine, +which has also been attributed to this Arrian, though Dr. Vincent, we +think, has proved that it is the work of an earlier writer, and of a +merchant.</p> + +<p>As the Roman conquests extended, their geographical knowledge of +course increased. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, their armies had +forced a passage much further north in Britain than they had ever +ventured before. One of the results of this success was a maritime +survey, or rather two partial surveys of the north part of Britain, +from which the geography of that part of the island was compiled by +Ptolemy.</p> + +<p>The maritime laws of the Rhodians, or those which passed under +their name, seem to have been the basis and authority of the Roman +maritime laws at this period; for we are told, that when a merchant +complained to the emperor that he had been plundered by the imperial +officers at the Cyclades, where he had been shipwrecked, the latter +replied, that he indeed was lord of the earth, but that the sea was +governed by the Rhodian laws, and that from them he would obtain +redress. This part of the Rhodian law, however, had been but lately +adopted by the Romans; for Antoninus is expressly mentioned as having +enacted, among other laws, that shipwrecked merchandize should be the +entire property of the lawful owners, without any interference or +participation of the officers of the exchequer, and that those who +were guilty of plundering wrecks should be severely punished.</p> + +<p>One of the most important and complete surveys of the Roman empire +(the idea of which, as has been already stated, was first formed by +Julius Cæsar) was begun and finished in the reign of Antoninus, +and is well known under the appellation of his Itinerary. It has, +indeed, been objected to this date of the Itinerary, that it contains +places which were not known in the time of Antonine, and names of +places which they did not bear till after his reign; thus mention is +made of the province of Arcadia in Egypt, and of Honorius in Pontus, +so styled in honor of the sons of the emperor Theodosius. But the +fact seems to be that alterations and additions were made to the +Itinerary, and that occasionally, or perhaps under each subsequent +emperor, new editions of it were published. From the maritime part of +this Itinerary of Antoninus we derive a clear idea of the timidity or +want of skill and enterprise of the Mediterranean seamen in their +commercial voyages. All the ports which it was prudent or necessary, +for the safety of the voyage, to touch at, in sailing from Achaia to +Africa are enumerated; and of these there are no fewer than twenty, +some of them at the heads of bays on the coasts of Greece, Epirus, +and Italy, and within the Straits of Sicily as far as Messina. Their +course was then to be directed along the east and south coasts of +Sicily to the west point of it; from an island off this point they +took their departure for the coast of Africa, a distance of about +ninety miles.</p> + +<p>These Itineraries undoubtedly were drawn up in as accurate a +manner as possible; but till the time of Ptolemy they were of little +service to geography or commerce, as, for a private individual to +have one in his possession was deemed a crime little short of high +treason. Geography as a science, therefore, had hitherto made little +advances; indeed the discovery and example of Hipparchus, of reducing +it to astronomical basis, seems to have been forgotten or neglected +till the middle of the second century. The first after him, who +attempted to fix geography on the base of science was Marinus, of +Tyre, who lived a short time before Ptolemy; of his work we have only +extracts given by this geographer. He divided the terms latitude and +longitude, which, as we have already stated, were introduced by +Artemidorus (A.C. 104) into degrees, and these degrees into their +parts, though this improvement was not reduced generally to practice +before Ptolemy, for we are informed by him, that Marinus had the +latitude of some places and the longitude of others, but scarcely one +position where he could ascertain both.</p> + +<p>With regard to the extent of Marinus' geographical knowledge, or +the accuracy of his details, we cannot form a fair judgment from the +fragments of his works which remain. According to Ptolemy, he had +examined the history of preceding ages, and all the information that +had been collected in his own time, comparing and rectifying them as +he proceeded in his own account.</p> + +<p>It will be recollected that the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea did +not trace the African coast lower down than Rhapta; but Marinus +mentions Prasum, which, according to that hypothesis, which fixes it +in the lowest southern latitude, must have been seven degrees to the +south of Rhapta. So far, therefore, the knowlege of the ancients, in +the time of Marinus, respecting the east coast of Africa extended; +but, as neither he nor Ptolemy mentions a single place between Rhapta +and Prasum, it is probable that the latter was not frequently or +regularly visited for the purposes of trade, but that commercial +voyages were still confined to the limit of Rhapta. We have just +stated that Prasum, according to the most moderate hypothesis, must +be fixed seven degrees to the south of Rhapta. Marinus, however, +fixes it either in thirty-five degrees south, or under the tropic of +Capricorn. He was led into this and similar errors by assigning too +great a number of stadia to the degree. Ptolemy endeavours to correct +him, and places Prasum in latitude 15, 30 south; it is remarkable +that the Prasum of Ptolemy is precisely at Mosambique, the last of +the Arabian settlements in the following ages, and the Prasum of +Marinus, if under the tropic of Capricorn, is the limit of the +knowledge of the Arabians on this coast of Africa.</p> + +<p>Marinus, as quoted by Ptolemy, affirms that he was in possession +of the journals of two expeditions under the command of Septimus +Flaccus and Julius Maternus: the former of these officers set off +from Cyrene, and the latter from Leptis; and, according to Marinus, +they penetrated through the interior of Africa to the southward of +the Equator, as far as a nation they styled Agesymba. The error of +Marinus with respect to the valuation of the stadium, has led him to +fix this nation in twenty-four degrees south latitude; if allowance, +however, be made for his error, the Agesymba will still be placed +under the Equator,--a great distance for a land expedition to have +readied in the interior of Africa. Flaccus reported that the +Ethiopians of Agesymba, were three months journeying to the south of +the Garamantes, and the latter were 5400 of the stadia of Marinus, +distant from Cyrene. According to the journal of Maternus, when the +king of the Garamantes set off to attack the people of Agesymba, he +marched four months to the south.</p> + +<p>There are also some notices in Marinus of voyages performed along +the coast of Africa, between India and Africa, and along part of the +coast of India; he particularly mentions one Theophilus who +frequented the coast of Azania, and who was carried by a south-west +wind from Rhapta to Aromata in twenty days; and Diogenes, one of the +traders to India, who on his return after he had come in sight of +Aromata, was caught by the north-east monsoon, and carried down the +coast during twenty-five days, till he reached the lakes from which +the Nile issues. Marinus also mentions a Diogenes Samius, who +describes the course held by vessels from the Indus to the coast of +Cambay, and from Arabia to the coast of Africa. According to him, in +the former voyage they sailed with the Bull in the middle of the +heavens, and the Pleiades in the middle of the main yard; in the +latter voyage, they sailed to the south, and by the star Canobus.</p> + +<p>We now arrive at the name of Ptolemy, certainly the most +celebrated geographer of antiquity. He was a native of Alexandria, +and flourished in the reign of the emperor Marcus Antoninus. In the +application of astronomy to geography, he followed Hipparchus +principally, and he seems from his residence at Alexandria to have +derived much information through the merchants and navigators of that +city, as well as from its magnificent and valuable library. His great +work, as it has reached us, consists almost entirely of an elementary +picture of the earth, (if it may be so called,) in which its figure +and size, and the position of places are determined. There is only a +short notice of the division of countries, and it is very seldom that +any historical notice is added. To this outline, it is supposed that +Ptolemy had added a detailed account of the countries then known, +which is lost.</p> + +<p>His geography, such as we have described it, consists of eight +books, and is certainly much more scientific than any which had been +previously written on this science. In it there appears, for the +first time, an application of geometrical principles to the +construction of maps: the different projections of the sphere, and a +distribution of the several places on the earth, according to their +latitude and longitude. Geography was thus established on its proper +principles, and intimately connected with astronomical observations +and mathematical science. The utility and merit of Ptolemy's work +seems to have been understood and acknowledged soon after it +appeared. Agathemidorus, who lived not long after him, praises him +for having reduced geography to a regular system; and adds, that he +treats of every thing relating to it, not carelessly, or merely +according to the ideas of his own, but to what had been delivered by +more ancient authors, adopting from them whatever he found consonant +to truth. Agathodæmon, an artist of Alexandria, observing the +request in which his work was held, prepared a set of maps to +illustrate it, in which all the places mentioned in it were laid +down, with the latitudes and longitudes he assigned them. The +reputation of his geography remained unshaken and undiminished during +the middle ages, both in Arabia and Europe; and even now, the +scientific language which he first employed, is constantly used, and +the position of places ascertained by specifying their latitude and +longitude.</p> + +<p>It was not to be expected, however, that Ptolemy could accurately +fix the longitude and latitude of places in the remoter parts of the +then known world; his latitudes and longitudes are accordingly +frequently erroneous, but especially the latter. This arose partly +from his taking five hundred stadia for a degree of a great circle, +and partly from the vague method of calculating distances, by the +estimate of travellers and merchants, and the number of days employed +in their journies by land, and voyages by sea. As he took seven +hundred stadia for a degree of latitude, his errors in latitude are +not so important; and though the latitude he assigns to particular +places is incorrect, yet the length of the globe, according to him, +or the distance from the extreme points north and south, then known, +is not far from the truth. Thus the latitude of Thule, according to +Ptolemy, is 64 degrees north, and the parallel through the cinnamon +country 16° 24' south, that is, 80° 24' on the whole, a +difference from the truth of not more than six or seven degrees. It +is remarked by D'Anville, and Dr. Vincent coincides in the justice of +the remark, that the grandest mistake in the geography of Ptolemy has +led to the greatest discovery of modern times. Strabo had affirmed, +that nothing obstructed the passage from Spain to India by a westerly +course, but the immensity of the Atlantic ocean; but, according to +Ptolemy's errors in longitude, this ocean was lessened by sixty +degrees; and as all the Portuguese navigators were acquainted with +his work, as soon as it was resolved to attempt a passage to India, +the difficulty was, in their idea, lessened by sixty degrees; and +when Columbus sailed from Spain, he calculated on sixty degrees less +than the real distance from that country to India. Thus, to repeat +the observation of D'Anville, the greatest of his errors proved +eventually the efficient cause of the greatest discovery of the +moderns.</p> + +<p>Beside the peculiar merit of Ptolemy, which was perceived and +acknowledged as soon as his work appeared, he possesses another +excellence, which, as far as we know, was first pointed out and dwelt +upon by Dr. Vincent. According to him, Ptolemy, in his description of +India, serves as the point of connection between the Macedonian +orthography and the Sanscrit, dispersing light on both sides, and +showing himself like a luminary in the centre. He seems indeed to +have obtained the native appellations of the places in India, in a +wonderful manner; and thus, by recording names which cannot be +mistaken, he affords the means of ascertaining the country, even +though he gives no particulars regarding it. We have applied this +remark to India exclusively, but it might be extended to almost all +the names of places that occur in Ptolemy, though, as respects India, +his obtaining the native appellations is more striking and +useful.</p> + +<p>Having offered these general remarks on the excellencies and +errors of Ptolemy, we shall next proceed to give a short and rapid +sketch of his geographical knowledge respecting Europe, Asia, and +Africa. On the north-east of Europe he gives an accurate description +of the course of the Wolga; and further to the south, he lays down +the course of the Tanais, much nearer what it really is than the +course assigned it by Strabo. He seems to have been acquainted with +the southern shores of the Baltic from the western Dwina, or the +Vistula, to the Cimbric Chersonesus: he also describes part of the +present Livonia. The Chersonesus, however, he stretches two degrees +too far to the north, and also gives it too great a bend to the east. +He applies the name of Thule to a country situated to the north-east +of Britain; if his usual error in longitude is rectified, the +position he assigns Thule would correspond with that of Norway. Such +seem to have been the limits of his Europe, unless, perhaps, he had +some vague idea of the south of Sweden.</p> + +<p>He begins his geographical tables with the British isles; and here +is one of his greatest errors. According to him, the north part of +Britain stretches to the east, instead of to the north: the Mull of +Galloway is the most northern promontory, and the land from it bends +due east. The Western Islands run east and west, along the north +shore of Ireland, the west being the true north point in them. He is, +however, on the whole, pretty accurate in his location of the tribes +which at that period inhabited Scotland. Strabo had placed Ireland to +the north of Britain, but in its true latitude. Ptolemy's map, which +is the first geographical document of that island, represents it to +the west of Britain, but five degrees further to the north than it +actually is. He delineates its general shape, rivers, and +promontories with tolerable accuracy, and some of his towns may be +traced in their present appellations, as Dublin in Eblana. It has +already been noticed that he was probably acquainted with the south +of Sweden, and his four Scandinavian islands are evidently Zealand, +Funen, Laland, and Falster. It is remarkable that his geography is +more accurate almost in proportion as it recedes from the +Mediterranean. The form which he assigns to Italy is much farther +removed from the truth than the form of most of the other European +countries which he describes. His fundamental error in longitude led +him to give to the Mediterranean Sea a much greater extent than it +actually possesses. According to him, it occupies nearly sixty-five +degrees; and it is a singular circumstance, as well as a decisive +proof of the influence of his authority, as well of the slow progress +of accurate and experimental geography, that his mensuration of this +sea was reputed as exact till the reign of Louis XIV., when it was +curtailed of nearly twenty-five degrees by observation.</p> + +<p>The principal points in the geography of Asia, as given by +Ptolemy, respect the coasts of India, the route to the Seres, and the +Caspian sea. His delineation of India is equally erroneous with his +delineation of the British Isles: according to him, it stretches in a +right line from west to east, a little to the south of a line drawn +between the Ganges and the Indus. He possessed, however, information +respecting places in the farther peninsula of India, the locality of +several of which, by comparing his names with the Sanscrit, may be +traced with considerable certainty. He assigns to the island of +Ceylon a very erroneous locality, arising from his error respecting +the form of India, and likewise an extent far exceeding the truth. He +is the first author, however, who mentions the seven mouths of the +Ganges. The route to the Seres, which he describes, has been already +noticed: it is remarkable that the latitude which he assigns to his +Sera metropolis, is within little more than a degree of the latitude +of Pekin, which, in the opinion of Dr. Vincent, is one of the most +illustrious approximations to truth that ancient geography affords. +His description of Arabia is, on the whole, accurate; he has, +however, greatly diminished the extent of the Arabian Gulf, and by at +the same time increasing the size of the Persian, he has necessarily +given an erroneous form to this part of Asia. The ancient opinion of +Herodotus, that the Caspian was a sea by itself, unconnected with any +other, which was overlooked or disbelieved by Strabo, Arrian, &c. +was adopted by Ptolemy, but he erroneously describes it as if its +greatest length was from east to west. The peninsula to which he +gives the name of the Golden Chersonesus, and which is probably +Malacca, he describes as stretching from north to south: to the east +of it he places a great bay, and in the most distant part of it the +station of Catigara. Beyond this, he asserts that the earth is +utterly unknown, and that the land bends from this to the west, till +it joins the promontory of Prasum in Africa, at which place this +quarter of the world terminated to the south. Hence it appears that +he did not admit a communication between the Indian and Atlantic +oceans, and that he believed the Erythrean sea to be a vast basin, +entirely enclosed by the land.</p> + +<p>Strabo and Pliny believed that Africa terminated under the torrid +zone, and that the Atlantic and Indian oceans joined. Ptolemy, as we +have just seen, rejected this idea, and following the opinion of +Hipparchus, that the earth was not surrounded by the ocean, but that +the ocean was divided into large basins, separated from each other by +intervening land, maintained, that while the eastern coast of Africa +at Cape Prasum united with the coast of Asia at the bay of the Golden +Chersonesus, the western coast of Africa, after forming a great gulf, +which he named Hespericus, extended between the east and south till +it joined India. The promontory of Prasum was undoubtedly the limit +of Ptolemy's knowledge of the east coast of Africa: the limit of his +knowledge of the west coast is not so easily fixed: some suppose that +it did not reach beyond the river Nun; while others, with more +reason, extend it to the Gulf of St. Cyprian, because the Fortunate +Islands, which he assumed as his first meridian, will carry his +knowledge beyond the Nun; and because, at the Gulf of St. Cyprian, +the coast turns suddenly and abruptly to the east, in such a manner +as may be supposed to have led Ptolemy to believe that it stretched +towards and joined the coast of India.</p> + +<p>Of some of the interior parts of Africa Ptolemy possessed clear +and accurate information; regarding others, he presents us with a +mass of confused notions. He clearly points out the Niger, though he +fixes its source in a wrong latitude. In the cities of Tucabath and +Tagana, which he places on its banks, may perhaps be recognized +Tombuctoo and Gana. The most striking defect in his geography of the +interior of Africa is, that he does not allow sufficient extent to +the great desert of Sahara, while the southern parts are too much +expanded. He places the sources of the Nile, and the Mountains of the +Moon in south latitude thirteen, instead of north latitude six or +seven; but the error of latitude is not so remarkable and +unaccountable as the very erroneous latitude which he assigns to Cape +Aromata, on a coast which was visited every year by merchants he must +have seen at Alexandria. The most difficult point to explain in +Ptolemy's central Africa is the river Gir, which he describes as +equal in length to the Niger, and running in the same direction, till +it loses itself in the same lake. What this river is, geographers +have not agreed. It is mentioned by Claudian, as resembling the Nile +in the abundance of its waters. Agethimedorus, a geographer of the +third century, regards it and the Niger as the same river.</p> + +<p>What then was the amount of the knowledge of the ancients, as it +existed among the Romans, in the height of their power, respecting +the form, extent, and surface of the globe? If we view a map drawn up +according to their ideas, we are immediately struck with the form +they assigned the world, and perceive with what propriety they called +the extent of the world from east to west longitude or <i>length</i>, +and the extent from north to south latitude, or <i>breadth</i>. In +some maps, especially that drawn up from the celebrated Peutingerian +Tables, which contain an itinerary of the whole Roman empire, +thirty-five degrees of longitude occupy twenty-eight feet eight +inches, whereas thirteen degrees of latitude are compressed within +the space of one foot. It is easy to conceive how it happened that +too much space is assigned between places situated east and west of +each other, as the latitude of a place is much more easily determined +than its longitude. At the same time, as the routes of the Roman +armies generally were from east to west, the countries lying in that +direction were better known than those lying to the north and south, +though the longitudes, and general space assigned the world, in the +former deviation, were erroneous. It was the opinion of most of the +ancient geographers, that there was a southern continent or +hemisphere, to correspond to and balance the northern; and this they +formed by cutting off the great triangle to the south. The ancients +also, while they curtailed those parts of the world with which they +were unacquainted, extended the known parts.</p> + +<p>The limit of the Roman geography of Europe to the north was the +Baltic, beyond which they had some very imperfect and obscure notion +of the south of Sweden, and perhaps of Norway. They were acquainted +with the countries on the eastern boundary of Europe lying on the +Danube and the Vistula, and the rivers Wolga and Tanais seem also to +have been tolerably well known to them. Of the whole of the west of +Europe they were well informed, with the exception of the general +figure, and some part of the British isles.</p> + +<p>With respect to Africa, the Romans seem to have been acquainted +with one-third of it. The promontory of Prasum was the limit of their +knowledge on the east coast: its limits on the western coast it is +not so easy to fix. The western horn was the limit of the voyage of +Hanno, which, according to some, is Cape Nun; and, according to +others, Cape Three Points, in Guinea; and we have observed already, +that the Gulf of St. Cyprian was probably the limit of Ptolemy's +knowledge. The coasts of Africa on the Mediterranean, and on the Red +Sea, were of course well known to the Romans; and some points of +their information respecting the interior were clear and accurate, +but, as for these, they trusted almost entirely to the reports of +merchants, they were as frequently erroneous.</p> + +<p>The northern, north-western, north-eastern, and east parts of Asia +were almost utterly unknown to the Romans; but they possessed +tolerably accurate information regarding the whole hither peninsula +of India, from the Indus to the Ganges, and some partial and +unconnected notices of the farther peninsula and of China.</p> + +<p><a name="ch04" id="ch04"></a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND OF +COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE, FROM THE TIME OF PTOLEMY TILL THE CLOSE OF THE +FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</b></p> + +<p>Although the period, which the present chapter embraces, extends +to thirteen centuries, yet, as it is by no means rich or fruitful +either in discovery or commercial enterprise, it will not detain us +long. The luxuries and wealth of the east, which, in all ages of the +world and to all nations have been so fascinating, had, as we have +already seen, drawn to them the interest and the enterprise of the +Romans, in the height of their conquests; and towards the east, with +few exceptions, discovery and commerce pointed, during the whole of +the period which this chapter embraces. Yet, notwithstanding this +powerful attraction, geography made comparatively little progress: +the love of luxury did not benefit it nearly so much as the love of +science. The geography of Ptolemy, and the description of Greece by +Pausanias, are, as Malte Brun justly remarks, the last works in which +the light of antiquity shines on geography. We may further observe, +that as circumstances directed the route to the east, during the +middle ages, principally through the central parts of Asia, the +countries thus explored, or visited, were among the least interesting +in this quarter of the globe, and those of which we possess, even at +the present day, very obscure and imperfect information.</p> + +<p>The nations to whom geography and commerce were most indebted, +during the period which this chapter embraces, were the +Arabians,--the Scandinavians, --under that appellation comprehending +the nations on the Baltic and in the north of Germany,--and the +Italian states. Before, however, we proceed to notice and record +their contributions to geography, discovery, and commerce, it will be +proper briefly to attend to a few circumstances connected with those +subjects, which occurred between the age of Ptolemy and the utter +decline of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the intercourse which was begun between +Rome and China, during the reign of Marcus Antoninus, for the purpose +of obtaining silk. Of the embassy which preceded and occasioned this +commercial intercourse, we derive all our information from the +Chinese historians. A second embassy seems to have been sent in the +year A.D. 284, during the reign of Probus: that the object of this +also was commercial there can be no doubt; but the particulars or the +precise object in view, and the result which flowed from it, are not +noticed by the Chinese historians. There can be no doubt, however, +that these embassies contributed to extend the geography and commerce +of the Romans towards the eastern districts of Asia.</p> + +<p>Of the attention which some of the Roman emperors, during the +decline of the empire, paid to commerce, we possess a few notices +which deserve to be recorded. The emperor Pertinax, whose father was +a manufacturer and seller of charcoal, and who, himself, for some +time pursued the same occupation, at that period an extensive and +profitable one, preserved and exercised, during his reign, that sense +of the value of commerce which he had thus acquired. He abolished all +the taxes laid by Commodus on the ports, harbours, and public roads, +and gave up his privileges as emperor, especially in all those points +where they were prejudicial to the freedom and extension of commerce. +It may indeed be remarked, that the very few good or tolerable +princes who, at this period, filled the government of Rome, displayed +their wisdom as well as their goodness by encouraging trade. +Alexander Severus granted peculiar privileges and immunities to +foreign merchants who settled in Rome: he lowered the duties on +merchandises; and divided all who followed trade, either on a large +or small scale, into different companies, each of which seems to have +preserved the liberty of choosing their own governor, and over each +of whom persons were appointed, conversant in each particular branch +of trade, whose duty it was to settle all disputes that might +arise.</p> + +<p>Soon after this period the commerce of Rome in one particular +direction, and that a most important one, received a severe blow. The +Goths, who had emigrated from the north of Germany to the banks of +the Euxine, were allured to the "soft and wealthy provinces of Asia +Minor, which produced all that could attract, and nothing that could +resist a barbarian conqueror." It is on the occasion of this +enterprise, that we first became acquainted with the maritime usages +and practices of the Goths; a branch of whom, under the name of +Scandinavians, we shall afterwards find contributed so much to the +extension of geography and commerce. In order to transport their +armies across the Euxine, they employed "slight flat-bottomed barks, +framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and +occasionally covered with a shelving roof on the appearance of a +tempest." Their first object of importance was the reduction of +Pityus, which was provided with a commodious harbour, and was +situated at the utmost limits of the Roman provinces. After the +reduction of this place, they sailed round the eastern extremity of +the Euxine, a distance of nearly three hundred miles, to the +important commercial city of Trebizond. This they also reduced; and +in it they found an immense booty, with which they filled a great +fleet of ships, that were lying in the port at the time of the +capture. Their success encouraged and stimulated them to further +enterprises against such of the commercial cities or rich coasts of +the Roman empire, as lay within their grasp. In their second +expedition, having increased their fleet by the capture of a number +of fishing vessels, near the mouths of the Borysthenes, the Niester, +and the Danube, they plundered the cities of Bithynia. And in a third +expedition, in which their force consisted of five hundred sail of +ships, each of which might contain from twenty-five to thirty men, +they passed the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and ravaged Greece, and +threatened Italy itself.</p> + +<p>The extent to which some branches of trade were carried by the +Romans about this time, may be deduced from what is related of +Firmus, whose ruin was occasioned by endeavouring to exchange the +security of a prosperous merchant for the imminent dangers of a Roman +emperor. The commerce of Firmus seems principally to have been +directed to the east; and for carrying on this commerce, he settled +himself at Alexandria in Egypt. Boasting that he could maintain an +army with the produce of paper and glue, both of which articles he +manufactured very extensively, he persuaded the people of Egypt that +he was able to deliver them from the Roman yoke, and actually had +influence sufficient to prevent the usual supplies of corn from being +shipped from Alexandria to Rome. His destruction was the consequence. +As an instance of his wealth and luxury, Vopiscus relates that he had +squares of glass fixed with bitumen in his house. The Roman commerce +suffered considerably during the reign of Dioclesian by the revolt of +Britain, under Carausius, who, by his skill and superiority, +especially in naval affairs, which enabled him to defeat a powerful +Roman fleet fitted out against him, obtained and secured his +independence. Carausius was murdered by Alectus: against the latter +the emperor Constantine sailed with a powerful fleet, and having +effected a landing in Britain, Alectus was defeated and slain. This +fleet requires to be particularly noticed from two considerations. In +the first place, it sailed with a side wind, and when the weather was +rather rough,--circumstances so unusual, if not unprecedented, that +they were deemed worthy of an express and peculiar panegyric: and, +secondly, this fleet was not equipped and ready for sea till after +four years' preparation, whereas, in the first Punic war, "within +sixty days after the first stroke of the axe had been given in the +forest, a fleet of 160 galleys proudly rode at anchor in the +sea."</p> + +<p>Soon after this event, we are furnished with materials, from which +we may judge of the comparative opulence, commerce, and shipping of +the several countries which bordered on the Mediterranean. +Constantine and Licinius were contending for the Roman empire; and as +the contest mainly depended on superiority at sea, each exerted +himself to the utmost to fit out a formidable and numerous fleet. +Licinius was emperor of the east: his fleet consisted of 380 gallies, +of three ranks of oars; eighty were furnished by Egypt, eighty by +Phoenicia, sixty by Ionia and Doria, thirty by Cyprus, twenty by +Caria, thirty by Bithynia, and fifty by Africa. At this period there +seems to have been no vessels larger than triremes. The naval +preparations of Constantine were in every respect inferior to those +of his rival: he seems to have got no ships from Italy: indeed, the +fleets which Augustus had ordered to be permanently kept up at +Misenum and Ravenna, were no longer in existence. Greece supplied the +most if not all Constantine's vessels: the maritime cities of this +country sent their respective quotas to the Piraeus; and their united +forces only amounted to 200 small vessels. This was a feeble armament +compared with the numerous and powerful fleets that Athens equipped +and maintained during the Peloponnesian war. While this republic was +mistress of the sea, her fleet consisted of 300, and afterwards of +400 gallies, of three ranks of oars, all ready, in every respect, for +immediate service. The scene of the naval battle between Licinius and +Constantine was in the vicinity of Byzantium: as this city was in +possession of the former, Constantine gave positive orders to force +the passage of the Hellespont: the battle lasted two days, and +terminated in the complete defeat of Licinius. Shortly after this +decisive victory, the Roman world was again united under one emperor, +and the imperial residence and seat of government was fixed by +Constantine at Byzantium, which thenceforth obtained the name of +Constantinople.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus gives us +some important and curious information respecting the Roman commerce +with the East. According to him it was customary to hold an annual +fair at Batnae, a town to the east of Antioch, not far from the banks +of the Euphrates. Merchandize from the East was brought hither +overland by caravans, as well as up the Euphrates; and its value at +this fair was so great, that the Persians made an attempt to plunder +it. To the same author we are indebted for some notices respecting +the countries which lay beyond the eastern limits of the Roman +empire, and also for the first clear and undoubted notice of rhubarb, +as an extensive article of commerce for medicinal purposes.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the fourth century, the naval expeditions of +the Saxons attracted the notice and excited the fears of the Britons +and the Gauls: their vessels apparently were unfit for a long voyage, +or for encountering either the dangers of the sea or of battle; they +were flat-bottomed and slightly constructed of timber, wicker-work, +and hides; but such vessels possessed advantages, which to the Saxons +more than compensated for their defects: they drew so little water +that they could proceed 100 miles up the great rivers; and they could +easily and conveniently be carried on waggons from one river to +another.</p> + +<p>We have already noticed the itineraries of the Roman empire: of +these there were two kinds, the <i>annotota</i> and the <i>picta</i>; +the first containing merely the names of places; the other, besides +the names, the extent of the different provinces, the number of their +inhabitants, the names of the mountains, rivers, seas, &c.; of +the first kind, the itinerary of Antoninus is the most celebrated: to +it we have already alluded: to the second kind belong the +Peutingarian tables, which are supposed to have been drawn up in the +reign of Theodosius, about the beginning of the fifth century, though +according to other conjectures, they were constructed at different +periods.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the tables is lost, comprising Portugal, Spain, +and the west part of Africa; only the south-east coast of England is +inserted. Towards the east, the Seres, the mouth of the Ganges, and +the island of Ceylon appear, and routes are traced through the heart +of India. Dr. Vincent remarks, that it is a very singular +circumstance that these tables should have the same names in the +coast of India as the Periplus, but reversed. Mention is also made in +them of a temple of Augustus or the Roman emperor: these +circumstances, Dr. Vincent justly observes, tend to prove the +continuance of the commerce by sea with India, from the time of +Claudius to Theodosius; a period of above 300 years. In these tables +very few of the countries are set down according to their real +position, their respective limits, or their actual size.</p> + +<p>The law of the emperor Theodosius, by which he prohibited his +subjects, under pain of death, from teaching the art of ship-building +to the barbarians, was ineffectual in the attainment of the object +which he had in view; nor did any real service to the empire result +from a fleet of 1100 large ships that he fitted out, to act in +conjunction with the forces of the western empire for the protection +of Rome against Genseric, king of the Vandals. This fleet arrived in +Sicily, but performed nothing; and Genseric, notwithstanding the law +of Theodosius, obtained the means and the skill of fitting out a +formidable fleet. The Vandal empire in Africa was peculiarly adapted +to maritime enterprise, as it stretched along the coast of the +Mediterranean above ninety days' journey from Tangier to Tripoli: the +woods of mount Atlas supplied an inexhaustible quantity of ship +timber; the African nations whom he had subdued, especially the +Carthaginians, were skilled in ship-building and in maritime affairs; +and they eagerly obeyed the call of their new sovereign, when he held +out to them the plunder of Rome. Thus, as Gibbon observes, after an +interval of six centuries, the fleets that issued from the port of +Carthage again claimed the empire of the Mediterranean. A feeble and +ineffectual resistance was opposed to the Vandal sovereign, who +succeeded in his grand enterprise, plundered Rome, and landed safely +in Carthage with his rich spoils. The emperor Leo, alarmed at this +success, fitted out a fleet of 1113 ships, at the expense, it is +calculated, of nearly five millions sterling. This fleet, with an +immense army on board, sailed from Constantinople to Carthage, but it +effected nothing. Genseric, taking advantage of a favourable wind, +manned his largest ships with his bravest and most skilful sailors; +and they towed after them vessels filled with combustible materials. +During the night they advanced against the imperial fleet, which was +taken by surprise; confusion ensued, many of the imperial ships were +destroyed, and the remainder saved themselves by flight. Genseric +thus became master of the Mediterranean; and the coasts of Asia, +Greece, and Italy, were exposed to his depredations.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the fifth century, the Romans under Theodoric +exhibited some slight and temporary symptoms of reviving commerce. +His first object was to fit out a fleet of 1000 small vessels, to +protect the coast of Italy from the incursions of the African Vandals +and the inhabitants of the Eastern empire. And as Rome could no +longer draw her supplies of corn from Egypt, he reclaimed and brought +into cultivation the Pomptine marshes and other neglected parts of +Italy. The rich productions of Lucania, and the adjacent provinces, +were exchanged at the Marcilian fountain, in a populous fair, +annually dedicated to trade: the gradual descent of the hills was +covered with a triple plantation of divers vines and chestnut trees. +The iron mines of Dalmatia, and a gold mine in Bruttium, were +carefully explored and wrought. The abundance of the necessaries of +life was so very great, that a gallon of wine was sometimes sold in +Italy for less than three farthings, and a quarter of wheat at about +five shillings and sixpence. Towards a country thus wisely governed, +and rich and fertile, commerce was naturally attracted; and it was +encouraged and protected by Theodoric: he established a free +intercourse among all the provinces by sea and land: the city gates +were never shut; and it was a common saying, "that a purse of gold +might safely be left in the field." About this period, many rich Jews +fixed their residence in the principal cities of Italy, for the +purposes of trade and commerce.</p> + +<p>The most particular information we possess respecting the +geographical knowledge, and the Indian commerce of the ancients at +the beginning of the sixth century, is derived from a work of Cosmas, +surnamed Indico Pleustes, or the Indian navigator. He was originally +a merchant, and afterwards became a monk; and Gibbon justly observes, +that his work displays the knowledge of a merchant, with the +prejudices of a monk. It is entitled <i>Christian Topography</i>, and +was composed at Alexandria, in the middle of the fifth century, about +twenty years after he had performed his voyage. The chief object of +his work was to confute the opinions that the earth was a globe, and +that there was a temperate zone on the south of the torrid zone. +According to Cosmas, the earth is a vast plane surrounded by a wall: +its extent 400 days' journey from east to west, and half as much from +north to south. On the wall which bounded the earth, the firmament +was supported. The succession of day and night is occasioned by an +immense mountain on the north of the earth, intercepting the light of +the sun. In order to account for the course of the rivers, he +supposed that the plane of the earth declined from north to south: +hence the Euphrates, Tigris, &c. running to the south, were rapid +streams; whereas the Nile, running in a contrary direction, was slow +and sluggish. The prejudices of a monk, are sufficiently evident in +these opinions; but, in justice to Cosmas, it must be remarked, that +he labours hard, and not unsuccessfully, to prove that his notions +were all the same as those of the most ancient Greek philosophers; +and, indeed, his system differs from that of Homer, principally in +his assigning a square instead of a round figure to the plane +surface, which they both supposed to belong to the earth. The +cosmography of Homer, thus adopted by Cosmas and most Christian +writers, modified in some respects by the cosmography they drew from +the Scriptures, is a strong proof, as Malte Brun observes, of the +powerful influence which the poetical geography of Homer possessed +over the opinions even of very distant ages.</p> + +<p>Having thus briefly detailed those parts of Cosmas's work, which +are merely curious as letting us into the prevalent cosmography of +his time, we shall now proceed to those parts which, as Gibbon +remarks, display the knowledge of a merchant.</p> + +<p>We have already noticed the inscription at Aduli for which we are +indebted to this author, and the light which it throws on the +commercial enterprise of the Egyptian sovereigns. According to +Cosmas, the oriental commerce of the Red Sea, in his time, had +entirely left the Roman dominions, and settled at Aduli: this place +was regularly visited by merchants from Alexandria and Aela, an +Arabian port, at the head of the eastern branch of the Red Sea. From +Aduli, vessels regularly sailed to the East: here were collected the +aromatics, spices, ivory, emeralds, &c. of Ethiopia, and shipped +by the merchants of the place in their own vessels to India, Persia, +South Arabia, and through Egypt and the north of Arabia, for +Rome.</p> + +<p>Cosmas was evidently personally acquainted with the west coast of +the Indian peninsula. He enumerates the principal ports, especially +those from which pepper was shipped. This article he describes as a +source of great traffic and wealth. The great island of Sielidiba, or +Ceylon, was the mart of the commerce of the Indian ocean. Its ports +were visited by vessels from Persia, India, Ethiopia, South Arabia, +and Tzinitza. If the last country is China, of which there can be +little doubt, as he mentions that the Tzinitzae brought to Ceylon +silk, aloes, cloves, and sandal-wood, and expressly adds that their +country produced silk,--Cosmas is the first author who fully asserts +the intercourse by sea between India and China. Besides the foreign +vessels which frequented the ports of Ceylon, the native merchants +carried on an extensive trade in their own vessels, and on their own +account. In addition to pepper from Mali on the coast of Malabar, and +the articles already enumerated from China, &c., copper, a wood +resembling ebony, and a variety of stuffs, were imported from +Calliena, a port shut to the Egyptian Greeks at the time of the +Periplus; and from Sindu they imported musk, castoreum, and +spikenard. Ceylon was a depôt for all these articles, which +were exported, together with spiceries, and the precious stones for +which this island was famous.</p> + +<p>Cosmas expressly states that he was not in Ceylon himself, but +that he derived his information respecting it and its trade from +Sopatrus, a Greek, who died about the beginning of the sixth century. +This, as Dr. Vincent observes, is a date of some importance: for it +proves that the trade opened by the Romans from Egypt to India +direct, continued upon the same footing from the reign of Claudius +and the discovery of Hippalus, down to A.D. 500; by which means we +came within 350 years of the Arabian voyage published by Renaudot, +and have but a small interval between the limit of ancient geography +and that of the moderns.</p> + +<p>From this author we first learn that the Persians having overcome +the aversion of their ancestors to maritime enterprise, had +established a flourishing and lucrative commerce with India. All its +principal ports were visited by Persian merchants; and in most of the +cities there were churches in which the service was performed by +priests, ordained by a Persian archbishop.</p> + +<p>We shall conclude our notice of Ceylon, as described by Cosmas, +from the account of Sopatrus, with mentioning a few miscellaneous +particulars, illustrative of the produce and commerce of the island. +The sovereignty was held by two kings; one called the king of the +Hyacinth, or the district above the Ghants, where the precious stones +were found; the other possessed the maritime districts. In Ceylon, +elephants are sold by their height; and he adds, that in India they +are trained for war, whereas, in Africa, they are taken only for +their ivory. Various particulars respecting the natural history of +Ceylon and India, &c. are given, which are very accurate and +complete: the cocoa-nut with its properties is described: the pepper +plant, the buffalo, the camelopard, the musk animal, &c.: the +rhinoceros, he says, he saw only at a distance; he procured some +teeth of the hippopotamus, but never saw the animal itself. In the +palace of the king of Abyssinia, the unicorn was represented in +brass, but he never saw it. It is extraordinary that he makes no +mention of cinnamon, as a production of Ceylon.</p> + +<p>The most important points respecting the state of Eastern commerce +in the age of Cosmas, as established by his information, are the +following: that Ceylon was the central mart between the commerce of +Europe, Africa, and the west of India, and the east of India and +China; that none of the foreign merchants who visited Ceylon were +accustomed to proceed to the eastern regions of Asia, but received +their silks, spices, &c. as they were imported into Ceylon; and +that, as cloves are particularly specified as having been imported +into Ceylon from China, the Chinese at this period must have traded +with the Moluccas on the one hand, and with Ceylon on the other.</p> + +<p>Cosmas notices the great abundance of silk in Persia, which he +attributes to the short land carriage between it and China.</p> + +<p>In our account of the very early trade of Carthage, a branch of it +was described from Herodotus, which the Carthaginians carried on, +without the use or intervention of words, with a remote African +tribe. Of a trade conducted in a similar manner, Cosmas gives us some +information; according to him, the king of the Axumites, on the east +coast of Africa, exchanged iron, salt, and cattle, for pieces of gold +with an inland nation, whom he describes as inhabiting Ethiopia. It +may be remarked in confirmation of the accuracy, both of Herodotus +and of Cosmas, in what they relate on this subject, and as an +illustration and proof of the permanency and power of custom among +barbarous nations, that Dr. Shaw and Cadamosto (in Purchas's +Pilgrimage) describe the same mode of traffic as carried on in their +times by the Moors on the west coast of Africa, with the inhabitants +of the banks of the Niger.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the sixth century, an immense and expensive +fleet, fitted out by the Emperor Justinian for the purpose of +invading the Vandals of Africa, gives us, in the detail of its +preparation and exploits, considerable insight into the maritime +state of the empire at this period. Justinian assembled at +Constantinople 500 transports of various sizes, which it is not easy +exactly to calculate; the presumption derived from the accounts we +have is, that the smallest were 30 tons, and the largest 500 tons; +and that the aggregate tonnage of the whole amounted to about 100,000 +tons: an immense fleet, even compared with the fleets of modern +times. On board of this fleet there were 35,000 seamen and soldiers, +and 5000 horses, besides arms, engines, stores, and an adequate +supply of water and provisions, for a period, probably, of two or +three months. Such were the transports: they were accompanied and +protected by 92 light brigantines, for gallies were no longer used in +the Mediterranean; on board of these vessels were 2000 rowers. The +celebrated Belisarius was the commander-in-chief, both of the land +and sea forces. The course of this numerous and formidable fleet was +directed by the master-galley in which he sailed; this was +conspicuous by the redness of its sails during the day, and by +torches fixed on its mast head during night. A circumstance occurred +during the first part of the voyage, which instructs us respecting +the mode of manufacturing the bread used on long voyages. When the +sacks which contained it were opened, it was found to be soft and +unfit for use; and on enquiring into the cause, the blame was clearly +traced to the person by whose orders it had been prepared. In order +to save the expense of fuel, he had ordered it to be baked by the +same fire which warmed the baths of Constantinople, instead of baking +it twice in an oven, as was the usual and proper practice. In the +latter mode, a loss of one-fourth was calculated on and allowed; and +the saving occasioned by the mode adopted was probably another motive +with the person under whose superintendence the bread was +prepared.</p> + +<p>During the voyage from Methone, where fresh bread was taken on +board to the southern coast of Sicily, from which, according to +modern language, they were to take their departure for Africa, they +were becalmed, and 161 days were spent in this navigation. An +incident is mentioned relating to this part of the voyage, which +points out the method used by the ancients to preserve their water +when at sea. As the general himself was exposed to the intolerable +hardship of thirst, or the necessity of drinking bad water, that +which was meant for his use was put into glass bottles, which were +buried deep in the sand, in a part of the ship to which the rays of +the sun could not reach. Three months after the departure of the +fleet from Constantinople, the troops were landed near Carthage; +Belisarius being anxious to effect this as soon as possible, as his +men did not hesitate to express their belief, that they were not able +to contend at once with the winds, the waves, and the barbarians. The +result of this expedition was the conquest of the African provinces, +Sardinia, and Corsica.</p> + +<p>The absurd and injudicious regulations of Justinian, respecting +the corn trade of the empire have been already noticed; nor did his +other measures indicate, either a better acquaintance with the +principles of commerce, or more regard to its interests. The masters +of vessels who traded to Constantinople were often obliged to carry +cargoes for him to Africa or Italy, without any remuneration; or, if +they escaped this hardship, enormous duties were levied on the +merchandize they imported. A monopoly in the sale of silk was granted +to the imperial treasurer; and, indeed, no species of trade seems to +have been open and free, except that in cloth. His addition of +one-seventh to the ordinary price of copper, so that his +money-changers gave only 180 ounces of that metal, instead of 210, +for one-sixth of an ounce of gold, seems rather to have been the +result of ignorance than of fraud and avarice; since he did not alter +the gold coin, in which alone all public and private payments were +made. At this time, the geographical knowledge of the Romans, +respecting what had formerly constituted a portion of their empire, +must have declined in a striking manner, if we may judge from the +absurd and fabulous account which Procopius gives of Britain. And the +commercial relations of the Britons themselves had entirely +disappeared, even with their nearest neighbours; since, in the +history of Gregory of Tours, there is not a single allusion to any +trade between Britain and France.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the seventh century we glean our last notice +of any event connected with the commerce and maritime enterprise of +the Romans; and the same period introduces us to the rising power and +commerce of the Arabians.</p> + +<p>Alexandria, though its importance and wealth as a commercial city +had long been on the wane, principally by the removal of most of the +oriental trade to Persia, was still the commercial capital of the +Mediterranean, and was of the utmost importance to Constantinople, +which continued to draw from it an annual supply of about 250,000 +quarters of corn; but in the beginning of this century it was +conquered by the Persians, and the emperor was obliged to enter into +a treaty with the conquerors, by which he agreed to pay a heavy and +disgraceful tribute for the corn which was absolutely necessary for +the support of his capital. But a sudden and most extraordinary +change took place in the character of Heraclius: he roused himself +from his sloth, indolence and despair; he fitted out a large fleet; +exerted his skill, and displayed his courage and coolness in a storm +which it encountered; carried his armies into Persia itself, and +succeeded in recovering Egypt and the other provinces which the +Persians had wrested from the empire.</p> + +<p>The very early commerce of the Arabians, by means of caravans, +with India, and their settlements on the Red Sea and the coasts of +Africa and India at a later period, for the purposes of commerce, +have been already noticed. Soon after they became the disciples of +Mahomet, their commercial and enterprizing spirit revived, if indeed +it had ever languished; and it certainly displayed itself with +augmented zeal, vigour, and success, under the influence of their new +religion, and the genius and ambition of their caliphs. Persia, +Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain, were successively conquered by them; +and one of their first and most favourite objects, after they had +conquered a country, was the amelioration or extension of its +commerce. When they conquered Persia, the trade between that country +and India was extensive and flourishing: the Persian merchants +brought from India its most precious commodities. The luxury of the +kings of Persia consumed a large quantity of camphire, mixed with +wax, to illuminate their palaces; and this must have been brought, +indirectly, through India, from Japan, Sumatra, or Borneo, the only +places where the camphire-tree grows: a curious and striking proof of +the remote and extensive influence of the commerce and luxury of +Persia, at the time it was conquered by the Arabians. The conquerors, +aware of the importance of the Indian commerce, and of the advantages +which the Tigris and Euphrates afforded for this purpose, very soon +after their conquest, founded the city of Bassora: a place, which, +from its situation midway between the junction and the mouth of these +rivers, commands the trade and navigation of Persia. It soon rose to +be a great commercial city; and its inhabitants, directing their +principal attention and most vigorous enterprize to the East, soon +pushed their voyages beyond Ceylon, and brought, directly from the +place of their growth or manufacture, many of those articles which +hitherto they had been obliged or content to purchase in that island. +Soon after the conquest of Persia was completed, the Caliph Omar +directed that a full and accurate survey and description, of the +kingdom should be made, which comprehended the inhabitants, the +cattle, and the fruits of the earth.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Syria added comparatively little to the commerce +of the Arabians; but in the account which is given of this +enterprize, we are informed of a large fair, which was annually held +at Abyla, between Damascus and Heliopolis, where the produce and +manufactures of the country were collected and sold. In the account +given of the conquest of Jerusalem by the Arabians, we have also an +account of another fair held at Jerusalem, at which it is probable +the goods brought from India by Bassora, the Euphrates, and the +caravans, were sold. As soon as the conquest of the western part of +Syria was completed, the Arabians took advantage of the timber of +Libanus, and of the maritime skill of the Phoenicians, which even yet +survived: they fitted out a fleet of 1,700 barks, which soon rode +triumphant in the Mediterranean. Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Cyclades, +were subdued, and Constantinople itself was attacked, but without +effect.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Egypt, however, was of the most importance to the +Arabian commerce, and therefore more especially demands our +notice.--"In their annals of conquest," as Gibbon remarks, "the siege +of Alexandria is perhaps the most arduous and important enterprize. +The first trading city in the world was abundantly replenished with +the means of subsistence and defence." But the Saracens were bold and +skilful; the Greeks timid and unwarlike; and Alexandria fell into the +possession of the disciples of Mahomet. As soon as the conquest of +Egypt was completed, its administration was settled, and conducted on +the most wise and liberal principles. In the management of the +revenue, taxes were raised, not by the simple but oppressive mode of +capitation, but on every branch from the clear profits of agriculture +and commerce. A third part of these taxes was set apart, with the +most religious exactness, to the annual repairs of the dykes and +canals. At first, the corn which used to supply Constantinople was +sent to Medina from Memphis by camels; but Omrou, the conqueror of +Egypt, soon renewed the maritime communication "which had been +attempted or achieved by the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, or the +Cæsars; and a canal, at least eighty miles in length, was +opened from the Nile to the Red Sea. This inland navigation, which +would have joined the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, was soon, +however, discontinued, as useless and dangerous;" and about the year +775, A.D., it was stopped up at the end next the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Africa, though not nearly so advantageous to the +commerce of the Arabians, was yet of some importance to them in this +point of view: it gradually extended from the Nile to the Atlantic +Ocean. Tripoly was the first maritime and commercial city which their +arms reduced: Bugia and Tangier were next reduced. Cairoan was formed +as a station for a caravan; a city, which, in its present decay, +still holds the second rank in the kingdom of Tunis. Carthage was +next attacked and reduced; but an attempt was made by forces sent +from Constantinople, joined by the ships and soldiers of Sicily, and +a powerful reinforcement of Goths from Spain, to retake it. The +Arabian conquerors had drawn a strong chain across the harbour; this +the confederate fleet broke: the Arabians for a time were compelled +to retreat; but they soon returned, defeated their enemies, burnt +Carthage, and soon afterwards completed the conquest of this part of +Africa.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the eighth century is remarkable for their +invasion of Spain, and for their second fruitless attack on +Constantinople; during the latter, their fleet, which is said to have +consisted of 1800 vessels, was totally destroyed by the Greek fire. +With regard to their conquest of Spain, it was so rapid, that in a +few months the whole of that great peninsula, which for two centuries +withstood the power of the Roman republic at its greatest height, was +reduced, except the mountainous districts of Asturia and Biscay, Here +also the Arabians displayed the same attention to science by which +they were distinguished in Asia: ten years after the conquest, a map +of the province was made, exhibiting the seas, rivers, harbours, and +cities, accompanied with a description of them, and of the +inhabitants, the climate, soil, and mineral productions. "In the +space of two centuries, the gifts of nature were improved by the +agriculture, the manufactures, and the commerce of an industrious +people." The first of the Ommiades who reigned in Spain, levied on +the Christians of that country, 10,000 ounces of gold, 10,000 pounds +of silver, 10,000 houses, &c. "The most powerful of his +successors derived from the same kingdom the annual tribute of about +six millions sterling. His royal seat of Cordova contained 600 +mosques, 900 baths, and 200,000 houses: he gave laws to 80 cities of +the first order, and to 300 of the second and third: and 12,000 +villages and hamlets were situated on the banks of the +Guadalquivir."</p> + +<p>The religious prejudices, as well as the interests of the +Arabians, led them to exclude the Christians from every channel +through which they had received the produce of India. That they were +precluded from all commercial intercourse with Egypt, is evident, +from a fact noticed by Macpherson, in his Annals of Commerce. Before +Egypt was conquered by the Arabians, writings of importance in Europe +were executed on the Egyptian papyrus; but after that period, at +least till the beginning of the ninth century, they are upon +parchment.--This, as Macpherson observes, amounts almost to a proof, +that the trade with Egypt, the only country producing papyrus, was +interrupted.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the supply of silks, spices, and other oriental +luxuries which Constantinople derived from the fair at Jerusalem, +(still allowed by the Arabians to be annually held,) not being +sufficient for the demand of that dissipated capital, and their price +in consequence having very much increased, some merchants were +tempted to travel across Asia, beyond the northern boundary of the +Arabian power, and to import, by means of caravans, the goods of +China and India.</p> + +<p>Towards the beginning of the ninth century, as we have already +remarked, the commercial relations of the Arabians and the Christians +of Europe commenced, and Alexandria was no longer closed to the +latter. The merchants of Lyons, Marseilles, and other maritime towns +in the south of France, in consequence of the friendship and treaties +subsisting between Charlemagne and the Caliph Haroun Al Rasched, +traded with their ships twice a year to Alexandria; from this city +they brought the produce of Arabia and India to the Rhone, and by +means of it, and a land carriage to the Moselle and the Rhine, France +and Germany were supplied with the luxuries of the east. The +friendship between the emperor and the caliph seems in other cases to +have been employed by the former to the advancement of the commercial +intercourse between Asia and Europe; for we are expressly informed, +that a Jewish merchant, a favourite of Charlemagne, made frequent +voyages to Palestine, and returned with pictures,--merchandize before +unknown in the west.</p> + +<p>Hitherto we have viewed the Arabians chiefly as fostering and +encouraging commerce; but they also deserve our notice, for their +attention to geographical science and discoveries. From the period of +their first conquests, the caliphs had given orders to their generals +to draw up geographical descriptions of the countries conquered; and +we have already noticed some of these descriptions. In 833, A.D., the +Caliph Almamon employed three brothers of the name of Ben Schaker, to +measure a degree of latitude, first in the desert of Sangdaar, +betweeen Racca and Palmyra, and afterwards near Cufa, for the purpose +of ascertaining the circumference of the globe.</p> + +<p>We now arrive at the era of a most important document, +illustrative of the commerce of the eastern parts of India and of +China, with which we are furnished by the Arabians: we allude to the +"ancient Accounts of India and China, by two Mahomedan travellers, +who went to those parts in the ninth century, translated from the +Arabic by Renaudot." The genuineness and authenticity of these +accounts were for a long time doubted; but De Guignes, from the +Chinese annals, has completely removed all doubt on the subject.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable circumstance connected with this journey is, +that in the ninth century the Mahomedans should have been able to +reach China; but our surprise on this point will cease, when we +consider the extent of the Mahomedan dominions towards the east of +Asia, the utmost limits of which, in this direction, approached very +nearly the frontiers of China. If, therefore, they travelled by land, +no serious difficulty would lie in their way; but Renaudot thinks it +more probable, that they proceeded thither by sea.</p> + +<p>According to these travellers, the Arabian merchants, no longer +confining themselves to a traffic at Ceylon for the commodities of +the east of Asia, traded to every part of that quarter of the globe, +even as far as the south coast of China. The account they give of the +traffic with this latter country, is very minute: "When foreign +vessels arrive at Canfu, which is supposed to be Canton, the Chinese +take possession of their cargoes, and store them in warehouses, till +the arrival of all the other ships which are expected: it thus +happens that the vessels which first arrive are detained six months. +They then take about a third part of all the merchandize, as duty, +and give the rest up to the merchants: of these the emperor is the +preferable purchaser, but only for ready money, and at the highest +price of the market." One circumstance is particularly noticed, which +proves, that at this period the Arabians were numerous and respected +in China; for a cadi, or judge, of their own religion, was appointed +to preside over them, under the emperor. The Chinese are described as +sailing along the coast as far as the Persian Gulf, where they loaded +their vessels with merchandize from Bassora. Other particulars are +mentioned, respecting their trade, &c., which agree wonderfully +with what we know of them at present: they regarded gold and silver +merely as merchandize: dressed in silk, summer and winter: had no +wine, but drank a liquor made from rice. Tea is mentioned under the +name of <i>sak</i>--an infusion of this they drank, and a large +revenue was derived from the duty on it. Their porcelaine also is +described and praised, as equally fine and transparent as glass. +Every male child was registered as soon as born; at 18 he began to +pay the capitation tax; and at 80 was entitled to a pension.</p> + +<p>These Arabian travellers likewise supply us with some information +respecting the trade of the Red Sea. The west side of it was in their +time nearly deserted by merchant ships; those from the Persian Gulf +sailed to Judda on the Arabian coast of it: here were always found +many small coasting vessels, by means of which the goods from India, +Persia, &c. were conveyed to Cairo. If this particular is +accurate, it would seem to prove that at this period the canal +between the Nile and the Red Sea, which had been rendered navigable +by Omrou, was regularly used for the purposes of commerce.</p> + +<p>In these accounts, the typhon, or whirlwind, so common in the +Chinese seas, is mentioned under that appellation: the flying fish +and unicorn are described; and we have notices of ambergrise, the +musk, and the animal from which it is produced: the last is mentioned +as coming from Thibet.</p> + +<p>The next Arabian author, in point of time, from whom we derive +information respecting geography and commerce, is Massoudi. He died +at Cairo in 957: he was the author of a work describing the most +celebrated kingdoms in Europe, Africa, and Asia; but the details +respecting Africa, India, and the lesser Asia, are the most accurate +and laboured. The account we shall afterwards give of the +geographical knowledge of the Arabians, renders it unnecessary to +present any abstract, in this place, of the geographical part of his +work; we shall therefore confine ourselves to the notices +interspersed respecting commerce. The Arabians traded to nearly every +port of India, from Cashmere to Cape Comorin; and seem to have been +protected and particularly favoured in their commercial pursuits. In +the year 877 a great rebellion occurred in China, and the Arabian +merchants had been massacred at Canfn. According to Massoudi, +however, in his time this city had recovered from its disasters; +confidence had revived; the Arabian merchants from Bassora, and other +ports in Persia, resorted to it; and vessels from India and the +adjacent islands. He also describes a route to China by land +frequented by traders: this seems to have been through Korasin, +Thibet, and a country he calls Ilestan. With regard to the Arabian +commerce with Africa, the merchants settled at Omar traded to Sofala +for gold, and to an island, which is supposed to be Madagascar, where +they had established colonies.</p> + +<p>Of the geographical knowledge displayed by the next Arabian +traveller in point of date, [Ebor->Ebn] Haukal, we shall at +present take no notice, for the reason already assigned; but confine +ourselves to his notices regarding commerce. According to him, the +most wealthy merchants resided at Siraf, where they traded very +extensively and successfully in the commodities of India and China. +Hormus was the principal trading place in Karmania; Daibul in Sind: +the merchants here traded to all parts. The countries near the +Caspian were celebrated for their manufactures of silk, wool, hair, +and gold stuffs. In Armenia, hangings and carpets, dyed with a worm +or insect a beautiful colour, called <i>kermez</i>, were made. +Samarcand was celebrated for the excellency of its paper. Trebezond +was the principal trading place on the Black Sea. Alexandria is +celebrated for the grandeur of its buildings; but its trade is not +mentioned.</p> + +<p>About the beginning of the eleventh century we derive our earliest +notice of the commerce of Spain under its Arabian conquerors. The +port of Barcelona was at this period the principal station for +commercial intercourse with the eastern nations bordering on the +Mediterranean; and as a proof of the character which its merchants +held, it may be noticed, that their usages were collected into a +code: by this code all vessels arriving at, or sailing from, +Barcelona, are assured of friendly treatment; and they are declared +to be under the protection of the prince, so long as they are near +the coast of Catalonia. How much Spain was indebted to the Arabians +for their early commerce may be judged of from the number of +commercial and maritime terms in the Spanish language, evidently +derived from the Arabic.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the twelfth century, Al Edrissi composed at the +court of Roger King of Sicily, whose subject he was, his Geographical +Amusements. In this work we find little that relates to commerce: its +geographical details will assist us when we give our sketch of the +geographical knowledge of the Arabians.</p> + +<p>In the work of [Ebor->Ebn] Al Ouardi, which was drawn up in +1232, Africa, Arabia, and Syria are minutely described; but +comparatively little is said on Europe, India, and the North of +Asia.</p> + +<p>The next Arabian geographer in point of time is Abulfeda: he wrote +a very particular description of the earth, the countries being +arranged according to climates, with the latitude and longitude of +each place. In the introduction to this work he enters on the subject +of mathematical geography, and describes the most celebrated +mountains, rivers, and seas of the world. Abulfeda was a native of +Syria; and this and the adjacent countries are described with most +fullness and accuracy: the same remark applies to his description of +Egypt and the north coast of Africa. The information contained in his +work, respecting Tartary, China, &c., is not nearly so full and +minute as might have been expected, considering the intercourse of +the Arabians with those countries. Of Europe, and all other parts of +Africa except Egypt and the north coast, he gives little or no +information.</p> + +<p>Within these very few years, some valuable notices have been +received, through M. Burckhardt, and Mr. Kosegarten of Jena, of Ibn +Batouta, an Arabian traveller of the fourteenth century. According to +M. Burckhardt, he is, perhaps, the greatest land traveller that ever +wrote his travels. He was a native of Tangier, and travelled for +thirty years, from 1324 to 1354. He traversed more than once Egypt, +Syria, Arabia, Persia, the coast of the Red Sea, and the eastern +coast of Africa. Bochara, Balk, Samarcand, Caubul, India, and China, +were visited by him: he even ventured to explore several of the +Indian islands; crossed the mountains of Thibet, traversed India, and +then, taking shipping, went to Java. He again visited China, and +returned thence by Calicut, Yeman, Bagdad, and Damascus, to Cairo. +After having visited Spain, he directed his travels to Africa; +reached the capital of Morocco, and thence as far as Sodjalmasa. From +this place he crossed the Desert with the slave merchants to +Taghary--twenty-five days journey: he represents the houses here as +built of rock salt, and covered with camel skins. For twenty days +more he crossed a desert without water or trees, and the sand of +which was so loose, that it left no traces of footsteps. He now +arrived at the frontier town of Soudan. After travelling for some +time longer, he reached the banks of the Niger, which, according to +the information he received, flowed into the Nile at the second +cataract. He visited Tombuctoo and other places in this part of +Africa, and finished his travels at Fez.</p> + +<p>We shall now conclude our account of the Arabians, with a +connected and condensed view of their geographical knowledge.</p> + +<p>It is natural to suppose that they would be best acquainted with +those countries which had embraced the faith of Mahomet; and that the +prejudices and contempt with which his disciples have always regarded +Christians, and, indeed, all who were of a different religion, would +stand in the way of their seeking or acquiring information respecting +those portions of the globe, the inhabitants of which were not of +their faith. The exceptions to this are to be found principally in +those countries, from which they derived the principal articles of +their commerce; or which, though not proselytized, were conquered by +them.</p> + +<p>Hence, Europe in general was scarcely known to them beyond their +dominions in Spain, and the adjacent parts of France. There are, +however, exceptions to this remark; for we find, scattered through +their geographical works, notices tolerably accurate and just +respecting Ireland, Paris, Antharvat, which seems to be England, the +Duchy of Sleswig, the City of Kiov, and some other places.</p> + +<p>The whole of the north of Africa having been subdued, was +thoroughly known by them; and they seem to have extended their arms, +or at least their knowledge, as far into the interior as the banks of +the Niger. On the east side, their arms had penetrated to Sofala; but +on the west their knowledge does not appear to have reached beyond +Cape Blanco, in the Bay of Arguin. The fortunate islands of the +ancients were known to them, and the Pike of Teneriffe seems +obscurely represented. Of the other islands and ports farther to the +south on this side of Africa, it is impossible to ascertain their +identity; or whether, as represented by the Arabians, they may not be +regarded as among those fables in geography, in which all the ancient +nations indulged. We may, however, trace some resemblance, in name or +description, to the Canary Islands, the River Senegal, and the Rio +d'Ouro. Malte Brun is of opinion, that their knowledge extended +beyond Cape Boyador, for so long a time impassable by the +Portugese.</p> + +<p>On the eastern side of Africa, the Ethiopia of the Arabians seems +to have terminated at Cape Corrientes: their power and religion were +established from the Cape to the Red Sea. In their geographical +descriptions of this part of Africa, we may trace many names of +cities which they still retain. But they adopted the error of Ptolemy +in supposing that the southern parts of Africa and Asia joined; for +Edrisi describes an extensive country, extending from the coast of +Africa to that of India, beyond the Ganges.</p> + +<p>The island of Madagascar seems to be faintly pourtrayed by them; +and it is certain that Arabian colonies and the Mahometan religion +were established in it from a very early period. Massoudi mentions an +island, two days' sail from Zanguebar, which he calls Phanbalu, the +inhabitants of which were Mahometans; and it is worthy of remark, as +Malte Brun observes, that in the time of Aristotle a large island in +this Ocean was known under a similar name, that of Phebol. It is +surprizing that the island of Ceylon, with which the Arabians had +such regular and constant intercourse, should be placed by Edrisi +near the coast of Africa.</p> + +<p>But it was in Asia that the conquest, and commerce, and religion +of the Arabians spread most extensively; and hence their geographical +knowledge of this part of the globe is more full, accurate, and +minute, than what they had acquired of the other portions. By their +conquest of Persia, the ancient Bactriana, Transoxiana, &c. fell +into their power; and according to their wise plan, they immediately +made themselves acquainted with the geography, productions, &c. +of these countries. From their writers we can glean many new and +curious particulars, respecting the districts which lie to the north +and east of the Gihon: whether in all respects they are accurate, +cannot now be ascertained; for these districts, besides that they are +comparatively little known to the moderns, have suffered so much from +various causes, that their identity can hardly be determined.</p> + +<p>On the west of Asia, near the Black Sea and the borders of Europe, +the Arabian geographers throw much light; their information is minute +and exact, and it reaches to the passes of Caucasus. Red Russia, it +is well known, derives its appellation from the colour of the hair of +its inhabitants. Now the Arabian geographers describe a Sclavonic +nation, inhabiting a country near Caucasus, called <i>Seclab</i>, +remarkable for the redness of their hair. Hence, it is probable that +the modern inhabitants of Red Russia, who are Sclavonic, emigrated to +it from this district of Caucasus.</p> + +<p>Some notices appear of those parts, of Russia which border on +Russia: Maschput, which is represented as a city of consequence, +probably is Moscow. On the borders of the salt plains of Susith, a +country is described, called Boladal Rus, evidently Russia, the +inhabitants of which are represented as noted for their filth.</p> + +<p>With the figure and extent of the Caspian Sea, the Arabian +geographers were tolerably well acquainted: and they describe, so as +to be recognized, several tribes inhabiting the borders of this sea, +as well as the vicinity of the Wolga. One is particularly noticed and +celebrated, being called the People of the Throne of Gold, the khan +of whom lived at Seray, near the mouth of the Wolga. To the east of +the Caspian, the Arabian conquests did not extend farther than those +of Alexander and his immediate successors. Transoxiana was the limit +of their dominions towards the north, in this part of the world.</p> + +<p>Of many of the districts which the Arabians, conquered, in this +part of Asia, they have furnished us with such accurate and full +information, that modern discoveries have been able to add or correct +very little. That they were acquainted with Thibet and China, has +already appeared, from the account given of their commerce. Thibet +they represent as divided into three parts, Thibet upper, central, +and lower. At the beginning of the eighth century, Arabian +ambassadors were sent to China: they passed through Cashgar. After +this period, journies to China by the route of Samarcand were +frequent. Besides Canfu, described by the Mahomedan travellers of +Renaudot, other cities in China were visited by the Arabian +merchants, most of which were in the interior; but the Arabian +geographers seem to have been puzzled by the Chinese names. We learn, +however, that the provinces of the north were distinguished from +those of the south; the former were called Cathay and Tehar Cathar, +or Cathay, which produces tea: its capital was Cambalu: the provinces +in the south were called Tchin or Sin. The appellation of Cathay was +that under which alone China was long known to the Europeans. Under +the name of Sin, given to the southern districts, the Arabian +geographers frequently comprehended all the country to the Ganges. +The Arabians divided the present Hindostan into two parts; Sind and +Hind: the first seems to have comprised the countries lying on the +Indus; Hind lay to the east, and comprehended Delhi, Agra, Oude, +Bengal, &c. The Decan, at least the western part of it, belonged +to Sind. The coast of Coromandel, as well as the interior, was +unknown to them. On the west or Malabar coast, their information was +full and accurate; but it terminated at Cape Comorin.</p> + +<p>While part of the forces of the Caliph Walid were employed in the +conquest of Spain, another part succeeded in reducing Multan and +Lahore; and the Arabian geographers, always ready to take advantage +of the success of their arms, to promote geographical knowledge, +describe their new eastern conquests, and the countries which +bordered on them, in the most glowing language. The valley of +Cashmere, in particular, affords ample matter for their panegyrics. +The towns of Guzerat, Cambay, and Narwhorra are described: in the +last resided the most powerful king of India; his kingdom extended +from Guzerat and Concan to the Ganges. The city of Benares, +celebrated as a school of Indian philosophy, and the almost +impregnable fortress of Gevatior, are mentioned by them, as well as a +colony of Jews in Cochin, and the Maldive islands: these they +frequented to obtain cowries, which then, as now, were used as +money.</p> + +<p>It is supposed that the isle of Sumatra is described by them under +the name of Lumery; for the peculiar productions are the same, and +Sumatra was known under the name of Lambry in the time of Marc Paul, +and Mandeville. Java is evidently meant by Al D'Javah: it is +represented as rich in spices, but subject to volcanic eruptions; +circumstances by which it is yet distinguished. A short period before +the Portuguese reached these seas, Arabian colonists established +themselves at Ternate and some of the other spice islands; and their +language, religious opinions, and customs, may clearly be traced in +the Philippine islands.</p> + +<p>From the geographical discoveries, the travels by sea and land, +and the commercial enterprize of the Arabians, we pass to those of +the Scandinavians; under that appellation, including not only the +Scandinavians, properly so called, who inhabited the shores of the +Baltic and the coasts of Norway, but also those people who dwelt on +the northern shores of the German Ocean; for they were of the same +origin as the Baltic nations, and resembled them in manners and +pursuits.</p> + +<p>By an inspection of the map it will appear, that all these tribes +were situated nearly as favorably for maritime enterprize as the +nations which inhabited the shores of the Mediterranean; and though +their earliest expeditions by sea were not stimulated by the same +cause, commercial pursuits, yet they arose from causes equally +efficient. While the countries bordering on the Mediterranean were +blessed with a fertile soil and a mild climate, those on the Baltic +were comparatively barren and ungenial; their inhabitants, therefore, +induced by their situation to attend to maritime affairs, were +further led to employ their skill and power by sea, in endeavouring +to establish themselves in more favored countries, or, at least, to +draw from them by plunder, what they could not obtain in their +own.</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned the maritime expeditions of the Saxons, +which struck terror into the Romans, during the decline of their +empire. The other Scandinavian nations were acted on by the same +causes and motives. Neglecting the peaceful art of agriculture, +inured to the sea from their earliest years, and the profession and +practice of piracy being regarded as actually honourable by them, it +is no wonder that their whole lives were spent in planning or +executing maritime expeditions. Their internal wars also, by +depriving many of their power or their property, compelled them to +seek abroad that which they had lost at home. No sooner had a prince +reached his eighteenth year, than he was entrusted by his father with +a fleet; and by means of it he was ordered and expected to add to his +glory and his wealth, by plunder and victory. Lands were divided into +certain portions, and from each portion a certain number of ships +were to be fully equipped for sea. Their vessels, as well as +themselves, were admirably adapted to the grand object of their +lives; the former were well supplied with stones, arrows, and strong +ropes, with which they overset small vessels, and with grappling +irons to board them; and every individual was skilful in swimming. +Each band possessed its own ports, magazines, &c. Their ships +were at first small, being only a kind of twelve-oared barks; they +were afterwards so much enlarged, that they were capable of +containing 100 or 120 men.</p> + +<p>It is not our intention to notice the piratical expeditions of +Scandinavians, except so far as they tended to discovery, or +commerce, or were productive of permanent effects. Among the first +countries to which they directed themselves, and where they settled +permanently, were England and Ireland; the result of their settlement +in England was the establishment of the Anglo-Saxon dominion power in +that kingdom; the result of their expeditions to Ireland was their +settlement on its eastern coasts. In the middle of the ninth century, +the native Irish had been driven by them into the central and western +parts of the country, while the Scandinavian conquerors, under the +appellation of Ostmen, or Eastmen, possessed of all the maritime +cities, carried on an extensive and lucrative commerce, not only with +their native land, but also with other places in the west of Europe. +Their settlements on the Shetland, Orkney, and western islands of +Scotland, are only mentioned, because in these last the Scandinavians +seem to have established and encouraged manufactures, the forerunner +and support of commerce; for towards the end of the ninth century, +the drapery of the Suderyans, (for so the inhabitants were called, as +their country lay to the south of Shetland and Orkney,) was much +celebrated and sought after.</p> + +<p>About this period the Scandinavian nations began to mingle +commerce and discovery with their piratical expeditions. Alfred, king +of England, obliged to attend to maritime affairs, to defend his +territories from the Danes, turned his ardent and penetrating mind to +every thing connected with this important subject. He began by +improving the structure of his vessels; "the form of the Saxon ships +(observes Mr. Strutt, who derives his description from contemporary +drawings) at the end of the eighth century, or beginning of the +ninth, is happily preserved in some of the ancient MSS. of that date, +they were scarcely more than a very large boat, and seem to be built +of stout planks, laid one over the other, in the manner as is done in +the present time; their heads and sterns are very erect, and rise +high out of the water, ornamented at top with some uncouth head of an +animal, rudely cut; they have but one mast, the top of which is also +decorated with a bird, or some such device; to this mast is made fast +a large sail, which, from its nature and construction, could only be +useful when the vessel went before the wind. The ship was steered +with a large oar, with a flat end, very broad, passing by the side of +the stern; and this was managed by the pilot, who sat in the stern, +and thence issued his orders to the mariners." The bird on the mast +head, mentioned in this description, appears, from the account of +Canute's fleet, given in Du Cange, to have been for the purpose of +shewing the wind.</p> + +<p>The same energy and comprehension of mind which induced and +enabled Alfred to improve his navy so much, led him to favour +geographical pursuits and commere. In his Anglo-Saxon translation of +Orosius, he has inserted the information he had obtained from two +Scandinavians, Ohter and Wulfstan. In this we have the most ancient +description, that is clear and precise, of the countries in the north +of Europe. Ohter sailed from Helgoland in Norway, along the coast of +Lapland, and doubling the North Cape, reached the White Sea. This +cape had not before been doubled; nor was it again, till in the +middle of the 16th century, by Chancellor, the English navigator, who +was supposed at that time to be the original discoverer. Ohter also +made a voyage up the Baltic, as far as Sleswig. Wulfstan, however, +penetrated further into this sea than Ohter; for he reached Truse, a +city in Prussia, which he represents as a place of considerable +trade.</p> + +<p>Alfred even extended his views to India, whether stimulated by +religious views, or by the desire of obtaining its luxuries, is +uncertain; perhaps both motives operated on his mind. We know that +the patriarch of Jerusalem corresponded with him; and that the +Christians of St. Thomas, in India, would probably be mentioned in +these letters: we also know, that about a century before Alfred +lived, the venerable Bede was possessed of pepper, cinnamon, and +frankincense. Whatever were Alfred's motives, the fact is undoubted, +that he sent one of his bishops to St. Thomas, who brought back +aromatic liquors, and splendid jewels. Alfred seems to have been rich +in the most precious commodities of the East; for he presented Asser, +his biographer, with a robe of silk, and as much incense as a strong +man could carry. After all, however, the commerce of England in his +reign was extremely limited: had it been of any importance, it would +have been more specially noticed and protected by his laws. It was +otherwise, however, in the reign of Athelstan; for there is a famous +law made by him, by which the rank and privileges of a thane are +conferred on every merchant, who had made three voyages across the +sea, with a vessel and cargo of his own. By another law passed in +this reign, the exportation of horses was forbidden.</p> + +<p>From this period till the conquest, England was prevented from +engaging in commerce by the constant irruption of the Danes, and by +the short duration of their sovereignty after they had succeeded in +obtaining it. There are, however, even during this time, some notices +on the subject; as appears from the laws of Ethelred: by these, tolls +were established on all boats and vessels arriving at Billingsgate, +according to their size. The men of Rouen, who brought wine and large +fish, and those from Flanders, Normandy, and other parts of France, +were obliged to shew their goods, and pay the duties; but the +emperor's men, who came with their ships, were more favoured, though +they were not exempt from duty.</p> + +<p>From what relates to the geographical knowledge and the commerce +of the Scandinavian inhabitants of England, we shall now pass on to +the geographical discoveries and commerce of the other Scandinavian +nations.</p> + +<p>About the year 861, a Scandinavian vessel, probably on its voyage +to Shetland or Orkney, discovered the Feroe islands. This discovery, +and the flight of some birds, induced the Scandinavians to believe +that there was other land in the vicinity of these islands. About ten +years afterwards, Iceland was discovered by some Norwegian nobility +and their dependants, who were obliged to leave their native country, +in consequence of the tyranny of Harold Harfragre. According to some +accounts, however, Iceland had been visited by a Norwegian pirate a +few years before this; and if the circumstance mentioned in the +Icelandic Chronicles be true, that wooden crosses, and other little +pieces of workmanship, after the manner of the Irish and Britons, +were found in it, it must have been visited before the Scandinavians +arrived. The new colonists soon acquired a thorough knowledge of the +size of the island; for they expressly state, that its circumference +is 168 leagues, 15 to a degree, which corresponds with the most +accurate modern measurement.</p> + +<p>Iceland soon became celebrated for its learning; the history of +the North, as well as its geography, is much indebted to its authors: +nor were its inhabitants, though confined to a cold and sterile land +very remote from the rest of Europe, inattentive to commerce; for +they carried on a considerable trade in the northern seas,--their +ships visiting Britain, Ireland, France, Germany, &c.; and there +is even an instance of their having made a commercial voyage as far +as Constantinople.</p> + +<p>To them the discovery of Greenland and of America is due. The +first took place about the beginning of the tenth century: a colony +was immediately established, which continued till it was destroyed by +a pestilence in the 14th century, and by the accumulation of ice, +which prevented all communication between Iceland and Greenland.</p> + +<p>The discovery of America took place in the year 1001: an +Icelander, in search of his father who was in Greenland, was carried +to the south by a violent wind. Land was discovered at a distance, +flat, low, and woody. He did not go on shore, but returned. His +account induced a Norwegian nobleman to fit out a ship to explore +this new land; after sailing for some time, they descried a flat +shore, without verdure; and soon afterwards a low land covered with +wood. Two days' prosperous sailing brought them to a third shore, on +the north of which lay an island: they entered, and sailed up a +river, and landed. Pleased with the temperature of the climate, the +apparent fertility of the soil, and the abundance of fish in the +rivers, they resolved to pass the winter in this country; and they +gave it the name of Vinland, from the quantity of small grapes which +they found growing. A colony was soon afterwards formed, who traded +with the natives; these are represented as of diminutive stature, of +the same race as the inhabitants of the west part of Greenland, and +as using leathern canoes. The merchandize they brought consisted +chiefly of furs, sables, the skins of white rats, &c.; and they +principally and most eagerly requested, in exchange, hatchets and +arms. It appears from the Icelandic Chronicles, that a regular trade +was established between this country and Norway, and that dried +grapes or raisins were among the exports. In the year 1121, a bishop +went from Greenland for the purpose of converting the colonists of +Vinland to the Christian religion: after this period, there is no +information regarding this country. This inattention to the new +colony probably arose from the intercourse between the west of +Greenland and Iceland having ceased, as we have already mentioned, +and from the northern nations having been, about this period, wasted +by a pestilence, and weakened and distracted by feuds. Of the +certainty of the discovery there can be no doubt: the Icelandic +Chronicles are full and minute, not only respecting it, but also +respecting the transactions which took place among the colonists, and +between them and the natives. And Adam of Bremen, who lived at this +period, expressly states, that the king of Denmark informed him, that +another island had been discovered in the ocean which washes Norway, +called Vinland, from the vines which grew there; and he adds, we +learn, not by fabulous hearsay, but by the express report of certain +Danes, that fruits are produced without cultivation. Ordericus +Vitalis, in his Ecclesiastical History, under the year 1098, reckons +Vinland along with Greenland, Iceland, and the Orkneys, as under the +dominion of the king of Norway.</p> + +<p>Where then was Vinland?--it is generally believed it was part of +America; and the objections which may be urged against this opinion, +do not appear to us to be of much weight. It is said that no part of +America could be reached in four days, the space of time in which the +first discoverer reached this land, and in which the voyages from +Greenland to it seem generally to have been made. But the west part +of Greenland is so near some part of America, that a voyage might +easily be effected in that time. In answer to the objection, that +vines do not grow in the northern parts of America, where Vinland, if +part of this continent, must be fixed, it may be observed, that in +Canada the vine bears a small fruit; and that still further north, in +Hudson's Bay, according to Mr. Ellis, vines grew spontaneously, +producing a fruit which he compares to the currants of the Levant. +The circumstances mentioned in the Icelandic Chronicles respecting +the natives, that their canoes are made of skins; that they are very +expert with their bows and arrows; that on their coasts they fish for +whales, and in the interior live by hunting; that their merchandize +consists of whalebone and furs; that they are fond of iron, and +instruments made of it; and that they were small in stature, all +coincide with what we know to be characterestic of the inhabitants of +Labrador. It is probable, therefore, that this part of America, or +the island of Newfoundland, was the Vinland discovered by the +Icelanders.</p> + +<p>The beginning and middle of the tenth century witnessed an +increasing spirit of commerce, as well as considerable attention to +geographical pursuits in other Scandinavian nations, as well as the +Icelanders. Periodical public fairs were established in several towns +of Germany, and other parts of the North: one of the most +considerable articles of traffic at these fairs consisted of slaves +taken in war. Sleswig is represented as a port of considerable trade +and consequence; from it sailed ships to Slavonia, Semland, and +Greece, or rather, perhaps, Russia. From a port on the side of +Jutland, opposite to Sleswig, vessels traded to Frisca, Saxony, and +England; and from another port in Jutland they sailed to Fionia, +Scania, and Norway. Sweden is represented as, at this time, carrying +on an extensive and lucrative trade. At the mouth of the Oder, on the +south side of the Baltic, there seems to have been one, if not two +towns which were enriched by commerce.</p> + +<p>For most of these particulars respecting the commerce of the +Baltic and adjacent seas, at this period, we are indebted to Adam of +Bremen. He was canon of Bremen in the eleventh century: and from the +accounts of the missionaries who went into Lapland, and other parts +of the North, to convert the inhabitants to Christianity, the +information he received from the king of Denmark, and his own +observations, he drew up a detailed account of the Scandinavian +kingdoms. His description of Jutland is full, and he mentions several +islands in the Baltic, which are not noticed by prior writers. He +also treats of the interior parts of Sweden, the coasts only of which +had been previously made known by the voyages published by king +Alfred. Of Russia, he informs us that it was a very extensive +kingdom, the capital of which was Kiev; and that the inhabitants +traded with the Greeks in the Black Sea. So far his information seems +to have been good; but though his account of the south coasts of the +Baltic is tolerably correct, yet he betrays great ignorance in most +of what he says respecting the northern parts of the Baltic. In his +work the name Baltic first Occurs. His geographical descriptions +extend to the British isles; but of them he relates merely the +fabulous stories of Solinus, &c. The figure of the earth, and the +cause of the inequality of the length of the day and night, were +known to Adam of Bremen.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the twelfth century, Lubeck was founded; and +it soon became a place of considerable trade, being the resort of +merchants from all the countries of the North, and having a mint, +custom-house, &c. We shall afterwards be called upon to notice it +more particularly, when we come to trace the origin and history of +the Hanseatic League. At present we shall only mention, that within +thirty years after it was founded, and before the establishment of +the League, Lubeck was so celebrated for its commerce, that the +Genoese permitted its merchants to trade in the Mediterranean on +board their vessels, on the same footing with their own citizens. The +success of the Lubeckers stimulated the other inhabitants of this +part of the Baltic shores; and the bishop of Lunden founded a city in +Zealand, for the express purpose of being a place of trade, as its +name, Keopman's haven, Chapman's haven, (Copenhagen,) implies. +Towards the close of this century, Hamburgh is noticed as a place of +trade.</p> + +<p>The two cities of Lubeck and Hamburgh are generally regarded as +having laid the foundation of the Hanseatic League. This League was +first formed, solely to protect the carriage by land of merchandize +between these cities; it is supposed to have been began about the +middle of the thirteenth century. Other cities soon joined the +League, and its objects became more multiplied and extensive; but +still having the protection and encouragement of their commerce +principally in view. The total number of confederated cities was +between seventy and eighty. Lubeck was fixed upon as the head of the +League: in it the assemblies met, and the archives were preserved. +Inland commerce, the protection of which had given rise to the +League, was still attended to; but the maritime commerce of the +Baltic, as affording greater facilities and wealth, was that with +which the League chiefly occupied itself. The confederated cities +were the medium of exchange between the productions of Germany, +Flanders, France, and Spain; and the timber, metals, fish, furs, +&c. of the countries on this sea.</p> + +<p>The conquest and conversion of the pagan countries between the +Vistula and the Gulf of Finland, by the Teutonic knights, was +favourable to the commercial views of the confederated cities; for +the conquerors obliged the natives to confine their attention and +labour exclusively to agriculture, permitting Germans alone to carry +on commerce, and engage in trade. Hence Germans emigrated to these +countries; and the League, always quicksighted to their own +interests, soon connected themselves with the new settlers, and +formed commercial alliances, which were recognized and protected by +the Teutonic knights. Elbing, Dantzic, Revel, and Riga, were thus +added to the League--cities, which, from their situation, were +admirably calculated to obtain and forward the produce of the +interior parts of Poland and Russia.</p> + +<p>The northern countries of the Baltic shore, in a great measure +inattentive to commerce, and distracted by wars, were supplied by the +League with money, on condition that they should assign to them the +sources of wealth which their mines supplied, and moreover grant them +commercial privileges, immunities, and establishments. Lubeck was +chiefly benefited and enriched by the treaties thus formed; for she +obtained the working of the mines of Sweden and Norway, which do not +seem to have been known, and were certainly not productively and +effectively worked before this time. The League also obtained, by +various means, the exclusive herring fishery of the Sound, which +became a source of so much wealth, that the "fishermen were +superintended, during the season, with as much jealousy as if they +had been employed in a diamond mine."</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the thirteenth century, the king of Norway +permitted the League to establish a factory and the staple of their +northern trade at Bergen. A singular establishment seems soon to have +been formed here: at first the merchants of the League were permitted +to trade to Bergen only in the summer months; but they afterwards +were allowed to reside here permanently, and they formed twenty-one +large factories, all the members of which were unmarried, and lived +together in messes within their factories. Each factory was capable +of accommodating about one hundred merchants, with their servants. +Their importations consisted of flax, corn, biscuit, flour, malt, +ale, cloth, wine, spirituous liquors, copper, silver, &c.; and +they exported ship-timber, masts, furs, butter, salmon, dried cod, +fish-oil, &c.</p> + +<p>As the grand object of the League was to secure to themselves the +profits arising from the mutual supply of the north and south of +Europe, with the merchandize of each, they had agents in France, +Spain, &c. as well as in the countries on the Baltic. England, at +this period, did not carry on much commerce, nor afford much +merchandize or produce for exportation; yet even in it the Hanseatic +League established themselves. Towards the end of the thirteenth +century they had a factory in London, and were allowed to export +wool, sheep's skins, and tin, on condition that they kept in repair +the gate of the city called Bishopsgate: they were also allowed the +privilege of electing an alderman.</p> + +<p>Bruges, which is said to have had regular weekly fairs for the +sale of the woollen manufactures of Flanders so early as the middle +of the tenth century, and to have been fixed upon by the Hanseatic +League, in the middle of the thirteenth, as an entrepôt for +their trade, certainly became, soon after this latter period, a city +of great trade, probably from its connection with the Hanseatic +League, though it never was formally admitted a member. We shall +afterwards have occasion to notice it in our view of the progress of +the Hanseatic League.</p> + +<p>As the commerce of the League encreased and extended in the +Baltic, it became necessary to fix on some depôt. Wisby, a city +in the island of Gothland, was chosen for this purpose, as being most +central. Most exaggerated accounts are given of the wealth and +splendour to which its inhabitants rose, in consequence of their +commercial prosperity. It is certain that its trade was very +considerable, and that it was the resort of merchants and vessels +from all the north of Europe: for, as the latter could not, in the +imperfect state of navigation, perform their voyage in one season, +their cargoes were wintered and lodged in magazines on shore. At this +city was compiled a code of maritime laws, from which the modern +naval codes of Denmark and Sweden are borrowed; as those of Wisby +were founded on the laws of Oleren, (which will be noticed when we +treat of the commerce of England during this period,) and on the laws +of Barcelona, of which we have already spoken; and as these again +were, in a great measure, borrowed from the maritime code of +Rhodes.</p> + +<p>But to return to the more immediate history of the Hanseatic +League,--about the year 1369 their power in the Baltic was so great, +that they engaged in a successful war with the king of Denmark, and +obliged him, as the price of peace, to deliver to them several towns +which were favourably situated for their purpose.</p> + +<p>The Hanseatic League, though they were frequently involved in +disputes, and sometimes in wars, with France, Flanders, Holland, +Denmark, England, and other powers, and though they undoubtedly aimed +at, not only the monopoly, but also the sovereignty of the Baltic, +and encroached where-ever they were permitted to fix themselves, yet +were of wonderful service to civilization and commerce. "In order to +accomplish the views of nature, by extending the intercourse of +nations, it was necessary to open the Baltic to commercial relations; +it was necessary to instruct men, still barbarous, in the elements of +industry, and to familiarize them in the principles of civilization. +These great foundations were laid by the confederation; and at the +close of the fifteenth century, the Baltic and the neighbouring seas +had, by its means, become frequented routes of communication between +the North and the South. The people of the former were enabled to +follow the progress of the latter in knowledge and industry." The +forests of Sweden, Poland, &c. gave place to corn, hemp, and +flax; the mines were wrought; and, in return, the produce and +manufactures of the South were received. Towns and villages were +erected in Scandinavia, where huts only were before seen: the skins +of the bear and wolf were exchanged for woollens, linens, and silks: +learning was introduced; and printing was scarcely invented before it +was practised in Denmark, Sweden, &c.</p> + +<p>It was at this period that the Hanse towns were the most +flourishing; and that Bruges, largely partaking of their prosperity, +and the sole staple for all their goods, rose to its highest wealth +and consequence, and, in fact, was the grand entrepôt of the +trade of Europe. The Hanse towns were at this time divided into four +classes: Lubeck was at the head of the whole League; in it the +meetings of the deputies from the other towns were held, and the +archives of the League were kept. Under it were Hamburgh, Rostok, +Wismar, and other nine towns situated in the north of Germany. +Cologne was the chief city of the second class, with twenty-nine +towns under it, lying in that part of Germany. Brunswick was the +capital of the third class, having under it twelve towns, farther to +the south than those under Lubeck. Dantzic was at the head of the +fourth class, having under it eight towns in its vicinity, besides +some smaller ones more remote. The four chief factories of the League +were Novogorod in Russia, London, Bruges, and Bergen.</p> + +<p>From this period till the middle of the sixteenth century, their +power, though sometimes formidable, and their commerce, though +sometimes flourishing, were both on the decline. Several causes +contributed to this: they were often engaged in disputes, and not +unfrequently in wars, with the northern powers. That civilization, +knowledge, and wealth, to which, as we have remarked, they +contributed so essentially, though indirectly, and without having +these objects in view, disposed and enabled other powers to +participate in the commerce which they had hitherto exclusively +carried on. It was not indeed to be supposed, that either the +monarchs or the subjects would willingly and cheerfully submit to +have all their own trade in the very heart of their own country +conducted, and the fruit of it reaped by foreign merchants. They, +therefore, first used their efforts to gain possession of their own +commerce, and then aspired to participate in the trade of other +countries; succeeding by degrees, and after a length of time, in both +these objects, the Hanseatic League was necessarily depressed in the +same proportion.</p> + +<p>The Dutch and the English first began to seek a participation in +the commerce of the North. The chief cities which formed the republic +of Holland had been among the earliest members or confederates of the +League, and when they threw off the yoke of Germany, and attached +themselves to the house of Bourbon, they ceased to form part of the +League; and after much dispute, and even hostility with the remaining +members of it, they succeeded in obtaining a part of the commerce of +the Baltic, and commercial treaties with the king of Denmark, and the +knights of the Teutonic order.</p> + +<p>The commerce of the League was also curtailed in the Baltic, where +it had always been most formidable and flourishing, by the English, +who, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, gained admission for +their vessels into Dantzic and the ports of Sweden and Denmark. The +only port of consequence in the northern nations, to which the ships +of the League were exclusively admitted, was Bergen, which at this +period was rather under their dominion than under that of Norway. In +the middle of the sixteenth century, however, they abandoned it, in +consequence of disputes with the king of Denmark. About the same time +they abandoned Novogorod, the czar having treated their merchants +there in a very arbitrary and tyrannical manner. These, and other +circumstances to which we have already adverted, made their commerce +and power decline; and, towards the beginning of the seventeenth +century, they had ceased to be of much consequence. Though, however, +the League itself at this period had lost its influence and commerce, +yet some cities, which had been from the first members of it, still +retained a lucrative trade: this remark applies chiefly to Lubeck and +Hamburgh; the former of these cities possessed, about the middle of +the seventeenth century, 600 ships, some of which were very large; +and the commerce by which Hamburgh is still distinguished, is in some +measure the result of what it enjoyed as a member of the Hanseatic +League.</p> + +<p>We shall now turn our attention to the Italian states: Venice and +Amalfi were the first which directed their labours to the arts of +domestic industry, the forerunners and causes of commercial +prosperity. New wants and desires being created, and a taste for +elegance and luxury formed, foreign countries were visited. Muratori +mentions several circumstances which indicate a revival of a +commercial spirit; and, as Dr. Robertson remarks, from the close of +the seventh century, an attentive observer may discern faint traces +of its progress. Indeed, towards the beginning of the sixth century, +the Venetians had become so expert at sea, that Cassiodorus addressed +a letter to the maritime tribunes of Venice, (which is still extant,) +in which he requests them to undertake the transporting of the public +stores of wine and oil from Istria to Ravenna. In this letter, a +curious but rather poetical account is given of the state of the city +and its inhabitants: all the houses were alike: all the citizens +lived on the same food, viz. fish: the manufacture to which they +chiefly applied themselves was salt; an article, he says, more +indispensable to them than gold. He adds, that they tie their boats +to their walls, as people tie their cows and horses in other +places.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the eighth century, the Venetians no longer +confined their navigation to the Adriatic, but ventured to double the +southern promontory of Greece, and to trade to Constantinople itself. +The principal merchandize with which they freighted their ships, on +their return-voyage, consisted of silk, the rich produce of the East, +the drapery of Tyre, and furs; about a century afterwards, they +ventured to trade to Alexandria. Amalfi, Genoa, and Pisa followed +their example; but their trade never became very considerable till +the period of the crusades, when the treasures of the West were in +fact placed in their hands, and thus fresh vigour was given to their +carrying trade, manufactures, and commerce.</p> + +<p>There are a few notices, however, respecting the commerce of +Venice, and the other states of Italy, prior to the crusades, which +it may be necessary very briefly to give. About the year 969, Venice +and Amalfi are represented, by contemporary authors, as possessing an +equal share of trade. The latter traded to Africa, Constantinople, +and, it would appear, to some ports in the east end of the +Mediterranean; and Italy, as well as the rest of Europe, entirely +depended on these two states for their supply of the produce of the +East. At the beginning of the eleventh century, the citizens of +Amalfi seem to nave got the start of the Venetians in the favor and +commerce of the Mahomedan states of the East: they were permitted to +establish factories in the maritime towns, and even in Jerusalem; and +those privileges were granted them expressly because they imported +many articles of merchandize hitherto unknown in the East.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the same century, Pisa rose into eminence for its +commerce; it traded principally with the Saracen king of Sicily, and +with Africa. The Genoese also, at this period, are represented as +possessing a large portion of the trade of the Levant, particularly +of Joppa.</p> + +<p>As the most lucrative branch of commerce of all the Italian states +was that in the productions of the East, and as these could only be +obtained through Constantinople or Egypt, each state was eager to +gain the favor of rulers of these places. The favor of the Greek +emperor could be obtained principally by affording him succours +against his enemies; and these the Venetians afforded in 1082 so +effectually, that, in return, they were allowed to build a number of +warehouses at Constantinople, and were favoured with exclusive +commercial privileges. Dalmatia and Croatia were also ceded to +them.</p> + +<p>We now come to the period of the crusades, from which may be dated +the rapid increase of the commerce and power of the Italian states. +As none of the other European powers had ships numerous enough to +convey the crusaders to Dalmatia, whence they marched to +Constantinople, the fleets of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa were employed +for this purpose. But before they agreed to lend their fleets, they +bargained, that on the reduction of any city favorable to commerce, +they should be permitted to trade there without duty or molestation, +and be favoured with every privilege and protection which they might +desire. In consequence of this bargain, they obtained, in some +places, the exclusive right over whole streets, and the appointment +of judges to try all who lived in them, or traded under their +protection.</p> + +<p>A quarrel which took place between the Venetians and the Greek +Emperor Manuel, in 1171, is worthy of notice, as being connected with +the origin of the bank of Venice. The republic not being able to +supply, from its own sources, the means of carrying on the war, was +obliged to raise money from her citizens. To regulate this the +chamber of loans was established: the contributors to the loan were +made creditors to the chamber, and an annual interest of 4 per cent. +was allotted to them. If this rate of interest was not compulsive, it +is a sure criterion of a most flourishing state of trade, and of very +great abundance of money; but there is every reason to believe if was +compulsive.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 13th century, Constantinople was conquered +by the Venetians, and the leaders of the fourth crusade: this event +enabled them to supply Europe more abundantly with all the +productions of the East. In the partition of the Greek empire which +followed this success, the Venetians obtained part of the +Peloponnesus, where, at that period, silk was manufactured to a great +extent. By this accession, to which was added several of the largest +islands in the Archipelago, their sea coast extended from Venice to +Constantinople: they likewise purchased the isle of Crete. The whole +trade of the eastern Roman empire was thus at once transferred to the +Venetians; two branches of which particularly attracted their +attention,--the silk trade and that with India. The richest and most +rare kinds of silk were manufactured at Constantinople; and to carry +on this trade, many Venetians settled themselves in the city, and +they soon extended it very considerably, and introduced the +manufacture itself into Venice, with so much success, that the silks +of Venice equalled those of Greece and Sicily. The monopoly of the +trade of the Black Sea was also obtained by them, after the capture +of Constantinople; and thus some of the most valuable articles of +India and China were obtained by them, either exclusively, or in +greater abundance, and at a cheaper rate than they could be procured +by any other route. In consequence of all these advantages, Venice +was almost the sole channel of commerce in this part of Europe, +during the period of the Latin empire in Constantinople. This empire, +however, was of very short continuance, not lasting more than 57 +years.</p> + +<p>In the interval, the merchants of Florence became distinguished +for their commercial transactions, and particularly by becoming +dealers in money by exchange, and by borrowing and lending on +interest. In order to carry on this new branch of traffic, they had +agents and correspondents in different cities of Europe; and thus the +remittance of money by bills of exchange was chiefly conducted by +them. Other Italian states followed their example; and a new branch +of commerce, and consequently a new source of wealth, was thus struck +out.</p> + +<p>In the year 1261, the Greek emperor regained Constantinople +through the assistance of the Genoese; and the latter, as usual, were +amply repaid for their services on this occasion. Pera, the chief +suburb of Constantinople, was allotted to them: here they had their +own laws, administered by their own magistrates; and they were +exempted from the accustomed duties on goods imported and exported. +These privileges raised their commerce in this part of the world +above that of the Venetians and Pisans; who, however, were still +permitted to retain their factories. The Genoese soon began to aim at +more extensive power and trade; and under the pretext that the +Venetians were going to attack their new settlement, they obtained +permission to surround it, and their factories in the neighbouring +coasts, with fortifications. The trade of the Black Sea was under the +dominion of the Greek emperor, who, by the possession of +Constantinople, commanded its narrow entrance: even the sultan of +Egypt solicited liberty to send a vessel annually to purchase slaves +in Circassia and Lesser Tartary. The Genoese eagerly looked to +participating in the valuable commerce of this sea; and this object +they soon obtained. In return they supplied the Greeks with fish and +corn. "The waters of the Don, the Oxus, the Caspian, and the Wolga, +opened a rare and laborious passage for the gems and spices of India; +and after three months march, the caravans of Carizme met the Italian +vessels in the harbours of the Crimea." These various branches of +trade were monopolized by the diligence and power of the Genoese; and +their rivals of Venice and Pisa were forcibly expelled. The Greek +emperor, alarmed at their power and encroachments, was at length +engaged in a maritime war with them; but though he was assisted by +the Venetians, the Genoese were victorious.</p> + +<p>The Venetians, who were thus driven from a most lucrative +commerce, endeavoured to compensate for their loss by extending their +power and commerce in other quarters: they claimed and received a +toll on all vessels navigating the Adriatic, especially from those +sailing between the south-point of Istria and Venice. But their +commerce and power on the Adriatic could be of little avail, unless +they regained at least a portion of that traffic in Indian +merchandize, which at this period formed the grand source of wealth. +Constantinople, and consequently the Black Sea, was shut up from +them: on the latter the Genoese were extending their traffic; they +had seized on Caffa from the Tartars, and made it the principal +station of their commerce. The Venetians in this emergency looked +towards the ancient route to India, or rather the ancient depôt +for Indian goods,-- Alexandria: this city had been shut against +Christians for six centuries; but it was now in the possession of the +sultan of the Mamalukes, and he was more favourable to them. Under +the sanction of the Pope, the Venetians entered into a treaty of +commerce with the sultans of Egypt; by which they were permitted to +have one consul in Alexandria, and another in Damascus. Venetian +merchants and manufacturers were settled in both these cities. If we +may believe Sir John de Mandeville, their merchants frequently went +to the island of Ormus and the Persian Gulf, and sometimes even to +Cambalu. By their enterprize the Indian trade was almost entirely in +their possession; and they distributed the merchandize of the East +among the nations of the north of Europe, through Bruges and the +Hanseatic League, and traded even directly in their own vessels to +England.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the fifteenth century, the annual value of the +goods exported from Venice amounted to ten millions of ducats; and +the profits on the home and outward voyages, were about four +millions. Their shipping consisted of 3000 vessels, of from 10 to 200 +amphoras burden, carrying 17,000 sailors; 300 ships with 8000 seamen; +and 45 gallies of various sizes, manned by 11,000 seamen. In the +dock-yard, 16,000 carpenters were usually employed. Their trade to +Syria and Egypt seems to have been conducted entirely, or chiefly, by +ready money; for 500,000 ducats were sent into those countries +annually: 100,000 ducats were sent to England. From the Florentines +they received annually 16,000 pieces of cloth: these they exported to +different ports of the Mediterranean; they also received from the +Florentines 7000 ducats weekly, which seems to have been the balance +between the cloth they sold to the Venetians, and the French and +Catalan wool, crimson grain, silk, gold and silver thread, wax, +sugar, violins, &c., which they bought at Venice. Their commerce, +especially the oriental branch of it, increased; and by the conquest +of Constantinople by the Turks, the consequence of which was the +expulsion of the Genoese, they were enabled, almost without a rival, +to supply the encreasing demand of Europe for the productions of the +East. Their vessels visited every port of the Mediterranean, and +every coast of Europe; and their maritime commerce, about the end of +the fifteenth century, was probably greater than that of all the rest +of Europe. Their manufactures were also a great source of wealth; the +principal were silk, cloth of gold and silver, vessels of gold and +silver, and glass. The discovery of a passage to the East Indies by +the Cape of Good Hope, the powerful league of Cambray, and other +circumstances, weakened and gradually destroyed their commerce and +power.</p> + +<p>We have said that they supplied almost, without a rival, the +demand in Europe for the produce of the East. That rival was +Florence: the success of her merchants in a new branch of commerce +has been already noticed. The profits they derived from lending money +on interest, and from negociating bills of exchange, aided by their +profits on their manufactures, for which, particularly those of silk +and woollen, they were celebrated so early as the beginning of the +fourteenth century, had rendered Florence one of the first cities of +Europe, and many of its merchants extremely rich. In the year 1425, +having purchased the port of Leghorn, they resolved, if possible, to +partake in the commerce of Alexandria. A negociation was accordingly +opened with the sultan: the result of which was, that the Florentines +obtained some share in the Indian trade; and soon afterwards it +appears that they imported spices into England. It is supposed, that +the famous family of the Medici were extensively concerned in the +Indian trade of Florence. Cosmo de Medici was the greatest merchant +of the age: he had agents and money transactions in every part of +Europe; and his immense wealth not only enabled him to gratify his +love for literature and the fine arts, but also to influence the +politics of Italy, and occasionally of the more remote parts of +Europe. In the time of Lorenzo de Medici, about the close of the +fifteenth century, the commercial intercourse between Florence and +Egypt was greatly extended. Florence, indeed, was now in the zenith +of her prosperity; after this period her commerce declined, +principally from the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>In these brief notices of the commerce of the principal Italian +states, Venice, Genoa, and Florence, in the days of their greatest +glory, we have purposely omitted any reference to the other states, +except stating a fact or two relating to Amalfi and Pisa, during that +period, when they nearly rivalled the three great states. It will be +proper, however, to subjoin to this account of Italian commerce, as +it existed prior to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, some +important facts respecting Amalfi, Pisa, Milan, Modena, &c., in +order that our sketch, though necessarily brief, may not be +deficient.</p> + +<p>A great rivalship existed between Pisa and Amalfi in the twelfth +century, arising chiefly from commercial jealousy; and this rivalship +leading to war, Amalfi was twice taken and pillaged by the Pisans, +who, indeed, during the zenith of their power, had repeatedly +triumphed over the Saracens of Africa and Spain. Amalfi, however, +soon recovered; but we possess no memorials of her commerce after +this period, which deserve insertion here. Her maritime laws, the +date of which is uncertain, seem to have been generally adopted by +the Italian states.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the twelfth century, the power and commerce of +Pisa were at their height: it partook, with Genoa and Venice, of the +advantages derived from the trade of Constantinople. In the beginning +of the next century, however, we find it became a mere auxiliary of +Venice. Its subsequent wars with Genoa, and the factions which arose +within its walls, reduced its commerce so low, about the middle of +the fourteenth century, that nothing respecting it worthy of notice +occurs after this period.</p> + +<p>The wealth derived by Florence from a traffic in money has been +already noticed. The example of this city was followed by Asti, an +inland town of Piedmont, Milan, Placentia, Sienna, Lucca, &c. +Hence the name of Lombard, or Tuscan merchant, was given to all who +engaged in money transactions. The silk manufacture was the principal +one in Italy; it seems to have been introduced by the Venetians, when +they acquired part of the Greek empire. In the beginning of the +fourteenth century, Modena was the principal seat of this +manufacture; soon afterwards Florence, Lucca, Milan, and Bologna, +likewise engaged in it.</p> + +<p>Within the period to which the present chapter is confined, there +are few traces of commerce in any other parts of Europe besides the +Italian states and the Hanseatic League: the former monopolizing the +commerce of the south of Europe and of Asia, and the latter that of +the north of Europe, particularly of the Baltic, engrossed among them +and the cities which were advantageously situated for intermediate +depôts, nearly all the trade that then existed. There are, +however, a few notices of commercial spirit and enterprize in other +parts of Europe, during this period, which must not be omitted.</p> + +<p>In Domesday-book a few particulars are set down relating to the +internal and foreign trade of England. In Southwark the king had a +duty on ships coming into a dock, and also a toll on the Strand. +Gloucester must have enjoyed some manufactures of trade in iron, as +it was obliged to supply iron and iron rods for the king's ships. +Martins' skins were imported into Chester, either from Iceland or +Germany. The navigation of the Trent and the Fosse, and the road to +York, were carefully attended to.</p> + +<p>If we may believe Fitz-Stephen, London, in the middle of the +twelfth century, possessed a considerable portion of trade: among the +imports, he mentions gold, spices, and frankincense from Arabia; +precious stones from Egypt; purple drapery from India, palm oil from +Bagdad: but it is certain that all these articles were obtained +directly from Italian merchants. The furs of Norway and Russia were +brought by German merchants, who, according to William of Malmsbury, +were the principal foreign merchants who traded to England. The same +author mentions Exeter, as a city much resorted to by foreign +merchants; and that vessels from Norway, Iceland, and other +countries, frequented the port of Bristol. Chester at this period +also possessed much trade, particularly with Iceland, Aquitaine, +Spain, and Germany. Henry I. made a navigable canal from the Trent to +the Witham at Lincoln, which rendered this place one of the most +flourishing seats of home and foreign trade in England. The Icelandic +Chronicles inform us that Grimsby was a port much resorted by the +merchants of Norway, Scotland, Orkney, and the Western Islands.</p> + +<p>Previous to the reign of Henry II., the sovereigns and lords of +manors in England claimed, as their right, the property of all +wrecked vessels; but this monarch passed a law, enacting, that if any +one human creature, or even a beast, were found alive in the ship, or +belonging to her, the property should be kept for the owners, +provided they claimed it in three months. This law, as politic as it +was humane and just, must have encouraged foreign trade. In this +reign the chief exports seem to have been lead, tin, and wool, and +small quantities of honey, wax, cheese, and salmon. The chief imports +were wine from the king's French dominions, woad for dying, +spiceries, jewels, silks, furs, &c.</p> + +<p>The laws of Oleron, an island near the coast of France belonging +to England, are generally supposed to have been passed by Richard I.; +both these, however, and their exact date, are uncertain: they were +copied from the Rhodian law, or rather from the maritime laws of +Barcelona.</p> + +<p>Though it appears by official documents in the reign of king John, +that the south coast of England, and the east coast only, as far as +Norfolk, were esteemed the principal part of the country; yet, very +shortly after the date of these documents, Newcastle certainly had +some foreign trade, particularly with the northern nations of Europe +for furs. In this reign are the first records of English letters of +credit.</p> + +<p>Some idea may be formed of the importation of wine at the +beginning of the fourteenth century, by the following facts: in the +year ending 20th Nov. 1299, the number of vessels that arrived in +London and the other ports, (with the exception of the Cinque ports,) +bringing cargoes of wine amounting to more than nineteen tuns, was +seventy-three; and the number in the next year was seventy-one. It is +probable, however, that we may double these numbers, since the Cinque +ports, being exempted from the duty on wine, would import much more +than any other equal number of ports. From a charter granted to +foreign merchants in 1302, it appears that they came from the +following countries to trade in England:--Germany, France, Spain, +Portugal, Navarre, Lombardy, Tuscany, Provence, Catalonia, Aquitaine, +Thoulouse, Quercy, Flanders, and Brabant. The very important +privileges and immunities granted to them sufficiently proves, that +at this period the commerce of England was mainly dependent on them. +That there were, however, native merchants of considerable wealth and +importance, cannot be doubted. In the year 1318, the king called a +council of English merchants on staple business: they formed a board +of themselves; and one was appointed to preside, under the title of +mayor of the merchants, or mayor of the staple.</p> + +<p>About the middle of this century, Dover, London, Yarmouth, Boston, +and Hull, were appointed places for exchanging foreign money; and the +entire management was given to William de la Pole. His name deserves +particular notice, as one of the richest and most enlightened of the +early merchants of England. His son, Michael, was also a merchant, +and was created earl of Suffolk by Richard II. "His posterity +flourished as earls, marquises, and dukes of Suffolk, till a royal +marriage, and a promise of the succession to the crown, brought the +family to ruin."</p> + +<p>When Edward III. went to the siege of Calais, the different ports +of England furnished him with ships. From the list of these it +appears, that the whole number supplied was 700, manned by 14,151 +seamen, averaging under twenty men for each vessel. Gosford is the +only port whose vessels average thirty-one men. Yarmouth sent +forty-three vessels; Fowey, forty-seven; Dartmouth, thirty-one; +Bristol, twenty-four; Plymouth, twenty-six; London, twenty-five; +Margate, fifteen; Sandwich, twenty-two; Southampton, twenty-one; +Winchelsea, twenty-one; Newcastle, sixteen; Hull, seventeen.</p> + +<p>In the year 1354 we have a regular account of such exports and +imports as paid duty; from which it appears, that there were exported +31,651 sacks of wool, 3036 cwt. of woad, sixty-five wool-fells, 4774 +pieces of cloth, and 8061 pieces of worsted stuff; and there were +imported 1831 pieces of fine cloth, 397 cwt. of wax, and 1829 tuns of +wine, besides linen, mercery, groceries, &c. As tin, lead, and +several other articles are not enumerated, it may be inferred that +they paid no duty. In the year 1372 there is the earliest record of +direct trade with Prussia. As the woollen manufactures of England +began to flourish, the importation of woollen cloths necessarily +diminished; so that, in the act of 1378, reviving the acts of 1335 +and 1351 for the encouragement of foreign merchants, though cloth of +gold and silver, stuffs of silk, napery, linen, canvas, &c. are +enumerated as imported by them, woollen cloth is not mentoned. The +trade to the Baltic gradually increased as the ports in the north of +England, particularly Newcastle, rose in wealth. In 1378 coals and +grindstones were exported from this place to Prussia, Norway, +Schonen, and other ports of the Baltic. Soon afterwards, in +consequence of some disputes between the Prussians and English, a +commercial treaty was formed between the Grand Master of Prussia and +Edward III., by which it was agreed that the Prussian merchants in +London should be protected, and that English merchants should have +free access to every part of Prussia, to trade freely, as it used to +be in ancient times. In order to carry this treaty into full effect +on the part of the English, a citizen of London was chosen to be +governor of the English merchants in Prussia and the other countries +on the Baltic. Disputes, however, still arose, and piracies were +committed on both sides. Meetings were therefore held at the Hague, +to hear and settle the complaints of each party. From the statements +then given in, it appears, that woollen clothes now formed a +considerable part of the exports of England to the Baltic. That they +were also exported in considerable quantity to the south of Europe, +appears from other documents.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the fifteenth century the foreign commerce of +England had considerably increased; for we are informed, that some +merchants of London shipped wool and other goods, to the value of +24,000 <i>l</i>., to the Mediterranean; and nearly about the same +time, the English merchants possessed valuable warehouses and an +extensive trade at Bergen in Norway, and sent vessels of the size of +200 tons to Portugal. The freight of one of these is stated to have +been worth 6000 crowns in gold. The improvement of the woollen +manufactures may be inferred from the following circumstance: alum is +very useful to fullers and dyers. About the year 1422, the Genoese +obtained from the Greek emperor the lease of a hill in Asia Minor, +containing alum: England was one of the chief customers for this +article; but it undoubtedly was imported, not in English, but in +Genoese vessels. In the year 1450 the Genoese delivered alum to the +value of 4000l. to Henry VI. Bristol seems to have been one of the +most commercial cities in England. One merchant of it is mentioned as +having been possessed of 2470 tuns of shipping: he traded to Finmark +and Iceland for fish, and to the Baltic for timber and other bulky +articles in very large ships, some of which are said to have been of +the burden of 400, 500, and even 900 tons. Towards the latter end of +the fifteenth century, the parliament, in order to encourage English +shipping, (as hitherto the greatest part of the foreign trade of +England had been carried on by foreign merchants in foreign vessels,) +enacted a species of navigation law, and prohibited the king's +subjects from shipping goods in England and Wales on board any vessel +owned by a foreigner, unless when sufficient freight could not be +found in English vessels.</p> + +<p>Such are the most instructive and important notices respecting the +state and progress of English commerce, which occur prior to the +discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and America. We shall now proceed +to give similar notices of the commerce of Scotland, Ireland, France, +and the other countries of Europe; these, however, shall be very +brief and few. In the middle of the twelfth century, Berwick, which +then belonged to Scotland, is described as having more foreign +commerce than any other port in that kingdom, and as possessing many +ships. One of the merchants of this town was distinguished by the +appellation of <i>the opulent</i>. Inverluth, or Leith, is described +merely as possessing a harbour, but no mention is made of its trade. +Strivelen had some vessels and trade, and likewise Perth. There was +some trade between Aberdeen and Norway. There were no trading towns +on the west coast of Scotland at this period; but about twenty years +afterwards, a weekly market, and an annual fair were granted by +charter to Glasgow.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the foreign commerce of Scotland, being +confined to the east coast, was principally carried on with Norway: +with which country, indeed, Scotland had intimate connection; for we +do not find any notice of foreign merchants from other countries +trading to or settling in Scotland, till towards the end of the +thirteenth century, when some Flemish merchants established a factory +at Berwick. Wool, wool-fells, hides, &c. were the chief articles +of export; salmon also was exported. Of the importance and value of +the trade of this place we may form some idea, from the circumstance, +that the custom duties amounted to upwards of 2,000 <i>l</i>. +sterling; and of 1,500 marks a year settled on the widow of Alexander +prince of Scotland, 1,300 were paid by Berwick.</p> + +<p>In the year 1428. foreign commerce attracted considerable +attention in Scotland; and in order to encourage the native merchants +to carry it on themselves, and by their own vessels, the parliament +of Scotland seem, some time previous to this date, to have passed a +navigation act; for in an act passed this year, the Scotch merchants +were permitted for a year ensuing, to ship their goods in foreign +vessels, where Scotch ones were not to be found, notwithstanding the +statute to the contrary. Indeed, during the civil wars in England, +between the houses of York and Lancaster, when the manufactures and +commerce of that country necessarily declined, the commerce of +Scotland began to flourish, and was protected and encouraged by its +monarchs. The herring fishery was encouraged; duties were laid on the +exportation of wool, and a staple for Scotch commerce was fixed in +the Netherlands, In the year 1420 Glasgow began to acquire wealth by +the fisheries; but until the discovery of America and the West +Indies, it had little or no foreign trade. Towards the middle of the +fifteenth century, several acts of parliament were passed to +encourage agriculture, the fisheries, and commerce; the Scotch +merchants had now acquired so much wealth and general respectability, +that they were frequently employed, along with the clergy and nobles, +in embassies. Even some of the Scotch barons were engaged in trade. +In 1467 several acts were passed: among the most important enactments +were those which related to the freight of ships, the mode of stowing +it, the mode of fixing the average in case goods were thrown +overboard, and the time of the year when vessels might sail to +foreign countries.</p> + +<p>The commerce of Ireland, when its ports were frequented by the +Ostmen, has been already noticed. In the middle of the twelfth +century, we are informed, that foreign merchants brought gold to +Ireland, and that wheat and wine were imported from Bretagne into +Wexford; but the exports in return are not particularized. About this +period, some trade seems to have been carried on between Bristol and +Dublin; and on the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., that monarch +gave his city of Dublin to be inhabited by his men of Bristol. A +charter granted by the same monarch, gives to the burgesses of that +city free trade to England, Normandy, Wales, and the other ports of +Ireland. From this time the commerce of Dublin seems to have +flourished. It is certain, that at the middle of the fourteenth +century the Irish stuffs were in such request abroad, that imitations +of them were attempted by the Catalans, and they were worn as +articles of luxury by the ladies of Florence. But of the mode in +which they were conveyed to foreign countries, and the articles which +were received in exchange for them, we have no certain +information.</p> + +<p>Though France possessed excellent ports in the Mediterranean, +particularly Marseilles, which, as we have seen, in very early times +was celebrated for its commerce, yet she, as well as less favoured +ports of Europe, was principally indebted for her trade to the +Lombards and other Italian merchants, during the middle ages. The +political state of the country, indeed, was very unfavourable to +commerce during this period; there are, consequently, few particulars +of its commerce worth recording. About the beginning of the +fourteenth century, Montpelier seems to have had a considerable +trade; and they even sent ships with various articles of merchandize +to London. Mention of Bourdeaux occurs about the same time, as having +sent out, in one year, 1350 vessels, laden with 13,429 tuns of wine; +this gives nearly 100 tuns in each vessel on an average. But +Bourdeaux was in fact an English possession at this time. That +commerce between France and England would have flourished and +extended considerably, had it not been interrupted by the frequent +and bitter wars between these countries, is evident from the +consequences which followed the truce which was concluded between +their monarchs in 1384. The French, and particularly the Normans, +taking immediate advantage of this truce, imported into England an +immense quantity of wine, fruits, spiceries, and fish; gold and +silver alone were given in exchange. The Normans appear to have +traded very extensively in spiceries; but it is uncertain, whether +they brought them directly from the Mediterranean: they likewise +traded to the east country or Baltic countries. About a century +afterwards, that is in 1453, France could boast of her wealthy +merchant, as well as Florence and England. His name was Jacques +Coeur: he is said to have employed 300 factors, and to have traded +with the Turks and Persians; his exports were chiefly woollen cloth, +linen, and paper; and his imports consisted of silks, spiceries, +gold, silver, &c.</p> + +<p>In all our preceding accounts of the trade of Europe, the Italian +and Flemish merchants make a conspicuous figure. Flanders was +celebrated for its woollen manufactures, as well as for containing +the central depôts of the trade between the south and north of +Europe. Holland, which afterwards rose to such commercial importance, +does not appear in the annals of commerce till the beginning of the +fifteenth century. At this period, many of the manufacturers of +Brabant and Flanders settled in Holland; and about the same time the +Hollanders engaged in maritime commerce; but there are no particulars +respecting it, that fall within the limits of the present +chapter.</p> + +<p>It remains to notice Spain. The commerce of Barcelona in its +earliest stage has been already noticed. The Catalans, in the +thirteenth century, engaged very extensively in the commerce of the +Mediterranean, to almost every port of which they traded. The +earliest navigation act known was passed by the count of Barcelona +about this time; and laws were also framed, containing rules for the +owners and commanders of vessels, and the clerks employed to keep +their accounts; for loading and discharging the cargo; for the mutual +assistance to be given by vessels, &c. These laws, and others, to +extend and improve commerce, were passed during the reign of James +I., king of Arragon, who was also count of Barcelona. The +manufactures and commerce of this part of Spain continued to flourish +from this time till the union of the crowns of Castile and Arragon, +which event depressed the latter kingdom. In 1380, a Catalan ship was +wrecked on the coast of Somersetshire, on her voyage from Genoa to +Sluys, the port of Bruges: her cargo consisted of green ginger, cured +ginger, raisins, sulphur, writing paper, white sugar, prunes, +cinnamon, &c. In 1401, a bank of exchange and deposit was +established at Barcelona: the accommodation it afforded was extended +to foreign as well as native merchants. The earliest bill of exchange +of which we have any notice, is one dated 28th April, 1404, which was +sold by a merchant of Lucca, residing in Bruges, to a merchant of +Barcelona, also residing there, to be paid by a Florence merchant +residing in Barcelona. By the book of duties on imports and exports, +compiled in 1413, it appears, that the Barcelonians were very liberal +and enlightened in their commercial policy; this document also gives +us a high idea of the trade of the city of Barcelona. A still further +proof and illustration of the intelligence of the Barcelona +merchants, and of the advantages for which commerce is indebted to +them, occurs soon afterwards: for about the year 1432 they framed +regulations respecting maritime insurance, the principal of which +were, that no vessel should be insured for more than three quarters +of her real value,--that no merchandize belonging to foreigners +should be insured in Barcelona, unless freighted in a vessel +belonging to the king of Arrogan: the words, <i>more or less</i>, +inserted frequently in policies, were prohibited: if a ship should +not be heard of in six months, she was to be deemed lost.</p> + +<p>Little commerce seems to have been carried on from any other port +of Spain besides Barcelona at this period: the north of Spain, +indeed, had a little commercial intercourse with England, as appears +by the complaints of the Spanish merchants; complaints that several +of their vessels bound to England from this part of Spain had been +plundered by the people of Sandwich, Dartmouth, &c. Seven vessels +are particularly mentioned: one of which, laden with wine, wool, and +iron, was bound for Flanders; the others, laden with raisins, +liquorice, spicery, incense, oranges, and cheese, were bound for +England. The largest of these vessels was 120 tons: one vessel, with +its cargo, was valued as high as 2500l.</p> + +<p>The following short abstract of the exports and imports of the +principal commercial places in Europe, about the middle of the +fifteenth century, taken from a contemporary work, will very properly +conclude and sum up all we have to say on this subject.</p> + +<p>Spain exported figs, raisins, wine of inferior quality, dates, +liquorice, Seville oil, grain, Castile soap, wax, iron, wool, goat +skins, saffron, and quicksilver; the most of these were exported to +Bruges. The chief imports of Spain were Flemish woollen cloth and +linen. This account, however, of the commerce of Spain, does not +appear to include Barcelona. The exports of Portugal were wine, wax, +grain, figs, raisins, honey, Cordovan leather, dates, salt, &c.; +these were sent principally to England. The imports are not +mentioned.</p> + +<p>Bretagne exported salt, wine, cloth, and canvas.</p> + +<p>The exports of Scotland were wool, wool-fells, and hides to +Flanders; from which they brought mercery, haberdashery, cart-wheels, +and barrows. The exports of Ireland were hides, wool, salmon, and +other fish; linen; the skins of martins, otters, hares, &c. The +trade of England is not described: the author being an Englishman, +and writing for his countrymen, we may suppose, thought it +unnecessary.</p> + +<p>The exports of Prussia were beer, bacon, copper, bow-staves, wax, +putty, pitch, tar, boards, flax, thread of Cologne, and canvas; these +were sent principally to Flanders, from which were brought woollen +cloths. The Prussians also imported salt from Biscay.</p> + +<p>The Genoese employed large vessels in their trade; their principal +exports were cloth of gold and silver, spiceries, woad, wool, oil, +wood-ashes, alum, and good: the chief staple of their trade was in +Flanders, to which they carried wool from England.</p> + +<p>The Venetians and Florentines exported nearly the same articles as +the Genoese; and their imports were nearly similar.</p> + +<p>Flanders exported madder, wood, garlick, salt-fish, woollen +cloths, &c. The English are represented as being the chief +purchasers in the marts of Brabant, Flanders, and Zealand; to these +marts were brought the merchandize of Hainault, France, Burgundy, +Cologne, and Cambray, in carts. The commodities of the East, and of +the south of Europe, were brought by the Italians: England sent her +wool, and afterwards her woollen cloth.</p> + +<p>From this view of the trade of Europe in the middle of the +fifteenth century, it appears, that it was principally conducted by +the Italians, the Hanse merchants, and the Flemings; and that the +great marts were in Flanders. Towards the end of this century, +indeed, the other nations of Europe advancing in knowledge and +enterprize, and having acquired some little commercial capital, each +began, in some degree, to conduct its own trade. The people of +Barcelona, at a very early period, form the only exception to this +remark; they not only conducted their own trade, but partook largely +in conducting the trade of other nations.</p> + +<p>From the remotest period to which we can trace the operations of +commerce, we have seen that they were chiefly directed to the +luxuries of Asia; and as the desire of obtaining them in greater +abundance, and more cheaply and easily, was the incitement which led +to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese, it will +be proper, before we narrate that event, briefly to give such +particulars respecting Asiatic commerce as occur within the period +which this chapter embraces, and to which, in our account of the +Arabians, we have not already alluded. This will lead us to a notice +of some very instructive and important travels in the East; and the +information which they convey will point out the state of the +geography of Asia, as well as its commerce, during the middle +ages.</p> + +<p>The dreadful revolutions which took place in Asia in the twelfth +and thirteenth centuries, and which threatened to extend to Europe, +induced the European powers, and particularly the Pope, to endeavour +to avert the evil, by sending embassies to the Mogul potentates. So +frequent were these missions, that, in the beginning of the +fourteenth century, a work was composed which described the various +routes to Grand Tartary. What was at first undertaken from policy and +fear, was afterwards continued from religious zeal, curiosity, a love +of knowledge, and other motives. So that, to the devastations of +Genghis Khan we may justly deem ourselves indebted for the full and +important information we possess respecting the remote parts of Asia +during the middle ages.</p> + +<p>The accounts of India and China by the two Mahomedan travellers +have been already noticed: between the period of their journey, and +the embassies and missions to which we have just alluded, the only +account of the East which we possess is derived from the work of +Benjamin, a Jew of Tudela in Spain. It is doubted whether he visited +all the places he describes: his object was principally to describe +those places where the Jews resided in great numbers.</p> + +<p>After describing Barcelona as a place of great trade, frequented +by merchants from Greece, Italy, and Alexandria, and a great resort +of the Jews, and giving a similar character of Montpelier and Genoa, +he proceeds to the East. The inhabitants of Constantinople being too +lazy to carry on commerce themselves, the whole trade of this city, +which is represented as surpassing all others, except Bagdad, in +wealth, was conducted by foreign merchants, who resorted to it from +every part of the world by land and sea. New Tyre was a place of +considerable traffic, with a good harbour: glass and sugar were its +principal exports. The great depôt for the produce and +manufactures of India, Persia, Arabia, &c., was an island in the +Persian Gulf. He mentions Samarcand as a place of considerable +importance, and Thibet as the country where the musk animal was +found. But all beyond the Persian Gulf he describes in such vague +terms, that little information can be gleaned. It is worthy of +remark, that nearly all the Jews, whom he represents as very numerous +in Thebes, Constantinople, Samarcand, &c., were dyers of wool: in +Thebes alone, there were 2000 workers in scarlet and purple. After +the conquest of the northern part of China by Genghis Khan, the city +of Campion in Tangut seems to have been fixed upon by him as the seat +of a great inland trade. Linens, stuffs made of cotton, gold, silver, +silks, and porcelain, were brought hither by the Chinese merchants, +and bought by merchants from Muscovy, Persia, Armenia, &c.</p> + +<p>In the years 1245, 1246, the pope sent ambassadors to the Tartar +and Mogul khans: of these Carpini has given us the most detailed +account of his embassy, and of the route which he followed. His +journey occupied six months: he first went through Bohemia, Silesia, +and Poland, to Kiov, at that time the capital of Russia. Thence he +proceeded by the Dnieper to the Black Sea, till he arrived at the +head quarters of the Khan Batou. To him we are indebted for the first +information of the real names of the four great rivers which water +the south of Russia, the Dnieper, the Don, the Volga, and the Jaik. +He afterwards proceeded to the head quarters of another khan, on the +eastern shores of the Caspian. After passing a country where the +famous Prester John is said to have reigned, he reached the end of +his journey, the head quarters of the khan of the Moguls. Besides the +information derived from his own observations, he inserts in his +narrative all he had collected; so that he may be regarded as the +first traveller who brought to the knowledge of western Europe these +parts of Asia; but though his travels are important to geography, +they throw little light on the commerce of these countries.</p> + +<p>Rubruquis was sent, about this time, by the king of France to the +Mogul emperor: he passed through the Crimea, and along the shores of +the Volga and the Caspian Sea; visited the Khans Sartach and Batou; +and at length arrived at the great camp of the Moguls. Here he saw +Chinese ambassadors; from whom, and certain documents which he found +among the Moguls, he learnt many particulars respecting the north of +China, the most curious of which is his accurate description of the +Chinese language and characters. He returned by the same route by +which he went. In his travels we meet with some information +respecting the trade of Asia. The Mogul khans derived a considerable +revenue from the salt of the Crimea. The alum of Caramonia was a +great object of traffic. He is the first author, after Ammianus +Marcellinus, who mentions rhubarb as an article of medicine and +commerce. Among the Moguls he found a great number of Europeans, who +had been taken prisoners: they were usually employed in working the +mines, and in various manufactures. He is the first traveller who +mentions <i>koumis</i> and arrack; and he gives a very particular and +accurate description of the cattle of Thibet, and the wild and fleet +asses of the plains of Asia. Geography is indebted to him for +correcting the error of the ancients, which prevailed till his time, +that the Caspian joined the Northern Ocean: he expressly represents +it as a great inland sea,--the description given of it by Herodotus, +but which was overlooked or disbelieved by all the other ancient +geographers.</p> + +<p>While the pope and the French monarch were thus endeavouring to +conciliate the Moguls by embassies, the Emperor Frederic of Germany, +having recovered Jerusalem, Tyre, and Sidon, formed an alliance with +the princes of the East; and this alliance he took advantage of for +the purposes of oriental commerce: for his merchants and factors +travelled as far as India. In the last year of his reign, twelve +camels, laden with gold and silver, the produce of his trade with the +East, arrived in his dominions. The part of India to which he traded, +and the route which was pursued, are not recorded.</p> + +<p>Among the most celebrated travellers of the middle ages, was Marco +Polo: he, his father, and uncle, after trading for some time in many +of the commercial and opulent cities of Lesser Asia, reached the more +eastern parts of that continent, as far as the court of the great +khan, on the borders of China. For 26 years they were either engaged +in mercantile transactions, or employed in negociations with the +neighbouring states by the khan; they were thus enabled to see much, +and to collect much important information, the result of which was +drawn up by Marco Polo. He was the first European who reached China, +India beyond the Ganges, and the greater number of the islands in the +Indian Ocean. He describes Japan from the accounts of others: notices +great and little Java, supposed to be Borneo and Sumatra; and is the +first who mentions Bengal and Guzerat by their present names, as +great and opulent kingdoms. On the east coast of Africa, his +knowledge did not reach beyond Zanguebar, and the port of Madagascar +opposite to it: he first made known this island to Europe. Such is a +sketch of the countries described by Marco Polo; from which it will +easily be perceived, how much he added to the geographical knowledge +of Asia possessed at that period.</p> + +<p>The information he gives respecting the commerce of the countries +he either visited himself, or describes from the reports of others, +is equally important. Beginning with the more western parts of Asia, +he mentions Giazza, a city in the Levant, as possessed of a most +excellent harbour, which was much frequented by Genoese and Venetian +vessels, for spices and other merchandize. Rich silks were +manufactured in Georgia, Bagdat, Tauris, and Persia, which were the +source of great wealth to the manufacturers and merchants. All the +pearls in Christendom are brought from Bagdat. The merchants from +India bring spices, pearls, precious stones, &c. to Ormus: the +vessels of this port are described as very stoutly built, with one +mast, one deck, and one sail. Among the most remarkable cities of +China, he particularly notices Cambalu, or Pekin, Nankin, and +Quinsai. At the distance of 2,500 Italian miles from this last city, +was the port of Cauzu, at which a considerable trade was carried on +with India and the spice islands. The length of the voyage, in +consequence of the monsoons, was a year. From the spice islands was +brought, besides other articles, a quantity of pepper, infinitely +greater than what was imported at Alexandria, though that place +supplied all Europe. He represents the commerce and wealth of China +as very great; and adds, that at Cambalu, where the merchants had +their distinct warehouses, (in which they also lived,) according to +the nation to which they belonged, a large proportion of them were +Saracens. The money was made of the middle bark of the mulberry, +stamped with the khan's mark. Letters were conveyed at the rate of +200 or 250 miles a day, by means of inns at short distances, where +relays of horses were always kept. The tenth of all wool, silk, and +hemp, and all other articles, the produce of the earth, was paid to +the khan: sugar, spices, and arrack, paid only 3-1/2 per cent. The +inland trade is immense, and is carried on principally by numerous +vessels on the canals and rivers. Marco Polo describes porcelain, +which was principally made at a place he calls Trigui; it was very +low-priced, as eight porcelain dishes might be bought for a Venetian +groat: he takes no notice of tea. He supposes the cowries of the +Maldives to be a species of white porcelaine. Silver then, as now, +must have been in great demand, and extremely scarce; it was much +more valuable than gold, bearing the proportion to the latter, as 1 +to 6 or 8. Fine skins also bore a very high price: another proof of +the stability of almost every thing connected with China. He was +particularly struck with what he calls black stones, which were +brought from the mountains of Cathay, and burnt at Pekin, as wood, +evidently meaning some kind of coal. The collieries of China are +still worked, principally for the use of the porcelaine +manufactures.</p> + +<p>Marco Polo seems to have regarded Bengal and Pegu as parts of +China: he mentions the gold of Pegu, and the rice, cotton, and sugar +of Bengal, as well as its ginger, spikenard, &c. The principal +branch of the Bengal trade consisted in cotton goods. In Guzerat +also, there was abundance of cotton: in Canhau, frankincense; and in +Cambaia, indigo, cotton, &c. He describes the cities on the east +and west coasts of India; but he does not seem either to have +penetrated himself inland, or to have learnt any particulars +regarding the interior from other persons. Horses were a great +article of importation in all parts of India: they were brought from +Persia and Arabia by sea. In the countries to the north of India, +particularly Thibet, corals were in great demand, and brought a +higher price than any other article: this was the case in the time of +Pliny, who informs us, that the men in India were as fond of coral +for an ornament, as the women of Rome were of the Indian pearls. In +Pliny's time, corals were brought from the Mediterranean coast of +France to Alexandria, and were thence exported by the Arabians to +India. Marco Polo does not inform us by what means, or from what +country they were imported into the north of India. The greater Java, +which he represents as the greatest island in the world, carried on +an extensive trade, particularly by means of the Chinese merchants, +who imported gold and spices from it. In the lesser Java, the tree +producing sago grows: he describes the process of making it. In this +island there are also nuts as large as a man's head, containing a +liquor superior to wine,--evidently the cocoa nut. He likewise +mentions the rhinoceros. The knowledge of camphire, the produce of +Japan, Sumatra, and Borneo, was first brought to Europe by him. The +fishery of pearls between Ceylon and the main land of India is +described; and particular mention is made of the large ruby possessed +by the king of that island. Madagascar is particularly mentioned, as +supplying large exports of elephants' teeth.</p> + +<p>Marco Polo's description of the vessels of India is very full and +minute: as he sailed from China to the Indian islands in one of these +vessels, we may suppose it is perfectly accurate. according to him, +they were fitted up with many cabins, and each merchant had his own +cabin. They had from two to four masts, all or any of which could be +lowered; the hold was divided not merely for the purpose of keeping +distinct each merchant's goods, but also to prevent the water from a +leak in one division extending to the rest of the hold. The bottoms +of the vessels were double planked at first, and each year a new +sheathing was added; the ships lasted only six years. They were +caulked, as modern ships are; the timbers and planks fixed with iron +nails, and a composition of lime, oil, and hemp, spread over the +surface. They were capable of holding 5000 or 6000 bags of pepper, +and from 150 to 300 seamen and passengers. They were supplied with +oars as well as sails: four men were allotted to each oar. Smaller +vessels seem to have accompanied the larger ones, which besides had +boats on their decks.</p> + +<p>When the power of the Romans was extinguished in Egypt, and the +Mahomedans had gained possession of that country, Aden, which had +been destroyed by the former in the reign of Claudius, resumed its +rank as the centre of the trade between India and the Red Sea. In +this situation it was found by Marco Polo. The ships which came from +the East, did not pass the straits, but landed their cargoes at Aden; +here the <i>trankies</i> of the Arabs, which brought the produce of +Europe, Syria, and Egypt, received them, and conveyed them to Assab, +Cosir, or Jidda: ultimately they reached Alexandria. Marco Polo gives +a magnificent picture of the wealth, power, and influence of Aden in +the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>When the Christians were expelled from Syria, in the beginning of +the fourteenth century, and, in order to procure the merchandize of +the east, were obliged to submit to the exactions of the sultan of +Egypt; Sanuto, a Venetian, addressed a work to the Pope, in which he +proposed to suppress the Egyptian trade by force. In this work are +many curious particulars of the Indian trade at this time; and it is +highly interesting both on this account, and from the clear-sighted +speculations of the author. It appears to have produced a strong +sensation; and though his mode of suppressing the Egyptian trade was +not followed, yet, in consequence of it, much more attention was paid +to Oriental commerce. According to him, the productions of the East +came to the Venetians in two different ways. Cloves, nutmegs, pearls, +gems, and other articles of great value, and small bulk, were +conveyed up the Persian Gulf and the Tigris to Bassora, and thence to +Bagdat; from which they were carried to some port in the +Mediterranean. The more bulky and less valuable articles were +conveyed by Arabian merchants to the Red Sea, and thence across the +desert and down the Nile to Alexandria. He adds, that ginger and +cinnamon, being apt to spoil on shipboard, were from ten to twenty +per cent. better in quality, when brought by land carriage, though +this conveyance was more expensive.</p> + +<p>From the works of Sanuto, it appears that sugar and silk were the +two articles from their trade in which the Saracens derived the +greatest portion of their wealth. Cyprus, Rhodes, Amorea, and Marta +(probably Malta), produced sugar; silk was the produce of Apulia, +Romania, Crete, and Cyprus. Egypt was celebrated, as in old times, +for the fineness of its flax; European flax was far inferior. The +Egyptian manufactures of linen, silk, and linen and silk mixed, and +also the dates and cassia of that country were exported to Turkey, +Africa, the Black Sea, and the western ports of Europe, either in +Saracen or Christian vessels. In return for these articles, the +Egyptians received from Europe, gold, silver, brass, tin, lead, +quicksilver, coral, and amber: of these, several were again exported +from Egypt to Ethiopia and India, particularly brass and tin. Sanuto +further observes, that Egypt was dependent on Europe for timber, +iron, pitch, and other materials for ship building.</p> + +<p>As his plan was to cut off all trade with the Saracens, and for +that purpose to build a number of armed galleys, he gives many +curious particulars respecting the expence of fitting them out; he +estimates that a galley capable of holding 250 men, will cost 1500 +florins, and that the whole expence of one, including pay, +provisions, &c. for nine months, would be 7000 florins. The +seamen he proposes to draw from the following places, as affording +the most expert: Italy, the north of Germany, Friesland, Holland, +Slavia, Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.</p> + +<p>In the year 1335, Pegoletti, an Italian, wrote a system of +commercial geography; in this, the route taken by the merchants who +brought produce and manufactures from China to Azof is particularly +described. "In the first place," he says, "from Azof to Astracan it +is twenty-five days journey with waggons drawn by oxen; but with +waggons by horses, only ten or twelve. From Astracan to Sara, by the +river, one day; from Sara to Saracanco, on the north-east coast of +the Caspian Sea, eight days by water; thence to Lake Aral, twenty +days' journey with camels. At Organci on this lake there was much +traffic. To Oltrarra on the Sihon, thirty-five or forty days, also +with camels; to Almaley with asses, thirty-five days; to Camexu, +seventy days with asses; to a river, supposed to be the Hoangho, in +China, fifty days with horses; from this river the traveller may go +to Cassai, to dispose of his loading of silver there, and from this +place he travels through the whole of Cathay with the Chinese money +he receives for his silver; to Gambelecco, Cambalu, or Pekin, the +capital of Cathay, is thirty days' journey." So that the whole time +occupied about 300 days. Each merchant generally carried with him +silver and goods to the value of 25,000 gold ducats; the expence of +the whole journey was from 300 to 350 ducats. The other travellers of +the fourteenth century, from whom we derive any information +respecting Eastern geography and commerce, are Haitho, Oderic, and +Sir John Mandeville; they add little, however, to the full and +accurate details of Marco Polo, on which we can depend.</p> + +<p>Haitho's work, comprehends the geography of the principal states +of Asia; his information was derived from Mogul writings, the +relation of Haitho I. king of Armenia, who had been at the head +quarters of Mangu Khan, and from his own personal knowledge.</p> + +<p>Oderic is the first missionary upon record in India; the date of +his journey is 1334; among much that is marvellous, his relations +contain some extraordinary truths. He went, in company with other +monks, as far as China. There is little new or valuable till he +reaches the coast of Malabar: of the pepper trade on this coast he +gives a clear and rational account. He next describes Sumatra and the +adjacent islands, and mentions the sago tree. Respecting China, he +informs us, among other things which are fabulous, that persons of +high rank keep their nails extremely long, and that the feet of the +women are very small. He expresses great surprise and admiration at +the wealth of the cities through which he passed on his return from +Zartan to Pekin. Tartary and Thibet were visited by him, after +leaving China; he mentions the high price of the rhubarb of the +former country and the Dalai Lama of Thibet. In his voyages in India +he sailed on board a vessel which carried 700 people,--a +confirmation, as Dr. Vincent observes, of the account we have from +the time of Agatharcides down to the sixteenth century,--which sailed +from Guzerat and traversed the Indian Ocean.</p> + +<p>Sir John Mandeville, an Englishman, in order to gratify his desire +of seeing distant and foreign countries, served as a volunteer under +the Sultan of Egypt and the Grand Khan of Cathai. He travelled +through Turkey, Armenia, Egypt, Africa, Syria, Arabia, Persia, +Chaldea, Ethiopia, Tartary, India, and China. There is, however, +little information in his travels on our present subject. He +represents the Venetians as not only trading regularly to Ormus, but +sometimes even penetrating as for as Cambalu. Famagusta, in Cyprus, +according to him, was one of the most commercial places in the world, +the resort of merchants of all nations, Christians and +Mahomedans.</p> + +<p>Some curious and interesting particulars on the subject of +Oriental commerce are scattered in the travels of Clavigo, who formed +part of an embassy sent by Henry III. of Castile to Tamerlane, in +1403. Clavigo returned to Spain in 1406. He passed through +Constantinople, which he represents as not one-third inhabited, up +the Black Sea to Trebizond. Hence he traversed Armenia, the north of +Persia, and Khorasan. Tauris, according to him, enjoyed a lucrative +commerce: in its warehouses were an abundance of pearls, silk, cotton +goods, and perfumed oils. Sultania also was a great mart for Indian +commodities. Every year, between June and August, caravans arrived at +this place. Cotton goods of all colours, and cotton yarn were brought +from Khorasan; pearls and precious stones from Ormus; but the +principal lading of the caravans consisted of spices of various +kinds: at Sultania these were always found in great abundance, and of +the best quality. From Tauris to Samarcand there were regular +stations, at which horses were always ready to convey the orders of +the khan or travellers. We are indebted to Clavigo for the first +information of this new route of the commerce between India and +Europe, by Sultania: it is supposed to have been adopted on the +destruction of Bagdat by the Moguls; but we learn from other +travellers that, towards the end of the fifteenth century, Sultania +was remarkable for nothing besides the minarets of a mosque, which +were made of metal, and displayed great taste and delicacy of +workmanship.</p> + +<p>Tamerlane lived in excessive magnificence and luxury at Samarcand; +hither he had brought all his captives, who were expert in any kind +of manufacture, especially in the silks of Damascus, and the sword +cutlery of Turkey. To this city the Russians and Tartars brought +leather, hides, furs, and cloth: silk goods, musk, pearls, precious +stones, and rhubarb, were brought from China, or Cathay. Six months +were occupied in bringing merchandize from Cambalu, the capital of +Cathai, to Samarcand; two of these were spent in the deserts. +Samarcand had also a trade with India, from which were received mace +and other fine spices. Clavigo remarks, that such spices were never +brought to Alexandria.</p> + +<p>Schildeberger, a native of Munich, was taken prisoner by the Turks +in 1394: he afterwards accompanied Tamerlane in his campaigns till +the year 1406. During this period, and his subsequent connexion with +other Tartar chiefs, he visited various parts of central Asia. But as +he had not an opportunity of writing down at the time what he saw and +learnt, his narrative is neither full, nor altogether to be depended +upon for its accuracy. He was, besides, illiterate, And therefore it +is often extremely difficult to ascertain, from his orthography, what +places he actually means to name or describe. With all these +drawbacks and imperfections, however, there are a few points on which +he gives credible and curious information. He particularizes the silk +of Strana, and of Schirevan; and adds, that from the last the raw +silk is sent to Damascus, and there manufactured into the stuffs or +damasks, for which it was already so celebrated. Fine silk was +produced at Bursa, and exported to Venice and Lucca, for the +manufacture of velvet. It ought to be mentioned, that he takes no +notice of Saray and Astrakan, the latter of which was taken and +destroyed by Tamerlane, in 1395. The wild asses in the mountainous +deserts, and the dogs which were harnessed to sledges, are +particularly mentioned by this traveller.</p> + +<p>The interior parts of the north of Asia were visited, in 1420, by +the ambassadors of the Emperor Tamerlane's son; and their journey is +described in the Book of the Wonders of the World, written by the +Persian historian, Emir Khond, from which it was translated into +Dutch by Witsen, in his Norden Oste Tartarye. Their route was through +Samarcand to Cathay. On entering this country, we are informed of a +circumstance strikingly characteristic of Chinese policy and +suspicion. Cathayan secretaries took down, in writing, the names of +the ambassadors, and the number of their suite. This was repeated at +another place, the ambassadors being earnestly requested to state the +exact number of their servants; and the merchants, who were with him, +having been put down by him under the description of servants, were, +on that account, obliged to perform the particular duties under which +they were described. Among the presents made by the emperor to the +ambassadors, tin is mentioned. Paper-money seems, at this period, to +have given place to silver, which, however, from several +circumstances mentioned, must have been very scarce.</p> + +<p>From the travels of Josaphat Barbaro, an ambassador from Venice, +first to Tana (Azof), and then to Persia, some information may be +drawn respecting the commerce of these parts of Asia, about the +middle of the fifteenth century. He particularly describes the Wolga +as being navigable to within three days' journey of Moscow, the +inhabitants of which sail down it every year to Astrakan for salt. +Astrakan was formerly a place of consequence and trade, but had been +laid waste by Tamerlane. Russia is a fertile country, but extremely +cold. Oxen and other beasts are carried to market in the winter, +slaughtered, with their entrails taken out, and frozen so hard, that +it is impossible to cut them up: they are very numerous and cheap. +The only fruits are apples, nuts, and walnuts. Bossa, a kind of beer, +is made in Russia. This liquor is still drank in Russia: it is made +from millet, and is very inebriating. The drunkenness of the Russians +is expressly and pointedly dwelt upon. Barbaro adds, that the grand +duke, in order to check this vice, ordered that no more beer should +be brewed, nor mead made, nor hops used. The Russians formerly paid +tribute to Tartary; but they had lately conquered a country called +Casan; to the left of the Wolga, in its descent. In this country a +considerable trade is carried on, especially in furs, which are sent +by way of Moscow to Poland, Prussia, and Flanders. The furs, however, +are not the produce of Kasan, but of countries to the north-east, at +a great distance.</p> + +<p>Barbaro is very minute and circumstantial in his description of +the manners, dress, food, &c. of the Georgians. He visited the +principal towns of Persia. Schiraz contained 200,000 inhabitants. +Yezd was distinguished and enriched by its silk manufactures.</p> + +<p><a name="ch05" id="ch05"></a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p><b>HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND COMMERCE, +FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH +CENTURY.</b></p> + +<p>The improvement of mankind in knowledge and civilization evidently +depends on the union of three circumstances,--enlarged and increased +desires, obstacles in the way of obtaining the objects of these +desires, and practicable means of overcoming or removing these +obstacles. The history of mankind in all ages and countries justifies +and illustrates the truth of this remark; for though it is, +especially in the early periods of it, very imperfect and obscure, +and even in the later periods almost entirely confined to war and +politics, still there are in it sufficient traces of the operation of +all those three causes towards their improvement in knowledge and +civilization.</p> + +<p>That they operated in extending the progress of discovery and +commerce is evident. We have already remarked that from the earliest +periods, the commodities of the east attracted the desires of the +western nations: the Arabians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans of +the ancient world; the Italian and Hanseatic states of the middle +ages, all endeavoured to enrich themselves by trading in commodities +so eagerly and universally desired. As industry and skill increased, +and as the means as well as the desire of purchase and enjoyment +spread, by the rise of a middle class in Europe, the demand for these +commodities extended. The productions and manufactures of the north, +as well as of the south of Europe, having been increased and +improved, enabled the inhabitants of these countries to participate +in those articles from India, which, among the ancients, had been +confined exclusively to the rich and powerful.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, even at the very time that this enlarged demand +for Indian commodities was taking place in Europe, and was +accompanied by enlarged means as well as extended skill and +expedience in discovery and commerce,--at this very time obstacles +arose which threatened the almost entire exclusion of Europeans from +the luxuries of Asia. It may well be doubted, whether, if the enemies +of the Christian faith had not gained entire possession of all the +routes to India, and moreover, if these routes had been rendered more +easy of access and passage, they could have long supplied the +increased demands of improving Europe. But that Europe should, on the +one hand, improve and feel enlarged desires as well as means of +purchasing the luxuries of the east, while on the other hand, the +practicability of acquiring these luxuries should diminish, formed a +coincidence of circumstances, which was sure to produce important +results.</p> + +<p>As access to India by land, or even by the Arabian Gulf by sea, +was rendered extremely difficult and hazardous by the enmity of the +Mahometans, or productive of little commercial benefit by their +exactions, the attention and hopes of European navigators were +directed to a passage to India along the western coast of Africa. As, +however, the length and difficulties of such a voyage were extremely +formidable, it would probably have been either not attempted at all, +or have required much longer time to accomplish than it actually did, +if, in addition and aid of increased desires and an enlarged +commercial spirit, the means of navigating distant, extensive, and +unknown seas, had not likewise been, about this period, greatly +improved.</p> + +<p>We allude, principally, to the discovery of the mariners' compass. +The first clear notice of it appears in a Provençal poet of +the end of the twelfth century. In the thirteenth century it was used +by the Norwegians in their voyages to and from Iceland, who made it +the device of an order of knighthood of the highest rank; and from a +passage in Barber's Bruce, it must have been known in Scotland, if +not used there in 1375, the period when he wrote. It is said to have +been used in the Mediterranean voyages at the end of the thirteenth +or beginning of the fourteenth century.</p> + +<p>With respect to the nations of the east, it is doubted whether +they derived their knowledge of it from the Europeans, or the +Europeans from them. When we reflect on the long and perilous voyages +of the Arabians, early in the Christian era, we might be led to think +that they could not be performed without the assistance of the +compass; but no mention of it, or allusion to it, occurs in the +account of any of their voyages; and we are expressly informed by +Nicolo di Conti, who sailed on board a native vessel in the Indian +seas, about the year 1420, that the Arabians had no compass, but +sailed by the stars of the southern pole; and that they knew how to +measure their elevation, as well as to keep their reckoning, by day +and night, with their distance from place to place. With respect to +the Chinese, the point in dispute is not so easily determined: it is +generally imagined, that they derived their knowledge of the compass +from Europeans: but Lord Macartney, certainly a competent judge, has +assigned his reasons for believing that the Chinese compass is +original, and not borrowed, in a dissertation annexed to Dr. +Vincent's Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. At what period it was first +known among them, cannot be ascertained; they pretend that it was +known before the age of Confucius. That it was not brought from China +to Europe by Marco Polo, as some writers assert, is evident from the +circumstance that this traveller never mentions or alludes to it. The +first scientific account of the properties of the magnet, as +applicable to the mariner's compass, appears in a letter written by +Peter Adsiger, in the year 1269. This letter is preserved among the +manuscripts of the university of Leyden; extracts from it are given +by Cavallo, in the second edition of his Treatise on Magnetism. From +these extracts it is evident that he was acquainted with the +attraction, repulsion, and polarity of the magnet, the art of +communicating those properties to iron, the variation of the magnetic +needle; and there are even some indications that he was acquainted +with the construction of the azimuth compass.</p> + +<p>Next in importance and utility to the mariners' compass, in +preparing the way for the great discoveries by which the fifteenth +century is distinguished, maps and charts may be placed. For though, +in general, they were constructed on very imperfect and erroneous +notions of the form of the world, and the relative size and situation +of different countries, yet occasionally there appeared maps which +corrected some long established error, or supplied some new +information; and even the errors of the maps, in some cases, not +improbably held out inducements or hopes, which would not otherwise +have been entertained and realized, as we have already remarked, +after D'Anville, that the greatest of Ptolemy's errors proved +eventually the efficient cause which led to the greatest discovery of +the moderns.</p> + +<p>Malte Brun divides the maps of the middle ages into two classes: +those in which the notions of Ptolemy and other ancient geographers +are implicitly copied, and those in which new countries are inserted, +which had been either discovered, or were supposed to exist.</p> + +<p>In most of the maps of the first description, Europe, Asia, and +Africa are laid down as forming one immense island, and Africa is not +carried so far as the equator. One of the most celebrated of these +maps was drawn up by Marin Sanuto, and inserted in his memorial +presented to the pope and the principal sovereigns of Europe, for the +purpose of persuading and shewing them, that if they would oblige +their merchants to trade only through the dominions of the Caliphs of +Bagdat, they would be better supplied and at a cheaper rate, and +would have no longer to fear the Soldans of Egypt. This memorial with +its maps was inserted in the Gesta Dei per Francos, as we are assured +by the editor, from one of the original copies presented by Sanuto to +some one of the princes. Hence, as Dr. Vincent remarks, it probably +contains the oldest map of the world at this day extant, except the +Peutingerian tables. Sanuto, as we have already noticed, in giving an +abstract of the commercial information contained in his memorial, +lived in 1324.</p> + +<p>In the monastery of St. Michael di Murano, there is a planisphere, +said to be drawn up in 1459, by Fra Mauro, which contains a report of +a ship from India having passed the extreme point south, 2000 miles +towards the west and southwest in 1420.</p> + +<p>Ramusio describes a map, supposed to be this, which he states to +have been drawn up for the elucidation of Marco Polo's travels.</p> + +<p>On this map, so far as it relates to the circumnavigation of +Africa, Dr. Vincent has given a dissertation, having procured a +<i>fac-simile</i> copy from Venice, which is deposited in the British +Museum; the substance of this dissertation we shall here compress. He +divides his dissertation into three parts. First, whether this was +the map noticed by Ramusio, and by him supposed to be drawn up to +elucidate the travels of Marco Polo. On this point he concludes that +it was the map referred to by Ramusio, but that his information +respecting it is not correct. The second point to be determined is, +whether the map procured from Venice was really executed by Mauro, +and whether it existed previous to the Portuguese discoveries on the +west coast of Africa. Manro lived in the reign of Alphonso the Fifth, +that is between 1438 and 1480; the whole of this map, therefore, is +prior to Diaz and Gama, two celebrated Portuguese navigators. +Consequently, if it can be proved that the map obtained by Dr. +Vincent is genuine, it must have existed previous to the Portuguese +discoveries. The proof of the genuineness of the map is derived from +the date on the planisphere, 1459; the internal evidence on the work +itself; and the fact that Alphonso, or Prince Henry of Portugal, who +died in 1463, received a copy of this map from Venice, and deposited +it in the monastery of Alcobaca, where it is still kept. The sum paid +for this copy, and the account of expenditure, are detailed in a MS. +account in the monastery of St. Michael.</p> + +<p>The third, and by far the most important part of Dr. Vincent's +dissertation, examines what the map contains respecting the +termination cf Africa to the south. On the first inspection of the +map it is evident, that the author has not implicitly followed +Ptolemy, as he professes to do. The centre of the habitable world is +fixed at Bagdat. Asia and Europe he defines rationally, and Africa so +far as regards its Mediterranean coast. He assigns two sources to the +Nile, both in Abyssinia. On the east coast of Africa, he carries an +arm of the sea between an island which he represents as of immense +size, and the continent, obliquely as far nearly as the latitude and +longitude of the Cape of Good Hope. This island he calls Diab, and +the termination on the south, which he makes the extreme point of +Africa, Cape Diab.</p> + +<p>The great object of Mauro, in drawing up this map, was to +encourage the Portuguese in the prosecution of their voyages to the +south of Africa. This is known to be the fact from other sources, and +the construction of the map, as well as some of the notices and +remarks, which are inserted in its margin, form additional evidence +that this was the case. Two passages, as Dr. Vincent observes, will +set this in the clearest light. The first is inserted at Cape Diab; +"here," says the author, about the year 1420, "an Indian vessel, on +her passage across the Indian ocean was caught by a storm, and +carried 2000 miles beyond this Cape to the west and south-west; she +was seventy days in returning to the Cape." This the author regards +as a full proof that Africa was circumnavigable on the south.</p> + +<p>In the second passage, inserted on the margin, after observing +that the Portuguese had been round the continent of Africa, more than +2000 miles to the south-west beyond the Straits of Gibraltar; that +they found the navigation easy and safe, and had made charts of their +discoveries; he adds, that he had talked with a person worthy of +credit, who assured him he had been carried by bad weather, in an +Indian ship, out of the Indian Ocean, for forty days, beyond Cape +Sofala and the Green Islands, towards the west and south-west, and +that in the opinion of the astronomer on board, (such as all Indian +ships carry,) they had been hurried away 2000 miles. He concludes by +expressing his firm belief that the sea surrounding the southern and +south-eastern part of the world is navigable; and that the Indian Sea +is ocean, and not a lake. We may observe, by the bye, that in another +passage inserted in the margin, he expressly declares that the Indian +ships had no compass, but were directed by an astronomer on board, +who was continually making his observations.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the two accounts are at variance, as the first +asserts that the passage was round Cape Diab, at the termination of +Africa, and the second that it was round Cape Sofala, fifteen degrees +to the north of the extremity of this quarter of the world: but +without attempting to reconcile this contradiction, it is abundantly +evident that Mauro, by noticing the Portuguese navigators, as having +reached 2000 miles to the south of Gibraltar, and adding that 2000 +miles more of the coast of Africa had been explored by an Indian +ship, meant to encourage the further enterprises of the Portuguese, +by the natural inference that a very small space of unsailed sea must +lie between the two lines, which were the limits of the navigation of +the Portuguese and Indian vessel. The unexplored space was indeed +much greater than Mauro estimated and represented it in his map to +be; but, as Dr. Vincent remarks, his error in this respect manifestly +contributed to the prosecution of the Portuguese designs, as the +error of the ancient geographers, in approximating China to Europe, +produced the discovery of America by Columbus.</p> + +<p>We have dwelt thus long on the map of Mauro, as being by far the +most important of the maps of the second description, or those in +which were inserted real or supposed discoveries. The rest of this +description require little notice.</p> + +<p>A map of the date of 1346, in Castilian, represents Cape Bojada in +Africa as known, and having been doubled at that period. A +manuscript, preserved at Genoa, mentions that a ship had sailed from +Majorca to a river called Vedamel, or Rui Jaura (probably +Rio-do-Ouro,) but her fate was not known. The Genoese historians +relate that two of their countrymen in 1291, attempted to reach India +by the west; the fate of this enterprize is also unknown. The Canary +Islands, the first discovery of which is supposed to have taken place +before the Christian era, and which were never afterwards completely +lost sight of, being described by the Arabian geographers, appear in +a Castilian map of 1346. Teneriffe is called in this map Inferno, in +conformity with the popular notion of the ancients, that these +islands were the seat of the blessed. In a map of 1384, there is an +island called Isola-di-legname, or the Isle of Wood, which, from this +appellation, and its situation, is supposed by some geographers to be +the island of Madeira. It would seem that some notions respecting the +Azores were obscurely entertained towards the end of the fourteenth +century, as islands nearly in their position are laid down in the +maps of 1380.</p> + +<p>In the library of St. Marc, at Venice, there is a map drawn by +Bianco, in 1436. In it the ancient world is represented as forming +one great continent, divided into two unequal parts by the +Mediterranean, and by the Indian Ocean, which is carried from east to +west, and comprises a great number of islands. Africa stretches from +west to east parallel to Europe and Asia, but it terminates to the +north of the equator. The peninsula of India and the Gulf of Bengal +scarcely appear. The eastern part of Asia consists of two great +peninsulas, divided by an immense gulf. Then appear Cathai, +Samarcand, and some other places, the names of which are +unintelligible. All the kingdoms of Europe are laid down except +Poland and Hungary. To the west of the Canaries, a large tract of +country is laid down under the appellation of Antitia; some +geographers have maintained that by this America was indicated, but +there does not appear any ground for this belief.</p> + +<p>Having offered these preliminary and preparatory observations, we +shall now proceed to the discoveries of the Portuguese. From the +slight sketch which has already been given of the progress of +geography and commerce, between the time of Ptolemy and the fifteenth +century, it appears that the Portuguese had distinguished themselves +less, perhaps, than any other European nation, in these pursuits; +but, long before the beginning of the fifteenth century, +circumstances had occurred, connected with their history, which were +preparing the way for their maritime enterprizes. So early as the +year 1250, the Portuguese had succeeded in driving the Moors out of +their country; and, in order to prevent them from again disturbing +them, they in their turn invaded Fez and Morocco, and having +conquered Ceuta in 1415, fortified it, and several harbours near it, +on the shores of the Atlantic. So zealous were the Portuguese in +their enterprizes against the Moors, that the ladies of Lisbon +partook in the general enthusiasm, and refused to bestow their hand +on any man who had not signalized his courage on the coast of Africa, +The spirit of the nation was largely participated by Prince Henry, +the fifth son of John I., king of Portugal, who took up his residence +near Cape St. Vincent, in the year 1406. The sole passion and object +of his mind was to further the advancement of his country in +navigation and discovery: his regard for religion led him to +endeavour to destroy or diminish the power of the Mahometans; and his +patriotism to acquire for Portugal that Indian commerce, which had +enriched the maritime states of Italy. He sought every means and +opportunity by which he could increase or render more accurate his +information respecting the western coast, and the interior of Africa: +and it is probable that the relations of certain Jews and Arabs, +respecting the gold mines of Guinea, weighed strongly with him in the +enterprizes which he planned, encouraged, and accomplished.</p> + +<p>It is not true, however, that he was the inventor of the astrolobe +and the compass, or the first that put these instruments into the +hands of navigators, though he undoubtedly was an excellent +mathematician, and procured the best charts and instruments of the +age: the use and application of these, he taught in the best manner +to those he selected to command his ships.</p> + +<p>With respect to the compass, we have already stated all that is +certainly known respecting its earliest application to the purposes +of navigation. The sea astrolobe, which is an instrument for taking +the altitude of the sun, stars, &c., is described by Chaucer, in +1391, in a treatise on it, addressed to his little son, Louis; and +Purchas informs us, that it was formerly applied only to astronomical +purposes, but was accommodated to the use of seamen by Martin Behaim, +at the command of John II., king of Portugal, about the year +1487.</p> + +<p>About the year 1418, when Prince Henry first began his plan of +discovery, Cape Nun, in latitude 28° 40', was the limit of +European knowledge on the coast of Africa. With this part of the +coast, the Portuguese had become acquainted in consequence of their +wars with the Moors of Barbary. In 1418, two of Henry's commanders +reached Cape Boyada in latitute 26° 30'; but the Cape was not +actually doubled till 1434. The Canary islands were visited during +the same voyage that the Cape was discovered: Madeira was likewise +visited or discovered; it was first called St. Laurence, after the +saint of the day on which it was seen, and afterwards Madeira, on +account of its woods. In 1420, the Portuguese set fire to these +woods, and afterwards planted the sugar cane, which they brought from +Sicily, and the vines which they brought from Cyprus. Saw mills were +likewise erected on it.</p> + +<p>About the year 1432, Gonzalos was sent with two small vessels to +the coast of Africa on new discoveries. In 1434, Cape Boyada was +doubled: in 1442, the Portuguese had advanced as far as Rio-do-Ouro, +under the tropic of Cancer. On the return of the ships from this +voyage, the inhabitants of Lisbon first saw, with astonishment, +negroes of a jet black complexion, and woolly hair, quite different +from the slaves which had been hitherto brought from Africa; for, +before this time, they had seized, and sold as slaves, the tawny +Moors, which they met with on the coast of Africa. In the year 1442, +however, some of these had been redeemed by their friends, in +exchange for negroes and gold dust. This last article stimulated the +avarice of the Portuguese to greater exertions, than Prince Henry had +been able to excite, and an African company was immediately formed to +obtain it, slaves, &c.; but their commerce was exclusively +confined to the coast of Africa, to the south of Sierra Leone. Dr. +Vincent justly remarks, that Henry had stood alone for almost forty +years, and had he fallen before these few ounces of gold reached his +country, the spirit of discovery might have perished with him, and +his designs might have been condemned as the dreams of a visionary. +The importation of this gold, and the establishment of the African +company in Portugal, to continue the remark of the same author, is +the primary date, to which we may refer that turn for adventure which +sprung up in Europe, which pervaded all the ardent spirits in every +country for the two succeeding centuries, and which never ceased till +it had united the four quarters of the globe in commercial +intercourse.</p> + +<p>In 1445, the Portuguese reached Senegal, where they first saw +Pagan negroes: in 1448 and 1449, their discoveries extended to Cape +Verd. The islands of that name were discovered in 1456. The exact +extent of their discoveries from this time till 1463, when Prince +Henry died, is not certainly known. According to some, Cape Verd, or +Rio Grande, was the limit; according to others, one navigator reached +as far as the coast of Guinea, and Cape Mesanado: some extend the +limit even as far south as the equator. Assuming, however, Rio Grande +as the limit of the discoveries made in Prince Henry's time, Rio +Grande is in latitude 11 north, and the straits of Gibraltar in +latitude 36 north; the Portuguese had therefore advanced 25 degrees +to the south; that is 1500 geographical, or 1750 British miles, +which, with the circuit of the coast, may be estimated at 2000 +miles.</p> + +<p>For nearly 20 years after the death of Prince Henry, little +progress was made by the Portuguese in advancing to the south. At the +time of the death of Alonzo, in 1481, they had passed the equator, +and reached Cape St. Catherine; in latitude S. 2° 30'. The island +of St. Thomas under the line, which was discovered in 1471, was +immediately planted with sugar cane; and a fort, which was built the +same year on the gold coast, enabled them to extend their knowledge +of this part of Africa to a little distance inland. Portugal now +began to reap the fruits of her discoveries: bees' wax, ostrich +feathers, negro slaves, and particularly gold, were imported, on all +of which the profits were so great, that John II., who succeeded +Alonzo, immediately on his accession, sent out 12 ships to Guinea; +and in 1483, two other vessels were sent, which in the following year +reached Congo, and penetrated to 22° south. The river Zaire in +this part of Africa was discovered, and many of the inhabitants of +the country through which it flows embarked voluntarily for Portugal. +Benin was discovered about the same time; here they found a species +of spice, which was imported in great quantities into Europe, and +sold as pepper: it was, however, nothing else but grains of paradise. +The inhabitants of Benin must have had considerable traffic far into +the interior of Africa, for from them the Portuguese first received +accounts of Abyssinia. By the discovery and conquest of Benin and +Congo, the Portuguese traffic in slaves was much extended, but at the +same time it took another character for a short time; for the love of +gold being stronger than the hope of gain they might derive from the +sale of negroes, (for which, indeed, till the discovery of the West +Indies there was little demand,) the Portuguese used to exchange the +natives they captured for gold with the Moors, till John II. put an +end to this traffic, under the pretence that by means of it, the +opportunity of converting the negroes was lost, as they were thus +delivered into the hands of Infidels. About eighty years after Prince +Henry began his discoveries, John I. sent out Diaz with three ships: +this was in 1486, and in the following year Covilham was sent by the +same monarch in search of India, by the route of Egypt and the Red +Sea.</p> + +<p>The king displayed great judgment in the selection of both these +persons. Diaz was of a family, several members of which had already +signalized themselves by the discoveries on the coast of Africa. His +mode of conducting the enterprize on which he was sent, proved at +once his confidence in himself, his courage, and his skill; after +reaching 24° south latitude, 120 leagues beyond any former +navigator, he stood right out to sea, and never came within sight of +the coast again, till he had reached 40 degrees to the eastward of +the Cape, which, however, he was much too far out at sea to discover. +He persevered in stretching still farther east, after he made land, +till at length he reached the river Del Infante, six degrees to the +eastward of the most southern point of Africa, and almost a degree +beyond the Cape of Good Hope. He then resolved to return, for what +reason is not known; and on his return, he saw the Cape of Good Hope, +to which, on account of the storms he encountered on his passage +round it, he gave the appellation of Cabo Tormentoso. John II., +however, augured so well from the doubling of the extremity of Africa +having been accomplished, that he changed its name into that of the +Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>As soon as John II. ascended the throne, he sent two friars and a +layman to Jerusalem, with instructions to gain whatever information +they could respecting India and Prester John from the pilgrims who +resorted to that city, and, if necessary, to proceed further to the +east. As, however, none of this party understood Arabic, they were of +little use, and in fact did not go beyond Jerusalem. In 1487, the +king sent Covilham and Paayva on the same mission: the former had +served in Africa as a soldier, and was intimately acquainted with +Arabic. In order to facilitate this enterprise, Covilham was +entrusted with a map, drawn up by two Jews, which most probably was a +copy of the map of Mauro, of which we have already spoken. On this +map, a passage round the south of Africa was laid down as having been +actually accomplished, and Covilham was directed to reach Abyssinia, +if possible; and ascertain there or elsewhere, whether such a passage +did really exist. Covilham went from Naples to Alexandria, and thence +to Cairo. At this city he formed an acquaintance with some merchants +of Fez and Barbary, and in their company went to Aden. Here he +embarked and visited Goa, Calicut, and other commercial cities of +India, where he saw pepper and ginger, and heard of cloves and +cinnamon. From India he returned to the east coast of Africa, down +which he went as low as Sofala, "the last residence of the Arabs, and +the limit of their knowledge in that age, as it had been in the age +of the Periplus." He visited the gold mines in the vicinity of this +place: and here he also learnt all the Arabs knew respecting the +southern part of Africa, viz. that the sea was navigable to the +south-west (and this indeed their countrymen believed, when the +author of the Periplus visited them); but they knew not where the sea +terminated. At Sofala also Covilham gained some information +respecting the island of the Moon, or Madagascar. He returned to +Cairo, by Zeila, Aden, and Tor. At Cairo, he sent an account of the +intelligence to the king, and in the letter which contained it, he +added, "that the ships which sailed down the coast of Guinea, might +be sure of reaching the termination of the continent, by persisting +in a course to the south, and that when they should arrive in the +eastern ocean, their best direction must be to enquire for Sofala and +the island of the Moon."</p> + +<p>"It is this letter," observes Dr. Vincent, "above all other +information, which, with equal justice and equal honour, assigns the +theoretical discovery to Covilham, as the practical to Diaz and Gama; +for Diaz returned without hearing any thing of India, though he had +passed the Cape, and Gama did not sail till after the intelligence of +Covilham had ratified the discovery of Diaz." One part of the +instructions given to Covilham required him to visit Abyssinia: in +order to accomplish this object, he returned to Aden, and there took +the first opportunity of entering Abyssinia. The sovereign of his +country received and treated him with kindness, giving him a wife and +land. He entered Abyssinia in 1488, and in 1521, that is, 33 years +afterwards, the almoner to the embassy of John de Lima found him. +Covilham, notwithstanding he was as much beloved by the inhabitants +as by their sovereign, was anxious to return to Portugal, and John de +Lima, at his request, solicited the king to grant him permission to +that effect, but he did not succeed. "I dwell," observes Dr. Vincent, +"with a melancholy pleasure on the history of this man,--whom +Alvarez, the almoner, describes still as a brave soldier and a devout +Christian;--when I reflect upon what must have been his sentiments on +hearing the success of his countrymen, in consequence of the +discovery to which he so essentially contributed. <i>They</i> were +sovereigns of the ocean from the Cape of Good Hope to the straits of +Malacca: <i>he</i> was still a prisoner in a country of +barbarians."</p> + +<p>It might have been supposed, that after it had been ascertained by +Diaz that the southern promontory of Africa could be doubled, and by +Covilham, that this was the only difficulty to a passage by sea to +India, the court of Portugal would have lost no time in prosecuting +their discoveries, and completing the grand object they had had in +view for nearly a century: this, however, was not the case. Ten +years, and another reign, and great debates in the council of +Portugal were requisite before it was resolved that the attempt to +prosecute the discovery of Diaz to its completion was expedient, or +could be of any advantage to the nation at large. At last, when +Emanuel, who was their sovereign, had determined on prosecuting the +discovery of India, his choice of a person to conduct the enterprise +fell on Gama. As he had armorial bearings, we may justly suppose that +he was of a good family; and in all respects he appears to have been +well qualified for the grand enterprise to which he was called, and +to have resolved, from a sense of religion and loyalty, to have +devoted himself to death, if he should not succeed. Diaz was +appointed to a command under him, but he had not the satisfaction of +witnessing the results of his own discovery; for he returned when the +fleet had reached St. Jago, was employed in a secondary command under +Cabral, in the expedition in which Brazil was discovered, and in his +passage from that country to the Cape, four ships, one of which he +commanded, perished with all on board.</p> + +<p>As soon as the fleet which Gama was to take with him was ready for +sea, the king, attended by all his court, and a great body of the +people, formed a solemn procession to the shore, where they were to +embark, and Gama assumed the command, under the auspices of the most +imposing religious ceremonies. Nearly all who witnessed his +embarkation regarded him and those who accompanied him "rather as +devoted to destruction, than as sent to the acquisition of +renown."</p> + +<p>The fleet which was destined to accomplish one of the objects (the +discovery of America is the other)--which, as Dr. Robertson remarks, +"finally established those commercial ideas and arrangements which +constitute the chief distinction between the manners and policy of +ancient and modern times,"--consisted only of three small ships, and +a victualler, manned with no more than 160 souls: the principal +officers were Vasco de Gama, and Paul his brother: Diaz and Diego +Diaz, his brother, who acted as purser: and Pedro Alanquer, who had +been pilot to Diaz. Diaz was to accompany them only to a certain +latitude.</p> + +<p>They sailed from Lisbon on the 18th of July, 1497: in the bay of +St. Helena, which they reached on the 4th of November, they found +natives, who were not understood by any of the negro interpreters +they had on board. From the description of the peculiarity in their +mode of utterance, which the journal of the voyage calls sighing, and +from the circumstance that the same people were found in the bay of +St. Blas, 60 leagues beyond the Cape, there can be no doubt that they +were Hottentots. In consequence of the ignorance or the obstinacy of +the pilot, and of tempestuous weather, the voyage to the Cape was +long and dangerous: this promontory, however, was doubled on the 20th +of November. After this the wind and weather proving favourable, the +voyage was more prosperous and rapid. On the 11th of January, 1498, +they reached that part of the coast where the natives were no longer +Hottentots, but Caffres, who at that period displayed the same marks +of superior civilization by which they are distinguished from the +Hottentots at present.</p> + +<p>From the bay of St. Helena till they passed Cape Corrientes, there +had been no trace of navigation,--no symptom that the natives used +the sea at all. But after they passed this cape, they were visited by +the natives in boats, the sails of which seem to have been made of +the fibres of the cocoa-palm. A much more encouraging circumstance, +however, occurred: some of the natives that came off in these boats +were clothed in cotton, silk, and sattin,--evident proofs that +intercourse, either direct or indirect, was practicable, and had in +fact been held between this country and India. The language of these +people was not understood; but from their signs it was inferred that +they had seen ships as large as the Portuguese, and that they had +come from the north.</p> + +<p>This part of Africa lies between latitudes 19° and 18° +south; and as Gama had the corrected chart of Covilham on board, in +which Sofala was marked as the limit of his progress, and Sofala was +two degrees to the south of where he then was, he must have known +that he had now passed the barrier, and that the discovery was +ascertained, his circumnavigation being now connected with the route +of Covilham. This point of Gama's progress is also interesting and +important in another respect, for we are here approaching a junction +with the discoveries of the Arabians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and +the Romans.</p> + +<p>At this place Gama remained till the 24th of February, repairing +his ships and recruiting his men. On the 1st of March, he arrived off +Mozambique; here evidences of a circumnavigation with India were +strong and numerous. The sovereign of Mozambique ruled over all the +country from Sofala to Melinda. The vessels, which were fitted out +entirely for coasting voyages, were large, undecked, the seams +fastened with cords made of the cocoa fibres, and the timbers in the +same manner. Gama, in going on board some of the largest of those, +found that they were equipped with charts and compasses, and what are +called æst harlab, probably the sea astrolabe, already +discovered. At the town of Mozambique, the Moorish merchants from the +Red Sea and India, met and exchanged the gold of Sofala for their +commodities, and in its warehouses, which, though meanly built, were +numerous, pepper, ginger, cottons, silver, pearls, rubies, velvet, +and other Indian articles were exposed to sale. At Mombaça, +the next place to which Gama sailed, all the commodities of India +were found, and likewise the citron, lemon, and orange; the houses +were built of stone, and the inhabitants, chiefly Mahomedans, seemed +to have acquired wealth by commerce, as they lived in great splendour +and luxury.</p> + +<p>On the 17th of March, 1498, Gama reached Melinda, and was +consequently completely within the boundary of the Greek and Roman +discovery and commerce in this part of the world. This city is +represented as well built, and displaying in almost every respect, +proofs of the extensive trade the inhabitants carried on with India, +and of the wealth they derived from it. Here Gama saw, for the first +time, Banians, or Indian merchants: from them he received much +important information respecting the commercial cities of the west +coast of India: and at Melinda he took on board pilots, who conducted +his fleet across the Indian Ocean to Calicut on the coast of Malabar, +where he landed on the 22d of May, 1498, ten months and two days +after his departure from Lisbon. He returned to Lisbon in 1499, and +again received the command of a squadron in 1502; he died at Cochin +in 1525, after having lived to witness his country sovereign of the +Indian seas from Malacca to the Cape of Good Hope. "The consequence +of his discovery was the subversion of the Turkish power, which at +that time kept all Europe in alarm. The East no longer paid tribute +for her precious commodities, which passed through the Turkish +provinces; the revenues of that empire were diminished; the Othmans +ceased to be a terror to the western world, and Europe has risen to a +power, which the three other continents may in vain endeavour to +oppose."</p> + +<p>The successful enterprize of Gama, and the return of his ships +laden not only with the commodities peculiar to the coast of Malabar, +but with many of the richer and rarer productions of the eastern +parts of India, stimulated the Portuguese to enter on this new career +with avidity and ardour, both military and commercial. It fortunately +happened that Emanuel, who was king of Portugal at this period, was a +man of great intelligence and grasp of mind, capable of forming plans +with prudence and judgment, and of executing them with method and +perseverance; and it was equally fortunate that such a monarch was +enabled to select men to command in India, who from their enterprize, +military skill, sagacity, integrity, and patriotism, were peculiarly +qualified to carry into full and successful execution all his views +and plans.</p> + +<p>The consequences were such as must always result from the steady +operation of such causes: twenty-four years after the voyage of Gama, +and before the termination of Emanuel's reign, the Portuguese had +reached, and made themselves masters of Malacca. This place was the +great staple of the commerce carried on between the east of Asia, +including China, and the islands and the western parts of India. To +it the merchants of China, Japan, the Moluccas, &c. came from the +east, and those of Malabar, Ceylon, Coromandel and Bengal, from the +west; and its situation, nearly at an equal distance from the eastern +and western parts of India, rendered it peculiarly favorable for this +trade, while by possessing the command of the straits through which +all ships must pass from the one extremity of Asia to the other, it +had the monopoly of the most extensive and lucrative commerce +completely within its power.</p> + +<p>From Malacca the Portuguese sailed for the conquest of the +Moluccas; and by achieving this, secured the monopoly of spices. +Their attempt to open a communication and trade with China, which was +made about the same time, was not then successful: but by +perseverance they succeeded in their object, and before the middle of +the sixteenth century, exchanged, at the island of Sancian, the +spices of the Moluccas, and the precious stones and ivory of Ceylon, +for the silks, porcelain, drugs, and tea of China. Soon afterwards +the emperor of China allowed them to occupy the island of Macao. In +1542 they succeeded in forming a commercial intercourse with Japan, +trading with it for gold, silver and copper; this trade, however, was +never extensive, and it ceased altogether in 1638, when they were +driven from the Japanese territories.</p> + +<p>As the commodities of India could not be purchased except with +large quantities of gold, the Portuguese, in order to obtain it, as +well as for other commercial advantages, prosecuted their discoveries +on the east of Africa, at the same time that they were extending +their power and commerce in India. On the east of Africa, between +Sofala and the Red Sea, Arabian colonies had been settled for many +centuries: these the Portuguese navigators visited, and gradually +reduced to tribute; and the remains of the empire they established at +this period, may still be traced in the few and feeble settlements +they possess between Sofala and Melinda. In 1506 they visited and +explored the island of Madagascar; in 1513, by the expulsion of the +Arabs from Aden, the Red Sea was opened to their ships; and they +quickly examined its shores and harbours, and made themselves +acquainted with its tedious and dangerous navigation. In 1520 they +visited the ports of Abyssinia, but their ambition and the security +of their commerce were not yet completely attained; the Persian Gulf, +as well as the Red Sea, was explored; stations were formed on the +coasts of both: and thus they were enabled to obstruct the ancient +commercial intercourse between Egypt and India, and to command the +entrance of those rivers, by which Indian goods were conveyed not +only through the interior of Asia, but also to Constantinople. By the +conquest of Ormus, the Portuguese monopolised that extensive trade to +the East, which had been in the hands of the Persians for several +centuries. "In the hands of the Portuguese this island soon became +the great mart from which the Persian empire, and all the provinces +of Asia to the west of it, were supplied with the productions of +India: and a city which they built on that barren island, destitute +of water, was rendered one of the chief seats of opulence, splendour, +and luxury in the eastern world."</p> + +<p>The Venetians, who foresaw the ruin of their oriental commerce in +the success of the Portuguese, in vain endeavoured to stop the +progress of their rivals in the middle of the sixteenth century: the +latter, masters of the east coast of Africa, of the coasts of Arabia +and Persia, of the two peninsulas of India, of the Molucca islands, +and of the trade to China and Japan, supplied every part of Europe +with the productions of the east, by the Cape of Good Hope; nor was +their power and commerce subverted, till Portugal became a province +of Spain.</p> + +<p>We have purposely omitted, in this rapid sketch of the +establishment and progress of the Portuguese commerce in the East, +any notice of the smaller discoveries which they made at the same +time. These, however, it will be proper to advert to before we +proceed to another subject.</p> + +<p>In the year 1512, a Portuguese navigator was shipwrecked on the +Maldives: he found them already in the occasional possession of the +Arabians, who came thither for the cocoa fibres, of which they formed +their cordage, and the cowries, which circulated as money from Bengal +to Siam. The Portuguese derived from them immense quantities of these +cowries, with which they traded to Guinea, Congo, and Benin. On their +conquest, they obliged the sovereigns of this island to pay them +tribute in cinnamon, pearls, precious stones, and elephants. The +discovery and conquest of the Malaccas has already been noticed, and +its importance in rendering them masters of the trade of both parts +of India, which had been previously carried on principally by the +merchants of Arabia, Persia from the West, and of China from the +East. In Siam, gum lac, porcelain, and aromatics enriched the +Portuguese, who were the first Europeans who arrived in this and the +adjacent parts of this peninsula.</p> + +<p>In the year 1511 the Portuguese navigators began to explore the +eastern archipelago of India, and to make a more complete and +accurate examination of some islands, which they had previously +barely discovered. Sumatra was examined with great care, and from it +they exported tin, pepper, sandal, camphire, &c. In 1513, they +arrived at Borneo: of it, however, they saw and learned little, +except that it also produced camphire. In the same year they had made +themselves well acquainted with Java: here they obtained rice, +pepper, and other valuable articles. It is worthy of remark, that +Barros, the Portuguese historian of their discoveries and conquests +in the East, who died towards the close of the sixteenth century, +already foresaw that the immense number of islands, some of them very +large, which were scattered in the south-east of Asia, would justly +entitle this part, at some future period, to the appellation of the +fifth division of the world. Couto, his continuator, comprehends all +these islands under five different groups. To the first belong the +Moluccas. The second archipelago comprises Gilolo, Moratai, Celebes, +or Macassar, &c. The third group contains the great isle of +Mindinao, Soloo, and most of the southern Philippines. The fourth +archipelago was formed of the Banda isle, Amboyna, &c.; the +largest of these were discovered by the Portuguese in the year 1511: +from Amboyna they drew their supplies of cloves.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese knew little of the fifth archipelago, because the +inhabitants were ignorant of commerce, and totally savage and +uncultivated. From the description given of them by the early +Portuguese writers, as totally unacquainted with any metal, making +use of the teeth of fish in its stead, and as being as black as the +Caffres of Africa, while among them there were some of an unhealthy +white colour, whose eyes were so weak that they could not bear the +light of the sun;--from these particulars there can be no doubt that +the Portuguese had discovered New Guinea, and the adjacent isles, to +whose inhabitants this description exactly applies. These islands +were the limit of the Portuguese discoveries to the East: they +suspected, however, that there were other islands beyond them, and +that these ranged along a great southern continent, which stretched +as far as the straits of Magellan. It is the opinion of some +geographers, and particularly of Malte Brun, that the Portuguese had +visited the coasts of New Holland before the year 1540; but that they +regarded it as part of the great southern continent, the existence of +which Ptolemy had first imagined.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the obstacles which opposed and +retarded the commercial intercourse of the Portuguese with China. +Notwithstanding these, they prosecuted their discoveries in the +Chinese seas. In the year 1518, they arrived at the isles of Liqueou, +where they found gold in abundance: the inhabitants traded as far as +the Moluccas. Their intercourse with Japan has already been +noticed.</p> + +<p>From these results of the grand project formed by Prince Henry, +and carried on by men animated by his spirit, (results so important +to geography and commerce, and which mainly contributed to raise +Europe to its present high rank in knowledge, civilization, wealth, +and power,) we must now turn to the discovery of America, the second +grand cause in the production of the same effects.</p> + +<p>For the discovery of the new world we are indebted to Columbus. +This celebrated person was extremely well qualified for enterprizes +that required a combination of foresight, comprehension, decision, +perseverance, and skill. From his earliest youth he had been +accustomed to regard the sea as his peculiar and hereditary element; +for the family, from which he was descended, had been navigators for +many ages. And though, from all that is known respecting them, this +line of life had not been attended with much success or emolument, +yet Columbus's zeal was not thereby damped; and his parents, still +anxious that their son should pursue the same line which his +ancestors had done, strained every nerve to give him a suitable +education. He was accordingly taught geometry, astronomy, geography, +and drawing. As soon as his time of life and his education qualified +him for the business he had chosen, he went to sea; he was then +fourteen years old. His first voyages were from Genoa, of which city +he was a native, to different ports in the Mediterranean, with which +this republic traded. His ambition, however, was not long to be +confined to seas so well known. Scarcely had he attained the age of +twenty, when he sailed into the Atlantic; and steering to the north, +ran along the coast of Iceland, and, according, to his own journal, +penetrated within the arctic circle. In another voyage he sailed as +far south as the Portuguese fort of St. George del Mina, under the +equator, on the coast of Africa. On his return from this voyage, he +seems to have engaged in a piratical warfare with the Venetians and +Turks, who, at this period, disputed with the Genoese the sovereignty +and commerce of the Mediterranean; and in this warfare he was greatly +distinguished for enterprize, as well as for cool and undaunted +courage.</p> + +<p>At this period he was attracted to Lisbon by the fame which Prince +Henry had acquired, on account of the encouragement he afforded to +maritime discovery. In this city he married the daughter of a person +who had been employed in the earlier navigations of the prince; and +from his father-in-law he is said to have obtained possession of a +number of journals, sea charts, and other valuable papers. As he had +ascertained that the object of the Portuguese was to reach India by +the southern part of Africa, he concluded, that, unless he could +devise or suggest some other route, little attention would be paid to +him. He, therefore, turned his thoughts to the practicability of +reaching India by sailing to the west. At this time the rotundity of +the earth was generally admitted. The ancients, whose opinions on the +extent and direction of the countries which formed the terrestrial +globe, still retained their hold on the minds even of scientific men, +had believed that the ocean encompassed the whole earth; the natural +and unavoidable conclusion was, that by sailing to the west, India +would be reached. An error of Ptolemy's, to which we have already +adverted, contributed to the belief that this voyage could not be +very long; for, according to that geographer, (and his authority was +implicitly acceded to,) the space to be sailed over was sixty degrees +less than it actually proved to be,--a space equal to three-fourths, +of the Pacific Ocean. From considering Marco Polo's account of his +travels in the east of Asia, Columbus also derived great +encouragement; for, according to him, Cathay and Zepango stretched +out to a great extent in an easterly direction; of course they must +approach so much the more towards the west of Europe. It is probable, +also, that Columbus flattered himself, that if he did not reach India +by a western course, he would, perhaps, discover the Atlantis, which +was placed by Plato and Aristotle in the ocean, to the west of +Europe.</p> + +<p>Columbus, however, did not trust entirely to his own practical +knowledge of navigation, or to the arguments he drew from a +scientific acquaintance with cosmography: he heard the reports of +skilful and experienced pilots, and corresponded with several men of +science. He is said, in a particular manner to have been confirmed in +his belief that India might be reached by sailing to the west, by the +communications which he had with Paul, a physician of Florence, a man +well known at this period for his acquaintance with geometry and +cosmography, and who had paid particular attention to the discoveries +of the Portuguese. He stated several facts, and offered several +ingenious conjectures, and moreover, sent a chart to Columbus, on +which he pointed out the course which he thought would lead to the +desired object.</p> + +<p>As Columbus was at the court of Lisbon, when he had resolved to +undertake his great enterprise, and, in fact, regarded himself as in +some degree a Portuguese subject, he naturally applied in the first +instance to John II., requesting that monarch to let him have some +ships to carry him to Marco Polo's island of Zepango or Japan. The +king referred him to the Bishop of Ceuta and his two physicians; but +they having no faith in the existence of this island, rejected the +services of Columbus. For seven years afterwards he solicited the +court of Spain to send him out, while, during the same period, his +brother, Bartholomew, was soliciting the court of England: the latter +was unsuccessful, but Columbus himself at length persuaded Isabella +to grant 40,000 crowns for the service of the expedition. He +accordingly sailed from Palos, in Andalusia, on the 3d of August, +1492; and in thirty-three days landed on one of the Bahamas. He had +already sailed nine hundred and fifty leagues west from the Canaries: +after touching at the Bahamas, he continued his course to the west, +and at length discovered the island of Cuba. He went no farther on +this voyage; but on his return home, he discovered Hispaniola. The +variation of the compass was first observed in this voyage. In a +second voyage, in 1492, Columbus discovered Jamaica, and in a third, +in 1494, he visited Trinidad and the continent of America, near the +mouth of the Orinoco. In 1502, he made a fourth and last voyage, in +which he explored some part of the shores of the Gulph of Mexico. The +ungrateful return he met with from his country is well known: worn +out with fatigue, disappointment, and sorrow, he died at Valladolid, +on the 20th of May, 1506, in the fifty-ninth year of his age.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, the completion of the discovery of America was +rapidly advancing. In 1499, Ogeda, one of Columbus's companions, +sailed for the new world: he was accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci: +little was discovered on the voyage, except some part of the coast of +Guana and Terra Firma. But Amerigo, having, on his return to Spain, +published the first account of the New World, the whole of this +extensive quarter of the globe was called after him. Some authors, +however, contend that Amerigo visited the coasts of Guiana and Terra +Firma before Columbus; the more probable account is, that he examined +them more carefully two years after their discovery by Columbus. +Amerigo was treated by the court of Spain with as little attention +and gratitude as Columbus had been: he therefore offered his services +to Portugal, and in two voyages, between 1500 and 1504, he examined +the coasts of that part of South America which was afterwards called +Brazil. This country had been discovered by Cabral, who commanded the +second expedition of the Portuguese to India: on his voyage thither, +a tempest drove him so far to the west, that he reached the shores of +America. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross; but it was +afterwards called Brazil, from the quantity of red wood of that name +found on it.</p> + +<p>For some time after the discovery of America it was supposed to be +part of India: and hence, the name of the West Indies, still retained +by the islands in the Gulph of Mexico, was given to all those +countries. There were, however, circumstances which soon led the +discoverers to doubt of the truth of the first conceived opinion. The +Portuguese had visited no part of Asia, either continent or island, +from the coast of Malabar to China, on which they had not found +natives highly civilized, who had made considerable progress in the +elegant as well as the useful arts of life, and who were evidently +accustomed to intercourse with strangers, and acquainted with +commerce. In all these respects, the New World formed a striking +contrast: the islands were inhabited by savages, naked, unacquainted +with the rudest arts of life, and indebted for their sustenance to +the spontaneous productions of a fertile soil and a fine climate. The +continent, for the most part, presented immense forests, and with the +exception of Mexico and Peru, was thinly inhabited by savages as +ignorant and low in the scale of human nature as those who dwelt on +the islands.</p> + +<p>The natural productions and the animals differed also most +essentially from those, not only of India, but also of Europe. There +were no lemons, oranges, pomegranates, quinces, figs, olives, melons, +vines, nor sugar canes: neither apples, pears, plumbs, cherries, +currants, gooseberries, rice, nor any other corn but maize. There was +no poultry (except turkeys), oxen, sheep, goats, swine, horses, +asses, camels, elephants, cats, nor dogs, except an animal resembling +a dog, but which did not bark. Even the inhabitants of Mexico and +Peru were unacquainted with iron and the other useful metals, and +destitute of the address requisite for acquiring such command of the +inferior animals, as to derive any considerable aid from their +labour.</p> + +<p>In addition to these most marked and decided points of difference +between India and the newly discovered quarter of the globe, it was +naturally inferred that a coast extending, as America was soon +ascertained to do, many hundred miles to the northward and to the +southward of the equator, could not possibly be that of the Indies. +At last, in the year 1513, a view of the Grand Ocean having been +attained from the mountains of Darien, the supposition that the New +World formed part of India was abandoned. To this ocean the name of +the South Sea was given.</p> + +<p>In the mean time, the Portuguese had visited all the islands of +the Malay Archipelago, as far as the Moluccas. Portugal had received +from the Pope a grant of all the countries she might discover: the +Spaniards, after the third voyage of Columbus, obtained a similar +grant. As, however, it was necessary to draw a line between those +grants, the Pope fixed on 27-1/2° west of the meridian of the +island of Ferro. The sovereigns, for their mutual benefit, allowed it +to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verd islands: all the countries to +the east of this line were to belong to Portugal, and all those to +the west of it to Spain. According to this line of demarcation, +supposing the globe to be equally divided between the two powers, it +is plain that the Moluccas were situated within the hemisphere which +belonged to Spain. Portugal, however, would not yield them up, +contending that she was entitled to the sovereignty of all the +countries she could discover by sailing eastward. This dispute gave +rise to the first circumnavigation of the globe, and the first +practical proof that India could be reached by sailing westward from +Europe, as well as to other results of the greatest importance to +geography and commerce.</p> + +<p>During the discussions which this unexpected and embarrassing +difficulty produced, Francis Magellan came to the court of Spain, to +offer his services as a navigator, suggesting a mode by which he +maintained that court would be able to decide the question in its own +favour. Magellan had served under Albuquerque, and had visited the +Moluccas: and he proposed, if the Spanish monarch would give him +ships, to sail to these islands by a westerly course, which would, +even according to the Portuguese, establish the Spanish right to +their possession. The emperor Charles, who was at this period king of +Spain, joyfully embraced the proposal, although a short time +previous, Solis, who had sailed in quest of a westerly passage to +India, had, after discovering the Rio de la Plata, perished in the +attempt.</p> + +<p>It is maintained by some authors that Magellan's confidence in the +success of his own plan arose from the information he received from a +chart drawn up by Martin Behaim, in which the straits that were +afterwards explored by Magellan, and named after him, were laid down; +and that he carried the information he derived from it to Spain, and +by means of it obtained the protection of Cardinal Ximenes, and the +command of the fleet, with which he was the first to circumnavigate +the world.</p> + +<p>As this is a point which has been a good deal discussed, and as it +is of importance, not only to the fame of Magellan, but to a right +understanding of the actual state of geographical knowledge, with +respect to the New World, at this era, it may be proper briefly to +consider it.</p> + +<p>The claim of Behaim rests entirely on a passage in Pigafetta's +journal of the voyage of Magellan, in which it is stated that +Magellan, as skilful as he was courageous, knew that he was to seek +for a passage through an obscure strait: this strait he had seen laid +down in a chart of Martin Behaim, a most excellent cosmographer, +which was in the possession of the king of Portugal. In describing +the nature of the maps and charts which, during the whole of the +middle ages, were drawn up, we observed that it was very usual to +insert countries, &c. which were merely supposed to exist. The +question, therefore, is--allowing that a strait was laid down in a +chart drawn up by Behaim, whether it was a conjectural strait or one +laid down from good authority? That Behaim himself did not discover +such a strait will be evident from the following circumstances: in +the Nuremberg globe, formed by Behaim, it does not appear: there is +nothing between the Azores and Japan, except the fabulous islands of +Aulitia and St. Brandon; no mention of it is made in the archives of +that city or in his numerous letters, which are still preserved. The +date of the Nuremberg globe is 1492, the very year in which Columbus +first reached the West Indies: Behaim therefore cannot be supposed to +have contributed to this discovery. It is said, however, that he made +a long voyage in 1483 and 1484: but this voyage was in an easterly +direction, for it is expressly stated to have been to Ethiopia; +probably to Congo, and the cargo he brought home, which consisted of +an inferior kind of pepper, proves that he had not visited America. +Besides, if he had visited any part of America in 1483 or 1484, he +would have laid it down in his globe in 1492, whereas, as we have +remarked, no country appears on it to the west of St. Brandon. We +may, therefore, safely conclude that he did not himself discover any +passage round the south point of America.</p> + +<p>But all the other great discoveries of the Portuguese and +Spaniards (except that of Diaz in 1486) were made between 1492, the +date of the Nuremberg Globe, and 1506, the date of the death of +Behaim, and between these periods, he constantly resided at Fayal. It +is much more probable that he inserted this strait in his chart on +supposition, thinking it probable that, as Africa terminated in a +cape, so America would. That Magellan did not himself believe the +strait was laid down in Behaim's chart from any authority is evident, +from a circumstance mentioned by Pigafetta, who expressly informs us, +that Magellan was resolved to prosecute his search after it to +latitude 75°, had he not found it in latitude 52°. Now, as +Behaim undoubtedly was the greatest cosmographer of the age, and had +been employed to fit the astrolobe as a sea instrument, it is not to +be supposed that, if he had good authority for the existence of a +passage round South America, he would have left it in any chart he +drew, with an uncertainty of 23 degrees.</p> + +<p>Magellan sailed from Spain in 1519, with five ships: he explored +the river Plate a considerable way, thinking at first it was the sea, +and would lead him to the west. He then continued his voyage to the +south, and reached the entrance of the straits which afterwards +received his name, on the 21st October, 1520, but, in consequence of +storms, and the scarcity of provisions, he did not clear them till +the 28th of November. He now directed his course to the north-west: +for three months and twenty days he saw no land. In 15 south, he +discovered a small island; and another in 9 south. Continuing his +course still in the same direction, he arrived at the Ladrones, and +soon afterwards at the Phillippines, where he lost his life in a +skirmish. His companions continued their voyage; and, on the +twenty-seventh month after their departure from Spain, arrived at one +of the Molucca islands. Here the Spaniards found plenty of spices, +which they obtained in exchange for the cloth, glass, beads, &c., +which they had brought with them for that purpose. From the Moluccas +they returned home round the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Seville +in September, 1552. Only one ship returned, and she was drawn up in +Seville, and long preserved as a monument of the first +circumnavigation of the globe. The Spaniards were surprised, on their +return to their native country, to find that they had gained a day in +their reckoning--a proof of the scanty knowledge at that time +possessed, respecting one of the plainest and most obvious results of +the diurnal motion of the earth.</p> + +<p>The voyage of Magellan occupied 1124 days: Sir Francis Drake, who +sailed round the world about half a century afterwards, accomplished +the passage in 1051 days: the next circumnavigator sailed round the +globe in 769 days; and the first navigators who passed to the south +of Terra del Fuego, accomplished the voyage in 749 days. In the +middle of the eighteenth century, a Scotch privateer sailed round the +world in 240 days.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, several voyages had been performed to the east +coast of North America. The first voyages to this part of the new +world were undertaken by the English: there is some doubt and +uncertainty respecting the period when these were performed. The +following seems the most probable account.</p> + +<p>At the time when Columbus discovered America, there lived in +London a Venetian merchant, John Cabot, who had three sons. The +father was a man of science, and had paid particular attention to the +doctrine of the spheres: his studies, as well as his business as a +merchant, induced him to feel much interest in the discoveries which +were at that period making. He seems to have applied to Henry VII.; +who accordingly empowered him to sail from England under the royal +flag, to make discoveries in the east, the west, and the north, and +to take possession of countries inhabited by Pagans, and not +previously discovered by other European nations. The king gave him +two ships, and the merchants of Bristol three or four small vessels, +loaded with coarse cloth, caps, and other small goods. The doubt +respecting the precise date of this voyage seems to receive the most +satisfactory solution from the following contemporary testimony of +Alderman Fabian, who says, in his <i>Chronicle of England and +France</i>, that Cabot sailed in the beginning of May, in the +mayoralty of John Tate, that is, in 1497, and returned in the +subsequent mayoralty of William Purchase, bringing with him three +<i>sauvages</i> from Newfoundland. This fixes the date of this +voyage: the course he steered, and the limits of his voyage, are +however liable to uncertainty. He himself informs us, that he reached +only 56° north latitude, and that the coast of America, at that +part, winded to the east: but there is no coast of North America that +answers to this description. According to other accounts, he reached +67-1/2° north latitude; but this is the coast of Greenland, and +not the coast of Labrador, as these accounts call it. It is most +probable that he did not reach farther than Newfoundland, which he +certainly discovered. To this island he at first gave the names of +Prima Vista and Baccaloas; and it is worthy of notice, that a cape of +Newfoundland still retains the name of Bona Vista, and there is a +small island still called Bacalao, not far from hence.</p> + +<p>From this land he sailed to the south-west till he reached the +latitude of Gibraltar, and the longitude of Cuba; if these +circumstances be correct, he must have sailed nearly as far as +Chesapeak Bay: want of provisions now obliged him to return to +England.</p> + +<p>Portugal, jealous of the discoveries which Spain had made in the +new world, resolved to undertake similar enterprizes, with the double +hope of discovering some new part of America, and a new route to +India. Influenced by these motives, Certireal, a man of birth and +family, sailed from Lisbon in 1500 or 1501: he arrived at Conception +Bay, in Newfoundland, explored the east coast of that island, and +afterwards discovered the river St. Lawrence. To the next country +which he discovered, he gave the name of Labrador, because, from its +latitude and appearance, it seemed to him better fitted for culture +than his other discoveries in this part of America. This country he +coasted till he came to a strait, which he called the Strait of +Anian. Through this strait he imagined a passage would be found to +India, but not being able to explore it himself, he returned to +Portugal, to communicate the important and interesting information. +He soon afterwards went out on a second voyage, to prosecute his +discoveries in this strait; but in this he perished. The same voyage +was undertaken by another brother, but he also perished. As the +situation of the Strait of Anian was very imperfectly described, it +was long sought for in vain on both sides of America; it is now +generally supposed to have been Hudson's Strait, at the entrance of +Hudson's Bay.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards were naturally most alarmed at the prospect of the +Portuguese finding a passage by this strait to India. Cortez, the +conqueror of Mexico, undertook himself an expedition for this +purpose; but he returned without accomplishing any thing. After him +the viceroy, Mendoza, sent people, both by sea and land, to explore +the coast as far as 53° north latitude; but neither party reached +farther than 36 degrees. The Spanish court itself now undertook the +enterprize; and in the year 1542, Cabrillo, a Portuguese in the +service of that court, sailed from Spain. He went no farther than to +44 degrees north latitude, where he found it very cold. He coasted +the countries which at present are called New California, as far as +Cape Blanco: he discovered, likewise, Cape Mendocino; and +ascertained, that from this place to the harbour De la Nadividad, the +land continued without the intervention of any strait. In 1582, +Gualle was directed by the king of Spain to examine if there was a +passage to the east and north-east of Japan, that connected the sea +of Asia with the South Sea. He accordingly steered from Japan to the +E.N.E. about 300 leagues: here he found the current setting from the +north and north-west, till he had sailed above 700 leagues, when he +reckoned he was only 200 leagues from the coast of California. In +this voyage he discovered those parts of the north-west coast of +America which are called New Georgia and New Cornwall. At the +beginning of the seventeenth century, the Spaniards, alarmed at the +achievements of Sir Francis Drake on this part of America, and still +anxious to discover, if possible, the Straits of Anian, sent out +Sebastian Viscaino from Acapulco: he examined the coasts as far as +Cape Mendocino, and discovered the harbour of Montery. One of his +ships reached the latitude of 43 degrees, where the mouth of a +strait, or a large river, was said to have been discovered.</p> + +<p>The expedition of Sir Francis Drake, though expressly undertaken +for the purpose of distressing the Spaniards in their new +settlements, must be noticed here, on account of its having +contributed also, in some degree, to the geographical knowledge of +the north-west coast of America. He sailed from Plymouth on the 15th +November, 1577, with five vessels, (the largest only 100 tons, and +the smallest 15,) and 164 men. On the 20th of August, 1578, he +entered the Strait of Magellan, which he cleared on the 6th of +September: "a most extraordinary short passage," observes Captain +Tuckey, "for no navigator since, though aided by the immense +improvements in navigation, has been able to accomplish it in less +than 36 days." After coasting the whole of South America to the +extremity of Mexico, he resolved to seek a northern passage into the +Atlantic. With this intention, he sailed along the coast, to which, +from its white cliffs, he gave the name of New Albion. When he +arrived, however, at Cape Blanco, the cold was so intense, that he +abandoned his intention of searching for a passage into the Atlantic, +and crossed the Pacific to the Molucca islands. In this long passage +he discovered only a few islands in 20° north latitude: after an +absence of 1501 days, he arrived at Plymouth. The discoveries made by +this circumnavigator, will, however, be deemed much more important, +if the opinion of Fleurien, in his remarks on the austral lands of +Drake, inserted in the Voyage of Marchand, in which opinion he is +followed by Malte Brun, be correct; viz. that Drake discovered, under +the name of the Isles of Elizabeth, the western part of the +archipelago of Terra del Fuego; and that he reached even the southern +extremity of America, which afterwards received, from the Dutch +navigators, the name of Cape Horn. These are all the well +authenticated discoveries made in the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, on the north-west coast of America. Cape Mendocino, in +about 40-1/2 degrees north latitude, is the extreme limit of the +certain knowledge possessed at this period respecting this coast: the +information possessed respecting New Georgia and New Cornwall was +very vague and obscure.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the coasts of the east +side of North America, particularly those of Florida, Virginia, +Acadia and Canada, were examined by navigators of different +countries. Florida was discovered in the year 1512, by the Spanish +navigator, Ponce de Leon; but as it did not present any appearance of +containing the precious metals, the Spaniards entirely neglected it. +In 1524, the French seem to have engaged in their first voyage of +discovery to America. Francis I. sent out a Florentine with four +ships: three of these were left at Madeira; with the fourth he +reached Florida. From this country he is said to have coasted till he +arrived in fifty degrees of north latitude. To this part he gave the +name of New France; but he returned home without having formed any +colony. Towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the +seventeenth centuries, the English began to form settlements in these +parts of North America. Virginia was examined by the famous Sir +Walter Raleigh: this name was given to all the coast on which the +English formed settlements. That part of it now called Carolina, +seems to have been first discovered by Raleigh.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the seventeenth century was particularly +distinguished by the voyage of La Maire and Schouten. The States +General of Holland, who had formed an East India Company, in order to +secure to it the monopoly of the Indian trade, prohibited all +individuals from navigating to the Indian Ocean, either round the +Cape of Good Hope or through the Straits of Magellan. It was +therefore an object of great importance to discover, if practicable, +any passage to India, which would enable the Dutch, without incurring +the penalties of the law, to reach India. This idea was first +suggested by La Maire, a merchant of Amsterdam, and William Schouten, +a merchant of Horn. They had also another object in view: in all the +maps of the world of the sixteenth century, a great southern +continent is laid down. In 1606, Quiros, a Spanish navigator, had +searched in vain for this continent; and La Maire and Schouten, in +their voyage, resolved to look for it, as well as for a new passage +to India. In 1615 they sailed from Holland with two ships: they +coasted Patagonia, discovered the strait which bears the name of La +Maire, and Staten Island, which joins it on the east. On the 31st of +January next year, they doubled the southern point of America, having +sailed almost into the sixtieth degree of south latitude; this point +they named Cape Horn, after the town of which Schouten was a native. +From this cape they steered right across the great southern ocean to +the northwest. In their course they discovered several small islands; +but finding no trace of a continent, they gave up the search for it, +and steering to the south, passed to the east of the Papua +Archipelago. They then changed their course to the west; discovered +the east coast of the island, afterwards called New Zealand, as well +as the north side of New Guinea. They afterwards reached Batavia, +where they were seized by the president of the Dutch East India +Company. This voyage was important, as it completed the navigation of +the coast of South America from the Strait of Magellan to Cape Horn, +and ascertained that the two great oceans, the Pacific and the +Atlantic, joined each other to the south of America, by a great +austral sea. This voyage added also considerably to maritime +geography, "though many of the islands in the Pacific thus discovered +have, from the errors in their estimated longitudes, been claimed as +new discoveries by more recent navigators." In the year 1623, the +Dutch found a shorter passage into the Pacific, by the Straits of +Nassau, north-west of La Maire's Strait; and another still shorter, +by Brewer's Straits, in the year 1643.</p> + +<p>The success of the Portuguese and Spaniards in their discoveries +of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, and of America, +induced, as we have seen, the other maritime nations to turn their +attention to navigation and commerce. As, however, the riches derived +from the East India commerce were certain, and the commodities which +supplied them had long been in regular demand in Europe, the attempts +to discover new routes to India raised greater energies than those +which were made to complete the discovery of America. In fact, as we +have seen, the east coast, both of South and North America, in all +probability would not have been visited so frequently, or so soon and +carefully examined, had it not been with the hope of finding some +passage to India in that direction. But it was also supposed, that a +passage to India might be made by sailing round the north of Europe +to the east. Hence arose the frequent attempts to find out what are +called the north-west and north-east passages; the most important of +which, that were made during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, +we shall now proceed to notice.</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned the earliest attempts to find out the +Straits of Anian; the idea that they existed on the northwest coast +of America seems to have been abandoned for some time, unless we +suppose, that a voyage undertaken by the French in 1535 had for its +object the discovery of these straits: it is undoubted, that one of +the objects of this voyage was to find a passage to India. In this +voyage, the river St. Lawrence was examined as far as Montreal. In +1536, the English in vain endeavoured to find a north-west passage to +India. The result of this voyage was, however, important in one +respect; as it gave vise to the very beneficial fishery of the +English on the banks of Newfoundland. The French had already engaged +in this fishery.</p> + +<p>In 1576, the idea of a north-west passage having been revived in +England, Frobisher was sent in search of it, with two barks of +twenty-five tons each, and one pinnace of ten tons. He entered the +strait, leading into what was afterwards called Hudson's Bay: this +strait he named after himself. He discovered the southern coast of +Greenland; and picking up there some stone or ore which resembled +gold, he returned to England. The London goldsmiths having examined +this, they reported that it contained a large proportion of gold. +This induced the Russian Company to send him out a second time, in +1577; but during this voyage, and a third in 1578, no discoveries of +consequence were made. In the years 1585, 86, and 87, Captain Davis, +who was in the service of an English company of adventurers, made +three voyages in search of a north-west passage. In the first he +proceded as far north as sixty-six degrees forty minutes, visited the +southwest coast of Greenland, and gave his own name to the straits +that separate it from America. At this time the use of a kind of +harpoon was known, by which they were enabled to kill porpoises; but +though they saw many whales, they knew not the right manner of +killing them. In his second voyage an unsuccessful attempt was made +to penetrate between Iceland and Greenland, but the ships were unable +to penetrate beyond sixty-seven degrees north latitude. The west +coast of Greenland was examined; but not being able to sail along its +north coast, he stretched across to America, which he examined to +latitude fifty-four. In his last voyage, Davis reached the west coast +of Greenland, as far as latitude seventy-two. All his endeavours, +however, to find a north-west passage were ineffectual.</p> + +<p>In 1607, Hudson, an experienced seaman of great knowledge and +intrepidity, sailed in search of this passage. He directed his course +straight north, and reached the eighty-second degree of latitude, and +the seventy-third degree of west longitude. During this voyage more +of the eastern coast of Greenland was discovered than had been +previously known. In his second voyage, which was undertaken in 1608, +he endeavoured to sail between Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, but +unsuccessfully: of this and his first voyage we have very imperfect +accounts. His third voyage was undertaken for the Dutch: in this he +discovered the river in America which bears his name. His fourth and +last voyage, in which he perished, and to which he owes his principal +fame as a navigator, was in the service of the Russia Company of +England. In this voyage he reached the strait which bears his name: +his crew mutinied at this place, and setting him on shore, returned +to England. As soon as the Russia Company learned the fate of Hudson, +they sent one Captain Button in search of him, and also to explore +the straits which he had discovered: in this voyage Hudson's Bay was +discovered. Button's journal was never published: it is said, +however, to have contained some important observations on the tides, +and other objects of natural philosophy.</p> + +<p>The existence of such a bay as Hudson's was described to be, +induced the merchants of England to believe that they had at length +found out the entrance to a passage which would lead them to the East +Indies: many voyages were therefore undertaken, in a very short time +after this bay had been discovered. The most important was that of +Bylot and Baffin: they advanced through Davis's Straits into an +extensive sea, which they called Baffin's Bay: they proceeded, +according to their account, as far north as the latitude 78°. The +nature and extent of this discovery was very much doubted at the +time, and subsequently, till the discoveries of Captains Ross and +Parry, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, proved that Baffin +was substantially accurate and faithful.</p> + +<p>Baffin's voyage took place in the year 1616: after this there was +no voyage undertaken with the same object, till the year 1631, when +Captain Fox sailed from Deptford. He had been used to the sea from +his youth, and had employed his leisure time in collecting all the +information he could possibly obtain, respecting voyages, to the +north. He was besides well acquainted with some celebrated +mathematicians and cosmographers, particularly Thomas Herne, who had +carefully collected all the journals and charts of the former +voyages, with a view to his business, which was that of a maker of +globes. When Fox was presented to Charles I, his majesty gave him a +map, containing all the discoveries which had been made in the north +seas. He discovered several islands during the voyage, but not the +passage he sought for; though he is of opinion, that if a passage is +to be found, it must be in Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome,--a bay he +discovered near an island of that name, in north latitude 64° +10', not far from the main land, on the west side of Hudson's Bay. He +published a small treatise on the voyage, called The North-west Fox, +which contains many important facts and judicious observations on the +ice, the tides, compass, northern lights, &c. Captain James +sailed on the same enterprise nearly at the same time that Fox did. +His account was printed by King Charles's command, in 1633: it +contains some remarkable physical observations respecting the +intenseness of the cold, and the accumulation of ice, in northern +latitudes; but no discovery of moment. He was of opinion, that no +north-west passage existed.</p> + +<p>The last voyage in the seventeenth century, in search of this +passage, was undertaken in consequence of the representations of a +Frenchman to Charles II. From the same cause proceeded the +establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company by that monarch.</p> + +<p>Canada was at this time colonized by the French; and a French +settler there, De Gronsseliers, an enterprising and speculative man, +after travelling in various directions, reached a country, where he +received information respecting Hudson's Bay: he therefore resolved +to attempt to reach this bay by sea. In the course of this +undertaking he met with a few English, who had settled themselves +near Port Nelson River: these he attacked, and by their defeat became +master of the country. He afterwards explored the whole district, and +returned to Quebec with a large quantity of valuable furs and English +merchandize; but meeting with ill-treatment in Quebec, and afterwards +at the court of France, he came to England, where he was introduced +to the Count Palatine Rupert. The prince patronized all laudable and +useful enterprises; and persuaded the king to send out Captain +Gillam, and the Frenchman with him. The ship was loaded with goods to +traffic for furs. They passed through Hudson's Straits to Baffin's +Bay, as far as 75 degrees north latitude: they afterwards sailed as +far to the south as 51 degrees, where, near the banks of a river, +called after Prince Rupert, they built Charles Fort. This was the +first attempt to carry on commerce in this part of America.</p> + +<p>We must now return to the period of the first attempt to find out +a north-east passage to India. A society of merchants had been formed +in London for this purpose. Sebastian Cabot, either the son or the +grandson of John Cabot, and who held the situation of grand pilot of +England under Edward VI., was chosen governor of this society. Three +vessels were fitted out: one of them is particularly noticed in the +contemporary accounts, as having been sheathed with thin plates of +lead. Sir Hew Willoughby had the chief command: Captain Richard +Chanceller and Captain Durfovill commanded the other two vessels +under him. Willoughby, having reached 72 degrees of north latitude, +was obliged by the severity of the season to run his ship into a +small harbour, where he and his crew were frozen to death. Captain +Durfovill returned to England. Chanceller was more fortunate; for he +reached the White Sea, and wintered in the Dwina, near the site of +Archangel. While his ship lay up frozen, Chanceller proceeded to +Moscow, where he obtained from the Czar privileges for the English +merchants, and letters to King Edward: as the Czar was at this period +engaged in the Livonian war, which greatly interrupted and +embarrassed the trade of the Baltic, he was the more disposed to +encourage the English to trade to the White Sea. We have already +remarked, in giving an account of the voyage of Ohter, in King +Alfred's time, that he had penetrated as far as the White Sea. This +part of Europe, however, seems afterwards to have been entirely lost +sight of, till the voyage of Chanceller; for in a map of the most +northern parts of Europe, given in Munster's Geographia, which was +printed in 1540, Greenland is laid down as joined to the north part +of Lapland; and, consequently, the northern ocean appears merely as a +great bay, enclosed by these countries. Three years afterwards, the +English reached the coasts of Nova Zembla, and heard of, if they did +not arrive at, the Straits of Waygats. The next attempts were made by +the Dutch, who were desirous of reaching India by a route, in the +course of which they would not be liable to meet with the Spaniards +or Portuguese. They accordingly made four attempts between 1594 and +1596, but unsuccessfully. In the last voyage they reached +Spitzbergen; but after striving in vain to penetrate to the +north-east, they were obliged to winter on the north coast of Nova +Zembla, in 76° latitude. Here they built a smaller vessel out of +the remains of the one they had brought from Holland, and arrived the +following summer at Kola, in Lapland.</p> + +<p>In 1653, Frederic III, king of Denmark, sent three vessels to +discover a north-east passage: it is said that they actually passed +through Waygats' Straits; but that in the bay beyond these straits +they found insurmountable obstacles from the ice and cold, and +consequently were obliged to return.</p> + +<p>The last attempt made in the seventeenth century, was by the +English: it was proposed and undertaken by John Wood, an experienced +seaman, who had paid particular attention to the voyages that had +been made to the north. His arguments in favour of a north-east +passage were, that whales had been found near Japan, with English and +Dutch harpoons in them; and that the Dutch had found temperate +weather near the Pole, and had sailed 300 leagues to the east of Nova +Zembla. The first argument only proved, that there was sea between +Nova Zembla and Japan; but not that it was navigable, though passable +for whales: the other two positions were unfounded. Wood, however, +persuaded the Duke of York to send him out in 1676. He doubled the +North Cape, and reached 76 degrees of north latitude. One of the +ships was wrecked off the coast of Nova Zembla, and Wood returned in +the other, with an opinion that a north-east passage is +impracticable, and that Nova Zembla is a part of the continent of +Greenland.</p> + +<p>But we must turn from these attempts to discover a northwest or +north-east passage to India, which, from the accounts given of them, +it will be evident, contributed very little to the progress of +geographical knowledge, though they necessarily increased the skill, +confidence, and experience of navigators.</p> + +<p>While these unprofitable voyages were undertaken in the north, +discoveries of consequence were making in the southern ocean. These +may be divided into two classes; viz., such as relate to what is now +called Australasia; and those which relate to the islands which are +scattered in the southern ocean.</p> + +<p>We have already stated that there is reason to believe some part +of New Holland was first discovered by the Portuguese: two ancient +maps in the British Museum are supposed to confirm this opinion; but +the date of one is uncertain; the other is dated 1542, and certainly +contains a country, which, in form and position, resembles New +Holland, as it was laid down prior to the voyage of Tasman. But +allowing this to be New Holland, it only proves, that at the date of +this map it was known, not that it had been discovered by the +Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The Dutch, however, certainly made several voyages to it between +1616 and 1644: the western extremity was explored in 1616. The same +year Van Dieman's Land was discovered. In the course of the ten +following years, the western and northern coasts were visited. The +southern coast was first discovered in 1627, but we have no +particulars respecting the voyage in which it was discovered. In +1642, Tasman, a celebrated Dutch navigator, sailed from Batavia, and +discovered the southern part of Van Dieman's Land and New Zealand. +From this time to the beginning of the eighteenth century, little +progress was made in exploring the coast of New Holland. Dampier, +however, a man of wonderful talents, considering his education and +mode of life, collected, during his voyage, some important details +respecting the west coast. And among the numerous voyages undertaken +by the Dutch East India Company towards the close of the seventeenth +and beginning of the eighteenth century, to examine this vast +country, which the Dutch regarded as belonging to them, there was one +by Van Vlaming deserving of notice: this navigator examined with +great care and attention many bays and harbours on the west side; and +he is the first who mentions the black swans of this country.</p> + +<p>Papua, or New Guinea, another part of Australasia, was discovered +by the Portuguese in 1528. The passage that divides this country from +New Britain was discovered by Dampier, who was also the first that +explored and named the latter country in 1683. The discovery of +Solomon Islands by the Spaniards took place in 1575: Mendana, a +Spanish captain, sailed from Lima, to the westward, and in steering +across the Pacific, he fell in with these islands. On a second voyage +he extended his discoveries, and he sailed a third time to conquer +and convert the natives. His death, which took place in one of these +islands, put an end to these projects. They are supposed to be the +easternmost of the Papua Archipelago, afterwards visited by Carteret, +Bougainville, and other navigators. Mendana, during his last voyage, +discovered a group of islands to which he gave the name of Marquesas +de Mendoza.</p> + +<p>This group properly belongs to Polynesia: of the other islands in +this quarter of the globe, which were discovered prior to the +eighteenth century, Otaheite is supposed to have been discovered by +Quiros in 1606. His object was to discover the imagined austral +continent; but his discoveries were confined to Otaheite, which he +named Sagittaria, and an island which he named Terra del Esperitu +Sancto, which is supposed to be the principal of the New Hebrides. +The Ladrones were discovered by Magellan in 1521. The New +Philippines, or Carolinas, were first made known by the accidental +arrival of a family of their natives at the Philippines in 1686. +Easter island, a detached and remote country, which, however, is +inhabited by the Polynesian race, was discovered by Roggewein in +1686.</p> + +<p>Having thus exhibited a brief and general sketch of the progress +of discovery, from the period when the Portuguese first passed the +Cape of Good Hope to the beginning of the eighteenth century, we +shall next, before we give an account of the state and progress of +commerce during the same period, direct our attention to the state of +geographical science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.</p> + +<p>We have already stated that the astrolobe, which had been +previously applied only to astronomical purposes, was accommodated to +the use of mariners by Martin Behaim, towards the end of the +fifteenth century. He was a scholar of Muller, of Koningsberg, better +known under the name of Regiomontanus, who published the Almagest of +Ptolemy. The Germans were at this time the best mathematicians of +Europe. Walther, who was of that nation, and the friend and disciple +of Regiomontanus, was the first who made use of clocks in his +astronomical observations. He was succeeded by Werner, of Nuremberg, +who published a translation of Ptolemy's Geography, with a +commentary, in which he explains the method of finding the longitude +at sea by the distance of a fixed star from the moon. The +astronomical instruments hitherto used were, with the exception of +the astrolobe, those which had been employed by Ptolemy and the +Arabians. The quadrant of Ptolemy resembled the mural quadrant of +later times; which, however, was improved by the Arabians, who, at +the end of the tenth century, employed a quadrant twenty-one feet and +eight inches radius, and a sextant fifty-seven feet nine inches +radius, and divided into seconds. The use of the sextant seems to +have been forgotten after this time; for Tycho Brahe is said to have +re-invented it, and to have employed it for measuring the distances +of the planets from the stars. The quadrant was about the same time +improved by a method of subdividing its limbs by the diagonal scale, +and by the Vernier. The telescope was invented in the year 1609, and +telescopic sights were added to the quadrant in the year 1668. +Picard, who was one of the first astronomers who applied telescopes +to quadrants, determined the earth's diameter in 1669, by measuring a +degree of the meridian in France. The observation made at Cayenne, +that a pendulum which beat seconds there, must be shorter than one +which beat seconds at Paris, was explained by Huygens, to arise from +the diminution of gravity at the equator, and from this fact he +inferred the spheroidal form of the earth. The application of the +pendulum to clocks, one of the most beautiful and useful acquisitions +which astronomy, and consequently navigation and geography have made, +was owing to the ingenuity of Huygens. These are the principal +discoveries and inventions, relating to astronomy, which were made +prior to the eighteenth century, so far as they are connected with +the advancement of the art of navigation and the science of +geography.</p> + +<p>The discoveries of Columbus and Gama necessarily overturned the +systems of Ptolemy, Strabo, and the other geographers of antiquity. +The opinion that the earth was a globe, which had been conjectured or +inferred prior to the voyage of Magellan, was placed beyond a doubt +by that voyage. The heavenly bodies were subjected to the +calculations of man by the labours of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and +Galileo. Under these circumstances it was necessary, and it was easy, +to make great improvements in the construction of maps, in laying +down the real form of the earth, and the relative situations of the +countries of which it is formed, together with their latitudes and +longitudes. The first maps which displayed the new world were those +of the brothers Appian, and of Ribeiro: soon afterwards a more +complete and accurate one was published by Gemma Frisius. Among the +geographers of the sixteenth century, who are most distinguished for +their science, may be reckoned Sebastian Munster; for though, as we +have already mentioned, he joins Greenland to the north of Lapland in +his map, yet his research, labour, and accuracy were such, that he is +compared by his contemporaries to Strabo. Ortelius directed his +studies and his learning to the elucidation of ancient geography; and +according to Malte Bran, no incompetent judge, he may yet be +consulted on this subject with advantage.</p> + +<p>But modern geography may most probably be dated from the time of +Mercator: he published an edition of Ptolemy, in which he pointed out +the imperfection of the system of the ancients. The great object at +this time, was to contrive such a chart in plano, with short lines, +that all places might be truly laid down according to their +respective longitudes and latitudes. A method of this kind had been +obscurely pointed at by Ptolemy; but the first map on this plan was +made by Mercator, about the year 1550. The principles, however, on +which it was constructed, were not demonstrated till the year 1559, +when Wright, an Englishman, pointed them out, as well as a ready and +easy way of making such a map. This was a great help to navigators; +since by enlarging, the meridian line, as Wright suggested and +explained, so that all the degrees of longitude might be proportional +to those of latitude, a chart on Mercator's projection shews the +course and distance from place to place, in all cases of sailing; and +is therefore in several respects more convenient to navigators than +the globe itself. Mercator, in his maps and charts, chose Corvo, one +of the Azores, for his first meridian, because at that time it was +the line of no variation of the compass.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to Regiomontanus, as a celebrated +mathematician, and as having published the Almagest of Ptolemy. He +seems, likewise, to have written notes on Ptolemy's Geography. In +1525, a later translation of Ptolemy was published, which contained +these annotations. To Ptolemy's maps, tables, &c., are added a +new set of maps on wooden plates, according to the new discoveries: +from these we find, that in consequence of the voyages of the +Portuguese, the charts of the coasts of Arabia, Africa, Persia, and +India, are laid down with tolerable accuracy. Nothing is noticed +regarding China, except that it may be reached by sea from India. +America is called Terra Nova inventa per Christ. Columbus: this seems +to be all the editor knew of it. That part of the work which relates +to the north of Europe, is most grossly erroneous: Denmark, Norway, +Sweden, and the Baltic, seem to have been little known. A great bay +is laid down between Greenland and Lapland, which bay is bounded on +the north by a ridge of mountains, thus retaining the error of +Ptolemy with respect to this part of Europe. There are two maps of +England and Scotland: in one they are represented as one island; in +the other as different islands. These maps and charts must have been +the work of the editor or translator, as Regiomontanus, whose +annotations are subjoined, died before the discovery of America.</p> + +<p>We have been thus particular in describing the principal maps of +this work, as they prove how imperfect geography was, prior to the +time of Mercator, and with how much justice it may be said that he is +the father of modern geography. There were, however, some maps of +particular countries, drawn up in the sixteenth century with +tolerable accuracy, considering the imperfection of those sciences +and instruments, by which alone perfect accuracy can be attained. +George Lilly, son of William, the famous grammarian, published, +according to Nicholson, (English Historical Library,) "the first +exact map that ever was, till then, drawn of this island." This +praise must, however, be taken with great qualification; for even so +late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, the distance from +the South Foreland to the Lands-end was laid down, in all the maps of +England, half a degree more than it actually is. We may here remark, +that Nicholson represents Thomas Sulmo, a Guernsey man, who died in +1545, as our oldest general geographer.</p> + +<p>In some of the MSS. of Harding's Chronicle, written in the reign +of Edward IV., there is a rude map of Scotland. In 1539, Alexander +Lindsey, an excellent navigator and hydrographer, published a chart +of Scotland and its isles, drawn up from his own observations, which +were made when he accompanied James V. in 1539, on his voyage to the +highlands and islands. This chart is very accurate for the age; and +is much superior to that published by Bishop Lesley, with his +history, in 1578.</p> + +<p>The first map of Russia, known to the other nations of Europe, was +published in 1558 by Mr. Anthony Jenkinson, agent to the English +Russia Company, from the result of his enquiries and observations +during his long residence in that kingdom.</p> + +<p>These are the most important maps, either general or of particular +countries, with which the sixteenth century supplies us.</p> + +<p>The seventeenth century continued the impulse which was given to +the science of geography by Mercator. As new discoveries were +constantly in progress, errors in maps were corrected, vacant spaces +filled up, more accurate positions assigned, and greater attention +paid to the actual and relative sizes of different countries. Malte +Brun justly reckons Cluverius, Riccioli, and Varenius, as amongst the +most celebrated geographers of this century. Cluverius was a man of +extensive and accurate erudition, which he applied to the +illustration of ancient geography. Riccioli, an Italian Jesuit, +devoted his abilities and leisure to the study of mathematics, and +the sciences dependent upon it, particularly astronomy; and was thus +enabled to render important service to the higher parts of geography. +Varenius is a still more celebrated name in geographical science: he +excelled in mathematical geography; and such was his fame and merit +in the higher branches of physics, and his ingenuity in applying them +to geography, that a system of universal geography, which he +published in Latin, was deemed worthy by Newton, to be republished +and commented upon. Cellarius bestowed much pains on ancient +geography. That branch of the science which pays more especial regard +to the distances of places, was much advanced by Sanson, in France; +Blew, in Holland; and Buraeus, in Sweden.</p> + +<p>We must now turn to the progress of commerce during the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries.</p> + +<p>The discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, gave +immediately a great impulse to commerce; whereas, it was a long time +after the discovery of America before commerce was benefited by that +event. This arose from the different state and circumstances of the +two countries. The Portuguese found in India, and the other parts of +the East, a race of people acquainted with commerce, and accustomed +to it; fully aware of those natural productions of their country +which were in demand, and who had long been in the habit of +increasing the exportable commodities by various kinds of +manufactures. Most of these native productions and manufactures had +been in high estimation and value in Europe for centuries prior to +the discovery of the Cape. The monarchs of the East, as well as their +subjects, were desirous of extending their trade. There was, +therefore, no difficulty, as soon as the Portuguese arrived at any +part of the East; they found spices, precious stones, pearls, +&c., or silk and cotton stuffs, porcelaine, &c., and +merchants willing to sell them. Their only business was to settle a +few skilful agents, to select and purchase proper cargoes for their +ships. Even before they reached the remote countries of the East, +which they afterwards did, they found depôts of the goods of +those parts, in intermediate and convenient situations, between them +and the middle and western parts of Asia and Europe.</p> + +<p>It was very different in America: the natives here, ignorant and +savage, had no commerce. "Even the natural productions of the soil, +when not cherished and multiplied by the fostering and active hand of +man, were of little account." Above half a century elapsed before the +Spaniards reaped any benefit from their conquests, except some small +quantities of gold, chiefly obtained from plundering the persons, the +houses, and temples of the Mexicans and Peruvians. In 1545, the mines +of Potosi were discovered; these, and the principal Mexican mine, +discovered soon afterwards, first brought a permanent and valuable +revenue to Spain. But it was long after this before the Spaniards, or +the other nations of Europe, could be convinced that America +contained other treasures besides those of gold and silver, or +induced to apply that time, labour, and capital, which were requisite +to unfold all the additions to the comforts, the luxuries, and the +health of man, which the New World was capable of bestowing. When, +however, European skill and labour were expended on the soil of +America, the real and best wealth of this quarter of the world was +displayed in all its importance and extent. In addition to the native +productions of tobacco, indigo, cochineal, cotton, ginger, cocoa, +pimento, drugs, woods for dying, the Europeans cultivated the sugar +cane, and several other productions of the Old World. The only +articles of commerce supplied by the natives, were furs and skins; +every thing else imported from the New World consists at present, and +has always consisted of the produce, of the industry of Europeans +settled there.</p> + +<p>But though it was long before Europe derived much direct benefit +from the discovery of America, yet in one important respect this +discovery gave a great stimulus to East India commerce. Gold and +silver, especially the latter, have always been in great demand in +the East, and consequently the most advantageous articles to export +from Europe in exchange for Indian commodities. It was therefore +absolutely necessary for the continuance of a commerce so much +extended as this to India was, in consequence of the Portuguese +discoveries, that increased means of purchasing Indian commodities +should be given; and these were supplied by the gold and silver mines +of America.</p> + +<p>If these mines had not been discovered about the time when trade +to India was more easy, expeditious, and frequent, it could not long +have been in the power of Europe to have availed herself of the +advantages of the Portuguese discoveries; gold and silver would have +become, from their extreme scarcity, more valuable in Europe than in +India, and consequently would no longer have been exported. But the +supply of the precious metals and of Indian commodities increasing at +the same time, Europe, by means of America, was enabled to reap all +possible advantage from the Portuguese discoveries. The gold and +silver of Mexico and Peru traversed the world, in spite of all +obstacles, and reached that part of it where it was most wanted, and +purchased the productions of China and Hindostan.</p> + +<p>Yet, notwithstanding the effectual demand for East India +commodities was necessarily increased by the increased supply of the +precious metals, yet the supply of these commodities being increased +in a much greater proportion, their price was much lowered. This +lowering of price naturally arose from two circumstances: after the +passage to India by the Cape, the productions and manufactures of the +East were purchased immediately from the natives; and they were +brought to Europe directly, and all the way, by sea. Whereas, before +the discovery of the Cape, they were purchased and repurchased +frequently; consequently, repeated additions were made to their +original price; and these additions were made, in almost every +instance, by persons who had the monopoly of them. Their conveyance +to Europe was long, tedious, and mostly by land carriage, and +consequently very expensive. There are no data by which it can be +ascertained in what proportion the Portuguese lowered the price of +Indian commodities; but Dr. Robertson's supposition appears well +founded,--that they might afford to reduce the commodities of the +East, in every part of Europe, one half. This supposition is founded +on a table of prices of goods in India, the same sold at Aleppo, and +what they might be sold for in England,--drawn up, towards the end of +the seventeenth century, by Mr. Munn: from this it appears, that the +price at Aleppo was three times that in India, and that the goods +might be sold in England at half the Aleppo price. But as the expense +of conveying goods to Aleppo from India, may, as Dr. Robertson +observes, be reckoned nearly the same as that which was incurred by +bringing them to Alexandria, he draws the inference already +stated,--that the discovery of the Cape reduced the price of Indian +commodities one half. The obvious and necessary result would follow, +that they would be in greater demand, and more common use. The +principal eastern commodities used by the Romans were spices and +aromatics,--precious stones and pearls; and in the later periods of +their power, silk; these, however, were almost exclusively confined +to rare and solemn occasions, or to the use of the most wealthy and +magnificent of the conquerors of the world. On the subversion of the +Roman empire, the commodities of the East were for a short time in +little request among the barbarians who subverted it: as soon, +however, as they advanced from their ignorance and rudeness, these +commodities seem strongly to have attracted their notice, and they +were especially fond of spices and aromatics. These were used very +profusely in their cookery, and formed the principal ingredients in +their medicines. As, however, the price of all Indian commodities was +necessarily high, so long as they were obliged to be brought to +Europe by a circuitous route, and loaded with accumulated profits, it +was impossible that they could be purchased, except by the more +wealthy classes. The Portuguese, enabled to sell them in greater +abundance, and at a much cheaper rate, introduced them into much more +general use; and, as they every year extended their knowledge of the +East, and their commerce with it, the number of ships fitted out at +Lisbon every year, for India, became necessarily more numerous, in +order to supply the increased demand.</p> + +<p>Commerce in this case, as in every other, while it is acted upon +by an extension of geographical knowledge, in its turn has an obvious +tendency to extend that knowledge; this was the case with respect to +India. The ancients had indeed made but small advances in their +acquaintance with this country, notwithstanding they were stimulated +by the large profits they derived from their eastern commerce; but +this was owing to their comparative ignorance of navigation and the +sciences on which it depends. As soon as the moderns had improved +this art, especially by the use of the compass, and the Cape of Good +Hope was discovered, commerce gave the stimulus, which in a very few +years led the Portuguese from Calicut to the furthest extremity of +Asia.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that the Portuguese were allowed to monopolize +Indian commerce for so long a time as they did; this, however, as Dr. +Robertson observes, may be accounted for, "from the political +circumstances in the state of all those nations in Europe, whose +intrusion as rivals the Portuguese had any reason to dread. From the +accession of Charles V. to the throne, Spain was either so much +occupied in a multiplicity of operations in which it was engaged by +the ambition of that monarch, and of his son Philip II., or so intent +on prosecuting its own discoveries and conquests in the New World, +that although by the successful enterprize of Magellan, its fleets +were unexpectedly conducted by a new course to that remote region of +Asia, which was the seat of the most gainful and alluring branch of +trade carried on by the Portuguese, it could make no considerable +effect to avail itself of the commercial advantages which it might +have derived from that event. By the acquisition of the crown of +Portugal, in the year 1580, the kings of Spain, instead of the +rivals, became the protectors of the Portuguese trade, and the +guardians of all its exclusive rights. Throughout the sixteenth +century, the strength and resources of France were so much wasted by +the fruitless expeditions of their monarchs to Italy; by their +unequal contest with the power and policy of Charles V., and by the +calamities of the civil wars which desolated the kingdom upwards of +forty years, that it could neither bestow much attention on commerce, +nor engage in any scheme of distant enterprize. The Venetians, how +sensibly soever they might feel the mortifying reverse of being +excluded almost entirely from the Indian trade, of which their +capital had been formerly the chief seat, were so debilitated and +humbled by the league of Cambray, that they were no longer capable of +engaging in any undertaking of magnitude. England, weakened by the +long contests between the houses of York and Lancaster, and just +beginning to recover its proper vigour, was restrained from active +exertions during one part of the sixteenth century, by the cautious +maxims of Henry VII., and wasted its strength, during another part of +it, by engaging inconsiderately in the wars between the princes on +the continent. The nation, though destined to acquire territories in +India more extensive and valuable than were ever possessed by any +European power, had no such presentiment of its future eminence +there, as to take an early part in the commerce or transactions of +that country, and a great part of the century elapsed before it began +to turn its attention to the East.</p> + +<p>"While the most considerable nations in Europe found it necessary, +from the circumstances which I have mentioned, to remain inactive +spectators of what passed in the East, the seven United Provinces of +the Low Countries, recently formed into a small state, still +struggling for political existence, and yet in the infancy of its +power, ventured to appear in the Indian Ocean as the rivals of the +Portuguese; and, despising their pretensions to an exclusive right of +commerce with the extensive countries to the eastward of the Cape of +Good Hope, invaded that monopoly which they had hitherto guarded with +such jealous attention. The English soon followed the example of the +Dutch, and both nations, at first by the enterprizing industry of +private adventurers, and afterwards by the more powerful efforts of +trading companies, under the protection of public authority, advanced +with astonishing ardour and success in this new career opened to +them. The vast fabric of power which the Portuguese had opened in the +East, (a superstructure much too large for the basis on which it had +to rest) was almost entirely overturned in as short time, and with as +much facility, as it had been raised. England and Holland, by driving +them from their most valuable settlements, and seizing the most +lucrative branches of their trade, have attained to that pre-eminence +of naval power and commercial opulence by which they are +distinguished among the nations of Europe." (Robertson's India, pp. +177-9. 8vo. edition.)</p> + +<p>Before, however, we advert to the commerce of the Dutch in India, +it will be proper to notice those circumstances which gave a +commercial direction to the people of the Netherlands, both before +their struggle with Spain, and while the result of that struggle was +uncertain. The early celebrity of Bruges as a commercial city has +already been noticed; its regular fairs in the middle of the tenth +century; its being made the entrepôt of the Hanse Association +towards the end of the thirteenth. It naturally partook of the wealth +and commercial improvement which Flanders derived from her woollen +manufactures, and was in fact made the emporium of that country at +the beginning of the fourteenth century; and within 100 years +afterwards, the staple for English and Scotch goods. When the +increased industry of the north of Europe induced and enabled its +inhabitants to exchange the produce of their soil, fisheries, and +manufactures, for the produce of the south of Europe, and of India, +Bruges was made the great entrepôt of the trade of Europe. In +the beginning of the sixteenth century its commercial importance +began to decline, but the trade which left it, did not pass beyond +the limits of the Netherlands; it settled in a great measure at +Antwerp, which, as being accessible by sea, was more convenient for +commerce than Bruges. This city, however, would not have fallen so +easily or rapidly before its rival, had it not been distracted by +civil commotions. From it the commerce of the Netherlands, and with +it of the north of Europe, and the interchange of its commodities +with those of the south of Europe and of Asia, gradually passed to +Antwerp; and about the year 1516, most of the trade of Bruges was +fixed here, the Portuguese making it their entrepôt for the +supply of the northern kingdoms.</p> + +<p>Even before this time the ships of the Netherlands seem to have +been the carriers of the north of Europe; for in 1503, two Zealand +ships arrived at Campveer, laden with sugars, the produce of the +Canary Islands. Antwerp, however, continued till it was taken by the +Spaniards, and its port destroyed by the blocking up of the Scheldt, +to be most distinguished for its commerce, and its consequent +wealth:--its situation, its easy access by sea, joined to the +circumstance of its being made the Portuguese entrepôt for +spices, drugs, and other rich productions of India, mainly +contributed to its commerce. Merchants from every part of the north +of Europe settled here, and even many of the merchants of Bruges +removed to it, after the decline of their own city. Its free fairs +for commerce, two of which lasted each time six weeks, attracted +merchants from all parts, as they could bring their merchandize into +it duty free, and were here certain of finding a market for it. In it +also bills of exchange on all parts of Europe could be easily and +safely negotiated. We have already mentioned the most wealthy +merchants of England and France, in the fifteenth century: there +existed at Antwerp, in the sixteenth, a firm of the name of Fugger, +whose wealth was very great, and indicates the extent of their +commercial dealings. From this firm the Emperor Charles V. had +borrowed a very large sum, in order to carry on an expedition against +Tunis. In the year 1534, Charles, being at Antwerp, Fugger invited +him to an entertainment at his house, made a fire in his hall with +cinnamon, and threw all the emperor's bonds into that fire. About +eleven years afterwards, the same merchant gave an acquittance to +Henry VIII. of England, for the sum of 152,180 <i>l</i>. Flemish, +which the king had borrowed of him. The Fuggers had a licence from +the king of Portugal to trade to India; and they used to send their +own factor in every ship that sailed thither, and were the owners of +part of every cargo of pepper imported.</p> + +<p>In the year 1541, it contained 100,000 inhabitants: soon +afterwards the persecutions on account of religion in Germany, +England, and France, drove many people thither, and of course +increased both its population and wealth. If we may believe Huet, in +his History of Dutch Commerce, it was, at this time, not uncommon to +see 2500 ships at once lying in the Scheldt.</p> + +<p>The picture, however, which Guicciardini draws of Antwerp in 1560, +when it had reached the zenith of its prosperity and wealth,--being +that of a contemporary author, and entering into detail,--is at once +much more curious and interesting, and may be depended on as +authentic. It is also valuable, as exhibiting the state of the +manufactures, commerce, &c. of most of the nations of Europe at +this period.</p> + +<p>"Besides the natives and the French, who are here very numerous, +there are six principal foreign nations, who reside at Antwerp, both +in war and peace, making above 1000 merchants, including factors and +servants, viz. Germans, Danes, and Easterlings--that is, people from +the ports in the south shores of the Baltic, from Denmark to +Livonia--Italians, Spaniards, English, and Portuguese of these six +nations; the Spaniards are the most numerous. One of those foreign +merchants, Fugger, of Augsburg, died worth above six millions of +crowns; there are many natives there with from 200,000 to 400,000 +crowns."</p> + +<p>"They meet twice a day, in the mornings and evenings, one hour +each time, at the English bourse, where, by their interpreters and +brokers, they buy and sell all kinds of merchandize. Thence they go +to the new bourse, or principal exchange, where, for another hour +each time, they transact all matters relating to bills of exchange, +with the above six nations, and with France; and also to deposit at +interest, which is usually twelve per cent. per annum."</p> + +<p>"They send to Rome a great variety of woollen drapery, linen, +tapestry, &c.: the returns are in bills of exchange. To Ancona, +English and Flemish cloths, stuffs, linen, tapestry, cochineal; and +bring in return such spices and drugs as the merchants of Ancona +procure in the Levant, and likewise silks, cotton, Turkey carpets, +and leather. To Bologne they export serges, and other stuffs, +tapestry, linen, merceries, &c. and bring in return for it, +wrought silks, cloth of gold and silver, crapes, caps, &c. To +Venice they send jewels and pearls, English cloth and wool, Flemish +drapery, cochineal, &c. and a little sugar and pepper: thus, with +respect to these two latter articles, sending to Venice what they +formerly obtained from her. For, prior to the Portuguese discovery of +the Cape, the merchants of Antwerp brought from Venice all sorts of +India spices and drugs: and even so late as the year 1518, there +arrived in the Scheldt, five Venetian ships, laden with spices and +drugs, for the fair at Antwerp. In 1560, however, the imports from +Venice consisted of the finest and choicest silks, carpets, cotton, +&c. and colours for dyers and painters."</p> + +<p>"To Naples they export great quantities of Flemish and English +cloths and stuffs, tapestry, linens, small wares of metal, and other +materials: and bring back raw, thrown and wrought silk, fine furs and +skins, saffron and manna. The exports to Sicily are similar to those +of the other parts of Italy: the imports from it are galls in great +quantity, cinnamon, oranges, cotton, silk, and sometimes wine. To +Milan, Antwerp exports pepper, sugar, jewels, musk, and other +perfumes, English and Flemish woollen manufactures, English and +Spanish woollinens, and cochineal. The imports are gold and silver, +thread, silks, gold stuffs, dimities, rich and curious draperies, +rice, muskets and other arms, high priced toys and small goods; and +Parmesian cheese. The exports to Florence are nearly the same as to +the other parts of Italy, but in addition, fans are specified. +Besides the usual imports of silks and gold stuffs, there are also +fine furs. Household furniture is exported to Genoa, besides the +usual articles: velvets, which were then the best in the world; +satins, the best coral, mithridate, and treacle, are the principal or +the peculiar imports. Genoa, is the port through which Antwerp trades +with Mantua, Verona, Modena, Lucca, &c."</p> + +<p>"Besides all these articles, Antwerp imports from Italy by sea, +alum, oil, gums, leaf senna, sulphur, &c. and exported to it by +sea, tin, lead, madder, Brazil wood, wax, leather, flax, tallow, salt +fish, timber, and sometimes corn. The imports from Italy, including +only silks, gold and silver, stuffs, and thread camblets and other +stuffs, amount to three millions of crowns, or 600,000 <i>l</i>. +yearly.</p> + +<p>"Antwerp exports to Germany precious stones and pearls, spices, +drugs, saffron, sugars, English cloths, as a rare and curious +article, bearing a high price: Flemish cloth, more common and not so +valuable as English, serges, tapestry, a very large quantity of linen +and mercery, or small wares of all sorts: from Germany, Antwerp +receives by land carriage, silver, bullion, quicksilver, immense +quantities of copper, Hessian wool, very fine, glass, fustians of a +high price, to the value of above 600,000 crowns annually; woad, +madder, and other dye stuffs; saltpetre, great quantities of mercery, +and household goods, very fine, and of excellent quality: metals of +all sorts, to a great amount; arms; Rhenish wine, of which +Guicciardini speaks in the highest terms, as good for the health, and +not affecting either the head or the stomach, though drunk in very +large quantities:--of this wine 40,000 tuns were brought to Antwerp +annually, which, at thirty-six crowns per tun, amounted to 1,444,000 +crowns."</p> + +<p>"To Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Eastland, Livonia, and Poland, +Antwerp exports vast quantities of spices, drugs, saffron, sugar, +salt, English and Flemish cloths, fustians, linens, wrought silks, +gold stuffs, tapestries, precious stones, Spanish and other wines, +alum, Brazil wood, merceries, and household goods. From these +countries, particularly from Eastland and Poland, that is, the +countries on the south shore of the Baltic, Antwerp receives wheat +and rye to a large amount; iron, copper, brass, saltpetre, dye-woods, +vitriol, flax, honey, wax, pitch, tar, sulphur, pot-ashes, skins and +furs, leather, timber for ship building, and other purposes; beer, in +high repute; salt meat; salted, dryed, and smoked fish; amber in +great quantities, &c."</p> + +<p>"To France, Antwerp sends precious stones, quicksilver, silver +bullion, copper and brass, wrought and unwrought, lead, tin, +vermillion; azure, blue, and crimson colours, sulphur; saltpetre, +vitriol, camblets, and Turkey grograms, English and Flemish cloths, +great quantities of fine linen, tapestry, leather, peltry, wax, +madder, cotton, dried fish, salt fish, &c. Antwerp receives her +returns from France, partly by land and partly by sea. By sea, salt +to the annual value of 180,000 crowns; fine woad of Thoulouse, to the +value annually of 300,000 crowns; immense quantities of canvass and +strong linen, from Bretagne and Normandy; about 40,000 tuns of +excellent red and white wines, at about twenty-five crowns per tun; +saffron; syrup, or sugar, or perhaps capillaire; turpentine, pitch, +paper of all kinds in great quantities, prunes, Brazil wood, &c. +&c. By land, Antwerp receives many curious and valuable gilt and +gold articles, and trinkets; very fine cloth, the manufacture of +Rouen, Peris, Tours, Champagne, &c.; the threads of Lyons, in +high repute; excellent verdigrise from Montpelier, merceries, +&c."</p> + +<p>"To England, Antwerp exports jewels and precious stones, silver +bullion, quicksilver, wrought silks, cloth of gold and silver, gold +and silver thread, camblets, grograms, spices, drugs, sugar, cotton, +cinnamon, galls, linens, serges, tapestry, madder, hops in great +quantities, glass, salt fish, small wares made of metal and wood, +arms, ammunition, and household furniture. From England, Antwerp +imports immense quantities of fine and coarse woollen goods; the +finest wool; excellent saffron, but in small quantities; a great +quantity of lead and tin; sheep and rabbit skins, and other kinds of +fine peltry and leather; beer, cheese, and other sorts of provisions, +in great quantities; also Malmsey wines, which the English import +from Candia."</p> + +<p>Guicciardini observes, that Antwerp exported but little to +Scotland, as that country was principally supplied from England and +France: some spiceries, sugars, madder, wrought silks, camblets, +serges, linen, and merceries, are exported. In return, Antwerp +received from Scotland vast quantities of peltry of various kinds, +leather, wool, cloth of coarse quality, fine large pearls, but not of +quite so good a water as the oriental pearls.</p> + +<p>The exports to Ireland were nearly the same as to Scotland: the +returns were skins and leather, some low-priced cloths, and other +coarse and common articles of little value.</p> + +<p>The exports to Spain consisted chiefly of copper, brass, and +latten, wrought and unwrought; tin, lead; much woollen cloth, both +Flemish and English; serges, tapestry, linens, flax-thread, wax, +pitch, madder, tallow, sulphur, wheat, rye, salted meat and fish, +butter, cheese, merceries, silver bullion and wrought, arms, +ammunition, furniture, tools; and every thing also, he adds, produced +by human industry and labour, to which the lower classes in Spain +have an utter aversion. From Spain, Antwerp received jewels, pearls, +gold and silver in great quantities; cochineal, sarsaparilla, +guiacum, saffron; silk, raw and thrown; silk stuffs, velvets, +taffeties, salt, alum, orchil, fine wool, iron, cordovan leather, +wines, oils, vinegar, honey, molasses, Arabian gums, soap; fruits, +both moist and dried, in vast quantities, and sugar from the +Canaries.</p> + +<p>The exports to Portugal were silver bullion, quicksilver, +vermilion, copper, brass, and latten; lead, tin, arms, artillery and +ammunition; gold and silver thread, and most of the other articles +sent to Spain. From Portugal, Antwerp received pearls and precious +stones, gold, spices, to the value of above a million of crowns +annually; drugs, amber, musk, civet, great quantities of ivory, +aloes, rhubarb, cotton, China root, (then and even lately much used +in medicine,) and many other rare and valuable Indian commodities, +with which the greatest part of Europe is supplied from Antwerp; +also, sugars from St. Thomas, under the line, and the other islands +belonging to the Portuguese on the African coast; Brazil wood, Guinea +grains, and other drugs from the west coast of Africa; Madeira sugar +and wines. Of the produce of Portugal itself, Antwerp imported salt, +wines, oils, woad, seeds, orchil, fruits, &c. &c.</p> + +<p>To Barbary, Antwerp exported woollen goods, linen, merceries, +metals, &c.; and received from it sugar, azure or anil, gums, +coloquintida, leather, peltry, and fine feathers.</p> + +<p>From this sketch of the commerce of Antwerp, when it was at its +height, we see, that it embraced the whole commerce of the world: and +that in it centered all the commodities supplied by Asia, America, +Africa, and the south of Europe on the one hand, and England, the +Baltic countries, Germany, and France on the other. The account given +by Guicciardini is confirmed by Wheeler, who wrote in 1601. He +observes, that a little before the troubles in the Low Countries, the +people of Antwerp were the greatest traders to Italy in English and +other foreign merchandize; and also to Alexandria, Cyprus, and +Tripoli in Syria; "beating the Italians, English, and Germans, almost +entirely out of that trade, as they also soon did the Germans in the +fairs of their own country." He adds, that the Antwerp merchants, +being men of immense wealth, and consequently able to supply Spain +for the Indies at long credit, set their own prices on their +merchandize. Antwerp also supplied Germany, Spain, Portugal, and +Eastland with the wares, which France was wont to supply them. He +adds, "It is not past eighty years ago, (that would be about 1520,) +since there were not, in London, above twelve or sixteen Low Country +merchants, who imported only stone pots, brushes, toys for children, +and other pedlar's wares; but in less than forty years after, there +were, in London, at least one hundred Netherland merchants, who +brought thither all the commodities which the merchants of Italy, +Germany, Spain, France, and Eastland, (of all which nations there +were, before that time, divers famous and notable rich merchants and +companies,) used to bring into England out of their own country +directly, to the great damage of the said strangers, and of the +natural born English merchants."</p> + +<p>Guicciardini informs us, that in his time the port of Armuyden, in +the island of Walcheren, was the place of rendezvous for the shipping +of Antwerp: in it have often been seen 500 large ships lying at one +time, bound to, or returning from distant parts of the world. He +adds, that it was no uncommon thing for 500 ships to come and go in +one day; that 10,000 carts were constantly employed in carrying +merchandize to and from the neighbouring countries, besides hundreds +of waggons daily coming and going with passengers; and 500 coaches +used by people of distinction. In his enumeration of the principal +trades, it is curious that there were ninety-two fishmongers, and +only seventy-eight butchers; there were 124 goldsmiths, who, it must +be recollected, at that time acted as bankers, or rather exchangers +of money. The number of houses was 13,500. With respect to the +shipping, which, according to this author, were so numerous at the +port of Antwerp, comparatively few of them belonged to this city, as +most of its commerce was carried on by ships of foreign nations.</p> + +<p>This circumstance, of its having but few ships of its own, may be +regarded as one cause why, when it was taken and plundered by the +Spaniards in the year 1585, it could not recover its former commerce, +as the shipping removed with the nations they belonged to. The forts +which the Dutch built in the Scheldt were, however, another and a +very powerful cause. The trade of Holland rose on the fall of +Antwerp, and settled principally at Amsterdam; this city had indeed +become considerable after the decline of the Hanseatic confederacy; +but was not renowned for its commerce till the destruction of +Antwerp. The commerce of Holland was extended and supported by its +fisheries, and the manufactures of Flanders and the adjoining +provinces, which in their turn received support from its commerce. +Guicciardini informs us, that there were in the Netherlands, in time +of peace, 700 busses and boats employed in the herring fishery: each +made three voyages in the season, and on an average during that +period, caught seventy lasts of herring, each last containing twelve +barrels of 9OO or 1000 herrings each barrel; the price of a last was +usually about 6£. sterling: the total amount of one year's +fishery, was about 294,000£. sterling. About sixty years after +this time, according to Sir Walter Raleigh, the cod and ling fishery +of Friesland, Holland, Zealand, and Flanders, (the provinces included +by Guicciardini in the maritime Netherlands) brought in +100,000£. annually: and the salmon-fishing of Holland and +Zealand nearly half that sum.</p> + +<p>The woollen manufactures of the Netherlands had, about the time +that Guicciardini wrote, been rivalled by those of England: yet he +says, that, though their wool was very coarse, above 12,000 pieces of +cloth were made at each of the following places; Amsterdam, +Bois-le-duc, Delft, Haarlem, and Leyden. Woollen manufactures were +carried on also at other places, besides taffeties and tapestries. +Lisle is particularised by him as next in commercial importance to +Antwerp and Amsterdam. Bois-le-duc seems to have been the seat of a +great variety of manufactures; for besides woollen cloth, 20,000 +pieces of linen, worth, on an average, ten crowns each, were annually +made; and likewise great quantities of knives, fine pins, mercery, +&c. By the taking of Antwerp, the Spanish or Catholic Netherlands +lost their trade and manufactures, great part of which, as we have +already observed, settled in the United Provinces, while the +remainder passed into England and other foreign countries.</p> + +<p>The destruction of the Hanseatic league, which benefited +Amsterdam, seems also to have been of service to the other northern +provinces of the Netherlands: for in 1510, we are informed by +Meursius, in his History of Denmark, there was at one time a fleet of +250 Dutch merchant ships in the Baltic: if this be correct, the Dutch +trade to the countries on this sea must have been very great. The +circumstance of the Dutch, even before their revolt from Spain, +carrying on a great trade, especially to the Baltic, is confirmed by +Guicciardini; according to him, about the year 1559, they brought +annually from Denmark, Eastland, Livonia, and Poland, 60,000 lasts of +grain, chiefly rye, worth 560,000 <i>l</i>. Flemish. They had above +800 ships from 200 to 700 tons burden: fleets of 300 ships arrived +twice a year from Dantzic and Livonia at Amsterdam, where there were +often seeing lying at the same time 500 vessels, most of them +belonging to it. He mentions Veer in Zealand (Campveer) as at that +time being the staple port for all the Scotch shipping, and owing its +principal commerce to that circumstance.</p> + +<p>The destruction of Antwerp brought to Amsterdam, along with other +branches of commerce, the valuable trade which the former city had +with Portugal for the produce and manufactures of India; these the +Dutch merchants resold to all the nations of the north. As soon, +however, as Philip II. had obtained possession of the throne of +Portugal in 1580, he put a stop to all further commerce between +Lisbon and the Dutch. The latter, having tasted the sweets of this +commerce, resolved to attempt a direct trade to India. We have +already mentioned the voyages of Barentz in search of a north-east +passage; these proving unsuccessful, the Dutch began to despair of +reaching India, except by the Cape of Good Hope; and this voyage they +were afraid to undertake, having, at this time, neither experienced +seamen nor persons acquainted with Indian commerce. A circumstance, +however, occurred while Barentz was in search of a north-west +passage, which determined them to sail to India by the Cape. One +Houlman, a Dutchman, who had been in the Portuguese Indian service, +but was then confined in Lisbon for debt, proposed to the merchants +of Rotterdam, if they could liberate him, to put them in possession +of all he knew respecting Indian commerce; his offer was accepted, +and four ships were sent to India in 1594 under his command. The +adventurers met with much opposition from the Portuguese in India, so +that their voyage was not very successful or lucrative: they +returned, however, in twenty-nine months with a small quantity of +pepper from Java, where they had formed a friendly communication with +the natives. The arrival of the Dutch in India,--the subjugation of +Portugal by Spain, which circumstance dispirited and weakened the +Portuguese, and the greater attention which the Spaniards were +disposed to pay to their American than their Indian commerce, seem to +have been the causes which produced the ruin of the Portuguese in +India, and the establishment of the Dutch.</p> + +<p>The Dutch pushed their new commerce with great vigour and zeal. In +the year 1600 eight ships entered their ports laden with cinnamon, +pepper, cloves, nutmegs, and mace: the pepper they obtained at Java, +the other spices at the Moluccas, where they were permitted by the +natives, who had driven out the Portuguese, to establish +factories.</p> + +<p>In consequence of a wild and ruinous spirit of speculation having +seized the Dutch merchants, the government, in 1602, formed all the +separate companies who traded to India, into one; and granted to this +extensive sovereignty over all the establishments that might be +formed in that part of the world. Their charter was for twenty-one +years: their capital was 6,600,000 guilders (or about +600,000 <i>l</i>.) Amsterdam subscribed one half of the capital, and +selected twenty directors out of sixty, to whom the whole management +of the trade was entrusted.</p> + +<p>From this period, the Dutch Indian commerce flourished extremely: +and the company, not content with having drawn away a large portion +of the Portuguese trade, resolved to expel them entirely from this +part of the world. Ships fitted, either to trade or to fight, and +having on board a great number of soldiers, were sent out within a +very few years after the establishment of the company. Amboyna and +the Moluccas were first entirely wrested from the Portuguese: +factories and settlements were in process of time established from +Balsora, at the mouth of the Tigris in the Persian Gulf; along the +coasts and islands of India, as far as Japan. Alliances were formed +with many of the Indian princes: and in many parts, particularly on +the coasts of Ceylon, and at Pulicat, Masulipatam, Negapatam, and +other places along the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, they were +themselves, in fact, the sovereigns. The centre of all their Indian +commerce was fixed at Batavia in Java, the greatest part of this +island belonging to them. From this general sketch of the extent of +country, which was embraced, either by their power or their commerce, +it is evident that the Indian trade was almost monopolized by them; +and as they wisely employed part of the wealth which it produced, to +establish and defend their possessions, they soon became most +formidable in this part of the world, sending out a fleet of 40 or 50 +large ships, and an army of 30,000 men.</p> + +<p>They were not, however, content, but aimed at wresting from the +Portuguese almost the only trade which remained to them; viz. their +trade with China. In this attempt they did not succeed; but in the +year 1624, they established themselves at Formosa. Soon after this, +the conquest of China by the Tartars, induced or compelled an immense +number of Chinese to leave their native country and settle in +Formosa. Here they carried on a very extensive and lucrative trade; +and Formosa became the principal mart of this part of Asia. Vessels +from China, Japan, Siam, Java, and the Philippines, filled its +harbours. Of this commerce the Dutch availed themselves, and derived +great wealth from it, for about forty years, when they were driven +out of the island. In 1601, the Dutch received permission to trade to +Japan, but this privilege was granted under several very strict +conditions, which were, however, relaxed in 1637, when they +discovered a conspiracy of the Spaniards, the object of which was to +dethrone the emperor, and seize the government. The jealousy of the +Japanese, however, soon revived; so that by the end of the +seventeenth century, the lucrative commerce which the Dutch carried +on with this island for fine tea, porcelaine, lacquered or Japan +ware, silk, cotton, drugs, coral, ivory, diamonds, pearls, and other +precious stones, gold, silver, fine copper, iron, lead, and tin; and +in exchange for linen, and woollen cloths, looking-glasses, and other +glass ware; and the merchandize of India, Persia, and Arabia, was +almost annihilated.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding to narrate the events which arose from the +arrival of the English in the East Indies, and the effects produced +on the Dutch power and commerce there, by their arrival, it will be +proper to take a short notice of the commerce of the Dutch to the +other parts of the world. As their territories in Europe were small +and extremely populous, they were in a great measure dependent on +foreign nations for the means of subsistence: in exchange for these, +they had few products of their manufactures to give. The sources of +their wealth, therefore, as well as of the means of their existence, +were derived from the exchange of their India commodities, and from +their acting as the great carriers of Europe. From these two +circumstances, their cities, and especially Amsterdam, became the +great mart of Europe: its merchants had commercial transactions to an +immense amount with all parts of the world. In consequence of the +vastness and extent of their commerce, they found great payments in +specie very inconvenient. Hence arose the bank of Amsterdam. It is +foreign to our purpose, either to describe the nature of this bank, +or to give a history of it; but its establishment, at once a proof, +and the result of the immense commerce of Amsterdam, and the cause of +that commerce becoming still more flourishing, and moreover, as the +principal of those establishments, which have changed the character +of the commerce of Europe, could not be passed over without notice. +It was formed in the year 1609.</p> + +<p>In this year, the Dutch had extended their trade to the west coast +of Africa so much, that they had about 100 ships employed in the gold +coast trade. About the same time, they formed a colony in North +America, in that province now called New York. In 1611, having formed +a truce with Spain, they resolved to venture into the Mediterranean, +and endeavour to partake in the lucrative trade with the Levant: for +this purpose, they sent an ambassador to Constantinople, where he +concluded a favourable treaty of commerce. But by far the most +extensive and lucrative commerce which the Dutch possessed in Europe, +was in the Baltic: there they had gradually supplanted the Hanseatic +League, and by the middle of the seventeenth century, nearly all the +commodities of the countries lying on, or communicating with this +sea, were supplied to the rest of Europe by the Dutch. In the year +1612, they first engaged in the whale fishery at Greenland. In 1648, +taking advantage of the civil troubles in England, and having by this +time acquired a powerful influence at the Russian court, they +interfered with the trade of the English Russian Company at +Archangel; and this new branch of trade they pushed with their +national industry and perseverance, so that in 1689 they had 200 +factors in this place.</p> + +<p>In the year 1621 the Dutch formed a West India Company: their +first objects were to reduce Brazil and Peru: in the latter they were +utterly unsuccessful. By the year 1636 they had conquered the greater +part of the coast of Brazil: they lost no time in reaping the fruits +of this conquest: for in the space of thirteen years, they had sent +thither 800 ships of war and commerce, which were valued at 4-1/2 +millions sterling; and had in that time taken from Spain, then +sovereign of Portugal, 545 ships. In the year 1640 the Portuguese +shook off the Spanish yoke, and from this event may be dated the +decline of the Dutch power in Brazil: in 1654 they were entirely +expelled from this country.</p> + +<p>In the year 1651, they colonized the Cape of Good Hope; and in the +same year, began the obstinate and bloody maritime, war between +Holland and England. This arose principally from the navigation act, +which was passed in England in 1650: its object and effect was to +curtail the commerce between England and Holland, which consisted +principally of foreign merchandize imported into, and English +merchandize exported from, England in Dutch vessels. In this war, the +Dutch lost 700 merchant ships in the years 1652 and 1653. In 1654, +peace was made. The object of the navigation act, at least so far as +regarded the Dutch acting as the carriers of the English trade, seems +to have been completely answered, for in 1674, after a great frost, +when the ports were open, there sailed out of the harbour of +Rotterdam above 300 sail of English, Scotch, and Irish ships at one +time. The example of the English being followed by the nations of the +north, the Dutch carrying trade was very much reduced. Between the +years 1651 and 1672, when Holland was overrun by the French, their +commerce seems to have reached the greatest extent, which it attained +in the seventeenth century; and perhaps, at no subsequent period, did +it flourish so much. De Witt estimates the increase of their commerce +and navigation from the peace with Spain in 1648 to the year 1669, to +be fully one-half. He adds, that during the war with Holland, Spain +lost the greater part of her naval power: that since the peace with +Spain, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to that country, +which had been previously carried on by the Easterlings and the +English;--that all the coasts of Spain were chiefly navigated by +Dutch shipping: that Spain had even been forced to hire Dutch ships +to sail to her American possessions; and that so great was the +exportation of goods from Holland to Spain, that all the merchandize +brought from the Spanish West Indies, was not sufficient to make +returns for them.</p> + +<p>The same author informs us, that in the province of Holland alone, +in 1669, the herring and cod fisheries employed above one thousand +busses, from twenty-four to thirty lasts each; and above 170 smaller +ones: that the whale fishery was increased from one to ten; that the +cod and herring, when caught, were transported by the Hollanders in +their own vessels throughout the world; thus obtaining, by means of +the sea alone, through their own industry, above 300,000 lasts of +salt fish.</p> + +<p>As the Dutch commerce was decidedly and undoubtedly more extensive +than that of all the rest of Europe, about the middle of the +seventeenth century, it may be proper, before we conclude our notice +of it at this time, to consider briefly the causes which cherished it +into such full growth and vigour. These causes are explained in a +very judicious and satisfactory manner by Sir William Temple, in his +observations on the Netherlands. He remarks, that though the +territory of the Dutch was very small, and though they laboured under +many natural disadvantages, yet their commerce was immense; and it +was generally esteemed that they had more shipping belonging to them +than there did to all the rest of Europe.</p> + +<p>They had no native commodities towards the building or equipping +their ships; their flax, hemp, pitch, wood, and iron, coming all from +abroad, as wool does for clothing their men, and corn for feeding +them. The only productions or manufactures of their own, which they +exported, were butter, cheese, and earthern wares. They have no good +harbours in all their coast; even Amsterdam is difficult of approach, +from the dangerous entrance of the Texel, and the shallowness of the +Zuider Zee.</p> + +<p>What then were the causes which, in spite of these disadvantages, +rendered Holland so commercial? In the first place, great multitudes +in small compass, who were forced to industry and labour, or else to +want. In the second place, the emigration of men of industry, skill, +and capital, driven into Holland from Germany, France, and England, +by persecution and civil wars. In the third place, the security to +property established by the government of the United States; and akin +to this, general liberty of conscience in religious matters. The +great fairs in the Netherlands may be regarded as another cause. +These Sir W. Temple regards as the principal causes of the foundation +of their trade. He next enquires into the chief advancers and +encouragers of trade in that country.</p> + +<p>These he considers to have been low interest, which caused money +to be easily obtained, not only for the purposes of commerce, but +also to make canals, bridges, &c. and to drain marshes. The use +of their banks, which secures money, and makes all payments easy and +trade quick,--the sale by registry, which makes all purchases +safe,--the severity of justice, especially with regard to forging +bills,--the convoys of merchant ships, which gives trade security, +the nation credit abroad, and breeds up seamen,--the lowness of their +custom duties and freedom of their ports, which rendered their cities +magazines as well as markets,--order and exactness in managing their +trade,--each town affecting some particular commerce or staple, and +so improving it to the greatest height; as Flushing, the West India +trade; Middleburgh, French wines; Terveer, the Scotch staple; Dort, +the English staple and Rhenish wines; Rotterdam, the English and +Scotch trade at large, and French wines; Leyden, the manufacture of +all sorts of stuffs, silk, hair, gold, and silver; Haerlem, linen, +mixed stuffs, and flowers; Delft, beer and earthen ware; Swaardam, +ship building; Sluys, herring fishery; Friezeland, the Greenland +trade; and Amsterdam, the East India, Spanish, and Mediterranean +trade. Sir W. Temple mentions other two causes, the great application +of the whole province to the fishing trade, and the mighty advance +the Dutch made towards engrossing the whole commerce of the East +Indies. "The stock of this trade," he observes, "besides what it +turns to in France, Spain, Italy, the Straits, and Germany, makes +them so great masters in the trade of the northern parts of Europe, +as Muscovy, Poland, Pomerania, and all the Baltic, where the spices, +that are an Indian drug and European luxury, command all the +commodities of those countries which are so necessary to life, as +their corn; and to navigation, as hemp, pitch, masts, planks, and +iron."</p> + +<p>The next question that Sir William Temple discusses is, what are +the causes which made the trade of Holland enrich it? for, as he +remarks, "it is no constant rule that trade makes riches. The only +and certain scale of riches arising from trade in a nation is, the +proportion of what is exported for the consumption of others, to what +is imported for their own. The true ground of this proportion lies in +the general industry and parsimony of a people, or in the contrary of +both." But the Dutch being industrious, and consequently producing +much,--and parsimonious, and consequently consuming little, have much +left for exportation. Hence, never any country traded so much and +consumed so little. "They buy infinitely, but it is to sell again. +They are the great masters of the Indian spices, and of the Persian +silks, but wear plain woollen, and feed upon their own fish and +roots. Nay, they sell the finest of their own cloth to France, and +buy coarse out of England for their own wear. They send abroad the +best of their own butter into all parts, and buy the cheapest out of +Ireland or the north of England for their own use. In short, they +furnish infinite luxury which they never practise, and traffic in +pleasures which they never taste." "The whole body of the civil +magistrates, the merchants, the rich traders, citizens, seamen and +boors in general, never change the fashion of their cloaths; so that +men leave off their cloaths only because they are worn out, and not +because they are out of fashion. Their great consumption is French +wine and brandy; but what they spend in wine they save in corn, to +make other drinks, which is brought from foreign parts. Thus it +happens, that much going constantly out, either in commodity or in +the labour of seafaring men, and little coming in to be consumed at +home, the rest returns in coin, and fills the country to that degree, +that more silver is seen in Holland, among the common hands and +purses, than brass either in Spain or in France; though one be so +rich in the best native commodities, and the other drain all the +treasures of the West Indies." (Sir W. Temple's Observations on the +Netherlands, Chapter VI.)</p> + +<p>Having thus sketched the progress and nature of Dutch commerce, +during that period when it was at its greatest height, and brought +our account of it down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, +we shall next proceed to consider the English commerce from the time +of the discovery of the Cape and America, till the beginning of the +same century.</p> + +<p>From the sketch we have already given of English commerce prior to +the end of the fifteenth century, it is evident that it was of very +trifling extent and amount, being confined chiefly to a few articles +of raw produce, and to some woollen goods. The improvement of the +woollen manufacture, the establishment of corporations, and the +settlement of foreign merchants, as well as the gradual advancement +of the English in the civilization, skill, and industry of the +age,--in the wants which the first occasions, and in the means to +supply those wants afforded by the two latter,--these are the obvious +and natural causes which tended to improve English commerce. But its +progress was slow and gradual, and confined for a long time to +countries near at hand; it afterwards ventured to a greater distance. +Companies of merchant adventurers were formed, who could command a +greater capital than any individual merchant. Of the nature and +extent of their foreign commerce at the close of the fifteenth +century we are informed by an act of parliament, passed in the 12 +Hen. VII. (1497.)</p> + +<p>From this act it appears, that England traded at this time with +Spain, Portugal, Bretagne, Ireland, Normandy, France, Seville, +Venice, Dantzic, Eastland, Friesland, and many other parts. The +woollen cloth of England is particularly specified as one of the +greatest articles of commerce. In a licence granted by Henry VII. to +the Venetians, to buy and sell at London, and elsewhere in England, +Ireland, and Calais, woollen cloth, lead, tin, and leather, are +enumerated as the chief exports. From this document it also appears, +that there resided in or traded to England, the following foreign +merchants: Genoese, Florentines, Luccans, Spaniards, Portuguese, +Flemings, Hollanders, Brabanters, Burgundians, German, Hanseatic, +Lombards, and Easterlings.</p> + +<p>From these two documents, the nature and extent of English +commerce at this period may be inferred: its exports were sent as far +north as the southern countries of the Baltic, and to all the rest of +Europe, as far south and east as Venice; but this export trade, as +well as the import, seems to have been almost entirely carried on by +foreign capital and ships; the merchant adventurers having yet +ventured very little from home.</p> + +<p>In 1511, English commerce, in English ships, extended into the +Levant, chiefly from London, Bristol, and Southampton. Chios, which +was still in the possession of the Genoese, was the port to which +they traded. This branch of trade flourished so much in a few years, +that in 1513 a consul, or protector of all the merchants and other +English subjects in Chios, was appointed. The voyages were gradually +lengthened, and reached Cyprus, and Tripoli, in Syria. The exports +were woollen goods, calf-skins, &c.; and the imports were silks, +camblets, rhubarb, malmsey, muscadel, and other wines: oils, cotton +wool, Turkey carpets, galls, and Indian spices. The commerce was in a +small degree carried on by English ships, but chiefly by those of +Candia, Ragusa, Sicily, Genoa, Venice, Spain, and Portugal. The +voyages to and from England occupied a year, and were deemed very +difficult and dangerous. So long as Chios remained in the possession +of the Genoese, and Candia in that of the Venetians, England traded +with these islands; but ceased to trade when the Turks conquered +them. From 1553, to 1575, the Levant commerce was quite discontinued +by England, though during that period, the French, Genoese, +Venetians, and Florentines, continued it, and had consuls at +Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The small and temporary trade with the Genoese and Venetian +possessions in the Levant, seems to have been attended with such +profit, and to have opened up such further prospects of advantage, as +to have given rise to a direct trade with Turkey, and the formation +of the Turkey Company. The enlightened ministers of Elizabeth +effected these objects: they first sent out an English merchant to +the Sultan, who obtained for his countrymen all the commercial +advantages enjoyed by the Venetians, French, Germans, and Poles. Two +years afterwards, in 1581, the Turkey Company was established. Sir +William Monson, in his Naval Tracts, assigns the following as the +causes and reasons why England did not sooner embark in the Turkey +trade for Persian and Indian merchandize: 1. That there was not +sufficient shipping; 2. the hostility of the Turks; and, lastly, +England was supplied with Levant goods by the Venetian ships, which +came annually to Southampton. He adds, "the last argosser that came +thus from Venice was unfortunately lost near the isle of Wight, with +a rich cargo, and many passengers, in the year 1587." The Turkey +Company carried on their concern with so much spirit, that the queen +publicly thanked them, with many encouragements to go forward for the +kingdom's sake: she particularly commended them for the ships they +then built of so great burden. The commodities of Greece, Syria, +Egypt, Persia, and India, were now brought into England in greater +abundance, and sold much cheaper than formerly, and yet the returns +of this trade are said to have been, at its commencement, three to +one.</p> + +<p>It is not our object, nor would it be compatible with our limits, +to trace the progress of commerce minutely, in any of its branches, +but rather to point out, as it were, its shootings in various +directions; and any special causes which may have given vigour to its +growth, or have retarded it. In conformity with this plan, we shall +only notice some of the more marked and important eras of our Levant +trade, prior to the commencement of the eighteenth century. The trade +to the Levant, in its infancy, like all other trades, at a time when +there was little capital and commercial knowledge, required the +formation of a company which should possess exclusive privileges. +Charters were granted to such a company for a term of years, and +renewed by Elizabeth. In 1605 king James gave a perpetual charter to +the Levant Company: the trade was carried on with encreasing vigour +and success: our woollen manufactures found a more extensive market: +the Venetians, who had for many years supplied Constantinople and +other ports of the Levant, were driven from their markets by the +English, who could afford to sell them cloths cheaper; and English +ships began to be preferred to those of Venice and other nations, for +the carrying trade in the Mediterranean. According to Sir W. Monson, +England exported broad cloth, tin, &c. enough to purchase all the +wares we wanted in Turkey; and, in particular, 300 great bales of +Persian raw silk yearly: "whereas a balance of money is paid by the +other nations trading thither. Marseilles sends yearly to Aleppo and +Alexandria at least 500,000 <i>l</i>. sterling, and little or no +wares. Venice sends about 400,000 <i>l</i>. in money, and a great +value in wares besides: the Low Countries send about 50,000 <i>l</i>., +and but little wares; and Messina 25,000 <i>l</i>. in ready money: +besides great quantities of gold and dollars from Germany, Poland, +Hungary, &c.; and all these nations take of the Turks in return +great quantities of camblets, grograms, raw silk, cotton wool and +yarn, galls, flax, hemp, rice, hides, sheep's wool, wax, corn, +&c."</p> + +<p>The first check which the Levant trade received was given by the +East India Company: about the year 1670 the Levant Company complained +that their trade in raw silk was much diminished; they had formerly +imported it solely from Turkey, whereas then it was imported in great +quantities direct from India. In 1681, the complaints of the one +company, and the defence of the other, were heard before the Privy +Council. The Levant Company alleged, that for upwards of one hundred +years they had exported to Turkey and other parts of the Levant, +great qualities of woollen manufactures, and other English wares, and +did then, more especially, carry out thither to the value of +500,000 <i>l</i>; in return for which they imported raw silks, galls, +grograms, drugs, cotton, &c.; whereas the East India Company +exported principally gold and silver bullion, with an inconsiderable +quantity of cloth; and imported calicoes, pepper, wrought silks, and +a deceitful sort of raw silk; if the latter supplants Turkey raw +silk, the Turkey demand for English cloth must fail, as Turkey does +not yield a sufficient quantity of other merchandize to return for +one fourth part of our manufactures carried thither.</p> + +<p>The East India Company, on the other hand, alleged that the cloth +they exported was finer and more valuable than that exported by the +Turkey Company, and that, if they were rightly informed, the medium +of cloths exported by that company, for the last three years, was +only 19,000 cloths yearly: it is admitted, however, that before there +was any trade to China and Japan, the Turkey Company's exportation of +cloth did much exceed that of the East India Company. With respect to +the charge of exporting bullion, it was alleged that the Turkey +Company also export it to purchase the raw silk in Turkey. The East +India Company further contended, that since their importation of raw +silk, the English silk manufacturers had much encreased, and that the +plain wrought silks from India were the strongest, most durable, and +cheapest of any, and were generally re-exported from England to +foreign parts.</p> + +<p>We have been thus particular in detailing this dispute between +these companies, partly because it points out the state of the Levant +Company and their commerce, at the close of the seventeenth century, +but principally because it unfolds one of the principal causes of +their decline; for, though some little notice of it will afterwards +occur, yet its efforts were feeble, and its success diminished, +chiefly by the rivalry of the East India Company.</p> + +<p>The Levant trade, as we have seen, was gradually obtained by the +English from the hands of the Venetians and other foreign powers. The +trade we are next to notice was purely of English origin and +growth;--we allude to the trade between England and Russia, which +began about the middle of the sixteenth century. The discovery of +Archangel took place, as we have already related, in 1553. +Chanceller, who discovered it, obtained considerable commercial +privileges from the Czar for his countrymen. In 1554, a Russian +Company was established; but before their charter, the British +merchants had engaged in the Russian trade. The first efforts of the +company seem to have been confined to attempts to discover a +north-east passage. Finding these unsuccessful, they turned their +attention to commerce: they fortunately possessed a very enterprising +man, peculiarly calculated to foster and strengthen an infant trade, +who acted as their agent. He first set on foot, in 1558, a new +channel of trade through Russia into Persia, for raw silk, &c. In +the course of his commercial enquiries and transactions, he sailed +down the Volga to Nisi, Novogorod, Casan, and Astracan, and thence +across the Caspian Sea to Persia. He mentions that, at Boghar, which +he describes as a good city, he found merchants from India, Persia, +Russia, and Cathay,--from which last country it was a nine months +journey to Boghar. He performed his journey seven different times. It +appears, however, that this channel of trade was soon afterwards +abandoned, till 1741, when it was resumed for a very short time, +during which considerable quantities of raw silk were brought to +England by the route followed by the Russian agent in the sixteenth +century. The cause of this abandonment during the sixteenth century +seems to have been the length and danger of the route; for we are +informed that one of the adventures would have proved exceedingly +profitable, had not their ships, on their return across the Caspian, +with Persian raw silk, wrought silks of many kinds, galls, carpets, +Indian spices, turquois stones, &c., been plundered by Corsair +pirates, to the value of about 40,000 <i>l</i>. The final abandonment +of this route, in the eighteenth century, arose partly from the wars +in Persia, but principally from the extension of India commerce, +which being direct and by sea, would, of course supply England much +more cheaply with all eastern goods than any land trade. Beside the +delay, difficulty, and danger of the route from the Volga, already +described, the route followed in the sixteenth century, till the +merchants reached the Volga, was attended with great difficulty. The +practice was to transport the English goods, which were to be +exchanged, in canoes, up the Dwina, from Archangel to Vologda, thence +over land, in seven days, to Jeroslau, and thence down the Volga, in +thirty days, to Astracan.</p> + +<p>The Russians having conquered Narva, in Livonia in 1558, the first +place they possessed in the Baltic, and having established it as a +staple port, the following year, according to Milton, in his brief +history of Muscovia, the English began to trade to it, "the Lubeckers +and Dantzickers having till then concealed that trade from other +nations." The other branches of the Baltic trade also encreased; for +it appears by a charter granted by Elizabeth, in 1579, to an Eastland +Company, that trade was carried on between England and Norway, +Sweden, Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, Pomerania, Dantzic, Elbing, +Konigsberg, Copenhagen, Elsinore, and Finland. This company was +established in opposition to the Hanseatic merchants; and it seems to +have attained its object; for these merchants complained to the Diet +of the Empire against England, alleging, that of the 200,000 cloths +yearly exported thence, three-fourths went into Denmark, Sweden, +Poland, and Germany; the other fourth being sent to the Netherlands +and France.</p> + +<p>It was not to be supposed that our commerce with Archangel and +Narva would long remain without a rival. The Dutch, aware of its +importance, prevented by their influence or presents, the Czar from +renewing the Russian Company's privileges. As this trade was become +more extensive, and carried off, besides woollen goods, silks, +velvets, coarse linen cloth, old silver plate, all kinds of mercery +wares, serving for the apparel of both sexes, purses, knives, &c. +Elizabeth used her efforts to re-establish the company on its former +footing; and a new Czar mounting the throne, she was successful.</p> + +<p>The frequent voyages of the English to the White Sea made them +acquainted with Cherry Island, of which they took possession, and +where they carried on for a short time the capture of morses: the +teeth of these were regarded as nearly equal in quality and value to +ivory, and consequently afforded a lucrative trade; oil was also +obtained from these animals. Lead ore is said to have been discovered +in this island, of which thirty tons were brought to England in 1606. +The Russian Company, however, soon gave up the morse fishery for that +of whales. They also carried on a considerable trade with Kola, a +town in Russian Lapland, for fish oil and salmon: of the latter they +sometimes brought to England 10,000 at one time. But in this trade +the Dutch likewise interfered.</p> + +<p>The fishery for whales near Spitzbergen was first undertaken by +the company in 1597. In 1613, they obtained from King James an +exclusive charter for this fishery; and under this, fitting out armed +ships, they expelled fifteen sail of French, Dutch, and Biscayners, +besides some private English ships. But the Dutch persevered, so that +next year, while the Russian Company had only thirteen ships at the +whale fishery, the former had eighteen. The success of their whale +fishery seems to have led to the neglect of their Russian trade, for, +in 1615, only two vessels were employed in it, instead of seventeen +great ships formerly employed. From this period, the commerce carried +on between Russia and England, by the Russian Company, seems +gradually to have declined.</p> + +<p>The commerce between England and the other parts of Europe, during +the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, presents little that calls +for notice; as the manufactures and capital of England encreased, it +gradually encreased, and was transferred from foreign to English +vessels. The exports consisted principally of woollen goods, prepared +skins, earthen-ware, and metals. The imports of linens, silks, paper, +wines, brandy, fruits, dye-stuffs, and drugs. The woollen cloths of +England were indeed the staple export to all parts of England during +the whole of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: as our cotton, +earthen-ware, and iron manufactures sprung up and encreased, they +supplied other articles of export;--our imports, at first confined to +a few articles, afterwards encreased in number and value, in +proportion as our encreased industry, capital, and skill, enlarged +our produce and manufactures, and thus enabled us to purchase and +consume more. A very remarkable instance of the effect of skill, +capital, and industry, is mentioned by Mr. Lewis, a merchant, who +published a work entitled, <i>The Merchant's Map of Commerce</i>, in +1641. "The town of Manchester," he says, "buys the linen yarn of the +Irish in great quantity, and, weaving it, returns the same again, in +linen, into Ireland to sell. Neither doth her industry rest here, for +they buy cotton wool in London, that comes first from Cyprus and +Smyrna, and work the same into fustians, vermilions, dimities, +&c., which they return to London, where they are sold, and from +thence not seldom are sent into such foreign parts where the first +materials may be more easily had for that manufacture." How similar +are these two instances to that which has occurred in our own days, +when the cotton-wool, brought from the East Indies, has been returned +thither after having been manufactured, and sold there cheaper than +the native manufactures.</p> + +<p>But though there are no particulars relative to the commerce +between England and Europe, which call for our notice, as exhibiting +any thing beyond the gradual extension of commercial intercourse +already established; yet in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, +there were other commercial intercourses into which England entered, +that deserve attention. These may be classed under three heads: the +trade to Africa, to America, and India.</p> + +<p>I. The trade to Africa.--The first notice of any trade between +England and Africa occurs in the year 1526, when some merchants of +Bristol, which, at this period, was undoubtedly one of our most +enterprising cities, traded by means of Spanish ships to the +Canaries. Their exports were cloth, soap, for the manufacture of +which, even at this early period, Bristol was celebrated, and some +other articles. They imported drugs for dyeing, sugar, and kid skins. +This branch of commerce answering, the Bristol merchants sent their +factors thither from Spain. The coast of Africa was, at this period, +monopolized by the Portuguese. In 1530, however, an English ship made +a voyage to Guinea for elephants' teeth: the voyage was repeated; and +in 1536, above one hundred pounds weight of gold dust, besides +elephants' teeth, was imported in one ship. A few years afterwards, a +trade was opened with the Mediterranean coast of Africa, three ships +sailing from Bristol to Barbary with linens, woollen cloth, coral, +amber, and jet; and bringing back sugar, dates, almonds, and +molasses. The voyages to Guinea from the ports of the south and +southwest of England, particularly Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Bristol, +were frequently repeated: the returns were uniformly gold dust and +elephants' teeth. But it does not appear that other ports followed +the example of these, that these sent many ships, or that the +commerce became very regular and lucrative, till the west coast of +Africa was resorted to for slaves.</p> + +<p>This infamous trade was first entered upon by the English in the +year 1562. Mr. John Hawkins, with several other merchants, having +learnt that negroes were a good commodity in Hispaniola, fitted out +three ships, the largest 120, the smallest forty tons, for the coast +of Guinea. Here they bought slaves, which they sold in Hispaniola for +hides, sugar, ginger, and pearls. The other branches of the African +trade continued to flourish. In 1577, English merchants were settled +in Morocco; Spanish, Portuguese, and French merchants had been +settled there before. In this year, Elizabeth, always attentive to +whatever would benefit commerce, sent an ambassador to the Emperor of +Morocco, who obtained some commercial privileges for the English. In +1588, the first voyage to Benin was made from London, by a ship and a +pinnace: in 1590, a second voyage was made from the same port with +the same vessels. Their exports were linen, woollen cloths, iron +manufactures, bracelets of copper, glass beads, coral, hawks' bells, +horses' tails, hats, &c. They imported Guinea pepper, elephants' +teeth, palm oil, cotton cloth, and cloth made of the bark of +trees.</p> + +<p>An African Company had been formed in Elizabeth's reign; but +neither this, nor two others succeeded; their ruin was occasioned by +war, misconduct, and the interference of what were called +interlopers. In 1672, a fourth company was established, whose efforts +at first seem to have been great and successful. They bought the +forts the former companies had erected on the west coast: instead of +making up their assortments of goods for export in Holland, as the +former companies had been obliged to do, they introduced into England +the making of sundry kinds of woollen goods not previously +manufactured. They imported large quantities of gold dust, out of +which 50,000 guineas were first coined in one year, 1673. Their other +imports were red wood for dyes, elephants' teeth, wax, honey, &c. +The value of the English goods exported to them averaged annually +70,000 <i>l</i>. This company was broken up at the Revolution.</p> + +<p>II. Though the Portuguese and Spaniards were very jealous of the +interference of any nation with their East India commerce; yet they +were comparatively easy and relaxed with regard to their American +possessions. Accordingly, we find that, in 1530, there was some +little trade between England and Brazil: this is the first notice we +can trace of any commercial intercourse between this country and the +New World. The first voyage was from Plymouth: in 1540 and 1542 the +merchants of Southampton and London also traded to Brazil. We are not +informed what were the goods imported; but most probably they were +Brazil wood, sugar, and cotton. The trade continued till 1580, when +Spain, getting possession of Portugal, put a stop to it.</p> + +<p>The next notice of any trading voyage to America occurs in 1593, +when some English ships sailed to the entrance of the St. Lawrence +for morse and whale fishing. This is the first mention of the latter +fishery, or of whale fins, or whale bones by the English. They could +not find any whales; but on an island they met with 800 whale fins, +the remains of a cargo of a Biscay ship which had been wrecked +here.</p> + +<p>In 1602, the English had suspended all intercourse with America +for sixteen years, in consequence of the unsuccessful attempts of +Raleigh. But, at this time, the intercourse was renewed: a ship +sailed to Virginia, the name then given to the greater part of the +east coast of North America; and a traffic was carried on with the +Indians for peltry, sassafras, cedar wood, &c. Captain Gosnol, +who commanded this vessel, was a man of considerable skill in his +profession, and he is said to have been the first Englishman who +sailed directly to North America, and not, as before, by the +circuitous course of the West Indies and the Gulf of Florida. In the +subsequent year there was some traffic carried on with the Indians of +the continent, and some of the uncolonized West India islands.</p> + +<p>Prior to the year 1606 several attempts had been made to colonize +different parts of the new world by the English, but they all proved +abortive. In this year, however, a permanent settlement was +established near James River, within the Chesapeake. It is not our +plan to detail all the particular settlements, or their progress to +maturity; but merely to point out the beginnings of them, as evidence +of our extending commerce, and to state such proofs as most +strikingly display their improvement and the advantages the mother +country derived from them. In conformity with this plan, we may +mention that sugar plantations were first formed in Barbadoes in +1641: this, as Mr. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, justly +observes, "greatly hastened the improvement of our other islands, +which soon afterwards followed it in planting sugar to very great +advantage. And, as it was impossible to manage the planting of that +commodity by white people in so hot a climate, so neither could +sufficient numbers of such be had at any rate. Necessity, therefore, +and the example of Portugal gave birth to the negro slave trade to +the coast of Guinea and it is almost needless to add, that such great +numbers of slaves, and also the increase of white people in those +islands, soon created a vast demand for all necessaries from England, +and also a new and considerable trade to Madeira for wines to supply +those islands." The immediate consequence of the spread of the sugar +culture in our West India islands was, that the ports of London and +Bristol became the great magazines for this commodity, and supplied +all the north and middle parts of Europe; and the price of the +Portuguese-Brazil sugars was reduced from 8 <i>l</i>. to 2 <i>l</i>. +10<i>s</i>. per cwt.</p> + +<p>The rapid growth of the English colonies on the continent and in +the islands of America, during the seventeenth century, is justly +ascribed by Sir Josiah Child, to the emigration thither, occasioned +by the persecution of the Puritans by James I. and Charles I.; to the +defeat of the Royalists and Scotch by Cromwell; and, lastly, to the +Restoration, and the consequent disbanding of the army, and fears of +the partizans of Cromwell. It may be added, that most of the men who +were driven to America from these causes, were admirably fitted to +form new settlements, being of industrious habits, and accustomed to +plain fare and hard work.</p> + +<p>The American plantations, as they were called, increased so +rapidly in commerce that, according to the last author referred to, +they did, even in the year 1670, employ nearly two-thirds of all our +English shipping, "and therefore gave constant sustenance, it may be, +to 200,000 persons here at home." At this period New England seems to +have directed its chief attention and industry to the cod and +mackerel fisheries, which had increased their ships and seamen so +much as to excite the jealousy of Sir Josiah Child, who, however, +admits that what that colony took from England amounted to ten times +more than what England took from it. The Newfoundland fishery, he +says, had declined from 250 ships in 1605, to eighty in 1670: this he +ascribes to the practice of eating fish alone on fast days, not being +so strictly kept by the Catholics as formerly. From Carolina, during +the seventeenth century, England obtained vast quantities of naval +stores, staves, lumber, hemp, flax, and Indian corn. About the end of +this century, or at the very commencement of the next, the culture of +rice was introduced by the accident of a vessel from Madagascar +happening to put into Carolina, which had a little rice left; this +the captain gave to a gentleman, who sowed it.</p> + +<p>The colony of Virginia seems to have flourished at an earlier +period than any of the other English colonies. In the year 1618, +considerable quantities of tobacco were raised there; and it appears, +by proclamations of James I. and Charles I., that no tobacco was +allowed to be imported into England, but what came from Virginia or +the Bermudas.</p> + +<p>The colony of Pennsylvania was not settled by Pen till the year +1680: he found there, however, many English families, and a +considerable number of Dutch and Swedes. The wise regulations of Pen +soon drew to him industrious settlers; but the commerce in which they +engaged did not become so considerable as to demand our notice.</p> + +<p>III. The commercial intercourse of England with India, which has +now grown to such extent and importance, and from which has sprung +the anomaly of merchant-sovereigns over one of the richest and most +populous districts of the globe, began in the reign of Elizabeth. The +English Levant Company, in their attempts to extend their trade with +the East, seem first to have reached Hindostan, in 1584, with English +merchandize. About the same time the queen granted introductory +letters to some adventurers to the king of Cambaya; these men +travelled through Bengal to Pegu and Malacca, but do not seem to have +reached China. They, however, obtained much useful information +respecting the best mode of conducting the trade to the East.</p> + +<p>The first English ship sailed to the East Indies in the year 1591; +but the voyage was rather a warlike than a commercial one, the object +being to attack the Portuguese; and even in this respect it was very +unfortunate. A similar enterprize, undertaken in 1593, seems, by its +success, to have contributed very materially to the commercial +intercourse between England and India; for a fleet of the queen's +ships and some merchant ships having captured a very large East India +carrack belonging to the Spaniards or Portuguese, brought her into +Dartmouth: if she excited astonishment at her size, being of the +burthen of 1600 tons, with 700 men, and 36 brass cannon, she in an +equal degree stimulated and enlarged the commercial desires and hopes +of the English by her cargo. This consisted of the richest spices, +calicoes, silks, gold, pearls, drugs, China ware, ebony wood, +&c., and was valued at 150,000 <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p>The increasing commercial spirit of the nation, which led it to +look forward to a regular intercourse with India, was gratified in +the first year of the seventeenth century, when the queen granted the +first charter to an East India Company. She seems to have been +directly led to grant this in consequence of the complaints among her +subjects of the scarcity and high price of pepper; this was +occasioned by the monopoly of it being in the power of the Turkey +merchants and the Dutch, and from the circumstance that by our war +with Portugal, we could not procure any from Lisbon. The immediate +and principal object of this Company, therefore, was to obtain pepper +and other spices; accordingly their ships, on their first voyage, +sailed to Bantam, where they took in pepper, to the Banda isles; +where they took in nutmeg and mace, and to Amboyna, where they took +in cloves. On this expedition the English established a factory at +Bantam. In 1610, this Company having obtained a new charter from +James I., built the largest merchant ship that had ever been built in +England, of the burthen of 1100 tons, which with three others they +sent to India. In 1612 the English factory of Surat was established +with the permission of the Great Mogul; this was soon regarded as +their chief station on the west coast of India. Their first factory +on the coast of Coromandel, which they formed a few years afterwards, +was at Masulipatam: their great object in establishing this was to +obtain more readily the cloths of Coromandel, which they found to be +the most advantageous article to exchange for pepper and other +spices. For at this time their trade with the East seems to have been +almost entirely confined to these latter commodities. In 1613, the +first English ship reached a part of the Japan territories, and a +factory was established, through which trade was carried on with the +Japanese, till the Dutch persuaded the emperor to expel all Europeans +but themselves.</p> + +<p>The year 1614 forms an important era in the history of our +commercial intercourse with India; for Sir Thomas Roe, whom James +sent ambassador to the Mogul, and who remained several years at his +court, obtained from him important privileges for the East India +Company. At this time, the following European commodities were +chiefly in repute in India; knives of all kinds, toys, especially +those of the figures of beasts, rich velvets and satins, fowling +pieces, polished ambers and beads, saddles with rich furniture, +swords with fine hilts inlaid, hats, pictures, Spanish wines, cloth +of gold and silver, French shaggs, fine Norwich stuffs, light armour, +emeralds, and other precious stones set in enamel, fine arras +hangings, large looking glasses, bows and arrows, figures in brass +and stone, fine cabinets, embroidered purses, needlework, French +tweezer cases, perfumed gloves, belts, girdles, bone lace, dogs, +plumes of feathers, comb cases richly set, prints of kings, cases of +strong waters, drinking and perspective glasses, fine basons and +ewers, &c. &c. In consequence of the privileges granted the +East India Company by the Mogul, and by the Zamorine of Calicut, +their factories were now numerous, and spread over a large extent of +coast.</p> + +<p>If we may trust the controversial pamphlets on the East India +Company which were published in 1615, it appears that up to this year +they had employed only twenty-four ships; four of which had been +lost; the largest was 1293 tons, and the smallest 150. Their +principal imports were still pepper, cloves, mace, and nutmegs, of +which 615,000 lbs. were consumed in England, and the value of +218,000 <i>l</i>. exported: the saving in the home consumption of +these articles was estimated at 70,000 <i>l</i>. The other imports +were indigo, calicoes, China silks, benzoin, aloes, &c. Porcelain +was first imported this year from Bantam. The exports consisted of +bays, kersies, and broad cloths, dyed and dressed, to the value of +14,000 <i>l</i>.; lead, iron, and foreign merchandize, to the value of +10,000 <i>l</i>.; and coin and bullion, to the value of +12,000 <i>l</i>.; the outfit, provisions, &c. of their ships cost +64,000 <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p>The Dutch, who were very jealous of the successful interference of +the English in their eastern trade, attacked them in every part of +India; and though a treaty was concluded between the English and the +Dutch East India Company, yet the treachery and cruelty of the Dutch, +especially at Amboyna, and the civil wars into which England was +plunged, so injured the affairs of the English East India Company, +that at the death of Charles I. its trade was almost annihilated. One +beneficial consequence, however, resulted from the hostility of the +Dutch; the English, driven from their old factories, established new +ones at Madras and in Bengal.</p> + +<p>Before, however, this decline of the English trade to India, we +have some curious and interesting documents relating to it +particularly, and to the effects produced on the cost of East Indian +commodities in Europe generally, by the discovery of the Cape of Good +Hope. These are supplied by Mr. Munn, in a treatise he published in +1621; in favour of the East India trade. We have already given the +substance of his remarks so far as they relate to the lowering the +price of Indian commodities, but as his work is more particularly +applicable to, and illustrative of the state of English commerce with +India, at this time, we shall here enter into some of his +details.</p> + +<p>According to them, there were six million pounds of pepper +annually consumed in Europe, which used to cost, when purchased at +Aleppo, brought over land thither from India, at the rate of two +shillings per lb.; whereas it now cost, purchased in India, only +two-pence halfpenny per lb.: the consumption of cloves was 450,000 +lbs.; cost at Aleppo four shillings and nine-pence per lb., in India +nine-pence: the consumption of mace was 150,000 lbs.; cost at Aleppo +the same per lb. as the cloves; in India it was bought at eight-pence +per lb.: the consumption of nutmegs was 400,000 lbs.; the price at +Aleppo, two shillings and four-pence per lb.; in India only +four-pence; the consumption of indigo was 350,000 lbs.; the price at +Aleppo four shillings and four-pence per lb.; in India one and +two-pence, and the consumption of raw silk was one million lbs., the +price of which at Aleppo was twelve shillings per lb., and in India +eight shillings. It will be remarked that this last article was +purchased in India, at a rate not nearly so much below its Aleppo +price as any of the other articles; pepper, on the other hand, was +more reduced in price than any of the other articles. The total cost +of all the articles, when purchased at Aleppo, was 1,465,000 +<i>l.</i>; when purchased in India, 511,458 <i>l.</i>; the price in +the latter market, therefore, was little more than one-third of their +Aleppo price. As, however, the voyage from India is longer than that +from Aleppo, it added, according to Mr. Munn's calculation, one-sixth +to the cost of the articles beyond that of the Turkey voyage. Even +after making this addition, Mr. Munn comes to the conclusion we have +formerly stated, "that the said wares by the Cape of Good Hope cost +us but about half the price which they will cost from Turkey."</p> + +<p>Mr. Munn also gives the annual importation of the principal Indian +goods into England, by the East India Company, and the price each +article sold for in England; according to this table, the quantity of +pepper was 250,000 lbs., which, bought in India for twopence +halfpenny, sold in England for one shilling and eightpence:--150,000 +lbs. of cloves, which bought in India for ninepence, sold in England +for six shillings:--150,000 lbs. of nutmegs, bought for four-pence, +sold for two shillings and sixpence:--50,000 lbs. of mace, bought for +eightpence, sold for six shillings:--200,000 lbs. of indigo, bought +for one shilling and twopence, sold for five shillings:--107,140 lbs. +of China raw silk, bought for seven shillings, sold for twenty +shillings:--and 50,000 pieces of calico, bought for seven shillings a +piece, sold for twenty-six shillings.</p> + +<p>In a third table he gives the annual consumption of the following +India goods, and the lowest prices at which they used to be sold, +when procured from Turkey or Lisbon, before England traded directly +to India. There was consumed of pepper, 400,000 lbs., which used to +be sold at three shillings and sixpence per lb.; of cloves, 40,000, +at eight shillings; of mace, 20,000, at nine shillings; of nutmegs, +160,000, at four shillings and sixpence; and of indigo, 150,000, at +seven shillings. The result is, that when England paid the lowest +ancient prices, it cost her 183,500 <i>l</i>. for these commodities; +whereas, at the common modern prices, it costs her only +108,333 <i>l</i>. The actual saving therefore to the people of +England, was not near so great as might have been expected, or as it +ought to have been, from a comparison of the prices at Aleppo and in +India.</p> + +<p>There are some other particulars in Mr. Munn's Treatise relating +to the European Trade to the East at this period, which we shall +select. Speaking of the exportation of bullion to India, he says that +the Turks sent annually 500,000 <i>l</i>. merely for Persian raw silk; +and 600,000 <i>l</i>. more for calicoes, drugs, sugar, rice, &c.: +their maritime commerce was carried on from Mocha; their inland trade +from Aleppo and Constantinople. They exported very little merchandize +to Persia or India. Marseilles supplied Turkey with a considerable +part of the bullion and money which the latter used in her trade with +the East,--sending annually to Aleppo and Alexandria, at least +500,000 <i>l</i>. and little or no merchandize. Venice sent about +400,000 <i>l</i>. and a great value in wares besides. Messina about +25,000 <i>l</i>., and the low countries about 50,000 <i>l</i>., besides +great quantities of gold and dollars from Germany, Poland, Hungary, +&c. With these sums were purchased either native Turkish produce +and manufactures, or such goods as Turkey obtained from Persia and +other parts of the East: the principal were camblets, grograms, raw +silk, cotton wool and yarn, galls, flax, hemp, rice, hides, sheeps' +wool, wax, corn, &c. England, according to Mr. Munn, did not +employ much bullion, either in her Turkey or her India trade; in the +former she exported vast quantities of broad cloth, tin, &c. +enough to purchase nearly all the wares she wanted in Turkey, besides +three hundred great bales of Persian raw silk annually. In the course +of nineteen years, viz. from their establishment in 1601 to 1620, the +East India Company had exported, in woollen cloths, tin, lead, and +other English and foreign wares, at an average of 15,383 <i>l</i>. per +annum, and in the whole, 292,286 <i>l</i>. During the same period they +had exported 548,090 <i>l</i>. in Spanish silver. The East India +Company employed in 1621, according to this author, 10,000 tons of +shipping, 2500 mariners, 500 ship carpenters, and 120 factors. The +principal places to which, at this period, we re-exported Indian +goods, were Turkey, Genoa, Marseilles, the Netherlands, &c.; the +re-exportations were calculated to employ 2000 more tons of shipping, +and 500 more mariners.</p> + +<p>From a proclamation issued in 1631, against clandestine trade to +and from India, we learn the different articles which might be +legally exported and imported: the first were the following: +perpalicanos and drapery, pewter, saffron, woollen stockings, silk +stockings and garters, ribband, roses edged with silver lace, beaver +hats with gold and silver bands, felt hats, strong waters, knives, +Spanish leather shoes, iron, and looking glasses. There might be +imported, long pepper, white pepper, white powder sugar, preserved +nutmegs and ginger preserved, merabolans, bezoar stones, drugs of all +sorts, agate heads, blood stones, musk, aloes socratrina, ambergris, +rich carpets of Persia and of Cambaya, quilts of satin taffety, +painted calicoes, Benjamin, damasks, satins and taffeties of China, +quilts of China embroidered with silk, galls, sugar candy, China +dishes, and porcelain of all sorts.</p> + +<p>Though several articles of Chinese manufacture are specified in +the proclamation, yet we have no notice of any direct trade to China +till nearly fifty years after this time, viz. in the year 1680. In +this year the East India Company sent out eleven ships, including two +to China and the Moluccas; their general burden was between 500 and +600 tons: in these ships there was a stock of nearly 500,000 <i>l</i>. +Besides the articles imported from India enumerated in the +proclamation of 1631, there now appear cowries, saltpetre, muslins, +diamonds, &c.</p> + +<p>In 1689 the East India Company published a state of their trade, +from which it appeared that in the last seven years they had built +sixteen ships from 900 to 1300 tons each,--that they had coming from +India eleven ships and four permission ships, the value of their +cargoes being above 360,000 <i>l</i>.: that they had on their outward +voyage to Coast and Bay, seven ships and six permission ships, their +cargoes valued at 570,000 <i>l</i>.: that they had seven ships for +China and the South Seas, whose cargoes amounted to 100,000 <i>l</i>. +That they had goods in India unsold, to the amount of +700,000 <i>l</i>. About this period, Sir John Child, being what would +now be called governor general of India, and his brother, Sir Jonah, +leading member of the Court of Committees, the policy was introduced +through their means, on which the sovereign power, as well as the +immense empire of the East India Company was founded; this policy +consisted of the enlargement of the authority of the Company over +British subjects in India, and in attaining political strength and +dominion, by retaliating by force of arms, on those Indian princes +who oppressed their settlements.</p> + +<p>In the year 1698, in consequence of complaints against the East +India Company, and their inability to make any dividend, they thought +it necessary to give in a statement of their property in India. In +this they asserted that they had acquired, solely at their own +expence, revenues at Fort St. George, Fort St. David, and Bombay, as +well as in Persia, and elsewhere, to the amount of 44,000 <i>l</i>. +per annum, arising from customs and licenses, besides a large extent +of land in these places; they had also erected forts and settlements +in Sumatra, and on the coast of Malabar, which were absolutely +necessary to carry on the pepper trade; they had a strongfort in +Bengal, and many factories, settlements, &c. in other places. The +result of the complaints against the Company was, that a new company +was established this year; the two companies, however, united in the +beginning of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>We shall conclude our account of the state of English commerce +during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with some more +general and miscellaneous topics.</p> + +<p>I. Exports. In the year 1534, the total value of our exports did +not exceed 900,000 <i>l</i>. of the present value of our money: the +balance of trade was estimated at 700,000 <i>l</i>.: this arose +principally from the very great exportation of woollen goods, tin, +leather, &c., on which an export duty was laid, bringing in +246,000 <i>l</i>.; whereas, the duty on imports did not produce more +than 1700 <i>l</i>. In the year 1612, according to Missenden, in his +Circle of Commerce, the exports to all the world amounted to +2,090,640 <i>l</i>., and the imports to 2,141,151 <i>l</i>.; on the +latter, however, the custom duties are charged; the custom duties on +the exports were 86,794 <i>l</i>.; the impost paid outwards on woollen +goods, tin, lead, pewter, &c. 10,000 <i>l</i>.; and the merchants' +gains, freight, and other charges, to 300,000 <i>l</i>.:--if these be +added to the value of the exports, the total amount will be +2,487,435 <i>l</i>,-- from which the imports, including custom duty on +them, being deducted, leaves 346,283 <i>l</i>.,--which Missenden +regards as the balance gained that year by the nation. The principal +articles of export have been enumerated: the principal articles of +import were silks, Venice gold and silver stuffs, Spanish wines, +linen, &c. At this time, London paid nearly three times as much +for custom duties as all the rest of England together. In the year +1662, according to D'Avenant, the inspector general of the customs, +our imports amounted to 4,016,019 <i>l</i>., and our exports only to +2,022,812 <i>l</i>.; the balance against the nation being nearly two +millions. In the last year of the seventeenth century, according to +the same official authority, there was exported to England from all +parts, 6,788,166 <i>l</i>.: of this sum, our woollen manufactures were +to the value of 2,932,292 <i>l</i>.; so that there was an increase of +our exports since 1662, of 4,765,534 <i>l</i>. The yearly average of +all the merchandize imported from, and exported to the north of +Europe, from Michaelmas, 1697, to Christmas, 1701, is exhibited in +the following table:</p> + +<pre> +Annual Countries. Imported from. Exported to. Loss + +Denmark and Sweden 76,215 <i>l</i> 39,543 <i>l</i>. 36,672 <i>l</i>. +East Country 181,296 149,893 31,403 +Russia 112,252 58,884 53,568 +Sweden 212,094 57,555 154,539 + --------- +Total annual average loss 275,982 <i>l</i>. +</pre> + +<p>II. Ships. In the year 1530, the ship which first sailed on a +trading voyage to Guinea, and thence to the Brazils, was regarded as +remarkably large; her burden amounted to 250 tons. And in Wheeler's +Treatise of Commerce, published in 1601, we are informed, that about +60 years before he wrote (which would be about 1541), there were not +above four ships (besides those of the royal navy) that were above +120 tons each, in the river Thames; and we learn from Monson, in his +Naval Tracts, that about 20 years later, most of our ships of burden +were purchased from the east countrymen, or inhabitants of the south +shores of the Baltic, who likewise carried on the greatest trade of +our merchants in their own vessels. He adds, to bid adieu to that +trade and those ships, the Jesus of Lubec. a vessel then esteemed of +great burden and strength, was the last ship bought by the queen. In +1582, there were 135 merchant vessels in England, many of them of 500 +tons each: and in the beginning of King James's reign, there were +400, but these were not so large, not above four of these being of +400 tons. In 1615, it appears, that the East India Company, from the +beginning of their charter, had employed only 24 ships, four of which +had been lost. The largest was 1293 tons; one 1100, one 1060, one +900, one 800, and the remainder from 600 to 150. In the same year, 20 +ships sailed to Naples, Genoa, Leghorn, and other parts of the +Mediterranean, chiefly laden with herrings; and 30 from Ireland, to +the same ports, laden with pipe staves: to Portugal and Amsterdam, 20 +ships for wines, sugar, fruit, and West India drugs: to Bourdeaux, 60 +ships for wines: to Hamburgh and Middleburgh, 35 ships: to Dantzic, +Koningsberg, 30 ships: to Norway 5;--while the Dutch sent above 40 +large ships. The Newcastle coal trade employed 400 sail;--200 for +London, and 200 for the rest of England. It appears, that at this +time many foreign ships resorted to Newcastle for coals: whole fleets +of 50 sail together from France, besides many from Bremen, Holland, +&c. The Greenland fishery employed 14 ships.</p> + +<p>The following calculation of the shipping of Europe in 1690, is +given by Sir William Petty. England, 500,000 tons; the United +Provinces, 900,000; France, 100,000; Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, +Dantzic, 250,000; Spain, Portugal, Italy, 250,000: total 2,000,000. +But that this calculation is exceeding loose, so far as regards +England at least, is evident from the returns made to circular +letters of the commissioners of customs: according to these returns, +there belonged to all the ports of England, in January 1701-2., 3281 +vessels, measuring 261,222 tons, and carrying 27,196 men, and 5660 +guns. As we wish to be minute and enter into detail, while our +commerce and shipping were yet in their infancy, in order to mark +more decidedly its progress, we shall subjoin the particulars of this +return.</p> + +<p>Ports. Vessels. Tons. Men.</p> + +<p>London 560 84,882 10,065 Bristol 165 17,338 2,359 Yarmouth 143 +9,914 668 Exeter 121 7,107 978 Hull 115 7,564 187 Whitby 110 8,292 +571 Liverpool 102 8,619 1,101 Scarborough 100 6,860 606</p> + +<p>None of the other ports had 100 vessels: Newcastle had +sixty-three, measuring 11,000 tons; and Ipswich thirty-nine, +measuring 11,170; but there certainly is some mistake in these two +instances, either in the number of the ships, or the tonnage. The +small number of men employed at Hull arose from eighty of their ships +being at that time laid up.</p> + +<p>III. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the great +rivals of the English in their commerce were the Dutch: they had +preceded the English to most countries; and, even where the latter +had preceded them, they soon insinuated themselves and became +formidable rivals: this was the case particularly with respect to the +trade to Archangel. Some curious and interesting particulars of this +rivalry are given by Sir Walter Raleigh, in his Observations +concerning the Trade and Commerce of England with the Dutch and other +foreign Nations, which he had laid before King James. In this work he +maintains that the Dutch have the advantage over the English by +reason of the privileges they gave to foreigners, by making their +country the storehouse of all foreign commodities; by the lowness of +their customs; by the structure of their ships, which hold more, and +require fewer hands than the English; and by their fishery. He +contends that England is better situated for a general storehouse for +the rest of Europe than Holland: yet no sooner does a dearth of corn, +wine, fish, &c. happen in England, than forthwith the Hollanders, +Embedners, or Humburghers, load 50 or 100 ships, and bring their +articles to England. Amsterdam, he observes, is never without 700,000 +quarters of corn, none of it the growth of Holland; and a dearth of +only one year in any other part of Europe enriches Holland for seven +years. In the course of a year and a half, during a scarcity in +England, there was carried away from the ports of Southampton, +Bristol, and Exeter alone, nearly 200,000 <i>l</i>.: and if London and +the rest of England were included, there must have been 2,000,000 +more. The Dutch, he adds, have a regular trade to England with 500 or +600 vessels annually, whereas we trade, not with fifty to their +country. After entering into details respecting the Dutch fishery, by +means of which, he says, they sell herrings annually to the value of +upwards of one million and a half sterling, whereas England scarcely +any, he reverts to the other branches of Dutch commerce, as compared +with ours. The great stores of wines and salt, brought from France +and Spain, are in the Low Countries: they send nearly 1,000 ships +yearly with these commodities into the east countries alone; whereas +we send not one ship. The native country of timber for ships, &c. +is within the Baltic; but the storehouse for it is in Holland; they +have 500 or 600 large ships employed in exporting it to England and +other parts: we not one. The Dutch even interfere with our own +commodities; for our wool and woollen cloth, which goes out rough, +undressed, and undyed, they manufacture and serve themselves and +other nations with it. We send into the east countries yearly but 100 +ships, and our trade chiefly depends upon three towns, Elbing, +Koningsberg, and Dantzic; but the Low Countries send thither about +3,000 ships: they send into France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy, about +2,000 ships yearly with those east country commodities, and we, none +in that course. They trade into all cities and port towns of France, +and we chiefly to five or six.</p> + +<p>The Low Countries have as many ships and vessels as eleven +kingdoms of Christendom have; let England be one. For seventy years +together, we had a great trade to Russia (Narva), and even about +fourteen years ago, we sent stores of goodly ships thither; but three +years past we sent out four thither, and last year but two or three +ships; whereas the Hollanders are now increased to about thirty or +forty ships, each as large as two of ours, chiefly laden with English +cloth, herrings, taken in our seas, English lead, and pewter made of +our tin. He adds, that a great loss is suffered by the kingdom from +the undressed and undyed cloths being sent out of the kingdom, to the +amount of 80,000 pieces annually; and that there had been annually +exported, during the last fifty-three years, in baizes, northern and +Devonshire kersies, all white, about 50,000 cloths, counting three +kersies to one cloth.</p> + +<p>Although there is undoubtedly much exaggeration in the comparative +statement of the Dutch and English commerce and shipping in the +details, yet it is a curious and interesting document, as exhibiting +a general view of them. Indeed, through the whole of the seventeenth +century, the most celebrated and best informed writers on the +commerce of England dwell strongly on the superior trade of the +Dutch, and on their being able, by the superior advantages they +enjoyed from greater capital, industry, and perseverance, aided by +the greater encouragement they gave to foreigners as well as their +own people, to supply the greatest part of Europe with all their +wants, though their own country was small and unfertile. A similar +comparative statement to that of Raleigh is given by Child in 1655; +he asserts that in the preceding year the Dutch had twenty-two sail +of great ships in the Russia trade,--England but one: that in the +Greenland whale fishery, Holland and Hamburgh had annually 400 or 500 +sail,--and England but one last year: that the Dutch have a great +trade for salt to France and Portugal, with which they salt fish +caught on our coasts; that in the Baltic trade, the English have +fallen off, and the Dutch increased tenfold. England has no share in +the trade to China and Japan: the Dutch a great trade to both +countries. A great part of the plate trade from Cadiz has passed from +England to Holland. They have even bereaved us of the trade to +Scotland and Ireland. He concludes with pointing out some advantages +England possesses over Holland: In the Turkey, Italian, Spanish, and +Portuguese trades, we have the natural advantage of our wool:--our +provisions and fuel, in country places, are cheaper than with the +Dutch;--our native commodities of lead and tin are great +advantages:--of these, he says, as well as of our manufactures, we +ship off one-third more than we did twenty years ago; and he adds, +that we have now more than double the number of merchants and +shipping that we had twenty years ago. He mentions a circumstance, +which seems to indicate a retrograde motion of commerce, viz., that +when he wrote most payments were in ready money; whereas, formerly, +there were credit payments at three, six, nine, twelve, and even +eighteen months. From another part of his work, it appears that the +tax-money was brought up in waggons from the country.</p> + +<p>The gradual advancement of a nation in knowledge and civilization, +which is in part the result of commerce, is also in part the cause of +it. But besides this advancement, in which England participated with +the rest of Europe, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, +there were other circumstances peculiar to this country, some of +which were favourable, and others unfavourable to the increase of its +commerce.</p> + +<p>Among the favourable circumstances may be reckoned the taking away +of the exclusive privileges of the steelyard merchants by Edward VI., +by which native merchants were encouraged, private companies of them +formed, and the benefits of commerce more extensively diffused:--the +encouragement given by Elizabeth, particularly by her minister Cecil, +to commerce; this was so great and well directed, that the customs +which had been farmed, at the beginning of the reign, for +14,000 <i>l</i>. a year, towards its close were fanned for +50,000 <i>l</i>.;--the pacific character of James I., and the +consequent tranquillity enjoyed by England during his reign;--the +strong and general stimulus which was given to individual industry, +by the feeling of their own importance, which the struggle between +Charles I. and the Parliament naturally infused into the great mass +of the people;--the increased skill in maritime affairs, which was +produced by our naval victories under Cromwell;--the great vigour of +his government in his relations with foreign powers; and the passing +of the navigation act. The Restoration, bringing a great fondness for +luxury and expence, naturally produced also exertions to gratify that +fondness. If to these and other causes of a similar nature, we add +the introduction of East India commodities direct to England, and the +import trade to the West Indies and America, the emigration of the +industrious Flemings during the Spanish wars in the Low Countries, +and of the French after the revocation of the edict of Nantz, we +shall have specified most of the efficient circumstances, which, in +conjunction with the progress of mankind in industry and +civilization, were beneficial to our commerce.</p> + +<p>The causes and circumstances which were unfavourable to it during +the same period are much fewer in number; and though some of them +were powerful, yet, even these, for the most part, when they ceased +to operate, gave birth to a reaction favourable to commerce. The more +general causes may be sought for in the erroneous notions entertained +respecting commerce, in consequence of which monopolies were granted, +especially in the reign of James I.; and laws were made to regulate +what would have gone on best, if it had been left to itself. The +civil wars, and the emigration occasioned by them, and the religious +persecutions in the time of Mary, Elizabeth, and Charles, may be +regarded as the most remarkable particular causes and circumstances, +which were injurious to commerce.</p> + +<p>We must again lay down the position, that in what respects the +improvement of a country in industry and wealth, whether agricultural +manufacturing, or commercial, the same circumstances may often be +viewed in the light both of effect and cause. This position will be +clearly illustrated by a very common and plain case. The trade in a +certain district improves, and of course requires more easy and +expeditious communication among different parts of this district: the +roads are consequently made better, and the waggons, &c. are +built on a better construction; these are the effects of an improved +trade: but it is plain that as by the communication being thus +rendered quicker, the commodities interchanged can be sold cheaper, a +greater quantity of them will be sold; and thus better roads, which +in the first instance proceeded from an improvement in trade, will, +when made, improve the trade still more.</p> + +<p>We have introduced these observations as preparatory to our notice +of the establishment of the Bank of England. This undoubtedly was the +effect of our increased commercial habits, but it was as undoubtedly +the cause of those habits becoming stronger and more general: it +supposed the pre-existence of a certain degree of commercial +confidence and credit, but it increased these in a much greater ratio +than they existed before: and if England owes its very superior +wealth to any other causes besides its free government, its superior +industry, and improvements in machinery, those causes must be sought +for in the very extensive diffusion of commercial confidence and +credit. The funding system, which took place about the same, time +that the Bank of England was established, may be regarded as another +powerful cause of the increase of our commerce: we do not mean to +contend that the national debt is a national blessing, but it is +certain that the necessity of paying the interest of that debt +produced exertions of industry, and improvements in manufactures, +which would not otherwise, have been called forth; while, on the +other hand, the funds absorbed all the superfluous capital, which, +otherwise, as in Holland, must have had a bad effect on commerce, +either by reducing its profits very low, or by being transferred to +other countries; and the interest, which so many individuals felt in +the stability of the funds, induced them most steadily and strongly +to support government.</p> + +<p>The commerce of Scotland and Ireland during the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, supplies us with very few materials. In the +year 1544, Scotland must have had no inconsiderable foreign trade, as +in the war which took place at this time between that country and +England, twenty-eight of the principal ships of Scotland, laden with +all kinds of rich merchandize, were captured by the English, on their +voyage from France, Flanders, Denmark, &c.; and in the same year, +when the English took Leith, they found more riches in it than they +had reason to expect. While Scotland and England were at peace, +however, the former was principally supplied through the latter with +the commodities which Antwerp, during the sixteenth century, +dispersed over all Europe. The exports of Scotland to Antwerp, +&c. were indeed direct, and consisted principally, as we have +already remarked from Guicciardini, of peltry, leather, wool, +indifferent cloth, and pearls.</p> + +<p>The earliest account which occurs of the Scotch carrying on +commerce to any port out of Europe, is in the year 1589, when three +or four Scotch ships were found at the Azores by the earl of +Cumberland. In the year 1598, it appears, from a letter of king James +to Queen Elizabeth, that some Scotch merchants traded to the +Canaries. There is evidence that the Scotch had some commerce in the +Mediterranean in the beginning of the seventeenth century; for in the +"Cabala," under the year 1624, the confiscation of three Scotch ships +at Malaga is noticed, for importing Dutch commodities. The principal +articles of export from Scotland to foreign countries consisted of +coarse woollen stuffs and stockings, linen goods, peltry, leather, +wool, pearls, &c. The principal imports were wine and fruits from +France, wine from Spain and Portugal, the finer woollen goods from +England, timber, iron, &c. from the Baltic, and sugars, spices, +silks, &c. from Antwerp, Portugal, &c.</p> + +<p>The following statement, with which we shall conclude our account +of Scotch commerce, is interesting, as exhibiting a view of the +commercial intercourse by sea between England and Scotland, from the +commencement of the inspector general's accounts in 1697, to the +Union in 1707.</p> + +<p>England received from Scotland Scotland received from England +Merchandize to the value of merchandize to the value of</p> + +<p>1697. £91,302 £73,203 1698. 124,835 58,043 1699. +86,309 66,303 1700. 130,087 85,194 1701. 73,988 56,802 1702. 71,428 +58,688 1703. 76,448 57,338 1704. 54,379 87,536 1705. 57,902 50,035 +1706. 50,309 60,313 1707. 6,733 17,779</p> + +<p>The earliest notices of Irish trade, to which we have already +adverted, particularly mention linen and woollen cloth, as two of the +most considerable articles of export from that country. Hides, wool, +fish of different kinds, particularly salmon, and the skins of +martins, otters, rabbits, sheep, kids, &c. are also specified, as +forming part of her early export. From Antwerp in the middle of the +sixteenth century she received spices, sugar, silks, madder, +camblets, &c. Pipe staves were a considerable article of export +in the beginning of the seventeenth century; they were principally +sent to the Mediterranean. In 1627 Charles issued a proclamation +respecting Ireland, from which we learn that the principal foreign +trade of Ireland was to Spain and Portugal, and consisted in fish, +butter, skins, wool, rugs, blankets, wax, cattle, and horses; pipe +staves, and corn; timber fit for ship-building, as well as pipe +staves, seem at this period to have formed most extensive and +valuable articles of export from Ireland. In the middle of this +century, Irish linen yarn was used in considerable quantities in the +Manchester manufactures, as we have already noticed. The importation +into England of fat cattle from Ireland seems to have been +considerable, and to have been regarded as so prejudicial to the +pasture farmers of the former country, that in 1666 a law was passed +laying a heavy duty on their importation. This statute proving +ineffectual, another was passed in 1663, enacting the forfeiture of +all great cattle, sheep, swine, and also beef, pork, or bacon, +imported from Ireland. Sir W. Petty remarks, that before this law was +passed, three-fourths of the trade of Ireland was with England, but +not one-fourth of it since that time. Sir Jonah Child, in his +Discourse on Trade, describes the state of Ireland as having been +much improved by the soldiers of the Commonwealth settling there; +through their own industry, and that which they infused into the +natives, he adds, that Ireland was able to supply foreign markets, as +well as our plantations in America, with beef, pork, hides, tallow, +bread, beer, wood, and corn, at a cheaper rate than England could +afford to do. Though this country, as we have seen, exported linen +goods at a very early period, yet this manufacture cannot be regarded +as the staple one of Ireland, or as having contributed very much to +her foreign commerce, till it flourished among the Scotch colonists +in Ulster towards the middle of the seventeenth century. As soon as +they entered on it with spirit, linen yarn was no longer exported to +Manchester and other parts of England, but manufactured into cloth in +Ireland, and in that state it formed the chief article of its +commerce. The woollen manufactures of Ireland, which were always +viewed with jealousy by England, and were checked in every possible +manner, gradually gave way to the restraints laid on them, and to the +rising and unchecked linen manufacture, and of course ceased to enter +into the exports.</p> + +<p>The commerce of Scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries was kept low, by ignorance and want of industry, by the +disturbed state of the country, by disputes between the king and +nobility, and, till the union of the crowns, by wars with England. +The commerce of Ireland had still greater difficulties to struggle +with; among which may be mentioned the ignorant oppression of the +English government in every thing that related to its manufactures or +trade.</p> + +<p>The commerce of France, during the sixteenth century, presents few +particulars worthy of notice; that, which was carried on between it +and England, was principally confined to the exportation of wines, +fruit, silk and linen, from France; and woollen goods, and tin and +lead, from England. There seems to have been a great exchange between +the woollens of England and the linens of Bretagne. The French, +however, like all the other nations of Europe at this period, were +ignorant of the principles, as well as destitute of the enterprize +and capital essential to steady and lucrative commerce; and amply +deserve the character given of them by Voltaire, that in the reign of +Francis I., though possessed of harbours both on the ocean and +Mediterranean, they were yet without a navy; and though immersed in +luxury, they had only a few coarse manufactures. The Jews, Genoese, +Venetians, Portuguese, Flemings, Dutch, and English, traded +successively for them. At the very close of this century we have a +very summary account of the commerce of France by Giovani Bolero. +France, says he, possesses four magnets, which attract the wealth of +other countries;--corn, which is exported to Spain and +Portugal;--wine, which is sent to Flanders, England, and the +Baltic;--salt, made by the heat of the sun on the Mediterranean +coast, and also on that of the ocean, as far north as Saintoigne; and +hemp and cloth, of which and of cordage great quantities are exported +to Lisbon and Seville:--the exportation of the articles of this +fourth class, he adds, is incredibly great.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the seventeenth century, the finer manufactures +of woollen and silken goods having been carried to great perfection +in France, her exports in these articles were greatly increased. In +the political testament of Richelieu, we are informed that a +considerable and lucrative trade in these articles was carried on +with Turkey, Spain, Italy, &c., and that France had driven, in a +great measure, out of those markets the serges of Milan, the velvets +of Genoa, and the cloth of gold of Italy.</p> + +<p>Early in the reign of Louis XIV., Colbert directed his attention +to the improvement of manufactures and commerce; and though many of +his plans were frustrated from the operation of causes over which he +had no control, and principally because he went before the age in +which he lived, yet there can be no doubt that to him France was +indebted for the consolidation, extension, and firm footing of her +commerce. Immediately before the revocation of the edict of Nantes, +her commerce was at its greatest heighth, as the following estimates +of that she carried on with England and Holland will prove. To the +former country the exportation of manufactured silks of all sorts is +said to have been to the value of 600,000 <i>l</i>.;--of linen, +sail-cloth, and canvass, about 700,000 <i>l</i>.;--in beaver hats, +watches, clocks, and glass, about 220,000 <i>l</i>.;--in paper, about +90,000 <i>l</i>.;--in iron ware, the manufacture of Auvergne, chiefly, +about 40,000 <i>l</i>.;--in shalloons, tammies, &c. from Picardy +and Champagne, about 150,000 <i>l</i>.;--in wines, about +200,000 <i>l</i>.; and brandies, about 80,000 <i>l</i>. The exports to +Holland, shortly before the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in +silks, velvets, linen, and paper, are estimated at 600,000 <i>l</i>.; +--in hats, about 200,000 <i>l</i>.;--in glass, clocks, watches, and +household furniture, about 160,000 <i>l</i>.;--in small articles, such +as fringes, gloves, &c., about 200,000 <i>l</i>.;--in linen, +canvass, and sail cloth, about 160,000 <i>l</i>.; and in saffron, +dye-wood, woollen yarn, &c., about 300,000 <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p>In the year 1700 a council of commerce was constituted in France, +consisting of the principal ministers of state and finance, and of +twelve of the principal merchants of the kingdom, chosen annually +from Paris, Rouen, Bourdeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, Rochelle, Nantes, +St. Maloe, Lisle, Bayonne, and Dunkirk.</p> + +<p>From the first report of this board, we gain some information of +the state of French commerce at this time; according to it, the +French employed in their West India and Guinea trade only 100 +vessels, whereas the English employed 500. The principal articles +they drew from these islands were sugar, indigo, cotton, cocoa, +ginger, &c. The exclusive trades formed in 1661, when France was +little versed in commerce and navigation, are deprecated: the chief +of them were, that granted to Marseilles for the sole trade to the +Levant;--the East India Company;--the prohibiting foreign raw silk to +be carried to Paris, Nismes, Tours, &c., till it had passed +through Lyons;--the Canada and Guinea Companies, besides various +farms or monopolies of certain merchandize in trade: the principal of +these last was lead from England, with which, made into shot, the +persons who had the monopoly supplied not only France, but, through +France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, the Levant, and the French West +Indies.</p> + +<p>The report contains some information respecting the comparative +commerce of France, and the other nations of Europe. The Spaniards, +it is observed, though they possess within their own country wool, +silk, oil, wine, &c., and are in no want of good ports, both on +the ocean and Mediterranean, nevertheless neglect all these +advantages. Hence it happens that the raw silk of Valencia, Murcia, +and Grenada, is exported to France: the wool of Castile, Arragon, +Navarre, and Leon, to England, Holland, France, and Italy; and these +raw articles, when manufactured, are sent back to Spain, and +exchanged for the gold and silver of the American mines. France also +supplies Peru and Mexico, through Spain, receiving in return, +cochineal, indigo, hides, &c., besides a balance of eighteen or +twenty million of livres, and by the flotas, seven or eight million +more. The report adds, on this head, that latterly the English and +Dutch have interfered with some branches of this trade with Spain; +and it also complains that the former nation carry on the Levant +trade to much more advantage than the French, their woollen cloths +being better and cheaper. The English also carry to the Levant, lead, +pewter, copperas, and logwood, together with a great deal of +pepper;--with these, and the money received on the coasts of +Portugal, Spain and Italy, for the dry fish and sugar they sell there +on their outward voyage, they purchase their homeward cargoes. This +superiority of England over France in the Levant trade, is ascribed +in the report to the monopoly enjoyed by Marseilles.</p> + +<p>The report, in relation to the commerce of France with the +northern nations of Europe, observes, that it appears from the custom +books, that the Dutch had possession of almost the whole of it. The +Dutch also are accused of having, in a great measure, made themselves +masters of the inland trade of France. In order to secure to this +latter country the direct trade with the north of Europe, certain +plans are suggested in the report; all of which were objected to by +the deputies from Nantes, principally, it would seem, on the ground, +that the Dutch trade to the Baltic was so well settled, that it +governed the prices of all the exports and imports there, and that +the Dutch gave higher prices for French goods than could be obtained +in the Baltic for them, while, on the other hand, they sold at +Amsterdam Baltic produce cheaper than it could be bought in the +Baltic. One objection to a direct trade between France and the Baltic +affords a curious and instructive proof of the imperfect state of +navigation at this time, that is, at the beginning of the eighteenth +century. The deputy from Marseilles urged that the voyage from +Dantzic, or even from Copenhagen to Marseilles, was too long for a +ship to go and come with certainty in one season, considering the ice +and the long nights; and that therefore, there is no avoiding the use +of entrepots for the trade of Marseilles. Mr. Anderson, in his +History of Commerce, very justly observes, "that the dread of a long +voyage from the north to the south parts of Europe, contributed, in a +great measure, to make Antwerp, in former times, the general magazine +of Europe."</p> + +<p>The decline of the commerce of the Italian states, in consequence +of the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, has been already +mentioned; their efforts however to preserve it were vigorous, and we +can trace, even in the middle of the sixteenth century, some Indian +commerce passing through Venice. Indeed in the year 1518, +Guicciardini informs us that there arrived at Antwerp, five Venetian +ships laden with the spices and drugs of the East: and 1565, when the +English Russia Company sent their agents into Persia, they found that +the Venetians carried on a considerable trade there; they seem to +have travelled from Aleppo, and to have brought with them woollen +cloths, &c. which they exchanged for raw silks, spices, drugs, +&c. The agents remarked, that much Venetian cloth was worn in +Persia: in 1581, Sir William Monson complains that the Venetians +engrossed the trade between Turkey and Persia, for Persian and Indian +merchandize. In 1591, when the English Levant Company endeavoured to +establish a trade over land to India, and for that purpose carried +some of their goods from Aleppo to Bagdat, and thence down the Tigris +to Ormus and to Goa, they found that the Venetians had factories in +all these places, and carried on an extensive and lucrative trade. It +is difficult to perceive how Indian commodities brought by land to +Europe, could compete with those which the Portuguese brought by sea. +The larger capital, more numerous connexions, greater credit, and +skill of the Venetians, must however have been much in their favour +in this competition.</p> + +<p>We have noticed that, even so late as the beginning of the +eighteenth century, a voyage from Marseilles to the Baltic and back +again, was thought by French navigators an impracticable undertaking +in the course of one year; and yet a century earlier, viz. in 1699, +Venice sent at least one ship annually for Archangel: the first +instance we believe of a direct commercial intercourse between the +northern and southern extreme seas of Europe.</p> + +<p>We must turn to the northern nations of Europe, Sweden, Denmark +and Russia, and glean what few important materials we can respecting +their commerce during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. We +have already seen that the commerce of the Scandinavian nations of +the middle ages was by no means despicable, though it was chiefly +confined to Britain and Iceland, and among themselves: the +establishment of the Hanseatic League, some of the cities composing +which lay in the Baltic, gradually made the Scandinavian nations +better known, and by creating a demand for their produce, stimulated +them to industry and commerce. In a poor country, however, with a +sterile soil and ungenial climate; where winter prevented intercourse +by sea, for several months every year, capital must increase very +slowly, and commerce, reciprocally the cause and effect of capital, +equally slow. Besides the piratical habits of the early +Scandinavians, were adverse to trade; and these habits shed their +influence even after they were discontinued. But though the +Scandinavian nations were long in entering into any commercial +transactions of importance, yet they contributed indirectly to its +advancement by the improvements they made in ship-building, as well +as by the ample materials for this purpose which their country +supplied. Their ships indeed were constructed for warfare, but +improvements in this description of ships naturally, and almost +unavoidably, led to improvements in vessels designed for trade. In +1449, a considerable commerce was carried on between Bristol, and +Iceland, and Finmark, in vessels of 400, 500, and even 900 tons +burden, all of which, there is reason to believe, were built in the +Baltic; and, about six years afterwards, the king of Sweden was the +owner of a ship of nearly 1000 tons burden, which he sent to England, +with a request that she might be permitted to trade.</p> + +<p>Gustavus I. who reigned about the beginning of the sixteenth +century, seems to have been the first Swedish king who directed the +attention and industry of his subjects to manufactures and commerce; +but, in the early part of his reign, the inhabitants of Lubec had the +monopoly of the foreign trade of Stockholm. This sovereign, in 1540, +entered into a commercial treaty with Francis I., King of France; the +principal article of which was, that the Swedes should import their +wine, salt, &c. directly from France, instead of obtaining them +indirectly from the Dutch. The conquest of Revel by Sweden, and the +consequent footing obtained in Livonia, in 1560, greatly increased +its commerce and wealth; while important improvements were introduced +into its manufactures of iron a few years afterwards by the Flemings, +who fled there on the destruction of Antwerp. Prior to their arrival, +most of the Swedish iron was forged in Dantzic and Prussia; but they +not only taught the Swedes how to forge it, but also how to make iron +cannon, and other iron, copper, and brass articles. The Swedes had +from an early period, been sensible of the real riches of their +territory, and how much their timber, iron, pitch, and tar, were +converted for maritime and other purposes. The pitch and tar +manufacture especially had long constituted a very considerable part +of their commerce. In 1647, Queen Christiana very unwisely granted a +monopoly of these articles, which was productive of the usual +effects, injury to commerce, without a correspondent benefit to those +who held it. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the tar +company in Sweden not only put a very high price on their goods, but +refused to sell them, even for ready money, unless they were exported +in Swedish vessels. In consequence of this, England began at this +period to encourage the importation of tar, pitch, hemp, and naval +timber, from her American colonies.</p> + +<p>The commerce of Denmark, besides its common origin with that of +the rest of Scandinavia, seems, in the middle ages, to have been +chiefly nourished by two circumstances:--The trade which Iceland +carried on, and the establishment of Bergen, first as the staple of +the German merchants, and afterwards as the chief factory of the +Hanse merchants. In 1429, it was also established by the king of +Denmark, as the sole staple for the fish trade. In 1553, its trade +began to decline, in consequence, it is said, of its being deserted +by the Hanseatics. The historian of the Hanseatic League adds, that +"whereas the ancient toll of the Sound had been only a golden +rose-noble on every sail, which was always understood to be meant on +every ship; the court of Denmark had for some time past put a new and +arbitrary construction on the word sail, by obliging all ships to pay +a rose-noble for every sail on, or belonging to each ship". In +consequence of this, the Vandalic-Hanse Towns, or those on the south +shores of the Baltic, deserted the Bergen trade.</p> + +<p>The same sovereign, however, who increased the tolls of the Sound, +counterpoised the bad effects of this measure, by the encouragement +he gave to manufactures and commerce; in this he was seconded by the +Danish gentry, who began to carry on merchandize and factorage +themselves, and also established manufactories. Copenhagen at this +time was the staple for all Danish merchandize, especially corn, +butter, fish, &c.</p> + +<p>The commercial history of this country, towards the close of the +sixteenth century, is remarkable for having given rise to the +earliest dispute, of which we have any notice, respecting, the +carrying of naval stores, of contraband of war, in neutral bottoms, +to any enemy. It seems that the English merchants endeavoured to +evade the custom duties in the Danish ports, particularly on their +skins, woollen goods, and tin; on which they were siezed. On a +remonstrance however from Elizabeth, they were restored, when the +king of Denmark, on his part, complained that the English committed +piracies on his subjects; for now, says Camden, there began to grow +controversies about such matters, that is, the carrying naval stores, +&c. to the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>The commercial history of Denmark, during the period to which we +are at present confined, presents no other circumstance sufficiently +striking or interesting to detain us; for the establishments of this +country in the East Indies are too trifling to deserve or require +notice in a work whose limits and objects equally confine it to those +points which are of primary importance.</p> + +<p>The locality of Russia, cut off from the sea till a comparatively +late period, except the almost inaccessible sea on which Archangel +stands; the ignorance and barbarism of its inhabitants, and its wars +with the Tartars, necessarily prevented and incapacitated this +immense empire from engaging in any commercial intercourse with the +rest of Europe till the beginning of the sixteenth century, when it +became independent, and began to be powerful. Novogorod, indeed, +which was in fact a republic under the jurisdiction of a nominal +sovereign, enjoyed in the fifteenth century, a great trade, being +then the mart between Russia and the Hanseatic cities. On its +conquest by the Russians in the beginning of the next century, the +Hanseatic merchants deserted it, though it continued for a +considerable period afterward the largest and most commercial city in +Russia. In 1509, Basilicus IV. conquered the city and territory of +Pleskow and Smolensko, and consolidated the Russian empire, by +reducing all the petty principalities into which it had been +previously divided. Pleskow, situated near the head of the lake +Czudskoc, soon became a celebrated emporium, and before the end of +this century was frequented by merchants from Persia, Tartary, +Sarmatia, Livonia, Germany, Britain, and other countries.</p> + +<p>The accidental discovery of the White Sea by the English, in 1553, +has been already narrated: this led to the first intercourse by sea +between Russia and the rest of Europe, for previously, whatever of +their produce was exported, was carried in Livonian ships. In the +following year, the facilities of Russia with Asia were encreased by +the conquest of the city and kingdom of Astracan: by this conquest +the entire navigation of the Wolga became theirs, and by crossing the +Caspian, they carried their commercial transactions into Persia. The +spirit of conquest was now alive among them, and exerting itself both +to the east and west; for in 1558 they conquered Narva, in Livonia, +and by means of it formed a communication with the rest of Europe by +the Baltic sea. To this city the Hanseatic merchants removed their +mart from Revel. The conquest of Samoieda and Siberia near the close +of the sixteenth century, contributed to encrease the exportable +commodities of Russia by their furs, salmon, sturgeon, &c.</p> + +<p>In the mean time the Russian commerce in the Caspian was +increasing: the Persian vessels brought into Astracan dyed silks, +calicoes, and Persian stuffs, and returned with cloth, sables, +martens, red leather, and old Russia money. The trade from Archangel +also increased in a still more rapid manner, principally, as we have +already seen, with the English and Dutch. In the year 1655, the +exports were valued at the 660,000 rubles, two rubles at that period +being equal to one pound sterling. The principal articles were +potash, caviare, tallow, hides, sables, and cable yarn; the other +articles of less importance, and in smaller quantities, were coarse +linen, feathers for beds, tar, linen yarn, beet, rhubarb, Persian +silk, cork, bacon, cordage, skins of squirrels, and cats; bees' wax, +hogs' birstles, mice and goats' skins, swan and geese down, candles, +&c.</p> + +<p>Peter the Great became emperor in 1689; he soon unfolded and began +to execute his vast plans of conquest, naval power, and commerce. He +gained for his country a passage into the Black Sea, by reducing +Asoph, at the mouth of the Don, and he soon established a navy on +this sea. His personal exertions in Holland and England, to make +himself acquainted with ship-building, are well known. The event of +his reign, however, which most completely changed the relative +situation of Russia, and established her as a commercial nation, was +the conquest from Sweden of Livonia, Ingria, and Carelia. Scarcely +were these provinces secured to him, when he built, first Cronstadt, +and then St. Petersburgh. The erection of this city, and the canals +he constructed in the interior for the purpose of facilitating the +transportation of merchandize from the more southerly and fertile +districts of his empire to the new capital, soon drew to it the +greater portion of Russian commerce. Archangel, to which there had +previously resorted annually upwards of one hundred ships from +England, Holland, Hamburgh, &c. declined; and early in the +eighteenth century Petersburgh, then scarcely ten years old, beheld +itself a commercial city of great importance.</p> + +<p>Having now brought the historical sketch of the progress of +discovery and of commercial enterprise down to the commencement of +the eighteenth century, it will be necessary, as well as proper, to +contract the scale on which the remainder of this volume is to be +constructed. For, during nearly the whole of the period which +intervenes between the commencement of the eighteenth century and the +present time, the materials are either so abundant or so minute, that +to insert them all without discrimination and selection, would be to +give bulk, without corresponding interest and value, to the work.</p> + +<p>So far as discovery is concerned, it is evident, from the sketch +of it already given, that nearly the entire outline of the globe had +been traced before the period at which we are arrived: what remained +was to fill up this outline. In Asia, to gain a more complete +knowledge of Hither and Farther India, of China, of the countries to +the north of Hindostan, of the north and north-east of Asia, and of +some of the Asiatic islands. In Africa, little besides the shores +were known; but the nature of the interior, with its burning sands +and climate, uninhabitable, or inhabited by inhospitable and +barbarous tribes, held out little expectation that another century +would add much to our knowledge of that quarter of the world; and +though the perseverance and enterprise of the eighteenth century, and +what has passed of the nineteenth, have done more than might +reasonably have been anticipated, yet, comparatively speaking, how +little do we yet know of Africa! America held out the most promising +as well as extensive views to future discovery; the form and +direction of her north-west coast was to be traced. In South America, +the Spaniards had already gained a considerable knowledge of the +countries lying between the Atlantic and the Pacific, but in North +America, the British colonists had penetrated to a very short +distance from the shores on which they were first settled; and from +their most western habitations to the Pacific, the country was almost +entirely unknown.</p> + +<p>The immense extent of the Pacific Ocean, which presented to +navigators at the beginning of the eighteenth century but few +islands, seemed to promise a more abundant harvest to repeated and +more minute examination, and this promise has been fulfilled. New +Holland, however, was the only portion of the world of great extent +which could be said to be almost entirely unknown at the beginning of +the eighteenth century; and the completion of our knowledge of its +form and extent may justly be regarded as one of the greatest and +most important occurrences to geography contributed by the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>The truth and justice of these observations will, we trust, +convince our readers, that, in determining to be more general and +concise in what remains of the geographical portion of our works, we +shall not be destroying its consistency or altering the nature of its +plan, but in fact preserving both; for its great object and design +was to trace geographical knowledge from its infancy till it had +reached that maturity and vigour, by which, in connection with the +corresponding increased civilization, general information and +commerce of the world, it was able to advance with rapid strides, and +no longer confining itself to geography, strictly so called, to +embrace the natural history of those countries, the existence, +extent, and form of which it had first ascertained.</p> + +<p>The great object and design of the commercial part of this work +was similar; to trace the progress of commercial enterprises from the +rudest ages of mankind, the changes and transfers it had undergone +from one country to another, the causes and effects of these, as well +as of its general gradual increase, till, having the whole of Europe +under its influence, and aided by that knowledge and civilization +with which it had mainly contributed to bless Europe, it had gained +its maturity and vigour, and by its own expansive force pushed itself +into every part of the globe, in which there existed any thing to +attract it.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the eighteenth century, commerce had not +indeed assumed those features, or reached that form and dimensions by +which it was distinguished at the end of this century; but as its +dimensions gradually enlarge, it will be necessary to be less +particular and more condensed.</p> + +<p>Our plan indeed of being more minute in the early history of +geographical science and commercial enterprise, is founded on an +obvious as well as a just and important principle. In the infancy of +geography and commerce, every fact is important, as reflecting light +on the knowledge and state of mankind at that period, and as bearing +on and conducing to their future progress; whereas when geography and +commerce have been carried so far as to proceed in their course as it +were by their own internal impulse, derived from the motion they have +been acquiring for ages, their interest and importance is much +diminished from this cause, as well as from the minuteness of the +objects to which,--all the great ones having been previously occupied +by them,--they must necessarily be confined.</p> + +<p>Several circumstances co-operated to direct geographical +discovery, during the eighteenth century, principally towards the +north and north-east of Asia, and the north-west of America. The +tendency and interest of the Russian empire to stretch itself to the +east, and the hope still cherished by the more commercial and +maritime nations of Europe, that a passage to the East Indies might +be discovered, either by the north-east round Asia, or by the +north-west, in the direction of Hudson's Bay, were among the most +powerful of the causes which directed discovery towards those parts +of the globe to which we have just alluded.</p> + +<p>The extent of the Russian discoveries and conquests in the north +and north-east of Asia, added much to geographical knowledge, though +from the nature of the countries discovered and conquered, the +importance of this knowledge is comparatively trifling. About the +middle of the seventeenth century, they ascertained that the Frozen +Ocean washed and bounded the north of Asia: the first Russian ship +sailed down the river Lena to this sea in the year 1636. Three years +afterwards, by pushing their conquests from one river to another, and +from one rude and wandering tribe to another, they reached the +eastern shores of Asia, not far distant from the present site of +Ochotsk. Their conquests in this direction had occupied them nearly +sixty years; and in this time they had annexed to their empire more +than a fourth part of the globe, extending nearly eighty degrees in +length, and in the north reaching to the 160° of east longitude; +in breadth their conquests extended from the fiftieth to the +seventy-fifth degree of north latitude. This conquest was completed +by a Cossack; another Cossack, as Malte Brun observes, effected what +the most skilful and enterprising of subsequent navigators have in +vain attempted. Guided by the winds, and following the course of the +tides, the current and the ice, he doubled the extremity of Asia from +Kowyma to the river Anadyn. Kamschatcka, however, which is their +principal settlement in the east of Asia, was not discovered till the +year 1690; five years afterwards they reached it by sea from Ochotsk, +but for a long time it was thought to be an island. The Kurile +Islands were not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>The direction of discovery to this part of the world, as well as +the plan by which it might be most advantageously and successfully +executed, was given by Peter the Great, and affords one proof, that +his mind was capacious, though his manners, morals, and conduct, +might be those of a half-civilized tyrant. Peter did not live to +carry his plan into execution: it was not, however, abandoned or +neglected; for certainly the Russian government, much more than any +other European government, seems to pursue with a most steady and +almost hereditary predilection, all the objects which have once +occupied its attention and warmed its ambition. On his death, his +empress and her successors, particularly Anne and Elizabeth, +contributed every thing in their power to carry his plan into full +and complete execution. They went from Archangel to the Ob, from the +Ob to the Jenesei. From the Jenesei they reached the Lena, partly by +water and partly by land; from the Lena they went to the eastward as +far as the Judigirka: and from Ochotsk they went by the Kurile +Islands to Japan.</p> + +<p>One of the most celebrated men engaged in the Russian discoveries +in the early part of the eighteenth century was Behring: he was a +Dane by birth, but in the service of Catherine, the widow of Peter +the Great, who fixed upon him to carry into execution one of the most +favourite plans of her husband. During Peter's residence in Holland, +in the year 1717, the Dutch, who were still disposed to believe that +a passage might be discovered to the East Indies in the northern +parts of America, or Asia, urged the Emperor to send out an +expedition to determine this point. There was also another point, +less interesting indeed to commercial men, but on which geographers +had bestowed much labour, which it was stated to the Emperor might be +ascertained by the same expedition; this was, whether Asia and +America were united, or divided by a sea, towards their northern +extremities.</p> + +<p>When Peter the Great returned to Russia, he resolved to attempt +the solution of these problems; and with his own hand drew up a set +of instructions for the proposed voyage; according to these, the +vessels to be employed were to be built in Kamschatka; the unknown +coasts of Asia and America were to be explored, and an accurate +journal was to be kept.</p> + +<p>It is not known whether the Emperor was induced to plan this +expedition solely on the representations which were made to him in +Holland, or from a belief that the close vicinity of the two +continents of Asia and America had already been ascertained, or at +least rendered highly probable, by some of his own subjects. It is +certain that the Russians and the Cossacks in their service had +reached the great promontory of Asia opposite to America; and it is +said that the islands lying in Behring Straits, and even the +continent beyond them, were known to them by report.</p> + +<p>Peter, however, did not live to accomplish his design; and, as we +have already noticed, his widow Catherine fixed upon Behring to +conduct the expedition. After building a vessel in Kamschatka, he +sailed in 1728: his first object was to examine the coast of this +part of Asia. He was the first who ascertained Kamschatka to be a +peninsula, and he framed an accurate chart of it, which is still +regarded as one of the best extant. After reaching a Cape in north +latitude 67° 18', and being informed by the inhabitants that +beyond it the coast bended to the west, he resolved to alter his +course to the south. This was accordingly done, but he did not +discover the opposite coast of America; several circumstances were +noticed, however, which indicated that there was land to the east, at +no great distance, such as floating pine branches and other species +of plants, unknown on the coast of Asia; these were always driven +ashore when easterly winds prevailed. The inhabitants also informed +him, that, in very clear weather, they were able, from the top of +their highest mountains, to descry land to the east.</p> + +<p>Encouraged by these circumstances, Behring resolved to undertake a +second voyage from Kamschatka: in this voyage he was accompanied by a +Russian, named Tchirikoff. They steered east, and first sought for +land, which was said to have been discovered between the latitude of +40° and 50°; but finding none, they separated, and steering +further north, the Russian discovered the continent of America in +about 56-1/2°, and Behring 2° further north. On his return, +the latter was wrecked in the island which bears his name, where he +died.</p> + +<p>About four years after the death of this navigator, which happened +in 1741, the sea between Asia and America was visited by some Russian +merchants, who obtained permission from the government to make +discoveries, hunt and trade; the vessels employed for this purpose +were formed of a few boards fastened together with leathern thongs; +yet in these were discovered the Aleutian Islands. Soon afterwards +another group of islands were discovered; and then a third group, the +Black Fox Islands, which are near the American continent. It was not, +however, till the year 1760, that the Russians learnt that Ochotsk +was only separated from America by a narrow strait; and it is said +that in 1764, a Russian mercantile company sent out some vessels, +which passed through a strait to some inhabited islands in 64° +north latitude; these were supposed to belong to the continent of +America; but if a strait was discovered by these adventurers, there +must be an error in the latitude, as in 64° there is no opening +known to exist.</p> + +<p>It was reserved for an English navigator to ascertain the truth of +the report which the Russians had received from the inhabitants of +Ochotsk, that their country was separated from America only by a +narrow strait.</p> + +<p>This was done during the third and last voyage of Captain Cook; +the principal design of which was to ascertain the existence and +practicability of a passage between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, +either to the north-east or north-west. For this purpose he carefully +examined the north- west coast of America, beginning this examination +in the latitude of 44° 33' north. Previously to this voyage an +act of Parliament was passed, granting a reward of 20,000 <i>l</i>. to +any person who should discover any northern passage by sea between +the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in any parallel to the northward of +the 52° of northern latitude. This voyage of Cook began in 1778; +on the 9th of August, in that year, he ascertained the position and +latitude of the western extremity of America, and soon afterwards he +determined the width of that strait which divides the two continents. +He then steered to the north, and continuing up the strait till he +was in the latitude 70° 41', he found himself close to the edge +of the ice which "was as compact as a wall," and ten or twelve feet +high. He was of course obliged to return to the south, and in this +part of his voyage he observed, on the American side, a low point in +latitude 70° 29', to which he gave the name of Icy Cape. After +the death of Cook, Captain Clarke entered the strait on the Asiatic +side, and reached the latitude of 70° 33'; he afterwards got +sight of the land on the American side in latitude 69° 34'. Such +were the results of the last voyage of Captain Cook, respecting the +proximity of Asia and America, and the nature of the strait by which +they were divided.</p> + +<p>Although the Spaniards seemed to be most interested in whatever +concerned the west coast of America, yet they made no attempt to +explore it from the commencement of the seventeenth century till the +year 1774. In 1769, indeed, being alarmed at the evident design of +the Russians to settle in the north-west coast, they formed +establishments at St. Diego and Montory. In 1774 they traced the +American coast from latitude 53° 53' to latitude 55°, and it +is said discovered Nootka Sound. In the following year an expedition +was sent from St. Blas, which proceeded along the north-west coast, +and reached to latitude 57° 58'.</p> + +<p>The voyage of Cook roused the Russian government to further +exertions; and they accordingly fitted out an expedition to explore +the sea between Asia and America: the command of it was given to an +Englishman of the name of Billings, who had served as a petty officer +under Captain Cook. He was, however, by no means qualified for his +situation, and abandoned the enterprise in the latter end of July, +having proceeded only a few leagues beyond Cape Barrenoi: the whole +amount of the information procured during this voyage being confined +to a few of the Aleutian Islands, and some points in the coast of +America and Asia.</p> + +<p>A few years afterwards the Empress Catherine sent out a secret +expedition; the principal object of which was to ascertain the +situation of the islands between the two continents. Little is known +respecting this expedition, except that some observations were made +on Behring's Straits, which, however, were not passed. The distance +between the continents was estimated at forty-eight miles.</p> + +<p>About the same time, the great profits which it was expected would +be derived from the fur trade on the north-west coast of America, +induced several commercial vessels to visit it; and during their +voyages, nearly all the parts of it which had not been visited by +Cook, were examined as far as the inlet which was named after him, in +latitude 61° 15'. This extent of coast was found to consist of a +vast chain of islands; and the appearance and nature of it revived +the hope which Cook's last voyage had extinguished, that in this part +of the coast there might be a practicable passage from the Pacific to +the Atlantic ocean.</p> + +<p>This hope was again extinguished in the opinion of most people, by +the result of two of the most celebrated voyages which have been +performed since the death of Captain Cook: we allude to the voyages +of La Perouse, and of Vancouver: the former sailed with two frigates +from Brest on the 1st of August, 1785: the object of this voyage was +very comprehensive and important, being no less than to fill up +whatever had been left deficient or obscure by former navigators, and +to determine whatever was doubtful, so as to render the geography of +the globe as complete and minute as possible: he was directed to +supply the island in the South Seas with useful European vegetables. +At present we shall confine our notice of this voyage to what relates +to the more immediate object of this part of our work, the coast of +North-west America.</p> + +<p>The north-west coast of America was made by La Perouse, in +latitude sixty degrees north: from this latitude he carefully traced +and examined it to the Spanish settlement of Monterey.--an extent of +coast of which Cook had had only a transient and imperfect view. Of +this he constructed a chart, which at the time was justly regarded as +extremely accurate and complete, but was subsequently rendered much +more so by the survey of particular points and bays made by the +vessels engaged in the fur trade, and especially by that which was +constructed by Vancouver, from a close and careful examination of the +numerous channels with which this coast abounds, principally +performed in boats, and therefore descending into very minute +details.</p> + +<p>The accessions made by him to geography in other parts of the +globe, as well as his unfortunate fate, will be afterwards +related.</p> + +<p>In the year 1790, a dispute arose between Britain and Spain, +respecting Nootka Sound: on the adjustment of this dispute, the +British government determined to send out an officer to secure +possession of the settlement, and also to determine the question +respecting the existence of a navigable passage between the Atlantic +and Pacific Oceans. Captain Vancouver was selected for these +purposes: his instructions were, after accomplishing his mission at +Nootka Sound, to examine that part of the coast occupied by the chain +of islands, discovered by the vessels in the fur trade, "and to +ascertain, with the greatest exactitude, the nature and extent of +every communication by water which might seem to tend to facilitate +commercial relations between the north-west coast and the countries +on the east of the continent, inhabited by British subjects or +claimed by Great Britain;" and in particular to search for the strait +of John de Fuca, and to examine if Cook's River had not its source in +some of the lakes frequented by the Canadian traders, or by the +servants of the Hudson's Bay Company.</p> + +<p>He sailed from England with a sloop and brig on the 1st of April, +1791. He began his examination of the west coast of America, in +latitude 39° 27' north, and continued it as far as Nootka: +finding that the Spaniards raised difficulties to the restoration of +this settlement, he proceeded to carry into execution the other +objects of this voyage. During three summers, he surveyed the +north-west coast of America as far as Cook's River, with a diligence, +attention, and accuracy which could not have been surpassed. Every +opening which presented itself was explored, and never left till its +termination was determined; so that on a very careful and minute +inspection of every creek and inlet of a coast consisting almost +entirely of creeks and channels, formed by an innumerable multitude +of islands, he thought himself justified in pronouncing, that there +is no navigable passage between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, +unless there may be a possibility of sailing through the strait +between Asia and America, and navigating the Frozen Ocean. The +surveys which were made during this voyage, may justly be said to +have rendered perfect the geography of that part of the north-west +coast of America to which it extended, and indeed to have completed +the whole geography of this coast, which, from the multitude of its +creeks, inlets, islands, &c., presents formidable as well as +petty and troublesome difficulties in the way of its accurate and +complete survey. Captain Vancouver, however, was extremely fortunate +in the weather which attended him during the whole of the three +summers which he spent on this coast.</p> + +<p>Upwards of twenty years elapsed after the voyage of Vancouver, +before another attempt was made to find out a passage from the north +Pacific into the Atlantic Ocean. This attempt proceeded from Russia: +not however from the government, but an individual. Count Romanzoff, +a Russian nobleman, is well known for his liberal and judicious +encouragement of every thing which can promote useful knowledge, +especially in what relates to the improvement and benefit of his +country. His first design was to fit out an expedition to explore the +north-west passage by Hudson's Bay or Davis' Straits; but learning +that the British government were making preparations to attempt it by +that route, he changed his plan, and resolved to fit out an +expedition to attempt the discovery of a passage from the +eastward.</p> + +<p>A ship was accordingly built and equipped, and the command given +to Lieutenant Kotzebue. He sailed from Russia in the autumn of 1815, +and on the 19th of June in the following year he reached Kamschatka. +This he left on the 15th of July and on the 20th of that month, +Behring's Islands were seen to the northward of Cape Prince of Wales. +A tract of low land was ascertained to be an island about seven miles +long, and a mile across, in the widest part: beyond it was a deep +inlet running eastward into the continent. Lieutenant Kotzebue, +animated and encouraged by this appearance, proceeded in a northerly +direction, and found that the land continued low, and tended more to +the eastwards. On the 1st of August the entrance into a broad inlet +was discovered, into which the current ran very rapidly. The opening +of this inlet was known before, and is indeed laid down in the charts +attached to Marchand's Voyage round the World; but Kotzebue is +certainly the first person who explained it. As it was perfectly calm +when he reached this inlet, he resolved to go on shore, and examine +from some eminence the direction of the coast. "We landed," he +observes, "without difficulty, near a hill, which I immediately +ascended; from the summit I could no where perceive land in the +strait: the high mountains to the north either formed islands, or +were a coast by themselves; for that the two coasts could not be +connected together was evident, even from the very great difference +between this very low and that remarkably high land. It was my +intention to continue the survey of the coast in the boats, but a +number of baydares coming to us along the coast from the east, +withheld me." He afterwards had an interview with the Americans who +came in these baydares: he found that they prized tobacco very +highly, and that they received this and other European goods from the +natives of the opposite coast of Asia. It was probably the first time +in their lives that these Americans had seen Europeans. They were of +the middle size; robust and healthy; ugly and dirty; with small eyes, +and very high cheek bones: "they bore holes on each side of their +mouths, in which they wear morse bones, ornamented with blue glass +beads, which give them a most frightful appearance. Their dresses, +which are made of skins, are of the same cut as the Parka, in +Kamtschatka; only that there they reach to the feet, and here hardly +cover the knee: besides this, they wear pantaloons, and small half +boots of seal skins."</p> + +<p>The latitude of this place, or rather of the ship's anchorage, at +the time this survey was made, was 66° 42' 30", and the longitude +164° 12' 50". There were several circumstances which induced +Kotzebue to hope that he had at length found the channel which led to +the Atlantic: nothing was seen but sea to the eastward, and a strong +current ran to the north-east. Under these circumstances, thirteen +days were occupied in examining the shores of this opening; but no +outlet was discovered, except one to the south-east, which seemed to +communicate with Norton Sound, and a channel on the western side, +which of course could not be the one sought for. Kotzebue, however, +remarks, "I certainly hope that this sound may lead to important +discoveries next year; and though a north-east passage may not with +certainty be depended on, yet I believe I shall be able to penetrate +much farther to the east, as the land has very deep indentures." The +name of Kotzebue's Sound was given to this inlet. Next year he +returned to prosecute his discovery; but in consequence of an +accident which happened to the ship, and a very dangerous blow which +he received at the same time, he abandoned the attempt.</p> + +<p>That there is an opening, either by Kotzebue's Inlet or near to +it, to the Frozen Ocean, is probable, not only from the circumstances +we have mentioned of an opening and a strong current to the +north-east having been observed, but also from other circumstances +noticed in the account of this voyage. This current brings large +quantities of drift wood into Kotzebue's Sound: and in the breaking +up of the ice in the sea of Kamschatka, the icebergs and fields of +ice do not drift, as in the Atlantic, to the south, nor do they drive +to the Atlantic islands, but into the strait to the north. The +direction of the current was always north-east in Behring's Straits; +and it was so strong and rapid, as to carry the ship fifty miles in +twenty-four hours; that is, above two miles an hour. On the Asiatic +side of the strait it ran at the rate of three miles an hour; and +even with a fresh north wind, it ran equally strong from the south. +The inference drawn by Kotzebue is as follows: "The constant +north-east direction of the current in Behring's Straits, proves that +the water meets with no opposition, and consequently a passage must +exist, though perhaps not adapted to navigation. Observations have +long been made, that the current in Baffin's Bay runs to the south; +and thus no doubt can remain that the mass of water which flows into +Behring's Straits takes its course round America, and returns through +Baffin's Bay into the Ocean."</p> + +<p>In 1819 the Russian government sent out another expedition, whose +object was to trace the continent of America to the northward and +eastward. In July, 1820, they reached Behring's Straits, and were +supposed to have passed them in that year; in the winter they +returned to some of the Russian settlements on the coast of America: +what they have since done or discovered is not known.</p> + +<p>Such is the result of what has hitherto been discovered by sea, +with respect to the contiguity of Asia and America, the northern +parts of these continents, and the probability of a passage from the +Pacific to the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>Very lately some attempts have been made to reach the +north-eastern extremity of Asia by land. "In February, 1821, Baron +Wrangel, an officer of great merit and of considerable science, left +his head-quarters in the Nishney Kolyma, to settle by astronomical +observations the position of Shatatzkoi Noss, or the North-east Cape +of Asia, which he found to lie in latitude 70° 5' north, +considerably lower than it is usually placed in the maps. Having +crossed this point, he undertook the hazardous enterprize of crossing +the ice of the Polar Sea, on sledges drawn by dogs, in search of the +land said to have been discovered in 1762 to the northward of the +Kolyma, He travelled directly north eighty miles, without perceiving +any thing but a field of interminable ice, the surface of which had +now become so broken and uneven, as to prevent a further prosecution +of his journey. He had gone far enough, however, to ascertain that no +such land had ever been discovered." (Quarterly Review, No. LII. p. +342.)</p> + +<p>Another attempt, still more extraordinary and hazardous, has +lately been made to explore the north-east of Asia, and particularly +to determine whether the two continents of Asia and America do not +unite at the North-east Cape, or in some other point. This enterprize +was undertaken by Henry Dundas Cochrane, a commander in the British +navy; who received assurances from the Russian government that he +should not be molested on his journey; that he should receive any +assistance, protection, and facilities he should require; and that he +might join an expedition sent by the Russian government toward the +Pole, if he should meet it, and accompany it as far as he might be +inclined. He left Petersburgh in the beginning of the summer of 1820, +and in one hundred and twenty-three days reached the Baikal, having +traversed eight thousand versts of country, at the rate of +forty-three miles a day. He seems afterwards to have gone as far as +the Altai Mountains, on the frontiers of China. As, however, his +principal object was to explore the extreme north-east of Asia, he +went down the Lena, and reached Jakutzk on the 16th of October, 1820. +On the Kolyma, where he arrived on the 30th of December, in longitude +164°, he met the Russian polar expedition. From Jakutzk to this +place he travelled four hundred miles, without meeting a single human +being. At the fair held at Tchutski, whither he next directed his +steps, he received much information respecting the northeast of Asia. +He ascertained the existence of this cape; all doubts, he says, being +now solved, not by calculation, but by ocular demonstration. Its +latitude and longitude, are well ascertained: he places this cape +half a degree more to the northward than Baron Wrangel; but it is +doubtful whether he himself reached it, and if he did, whether he had +the means of fixing its latitude, or whether he depends entirely on +the information he received at the fair of Tchutski. His expressions, +in a letter to the President of the Royal Society, are, "No land is +considered to exist to the northward of it. The east side of the Noss +is composed of bold and perpendicular cliffs, while the west side +exhibits gradual declivities; the whole most sterile, but presenting +an awfully magnificent appearance." From the fair he seems to have +returned to Kolyma, and thence proceeded to Okotsk, a dangerous, +difficult, and fatiguing journey of three thousand versts, a great +part performed on foot, in seventy days. From this last place he +proceeded to Kamschatka, where it is supposed he was obliged to +terminate his investigations, in consequence of an order or +intimation from the Russian government not to proceed further.</p> + +<p>We must next direct our attention to what has been done since the +commencement of the eighteenth century, toward discovering a passage +in the north-east of America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific +Ocean.</p> + +<p>One of the conditions on which the Hudson's Bay Company obtained +their charter, in the year 1670, from Charles II., was, that they +should prosecute their discoveries; but so far from doing this, they +are accused, and with great appearance of reason, of not only +suffering their ardour for discovery to cool, but also of +endeavouring to conceal, as much as possible, the true situation and +nature of the coast about Hudson's Bay, partly in order to secure +more effectually their monopoly, and partly from the dread they +entertained, that if a passage to the Pacific were discovered by this +route, government would recal their charter, and grant it to the East +India Company. They were indeed roused, but very ineffectively, from +their torpor, by one of their captains intimating, that if they +refused to fulfill the terms of their charter, by making discoveries, +and extending their trade, he would himself apply to the crown. In +order to silence him, they sent him and another captain out in two +vessels, in 1719 or 1720; but they both perished, it is supposed, +near Marble Island, without effecting any thing.</p> + +<p>Two years afterwards they sent out another ship under the command +of a person, who, destitute of the requisite knowledge and +enterprize, was totally unfit for such an undertaking: the result was +such as might have been anticipated--nothing was effected. An +interval of twenty years passed over, and the company again sank into +apathy on the subject of a north-west passage, when the attention of +government was directed to the subject by the enthusiasm of an Irish +gentleman of the name of Dobbs. Having well considered what preceding +navigators had ascertained, and especially the remarkable +circumstance particularly noticed by Fox, that the farther he removed +from Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome the smaller was the height to which the +tide rose, and who thence inferred, that if a passage were +practicable, it must be in this direction, this gentleman applied to +the company to send out a vessel. Accordingly, a vessel was sent; but +all that is known of this voyage, and probably all that was done, +amounts merely to this, that the vessel reached 62° 30' north +latitude: here they saw a number of islands, and of white whales, and +ascertained that the tide rose ten or twelve feet, and came from the +north.</p> + +<p>Mr. Dobbs next applied to government, who at his request sent out +two vessels under Captain Middleton. But Middleton, who had been in +the service of the company for many voyages, returned after having +sailed up the Welcome to Wager's River, and looked into, or perhaps +sailed round, a bay, which he named Repulse Bay. Mr. Dobbs accused +him of having misrepresented or concealed his discoveries; and there +seems good ground for such an accusation, which indeed was confirmed +by the evidence of his officers, and not explicitly denied by +himself. Government was undoubtedly of opinion that the voyage of +Middleton had not determined the non-existence or impracticability of +a passage; for the next year an act of parliament was passed, +granting a reward of 20,000 <i>l</i>. to the person or persons who +should discover a northwest passage through Hudson's Straits to the +western and southern ocean of America.</p> + +<p>Stimulated by the hope of obtaining this large sum, a company was +formed, who raised 10,000 <i>l</i>., in shares of 100l., with which +they fitted out two ships; the Dobbs, commanded by Captain More; and +the California, by Captain Smith. They sailed from London on the 20th +of May, 1746. When they reached the American coast near Marble +Island, they made some observations on the tides, which they found +flowed from the north-east, and consequently followed the direction +of the coast; they likewise ascertained that the tide rose to the +height of ten feet. While they were in their winter quarters at Port +Jackson, they received little or no assistance from the servants of +the Hudson's Bay Company. On resuming their voyage, and reaching the +vicinity of Knight's Island, the needles of their compasses lost +their magnetic quality, which they did not recover till they were +kept warm. Proceeding northwards, they examined Wager's Strait; but +in consequence of a difference of opinion between the commanders, +they returned to England. The only points ascertained by this voyage +were, that Wager's Strait was a deep bay, or inlet, and that there +existed another inlet, which, however, they did not explore to the +termination, named by them Chesterfield's Inlet. The fresh buffalo's +flesh, which was sold to them by the Esquimaux, was probably the +flesh of the musk ox.</p> + +<p>After this voyage nothing was done, either by the Hudson's Bay +Company, government, or individuals, towards the exploring of a +passage in the north, till the year 1762, when the company, +coinciding with the opinion that was then prevalent, that +Chesterfield's Inlet ought to be examined, as affording a fair +prospect of a passage into the Pacific Ocean, sent a vessel to +determine this point. The report of the captain, on his return, was, +that he had sailed up the inlet in a westerly direction for more than +one hundred and fifty miles, till he found the water perfectly fresh; +but he acknowledged that he did not go farther, or reach the head of +it. As the result of this voyage was deemed unsatisfactory, still +leaving the point which it had been its object to determine doubtful, +the same captain was again sent out, in company with another ship, +with express directions to trace the inlet to its western limits, if +practicable. They ascertained that the fresh water, which had been +discovered in the former voyage, was that of a river, which was the +outlet of a lake, and this lake they explored; it was twenty-four +miles long, and six or seven broad; they likewise found a river +flowing into the lake from the west, but they were prevented from +exploring it to any great distance by falls, that intercepted the +progress of their boats. These particulars are detailed in Goldson's +Observations on the Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; +the voyages themselves were never published, do not seem to be +generally known, and have escaped the notice of Forster, the author +of the History of Voyages and Discoveries in the North. Forster is +likewise silent respecting an expedition that was equipped and sent +out by some gentlemen of Virginia in 1772, to attempt a north-west +passage. The captain on his return reported that he reached a large +bay in latitude 69° 11', which he supposed hitherto unknown; that +from the course of the tides, he thought it probable there might be a +passage through it, but that as this bay was seldom free from ice, +the passage could seldom if ever be practicable.</p> + +<p>In the year 1770 the Hudson's Bay Company, more alive to the +prospect of gain than to the interests of discovery and geographical +science, having received some information from the Indians that +copper might be obtained in great quantity far to the west of Fort +Prince of Wales, resolved to dispatch Mr. Hearne, belonging to that +fort, in search of it. This gentleman made four different excursions +for this purpose, but it was only during the fourth that he reached +to any great distance from the fort. In this excursion he penetrated +to what he conceived to be the mouth of the Coppermine River, in the +Frozen Ocean, about the latitude of 72° north. According to his +account, Chesterfield Inlet is not the north-west passage, and the +American continent stretches very considerably to the north-west of +Hudson's Bay. The whole extent of his journey was about thirteen +hundred miles. It was however doubted, whether what he deemed to be +the mouth of the Coppermine River was actually such. It is certainly +singular, that though he staid there for twenty-four hours, he did +not actually ascertain the height to which the tide rose, but judged +at that circumstance from the marks on the edge of the ice. There are +other points in the printed account, as well as discrepancies between +that and his MS., which tended to withhold implicit belief from his +assertion, that he had reached the Frozen Ocean.</p> + +<p>In the year 1789 the North-west Company having received +information from an Indian, that there was at no great distance from +Montreal, to the northward, a river which ran into the sea, Mr. +M'Kenzie, one of the partners of that company, resolved to ascertain +the truth of this report, by going himself on an expedition for that +purpose. He set out, attended by a few Indians; and after traversing +the desert and inhospitable country in which the posts of the company +are established, he reached a river which ran to the north. He +followed the course of this river till he arrived at what he +conceived to be the Frozen Ocean, were he saw some small whales among +the ice, and determined the rise and fall of the tide. This river was +called after him, Mackenzie's River, and to the island he gave the +name of Whale Island. This island is in latitude 69° 14'.</p> + +<p>In 1793 Mr. M'Kenzie again set out on an inland voyage of +geographical and commercial discovery, taking with him the requisite +astronomical instruments and a chronometer. His course he directed to +the west. After travelling one hundred miles on foot, he and his +companions embarked on a river, running westward, which conveyed them +to an inlet of the Pacific Ocean. Here he observed the rise and fall +of the tide, and saw porpoises and sea otters. The claim of the +discovery of the Frozen Ocean by a north-west route, to which Mr. +M'Kenzie lays claim, has been questioned, as well as Mr. Hearne's +claim. It has been remarked, that he might have ascertained beyond a +doubt whether he had actually reached the sea, by simply dipping his +finger into the water, and ascertaining whether it was salt or not. +The account he gives of the rise of the tides at the mouth of +Mackenzie River serves also to render it very doubtful whether he had +reached the ocean; this rise he does not estimate greater than +sixteen or eighteen inches. On the whole, we may conclude, that if +Mr. Hearne actually traced the Coppermine River to its entrance into +the sea, or Mr. M'Kenzie the river that bears his name, they have not +been sufficiently explicit in their proofs that such was really the +case.</p> + +<p>At the time when the British government sent out Captain Cooke on +his last voyage of discovery, Lieutenant Pickersgill was also sent +out by them, to examine the western parts of Baffin's Bay, but he +never entered the bay. Government were equally unfortunate in their +choice of Lieutenant Young, who was sent with the same object the +following year: he reached no farther than the seventy-second degree +of latitude; and instead of sailing along the western side of the +bay, which is generally free from ice, he clung to the eastern side, +to which the ice is always firmly attached. Indeed, if Dr. Douglas's +character of him was just, he was ill fitted for the enterprize on +which he was sent; for his talents, he observes, were more adapted to +contribute to the glory of a victory, as commander of a +line-of-battle ship, than to add to geographical discoveries by +encountering mountains of ice, and exploring unknown coasts.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the unsuccessful issue of all these attempts to +discover a north-west passage, the existence and practicability of it +still were cherished by many geographers, who had particularly +studied the subject. Indeed, nothing had resulted from any of the +numerous voyages to the Hudson's or Baffin's Bay, which in the +smallest degree rendered the existence of such a passage unlikely. +Among those scientific men who cherished the idea of such a passage +with the most enthusiasm and confidence, and who brought to the +investigation the most extensive and minute knowledge of all that had +been done, was Mr. Dalrymple, hydrographer to the Admiralty. "He had +long been of opinion, that not only Greenland, but all the land seen +by Baffin on the northern and eastern sides of the great bay bearing +his name, was composed of clusters of islands, and that a passage +through the <i>Fretum Davis</i>, round the northern extremity of +Cumberland Island, led directly to the North Sea, from the seventy to +the seventy-first degree of latitude." This opinion of Mr. Dalrymple +was grounded, in part at least, on the authority of an old globe, one +of the first constructed in Britain, preserved in the library of the +Inner Temple: this globe contains all the discoveries of our early +navigators. Davis refers to it; and Hackluyt, in his edition of 1589, +describes it "as a very large and most exact terrestrial globe, +collected and reformed according to the newest, secretest, and latest +discoveries, both Spanish, Portugal, and English, composed by Mr. +Emmeric Molyneaux, of Lambeth, a rare gentleman in his profession, +being therein for diverse years greatly supported by the purse and +liberality of the worshipful merchant Mr. William Sanderson."</p> + +<p>Mr. Dalrymple prevailed on the Hudson's Bay Company to send out +Mr. Duncan, a master in the navy, who had displayed considerable +talent on a voyage to Nootka Sound. This gentleman was very sanguine +of success, and very zealous in the cause in which he was employed. +But this attempt also was unsuccessful: Mr. Duncan, after a +considerable lapse of time, reaching no farther than Chesterfield +Inlet.</p> + +<p>The attention of scientific men, and of the public at large, was +called again to this important problem in the geography of the +northern seas, by some elaborate and well informed articles in the +Quarterly Review, which are generally supposed to be written by Mr. +Barrow, the under secretary of the Admiralty, who also published an +abstract of voyages to the Northern Ocean.</p> + +<p>The British government, influenced by a very laudable love of +science, and perhaps regarding the discovery of a north-west passage +as of the same importance to commerce as the reviewer evidently did, +resolved to send an expedition for the purpose of attempting the +discovery. Accordingly, on the 8th of April 1818, two ships, the +Isabella and Alexander, well fitted by their construction, as well as +strengthened and prepared in every possible manner for such a voyage, +sailed from the Thames. Captain Ross had the principal command. It is +not our design here to follow them during their voyage to their +destination: suffice it to say, that on the 18th of August, exactly +four months after they sailed from the Thames, the ships passed Cape +Dudley Digges, the latitude of which they found to agree nearly with +that assigned to it by Baffin, thus affording another proof of the +accuracy of that old navigator, whose alleged discoveries have been +latterly attempted to be wrested from him, or rather been utterly +denied. The same day they passed an inlet, to which Baffin had given +the name of Wolstenholme Sound. Captain Ross, in his account of his +voyage, says it was completely blocked up with ice; but in the view +taken of it, and published by him, there is a deep and wide opening, +completely free from ice. In fact, on this occasion, as well as +others of more consequence, to which we shall presently advert, +Captain Ross, unfortunately for the accomplishment of the object on +which he was sent, contented himself with conjecture where proof was +accessible; for all he remarks respecting this sound is, that it +seemed to be eighteen or twenty leagues in depth, and the land on the +east side appeared to be habitable. When it is considered that in +these high and foggy latitudes much deception of sight takes place, +it ought to be the absolute and undeviating rule of the navigator to +explore so far, and to examine so carefully and closely, that he may +be certain, at least, that his sight does not deceive him. The same +negligence attended the examination of Whale Sound: all the notice of +it is, that they could not approach it in a direct line, on account +of ice; it was, in fact, never approached nearer than twenty leagues. +Captain Ross does not seem to have been fully sensible of the nature +of the object on which he was sent out. If there existed a passage at +all, it must be in a strait, sound, or some other opening of the sea: +it could exist no where else. Every such opening, which exhibited the +least appearance, or the smallest symptoms of stretching far, +especially if it stretched in the proper direction, ought to have +been practically and closely examined, not merely viewed at a +distance in a foggy atmosphere. As for the impediments, they were +what were to be expected, what the ships were sent out to meet and +overcome; and till persevering and even highly hazardous efforts had +proved that they could not be overcome, they ought not to have been +suffered to weigh the least with the captain or his men, and +especially not with the former.</p> + +<p>But to proceed: about midnight on the 19th of August, the sound +described by Baffin to be the largest of all the sounds he +discovered, and called by him Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, was +distinctly seen; and the two capes which formed its entrance were +called by Captain Ross after the two ships Isabella and Alexander. "I +considered," he informs us, "the bottom of this sound to be about +eighteen leagues distant, but its entrance was completely blocked up +by ice." Here again, a sound which seemed to promise fair to lead +them into the great Polar Sea was left undiscovered, and in fact +unapproached; for at the distance of eighteen leagues, in that +deceptive climate, nothing could be really known of its real state or +practicability. Had Captain Ross made the attempt; had he spent but a +couple of days, and actually encountered serious obstacles, even +though he had not experienced that those obstacles were +insurmountable, he would have had some excuse; but it is impossible +not to censure him for approaching no nearer than eighteen leagues to +a sound such as this, and pronouncing at this distance that the ice +blocked it up completely. His reasoning to support his belief that +this sound afforded no passage, and to defend his not having explored +it, is weak and inconclusive; but we shall not examine it, because +the commander to whom such an expedition is entrusted, should never +reason, where he can prove by actual observation and experiment. It +is unsafe in him to reason, because he will most assuredly be tempted +to make his line of conduct bend to his hypothesis and reasoning.</p> + +<p>Captain Ross returned down the western side of Baffin's Bay. On +the 21st an opening was seen, which answered to the description of +Alderman Jones Sound, given by Baffin; but here again the ice and fog +prevented them from approaching near; as if the fog might not have +cleared up in a day or two, and the ice might not either have been +drifted off in as short a space, or, if it could not, have been +passed by the crew, so far, at least, as to have gained a nearer and +better view of this sound.</p> + +<p>Baffin describes this sound as a large inlet, and adds, that the +coast tended to the southward, and had the appearance of a bay. This +is confirmed by Captain Ross; for he informs us that the land was +observed to take a southerly direction. On the 28th of August the sea +became more clear of ice, and no bottom was found with three hundred +fathoms of line: in the afternoon of that day they succeeded in +getting completely clear of the ice, and once more found themselves +in the open sea. Baffin and Davis both mention that the northern +parts of Baffin's Bay were clear of ice when they were there, so that +it is probably generally the case. On the 29th a wide opening was +descried in the land; this they entered on the following day. "On +each side was a chain of high mountains; and in the space between, W. +S.W., there appeared a yellow sky, but no land was seen, nor was +there any ice on the water, except a few icebergs; the opening +therefore took the appearance of a channel, the entrance of which was +judged to be forty-five miles; the land on the north side lying in an +E.N.E. and W.S.W. direction, and the south side nearly east and +west." "As the evening closed, the wind died away, the weather became +mild and warm, the water much smoother, and the atmosphere clear and +serene."</p> + +<p>Even those who are little acquainted with the symptoms which in +this high latitude indicate an open sea, must be struck with the wide +difference between these circumstances and those which had met the +navigators in almost every other part of their voyage, since they had +approached the place where a passage might possibly exist and be +found. Yet, even at this time and place, when expectation must have +been high, and not without good reason, and when we are expressly +informed by Captain Ross that much interest was excited by the +appearance of the sound, the attempt to ascertain, by close and +accurate investigation, whether this sound was really closed at its +extremity, or led into another sea, was given up, after having sailed +into it during the night, and till three o'clock the following day. +It is unnecessary here to examine the reasons which induced Captain +Ross to leave this sound without putting the question of its nature +and termination beyond a doubt, by an accurate and close survey. He +says, that at three o'clock he distinctly saw the land round the +bottom of the bay, forming a connected chain of mountains with those +which extended along the north and south sides. No person seems to +have been on deck when this land was seen by the captain, and orders +in consequence given to put the ships about, except Mr. Lewis, the +master, and another. So that in this latitude, where the sight at all +times is mocked with fogs and other circumstances which mislead it, +and where, therefore, it is absolutely necessary that as many eyes as +possible should be employed, that these should get as near the object +as possible, that it should be viewed for a considerable length of +time, and under as many aspects, and from as many points as +possible--not a subordinate or incidental design of the voyage, but +that for which it was expressly made, was abandoned, and on the sole +responsibility of the captain and two other persons.</p> + +<p>It is evident, too, that the entrance to many inland seas seems, +when viewed from a distance, to be blocked up by connected land. It +is well observed by the reviewer, whom we have already quoted, that +there is not a reach in the Thames that to the eye does not appear to +terminate the river; and in many of them (in the Hope, for instance) +it is utterly impossible to form a conjecture, at the distance of +only two or three miles, what part of the land is intersected by the +stream.</p> + +<p>Although, however, this voyage was abandoned when it ought not to +have been, and consequently failed in its peculiar and important +object, yet some access to geographical knowledge was gained by it. +The existence of Baffin's Bay is confirmed, though its width and form +are different from those which were previously assigned it in the +maps; and thus this enterprising and deserving navigator has at +length justice done to him.</p> + +<p>Other branches of science were benefited and extended by this +voyage, however unsuccessful it proved in its grand and leading +object; and some of the accessions were of a very interesting nature. +We allude principally to the observations made on the swinging of the +pendulum,--the variation and dip of the magnetic needle,--especially +by the influence of the iron in and about the ship,--and on the +temperature of the sea at different depths.</p> + +<p>Soon after the return of this expedition, an order in council was +issued, which empowered and authorized the Board of Longitude to +adopt a graduated scale of rewards, proportioned to the progress of +discovery made to the westward in these high northern latitudes, from +Hudson's or Baffin's Bay, in the direction of the Pacific Ocean. The +first point of this graduated scale is the meridian of the Coppermine +River of Hearne, and whatever ship reaches this is entitled to a +reward of 5000l. Government were so convinced that Captain Ross's +voyage had increased the probability of a north-west passage, that +they determined to lose no time in making another attempt to discover +it; and in order to afford every chance of success to this second +attempt, they also determined, not only to send out a maritime +expedition, to follow out the route which Captain Ross had so +unaccountably and provokingly abandoned, but also to send out a land +expedition, to co-operate in the same grand object.</p> + +<p>The latter, under the command and direction of Lieutenant +Franklin, was ordered to proceed from Fort York, on the shores of +Hudson's Bay, to the mouth of the Coppermine River; and from thence +along the shores of the Polar Sea, either to the east or to the +north, as circumstances might determine: they were expressly to have +in view the determination of the question regarding the position of +the northeastern extremity of the continent of America. As the route +of this land expedition lay for a great part of it through those +districts within which the Hudson's Bay Company were accustomed to +travel and trade, their co-operation and assistance was requested and +obtained. The exact results of this land expedition are not yet fully +and clearly known; but it is generally understood, that after having +undergone infinite hardships and sufferings, they have been enabled +to confirm Hearne and Mackenzie's discoveries or conjectures +respecting the Coppermine River, and to ascertain other points +connected with the geography and natural history of these remote and +almost inaccessible regions, though the most important and leading +points of the expedition have not been settled. [6]</p> + +<blockquote>[6] Since this part of our work was written, the +narrative of Lieutenant Franklin has been published: from this it +appears, that he was engaged in this arduous undertaking during the +years 1819, 1820, 1821, and 1822; that the route he followed to the +Coppermine River was to the east o the routes of M'Kenzie and Hearne; +that he reached the river three hundred and thirty-four miles north +of Fort Enterprize; and the Polar Sea in lat. 67° 47' 50"; and in +longitude 115° 36' 49" west; that he sailed five hundred and +fifty miles along its shores to the eastward, and then returned to +Port Enterprize.</blockquote> + +<p>In consequence of Captain Ross having penetrated into Baffin's +Bay, an object only accomplished once before by Baffin himself, and +which for two hundred years had been frequently again fruitlessly +attempted, the Greenland ships which left England during the season +immediately following Captain Ross's return, were induced, in order +to reach a fresh and unfished sea, to pursue the course that he had +opened for them. The circumstance that fourteen of them were wrecked, +proves, unless the season had been uncommonly tempestuous, that +Captain Ross must have conducted his expedition with considerable +care and skill, notwithstanding he missed an excellent opportunity of +either discovering a north-west passage, or of adding one more +opening to those which were proved not to contain it.</p> + +<p>The second sea expedition, to which we have already alluded, was +under the direction of Captain Parry, who had sailed along with +Captain Ross in the first expedition; he was therefore possessed of +much knowledge and experience, which would prove essentially useful +and directly applicable to the object he was about to undertake. Two +ships were fitted out with all necessary preparations for such a +voyage, the Hecla bomb, and Griper gun-brig, and they sailed from the +Thames early in the month of May 1819. Of the high importance and +value to navigators of the chronometer, Captain Parry had a striking +and undoubted proof in the early part of his voyage. On the 24th of +May he saw a small solitary crag, called Rockall, not far from the +Orkney Islands. "There is," he observes, in this part of his journal, +"no more striking proof of the infinite value of chronometers at sea, +than the certainty with which a ship may sail directly for a single +rock, like this, rising like a speck out of the ocean, and at the +distance of forty-seven leagues from any other land."</p> + +<p>About the middle of July he reached the latitude of 73°, after +having made many fruitless attempts to cross the ice that fills the +central portion of Davis's Strait and Baffin's Bay. the instructions +of Captain Parry particularly pointed out the sound which Captain +Ross had left unexplored, and which there could be no doubt was the +Sir James Lancaster's Sound of Baffin, to be most carefully and +minutely examined, as the one by which it was most probable a +north-west passage might be effected, or which, at least, even if not +navigable, on account of the ice, would connect the Pacific and +Atlantic Oceans. On the seventh day after entering this sound, he +succeeded in reaching open water; but this was not reached without +infinite difficulty and labour, as the breadth of the barrier of ice +was found to be eighty miles; through this they penetrated by the aid +of sailing, tracking, heaving by the capstan, and sawing, being able +to advance, even with the assistance of all the methods, only at the +rate of half a mile an hour, or twelve miles a day.</p> + +<p>For some days after this, their patience was tried, and nearly +exhausted, by contrary winds, but on the 3d of August a favourable +and fresh breeze arose from the eastward. Advantage was immediately +taken of it. "We all felt," says Captain Parry, "it was that point of +the voyage which was to determine the success or failure of the +expedition, according as one or other of the opposite opinions +respecting the termination of the sound should be corroborated. It is +more easy to imagine than to describe (he continues) the almost +breathless anxiety which was now visible in every countenance, while, +as the breeze increased to a fresh gale, we ran quickly up the sound. +The masts' heads were crowded by the officers and men during the +whole afternoon; and an unconcerned observer (if any could have been +unconcerned on such an occasion) would have been amused by the +eagerness with which the various reports from the crow's-nest were +received, all, however, hitherto favourable to our most sanguine +hopes."</p> + +<p>The weather, most fortunately at this interesting and important +period, continued remarkably clear; and the ships having reached the +longitude of 83° 12', the two shores of the sound were +ascertained to be still at least fifty miles asunder, and what was +still more encouraging, no land was discerned to the westward. In +fact, there seemed no obstacle; none of those mountains with which, +according to Captain Ross, the passage of the sound was eternally +blocked up, nor even any ice, an object of a less serious and +permanent nature. Other circumstances were also encouraging; the +whole surface of the sea was completely free from ice, no land was +seen in the direction of their course, and no bottom could be reached +with one hundred and seventy fathoms of line, so that "we began," +observes Captain Parry, "to flatter ourselves that we had fairly +entered the Polar Sea, and some of the most sanguine among us had +even calculated the bearing and distance of Icy Cape, as a matter of +no very difficult or improbable accomplishment. This pleasing +prospect was rendered the more flattering, by the sea having, as we +thought, regained the usual oceanic colour, and by a long swell which +was rolling in from the southward and eastward." The first +circumstance that threw a damp over their sanguine expectations, was +the discovery of land a-head; they were however renewed by +ascertaining that this was only a small island: but though the +insurmountable obstacle of a land termination of the sound was thus +removed, another appeared in its place; as they perceived that a floe +of ice was stretched from the island to the northern shore. On the +southern shore, however, a large inlet was discovered, ten leagues +broad at its entrance, and as no land could be seen in the line of +its direction, hopes were excited that it might lead to a passage +into the Polar Sea, freer from ice than the one above described. At +this period of the voyage a singular circumstance was remarked: +during their passage down Sir James Lancaster's Sound, the compass +would scarcely traverse, and the ship's iron evidently had great +influence over it: both these phaenomena became more apparent and +powerful, in proportion as their westerly course encreased. When they +were arrived in the latitude of 73°, the directive power of the +needle became so weak, that it was completely overcome by the +attraction of the iron in the ship, so that the needle might now be +said to point to the north pole of the ship. And by an experiment it +was found, that a needle suspended by a thread, the movements of +which were of course scarcely affected by any friction, always +pointed to the head of the ship, in whatever direction it might +be.</p> + +<p>To this inlet, which Captain Parry was now sailing down, he gave +the name of the Prince Regent. The prospect was still very +flattering: the width increased as they proceeded, and the land +inclined more and more to the south-westward. But their expectations +were again destroyed: a floe of ice stretched to the southward, +beyond which no sea was to be descried. Captain Parry therefore +resolved to return to the wide westerly passage which he had quitted. +On the 22d of August, being in longitude 92-1/4°, they opened two +fine channels, the one named after the Duke of Wellington; this was +eight leagues in width, and neither land nor ice could be seen from +the mast head though the weather was extremely clear; this channel +tended to the N.N.W. The other stretched nearly west: and though it +was not so open, yet as it was more directly in the course which it +was their object to pursue, it was preferred by Captain Parry. By the +25th they had reached 99° west longitude, about 20 degrees beyond +Lancaster Sound. On the 30th they made the S.E. point of Melville +Island. By the 4th of September they had passed the meridian of +110° west longitude, in latitude 74° 44' 20": this entitled +them to the first sum in the scale of rewards granted by parliament, +namely 5000 <i>l</i>; as at this part of their course they were +opposite a point of land lying in the S.E. of Melville Island; this +point was called Bounty Cape. On the 6th of September they anchored, +for the first time since they had left England, in a bay, called +after the two ships.</p> + +<p>During the remainder of the season of 1819, which however +contained only twenty more days, in which any thing could be done, +Captain Parry prosecuted with much perseverance, and in the midst of +infinite difficulties and obstacles, a plan which had suggested +itself to him some time before; this was to conduct the ships close +to the shore, within the main body of the ice; but their progress was +so extremely slow, that, during the remainder of the year they did +not advance more than forty miles. On the 21st Captain Parry +abandoned the undertaking, and returned to the bay which was called +after the two ships. Here they lay ten months; and the arrangements +made by Captain Parry for the safety of the vessels, and for the +health, comfort, and even the amusement of the crew, were planned and +effected with such admirable good sense, that listlessness and +fatigue were strangers, even among sailors, a class of men who, above +all others, it would have been apprehended, would have soon wearied +of such a monotonous life. The commencement of winter was justly +dated from the 14th of September, when the thermometer suddenly fell +to 9°. On the 4th of November the sun descended below the +horizon, and did not appear again till the 8th of February. A little +before and after what in other places is called the shortest day, but +which to them was the middle of their long night, there was as much +light as enabled them to read small print, when held towards the +south, and to walk comfortably for two hours. Excessive cold, as +indicated by the thermometer, took place in January: it then sunk +from 30° to 40° below Zero: on the 11th of this month it was +at 49°; yet no disease, or even pain or inconvenience was felt in +consequence of this most excessive cold, provided the proper +precautions were used; nor did any complaint arise from the extreme +and rapid change of temperature to which they were exposed, when, as +was often the case, they passed from the cabins, which were kept +heated up to 60° or 70°, to the open air, though the change +in one minute was in several instances 120° of temperature.</p> + +<p>Cold, however, as January was, yet the following month, though, as +we have already observed, it again exhibited the sun to them, was +much colder; on the 15th of February the thermometer fell to 55° +below Zero, and remained for fifteen hours not higher than 54°. +Within the next fifteen hours it gradually rose to 34°. But +though the sun re-appeared early in February, they had still a long +imprisonment to endure; and Captain Parry did not consider it safe to +leave their winter quarters till the 1st of August, when they again +sailed to the westward: their mode of proceeding was the same as that +which they had adopted the preceding year, viz. crawling along the +shore, within the fast ice; in this manner they got to the west end +of Melville Island. But all their efforts to proceed further were of +no avail. Captain Parry was now convinced, that somewhere to the +south-west of this there must be an immoveable obstacle, which +prevented the ice dispersing in that direction, as it had been found +to do in every other part of the voyage.</p> + +<p>At last, on the 16th of August, further attempts were given up, +and Captain Parry determined to return to the eastward, along the +edge of the ice, in order that he might push to the southward if he +could find an opening. Such an opening, however, could not be found; +but by coasting southward, along the west side of Baffin's Bay, +Captain Parry convinced himself that there are other passages into +Prince Regent's Inlet, besides that by Lancaster Sound. The farthest +point in the Polar sea reached in this voyage was latitude 71° +26' 23", and longitude 113° 46' 43:5". On the 26th of September +they took a final leave of the ice, and about the middle of November +they arrived in the Thames.</p> + +<p>In every point of view this voyage was extremely creditable to +Captain Parry; it is not surpassed by any for the admirable manner in +which it was conducted, for the presence of mind, perseverance, and +skill of all the arrangements and operations. It has also +considerably benefited all those branches of science to which the +observations and experiments of Captain Ross and his companions were +directed, and to which we have already adverted. Perhaps in no one +point has it been of more use to mariners, than in proving the minute +accuracy of going to which chronometers have been brought.</p> + +<p>As this expedition very naturally encouraged the hope that a +north-west passage existed, and might be discovered and effected, and +as Captain Parry was decidedly of this opinion, government very +properly resolved to send him out again; he accordingly sailed in the +spring of the year following that of his return. He recommended that +the attempt should be made in a more southern latitude, and close +along the northern coast of America, as in that direction a better +climate might be expected, and a longer season by at least six weeks; +and this recommendation, it is supposed, had its weight with the +admiralty in the instructions and discretionary powers which they +gave him.</p> + +<p>We must now direct our attention to the southern polar regions. +Geographers and philosophers supposed that in this portion of the +globe there must be some continent or very large island, which would +serve, as it were, to counterbalance the immense tracts of land +which, to the northward, stretched not only as near the pole, as +navigation had been able to proceed, but also west and east, the +whole breadth of Europe and Asia.</p> + +<p>The second voyage of Captain Cook was planned and undertaken for +the express purpose of solving the question respecting the Terra +Australis which occupied the older maps. He sailed on this voyage in +July 1772, having under his command two ships, particularly well +adapted and fitted up for such a service, the Resolution and +Adventure; he was accompanied by a select band of officers, most of +whom were not only skilful and experienced navigators, but also +scientific astronomers and geographers; there were also two professed +astronomers, two gentlemen who were well skilled in every branch of +natural history, and a landscape painter.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of December, Captain Cook entered the loose and +floating ice, in latitude 62° 10'; on the 21st he met with +icebergs in latitude 67°; and by the end of the month he returned +to latitude 58°. On the 26th of January in the following year, he +again penetrated within the Antarctic circle, and on the 30th, had +got as far as latitude 71° 16'. This was the utmost point to +which he was able to penetrate; and he was so fully persuaded, not +only of the impracticability of being able to sail further to the +south, but also of remaining in that latitude, that he returned to +the northward the very same day, deeming it, as he expresses it, a +dangerous and rash enterprize to struggle with fields of ice. "I," he +continues, "who had ambition not only to go farther than any one +before, but as far as it was possible for man to go, was not sorry to +meet with this interruption." The existence of a southern continent +was thus considered by Captain Cook, and all other geographers, as +disproved to an almost absolute certainty.</p> + +<p>In this voyage Captain Cook also obtained a correct knowledge of +the land discovered by La Roche in 1675, and gave to it the name of +New Georgia; he discovered, too, Sandwich land, which was then +supposed to be the nearest land to the South Pole; he ascertained the +extent of the Archipelago, of the New Hebrides, which had been +originally seen by Quiros, and superficially examined by +Bougainville. New Caledonia, and many of the islands among the groupe +to which he gave the name of the Friendly Islands, were also among +the fruits of this voyage.</p> + +<p>The French government had sent out an expedition, about the same +time that Captain Cook sailed in quest of a southern continent, on a +similar pursuit. A French navigator some time before had stated that +he had discovered land, having been driven far to the south, off the +Cape of Good Hope. This supposed land the expedition alluded to was +also to look after. The person selected to conduct it, M. De +Kerguelen, does not seem to have been well chosen or qualified for +such an enterprize; for after having discovered land, situated in +49° south latitude, and 69° east longitude from Greenwich, he +returned rather precipitately to France, without having explored this +land, concluding very rashly, and without any sufficient grounds, +that the Terra Australis was at length ascertained to exist, and its +exact situation determined. He was received and treated in France as +a second Columbus: but as the French court seems to have had some +doubts on the extent and merit of his alleged discoveries, +notwithstanding the reception which it gave him, he was sent out a +second time, with two ships of war of 64 and 32 guns each, and 700 +men, to complete his discovery and take possession of this new +continent. But he soon ascertained, what indeed he might and ought to +have ascertained in his first voyage, that what he deemed and +represented to be the Terra Australis was only a dreary and +inhospitable island, of small size, so very barren and useless, that +it produces no tree or even shrub of any kind, and very little grass. +On such an island, in such a part of the globe, no inhabitants could +be looked for; but it is even almost entirely destitute of animals; +and the surrounding sea is represented as not more productive than +the land. The French navigator was unable to find safe anchorage in +this island, though it abounded in harbours; to this miserable spot +he gave his own name. It was afterwards visited by Captain Cook, in +his third voyage, and also by Peyrouse.</p> + +<p>As the southern ocean, in as high a latitude as the climate and +the ice rendered accessible and safe, had been as it were swept +carefully, extensively, and minutely, by Captain Cook, and some +subsequent navigators, without discovering land of any considerable +extent, it was naturally supposed that no southern continent or even +large island existed.</p> + +<p>In the year 1819, however, this disbelief was partly destroyed by +an unexpected and singular discovery. Mr. Smith, who commanded a +vessel trading between Rio Plato and Chili, was naturally desirous to +shorten, as much as possible, his passage round Cape Horn. With this +object in view, he ran to a higher latitude than is usual in such +voyages; and in latitude 62° 30' and in longitude 60° west, +he discovered land. This was in his voyage out to Chili; but as he +could not then spare the time necessary to explore this land, he +resolved to follow the same course on his return voyage, and +ascertain its extent, nature, &c. This he accordingly did; and +likewise on a subsequent voyage. "He ran in a westward direction +along the coasts, either of a continent or numerous islands, for 200 +or 300 miles, forming large bays, and abounding with the spermaceti +whale, seals, &c. He took numerous soundings and bearings, +draughts and charts of the coast." He also landed and took possession +of the country in the name of his sovereign, and called his +acquisition New South Shetland. He represents the climate as +temperate, the coast mountainous, apparently uninhabited, but not +destitute of vegetation, as he observed firs and pines in many +places; and on the whole, the country appeared to him very much like +the coast of Norway.</p> + +<p>It may seem extraordinary that land of this extent should not have +been discovered by any former navigator; but the surprise will cease, +when we reflect that though Captain Cook penetrated much further to +the south than the latitude of New South Shetland, yet his meridian +was 45 degrees farther to the west, and that he thus left a large +expanse of sea unexplored, on the parallel of 62° between that +and Sandwich land, the longitude of which is 22° west. He indeed +likewise reached 67° south latitude: but this was in longitude +from 137° to 147° west. Now the longitude of New South +Shetland being 60° west, it is evident that Captain Cook in his +first attempt, left unexplored the whole extent of longitude from +28°, the longitude of Sandwich land, to 60°, the longitude of +New South Shetland; and in his second attempt, he was still further +from the position of this new discovered land. Peyrouse reached no +higher than 60° 30' latitude, and Vancouver only to 55°. Thus +we clearly see that this land lay out of the track, not only of those +navigators, whose object being to get into the Pacific by the course +best known, pass through the Straits of Magellan and Le Maire, or +keep as near Cape Horn as possible, but also of those who were sent +out expressly to search for land in a high southern latitude.</p> + +<p>The intelligence of the discovery of New South Shetland, and that +its coasts abounded in Spermaceti whales, and in seals, quickly and +powerfully roused the commercial enterprise both of the British and +the Americans. In the course of a short time, numerous ships of both +these nations sailed to its coasts; but from their observations and +experience, as well as from a survey of it which was undertaken by +the orders of one of His Majesty's naval officers, commanding on the +southwest coast of America, it was soon ascertained that it was a +most dangerous land to approach and to continue near. Its sterility +and bleak and forbidding appearance, from all the accounts published +respecting it, are scarcely equalled, certainly are not surpassed, in +the most inhospitable countries near the North Pole; while ships are +suddenly exposed to most violent storms, from which there is little +chance of escaping, and in which, during one of the seal-catching +seasons, a great number were lost.</p> + +<p>There are, however, counterbalancing advantages: the seals were, +at least during the first seasons, uncommonly numerous, and taken +with very little trouble or difficulty, so that a ship could obtain a +full cargo in a very short time; but, in consequence of a very great +number of vessels which frequented the coasts for the purpose of +taking these animals, they became soon less numerous, and were +captured with less ease. The skins of these seals fetched a very high +price in the China market; the Chinese, especially in the more +northern parts of that vast and populous empire, use these skins for +various articles of their dress; and the seal skins of New South +Shetland being much finer and softer than those which were obtained +in any other part of the world, bore a proportionably higher price in +the China market. But the English could not compete with the +Americans in this lucrative trade; for in consequence of the charter +of the East India Company, the English ships were obliged to bring +their cargoes of skins to England; here they were sold, and as none +but the East India Company could export them to China, and +consequently none except the Company would purchase; they in fact had +the monopoly of them, and obtained them at their own price. The +English indeed might take them directly from New South Shetland to +Calcutta, whence they might be exported in country ships to China; +but even in this case, which was not likely to happen, as few +vessels, after having been employed in catching seals off such a +boisterous coast, were prepared or able to undertake a voyage to +Calcutta; much unnecessary expence was incurred, additional risk +undergone, and time consumed. To these disadvantages in the sale of +their seal skins, the Americans were not exposed; they brought them +into some of their own ports, and thence shipped them directly and +immediately to China.</p> + +<p>The last navigator whom we noticed as having added to our +knowledge respecting New Holland, was Dampier, who in this portion of +the globe, not only discovered the Strait that separates New Guinea +from New Britain, but also surveyed the north-west coast of New +Holland; and, contrary to the Dutch charts, laid down De Witt's land +as a cluster of islands, and gave it as his opinion that the northern +part of New Holland was separated from the lands to the southward by +a strait. Scarcely any thing was added to the geography of this +portion of the globe, between the last voyage of Dampier, and the +first voyage of Cook. One of the principal objects of this voyage of +our celebrated navigator, was to examine the coast of New Holland; +and he performed this object most completely, so far as the east +coast was concerned, from the 38th degree of latitude to its northern +extremity; he also proved that it was separated from New Guinea, by +passing through the channel, which he called after his ship, +Endeavour Strait. In the year 1791, Captain Vancouver explored 110 +leagues of the south-west coast, where he discovered King George's +Sound, and some clusters of small islands. In the same year two +vessels were dispatched from France in search of La Peyrouse; in +April 1792, they made several observations on Van Dieman's Land, the +south cape of which they thought was separated from the main land; +they also discovered a great harbour. In the subsequent year 1793, +they again made the coast of New Holland, near Lewin's Land, and they +ascertained that the first discoveries had been extremely accurate in +the latitudes which they had assigned to this part of it.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the British forming a settlement at Botany Bay, +much additional information was gained, not only regarding the +interior of New Holland, in the vicinity of the settlement, but also +regarding part of its coast: the most interesting and important +discovery relative to the latter was made towards the end of the year +1797, by Mr. Bass, surgeon of His Majesty's ship Reliance. He made an +excursion in an open boat to the southward of Port Jackson, as far as +40 degrees of south latitude, and visited every opening in the coast +in the course of his voyage: he observed sufficient to induce him to +believe that Van Dieman's Land was no part of New Holland. Soon after +the return of Mr. Bass, the governor of the English colony sent out +him and Captain Flinders, then employed as a lieutenant of one of His +Majesty's ships on the New South Wales station, with a view to +ascertain whether Mr. Bass's belief of the separation of Van Dieman's +Land was well founded. They embarked on board a small-decked boat of +25 tons, built of the fir of Norfolk island. In three months they +returned to Port Jackson, after having circumnavigated Van Dieman's +Land, and completed the survey of its coasts. The strait that +separates it from New Holland was named by the governor, Bass's +Strait. The importance of this discovery is undoubted. In voyages +from New Holland to the Cape of Good Hope, considerable time is +gained by passing through it, instead of following the former course. +In the year 1800, Captain Flinders was again sent out by the +governor, to examine the coast to the northward of Port Jackson; of +this nothing more was known but what the imperfect notices given of +it by Captain Cook supplied. In this voyage he completely examined +all the creeks and bays as far to the northward as the 25th degree of +latitude, and more particularly Glasshouse and Harvey's Bays. The +English government at length resolved that they would wipe off the +reproach, which, as Captain Flinders observes, was not without some +reason attributed to them, "that an imaginary line of more than 250 +leagues of extent, in the vicinity of one of their colonies, should +have been so long suffered to remain traced upon the charts, under +the title of UNKNOWN COAST," and they accordingly appointed him to +the command of an expedition fitted out in England for this +purpose.</p> + +<p>Before giving an account of this voyage of Captain Flinders, we +shall abridge, from the Introduction prefixed to it, his clear and +methodical account of the progressive discoveries which have been +made on the coast of New Holland, and of what was still to be +explored. He particularly dwelt on the advantages that would result +from a practicable passage through Torres' Strait; if this could be +discovered, it would shorten the usual route by the north of New +Guinea, or the Eastern Islands, in the voyage to India and China. The +immense gulf of Carpentaria was unknown, except a very small portion +of its eastern side. The lands called after Arnheim and Van Dieman +also required and deserved a minute investigation, especially the +bays, shoals, islands, and coasts of the former, and the northern +part of the latter. The north-west coast had not been examined since +the time of Dampier, who was of opinion that the northern portion of +New Holland was separated from the lands to the northward by a +strait. The existence of such a strait, Captain Flinders completely +disproved.</p> + +<p>With respect to the south coast, at least 250 leagues were +unexplored. Captain Flinders had examined with considerable care and +minuteness the east coast and Van Dieman's Land; but there were still +several openings which required to be better explored.</p> + +<p>Such were the principal objects which Captain Flinders had in view +in his voyage; and no person could have been found better qualified +to accomplish these objects. On the 18th of July, 1801, he sailed +from England in the Investigator, of 334 tons: there were on board, +beside the proper and adequate complement of men, an astronomer, a +naturalist, a natural history painter, a landscape painter, a +gardener, and a miner. As soon as he approached the south coast of +New Holland, he immediately began his examination of the coasts, +islands, and inlets of that large portion of it, called Nuyts' Land; +he particularly examined all that part of the coast, which lies +between the limit of the discoveries of Nuyts and Vancouver, and the +eastern extremity of Bass' Straits, where he met a French ship, +employed on the same object. In the month of July, 1802, he left Port +Jackson, whither he had gone to refit, and sailing through Torres' +Straits in 36 hours, he arrived in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the +latter end of the season. In the course of this part of his voyage, +he examined Northumberland and Cumberland islands, and the great +barrier reefs of coral rock; and every part of the eastern side of +the Gulf of Carpentaria; not a cape, creek, bay, or island on this +coast of the gulf escaped his notice and examination. It was his +intention to have pursued the same mode of close and minute +examination: "following the land so closely, that the washing of the +surf upon it should be visible, and no opening nor any thing of +importance escape notice;" but he was prevented by ascertaining that +the vessel was in such a crazy state, that, though in fine weather +she might hold together for six months longer, yet she was by no +means fit for such an undertaking. After much deliberation what +conduct he ought to pursue under these circumstances, as it was +impossible, with such a vessel, he could at that season return to +Port Jackson by the west route, in consequence of the monsoon (and +the stormy weather would render the east passage equally improper) he +resolved to finish the survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria. This +occupied him three months: at the end of this period he was obliged, +by the sickness of his crew, to sail for Timor, which he reached on +the 31st of March, 1803.</p> + +<p>As the Investigator was no longer fit for service, she was +condemned. Captain Flinders resolved, as he could not finish the +survey, to return to England, in order to lay his journals and charts +before the Admiralty: he accordingly embarked on board the Porpoise +store ship, which, in company with the Cato and Bridgwater, bound to +Batavia, sailed in August, 1803. The Porpoise and Cato were wrecked +on a reef of rocks nearly 800 miles from Botany Bay: most of the +charts, logs, and astronomical observations were saved; but the rare +plants, as well as the dried specimens, were lost or destroyed. On +the 26th of August, Captain Flinders left the reef in the cutter, and +after a passage of considerable danger, reached Port Jackson on the +8th of September. As he was extremely anxious to lodge his papers as +soon as possible with the Lords of the Admiralty, he embarked from +Port Jackson in a vessel, something less than a Gravesend passage +boat, being only 29 tons burden. Even in such a vessel, Captain +Flinders did not lose sight of the objects nearest his heart: he +passed through Torres' Straits, examined Pandora's entrance, explored +new channels among the coral reefs, examined Prince of Wales Island, +crossed the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after anchoring at some islands +on the western side of the gulf, directed his route to Timor: here he +refitted his vessel, and then sailed for the Isle of France, where it +was absolutely necessary he should touch, in order that she might +undergo a repair, as she was very leaky. Though he possessed +passports from the French government, he was detained at the Isle of +France, under the absurd pretence that he was a spy. All his books, +charts, and papers were seized; and he himself was kept a prisoner in +a miserable room for nearly four months. He was afterwards removed to +the garden prison, a situation not so uncomfortable and prejudicial +to his health as that from which he was taken; at length, in +consequence of an application from the Royal Society to the National +Institute, the French government sent an order for his liberation; +but it was not received, or, at least, it was not acted upon till the +year 1810; for it was not till that year that Captain Flinders was +permitted to leave the Isle of France: he arrived in England on the +24th of October of that year.</p> + +<p>There are few voyages from which more important accessions to +geographical knowledge have been derived, than from this voyage of +Captain Flinders, especially when we reflect on the great probability +that New Holland will soon rank high in population and wealth. Before +his voyage, it was doubtful, whether New Holland was not divided into +two great islands, by a strait passing between Bass' Straits and the +Gulf of Carpentaria. Captain Flinders has put an end to all doubts on +this point: he examined the coast in the closest and most accurate +manner: he found indeed two great openings; these he sailed up to +their termination; and, consequently, as there were no other +openings, and these were mere inlets, New Holland can no longer be +supposed to be divided into two great islands, but must be regarded +as forming one very large one; or, rather, from its immense size, a +species of continent. He made another important and singular +discovery, viz. that there are either no rivers of any magnitude in +New Holland, or that if there be such, they do not find their way to +the sea coast. This country seems also very deficient in good and +safe ports: in his survey of the south coast, he found only one. He +completed the survey of the whole eastern coast; of Bass's Straits +and Van Dieman's Land, observing very carefully every thing relative +to the rocks, shoals, tides, winds, currents, &c. Coral reefs, +which are so common in most parts of the Pacific, and which, owing +their origin entirely to worms of the minutest size, gradually become +extensive islands, stretch along the eastern coast of New Holland. +These were examined with great care by Captain Flinders: he found +that they had nearly blocked up the passage through Torres' Straits, +so that it required great care and caution to pass it with safety. +But one of the most important results of this voyage respects the +survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria; previously the extent and bearings +of this gulf were not known; but from Captain Flinders's geography we +have received an accurate and full survey of it. Its extent was +ascertained to be 5 1/2 degrees of longitude, and 7 degrees of +latitude; and its circuit nearly 400 leagues. On the coast of this +gulf he found a singular trade carried on. Sixty proas, each about +the burden of 25 tons, and carrying as many men, were fitted out by +the Rajah of Boni, and sent to catch a small animal which lives at +the bottom of the sea, called the sea slug, or <i>biche de mer</i>. +When caught, they are split, boiled, and dried in the sun, and then +carried to Timorlaot, when the Chinese purchase them: 100,000 of +these animals is the usual cargo of each proa, and they bring from +2000 to 4000 Spanish dollars.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the English had had settlements in New Holland for +upwards of 26 years, little progress had been made in exploring the +interior of the country even in the immediate vicinity of Botany Bay. +It was supposed that a passage across the Blue Mountains, which are +within sight of that settlement, opposed insurmountable obstacles. At +length, about the end of the year 1813, the Blue Mountains were +crossed for the first time, by Mr. Evans, the deputy surveyor of the +colony. He found a fertile and pleasant district, and the streams +which took their rise in the Blue Mountains, running to the westward; +to one of the most considerable of these he gave the name of +Macquarrie river; the course of this river he pursued for ten days. +On his return to the colony, the governor, Mr. Macquarrie ordered +that a road should be made across the mountains; this extended 100 +miles, and was completed in 1815. Mr. Evans soon afterwards +discovered another river, which he called the Lachlan.</p> + +<p>As it was of great consequence to trace these rivers, and likewise +to examine the country to the west of the Blue Mountains more +accurately, and to a greater distance than it had been done, the +governor ordered two expeditions to be undertaken. Lieutenant Oxley, +the surveyor-general of the colony had the command of both. It does +not fall within our plan or limits to follow him in these journeys; +we shall therefore confine ourselves to an outline of the result of +his discoveries. He ascertained that the country in general is very +unfertile: the Lachlan he traced, till it seemed to loose itself in a +multitude of branches among marshy flats. "Perhaps," observes +Lieutenant Oxley, "there is no river, the history of which is known, +that presents so remarkable a termination as the present: its course, +in a strait line from its source to its termination, exceeds 500 +miles, and including its windings, it may fairly be calculated to run +at least 1200 miles; during all which passage, through such a vast +extent of country, it does not receive a single stream in addition to +what it derives from its sources in the Eastern mountains."--"One +tree, one soil, one water, and one description of bird, fish, or +animal, prevails alike for ten miles, and for 100." There were, +however, tracks, especially where the limestone formation prevailed, +of great beauty and fertility; but these were comparatively rare and +of small extent. Level, bare, sandy wastes, destitute of water, or +morasses and swamps, which would not support them, formed by far the +greatest part of the country through which they travelled.</p> + +<p>The second object Lieutenant Oxley had in view was the survey of +the course of the Macquarrie river; this he knew to be to the +north-west of the Lachlan. In crossing from the banks of the latter +in search of the former, they reached a beautiful valley; in the +centre of which flowed a clear and strong rivulet. This they traced +till it joined a large river, which they ascertained to be the +Macquarrie. From this point to Bathurst Plains, the country was rich +and beautiful.</p> + +<p>As from the size of the Macquarrie where they fell in with it, it +seemed probable that it either communicated with the sea itself or +flowed into a river which did, the governor sent Lieutenant Oxley on +another expedition to trace its course, and thus settle this point. +For twelve days the country was rich and beautiful: the river was +wide, deep, and navigable. The country then changed its character: no +hill was to be seen; on all sides it was as level and uninteresting +as that through which thay had traced the Lachlan in their former +journey. Soon afterwards it overflowed its banks; and as the country +was very flat, it spread over a vast extent. Under these +circumstances, Lieutenant Oxley proceeded down it in a boat for +thirty miles, till he lost sight of land and trees. About four miles +farther it lost all appearance of a river; but he was not able to +continue his route, and was obliged to return, without having +ascertained whether this great inland lake, into which the Macquarrie +fell, was a salt or fresh water lake.</p> + +<p>On his return he crossed the highest point of the mountains which +divides the waters running west from those which run into the east; +the most elevated peak he calculates to be from 6000 to 7000 feet. +Here he found a river rising, which flowed to the east; and following +it, he arrived at the place where it fell into the ocean.</p> + +<p>It is pretty certain from these expeditions, that no river of any +size empties itself into the sea, on the northern, western, or +southern coasts of New Holland. Captain Flinders and the French +navigators had examined all the line of coast on the western side, +except from latitude 22° to 11° south; it might therefore be +supposed that the Macquarrie, after freeing itself from the inland +lake to which Lieutenant Oxley had traced it, might fall into the +sea, within these limits. This, however, is now proved not to be the +case. In the year 1818, Lieutenant King was sent by the Board of +Admiralty, to survey the unexplored coast, from the southern +extremity of Terre de Witt. He began his examination at the +north-west cape, in latitude 21° 45', from this to latitude +20° 30', and from longitude 114° to 118°, he found an +archipelago, which he named after Dampier, as it was originally +discovered by this navigator. Dampier had inferred, from a remarkable +current running from the coast beyond these islands, that a great +strait, or river, opened out behind them. Lieutenant King found the +tide running strong in all the passages of the archipelago, but there +was no appearance of a river; the coast was in general low, and +beyond it he descried an extensive tract of inundated marshy country, +similar to that described by Lieutenant Oxley. Cape Van Diemen, +Lieutenant King ascertained to be the northern extremity of an +island, near which was a deep gulf. Although we have not learnt that +Lieutenant King has completed his survey, 8 or 9 degrees of latitude +on the north-west coast still remaining to be explored, yet we think +it may safely be inferred that no great river has its exit into the +ocean from the interior of New Holland. This circumstance, added to +the singular nature of the country through which Lieutenant Oxley +journeyed, and the peculiar and unique character of many of its +animals, seems to stamp on this portion of the globe marks which +strongly and widely separate it from every other portion.</p> + +<p>It is remarked in the Quarterly Review, that, before Captain +Flinder's voyage, "the great Gulf of Carpentaria had as yet no +definite outline on our nautical charts. It was the imaginary tracing +of an undulating line, intended to denote the limits between land and +water, without a promontory, or an island, a bay, harbour, or inlet, +that was defined by shape or designated by name. This blank line was +drawn and copied by one chart maker from another, without the least +authority, and without the least reason to believe that any European +had ever visited this wide and deeply-indented gulf; and yet, when +visited, this imaginary line was found to approximate so nearly to +its true form, as ascertained by survey, as to leave little doubt +that some European navigator must at one time or other have examined +it, though his labours have been buried, as the labours of many +thousands have been before and since his time, in the mouldy archives +of a jealous and selfish government."</p> + +<p>This remark may be extended and applied to other parts of the +globe beside Australasia; but it is particularly applicable to this +portion of it. There can be no doubt that many islands and points of +land were discovered, which were never traced in maps, even in the +vague and indistinct manner in which the Gulf of Carpentaria was +traced; that many discoveries were claimed to which no credit was +given; and that owing to the imperfect mode formerly used to +determine the longitude, some, from being laid down wrong, were +afterwards claimed as entirely new discoveries.</p> + +<p>We have stated that this remark is particularly applicable to +Australasia: to the progress of geography in this division of the +globe (including under that appellation, besides New Holland, Papua +or New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's Isles, New +Caledonia, New Zealand, &c.) we are now to direct our attention; +and the truth of the remark will soon appear to be confirmed in more +than one instance.</p> + +<p>One of the objects of Rogewein, a Dutch navigator, who, sailed +from Amsterdam in 1721, was to re-discover Solomon's Islands, and the +lands described by Quitos. In this voyage he visited New Britain, of +which he has enlarged our information; and be discovered Aurora +Island, and a very numerous archipelago, to which he gave the name of +the Thousand Islands. Captain Carteret, who sailed from England in +1767, along with Captain Wallis, but who was separated from him in +the Straits of Magellan, discovered several isles in the South +Pacific, the largest of which there is little doubt is that which was +visited by Mandana in 1595, and called by him Santa Cruz. In +prosecuting his voyage in the track pursued by Dampier, Captain +Carteret arrived on the east coast of the land named New Britain, by +that celebrated navigator. This he found to consist of two islands, +separated by a wide channel; to the northern island he gave the name +of New Ireland.</p> + +<p>At this period the French were prosecuting voyages of discovery in +the same portion of the globe. An expedition sailed from France in +1766, commanded by M. Bougainville: he arrived within the limits of +Australasia in May, 1768. Besides visiting a group of islands, named +by him Navigators' Islands, but which are supposed to have been +discovered by Rogewein, and a large cluster, which is also supposed +to be the archipelago of the same navigator, M. Bougainville +discovered a beautiful country, to which he gave the name of +Louisiade: he was not able to examine this country, and as it has not +been visited by subsequent navigators, it is generally believed to be +an extension of the coast of Papua. After discovering some islands +not far from this land, M. Bougainville directed his course to the +coast of New Ireland; he afterwards examined the north coast of New +Guinea.</p> + +<p>About the same time, M. Surville, another Frenchman, in a voyage +from the East Indies into the Pacific, landed on the north coast of a +country east of New Guinea; he had not an opportunity of examining +this land, but it seems probable that it was one of Solomon's +Islands.</p> + +<p>We have already had occasion to notice the first voyage of Captain +Cook, during which he traced the eastern coast of New Holland, and +ascertained that it was separated from New Guinea. In this voyage he +made further additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia; +for he visited New Zealand, which Tasman had discovered in 1642, but +on which he did not even land. Captain Cook examined it with great +care; and ascertained not only its extent, but that it was divided +into two large islands, by a strait, which is called after him. +During his second voyage he explored the New Hebrides, the most +northern of which is supposed to be described by Quitos: Bougainville +had undoubtedly sailed among them. The whole lie between the latitude +of 14° 29' and 24° 4' south, and between 166° 41' and +170° 21' east longitude. After having completed his examination +of these islands, he discovered an extensive country, which he called +New Caledonia. In his passage from this to New Zealand he discovered +several islands, and among the rest Norfolk Island. The great object +of his third voyage, which was the examination of the north-west +coast of America, did not afford him an opportunity of visiting for +any length of time Australasia; yet he did visit it, and examined New +Zealand attentively, obtaining much original and important +information respecting it, and the manners, &c. of its +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The voyages which we have hitherto noticed, were principally +directed to the southern parts of Australasia. Between the years 1774 +and 1776, some discoveries were made in the northern parts of it by +Captain Forrest: he sailed from India in a vessel of only ten tons, +with the intention of ascertaining whether a settlement could not be +formed on an island near the northern promontory of Borneo. In the +course of this voyage he examined the north coast of Waygiou; and +after visiting several small islands, he arrived on the north coast +of Papua.</p> + +<p>The next accessions that were made to our geographical knowledge +of Australasia, are derived from the voyage in search of La Peyrouse. +The object of La Peyrouse's voyage was to complete the discoveries +made by former navigators in the southern hemisphere: in the course +of this voyage he navigated some portion of Australasia; but where he +and his crew perished is not known. As the French government were +naturally and very laudably anxious to ascertain his real fate, two +vessels were despatched from France in the year 1791, for that +purpose. In April, 1792, they arrived within the limits of +Australasia: after having examined Van Diemen's Land, they sailed +along an immense chain of reefs, extending upwards of 3OO miles on +the east coast of New Caledonia. As Captain Cook had confined his +survey to the north, they directed their attention to the south-west +coast. After visiting some islands in this sea, they arrived at New +Ireland, part of which they carefully explored. In 1793, after having +visited New Holland, they sailed for New Zealand; and near it they +discovered an island which lies near the eastern limit of +Australasia: to this they gave the name of Recherche. The New +Hebrides, New Caledonia, and New Britain, were also visited and +examined; near the coast of the last they discovered several +mountainous islands. Beside the accessions to our geographical +knowledge of Australasia which we derived from this voyage, it is +particularly valuable "on account of the illustrations of the natural +history of the different countries, and the accuracy with which the +astronomical observations were made." It is worthy of remark that the +two ships lost nearly half their men; whereas, British navigators +have been out as long, in a climate and circumstances as unfavourable +to health, and have scarcely lost a single man.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of this century, the French government planned a +voyage of discovery, the chief object of which was to explore the +seas of Australasia. Those parts of New Holland which were entirely +unknown, or but imperfectly ascertained, were to be examined; the +coast of New Guinea to be surveyed, principally in the search of a +strait which was supposed to divide it into two parts; a passage by +Endeavour Straits to the eastern point of the Gulf of Carpentaria was +to be attempted; and then the expedition was to sail to Cape +Northwest. Besides these objects in Australasia, the Indian Ocean was +to be navigated.</p> + +<p>Two vessels, the Geographe and Naturaliste, sailed on this +expedition in October, 1800; but they did not by their discoveries +add much that was important to the geography of Australasia. They +indeed have made known to future navigators, reefs and shoals on the +coast of New Holland; have fixed more accurately, or for the first +time, some latitudes and longitudes belonging to this and other parts +of Australasia, and have traced some small rivers in New Holland. +They also confirmed the accuracy and justice of preceding +observations in several points; particularly relative to the singular +fineness of the weather, and serenity of the heavens in these +seas.</p> + +<p>Their greatest discovery undoubtedly consisted in a great +archipelago, which they named after Bonaparte: the islands that +composed it were in general small; some volcanic or basaltic; others +sandy. After examining these, they were obliged to return to Timor, +in consequence of the sickness of their crews. After they were +recovered, they returned to the grand object of their expedition, +which, though interesting and important to the navigator, or to the +minute researches of the geographer, presents nothing that requires +to be noticed in this place.</p> + +<p>Such is the sum of the additions to our geographical knowledge of +Australasia which has resulted from the voyages of discovery during +the last one hundred years. The great outline, and most of the +subordinate parts, are filled up; and little remains to be discovered +or ascertained which can greatly alter our maps, as they are at +present drawn. Additions, however, will gradually be made; errors +will be corrected; a stronger and clearer light will be thrown on +obscure points. Much of this will be done by the accidental +discoveries and observations of the many ships which are constantly +sailing from England to New Holland; or which trade from the latter +country to New Zealand or other parts of Australasia, to India, or to +China. By means of these voyages, additions have already been made to +our knowledge, especially of New Zealand; and its inhabitants are +beginning to feel and acknowledge the benefits which must always be +derived from the intercourse of civilized people with savages.</p> + +<p>Polynesia, extending from the Pelew Isles on the west, to the Isle +of All Saints on the north-east, and the Sandwich Isles in the east, +and having for its other boundaries the latitude of 20° north, +and of 50° south, near the latter of which it joins Australasia, +is the only remaining division of the globe which remains to come +under our cognizance, as having been explored by maritime +expeditions; and as it consists entirely of groups of small islands, +we shall not be detained long in tracing the discoveries which have +been made in these seas.</p> + +<p>The Pelew Islands, one of the divisions of Polynesia, though they +probably had been seen, and perhaps visited by Europeans before 1783, +were certainly first made completely known to them at this period, in +consequence of the shipwreck of Captain Wilson on them. The Sandwich +Isles, the next group, have been discovered within the last century +by Captain Cook, on his last voyage. The Marquesas, discovered by +Mandana, were visited by Captain Cook in 1774, by the French in 1789, +and particularly and carefully examined during the missionary voyage +of Captain Wilson in 1797. Captain Wallis, who sailed with Captain +Carteret in 1766, but was afterwards separated from him in his course +across the South Pacific, discovered several islands, particularly +Otaheite; to this and the neighbouring islands the name of Society +Isles was given. Such are the most important discoveries that have +been made in Polynesia during the last century; but besides these, +other discoveries of less importance have been made, either by +navigators who have sailed expressly for the purpose, as Kotzebue, +&c., or by accident, while crossing this immense ocean. In +consequence of the advances which the Sandwich Islands have made in +civilization, commerce, and the arts, there is considerable +intercourse with them, especially by the Americans; and their voyages +to them, and from thence to China, whither they carry the sandal +wood, &c. which they obtain there, as well as their voyages from +the north-west coast of America with furs to China, must soon detect +any isles that may still be unknown in this part of the Pacific +Ocean.</p> + +<p>Although, therefore, much remains yet to be accomplished by +maritime expeditions, towards the extension and correction of our +geographical knowledge, so far as the bearings of the coast, and the +latitudes and longitudes of various places are concerned, there seems +no room for what may properly and strictly be called discovery, at +least of any thing but small and scattered islands.</p> + +<p>It is otherwise with the accessions which land expeditions may +still make to geographical knowledge; for though within these one +hundred years the European foot has trodden where it never trod +before, and though our geographical knowledge of the interior of +Africa, Asia, and America, has been, rendered within that period not +only more extensive, but also more accurate and minute than it +previously was, yet much remains to be done and known.</p> + +<p>In giving a short and rapid sketch of the progress of discovery, +so far as it has been accomplished by land expeditions during the +period alluded to, we are naturally led to divide what we have to say +according to the three great portions of the globe which have been +the objects of these expeditions, viz. Africa, Asia, and America.</p> + +<p>1. Africa. This country has always presented most formidable +obstacles to the progress of discovery: its immense and trackless +deserts, its burning and fatal climate, its barbarous and treacherous +inhabitants, have united to keep a very large portion of it from the +intercourse, and even the approach of European travellers. Even its +northern parts, which are most accessible to Europe, and which for +2000 years have been occasionally visited by Europeans, are guarded +by the cruel jealousy of its inhabitants; or, if that is overcome, +advances to any very great distance from the coast are effectively +impeded by natives still more savage, or by waterless and foodless +deserts.</p> + +<p>The west coast of Africa, ever since it was ascertained that +slaves, ivory, gold dust, gums, &c. could be obtained there, has +been eagerly colonized by Europeans; and though these colonies have +now existed for upwards of three hundred years, and though the same +love of gain which founded them must have directed a powerful wish on +those interior countries from which these precious articles of +traffic were brought, yet such have been the difficulties, and +dangers, and dread, that the most enthusiastic traveller, and the +most determined lover of gain, have scarcely penetrated beyond the +very frontier of the coast. If we turn to the east coast, still less +has been done to explore the interior from that side; the nature, +bearings, &c. of the coast itself are not accurately known; and +accessions to our knowledge respecting it have been the result rather +of accident than of a settled plan, or of any expedition with that +view. The Cape of Good Hope has now been an European settlement +nearly two hundred years: the inhabitants in that part of Africa, +though of course barbarians, are neither so formidable for their +craft and cruelty, and strength, nor so implacable in their hatred of +strangers, as the inhabitants of the north and of the interior of +Africa; and yet to what a short distance from the Cape has even a +solitary European traveller ever reached!</p> + +<p>But though a very great deal remains to be accomplished before +Africa will cease to present an immense void in its interior, in our +maps, and still more remains to be accomplished before we can become +acquainted with the manners, &c. of its inhabitants, and its +produce and manufactures, yet the last century, and what has passed +of the present, have witnessed many bold and successful enterprizes +to extend our geographical knowledge of this quarter of the +globe.</p> + +<p>As the sovereigns of the northern shores of Africa were, from +various causes and circumstances, always in implacable hostility with +one another, and as, besides this obstacle to advances into Africa +from this side, it was well known that the Great Desert spread itself +an almost impassable barrier to any very great progress by the north +into the interior, it was not to be expected that any attempts to +penetrate this quarter of the globe by this route would be made. On +the other hand, the Europeans had various settlements on the western +coast: on this coast there were many large rivers, which apparently +ran far into the interior; these rivers, therefore, naturally seemed +the most expeditious, safe, and easy routes, by which the interior +might, at least to a short distance from the shore, be +penetrated.</p> + +<p>But it was very long before the Senegal, one of the chief of these +rivers, was traced higher than the falls of Felu; or the Gambia, +another river of note and magnitude, than those of Baraconda. In the +year 1723, Captain Stebbs, who was employed by the Royal African +Company, succeeded in going up this river as far as the flats of +Tenda. Soon afterwards, some information respecting the interior of +Africa, especially respecting Bonda, (which is supposed to be the +Bondou of Park, in the upper Senegal,) was received through an +African prince, who was taken prisoner, and carried as a slave to +America.</p> + +<p>All the information which had been drawn from these, and other +sources, respecting the interior, was collected and published by +Moore, the superintendent of the African Company's settlements on the +Gambia; but though the particulars regarding the manners, &c. of +the inhabitants are curious, yet this work adds not much to our +geographical knowledge of the interior of this part of the world.</p> + +<p>In the year 1788, the African Institution was formed: its object +was to send persons properly qualified to make discoveries in the +interior of Africa. The first person engaged by them was Mr. Ledyard; +and, from all accounts of him, no person could have been better +qualified for such an arduous enterprise: he was strong, healthy, +active, intelligent, inquisitive, observant, and undaunted; full of +zeal, and sanguine of success; and, at the same time, open, kind, and +insinuating in his looks and manners. At Cairo he prepared himself +for his undertaking, by visiting the slave market, in order to +converse with the merchants of the various caravans, and learn all +the particulars connected with his proposed journey, and the +countries from which they came. But be proceeded no farther than +Cairo: here he was seized with an illness, occasioned or aggravated +by the delay in the caravans setting out for Sennaar, which proved +fatal.</p> + +<p>Mr Lucas was the next person employed by the African Institution. +In October, 1788, he arrived at Tripoli, from whence he set out with +two shereefs for Fezzan, by the way of Mescerata. On the fourth day +after his departure, he reached Lebida, on the sea coast, the Leptis +Magna of the Romans. He found, on his arrival at Mescerata, that he +should not be able to procure the number of camels necessary to +convey his goods to Fezzan; and was obliged to abandon his +enterprize. From the information which he derived, at Mescerata, +confirmed as it was by what the Association had learnt from the +narrative of a native of Morocco, the geography of Africa was +extended from Fezzan, across the eastern division of the Desert, to +Bornou, Cashna, and the Niger.</p> + +<p>In a year or two after the return of Mr. Lucas, the African +Association, who were indefatigable in endeavouring to obtain +information from all sources, learnt some interesting and original +circumstances from an Arab. This person described a large empire on +the banks of the Niger, in the capital of which, Housa, he had +resided two years: this city he rather vaguely and inconsistently +described as equalling London and Cairo in extent and population. As +it was necessary to scrutinize the truth and consistency of his +narrative, what he related was at first received with caution and +doubt, but an incidental circumstance seemed to prove him worthy of +credit; for in describing the manner in which pottery was +manufactured at Housa, which he did by imitating the actions of those +who made it, it was remarked that he actually described the ancient +Grecian wheel.</p> + +<p>In order to learn whether the accounts of this man were true and +accurate, the African Institution sent out Major Houghton: he was +instructed to ascertain the course, and, if possible, the rise and +termination of the Niger; to visit Tombuctoo and Housa, and to return +by the Desert. Accordingly he sailed up the Gambia to Pisania, and +thence he proceeded to Medina, the capital of the Mandingo kingdom. +His course from this city was north-east, which led him beyond the +limit of European discovery, to the uninhabited frontier which +separates Bondou and Mandingo. After some time spent in endeavouring +to ingratiate himself with the king of the latter country, but in +vain, he resolved to proceed into Bambouk. On arriving at Firbanna, +the capital, he was hospitably treated by the king. Here be formed a +plan to go with a merchant to Tombuctoo; but on his way he was +robbed, and either perished of hunger, or was murdered: the exact +particulars are not known. To Major Houghton we are indebted for our +first knowledge of the kingdom of Bondou; and for the names of +several cities on the Niger, as well as the course of that river.</p> + +<p>Mr. Park was next employed by the African Association; and what he +learnt, observed, did, and suffered, fully justified them in the +choice of such a man. "His first journey was unquestionably the most +important which any European had ever performed in the interior of +Africa. He established a number of geographical positions, in a +direct line of eleven hundred miles from Cape de Verde: by pointing +out the positions of the sources of the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger, +he has given a new aspect to the physical geography of this +continent; he has fixed the boundaries of the Moors and Negroes; +unfolded to us the empire of Ludamar; and described, from personal +observation, some important towns on the banks of the Niger, or +Joliba. The information which he has communicated concerning this +part of Africa, and their manners, is equally new and interesting. He +has traced with accuracy the distinction betwixt the Mahometans and +Pagans." This journey was accomplished between the 2d of December, +1795, when he left Pisania, a British factory two hundred miles up +the Gambia, and the 10th of June, 1797, when he returned to the same +place, an interval of eighteen months.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the dangers and fatigues which he had undergone; +notwithstanding that, on his return to his native country, he had +married, and entered on a life which promised him competence and +domestic happiness; yet his mind yearned for a repetition of those +scenes and adventures to which he had lately been accustomed. No +sooner, therefore, did he learn that another mission to Africa was in +contemplation, than he set his inclination on undertaking it, if it +were offered to him. This it was: he accepted the offer; and on the +30th of January, 1805, he left Portsmouth.</p> + +<p>It is surprising and lamentable, that notwithstanding his +knowledge and experience of the climate of the country to which he +was going, he should have begun his expedition at a time when her was +sure to encounter the rainy season long before he could reach the +Niger.</p> + +<p>The expedition was most unfortunate: Mr. Park perished in it, +after having undergone dreadful hardships, and witnessed the death of +several of his companions; and of one of them who was his most +intimate friend. The exact place and circumstances of his own fate +are not known: it is known, however, from his own journal, which he +transmitted to England, that he had reached Sansandang, which is +considerably short of Silla, which he had reached in his first +journey; and from other sources, it is known, that from the former +place he went to Yaour in Haoussa, where he is supposed to have been +killed by the natives.</p> + +<p>The African Association were still indefatigable in their +endeavours to explore the interior of Africa; and they found little +difficulty in meeting with persons zealously disposed, as well as +qualified, to second their designs. Mr. Horneman, a German, who +possessed considerable knowledge, such as might be of service to him +on such an enterprise, and who was besides strong, active, vigorous, +undaunted, endowed with passive courage, (a most indispensable +qualification,) temperate, and in perfect health, was next selected. +He prepared himself by learning such of the Oriental languages as +might be useful to him; and on the 10th of September, 1797, arrived +at Alexandria. Circumstances prevented him from pursuing his route +for nearly two years, when he left Cairo, along with a caravan for +Fezzan. His subsequent fate is unknown; but there is reason to +believe that he died soon after his departure from Fezzan.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to mention any of the subsequent expeditions +which were sent by the Association into the interior of Africa; since +none of them have added to our knowledge of this portion of the +globe. There have, indeed, been communications received from some of +the merchants trading from the north of Africa to the Niger, which +confirm the accounts of large and powerful kingdoms on its banks, and +the inhabitants of these kingdoms are comparatively far advanced in +manufactures and commerce; but, besides these particulars, little +respecting the geography of the interior has been ascertained. The +course of the Niger is proved beyond a doubt to be, as Herodotus +described it, upwards of 2000 years ago, from west to east; but the +termination of this large river is utterly unknown. Some think it +unites with the Nile, and forms the great western branch of that +river, called the Bahr el Abiad, or White River; others think that it +loses itself in the lakes or swamps of Wangara, or Ghana, and is +there wasted by evaporation; while another opinion is, that its +course takes a bend to the west, and that it falls into the Atlantic, +or that it discharges itself into the Indian Ocean.</p> + +<p>The British government, anxious to determine, if possible, this +curious and important question, sent out two expeditions, about seven +years since, to explore in every possible way the course and +termination of the Niger. The first, under the conduct of Captain +Tuckey, proceeded up the Zaire; the other ascended the Nunez in north +Africa, in order, if possible, to reach the navigable part of the +Niger by a shorter course than that followed by Park, and with the +design of proceeding down the river till it reached its termination. +The issue of both these expeditions, particularly of the former, was +singularly melancholy and unfortunate: Captain Tuckey, and fifteen +persons out of the thirty who composed it, perished in consequence of +the excessive fatigue which they underwent after they had reached +above the cataracts of the river, the want of sufficient and proper +food, and a fever brought on, or aggravated, by these causes. Captain +Tuckey was the last who fell a victim, after having traced the Zaire, +till it became from four to five miles in breadth. The mountains were +no longer seen, and the course of the river inclined to the north; +these circumstances, joined to that of its becoming broader, render +the opinion that it is the same with the Niger more probable than it +previously was: the accounts given to Captain Tuckey were also to the +same effect. The second expedition, under the direction of Major +Peddir, reached Kauendy on the Nunez, where he died: his successor in +the command, Captain Campbell, penetrated about 150 miles beyond this +place, but not being able to procure the means of proceeding, he was +obliged to return to it, where he also died.</p> + +<p>Within 150 miles of the British settlement at Cape Coast Castle, +there is a powerful and rich nation, called the Aahantees: they seem +first to have been heard of by Europeans about the year 1700; but +they were not seen near the coast, nor had they any intercourse with +our factories till the year 1807: they visited the coast again in +1811, and a third time in 1816. These invasions produced great +distress among the Fantees, and even were highly prejudicial to our +factory; in consequence of which, the governor resolved to send a +mission to them. Of this journey an account has been published by Mr. +Bowdich, one of those engaged in it. The travellers passed through +the Fantee and Assen territories. The first Ashantee village was +Quesha; the capital is Coomastee, which the mission reached on the +19th of May, 1817. Mr. Bowdich paints the splendour, magnificence, +and richness of the sovereign of the Ashantees in the most gorgeous +manner; and even his manners as dignified and polished. But though +his work is very full of what almost seems romantic pictures and +statements of the civilization and richness of the Ashantees, and +gives accurate accounts of their kingdom, yet, in other respects, it +is not interesting or important, in a geographical point of view. +There are, indeed, some notices which were collected from the natives +or the travelling Moors, regarding the countries beyond Ashantee, and +some of their opinions respecting the Niger. The most important point +which he ascertained was, that the route from the capital to +Tombuctoo is much travelled; and it is now supposed that this is the +shortest and best road for Europeans to take, who wish to reach the +Niger near that city. Indeed, we understand that merchants frequently +come to the British settlement at Sierra Leone, who represent the +route into the interior of Africa and the neighbourhood of the Niger +from thence, as by no means arduous or dangerous.</p> + +<p>We shall next direct our attention to the north of Africa.</p> + +<p>The hostility of the Mahometans, who possessed the north of +Africa, to Christians, presented as serious an obstacle to travels in +that quarter as the barbarism and ferocity of the native tribes on +the west coast did to discoveries into the interior in that +direction. In the sixteenth century, Leo Africanus gave an ample +description of the northern parts; and in the same century, Alvarez, +who visited Abyssinia, published an account of that country. In the +subsequent century, this part of Africa was illustrated by Lobo, +Tellea, and Poncet; the latter was a chemist and apothecary, sent by +Louis XIV to the reigning monarch of Abyssinia; the former were +missionaries. From their accounts, and those of the Portuguese, all +our information respecting this country was derived, previously to +the travels of Mr. Bruce.</p> + +<p>Pocock and Norden are the most celebrated travellers in Egypt in +the beginning of the seventeenth century; but as their object was +rather the discovery and description of the antiquities of this +country, what they published did not much extend our geographical +knowledge: the former spent five years in his travels. The latter is +the first writer who published a picturesque description of Egypt; +every subsequent traveller has borne evidence to the accuracy and +fidelity of his researches and descriptions. He was the first +European who ventured above the cataracts.</p> + +<p>The great ambition and object of Mr. Bruce was to discover the +source of the Nile; for this purpose he left Britain in 1762, and +after visiting Algiers, Balbec, and Palmyra, he prepared for his +journey into Abyssinia. He sailed up the Nile a considerable way, and +afterwards joined a caravan to Cosseir on the Red Sea. After visiting +part of the sea coast of Arabia, he sailed for Massoucut, by which +route alone an entrance into Abyssinia was practicable. In this +country he encountered many obstacles, and difficulties, and after +all, in consequence of wrong information he received from the +inhabitants, visited only the Blue River, one of the inferior streams +of the Nile, instead of the White River, its real source. This, +however, is of trifling moment, when contrasted with the accessions +to our geographical knowledge of Abyssinia, the coast of the Red Sea, +&c., for which we are indebted to this most zealous and +persevering traveller. Since Mr. Bruce's time, Abyssinia has been +visited by Mr. Salt, who has likewise added considerably to our +knowledge of this country, though on many points he differs from Mr. +Bruce.</p> + +<p>The most important and interesting accession to our knowledge of +the north of Africa was made between the years 1792 and 1795, by Mr. +Browne. This gentleman seems to have equalled Mr. Bruce in his zeal +and ardour, but to have surpassed him in the soundness and utility of +his views; for while the former was principally ambitious of +discovering the sources of the Nile,--a point of little real moment +in any point of view,--the latter wished to penetrate into those +parts of the north of Africa which were unknown to Europeans, but +which, from all accounts of them, promised to interest and benefit, +not only commerce, but science. His precise and immediate object was +Darfur, some of the natives of which resided in Egypt: from their +manners and account of their country, Mr. Browne concluded the +inhabitants were not so hostile to Christians and Europeans as +Mahometans are in general. He therefore resolved to go thither; as +from it he could either proceed into Abyssinia by Kordofan, or +traverse Africa from east to west. He therefore left Assiou in Egypt +with the Soudan caravan in 1793, passed through the greater Oasis, +and arrived at Sircini in Darfur: here he resided a considerable +time, but he found insurmountable obstacles opposed to his grand and +ulterior plan. He ascertained, however, the source and progress of +the real Nile or White River. The geography of Darfur and Kordofan is +illustrated by him in a very superior and satisfactory manner. The +geography of Africa to the west of these countries is likewise +elucidated by him: he mentions and describes a large river which +takes its rise among the mountains of Kumri, and flows in a +north-west course. This river is supposed to be that described by +Ptolemy under the name of Gir, and by Edrisi as the Nile of the +Negroes. The fate of Mr. Browne, who from all the accounts of him +seems to have been admirably fitted by nature and habits for a +traveller, was very melancholy. After his return to England from +Darfur he resolved to visit the central countries of Asia: he +accordingly set out, but on his way thither he was murdered in +Persia.</p> + +<p>At the commencement of this century, circumstances occurred Which +rendered Egypt and the countries adjacent more accessible to +Europeans than they had ever been before. In the first place, the +French, who most unjustly invaded it, took with their invading army a +number of literary and scientific men, by whom were published several +splendid works, principally on the antiquities of this ancient +country. In the second place, the English, by driving out the French, +and by their whole conduct towards the ruling men and the natives in +general, not only weakened in a very considerable degree the dislike +to Europeans and Christians which the Mahomedans here, as elsewhere, +had ever entertained, but also created a grateful sense of obligation +and of favour towards themselves. Lastly, the pacha, who obtained the +power in Egypt, was a man of liberal and enlightened views, far above +those who had preceded him, and disposed to second and assist the +researches and journies of travellers.</p> + +<p>In consequence of these favourable circumstances, and the +additional circumstance, that by the conquests and influence of +Bonaparte English travellers were shut out from a great part of +Europe, they directed their course towards Egypt. Their object was +chiefly to investigate the numerous, stupendous, and interesting +antiquities.</p> + +<p>In the year 1813, Mr. Legh, a member of the House of Commons, +performed a journey in this country, and beyond the cataracts. Above +the cataracts he entered Nubia, and proceeded to Dehr, its capital. +These travels are, however, chiefly interesting and instructive for +that which indeed must give the chief interest to all travels in +Egypt and Nubia--the description of antiquities.</p> + +<p>The second cataract continued the limit of the attempts of +European travellers, till it was reached and passed, first by Mr. +Burckhardt, and afterwards by Mr. Banks. No modern traveller has +excelled Mr. Burckhardt in the importance of his travels; and-few, in +any age, have equalled him in zeal, perseverance, fortitude, and +success.</p> + +<p>He was employed by the African Association to explore the interior +of Africa. Having perfected himself in the knowledge of the religion, +manners, and language of the Mahomedan Arabs, by frequent and long +residences among the Bedouins, he proceeded to Cairo. Here, finding +that the opportunity of a caravan to Fezzan or Darfur was not soon +likely to occur, he resolved to explore Egypt and the country above +the cataracts. He accordingly "performed two very arduous and +interesting journies into the ancient Ethiopia; one of them along the +banks of the Nile from Assouan to Dar al Mahas on the frontiers of +Dongola, in the months of February and March, 1813, during which he +discovered many remains of ancient Egyptian and Nubian architecture, +with Greek inscriptions; the other between March and July in the +following year, through Nubia to Souakun. The details of this journey +contain the best notices ever received in Europe of the actual state +of society, trade, manufactures, and government, in what was once the +cradle of all the knowledge of the Egyptians."</p> + +<p>Although it will carry us a little out of our regular and stated +course, to notice the other travels of this enterprising man in the +place, yet we prefer doing it, in order that our readers, by having +at once before them a brief abstract of all he performed for +geography, may the better be enabled to appreciate his merits.</p> + +<p>Soon after his second return to Cairo, he resolved to penetrate +into Arabia, and to visit Mecca and Medina. In order to secure his +own safety, and at the same time gain such information as could alone +be obtained in the character of a Mahomedan, he assumed the dress, +and he was enabled to personate the religion, manners, and language +of the native Hadje, or pilgrims. Thus secure and privileged, he +resided between four and five months in Mecca. Here he gained some +authentic and curious information respecting the rise, history, and +tenets of the Wahabees, a Mahomedan sect. These travels have not yet +been published.</p> + +<p>The last excursion of Mr. Burckhardt was from Cairo to Mount Sinai +and the eastern head of the Red Sea. This journey was published in +1822, along with the travels in Syria and the Holy Land; the latter +of which he accomplished while he was preparing himself at Aleppo for +his proposed journey into the interior of Africa. These travels, +therefore, are prior in date to those in Nubia, though they were +published afterwards.</p> + +<p>He spent nearly three, years in Syria: his most important +geographical discoveries in this country relate to the nature of the +district between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Elana; the extent, +conformation, and detailed topography of the Haouran; the situation +of Apanea on the river Orontes, which was one of the most important +cities of Syria under the Macedonian Greeks; the site of Petreea; and +the general structure of the peninsula of Mount Sinai. Perhaps the +most original and important of these illustrations of ancient +geography is that which relates to the Elanitic Gulph: its extent and +form were previously so little known, that it was either entirely +omitted, or very erroneously laid down in maps. From what he observed +here, there is good reason to believe that the Jordan once discharged +itself into the Red Sea; thus confirming the truth of that convulsion +mentioned and described in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis, which +interrupted the coarse of this river; converted the plain in which +Sodom and Gomorrah stood into a lake, and changed the valley to the +southward of this district into a sandy desert.</p> + +<p>But Mr. Burckhardt, considering all these excursions, and their +consequent numerous and important accessions to geographical +knowledge, as only preludes to the grand expedition for which he had +expressly come to the East, still looked forward to the interior of +Africa. This, however, he was not destined to reach; for while at +Cairo, waiting for a caravan, which was to proceed by Mourzouck,--a. +route which he had long decided on as the most likely to answer his +purpose,--he was suddenly seized with a dysentery, on the 5th of +October, 1817, and died on the 15th.</p> + +<p>Travellers in. Egypt and Nubia have been numerous since the time +of Mr. Burckhardt; but as they chiefly directed their investigations +and inquiries to the antiquities of the country, they do not come +within our proper notice; we shall therefore merely mention the names +of Belzoni, (whose antiquarian discoveries have been so numerous and +splendid,) Mr. Salt, Mr. Bankes, &c. To this latter gentleman, +however, geography is also indebted for important additions to its +limits; or, rather, for having illustrated ancient geography. He +penetrated, as we have already mentioned, as far as the second +cataract: he visited some of the most celebrated scenes in Arabia, +and made an excursion to Waadi Mooza, or the Valley of Moses. He also +visited Carrac; but the most important discovery of this gentleman +relates to the site of the ancient Petraea, which was also visited by +Burckhardt. Onr readers will recollect that this city has been +particularly noticed in our digression on the early commerce of the +Arabians, as the common centre for the caravans in all ages; and that +we traced its ancient history as far down as there were any notices +of it. Its ruins Mr. Bankes discovered in those of Waadi Mooza, a +village in the valley of the same name.</p> + +<p>Since Mr. Burckhardt travelled, geographical discoveries have been +made in this part of the world by Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon, Lord +Belmore and Dr. Richardson, Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury, Messrs. +Caillaud and Drovetti, Sir Archibald Edmonstone, Sir Frederick +Henniker, and by an American of the name of English. The travels of +Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon were confined to Fezzan, and are chiefly +curious for the notices they give, derived from native merchants, of +the course of the Niger, By means of the travels of Lord Belmore and +Dr. Richardson, the latitudes and longitudes on the Nile have been +corrected from Assouan to the confines of Dongola. Mr. Waddington and +Mr. Hanbury, taking advantage of an expedition sent into Ethiopia by +the pacha of Egypt, examined this river four hundred miles beyond the +place to which Burckhardt advanced. The travels of the two French +gentlemen extended to the Oasis of Thebes and Dakel, and the deserts +situated to the east and west of the Thebaid. In the Thebaic Oasis +some very interesting remains of antiquity were discovered: the great +Oasis was well known to the ancients; but the Thebaic Oasis has +seldom been visited in modern times. Brown and Poncet passed through +its longest extent, but did not see the ruins observed by Mr. +Caillaud.</p> + +<p>This gentleman, who was employed by the pacha to search for gold, +silver, and precious stones, after a residence of five months at +Sennaar, traversed the province of Fazocle, and followed the Arrek, +till it entered the kingdom of Bertot. At a place called Singue, in +the kingdom of Dar-foke, which is the southern boundary of Bertot, +situated on the tenth parallel of latitude, and five days' journey to +the westward of the confines of Abyssinia, the conquests of Ishmaei +Pacha terminated. Only short notices of these travels of Mr. Caillaud +have as yet been published.</p> + +<p>Sir A. Edmonstone's first intention was to visit the Thebaic +Oasis; but understanding from Mr. Belzoni that Mr. Caillaud had +already been there, but that there was another Oasis to the westward, +which had never been visited by any European, he resolved to proceed +thither. This Oasis was also visited by Drovetti much about I he same +time: he calls it the Oasis of Dakel. It seems to have escaped the +notice of all the ancient authors examined by Sir Archibald, except +Olympiodorus. Speaking of the Thebaic Oasis, he mentions an interior +and extensive one, lying opposite to the other, one hundred miles +apart, which corresponds with the actual distance between them.</p> + +<p>The American traveller accompanied the expedition of the pacha of +Egypt as far as Sennaar. He commences the account of his voyage up +the Nile at the second cataract; and as far as the pyramids of Meroe, +where the voyage of Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury terminated, his +accounts correspond with what they give. He did not, however, follow +the great bend of the river above Dongola: this he describes as 250 +miles long, and full of rocks and rapid. He again reached the Nile, +having crossed the peninsula in a direct line, at Shendi. Near this +place he discovered the remains of a city, temples, and fifty-four +pyramids, which are supposed, by a writer in the Quarterly Review, to +be the ruins of the celebrated Meroc, as their position agrees with +that assigned them by a draughtsman employed by Mr. Bankes. The army +halted on the western bank of the Nile, opposite Halfaia: about five +hours' march above this place the Bahr el Abiad, or White River, +flows into the Bahr el Azreck, or Nile of Bruce. In thirteen days +from the junction of these two rivers, the army, marching along the +left, or western branch of the Azreck, reached Sennaar.</p> + +<p>In the year 1817, Delia Cella, an Italian physician, accompanied +the army of the bashaw of Tripoli as far as Bomba, on the route +towards Egypt, and near the frontiers of that country. He had thus an +opportunity "of visiting one of the oldest and most celebrated of the +Greek colonies, established upwards of seven hundred years before the +birth of Christ; and in being the first European to follow the +footsteps of Cato round the shores of the Syrtis, and to explore a +region untrodden by Christian foot since the expulsion of the Romans, +the Huns, and the Vandals, by the enterprising disciples of Mahomet." +In this journey he necessarily passed the present boundary between +Tripoli and Bengaze, the same which was anciently the boundary +between Carthage and Cyrene; and our author confirms the account of +Sallust, that neither river nor mountain marks the confines. He also +confirms the description given by Herodotus of the dreadful storms of +sand that frequently arise and overwhelm the caravans in this part of +the Syrtis. At the head of the Syrtis the ground is depressed, and +this depression, our author supposes, continues to the Great Desert. +Soon after he left this barren country, he entered Cyrenaica, the +site of Cyrene: that most ancient and celebrated colony of the Greeks +was easily ascertained by its magnificent ruins. From Cyrene the army +marched to Derna, and from this to the gulf of Bomba, an extensive +arm of the sea, where the expedition terminated.</p> + +<p>Such are the most recent discoveries in this portion of +Africa.</p> + +<p>The settlement of the Cape of Good Hope, originally established by +the Dutch, and at present in possession of the English, was naturally +the point from which European travellers set out to explore the +southern parts of Africa. Their progress hitherto has not been great, +though, as far as they have advanced, the information they have +acquired of the face of the country, its productions, the tribes +which inhabit it, and their habits, manners, &c. may be regarded +as full and accurate. The principal travellers who have visited this +part of Africa, and from whose travels the best information may be +obtained of the settlement of the Cape, and of the country to the +north of it for about 900 miles, are Kolbein, Sparman, Le Vaillant, +Barrow, Lichtenstein, La Trobe, Campbell, and Burcheli. To the +geography of the east coast of Africa, and of the adjacent districts, +little or no addition has been made for a very considerable length of +time.</p> + +<p>II. The discoveries in Asia may in general be divided into those +which the vast possessions of the Russians in this quarter of the +globe, and the corresponding interest which they felt to become +better acquainted with them, induced them to make, and into those to +which the English were stimulated, and which they were enabled to +perform, from the circumstance of their vast, important, and +increasing possessions in Hindostan.</p> + +<p>The most important and instructive travels which spring from the +first source, are those of Bell of Antermony, Pallas, Grnelin, +Guldenstedt, Lepechin, &c. Bell was a Scotchman, attached to the +Russian service: his work, which was published about the middle of +the last century, contains an account of the embassy sent by Peter +the Great to the emperor of China, and of another embassy into +Persia; of an expedition to Derbent by the Russian army, and of a +journey to Constantinople. Of the route in all these directions he +gives an interesting and accurate account, as well as of the manners, +&c. of the people. Indeed, it is a valuable work, especially that +portion of it which conducts us through the central parts of +Asia,--an immense district, which, as we have already remarked, is +not much better known at present, (at least considerable portions of +it,) than it was three or four centuries ago. The travels of Pallas, +&c. were undertaken by order of the Russian government, for the +purpose of gaining a fuller and more accurate account of the +provinces of that immense empire, especially those to the south, +which, from climate, soil, and productions were most valuable, and +most capable of improvement.</p> + +<p>The English possessions in Hindostan have led the way to two sets +of discoveries, or rather advancements in geographical knowledge: one +which was derived from the journies frequently made overland from +India to Europe; and the other, which was derived from embassies, +&c. from Calcutta to the neighbouring kingdoms. In general, +however, the journies overland from India, having been undertaken +expressly for the purpose of expedition, and moreover being through +countries which required the utmost caution on the part of the +travellers to preserve them from danger, did not admit of much +observation being made, or much information being acquired, +respecting the districts that were passed through. The travels of +Jackson, Forster, and Fitzclarence, are perhaps as valuable as any +which have been given to the public respecting the route from India +to Europe, and the countries, and their inhabitants, passed through +in this route.</p> + +<p>From the embassies and the wars of the British East India Company +in Hindostan, we have derived much valuable information respecting +Persia, Thibet, Ava, Caubul, &c.; and from their wars, as well as +from the institution of the Asiatic Society, and the facilities which +their conquests afforded to travellers, the whole of the peninsula of +Hindostan, as well as the country to the north of it, as far as +Cashmere and the Himaleh mountains, may be regarded as fully +explored. Perhaps the most valuable accession to geographical +knowledge through the English conquests, relates to these mountains. +They seem to have been known to Pliny under the name of Imaus: they +are described by Plotemy; and they were crossed by some of the Jesuit +missionaries about the beginning of the seventeenth century; but they +were not thoroughly explored till the beginning of the nineteenth. +Mr. Moorcroft was the first European, after the missionaries, who +penetrated into the plains of Tartary through these mountains. The +fullest account, however, of the singular countries which lie among +them, is given by Mr. Frazer, who in 1814 passed in a straight line, +in a direction of this chain, between 60 and 70 miles, and also +visited the sources of the Ganges.</p> + +<p>Our commerce with China for tea, and the hope of extending that +commerce to other articles, produced, towards the end of the last +century and the beginning of this, two embassies to China, from both +of which, but especially from the first, much additional information +has been gained respecting this extensive country, and its singular +inhabitants; so that, regarding it and them, from these embassies, +and the works of the Jesuit missionaries, we possess all the +knowledge which we can well expect to derive, so long as the Chinese +are so extremely jealous of strangers.</p> + +<p>The British embassies to China, besides making us better +acquainted with this country, added no little to our information +respecting those places which were visited in going to and returning +from China. Perhaps the most important correction of geography is +that which was made by Captains Maxwell and Hall, who took out the +second embassy: we allude to what they ascertained respecting the +kingdom of Corea. They found a bay, which, according to the charts of +this country, would be situated 120 miles in the interior; and at the +same time they ascertained, that along the southern coast of Corea +there was an archipelago of more than 1000 islands. These +discoveries; the valuable additions which were made during the voyage +of Captain Maxwell to the geography and hydrography of the Yellow +Sea; the correction of the vague and incorrect notions which were +long entertained respecting the isles of Jesso and the Kuriles, by +the labours of La Perouse, Broughton, Krusentein, &c., and the +full and minute information given to the public respecting Java, and +other parts of the southern Indian archipelago, by Raffles, Craufurd, +&c. seem to leave little to be added to our geographical +knowledge of the eastern and southeastern portions of Asia.</p> + +<p>III. We come now to America;--and though Africa is one of the most +ancient seats of the human race, and of civilization and science, and +America has been discovered only about 350 years, yet we know much +more respecting the coasts and interior of the latter than of the +former portion of the globe.</p> + +<p>Although the Spaniards and Portuguese, who, till very lately, +possessed nearly the whole of South America, guarded their +possessions strictly from the curious intrusion of foreigners, and +were themselves very sparing in giving to the world the information +respecting them which they must have acquired,--yet, even during +their power there, the geography of this part of America was +gradually developed and extended; the face of the country; the great +outline of those immense mountains, which, under the torrid zone, are +visited by the cold of the Pole; the nature of the vast plains which +lie between the offsets of these mountains; and the general direction +of the rivers, not less remarkable for their size than the mountains +and plains, were generally known. The geography of South America, +however, taking the term in the most philosophical and comprehensive +sense, has been principally enriched within these few years, by the +labours of Humboldt and his fellow-traveller Bompland, of Depons, +Koster, Prince Maximilian, Luccock, Henderson, and by those +Englishmen who joined the Spanish Americans during their struggle +with the mother country. From the observations, enquiries, and +researches of these travellers, our information respecting all those +parts of South America which constituted the Spanish and Portuguese +dominions there, especially of Mexico, Terra Firma, Brazil, and +Buenos Ayres, and generally the eastern and middle portions, has been +much extended, as well as rendered more accurate and particular. +Humboldt, especially, has left little to be gleaned by any future +traveller, from any of those countries which he has visited and +described.</p> + +<p>The rapid and wonderful increase in the territories and +inhabitants of the United States, has necessarily laid open the +greater part of North America to our acquaintance. The United States, +limited in their wish and endeavours to extend themselves on the +north by the British possessions there, and on the south by the +Spanish territories, and moreover drawn towards the interior and the +shores of the Pacific by the grand natural navigation which the +Mississippi and its numerous streams afford for inland commerce, and +by the commercial access to the wealth of the East which the +possession of the shores of the Pacific would open to them, have +pushed their territories towards the west. First, the Alleghany +Mountains, a feeble barrier to an encreasing population, and a most +enterprising as well as unsettled people, were passed; then the +Mississippi was reached and crossed; and at present the government of +the United States are preparing the way for extending their +territories gradually to the Western Ocean itself, and for spreading +their population, as they go westwards, to the north and the south, +as far as their limits, will admit.</p> + +<p>All those countries, over which they have spread themselves, are +of course now well known, principally from the accounts published by +Europeans, and especially Englishmen, who have been tempted to +explore them, or to settle there. The government of the United States +itself has not been backward in setting on foot exploratory travels +into the immense districts to the west of the Mississippi: to these +enterprizes they seem to have been particularly directed and +stimulated by the acquisition of Louisiana from France, a country +"rich and varied in its soil, almost inexhaustible in natural +resources, and almost indefinite in extent."</p> + +<p>This acquisition was made in the year 1803, and within four years +of this period, three exploratory expeditions were sent out by the +United States. The principal object of the first, which was under the +direction of Major Pike, was to trace the Mississippi to its source, +and to ascertain the direction of the Arkansa and Red Rivers, further +to the west. In the course of this journey, an immense chain of +mountains, called the Rocky Mountains, was approached, which appeared +to be a continuation of the Andes. The ulterior grand object, +however, of this expedition was not obtained, in consequence of the +Spaniards compelling Major Pike to desist and return. A second +attempt was made, by another party, but the Spaniards stopped them +likewise. In the years 1804, 5, and 6, Captains Lewis and Clarke +explored the Missouri to its source, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and +proceeding towards the North Pacific Ocean, ascertained, the origin +and course of the River Columbia.</p> + +<p>In the years 1819 and 1820, several persons, well qualified for +the undertaking by their science, spirit, and enterprize, accompanied +by riflemen, hunters, and assistants, were sent out by the government +of the United States, for the purpose of gaining a more full and +accurate knowledge of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, and of the +rivers, winch, rising there, flowed into the Mississippi. After +passing through a great extent and variety of country, and gaining +some curious information respecting various Indian tribes, especially +of those who inhabit the upper course of the Missouri, they reached +the Mountains: these and the adjacent districts they carefully +examined. They next separated, one party going towards the Red River, +and the other descending the Arkansa. The former party were misled +and misinformed by the Indians, so that they mistook and followed the +Canadian River, instead of the Red River, till it joined the Arkansa. +They were, however, too exhausted to remedy their error. The latter +party were more successful.</p> + +<p>The great outline of the coast, as well as of the greater portion +of the vast continent of America, is now filled up. In the +northernmost parts of North America, the efforts of the British +government to find a north-west passage, the spreading of the +population of Canada, and the increasing importance of the fur trade, +bid fair to add the details of this portion; the spread of the +population of the United States towards the west, will as necessarily +give the details of the middle portion; while, with respect to the +most southern portions of North America, and the whole of South +America, with the exception of the cold, bleak, and barren territory +of Patagonia, the changes which have taken place, and are still in +operation, in the political state of the Spanish and Portuguese +provinces, must soon fill up the little that has been left +unaccomplished by Humboldt, &c.</p> + +<p>What portions, then, of Asia, America, and Africa, are still +<i>unknown?</i>--and what comparison, in point of extent and +importance, do they bear to what was <i>known</i> to the ancients? In +Asia, the interior of the vast kingdom of China is very imperfectly +known, as well as Daouria and other districts on the confines of the +Chinese and Russian empires; central Asia in general, and all that +extensive, populous, and fertile region which extends from the +southern part of Malaya, nearly under the equator, in a northerly +direction, to the fortieth degree of latitude, are still not +explored, or but very partially so, by European travellers. This +region comprehends Aracan, Ava, Pegu, Siam, Tsiompa, and Cambodia. +The south and east coasts of Arabia still require to be more minutely +and accurately surveyed. In the eastern archipelago, Borneo, Celebes, +and Papua, are scarcely known. Though all these bear but a small +proportion to the vast extent of Asia, yet some of them, especially +the country to the north of the Malay peninsula, and the islands in +the eastern archipelago, may justly be regarded as not inferior, in +that importance which natural riches bestows, to any part of this +quarter of the globe.</p> + +<p>Still, however, we possess some general notice, and some vague +reports of all these countries; but it is otherwise with respect to +the unknown portions of Africa. The whole of this quarter of the +world, from the Niger to the confines of the British settlement at +the Cape of Good Hope, may, with little limitation, be considered as +unknown. Travellers have indeed penetrated a short distance from the +western coast into the interior, in some parts between the latitude +of the Niger and the latitude of the extreme northern boundary of the +Cape settlement: and a very little is known respecting some small +portions of the districts closely adjoining to the eastern coast; but +the whole of central Africa is still unexplored, and presents +difficulties and dangers which it is apprehended will not be speedily +or easily overcome. To the north of the Niger lies the Sahara, or +Great Desert; of this, probably, sufficient is known to convince us +that its extent is such, that no country that would repay a traveller +for his fatigue and risk, is situated to the north of it. To the east +of the Niger, however, or rather along its course, and to the north +of its course, as it flows to the east, much remains to be explored; +many geographical details have been indeed gathered from the +Mahomedan merchants of this part of Africa, but these cannot entirely +be trusted. The course and termination of the Niger itself is still +an unsolved problem.</p> + +<p>Captain Scoresby, a most intelligent and active captain in the +whale fishery trade, has very lately succeeded in reaching the +eastern coasts of Greenland, and is disposed to think that the +descendants of the Danish colonists, of whose existence nothing is +known since this coast was blocked, up by ice at the beginning of the +fifteenth century, still inhabit it. The northern shores of +Greenland, and its extent in this direction are still unknown.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the zeal and success with which the government of +the United States prosecute their discoveries to the west of the +Mississippi, there is still much unexplored country between that +river and the Pacific Ocean. It is possible that lands may lie within +the antartic circle, of which we have hitherto as little notion as we +had of South Shetland ten years ago; but if there are such, they must +be most barren and inhospitable. It is possible also, that, +notwithstanding the care and attention with which the great Pacific +has been so repeatedly swept, there may yet be islands in it +undiscovered; but these, however fertile from soil and climate, must +be mere specks in the ocean.</p> + +<p>But though comparatively little of the surface of the globe is now +utterly unknown, yet even of those countries with which we are best +acquainted, much remains to be ascertained, before the geography of +them can justly be regarded as complete. Perhaps we are much less +deficient and inaccurate in our knowledge of the natural history of +the globe, than in its geography, strictly so called; that is, in the +extent, direction, latitudes and longitudes, direction and elevation +of mountains, rise, course, and termination of rivers, &c. How +grossly erroneous geography was till very lately, in some even of its +most elementary parts, and those, too, in relation to what ought to +have been the most accurately known portion of Europe, may be judged +from these two facts,--that till near the close of the last century, +the distance from the South Foreland, in Kent, to the Land's End, was +laid down in all the maps of England nearly half a degree greater +than it actually is; and that, as we have formerly noticed, "the +length of the Mediterranean was estimated by the longitudes of +Ptolemy till the eighteenth century, and that it was curtailed of +nearly twenty-five degrees by observation, no farther back than the +reign of Louis XIV."</p> + +<p>To speak in a loose and general manner, the Romans, at the height +of their conquests, power, and geographical knowledge, were probably +acquainted with a part of the globe about equal in extent to that of +which we are still ignorant; but their empire embraced a fairer and +more valuable portion than we can expect to find in those countries +which remain to reward the enterprise of European travellers. The +fertile regions and the beautiful climate of the south of Europe, of +the north of Africa, and above all of Asia Minor, present a picture +which we can hardly expect will be approached, certainly will not be +surpassed, under the burning heats of central Africa, or even the +more mitigated heats of the farther peninsula of India. The short and +easy access of all portions of the Roman Empire to the ocean, gave +them advantages which must be denied to the hitherto unexplored +districts in the interior of Asia and Africa. The farther peninsula +of India is infinitely better situated in this respect.</p> + +<p>At that very remote period, when sacred and profane history first +displays the situation, and narrates the transactions of the human +race, the countries, few in number, and comparatively of small +extent, that were washed by the waters of the Mediterranean, +comprised the whole of the earth which was then known. Asia Minor, +which possessed the advantage of lying not only on this sea, but also +on the Euxine, and which is moreover level in its surface, and +fertile in its soil, seems to have been the first additional portion +of the earth that became thoroughly known. The commercial enterprize +of the Phoenicians, and their colonists the Carthaginians,--the +conquests of Alexander the Great, and of the Romans, gradually +extended the knowledge of the earth in all directions, but +principally in the middle regions of Europe, in the north of Africa, +and in Asia towards the Indus. At the period when the Roman empire +was destroyed, little more was known; and during the middle ages, +geography was feebly assisted and extended by a desire to possess the +luxuries of the East, (which seems to have been as powerful and +general with the conquerors of the Romans as with the Romans +themselves,) by the religious zeal of a few priests, and by the zeal +for knowledge which actuated a still smaller number of +travellers.</p> + +<p>The desire of obtaining the luxuries of the East, however, was the +predominating principle, and the efficient cause of the extension of +geography. Actuated by it, the passage of the Cape of Good Hope was +accomplished; the eastern limits of Asia were reached; America was +discovered, and even the Frozen Seas were braved and carefully +examined, in the hope that by them a speedier passage might be found +to the countries which produced these luxuries. At length the love of +conquest, of wealth, and of luxury, which alone are sufficiently +gross and stimulating in their nature to act on men in their rudest +and least intellectual state, and which do not loose their hold on +the most civilized, enlightened, and virtuous people, was assisted by +the love of science; and though when this union took place, little of +the globe was unknown, as respected its grand outline, and the +general extent and relative situation of the seas and lands which +compose its surface, yet much remained to be accomplished in +determining the details of geography; in fixing accurately and +scientifically the situation of places; in exhibiting the surface of +the land, as it was distinguished by mountains, plains, lakes, +rivers, &c.; in gaining a full and accurate knowledge of the +natural history of each country, and of the manners, customs, +institutions, religion, manufactures and commerce of its +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Before we give a sketch of the progress of commercial enterprize +during the last hundred years, it will be proper to notice the +advancement of geographical science during the same period, and the +assistance which was thus afforded, as well as from other sources, to +those who travelled both by sea and land, for the purpose of +discovering or exploring foreign and distant countries. This part of +our subject seems naturally to divide itself into three parts; viz. +the improvement of maps, which was equally advantageous to sea and +land travellers; those particulars which rendered navigation more +safe, easy, and expeditious; and those particulars which bestowed the +same benefit on land travellers.</p> + +<p>The science of geography dates its origin, as we have already +mentioned, from Mercator, though he was unable to point out and +explain the law, according to which the projection which bears his +name might be laid down on fixed principles: this was effected by an +Englishman of the name of Wright. Mathematical geography, strictly so +called, seems to have owed its origin to the discussion respecting +the flattening of the Poles, which took place, in the beginning of +the eighteenth century, among Newton, Huygens, and Cassini, and which +was afterwards continued by some of the most distinguished +mathematicians and natural philosophers of France and England. Still, +however, the construction of maps derived little advantage from the +application of strict science to geography, till Delisle, in France, +and Haase, in Germany, directed their attention and talents to this +particular subject: their efforts were indeed great, but in some +measure unavailing, in consequence of the want of sufficient +materials. The same impediment lay in the way of Busching, +notwithstanding he brought to the task the characteristic patience +and research of a German. To him, however, and the more illustrious +D'Anville, accurate delineations and descriptions of the countries of +the globe may first justly be ascribed.</p> + +<p>D'Anville possessed excellent and ample materials, in authentic +relations, and plans and delineations made on the spot: with these he +advanced to the task, calling to his aid mathematical principles. He +first exhibited in his maps the interior of Asia free from that +confusion and error by which all former maps had obscured it; and +struck out from his map of Africa many imaginary kingdoms. Ancient +geography, and the still more involved and dark geography of the +middle ages, received from him the first illumination; and if +subsequent geographers have been able to add to and correct his +labours, it has been chiefly owing to their possessing materials +which did not exist in his time.</p> + +<p>Busching confined himself entirely to modern geography; and though +his minuteness is generally tiresome and superfluous, yet we can +pardon it, for the accuracy of his details: he was patronized and +assisted in his labours by all the governments, of the north, who +gave him access to every document which could further his object.</p> + +<p>Since the time of D'Anville and Busching, the description of +countries, and the construction of maps, have proceeded with a +rapidly encreasing decree of accuracy. In ancient geography, +Gosselin, Rennell, Vincent, and Malte Brun, are among the most +celebrated names. Two Germans, Voss and Munnert, have directed their +labours to illustrate and explain the geographical details and hints +of the Greek poets. It would be almost endless to enumerate those to +whom modern geography, and the construction of modern maps are +principally indebted. Gaspari and Zimmerman, among the Germans, have +thrown into a philosophical and interesting form the labours and +heavy details which were supplied them by less original but more +plodding men. The English, though, as Malte Brun observes, they are +still without a system of geography which deserves the name, are rich +in excellent materials, which have been supplied by the extent of +their dominions and their commerce in various parts of the globe; by +their laudable and happy union of conquest, commerce, and science; +and by the advantage which Dalrymple, Arrowsmith, and other +geographers have derived from these circumstances. The French, +Russians, Spaniards, Danes, and indeed most nations of Europe, +sensible of the vast importance of accurate maps, especially such as +relate to their respective territories, have contributed to render +them much more accurate than they formerly were; so that at present +there is scarcely any part of the globe, which has been visited by +sea or land, of-which we do not possess accurate maps; and no sooner +has the labour of any traveller filled up a void, or corrected an +error, than the map of the country which he has visited becomes more +full and accurate.</p> + +<p>The most direct and perfect application of mathematical and +astronomical science to the delineation of the surface of the globe, +so as to ascertain its exact form, and the exact extent of degrees of +latitude in different parts of it, has been made by the English and +French; and much to their honour, by them in conjunction. The first +modern measurement of degrees of latitude was made by an Englishman +of the name of Norwood: he ascertained the difference of latitude +between London and York in 1635, and then measured their distance: +from these premises he calculated, that the length of a degree was +122,399 English yards. At this time there was no reason to suppose +that the earth was flattened at the Poles. Shortly afterwards, it +having been discovered that the weights of bodies were less at the +equator than at Paris, Huygens and Cassini directed their attention, +as we have already stated, to the subject of the figure of the earth. +In 1670 Picard measured an arc of the meridian in France; and in +1718, the whole area extending through France was measured by Cassini +and other philosophers. The results of this measurement seemed to +disprove Newton's theory, that the curvature of the earth diminished +as we recede from the equator. To remove all doubts, an arc near the +equator was measured in Peru, by some French and Spanish astronomers; +and an arc near the arctic circle by some French and Swedish +astronomers; the result was a confirmation of Newton's theory, and +that the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar by about 1/204 part +of the whole.</p> + +<p>Since this period, arcs of the meridian have been measured in +several countries. In 1787 it was determined by the British and +French governments to connect the observatories of Greenwich and +Paris by a series of triangles, and to compare the differences of +latitudes and longitudes, ascertained by astronomical observations, +with those ascertained by actual measurement. The measurement in +England was extended to a survey of the whole kingdom; and the +accurate maps thus obtained have been since published. Arcs of the +meridian have also been measured lately from Dunkirk to +Barcelona,--in Lapland, by which an error in the former measurement +there was corrected;--and in India.</p> + +<p>We have been thus particular in our notice of this subject, +because it is evident that such measurements must lie at the +foundation of all real improvements in the construction of maps.</p> + +<p>Let us next turn our attention to the improvements in navigation +which have taken place during the last and present centuries; these +seem to consist, principally, in those which are derived from +physical science, and those which are derived from other sources.</p> + +<p>The grand objects of a navigator are the accurate knowledge of +where he exactly is, in any part of his course, and how he ought to +steer, in order to reach his destination in the shortest time. The +means of ascertaining his latitude and longitude, of calculating how +far he has sailed, and at what rate he is sailing, and the direction +of his course with reference to the port to which he is desirous to +proceed, are what he principally requires. We do not intend, by any +means, to enter at any length, or systematically, on these subjects; +but a brief and popular notice of them seems proper and necessary in +such a work as this.</p> + +<p>Astronomy here comes essentially to the aid of navigation: we have +already seen how, even in the rudest state of the latter, it derived +its chief assistance from this sublime science, confined as it then +was to a knowledge of the position of a few stars. Astronomy enables +the navigator to ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to find +the variation of the compass. The principal difficulty in +ascertaining the latitude at sea, arose from the unsteady motion of +the ship: to remedy this, several instruments were invented. We have +already alluded to the astrolobe; but this, as well as the others, +were imperfect and objectionable, till such time as Hadley's quadrant +was invented, the principle and uses of which were first suggested by +Newton.</p> + +<p>To ascertain the longitude was a much more difficult task: there +are evidently two methods of doing this,--by time-keepers or +chronometers, and by making the motions of the celestial bodies serve +instead of time-keepers. About the middle of the seventeenth century, +Huygens proposed the pendulum clock for finding the longitude at sea; +but it was unfit for the purpose, for many and obvious reasons. +Watches, even made with the utmost care, were found to be too +irregular in their rate of going, to be depended upon for this +purpose. In the reign of Queen Anne the celebrated act was passed, +appropriating certain sums for encouraging attempts to ascertain the +longitude. Stimulated by this, Mr. Harrison invented his time-keeper, +which on trial was found to answer the purpose with such tolerable +accuracy, that he was deemed worthy to receive the sum awarded by +parliament: it went within the limit of an error of thirty miles of +longitude, or two minutes of time, in a voyage to the West Indies. +Since this period, chronometers have been much improved, and +excellent ones are very generally used: perhaps the most trying +circumstances in which any were ever placed, existed during the +voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage by Captain Parry; and +then most of those he had with him were found to be extremely +accurate.</p> + +<p>It is evident, however, that chronometers are liable to a variety +of accidents, and that in very long voyages the means of verifying +their rate of going seldom occur. Hence the lunar method, or the +method of ascertaining the longitude by means of the motions of the +moon, is more useful and valuable. Here again, the profoundest +researches of Clairaut, Euler, D'Alembert, and La Place, were brought +practically to bear on navigation. Guided and aided by these, Tobias +Mayer, of Gottingen, compiled a set of solar and lunar tables, which +were sent to the lords of the admiralty, in the year 1755; they gave +the longitude of the moon within thirty seconds. They were afterwards +improved by Dr. Maskelyne and Mr. Mason, and still more lately by +Burg and Burckhardt; the error of these last tables will seldom +exceed fifteen seconds, or seven miles and a half. The computations, +however, necessary in making use of these tables, were found to be +very laborious and inconvenient; to obviate this difficulty, the +nautical almanack, suggested by Dr. Maskelyne, was published, which +is now annually continued. The longitude is thus ascertained to such +a nicety, as to secure the navigator from any danger arising from the +former imperfect modes of finding it; "he is now enabled to make for +his port without sailing into the parallel of latitude, and then, in +the seaman's phrase, running down the port, on the parallel, as was +done before this method was practised. Fifty years ago, navigators +did not attempt to find their longitude at sea, unless by their +reckoning, which was hardly ever to be depended on."</p> + +<p>Not long after the mariner's compass was employed, its variation +was noticed; as it is obvious that, unless the degree and direction +of this variation are accurately known, the compass would be of +little service in navigation, the attention of navigators and +philosophers was carefully directed to this point; and it was +ascertained that the quantity of this variation is subject to regular +periodical changes. By means, therefore, of a table indicating those +changes, under different latitudes and longitudes, and of what are +called variation charts, the uncertainty arising from them is in a +great measure done away. Another source of error however existed, +which does not seem to have been noticed till the period of Captain +Cook's voyages: it was then found, "that the variation of the needle +differed very sensibly on the same spot, with the different +directions of the ship's head." Captain Flinders attributed this to +the iron in the ship, and made a number of observations on the +subject; these have been subsequently added to and corrected, so that +at present the quantity of variation from this cause can be +ascertained, and of course a proper allowance made for it. It does +not appear that any material improvement has been made in the +construction and use of the log,--that useful and necessary appendage +to the compass,--since it was invented about the end of the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p>These are the most important improvements in nautical knowledge +and science, which renders navigation at present so much more safe +and expeditious than it formerly was; there are, however, other +circumstances which tend to the same object; the more full, accurate, +and minute knowledge of the prevalent winds at different times of the +year, and in various parts of the ocean; the means of foretelling +changes of weather; and, principally, a knowledge of the direction +and force of the currents must be regarded as of essential advantage +to the seaman. When to these we add, the coppering of ships, which +was first practised about the year 1761, and other improvements in +their built and rigging, we have enumerated the chief causes which +enable a vessel to reach the East Indies in two-thirds of the time +which was occupied in such a voyage half a century ago.</p> + +<p>Nor must we forget that the health of the seamen has, during the +same period, been rendered infinitely more secure; so that mortality +and sickness, in the longest voyages, and under great and frequent +changes of climate, and other circumstances usually affecting health, +will not exceed what would have occurred on land during the same +time.</p> + +<p>The great advantages which the very improved state of all branches +of physical science, and of natural history, bestow on travellers in +modern times, are enjoyed, though not in an equal degree, by +navigators and by those who journey on land. To the latter they are +indeed most important, and will principally account for the +superiority of modern travels over those which were published a +century ago, or even fifty years since. It is plain that our +knowledge of foreign countries relates either to animate or inanimate +nature: to the soil and geology, the face of the surface, and what +lies below it; the rivers, lakes, mountains, climate, and the plants; +or to the natural history, strictly so called:--and to the manners, +institutions, government, religion, and statistics of the +inhabitants. Consequently, as the appropriate branches of knowledge +relating to these objects are extended, travellers must be better +able, as well as more disposed, to investigate them; and the public +at large require that some or all of them should at least be noticed +in books of travels. The same science, and many of the same +instruments, which enable the seaman to ascertain his latitude and +longitude, and to lay down full and accurate charts of the shores +which he visits, are also useful to the land-traveller; they both +draw assistance from the knowledge of meteorology which they may +possess, to make observations on the climate, and from their +acquaintance with botany and natural history, to give an account of +the plants and animals. But it is evident that so far as the latter +are concerned, as well as so far as relates to the inhabitants, the +land traveller has more opportunities than he who goes on a +voyage.</p> + +<p>But there are other advantages enjoyed by modern travellers +besides those derived from superior science: foreign languages are at +present better and more generally understood; and it is unnecessary +to point out how important such an acquisition is, or rather how +indispensible it is to accurate information. The knowledge of the +languages of the East which many of the gentlemen in the service of +the East India Company, and the missionaries, possess, has been of +infinite service in making us much better acquainted with the +antiquities, history, and present state of those countries, than we +could possibly have otherwise been. There is at present greater +intercourse among even remote nations; and prejudices, which formerly +operated as an almost insurmountable barrier, are now either entirely +destroyed, or greatly weakened: in proof of this, we need only refer +to the numerous travellers who have lately visited Egypt,--a country +which it would have been extremely dangerous to visit half a century +ago. At the same distance of time, natives of Asia or Africa, +especially in their appropriate costume, were seldom or never seen in +the streets of London, or, if seen, would have been insulted, or +greatly incommoded by the troublesome curiosity of its inhabitants; +now there are many such, who walk the streets unmolested, and +scarcely noticed.</p> + +<p>Commerce, which has derived such advantages from the progress of +geographical knowledge, has in some measure repaid the obligation, by +creating a much greater, more intimate, and more frequent mutual +intercourse among nations; and by doing away with those prejudices +and antipathies which formerly closed many countries effectually +against Christian and European travellers: and to the zeal and +perseverance of modern travellers, assisted as they are by commercial +intercourse, we may reasonably hope that we shall, before long, be +indebted for a knowledge of the interior of Africa. Those countries +still imperfectly known in the south-east of Asia will, probably, +from their vicinity to our possessions in Hindostan, be explored from +that quarter. The encreasing population of the United States, and the +independence of South America, will necessarily bring us acquainted +with such parts of the new world as are still unknown. But it is +difficult to conjecture from what sources, and under what +circumstances, the empires of China and Japan will be rendered more +accessible to European travellers: these countries, and some parts of +the interior of Asia, are cut off from our communication by causes +which probably will not speedily cease to operate. The barriers which +still enclose all other countries are gradually yielding to the +causes we have mentioned; and as, along with greater facilities for +penetrating into and travelling within such countries, travellers now +possess greater capabilities of making use of the opportunities thus +enjoyed, we may hope that nearly the whole world will soon be visited +and known, and known, too, in every thing that relates to inanimate +and animate nature.</p> + +<p>The progress of commerce during the last hundred years, the period +of time to which we are at present to direct our attention, has been +so rapid, its ramifications are so complicated, and the objects it +embraces so various and numerous, that it will not be possible, +within the limits to which we must confine ourselves, to enter on +minute and full details respecting it; nor would these be consonant +to the nature of our work, or generally interesting and +instructive.</p> + +<p>During the infancy of commerce, as well as of geographical +science, we deemed it proper to be particular in every thing that +indicated their growth; but the reasons which proved the necessity, +or the advantage, of such a mode of treating these subjects in the +former parts of this volume, no longer exist, but in fact give way to +reasons of an opposite nature--reasons for exhibiting merely a +general view of them. Actuated by these considerations, we have been +less minute and particular in what relates to modern geography, than +In what relates to ancient; and we shall follow the same plan in +relation to what remains to be said on the subject of commerce. So +long as any of the causes which tended to advance geography and +commerce acted obscurely and imperfectly--so long as they were in +such a weak state that the continuance of their progress was +doubtful, we entered pretty fully into their history; but after a +forward motion was communicated to them, such as must carry them +towards perfection without the possibility of any great or permanent +check, we have thought it proper to abstain from details, and to +confine ourselves to more general views. Guided by this principle +which derives additional weight from the vastness to which commerce +has reached within the last hundred years, we shall now proceed to a +rapid and general sketch of its progress during that period, and of +its present state.</p> + +<p>From the first and feeble revival of commerce in the middle ages, +till the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the Italian republics, +and the Hanseatic League, nearly monopolized all the trade of Europe; +the former, from their situation, naturally confining themselves to +the importation and circulation of the commodities supplied by the +East, and by the European countries in the south of Europe, and the +districts of Africa then known and accessible; while the latter +directed their attention and industry to those articles which the +middle and north of Europe produced or manufactured.</p> + +<p>The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope gave a different direction +to the commerce of the East, while at the same time it very greatly +extended it; but as it is obvious that a greater quantity of the +commodities supplied by this part of the world could not be +purchased, except by an increase in the produce and manufactures of +the purchasing nations, they also pushed forward in industry, +experience, skill, and capital. The Portuguese and Spaniards first +reaped the fruits of the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope; +subsequently the Dutch; and at the period at which this part of our +sketch of commerce commences, the English were beginning to assume +that hold and superiority in the East, by which they are now so +greatly distinguished. The industry of Europe, especially of the +middle and northern states, was further stimulated by the discovery +of America, and, indirectly, by all those causes which in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tended to increase information, and +to secure the liberty of the mass of the people. The invention of +printing; the reformation; the destruction of the feudal system, at +least in its most objectionable, degrading, and paralizing features; +the contentions between the nobility and the sovereigns, and between +the latter and the people; gave a stimulus to the human mind, and +thus enlarged its capacities, desires, and views, in such a manner, +that the character of the human race assumed a loftier port.</p> + +<p>From all these causes commerce benefited, and, as was natural to +expect, it benefited most in those countries where most of these +causes operated, and where they operated most powerfully. In Holland +we see a memorable and gratifying instance of this: a comparatively +small population, inhabiting a narrow district, won and kept from the +overwhelming of the ocean, by most arduous, incessant, and expensive +labour,--and the territory thus acquired and preserved not naturally +fertile, and where fertile only calculated to produce few +articles,--a people thus disadvantageously situated, in respect to +territory and soil, and moreover engaged in a most perilous, +doubtful, and protracted contest for their religion and liberty, with +by far the most potent monarch of Europe,--this people, blessed with +knowledge and freedom, forced to become industrious and enterprizing +by the very adverse circumstances in which they were placed, +gradually wrested from their opponents--the discoverers of the +treasures of the East and of the new world, and who were moreover +blessed with a fertile soil and a luxurious climate at home,--their +possessions in Asia, and part of their possessions in America. Nor +did the enterprising spirit of the Dutch confine itself to the +obtaining of these sources of wealth: they became, as we have already +seen, the carriers for nearly the whole of Europe; by their means the +productions of the East were distributed among the European nations, +and the bulky and mostly raw produce of the shores of the Baltic was +exchanged for the productions and manufactures of France, England, +Germany, and the Italian states.</p> + +<p>From the middle of the eighteenth century, the commerce of the +Dutch began to decline; partly in consequence of political disputes +among themselves, but principally because other nations of Europe now +put forth their industry with effect and perseverance. The English +and the French, especially, became their great rivals; first, by +conducting themselves each their own trade, which had been previously +carried on by the Dutch, and, subsequently, by the possessions they +acquired in the East. The American war, and soon afterwards the +possession of Holland by the French during the revolutionary war, +gave a fatal blow to the remnant of their commerce, from which it has +not recovered, nor is likely at any time to recover, at least nearly +to its former flourishing state. For, as we have remarked, the Dutch +were flourishing and rich, principally because other nations were +ignorant, enslaved, and destitute of industry, skill, and +capital.</p> + +<p>England took the place of the Dutch in the scale of commercial +enterprise and success: the contest between them was long and +arduous; but at length England attained a decided and permanent +superiority. She gradually extended her possessions in the East; and +after expelling the French from this part of the world, became in +reality the only European sovereign power there.</p> + +<p>The manufactures of England, those real and abundant causes and +sources of her immense commerce, did not begin to assume that +importance and extent to which they have at present reached, till the +middle, or rather the latter part of the eighteenth century; then her +potteries, her hardware, her woollens, and above all her cotton +goods, began to improve. Certainly the steam engine is the grand +cause to which England's wealth and commerce may be attributed in a +great degree; but the perfection to which it has been brought, the +multifarious uses to which it is applied, both presuppose skill, +capital, and industry, without which the mere possession of such an +engine would have been of little avail.</p> + +<p>At the termination of the American war, England seemed completely +exhausted: she had come out of a long and expensive contest, deprived +of what many regarded as her most valuable possessions, and having +contracted an enormous debt. Yet in a very few years, she not only +revived, but flourished more than ever; it is in vain to attribute +this to any other causes but those alone which can produce either +individual or national wealth, viz. industry, enterprize, knowledge, +and economy, and capital acquired by means of them. But what has +rendered Britain more industrious, intelligent, and skilful than +other nations?--for if we can answer this question, we can +satisfactorily account for her acquisition of capital; and capital, +industry, and skill existing, commerce and wealth must necessarily +follow.</p> + +<p>Britain enjoys greater political freedom, and greater security of +property than any other European nation; and without political +freedom, the mass of the people never can be intelligent, or possess +either comprehensive views or desires; and where views and desires +are limited, there can be no regular, general, and zealous industry. +Unless, however, security of property is enjoyed, as well as +political liberty, industry, even if it could spring up under such +circumstances, must soon droop and decay. It is a contradiction in +terms to suppose that comprehensive views and desires can exist and +lead to action, when at the same time it is extremely doubtful +whether the objects of them could be realized, or, if realized, +whether they would not immediately be destroyed, or torn from those +whose labour, and skill, and anxious thought had acquired them.</p> + +<p>But there are other causes to which we must ascribe the extension +of British manufactures and commerce; of these we shall only +enumerate what we regard as the principal and the most powerful: the +stimulus which any particular improvement in manufactures gives to +future and additional improvements, or rather, perhaps, the necessity +which it creates for such additional improvements; the natural +operation of enlarged capital; the equally natural operation of +encreased wealth among the various classes of the community; the +peculiar circumstances in which Britain has been placed since the +termination of the war which deprived her of her American colonies; +and, lastly, her national debt. A short view of each of these +particulars will, we believe, sufficiently account for the present +unparalleled state of British manufactures and commerce.</p> + +<p>The direct effect of improvement in the mode of manufacturing any +article, by the introduction of a more powerful machinery, is to +encrease the quantity, and to lower the price of that article. Hence +it follows, that those who manufacture it on the old plan must be +undersold, unless they also adopt such machinery; and as knowledge, +both speculative and practical, has greater chance to improve in +proportion as it is spread, from this cause, as well as from the more +powerful cause of rival interests, wherever improvements in +manufactures have begun and been extended, they are sure to +advance.</p> + +<p>That this is not theoretical doctrine requires only an appeal to +what has been effected, and is yet effecting in Britain, to prove. A +very curious, interesting, and instructive work might be written on +the improvements in the cotton machinery alone, which have been made +in this country during the last forty years: we mean interesting and +instructive, not merely on account of the tacts relative to +mechanical ingenuity which it would unfold, but on account of the +much higher history which it would give of the mechanism of the human +mind, and of the connections and ramifications of the various +branches of human knowledge. In what state would the commerce of +Great Britain have been at this time, if the vast improvements in the +machinery for spinning cotton had not been made and universally +adopted?--and how slowly and imperfectly would these improvements +have taken place, had the sciences been unconnected, or greater +improvements, which at first were unseen or deemed impracticable, not +been gradually developed, as lesser improvements were made. The +stimulus of interest, the mutual connection of various branches of +science, and above all the unceasing onward movement of the human +mind in knowledge, speculative as well as practical, must be regarded +as the most powerful causes of the present wonderful state of our +manufactures, and, consequently, of our commerce.</p> + +<p>2. The natural operation of enlarged capital is another cause of +our great commerce. There is nothing more difficult in the history of +mankind--not the history of their wars and politics, but the history +of their character, manners, sentiments, and progress in civilization +and wealth--[as->than] to distinguish and separate those facts +which ought to be classed as causes, and those which ought to be +classed as effects. There can be no doubt that trade produces +capital; and, in this point of view, capital must be regarded as an +effect: there can be as little doubt, that an increase of capital is +favourable to an increase of commerce, and actually produces it; in +this point of view, therefore, capital must be regarded as a cause. +As in the physical world action and reaction are equal, so are they, +in many respects, and under many circumstances, in the moral and +intellectual world; but, whereas in the physical world the action and +reaction are not only equal but simultaneous, in the moral and +intellectual world the reaction does not take place till after the +immediate and particular action from which it springs has ceased.</p> + +<p>To apply these remarks to our present subject, it is unnecessary +to point out in what manner trade must increase capital; that +capital, on the other hand, increases trade, is not, perhaps, at +first sight, quite so obvious; but that it must act in this manner +will be perceptible, when, we reflect on the advantages which a large +capital gives to its possessor. It enables him to buy cheaper, +because he can buy larger quantities, and give ready money; buying +cheaper, he can sell cheaper, or give longer credit, or both; and +this must ensure an increase of trade. It enables him immediately to +take advantage of any improvement in the mode of manufacturing any +article; and to push the sale of any article into countries where it +was before unknown. Such are some of the more important effects on +commerce of large capital; and these effects have been most obviously +and strikingly shewn in the commercial history of Britain for the +last thirty years, and thus give a practical confirmation to the +doctrine, that capital, originally the creature of trade, in its turn +gives nourishment, rigour, and enlarged growth to it.</p> + +<p>3. Encreased wealth among the various classes of the community, +may be viewed In the same light as capital; it flows from increased +trade, and it produces a still further increase of trade. The views, +and desires, and habits of mankind, are like their knowledge, they +are and must be progressive: and if accompanied, as they generally +are, by increased means, they must give birth to increased industry +and skill, and their necessary consequences, increased trade and +wealth.</p> + +<p>Had the views, desires, and habits of mankind, and especially of +the inhabitants of Europe and the United States, continued as they +were fifty years ago, it is absolutely impossible that one half of +the goods manufactured in Great Britain could have been disposed of; +and unless these additional and enlarged views, desires, and habits, +had been accompanied with commensurate means of gratifying them, our +manufactures and commerce could not have advanced as they have done. +Minutely and universally divided as human labour is, no one country +can render its industry and skill additionally productive, without, +at the same time, the industry and skill of other countries also +advance. No one nation can acquire additional wealth, unless +additional wealth is also acquired in other nations. Before an +additional quantity of commodities can be sold, additional means to +purchase them must be obtained; or, in other words, increased +commerce, supposes increased wealth, not only in that country in +which commerce is increased, but also in that where the buyers and +consumers live.</p> + +<p>4. Since the termination of the American war, Britain has been +placed in circumstances favourable to her commerce: the human mind +cannot long be depressed; there is an elasticity about it which +prevents this. Perhaps it is rather disposed to rebound, in +proportion to the degree and time of its restraint. It is certain, +however, that the exhaustion produced by the American war speedily +gave place to wonderful activity in our manufactures and commerce; +and that, at the commencement of the first French revolutionary war, +they had both taken wonderful and rapid strides. The circumstances, +indeed, of such a country as Britain, and such a people as the +British, must be essentially changed,--changed to a degree, and in a +manner, which we can hardly suppose to be brought about by any +natural causes,--before its real wealth can be annihilated, or even +greatly or permanently diminished. The climate and the soil, and all +the improvements and ameliorations which agriculture has produced on +the soil, must remain: the knowledge and skill, and real capital of +the inhabitants, are beyond the reach of any destroying cause: +interest must always operate and apply this knowledge and skill, +unless we can suppose, what seems as unlikely to happen as the change +of our climate and soil, the annihilation of our knowledge and skill, +or that interest should cease to be the stimulating cause of +industry; unless we can suppose that political and civil freedom +should be rooted out, and individual property no longer secure.</p> + +<p>Circumstances, however, though they cannot destroy, must +influence, beneficially or otherwise, the wealth and commerce of a +country; and it may happen that circumstances apparently unfavourable +may become beneficial. This was the case with Britain: during the +American war, her manufactures and commerce languished; during the +French wars they increased and throve most wonderfully. The cause of +this difference must be sought for principally in the very artificial +and extraordinary circumstances in which she was placed during the +French war: and of these circumstances, the most powerfully operative +were her foreign loans; her paper circulation; the conquests and +subsequent measures of Bonaparte on the continent; and her +superiority at sea. Foreign loans necessarily rendered the exchange +unfavourable to Britain; an unfavourable exchange, or, in other +words, a premium on bills, in any particular country, enabled the +merchant to sell his goods there at a cheaper rate than formerly, and +consequently to extend his commerce there. The paper circulation of +Britain,--though a bold and hazardous step, and which in a less +healthy and vigorous state of public credit and wealth than Britain +enjoyed could not have been taken, or, if taken, would not have +produced nearly the beneficial effects it did, and would have left +much more fatal consequences than we are at present +experiencing,--undoubtedly tended to increase her commerce; and the +very stimulus which it gave to all kinds of speculation has been +favourable to it. The ruinous consequences of such speculation, +though dreadful, are comparatively of short duration; whereas it is +impossible that speculation should be active and vigorous, with +commensurate means, without improving manufactures, and opening new +channels for commerce; and these effects must remain. In what manner +the measures of Bonaparte on the continent, and our superiority at +sea, were favourable to our commerce, it is unnecessary to +explain.</p> + +<p>Lastly. It only remains to explain how our national debt has been +beneficial to our commerce. Necessity, if it is not absolutely +overpowering, must act as a stimulus to industry as well as interest: +the desire to avoid evil, and the desire to obtain good, are equally +powerful motives to the human mind. In the same manner as an increase +of family, by creating additional expense, spurs a man to additional +industry; so the certainty that he must pay additional taxes produces +the same effect. Individuals may contrive to shift the burden from +themselves, and pay their taxes by spending less; but there can be no +doubt that the only general, sure, and permanent fund, out of which +additional taxes can be paid, must arise from the fruits of +additional industry. We wish to guard against being taken for the +advocates for taxation, as in any shape a blessing: we are merely +stating what we conceive to be its effect. But we should no more +regard taxation as a blessing, because it increased commerce, than we +should regard it as a blessing to a man, that, from any cause, he was +obliged to work fourteen hours a day instead of twelve. In both +cases, increased labour might be necessary, but it would not the less +be an evil.</p> + +<p>The only other nation, the commerce of which has increased very +materially and rapidly, is the United States of America; and if we +trace the chief and most powerful causes of their commercial +prosperity, we-shall still further be confirmed in the opinion, that +at least some of the causes which we have assigned for the extension +of British commerce are the true ones; and that, in fact, commerce +cannot generally or permanently increase where these causes do not +exist, and that where they do they must encourage and extend it</p> + +<p>It is not our intention to enter into a detail of the causes of +American prosperity, except so far as they are connected with its +commerce. They may, however, be summed up in a few words. An +inexhaustible quantity of land, in a good climate, obtained without +difficulty, and at little expence; with the produce of it, when +obtained and cultivated, entirely at the disposal and for the +exclusive advantage of the proprietor. The same with regard to all +other labour; or, in other words, scarcely any taxes: and with +respect to labour in general, great demand for it, and extremely high +wages. These are causes of increased population and of prosperity, +and indirectly of commerce, peculiar to America. It requires no +illustration or proof to comprehend how the increased produce of a +new soil must supply increased articles for commerce. While Britain, +therefore, finds increased articles for her commerce, from her +improvements in the machinery applicable to manufactures, by means of +which the same quantity of human labour is rendered infinitely more +productive,--the United States finds materials for her increased +commerce, in the increasing stock of the produce of the soil.</p> + +<p>Political and civil liberty, and the consequent security of +property, are causes of commercial prosperity, common to the United +States and Britain.</p> + +<p>It may also be remarked, that the circumstances of Europe, almost +ever since the United States have had a separate and independent +existence, have been favourable to its commerce. The long war between +Britain and France afforded them opportunities for increasing their +commerce, which they most sedulously and successfully embraced and +improved. They became, in fact, the carriers for France, and in many +cases the introducers of British produce into the continent.</p> + +<p>There is only another circumstance connected with the United +States to which we deem it necessary to advert in this brief and +general developement of the causes of their commercial prosperity: we +allude to the wonderful facilities for internal commerce afforded +them by their rivers, and especially by the Mississippi and its +branches. There can be no doubt that easy, speedy, cheap, and general +inter-communication to internal trade,--whether by means of roads and +canals, as in England, or by means of rivers as in America, is +advantageous to foreign commerce, both directly and indirectly. It is +advantageous directly, in so far as it enables the manufacturer with +great facility, and at little expence, to transmit his goods to the +places of exportation; and to ascertain very quickly the state of the +markets by which he regulates his purchases, sales, and even the +quantity and direction of his labour. It is advantageous indirectly, +in so far as by stimulating and encouraging internal trade, it +increases wealth, and with increased wealth comes the increased +desire of obtaining foreign produce, and the increased means to +gratify that desire.</p> + +<p>We deemed it proper to preface the details we shall now give on +the subject of the present state of commerce with these general +remarks on the principal causes which have enlarged it, in those two +countries in which alone it flourishes to a very great extent. But, +as we have already remarked, commerce cannot extend in one country, +without receiving an impulse in other countries. While, therefore, +British and American commerce have been increasing, the general +commerce of the whole civilized world, and even of parts hardly +civilized, have been increasing; but in no country nearly to the +extent to which it has reached in Britain and the United States, +because none are blessed with the political advantages they enjoy, or +have the improved machinery and capital of the one, or the almost +inexhaustible land of the other.</p> + +<p>In the details which we are now about to give, we shall confine +ourselves to the statement of any particular circumstance which may +have been favourable or otherwise to the commerce of any country +during the last hundred years, and to an enumeration of the principal +ports and articles of import and export of each country. We shall not +attempt to fix the value of the imports and exports in toto, or of +any particular description of them, because there are in fact no +grounds on which it can be accurately fixed. We shall, however, in +the arrangement of the order of the goods exported, place ihose first +which constitute the most numerous and important articles.</p> + +<p>1. The countries in the north of Europe, including Russia, Sweden, +Norway, Denmark, and the countries generally on the south shores of +the Baltic. From the geographical situation of these countries, and +their consequent climate, the chief articles of the export commerce +must consist in the coarsest produce of the soil. These, and the +produce of their mines, are the sources of their wealth, and +consequently of their commerce.</p> + +<p>The principal exports of Norway consist of timber, masts, tar, +potash, hides, (chiefly those of the goat,) iron, copper, cobalt, +tallow, salted provisions, and fish. Corn, principally from the +southern shores of the Baltic, is the most considerable article of +import. The only event in the modern history of this country, which +can affect its commerce, is its annexation to Sweden; and whether it +will be prejudicial or otherwise, is not yet ascertained.</p> + +<p>Denmark consists of the islands in the Baltic, and the peninsula +lying in the north-west of Germany, comprizing Jutland, Sleswig, and +Holstein. The face of the country, both insular and continental, +presents a striking contrast to that of Norway, being flat, and +fertile in corn and cattle. Denmark possesses a large extent of sea +coast, but the havens do not admit large vessels. The communication +between the insular and continental possessions, the German ocean and +the Baltic, and consequently the commerce of Denmark, was much +facilitated by the canal of Keil, which was finished in 1785. Prior +to the year 1797, the commerce was much injured by numerous +restraints on importation. During the short wars between this country +and Britain, it suffered considerably. At present it cannot rank high +as a commercial kingdom. Denmark and the Duchies, as they are called, +export wheat, rye, oats, barley, rape seed, horses, cattle, fish, +wooden domestic articles, &c.; and import chiefly woollen goods, +silks, cottons, hardware, cutlery, paper, salt, coals, iron, hemp, +flax, wines, tobacco, sugar, and other colonial produce.</p> + +<p>Sweden in general is a country, the wealth, and consequently the +objects of commerce of which, are principally derived from its mines +and woods. Its principal ports are Stockholm and Gothenburgh. The +political event in the history of this country which gave the most +favourable impulse to its commerce in modern times, is the alteration +in its constitution after the death of Charles XII.; by this the +liberties of the people were encreased, and a general stimulus +towards national industry was given: agriculture was improved, the +produce of the mines doubled, and the fishery protected. More lately, +the revolution in 1772, and the loss of Finland, have been +prejudicial to Sweden. The principal exports are, iron, copper, +pine-timber, pitch, tar, potash, fish, &c.; the principal imports +are, corn, tobacco, salt, wines, oils, wool, hemp, soap, cotton, silk +and woollen goods, hardware, sugar, and other colonial produce.</p> + +<p>The most important commercial port on the southern shore of the +Baltic is Dantzic, which belongs to Prussia. This town retained a +large portion of the commerce of the Baltic after the fall of the +Hanseatic League, and with Lubec, Hamburgh, and Bremen, preserved a +commercial ascendency in the Baltic. It suffered, however, +considerably by the Prussians acquiring possession of the banks of +the Vistula, until it was incorporated with the kingdom in 1793. +Dantzic exports nearly the whole of the produce of the fertile +country of Poland, consisting of corn, hides, horse-hair, honey, wax, +oak, and other timber; the imports consist principally of +manufactured goods and colonial produce. Swedish Pomerania, and +Mecklenburgh, neither of which possess any ports of consequence, draw +the greater part of their exports from the soil, as salted and smoked +meat, hides, wool, butter, cheese, corn, and fruit; the imports, like +those of Dantzic, are principally manufactured goods and colonial +produce.</p> + +<p>The immense extent of Russia does not afford such a variety, or +large supply of articles of commerce, as might be expected: this is +owing to the ungenial and unproductive nature of a very large portion +of its soil, to the barbarous and enslaved state of its inhabitants, +and to the comparatively few ports, which it possesses, and the +extreme distance from the ocean or navigable rivers of its central +parts. We have already mentioned the rise of Petersburgh, and its +rapid increase in population and commerce. The subsequent sovereigns +of Russia have, in this as in all other respects, followed the +objects and plans of its founder; though they have been more +enlightened and successful in their plans of conquest than in those +of commerce. The most important advantage which they have bestowed on +commerce, arises from the canals and inland navigation which connects +the southern and the northern provinces of this vast empire. The +principal commerce of Russia is by the Baltic. Petersburgh and Riga +are the only ports of consequence here; from them are exported corn, +hemp, flax, fir timber, pitch, tar, potash, iron and copper, hides, +tallow, bristles, honey, wax, isinglass, caviar, furs, &c. The +principal imports consist of English manufactures and colonial +produce, especially coffee and sugar, wines, silks, &c. The +commerce of the Black Sea has lately increased much, especially at +Odessa. The principal exports are, corn, furs, provisions, &c.; +its imports, wine, fruit, coffee, silks, &c. Russia carries on a +considerable internal trade with Prussia, Persia, and China, +especially, with the latter. Nearly the whole of her maritime +commerce is in the hands of foreigners, the Russians seeming rather +averse to the sea; and the state of vassalage in the peasants, which +binds them to the soil, preventing the formation of seamen. Latterly, +however, she has displayed considerable zeal in posecuting maritime +discoveries; and as she seems disposed to extend her possessions in +the north-west coast of America, this will necessarily produce a +commercial marine.</p> + +<p>2. The next portion of Europe to which we shall direct our +attention consists of Germany, the Netherlands, and France.</p> + +<p>Germany, though an extensive and fertile country, and inhabited by +an intelligent and industrious race of people, possesses few +commercial advantages from its want of ports: those on the Baltic +have been already mentioned; those on the German Ocean are Hamburgh +and Embden, of which Hamburgh is by far the most important, while, to +the south, the only port it possesses is Trieste. It is, however, +favoured in respect to rivers: the Elbe, Weser, Rhine, and Danube, +with their tributary streams affording great facilities, not only for +inland commerce, but also for the export and import of commodities. +The chief political disadvantage under which Germany labours, +affecting its commerce, arises from the number of independent states +into which it is divided, and the despotic nature of most of its +governments. As might be expected from such a large tract of country, +the productions of Germany are various. Saxony supplies for +exportation, wool of the finest quality, corn, copper, cobalt, and +other metals, thread, linen-lace, porcelain, &c. Hanover is +principally distinguished for its mines, which supply metals for +exportation. The chief riches of Bavaria arise from its corn and +cattle: these, with pottery, glass, linen, and silk, are the exports +of Wurtemburgh. Prussia Proper affords few things for exportation: +the corn of her Polish provinces has been already mentioned, as +affording the principal export from Dantzic. Silesia supplies linen +to foreign countries. Austria, and its dependant states, export +quicksilver, and other metals, besides cattle, corn, and wine.</p> + +<p>The commerce of the Netherlands, including Holland, though far +inferior in extent and importance to what it formerly was, is still +not inconsiderable. Indeed, the situation of Holland, nearly all the +towns and villages of which have a communication with the sea, either +by rivers or canals, and through some part of the territory of which +the great rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheld empty themselves into the +sea, must always render it commercial. The principal ports of the +Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp. The exports of the +Netherlands consist either of its own produce and manufactures, or of +those which are brought to it from the interior of Germany: of the +former, butter, cheese, madder, clover-seed, toys, &c. constitute +the most important; from Germany, by means of the Rhine, vast floats +of timber are brought. The principal imports of the Netherlands, both +for her own use and for the supply of Germany, consist of Baltic +produce, English goods, colonial produce, wines, fruits, oil, +&c.</p> + +<p>There is perhaps no country in Europe which possesses greater +advantages for commerce than France: a large extent of sea coast, +both on the Atlantic and the Mediterranean; excellent harbours; a +rich soil and genial climate, adapted to a great variety of valuable +productions; and some manufactures very superior in their +workmanship,--all these present advantages seldom found united. Add +to these her colonial possessions, and we shall certainly be +surprized that her commerce should ever have been second, to that of +any other country in Europe. Prior to the revolution it was certainly +great; but during and since that period it was and is vastly inferior +to the commerce of Great Britain, and even to that of the United +States.</p> + +<p>The extent of sea coast on the Atlantic is 283 leagues, and on the +Mediterranean eighty leagues: the rivers are numerous, but none of +the first class. The canal of Languedoc, though from its connecting +the Atlantic and the Mediterranean it would naturally be supposed +highly advantageous to commerce, is not so; or rather, it is not +turned to the advantage to which it might be applied. In England such +a canal would be constantly filled with vessels transporting the +produce of one part to another. It is not, however, so; and this +points to a feature in the French character which, in all +probability, will always render them indisposed, as well as unable, +to rival Britain, either in manufactures or commerce. Besides the +want of capital, which might be supplied, and would indeed be +actually supplied by industry and invention, the French are destitute +of the stimulus to industry and invention. As a nation, they are much +more disposed to be content with a little, and to enjoy what they +possess without risk, anxiety, or further labour, than to increase +their wealth at such a price.</p> + +<p>The principal commercial ports of France on the Atlantic are +Havre, St. Maloes, Nantes, Bourdeaux, and Bayonne: Marseilles is the +only commercial port of consequence in the Mediterranean. The +principal exports of France are wines, brandy, vinegar, fruit, oil, +woollen cloth of a very fine quality, silk, perfumery, &c.: the +imports are Baltic produce, the manufactures of England; fruits, +drugs, raw wool, leather, &c. from Spain, Italy, and the +Mediterranean states.</p> + +<p>3. The next division of Europe comprehends Spain, Portugal, Italy, +and Greece.</p> + +<p>Spain, a country highly favoured by nature, and at one period +surpassed by no other kingdom in Europe in civilization, knowledge, +industry, and power, exhibits an instructive and striking instance of +the melancholy effects of political degradation. Under the power of +the Arabians, she flourished exceedingly; and even for a short period +after their expulsion, she retained a high rank in the scale of +European kingdoms. The acquisition of her East Indian and American +territories, and the high eminence to which she was raised during the +dominion of Charles V. and his immediate successors,--events that to +a superficial view of things would have appeared of the greatest +advantage to her,--proved, in fact, in their real and permanent +operation, prejudicial to her industry, knowledge, and power. It +would seem that the acquisition of the more precious metals, which +may be likened to the power of converting every thing that is touched +into gold, is to nations what it was to Midas,--a source of evil +instead of good. Spain, having substituted the artificial stimulus of +her American mines in the place of the natural and nutritive food of +real industry, on which she fed during the dominion of the Moors, +gradually fell off in commercial importance, as well as in political +consequence and power. The decline in her commerce, and in her home +industry, was further accelerated and increased by the absurd +restrictions which she imposed on the intercourse with her colonies. +All these circumstances concurring, about the period when she fell +into the power of the house of Bourbon,--that is, about the beginning +of the eighteenth century,--she sunk very low in industry and +commerce, and she has, since that period, continued to fall.</p> + +<p>And yet, as we have observed, she possesses great natural +advantages: a sea coast on the Atlantic and Mediterranean of +considerable extent; a great variety of climate and soil, and +consequently of productions,--she might become, under a wise and free +government, distinguished for her political power and her +commerce.</p> + +<p>On the Atlantic, the first port towards the north is Saint +Sebastian; then succeeds Bilboa, St. Andero, Gijon, Ferrol, and +Corunna; but though some of these, especially Ferrol and Corunna, +possess excellent harbours, yet the poverty of the adjacent country +prevents them from having much trade. To the south of Portugal is +Seville, on the Guadalquiver, sixteen leagues from the sea; large +vessels can ascend to this city, but its commerce was nearly +destroyed by the transfer of the colonial trade to Cadiz. This last +town, one of the most ancient commercial places in the world, is +highly favoured both by nature and art as a port; and before the +French revolutionary war, and the separation of the American colonies +from the mother state, was undoubtedly the first commercial city in +Spain. The exports of the northern provinces consist principally in +iron, wool, chesnuts and filberts, &c.; the imports, which +chiefly come from England, Holland, and France, are woollen, linen, +and cotton goods, hardware, and salted fish.</p> + +<p>On the Mediterranean, Malaga may be regarded as the third +commercial city in Spain, though its harbour is not good; the other +ports in this sea, at which trade is carried on to any considerable +extent, are Carthagena, Alicant, and Barcelona, which ranks after +Cadiz in commercial importance, and now that the colonial trade is +destroyed, may be placed above it. The principal exports from these +Mediterranean towns are wines, dried fruits, oils, anchovies, wool, +barilla, soap, kermes, antimony, vermilion, brandy, cork, silk, +&c. Barcelona formerly exported an immense number of shoes to the +colonies. The imports consist chiefly of Baltic produce, the articles +enumerated as forming the imports of the north of Spain, and some +articles from Italy and Turkey.</p> + +<p>Portugal, not nearly so extensive as Spain, nor blessed with such +a fertile territory, is before her in commerce: she possesses two +sea-ports of the first consideration, Lisbon and Oporto; and five of +the second class. There are few cities that surpass Lisbon in +commerce. The principal trade of Portugal is with England; from this +country she receives woollens and other manufactures; coals, tin, +salted cod, Irish linen, salt provisions, and butter: her other +imports are iron from the north of Spain; from France, linens, silks, +cambrics, fine woollens, jewellery; from Holland, corn, cheese, and +drugs for dying; from Germany, linens, corn, &c.; and from +Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, Baltic produce. The principal exports of +Portugal are wine, oil, fruits, cork, &c.</p> + +<p>The Italian States, the origin of the commerce of the middle ages, +are no longer remarkable for their trade; the principal ports for +commerce are Leghorn, Naples, Venice, Genoa, Messina, and Palermo. +The exports of Leghorn are silk, raw and manufactured; straw hats, +olive oil, fruits, marble, &c.: its chief trade, however, +consists in the importation of English merchandize, which it +distributes to all parts of the Mediterranean, receiving in return +their produce to load the British ships on their home voyage. The +greatest import to Naples consists in European manufactured goods, +and salt fish; its exports are those of Leghorn, with capers, wool, +dye stuffs, manna, wax, sulphur, potash, macaroni, &c. Venice has +declined very much, from the influence of political circumstances: +her exports are olives, looking-glasses, rice, coral, Venice treacle, +scarlet cloth, and gold and silver stuffs; the imports are similar to +those of Leghorn and Naples. The exports and imports of Genoa, +consisting principally of those already enumerated, do not require +particular notice. Sicily, a very rich country by nature, and +formerly the granary of Rome, has fallen very low from bad +government: her exports are very various, including, beside those +already mentioned, barilla, a great variety of dying drugs and +medicines, goat, kid, and rabbit skins, anchovies, tunny fish, wheat, +&c.: its chief imports are British goods, salted fish, and +colonial produce.</p> + +<p>The principal trade of Greece is carried on by the inhabitants of +Hydra, a barren island. The commerce of the Hydriots, as well as of +the rest of Greece, was very much benefited by the scarcity of corn +which prevailed in France in 1796, and subsequently by the attempts +of Bonaparte to shut British manufactures from the continent. These +two causes threw the greatest part of the coasting trade of the +Mediterranean into their hands. The chief articles of export from +Greece are oil, fruits, skins, drugs, volonia, and gall nuts, cotton +and wool. The imports are principally English goods, and colonial +produce, tin, lead, &c.</p> + +<p>We have already dwelt on the causes which produced the immense +commercial superiority of England; and we shall, therefore, now +confine ourselves to an enumeration of its principal ports, and the +principal articles of its export and import. London possesses +considerably above one-half of the commerce of Great Britain; the +next town is undoubtedly Liverpool; then may be reckoned, in England, +Bristol, Hull, Newcastle, Sunderland, Yarmouth, &c.; in Scotland, +Greenock, Leith, Aberdeen, Dundee, &c.; in Ireland, Cork, Dublin, +Limerick, Belfast, Waterford, &c. From the last return of the +foreign trade of Great Britain it appears, that by far the most +important article of export is cotton manufactures and yarn, +amounting in real or declared value to nearly one-half of the whole +amount of goods exported; the next articles, arranged according to +their value, are woollen manufactures, refined sugar, linen +manufactures, iron, steel and hardware, brass and copper +manufactures, glass, lead, and shot, &c. &c.; of colonial +produce exported, the principal articles are coffee, piece goods of +India, rum, raw sugar, indigo, &c. &c. The principal imports +of Great Britain are cotton wool, raw sugar, tea, flax, coffee, raw +silk, train oil and blubber, madder, indigo, wines, &c. &c. +The principal imports into Ireland consist of old drapery, entirely +from Great Britain; coals, also entirely from Great Britain; iron +wrought and unwrought, nearly the whole from Great Britain; grocery, +mostly direct from the West Indies; tea, from Britain, &c. +&c. In fact, of the total imports of Ireland, five-sixths of them +are from Great Britain; and of her exports, nine-tenths are to Great +Britain. The principal articles of export are linen, butter, wheat, +meal, oats, bacon, pork, &c. &c.</p> + +<p>On the 30th September, 1822, there belonged to the United Kingdom +24,642 vessels, making a total of 2,519,044 tons, and navigated by +166,333 men; of the vessels employed in the foreign trade, including +their repeated voyages, in the year ending the 5th of January 1823, +there were about 12,000, of which upwards of 9,000 were British and +Irish, and the rest foreign vessels. The coasting trade of England is +calculated to employ 3000 vessels. We have already stated the +proportion which the trade of Ireland to Britain bore to her trade +with the rest of the world; this point may be still further +elucidated by the following fact: that the number of vessels, +(including their repeated voyages,) which entered the ports of +Ireland, from all parts of the world, in the year ending the 5th of +January, 1823, was 11,561, and that all these, except 943, came from +Great Britain.</p> + +<p>From this rapid view of the commerce of the European states, it +appears that, with the exception of Great Britain, by far the largest +portion and greatest value of the exports of each country consist in +the produce of the soil, either in its raw and natural state, or +after having undergone a change that requires little industry, manual +labour, or mechanical agency. Britain, on the contrary, derives her +exports almost entirely from the produce of her wonderful mechanical +skill, which effects, in many cases, what could alone be accomplished +by an immense population, and in a few cases, what no manual labour +could perform.</p> + +<p>In reviewing the commerce of the remaining parts of the world, we +shall find the articles that constitute it almost exclusively the +produce of the soil, or, where manufactured, owing the change in +their form and value to the simplest contrivances and skill. We shall +begin with Asia.</p> + +<p>Turkey possesses some of the finest portions of this quarter of +the globe; countries in which man first emerged into civilization, +literature, and knowledge; rich in climate and soil, but dreadfully +degraded, oppressed, and impoverished by despotism. The exports from +the European part of Turkey are carpets, fruit, saffron, silk, drugs, +&c.: the principal port is Constantinople. From Asiatic Turkey +there are exported rhubarb and other drugs, leather, silk, dye +stuffs, wax, sponge, barilla, and hides: nearly the whole foreign +trade is centered in Smyrna, and is in the hands of the English and +French, and Italians. The imports are coffee, sugar, liqueurs, +woollen and cotton goods, lead, tin, jewellery, watches, &c.</p> + +<p>China, from the immense number of its population, and their +habits, possesses great internal commerce; but, with the exception of +her tea, which is taken away by the English and Americans, her export +trade is not great. She also carries on a traffic overland with +Russia, to which We have already alluded, and some maritime commerce +with Japan. Besides tea, the exports from China are porcelain, silk, +nankeens, &c.; the imports are the woollen goods, and tin and +copper of England; cotton, tin, pepper, &c. from the British +settlements in India; edible birds' nests, furs, &c.</p> + +<p>The trade of Japan is principally with China: the exports are +copper, lackered ware, &c.; the imports are raw silk, sugar, +turpentine, drugs, &c. The trade of the Birman empire is also +principally with China, importing into it cotton, amber, ivory, +precious stones, betel nuts, &c., and receiving in return raw and +wrought silk, gold leaf, preserves, paper, &c. European broad +cloth and hardware, Bengal muslins, glass, &c. are also imported +into this country.</p> + +<p>But by far the most important commerce that is carried on in the +eastern parts of Asia, consists in that which flows from and to +Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. In fact, the English country trade +there, as it is called, is of great value, and embraces a very great +variety of articles. Bombay is the grand emporium of the west of +India, Persia, and Arabia; here the productions of those countries +are exchanged against each other, and for the manufactures, &c. +of England. The principal articles of export from Bombay to these +places, as well as to England, are cotton piece goods, sugar, and +saltpetre, received from Bengal; pepper from Sumatra; coffee from the +Red Sea. The imports from Europe are woollens, tin, lead, &c. A +very lucrative trade is carried on from Bombay to China, to which it +exports cotton in very great quantity, sandal wood, &c., and +receives in return sugar, sugar-candy, camphire, nankeens, &c. +There is also considerable traffic between Bombay and Bengal, Ceylon, +Pegu, and the Malay archipelago. The exports of Ceylon are cinnamon, +arrack, coir, cocoa nuts: the imports are grain, piece goods, and +European merchandize. The commerce of the eastern coast of Hindostan +centers in Madras: the exports from this place are principally piece +goods, grain, cotton, &c.; the imports, woollen manufactures, +copper, spirits, pepper, and other spices. The trade of Bengal may be +divided into four branches: to Coromandel and Ceylon, the Malabar +coast, Gulph of Persia and Arabia, the Malay archipelago and China +and Europe. The principal exports by the port of Calcutta are piece +goods, opium, raw silk, indigo, rice, sugar, cotton, grain, +saltpetre, &c.: the principal imports are woollen goods, copper, +wine, pepper, spices, tea, nankeen, camphire, &c.</p> + +<p>A considerable trade is carried on in the Malay archipelago from +Prince of Wales Island, which, since it was settled by the English, +has become the emporium of this trade.--Batavia, Bencoolen, and +Achen; the principal articles of export from these islands are +cloves, nutmegs, camphire, pepper, sago, drugs, bichedemer, birds' +nests, gold dust, ivory, areca nuts, benzoin, tin, &c.: the +imports are tea, alum, nankeens, silks, opium, piece goods, cotton, +rice, and European manufactures. Manilla is the depôt of all +the productions of the Philippines, intended to be exported to China, +America, and Europe. The exports of these islands are birds' nests, +ebony, tobacco, sugar, cotton, cocoa, &c. The commerce of New +Holland is still in its infancy, but it promises to rise rapidly, and +to be of great value: a soil very fertile, and a climate adapted to +the growth of excellent grain, together with the uncommon fineness of +its wool, have already been very beneficial to its commerce.</p> + +<p>The external commerce of Persia is principally carried on by the +foreign merchants who reside at Muscat, on the Persian Gulph: into +this place are imported from India, long cloths, muslins, silks, +sugar, spices, rice, indigo, drugs, and European manufactures; the +returns are copper, sulphur, tobacco, fruits, gum-arabic, myrrh, +frankincense, and all the drugs which India does not produce.</p> + +<p>The Red Sea, washed on one side by Asia, and on the other by +Africa, seems the natural transit, from this consideration, of the +commerce of the former quarter of the globe to that of the latter. +Its commerce is carried on by the Arabians, and by vessels from +Hindostan: Mocha and Judda are its principal ports. The articles sent +from it are coffee, gums and drugs, ivory, and fruit: the imports are +the piece goods, cotton, and other produce of India; and the +manufactures, iron, lead, copper, &c. of Europe.</p> + +<p>Egypt, in which anciently centered all the commerce of the world, +retains at present a very small portion of trade: the principal +exports from Alexandria consist in the gums and drugs of the east +coast of Africa, Arabia, Persia, and India; rice, wheat, dates, oil, +soap, leather, ebony, elephants' teeth, coffee, &c. The imports +are received chiefly from France and the Italian States, and England; +and consist in woollen and cotton goods, hardware, copper, iron, +glass, and colonial produce. The commerce of the Barbary States is +trifling: the exports are drugs, grain, oil, wax, honey, hides and +skins, live bullocks, ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.; the imports, +colonial produce, (which indeed finds its way every where,) cutlery, +tin, woollen and linen goods, &c. The exports of the rest of +Africa are nearly similar to those enumerated, viz. gums, drugs, +ivory, ostrich feathers, skins, gold dust, &c. From the British +settlement at the Cape are exported wine, wheat, wool, hides, +&c.</p> + +<p>The United States claim our first notice in giving a rapid sketch +of the commerce of America: we have already pointed out the causes of +their extraordinary progress in population and wealth. American +ships, like English ones, are found in every part of the world: in +the South Sea Islands, among people just emerging into civilization +and industry; among the savages of New Zealand; on the north-west +coast of America; and on the dreadful shores of New South Shetland. +Not content with exporting the various productions of their own +country, they carry on the trade of various parts of the globe, +which, but for their instrumentality, could not have obtained, or +ever have become acquainted with each other's produce.</p> + +<p>The exports from America, the produce of their own soil, are corn, +flour, timber, potash, provisions, and salt fish from the northern +States; corn, timber, and tobacco from the middle States; and indigo, +rice, cotton, tar, pitch, turpentine, timber, and provisions, to the +West Indies, from the southern States. The imports are woollen, +cotton goods, silks, hardware, earthen-ware, wines, brandy, tea, +drugs, fruit, dye-stuffs, and India and colonial produce. By far the +greatest portion of the trade of the United States is with Great +Britain. The principal ports are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, +Baltimore, and New Orleans.</p> + +<p>The British settlements in America export, chiefly from Quebec and +Halifax, corn, potash, wheel timber, masts, lumber, beaver and other +furs, tar, turpentine, and salted fish from Newfoundland. The imports +are woollen and cotton goods, hardware, tea, wine, India goods, +groceries, &c.</p> + +<p>The exports of the West India Islands are sugar, coffee, rum, +ginger, indigo, drugs, and dye stuffs. The imports are lumber, +woollen and cotton goods, fish, hardware, wine, groceries, hats, and +other articles of dress, provisions, &c.</p> + +<p>Brazil, and the late Spanish settlements in America, countries of +great extent, and extremely fertile, promise to supply very valuable +articles for commerce; even at present their exports are various, and +chiefly of great importance. Some of the most useful drugs, and +finest dye stuffs, are the produce of South America. Mahogany and +other woods, sugar, coffee, chocolate, cochineal, Peruvian bark, +cotton of the finest quality, gold, silver, copper, diamonds, hides, +tallow, rice, indigo, &c. Carthagena, Porto Cabello, Pernambucco, +Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Ayres, are the principal ports on +the east coast of South America; and Valparaiso, Calloa (the port of +Lima), Guayaquil, Panama, and Acapulco, on the west coast.</p> + +<p>Our sketch of commerce would be incomplete, did it not comprehend +a short notice of the manner in which the trade of great part of Asia +and Africa is conducted, by means of caravans. This is, perhaps, the +most ancient mode of communication between nations; and, from the +descriptions we possess, the caravans of the remotest antiquity were, +in almost every particular, very similar to what they are at present. +The human race was first civilized in the East. This district of the +globe, though fertile in various articles which are well calculated +to excite the desires of mankind, is intersected by extensive +deserts; these must have cut off all communication, had not the +camel,--which can bear a heavy burden, endure great famine, is very +docile, and, above all, seems made to bid defiance to the parched and +waterless desert, by its internal formation, and its habits and +instinct,--been civilized by the inhabitants. By means of it they +have, from the remotest antiquity, carried on a regular and extensive +commerce.</p> + +<p>The caravans may be divided into those of Asia and those of +Africa: the great centre of the former is Mecca: the pilgrimage to +this place, enjoined by Mahomet, has tended decidedly to facilitate +and extend commercial intercourse. Two caravans annually visit Mecca; +one from Cairo, and the other from Damascus. The merchants and +pilgrims who compose the former come from Abyssinia; from which they +bring elephants' teeth, ostrich feathers, gum, gold dust, parrots, +monkies, &c. Merchants also come from the Senegal, and collect on +their way those of Algiers, Tunis, &c. This division sometimes +consists of three thousand camels, laden with oils, red caps, fine +flannels, &c. The journey of the united caravans, which have been +known to consist of 100,000 persons, in going and returning, occupies +one hundred days: they bring back from Mecca all the most valuable +productions of the East, coffee, gum arabic, perfumes, drugs, spices, +pearls, precious stones, shawls, muslins, &c. The caravan of +Damascus is scarcely inferior to that of Cairo, in the variety and +value of the produce which it conveys to Mecca, and brings back from +it, or in the number of camels and men which compose it. Almost every +province of the Turkish empire sends forth pilgrims, merchants, and +commodities to this caravan. Of the Asiatic caravans, purely +commercial, we know less than of those which unite religion and +commerce; as the former do not travel at stated seasons, nor follow a +marked and constant route. The great object of those caravans is to +distribute the productions of China and Hindustan among the central +parts of Asia. In order to supply them, caravans set out from Baghar, +Samarcand, Thibet, and several other places. The most extensive +commerce, however, carried on in this part of Asia, is that between +Russia and China. We have already alluded to this commerce, and shall +only add, that the distance between the capitals of those kingdoms is +6378 miles, upwards of four hundred miles of which is an uninhabited +desert; yet caravans go regularly this immense distance. The Russians +and Chinese meet on the frontiers; where the furs, linen and woollen +cloth, leather, glass, &c. of Russia, are exchanged for the tea, +porcelain, cotton, rice, &c. of China. This intercourse is very +ancient. There are also caravans of independent Tartars, which arrive +on the Jaik and Oui, and bring Chinese and Indian commodities, which +they interchange for those of Russia.</p> + +<p>Tombuctoo is the great depot of central Africa: with it the +maritime states of Egypt, Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco carry +on a very extensive and lucrative trade by means of caravans. They +take 129 days in travelling to Tombuctoo from the borders of the +desert, but only fifty-four are spent in actual travelling. There is +also another caravan which sets off from Wedinou, and after +collecting salt at West Tagossa, proceeds to Tombuctoo. This goes as +far as the White Mountains, near Cape Blanco, and is occupied five or +six months in its journey. The merchandize carried by these caravans +is German linens, Irish linens, muslins, woollen cloth, coral beads, +pearls, silk, coffee, tea, sugar, shawls, brass nails, &c. +&c. In exchange they bring back chiefly the produce of Soudan, +viz. gold dust, gold rings, bars of gold, elephants' teeth, gum, +grains of paradise, and slaves. There are also several caravans that +trade between Cairo and the interior of Africa, which are solely +employed in the traffic of slaves. There can be no doubt that +caravans arrive at Tombuctoo from parts of Africa very distant from +it, and not only inaccessible, but totally unknown, even by report, +to Europeans, and even to the inhabitants of North Africa.</p> + +<p>What a picture does modern commerce present of the boundless +desires of man, and of the advancement he makes in intellect, +knowledge, and power, when stimulated by these desires! Things +familiar to use cease to attract our surprise and investigation; +otherwise we should be struck with the fact, that the lowest and +poorest peasant's breakfast-table is supplied from countries lying in +the remotest parts of the world, of which Greece and Rome, in the +plenitude of their power and knowledge, were totally ignorant. But +the benefits which mankind derives from commerce are not confined to +the acquisition of a greater share and variety of the comforts, +luxuries, or even the necessaries of life. Commerce has repaid the +benefits it has received from geography: it has opened new sources of +industry; of this the cotton manufactures of Britain are a signal +illustration and proof:--it has contributed to preserve the health of +the human race, by the introduction of the most valuable drugs +employed in medicine. It has removed ignorance and national +prejudices, and tended most materially to the diffusion of political +and religious knowledge. The natural philosopher knows, that whatever +affects, in the smallest degree, the remotest body in the universe, +acts, though to us in an imperceptible manner, on every other body. +So commerce acts; but its action is not momentary; its impulses, once +begun, continue with augmented force. And it appears to us no absurd +or extravagant expectation, that through its means, either directly, +or by enlarging the views and desires of man, the civilization, +knowledge, freedom and happiness of Europe will ultimately be spread +over the whole globe.</p> + +<p><a name="catalogue" id="catalogue"></a></p> + +<h3>CATALOGUE OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.</h3> + +<p><i>Preliminary Observations on the Plan and Arrangement pursued in +drawing up this Catalogue</i>.</p> + +<p>It is obvious, that whoever undertakes to draw up a catalogue of +books on any particular subject, must proceed on one or other of +these two plans,--either to give a complete catalogue of all the +works published on that subject, or a select catalogue of what seems +to him the best works. It is scarcely necessary to point out the +objection to the first plan, arising from the impracticability of +making any catalogue absolutely complete; but it may be said, though +not absolutely complete, it may, by sufficient information and +diligence, be rendered nearly so. Let us suppose, then, that by +unwearied assiduity and research, aided and guided by the requisite +knowledge, a catalogue is rendered as perfect as it practically can +be made,--is the utility of such a catalogue enhanced in a proportion +any thing approaching to the labour, research, and time expended upon +it; or, rather, would not such a catalogue be much less useful than +one within smaller compass, drawn up on the plan of selection?</p> + +<p>On all subjects there are more bad or indifferent works published +than good ones. This remark applies with peculiar justice and force +to modern works of voyages and travels. A very extensive catalogue, +therefore, must contain a large portion of bad or indifferent books, +which are not worth the purchasing, the consulting, nor the perusing; +consequently, if such works appear in a catalogue drawn up for the +purpose of guiding those who purpose to travel in particular +countries, to write on the subject of them, or merely to read +respecting them for the sake of information, it is plain that such a +catalogue cannot be trusted as a safe and judicious guide; as if the +persons consulting it select for themselves, there is an equal chance +of selecting useless books as good ones; and if they attempt to +peruse all, they must waste a great deal of time.</p> + +<p>It may be said, however, that this objection can easily be +obviated, by distinguishing such works as are bad or indifferent from +such as are good, either by a short notice, or by a particular mark. +The first plan necessarily must increase the size of the catalogue; +and it really appears a piece of superfluous labour to introduce +works not worthy to be perused, and then, either by a notice or mark, +to warn the reader from the perusal of them. Is it not much more +direct to omit such works altogether?</p> + +<p>As the object in view in the present catalogue is to render it +useful to the generality of readers, and not valuable to the +bibliographer, those works are omitted which have no other +recommendation but their extreme scarcity. For such works are of +course accessible only to very few, and when obtained, convey little +interest or information.</p> + +<p>A select catalogue then appears to be the most useful, and of +course must occupy less room. But to this objections start up, which +it will be proper to consider.</p> + +<p>In the first place, What is the criterion of good works of voyages +and travels? The antiquarian will not allow merit to such as pass +over, or do not enter, <i>con amore</i>, and at great length, into +the details of the antiquities of a country: the natural historian is +decidedly of opinion, that no man ought to travel who is not minutely +and accurately acquainted with every branch of his favourite science, +and complains that scarcely a single work of travels is worthy of +purchase or perusal, because natural history is altogether omitted in +them, or treated in a popular and superficial manner. Even those who +regard man as the object to which travellers ought especially to +direct their attention, differ in opinion regarding the points of +view in which he ought to be studied in foreign countries. To many +the travels of Johnson and Moore seem of the highest merit and +interest, because these authors place before their readers an +animated, philosophical, and vivid picture of the human character; +whereas other readers consider such works as trifling, and contend +that those travels alone, which enter into the statistics of a +country, convey substantial information, and are worthy of +perusal.</p> + +<p>Whoever draws up a catalogue, therefore, must, in some measure, +consult the judgment, taste, and peculiar studies of all these +classes of readers, and endeavour to select the best works of travels +in all these branches.</p> + +<p>But there is a second objection to a select catalogue to be +considered. The information and research of the person who draws it +up may be inadequate to the task, or his judgment may be erroneous. +This observation, however, applies to a complete catalogue--indeed +the first part of it,--the information and research requisite, in a +greater degree to a complete than to a select catalogue; and with +respect to the judgment required, it will be equally required in a +complete catalogue, if the bad and indifferent works are +distinguished from the good ones; and if they are not, such a +catalogue, we have already shewn, can only lead astray into +unnecessary or prejudicial reading.</p> + +<p>Whoever draws up a catalogue, or gives to the public a work on any +particular subject, is bound to make it as good as he can; but, after +all, he must not expect that there will be no difference of opinion +about his labours. Some will think (to confine ourselves to the +catalogue) that he has admitted books that ought not to have found a +place in it; whereas others will impeach his diligence, his +information, or his judgment, because he has omitted books which they +think ought to have entered into it. All, therefore, that a person +who engages to draw up a catalogue can do, is to exercise and apply +as much research and judgment as possible, and to request his +readers, if they find general proofs of such research and judgment, +to attribute the omission of what they think ought to have been +inserted, or the insertion of what they think ought to have been +omitted, to difference of opinion, rather than to a deficiency in +research or judgment.</p> + +<p>It may be proper to remark, with regard to the principle of +selection pursued, that many works are admitted which do not bear the +title of travels; this has been done, wherever, though not under that +title, they are the result of the actual travels and observations, or +enquiries of the authors. The form into which information respecting +the agriculture, manufactures, commerce, antiquities, natural +history, manners, &c. of foreign countries is cast, or the title +under which it is communicated to the world, is obviously of little +consequence, provided the information is not merely compiled by a +stranger to the country, and is accurate and valuable. Such works, +however, as are avowedly written for scientific purposes, and for the +exclusive use of scientific men, and are consequently confined to +scientific researches and information conveyed in the peculiar +language of the science, are omitted.</p> + +<p>So much for the plan on which this catalogue has been drawn up. +Before we proceed to explain the arrangement pursued, it may be +proper to make a few remarks on some intermediate points. One +advantage of a select catalogue over a complete one is, that it +occupies less room. With the same object in view, only the title in +the original language is given where there is no translation of the +work into the English or French; only translations into English or +French are noticed, where such exist, and not the original work; and +all the articles are numbered, so that a short and easy reference may +be made from one article to another.</p> + +<p>Room is thus evidently saved, and not, in our opinion, by any +sacrifice of utility. For German or Spanish scholars it is +unnecessary to translate the titles of German or Spanish books, and +for the mere English scholar it is useless. Translations into the +French are noticed in preference to the original, because this +language is at present familiar to every literary man in Britain, and +French works can easily be obtained; and the German or Spanish +scholar, who wishes to obtain and peruse the original, can be at no +loss to procure it from the translated title. The advantage of +numbering the articles will be immediately explained in treating of +the arrangement.</p> + +<p>The catalogue is arranged in the following manner:</p> + +<p>After noticing a few of the most useful works which contain +instructions to travellers, in the first place, Collections and +Histories of Voyages and Travels are placed: next follow Voyages +round the World;--Voyages and Travels which embrace more than one +quarter of the World;--Travels in Europe generally;--Travels in more +than one Country of Europe;--Travels in each particular Country of +Europe. It is in this particular department of the Catalogue that the +plan of reference by numbers is more especially necessary and useful; +for the Index to the Catalogue being drawn up with reference to the +numbers, not only those travels which are confined to one +country,--France, for instance,--may easily be found, but also all +those travels which comprehend France along with other countries.</p> + +<p>The same arrangement is pursued in the other parts of the +world,--Asia, Africa, America, Australasia, and Polynesia. The +articles are arranged as nearly as possible in the chronological +order in which the voyages and travels were performed in each +particular country, and the countries are placed according to their +geographical relation to one another.</p> + +<p>I.</p> + +<p>INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELERS.</p> + +<p>1. L'Utilité des Voyages qui concernent la Connoissance des +Inscriptions, Sentences, Dieux, Larés, Peintures anciennes, +Bas Reliefs, &c. Langues, &c.; avec un Memoire de quelques +Observations générales qu'on peut faire pour ne pas +voyager inutilement. Par Ch. C. Baudelot Dairval. 2 vol. 12mo. Paris +1656.--The Rouen edition is much inferior. This is an excellent +work.</p> + +<p>2. C. Linnæus on the Benefit of Travelling in one's own +Country. (In Stillingfleet's Tracts.) This was published in Latin, +separately, and in the Amoenitates Academicæ, in the Select, ex +Amoenit.; and in the Fundamenta Botanices of Gilibert.</p> + +<p>3. Instructio Peregrinatoris, Dissertatio. Præside C. +Linnæo. 1759, 4to.</p> + +<p>4. Mémoire Instructif sur la Manière de rassembler, +de préparer, de conserver, et d'envoyer les diverses +Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par Turgot. 1758. 8vo.--This +work is also appended to "Avis pour le Transport par Mer des Arbres, +des Plantes vivaces, des Semences, et de diverses autres +Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par L.H. Duhamel." Published +at Paris, 1753. 12mo.</p> + +<p>5. Directions in what Manner Specimens of all Kinds may be +collected, preserved, &c. By J.R. Forster. London, 1771.--This +tract, worthy of its well-informed and able author, was published +along with his Catalogue of North American Animals.</p> + +<p>6. The Naturalist's and Traveller's Companion. By J.C. Lettsom, +M.D. London, 1799 8vo.</p> + +<p>7. Analysis of the Natural Classification of Mammalia, for the Use +of Travellers.</p> + +<p>Introduction to the Ornithology of Cuvier, for the Use of +Travellers.</p> + +<p>Introduction to Conchology, for the Use of Travellers. By T.E. +Bowdich. Paris, 1821-2. 8vo.</p> + +<p>8. Instructions for Travellers. By Dean Tucker. 1757. 4to.</p> + +<p>9. Essay to direct and extend the Enquiries of patriotic +Travellers. By Count Berchtold.--The second volume contains a +Catalogue of Travels in Europe; the first alone relates to the +subject of the title. 2 vols. 8vo. 1789.</p> + +<p>10. Essay on the Study of Statistics; intended to assist the +Enquiries of inexperienced Travellers. By D. Boileau. 12mo. 1807.</p> + +<p>11. Fried. J. Freyherr von Gunderode Gedanken uber Reisen. +Frankfort, 1781. 8vo.</p> + +<p>12. Apodenick, oder die kunst zu Reisen von Posselt. Leipsic, +1795. 8vo.--This is an excellent work.</p> + +<p>13. Uber den Worth und Nutzen der Fussreisen. Hanover, 1805. +8vo.--We notice this work, because it points out the superior +advantages possessed by foot travellers, in exploring the natural +beauties and natural history of a country.</p> + +<p>II.</p> + +<p>COLLECTIONS AND HISTORIES OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.</p> + +<p>14. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and +Discoveries of the English Nation, made by Sea or Over-land, to the +remote and farthest distant Quarters of the Earth. By Richard +Hakluyt, 3 vols. fol. 1598, 1599, 1600.--This work is often +incomplete; the completeness of it may be ascertained by its +containing the voyage to Cadiz, which was suppressed by order of +Queen Elizabeth, after the disgrace of the Earl of Essex. The first +volume of this collection contains Voyages to the North and +North-east: The True State of Iceland; The Defeat of the Spanish +Armada: The Victory at Cadiz, &c. The second volume contains +Voyages to the South and South-east Parts of the World: and the third +to North America, the West Indies, and round the World. It has lately +been republished.</p> + +<p>15. S. Purchas, his Pilgrims and Pilgrimages, 5 vols. folio, +1625-26.--The first volume contains Voyages by the Ancient +Circumnavigators of the Globe: Voyages along the Coasts of Africa to +the East-Indies, Japan, China, Philippines, and the Persian and +Arabian Gulphs. Vol. 2. contains Voyages and Relations of Africa, +Ethiopia, Palestina, Arabia, Persia, Asia. Vol. 3. Tartary, China, +Russia, North-west America, and the Polar Regions. Vol. 4. America +and the West Indies. Vol. 5. Early History of the World; of the East +Indies; Egypt; Barbary, &c. &c.</p> + +<p>16. A General Collection of Voyages and Travels. Published by +Astley. 4 vols. 4to. 1745.</p> + +<p>17. A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now first printed +from original MSS.; others now first published in English. By +Churchill. 6 vols. folio. 1732.</p> + +<p>18. Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca. Harris's +Collection of Voyages and Travels, from Hakluyt, Purchas, Ramusio, +&c. The whole work revised and continued, by Dr. John Campbell. 2 +vols. fol. 1744.</p> + +<p>19. A General Collection of the best and most interesting Voyages +and Travels, in all Parts of the World. By John Pinkerton. 1808-1814. +17 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>20. A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, +arranged in systematic Order. By Robert Kerr. Edin. 1811-22. 18 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>21. Relation de divers Voyages curieux, qui n'ont point encore +été publiés, et qu'on a traduits ou tirés +des Originaux des Voyageurs Français, Espagnols, Allemands, +&c. &c. Par M. Thevenot. Paris, 1696. 2 vol. fol.--This work +is seldom found complete: the marks of the complete and genuine +edition are given in the Bibliothèque des Voyages, vol. i. pp. +82, 83. To this work the following is a proper supplement:</p> + +<p>22. Recueil des Voyages de M. Thevenot. Paris, 1681. 8vo.</p> + +<p>23. Recueil des Voyages qui ont servi a l'Etablissement et au +Progrès de la Campagne des Indes Orientates Hollandaises. Par +Constantin.--The best editions are those of Amsterdam, 1730, and of +Paris and Rouen, 1705; each in 10 vol. 12mo.</p> + +<p>24. Recueil des Voyages au Nord, &c. Amsterdam, 1717. 8 vol. +12mo.</p> + +<p>25. Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses. Paris, 1780, 1781. 24 vols. +12mo.</p> + +<p>26. Mémoires Orientales. Paris, 1789. 12mo.</p> + +<p>27. Collection Portative de Voyages, traduit de différentes +Langues Orientales et Europiennes. Par Langles. Paris, 3 vols. +18mo.</p> + +<p>28. Histoire Générale des Voyages. Par Prevot. +Paris, 20 vols. 4to.--This work is valuable for its excellent +engravings, maps, plans, &c., but in other respects its value has +fallen, in consequence of the following abridgment of it:</p> + +<p>29. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générate des +Voyages de Prevot. Par La Harpe. Paris, 1780-1786. 23 vols. 8vo.--The +last five volumes contain voyages and travels not given by Prevot. +This work also has been continued by Comeyras in 1798-1801, in 9 +vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>30. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale des +Voyages. Par La Harpe. 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1820.--This abridgment is +executed with considerable judgment; it is necessarily confined to +the most novel and curious parts of the narratives and +descriptions.</p> + +<p>31. Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun. 25 vols. 8vo. Paris, +1814-1817.</p> + +<p>32. Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun et +Eyries.--Twelve volumes are already published: four volumes are +published annually. Perhaps the very high character of Malte Brun +would lead us to expect a more severe and judicious selection than +some parts of this work exhibit; but, on the whole, it is +valuable.</p> + +<p>33. Journal des Voyages, Découvertes et Navigations +Modernes, ou Archives Géographiques du 19me +Siècle.--This work began in Nov. 1818, and is published +monthly. Like all collections of this kind, the value of it would +have been encreased, and the bulk much diminished, if the selection +had been more scrupulous.</p> + +<p>34. Delle Navigationi e Viaggi raccolti da M.G.B. Ramusio. +Venet.--The most complete and accurate edition of this book consists +of vol. 1. of the edition of 1588; vol. 2. of 1583; the third of +1565; and the Supplement of 1606.</p> + +<p>35. J.R. Forster und M.C. Sprengel, Beytrage zur Volker-und +Landerkunde. Leipsic, 1781--94. 13 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>36. Magazin von merkerurdigen Reisebeschreibungen, aus fremden +Sprachen ubersizt. Von J.R. Forster. Berlin, 1790--1802. 24 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>37. Bibliothek der neuesten und wichtigstien Reisebeschreibungen. +Von M.C. Sprengel. Weimar, 1801. &c. 22 vols. 8vo.--There are +many other collections in German; the best of which are noticed by +Ersch, in his Literatur der Geschichte und deren Hulfswissenschaften. +Leipsic, 1813.</p> + +<p>38. Samling af de beste og nyeste Reise-beskriveler. Copen. +1790--5. 12 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>39. Danskes Reise-iagttagelser. Copen. 1798--1800. 4 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>40. Versamnelling der gedenkwaardegsten Reisen nae oost en West +Indien door de Bry. Leyden, 1707--10. 30 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>41. El Viagero Universal. Madrid, 1800.--This work was published +originally in small parts, which form a great many volumes in +8vo.</p> + +<p>42. Novus Orbis Regionum et Institutorum Veteribus incognitarum. +Basle, 1532. fol. Paris, 1582. fol.</p> + +<p>43. Collectiones Peregrinationum in Indiam Orientalem et +Occidentalem. Francfort, 1590--1634. 7 vols. fol., or 9 vols. +fol.--The first edition, when complete, is by far the most valuable. +Several dissertations have been published on this work, which is +generally called Les Grands et Petits Voyages. In 1742 the +Abbé de Rothelin published Observationes sur des Grands et +Petits Voyages. In 1802 Camus published Mémoire sur la +Collection des Grands et Petits Voyages; and Debure, in his +Bibliographe, has devoted upwards of one hundred pages to this work. +Whoever wishes to ascertain exactly the best edition, should consult +these authors, and the Bibliotheque des Voyages, vol. 1. 57.</p> + +<p>III.</p> + +<p>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS ROUND THE WORLD.</p> + +<p>Boucher de la Richarderie, the author of the Bibliothèque +Universelle des Voyages, makes some just remarks on the nature and +extent of those voyages to which this appellation is usually applied. +He observes that for the most part, by a Voyage round the World, is +understood a voyage either by the Atlantic Ocean or the Indian Sea to +the Pacific or Great Southern Ocean, the visiting the isles in the +last, exploring the Antarctic Seas, and returning by the route +opposite to that by which the ship went out. This certainly is a +voyage round the world, though probably scarcely any part of Asia, +Africa, or America has been explored or visited, except for the +purposes of refitting or provisioning the ship. But when these +quarters of the globe, and especially the unknown parts of them, have +been visited, the application of the term, though not perhaps so +correct verbally, is more justly made. There is a third class of +voyages thus denominated, which, though they embrace the four +quarters of the globe, do not extend to the South Sea, or the +Australasian Lands. All these three classes are comprehended in the +following catalogue, and we have deemed it right also to follow the +author of the Bibliothèque in dividing them into two parts, +ancient voyages round the world, and modern voyages: the first +comprehend voyages of the first class, and were performed from the +middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>44. Il Viaggio fatto dagli Spanuoli attorno il Mondo, 1536. +4to.--This is the first edition of the Voyages of Pigafetta, who +sailed with Magellan in his celebrated Voyage round the World, but it +is incomplete. The genuine and complete work was published for the +first time from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library of Milan, with notes, +by Amoretti, under the following title:</p> + +<p>45. Primo Viaggio, intorno al Globo terraqueo fatto dal Casaglieri +Ant. Pigafetta. Milan, 1800. 4to.--The same editor published a French +translation, with a description of the Globe of Behaim. Magellan's +Voyage is published in the first volume of Harris's Collection.</p> + +<p>46. C. Ortoga resumen del primero Viage hecho ad rededor del +Mundo. Per H. Magellanes. Madrid, 1769. 4to.</p> + +<p>47. The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, to which is added the +Prosperous Voyage of Mr. Thomas Candish. London, 1741. 8vo. also in +Harris, vol. 1. The second voyage of Candish is in Purchas.</p> + +<p>48. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffique and Discoveries +of the English Nation. London, 1599. 2 vols. folio.</p> + +<p>49. The Discoveries of the World, from their original to 1555, +translated from the Portuguese, by R. Hackluyt. London, 1610. +4to.</p> + +<p>50. Funnell's Voyage round the World. London, 1607. 8vo. In +Harris, vol. 1.</p> + +<p>51. Description du penible Voyage fait autour de l'Univers. Par O. +du Nord. Amsterdam, 1602, in folio.--This is translated from the +Dutch. An English translation is given in Harris, vol.1.</p> + +<p>52. Voyage de Jacques l'Hermite autour du Monde. Amsterdam, +1705-12.--This also is translated from the Dutch.</p> + +<p>53. Dampier's New Voyage round the World. London, 1711. 3 vols. +8vo.--The French translation in 5 vols. 12mo. contains also the +voyages of Wafer, Wood, Cowley, Robert, and Sharp. Dampier's and +Cowley's are in Harris, vol. 1.</p> + +<p>54. A Voyage round the World. By Captain G. Shelvocke. London, +1757. 8vo. This is also in Harris, vol. 1.</p> + +<p>55. Voyage round the World, by Wood Rogers. London, 1728, 8vo. In +Harris, vol. 1.</p> + +<p>56. Voyage round the World, by Lord Anson. By Walter, corrected by +Robins. London, 1749. 4to.</p> + +<p>57. Hawksworth's Account of the Voyages for making Discoveries in +the Southern Hemisphere, performed by Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and +Cook, 1773. 3 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>58. Captain Cook's Voyage towards the South Pole, and round the +World, 1777. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>59. Captains Cook, Clarke, and Gore's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. +By Cook and King, with an introduction by Bishop Douglas, 1784. 3 +vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>60. G. Forster's Voyage round the World, with Captain Cook, during +1772-75-77. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>61. Bougainville's Voyage round the World, translated from the +French. By J.R. Forster, 1772. 4to.</p> + +<p>62. Voyage round the World, more particularly to the North-west +Coast of America, in 1785-88. By Captain Dixon, 1789. 4to.</p> + +<p>63. Captain Portlock's Account of the same Voyage; 1789. 4to.</p> + +<p>64 A Voyage round the World in 1785-88. By De la Perouse, +translated from the French. 2 vols. 4to. and Atlas of Prints, +1799.</p> + +<p>65. Account of a Voyage in search of La Peyrouse, translated from +the French of Labellaidiere. 2 vols. 8vo. and Atlas in 4to. 1800.</p> + +<p>66. Marchand's Voyage round the World, 1790-92. 2 vols. 4to. +Translated from the French.</p> + +<p>67. A Voyage of Discovery into the North Pacific Ocean, and round +the World in 1790-5. By G. Vancouver, 3 vols. 4to. and an Atlas. +1798.</p> + +<p>68. A Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific Ocean in 1796-8. 4to. +1799.</p> + +<p>69. Flinder's Voyage to Terra Australis in 1801-3. 2 vols. 4to. +with an Atlas, 1814.</p> + +<p>70. Liansky's Voyage round the World, 1803-5, performed by order +of Alexander the First. 4to.</p> + +<p>71. Langsdorffe's Voyages and Travels in various Parts of the +World, 1803-7. 2 vols. 4to. Translated from the German.</p> + +<p>72. Krusenstern's Voyage round the World, 1803-6. 2 vols. 4to. +Translated from the German.</p> + +<p>73. A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea, and Behring's +Straits, in 1815-18. By Kotzebue. 3 vols. 8vo. 1821. Translated from +the German, but badly.</p> + +<p>74. Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde. Par Choris. Livraison, +1-9. Paris, 1821.--This splendid work illustrates Kotzebue's Voyage, +by engravings of the savages of the different parts he visited; their +arms, dresses, diversions, &c. On this account alone, however, we +should not have given it a place here; but it is recommended to the +natural historian, by the descriptions which Cuvier has added to the +engravings of animals; and to the craniologist, by the observations +of Gall, on the engravings of human skulls.</p> + +<p>75. Peregrinacion que ha hecho de la mayor partè del Mundo. +Par D.P.S. Cubero. Sarragoss. 1688. folio.</p> + +<p>76. Giro del Mondo del G.F. Gemelli Carreri. Naples, 1699. 7 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>IV.</p> + +<p>TRAVELS COMPRISING DIFFERENT QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE.</p> + +<p>77. Letters from Barbary, France, Spain, and Portugal. By an +English Officer (Jardine), 1794. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>78. Cor. de Jong Reisen naer de Cap de Goede Hop, Ierland en +Norwégen. Haarlem, 1802. 8vo.</p> + +<p>79. Friedrich, Briefe au einen freund, eine reise von Gibraltar +nach Tanger und von da durch Spanien, und Frankreich, Zurich, nach +Deutschland, betreffend. (In the Historical Magazine of Gottingen, +4th year. 1st cahier.)</p> + +<p>80. Voyage to the Levant in 1700, by Tournefort. Translated from +the French, 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels bear too high a character to +be particularly pointed out. They comprise the Archipelago, +Constantinople, the Black Sea, Armenia, Georgia, the Frontiers of +Persia and Asia Minor; and are rich and valuable in the rare junction +of antiquarian and botanical knowledge.</p> + +<p>81. Le Bruyn's Voyage to the Levant, and Travels into Muscovy, +Persia, and the East Indies. Translated from the French. 1720. 8 +vols. fol.</p> + +<p>82. Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia. +Translated from the German of Baron Strahlenberg. 1738, 4to.</p> + +<p>83. Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, +with a Journey of Travels from London, through Russia, Germany, and +Holland. By James Hanway. 1754. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>84. Bell of Antermony's Travels from St. Petersburgh in Russia to +several Parts of Asia. Glasgow, 1763. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>85. Memoirs of B.H. Bruce, containing an Account of his Travels in +Germany, Russia, Tartary, and the Indies. 1782. 4to.</p> + +<p>86. A Journey from India to England, in the year 1797. By John +Jackson. 1799. 8vo.</p> + +<p>87. Histoire des Découvertes faites par divers Voyageurs. +Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstedt, et Lepechin, dans plusieurs +Contrées de la Russe et de la Perse. La Haye, 1779. 2 vol. +4to. & 6 8vo.</p> + +<p>88. Nouvelles Relations du Levant. Par Poullet. Paris, 1688. 2 +vols. 12mo.--This is a scarce and valuable work, especially that part +of it which relates to Asiatic Turkey, Georgia, and Persia: there is +likewise in it a particular account of the commerce of the English +and Dutch in the Levant at this period.</p> + +<p>89. Le Voyage du Sieur Duloir. Paris, 1654. 4to.--This work, +beside much historical information respecting Turkey, and the Siege +of Babylon in 1639, contains many particulars regarding the Religion, +&c. of the Turks. It comprises the Archipelago, Greece, European +Turkey and Asia Minor. It is likewise particular in the description +of antiquities.</p> + +<p>90. Les Voyages de Jean Struys en Moscovie, en Tartarie, en Perse, +aux Indes. Traduits du Hollandais. Amsterdam. 4to. 1681. Rouen, 3 +vols. 12mo. 1730.--The Travels of Struys, who was actuated from his +earliest youth with an insatiable desire to visit foreign countries, +are especially interesting from the account he gives of Muscovy and +Tartary at this period.</p> + +<p>91. Voyages très Curieux et très Renommés, +faits en Moscovie, Tartarie et Perse. Par Adam Olearius. Traduits +d'Allemagne. Amsterdam, fol.</p> + +<p>92. Voyages en différent Endroits d'Europe et d'Asie. Par +le P. Avril. Paris, 1692. 4to.--The object of this voyage, which was +commenced in 1635, principally consisted in the discovery of a new +route to China. Turkey, Armenia, European and Asiatic Russia. +Tartary, &c. are comprised in these Travels.</p> + +<p>93. Voyage en Turquie et en Perse. Par M. Otter. Paris, 1748. 2 +vols. 12mo.--The chief merit of this work consists in the exactitude +of its descriptions of places, and in the determination of their +distances and true positions, which are further illustrated by +maps.</p> + +<p>94. Beschreibung der Reise eines Polnishchen Herrn Bothschafters +gen Constantinople und in die Tartary. Nuremberg, 1574. 4to.</p> + +<p>95. Sal. Schweiger Reise-beschriebung aus Deutschland nach +Constantinopel und Jerusalem. Nuremberg, 1608. 4to.</p> + +<p>96. Reise van Erfurt nach dem gelobten land, auch Spanien, +Franckreich, Holland und England. Erfurt, 1605. 4to.</p> + +<p>97. Muntzer von Babenbergh, Reise von Venedig nach Jerusalem, +Damascus und Constantinopel, 1556. Nurembergh. 4to.</p> + +<p>98. Brand, Reisen durch Brandenburgh, Preussen, Curland, Liefland, +Plescovien und Muscovien. Nebst, A. Dobbins Beschriebung von +Siberien, &c. Wesel, 1702. 8vo.</p> + +<p>99. Itinera Sex a diversis Saxoniæ; Ducibus et Authoribus, +diversis Temporibus, in Italiam, Palæstinam et Terram Sanctum. +Studio Balt. Mincii. Wirtemberg, 1612. 12mo.</p> + +<p>100. Edwin Sandy's Travels into Turkey, Palestine, Egypt, and +Italy, begun in 1610. fol. 1658.</p> + +<p>101. Travels through Europe, Asia, and into several parts of +Africa, containing Observations especially on Italy, Turkey, Greece, +Tartary, Circassia, Sweden and Lapland. By De la Mottraye. 1723. 2 +vols. fol. Veracity and exactness, particularly so far as regards the +copying of inscriptions, characterise these travels. They are also +valuable for information respecting the mines of the North of +Europe.</p> + +<p>102. Travels of Thevenot into Turkey, Persia, and India. +Translated from the French, 1687. fol. The 4th edition of the +original in 3 vols. is very rare; the more common one is that of +Amsterdam in 5 vols. 12mo. These travels comprise Egypt, Arabia, and +other places in Africa and Asia, besides those places indicated in +the title page. The chief value of them consists in his account of +the manners, government, &c. of the Turks. This author must not +be confounded with the Mel. Thevenot, the author of a Collection of +Voyages.</p> + +<p>103. A View of the Levant, particularly of Constantinople, Syria, +Egypt and Greece. By Ch. Parry. 1743. fol. 1770. 3 vols. 4to. This +work is much less known than it deserves to be: the author of the +bibliotheque des Voyages justly remarks, that the circumstance of its +having been twice translated into German is a pretty certain +indication that it is full of good matter.</p> + +<p>104. Description of the East, and some other Countries: Egypt, +Palestine, Arabia, Syria, Greece, Thrace, France, Italy, Germany. +Poland, &c. by Dr. Richard Pococke. 3 vols. fol. 1743-8. The +merits of this work in pointing out and describing the antiquities of +Egypt and the East are well known.</p> + +<p>105. Travels through Europe, Asia, and Africa. By Lithgow. +Edinburgh, 1770. 8vo.--This is one of the best editions of a book, +the chief interest of which consists in the personal narrative of the +author.</p> + +<p>106. Travels in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Persia. By Olivier. +Translated from the French, 1802. 4to.</p> + +<p>107. Dr. Ed. Dan. Clarke's Travels in various Countries of Europe, +Asia, and Africa. 6 vols. 4to. Vol. 1. Russia, Turkey, Tartary. Vol. +2. & 3. Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. Vol. 4. The same +Countries, and a Journey from Constantinople to Vienna, and an +Account of the Gold Mines of Transylvania and Hungary. Vols. 5. & +6. Scandinavia.--There is no department of enquiry or observation to +which Dr. C. did not direct his attention during his travels: in all +he gives much information in a pleasant style; and to all he +evidently brought much judgment, talent, and preparatory +knowledge.</p> + +<p>108. Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and +Barbary, 1806-7. 2 vols. 8vo.--Those who admire this author's manner +and style will be gratified with these travels: and those who dislike +them, may still glean much information on antiquities, manners, +customs, religion, &c.</p> + +<p>109. Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa, and Europe. +Translated by Charles Stewart. 1814. 3 vols. 12mo.--These travels, of +the genuineness of which there can be no doubt, derive their chief +interest, as depicting the character and feelings of the author, and +the impressions made on his mind by what he saw and heard.</p> + +<p>110. Les Observations de plusieurs Singularités et Choses +mémorables trouvées en Greece, en Asie, Inde, Arabie, +Egypte, &c. Par Pierre Belon.--Various editions from 1550 to +1585. 4to. Belon is supposed to have travelled between 1547 and 1550. +His work is rich in botany and natural history, especially +considering the period in which he lived; and the accompanying plates +are very accurate.</p> + +<p>111. Voyage à Constantinople, en Perse, en Egypte, dans +l'année 1546, et les années suivantes. Par G. Lues +d'Aramon, Ambassadeur de France à Constantinople. Paris, 1739. +3 vols. 4to.--This relates chiefly to the manners and customs; other +pieces are contained in these volumes, which relate, in a manner more +minute than important and edifying, the various journies in France, +of the Kings of France, from Louis the Young to Louis XIV. +inclusive.</p> + +<p>112. Les Navigations, Pérégrinations, et Voyages, +faits en Turquie. Par Nicholas Nicholai, Antwerp, fol. 1576.--This +also is instructive, relative to the manners, &c. of many parts +of Europe, Africa, and Upper Asia: the plates are engraved on wood, +after the designs of Titian.</p> + +<p>113. Relations des Voyages de M. de Breves, tant en Grèce, +Terre Sainte. Egypte, qu'aux Royaumes de Tunis et Alger. Paris, 1628. +4to. De Breves was ambassador from Henry IV. to the Porte, and sent +afterwards on a special mission to Tunis and Algiers. What he relates +regarding these states is the most curious and valuable part of his +work.</p> + +<p>114. Les Voyages et Observations du Sieur Laboulaye-le-Goux, +où sont décrits les Religion, Gouvernment, et +Situation, des Etats et Royaumes d'Italie, Grèce, Natolie, +Syrie, Perse, Palestine, &c.; Grand Mogul, Indes Orientales des +Portugais, Arabie, Afrique, Hollande, Grande Bretagne, &c. Paris, +1657. 4to.--This work bears a high character for veracity and +exactness; and is very minute in its account of the casts and +religions of India. Prefixed to it is a short critical notice of +travellers who preceded him, written with great judgment and +candour.</p> + +<p>115. Voyage de Paul Lucas au Levant. Paris, 1704. 2 vols. +12mo.</p> + +<p>116. Voyage de Paul Lucas, dans la Grèce, l'Asie Mineure, +la Macedoine, et l' Afrique. Paris, 1712. 2 vols. 12mo.--The credit +and veracity of this author, which was long suspected, has, in many +of his most suspicious parts, been confirmed by modern +travellers.</p> + +<p>117. Mèmoire du Chevalier D'Arvieux: contenant ses Voyages +à Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, la +Barbarie, &c. Paris, 1735. 6 vols. 12mo.--This author was well +qualified from his knowledge of the oriental languages, and from the +official situations he filled, to gain an accurate and minute +knowledge of the people among whom he resided. His account of his +sojourn among the Bedouin Arabs is particularly curious.</p> + +<p>118. Viaggi di P. della Valle dall Anno 1614, fin al' 1626. +Venice, 1671. 4 vols. 4to.--These travels comprehend Turkey, Egypt, +Palestine, Persia, and the East Indies. They are written in a +pleasant, lively manner; what relates to Persia is most valuable. +They have been translated into French, English, and German.</p> + +<p>119. Schultz, Reisen durch Europa, Asien, und Africa. Halle, +1771-75. 5 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>120. Læflingii Petri iter Hispanicum. Stockholm, 1758. +8vo.--This work, originally published in Swedish, was translated by +C. Linnæus into German, under the following title: Reise nach +den Spanischen Landern in Europa und Amerika, 1751--56. Berlin, 1776. +8vo. It is chiefly valuable for its natural history information.</p> + +<p>121. Voyage en Amérique, en Italie, en Sicile, et en +Egypte, 1816--19. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>122. The true Travels of Captain J. Smith in Europe, Asia, Africa, +and America, from 1593 to 1629. London, 1664. fol.--This work, like +most of the old travels, derives its principal value from enabling us +to compare the countries visited, and their inhabitants, with their +present state; and its principal interest from the personal +adventures of the author. To such works, as well as to minute +biography, time gives a value and utility, which they do not +intrinsically possess.</p> + +<p>123. Itinerarium Portugalensium e Lusitania in Indiam et inde in +Occidentem et demum ad Aquilonem, ab. Arch. Madrignan. 1508. +fol.--Originally published in Portuguese.</p> + +<p>124. Josten, Reisebeschreibung durch die Turkey, Ungern, Polen, +Reussen, Bohemen, &c. neue Jerusalem, Ost und West Indien. Lubec, +1652. 4to.</p> + +<p>125. Graaf, Reisen naer Asia, Africa, America, en Europa. +Amsterdam, 1686. 8vo.</p> + +<p>126. Historia y Viage del Mundo en los cincos Partes; de la +Europa, Africa, Asia, America y Magellanica. Par Levallos. Madrid, +1691. 4to.</p> + +<p>127. John Ovington's Voyage to Surat, with a Description of the +Islands of Madeira and St. Helena. London, 1698. 8vo.</p> + +<p>128. Le Bruyn's Voyage to the Levant. Translated from the French. +London, 1702. fol.--This work bears a similar character as the +preceding travels of the author already noticed. The plates are +excellent.</p> + +<p>129. Irwin's Adventures in a Voyage up the Red Sea; and a Route +through the Thebaid hitherto unknown, in the year 1779. London, 4to. +and 8vo.--Chiefly valuable for the information which his personal +adventures necessarily gives of the manners, &c. of the +Arabians.</p> + +<p>130. Memoirs and Travels of Count Beniousky. London, 1790. 2 vols. +4to.--Amidst much that is trifling, and more that is doubtful, this +work contains some curious and authentic information, especially +relating to Kamschatka and Madagascar: what he states on the subject +of his communications with Japan, is very suspicious.</p> + +<p>131. Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria. By W.G. Browne. London, +1799. 4to.--A most valuable work, and except in some few +peculiarities of the author, a model for travellers: it is +particularly instructive in what relates to Darfour.</p> + +<p>132. Travels in Asia and Africa. By A. Parsons. 4to. 1809.--These +travels were performed in 1772--78: they indicate good sense, and are +evidently the result of attentive and careful observation and +enquiry. From Scanderoon to Aleppo; over the desert to Bagdat: a +voyage from Bussora to Bombay, and along the west coast of India; +from Bombay to Mocha; and a journey from Suez to Cairo, are the +principal contents.</p> + +<p>133. Travels. By John Lewis Burckhardt. Vol.1. Nubia; vol. 2. +Syria and the Holy Land; vol.3, in the Hedjaz. 1823. 4to.--Few +travellers have done more for geography than this author: +antiquities, manners, customs, &c., were examined and +investigated by him, with a success which could only have been +ensured by such zeal, perseverance, and judgment as he evidently +possessed.</p> + +<p>134. Lord Valentia's Travels in India. Ceylon, the Red Sea, +Abyssinia, and Egypt. 1802-6. 3 vols. 4to.--It is not possible for a +person to travel so long, in such countries, without collecting +information of a novel and important kind: such there is in this work +on antiquities, geography, manners, &c.; but it might all have +been comprised in one third of the size.</p> + +<p>135. Travels along the Mediterranean and Parts adjacent, +1816-17-18, extending as far as the second Cataract of the Nile, +Jerusalem, Damascus, Balbec, &c. By Robert Richardson, M.D. 1822. +2 vols. 8vo.--Much information may be gleaned from these volumes; but +there is a want of judgment, taste, and life in the narrative.</p> + +<p>136. Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, +and Turkey. 1803-7. By Ali Bey. 3 vols. 4to.--This traveller procured +access to many places, in his assumed character, to which Christians +were not permitted to go: from this cause the travels are instructive +and curious; but they certainly disappointed the expectations of the +public.</p> + +<p>137. Ludovici Patricii Romani Itinerarium Novum Ethiopiæ, +Egypti, utriusque Arabiæ, Persidis, Syriæ, ac Indiæ +ultra citraque Gangem. Milan, 1511. fol.--This work is supposed to +have been written originally in Italian. In the Spanish translation, +published in Lisbon, 1576, the author's name is given, Barthema. This +a very curious and rare work. It has been translated into German and +Dutch.</p> + +<p>138. Baumgarten, Peregrinatio in Egyptum, Arabiam, Palestinam, et +Syriam. Nuremberg, 1621. 4to.</p> + +<p>139. Voyages au Levant, 1749-52. Par Fréd. Hasselquist. +Paris, 1769. 1 vol. 12mo.--This, originally published in Swedish by +Linnæus, and translated into German and Dutch, is uncommonly +valuable to the natural historian.</p> + +<p>140. Itinéraire de Paris a Jérusalem, et de +Jérusalem à Paris, en allant par la Grèce. Par +Chateaubriand. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.</p> + +<p>141. Le Nouveau Monde, et Navigations faites par Améric. +Vespuce, dans les Pays nouvellement trouvés, tant en Ethiopie +qu'en Arabie. Paris, 4to.--Translated from the Italian: both are +rare. The claims and merits of Vespucius may be judged of from the +following works: Canovai Elogio di Amerigo Vespucci. Florence, 1798.; +Tiraboschi Storia dell Litt. vol. 1. p. 1. lib. 1. c. 6.; the Letters +of Americo in Ramusio, 1. 138.; Bandini Vita del Amerigo, and an +article in the North American Review, for 1822.</p> + +<p>142. Voyage d'un Philosophe (M. Poivre). Paris, 1797. 18mo.--This +little work, which embraces remarks on the arts and people of Asia, +Africa, and America, deserves the title it bears better than most +French works which claim it.</p> + +<p>143. Langstadt, Reisen nach Sud-America, Asien, und Africa. +Hildesheim, 1789. 8vo.</p> + +<p>144. Recueil de divers Voyages faites en Afrique et +Amérique. Paris, 1674. 4to.</p> + +<p>145. Voyages du Cheval. Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, +et à Cayenne. Par Labat. Paris, 1780. 4 vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>146. Voyage en Guinée et dans les Isles Caraïbes. Par +Isert. 1793. 8vo. Translated from the German.</p> + +<p>147. Voyage on the Coast of Africa, in the Straits of Magellan, +Brazil, &c. in 1695-97. Translated from the French of Froger. +London, 1698. 8vo.</p> + +<p>148. Hans Sloane's Voyage to Madeira, Barbadoes, St. Christophers, +&c. London, 2 vols. folio. 1707.--This work, generally known +under the title of Sir Hans Sloane's History of Jamaica, is a rich +mine of natural history, aad contains upwards of 1200 engravings of +plants, &c.</p> + +<p>149. The Four Years' Voyage of Captain G. Roberts to the Islands +Canaries, Cape Verde, and the Coast of Guinea, and Barbadoes. 1725. +8vo.</p> + +<p>150. Voyage to Guinea, Brazil, the West Indies, Madagascar, +&c. By John Atkins. 1737. 8vo.</p> + +<p>151. Voyage aux Indes Orientales, Maldives, Moluccas, et +Brésil. Par Fr. Pyrard. Paris, 1619-8vo.--These voyages, which +occupied the author from 1600 to 1611, are uncommonly well written, +accurate, faithful, and circumstantial, especially regarding the +Maldives, Cochin, Travancore, and Calicut. There is appended a +particular and methodical description of the animals and plants of +the East Indies.</p> + +<p>152. Curiosités de la Nature et de l'Art, apportés +dans deux Voyages dans Indes: Indes Occ. 1698-9; Ind. Orient. 1701-2. +Par C. Biron, Chirurgeon Major. Paris, 1703. 12mo.--Valuable for its +natural history, and its account of the implements and arts of the +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>153. The History of Travels in the West and East Indies. By Eden +and Willis. 1577. 4to.</p> + +<p>154. Reise nach Ost und West Indien. Von R.C. Zimmerman. Hamburgh, +1771. 8vo.</p> + +<p>155. Variorum in Europa Itinerum deliciae. Collectae ab. A. +Clytaeo. Bremen, 1605. 8vo.</p> + +<p>156. Ponz Viage fuera de España in Europa. Madrid, 1785. 2 +vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>157. Moryson's Travels through Europe. 1617. fol.--A very curious +work.</p> + +<p>158. Itinera through the twelve Dominions of Germany, Bohemia, +Prussia, Sweden, Turkey, France, Britain, &c. 1617. fol.</p> + +<p>159. Ray's Observations, made in a Journey through Part of the Low +Countries, Germany, Italy, and France. 1738. 2 vols. 8vo.--Valuable +for its botanical researches.</p> + +<p>160. Travels in Hungary, Macedonia, Austria, Germany, the Low +Countries, and Lombardy. By E. Browne, M.D. 1685. fol.--Natural +history, the mines, mineral waters, as well as manners and customs, +are described in this work, which bears a good character. The author +was physician to Charles II., to Bartholomew Hospital, and afterwards +President of the College of Physicians.</p> + +<p>161. Bishop Burnet's Letters on Switzerland and Italy. 1686. +8vo.</p> + +<p>162. Travels through Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. By +De Blainville. 1749. 3 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>163. Smollet's Travels through France and Italy. 1766. 2 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>164. Barretti's Journey from London to Genoa, through Portugal, +Spain, and France. 1770. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>165. Dr. Moore's View of the Customs and Manners of France, +Germany, and Switzerland. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>166. Stolberg's (Count) Travels in Germany, Italy, and Sicily. +1794. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>167. Dr. C.J. Smith's Sketch of a Tour on the Continent in 1786-7. +3 vols. 8vo. 1807.--The travels of this celebrated botanist are not +by any means confined to his favourite science, but comprehend +well-drawn and interesting sketches of manners, as well as notices of +the antiquities, fine arts, &c. Holland, the Netherlands, France, +and Italy, were the scene of his travels.</p> + +<p>168. Beaumont's Travels from France to Italy, through the +Lepantine Alps. 1800. fol.</p> + +<p>169. Travels in Sicily, Greece, and Albania. By the Rev. T.S. +Hughes. 1820. 2 vols. 4to.--Classical, antiquarian, and descriptive +of the state of society, political, civil, religious, and domestic; +bearing marks of much information and enquiry, a sound judgment and +good education.</p> + +<p>170. Letters from the Mediterranean. By Ed. Blaquiere. 1814. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The information in these volumes chiefly relates to the +civil and political state of Sicily, Malta, Tunis, and Tripoli.</p> + +<p>171. The Diary of an Invalid, 1817--1819. By H. Matthews. 8vo. +1820.--Light and pleasant sketches of manners, and other popular +information, on Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, and France.</p> + +<p>172. Travels through Holland, Germany, and Part of France, in +1819. By W. Jacob, Esq. 4to. 1820.--Agriculture, Statistics, and +Manufactures.</p> + +<p>173. Journal du Voyage de Montaigne en Italie, par la Suisse et +l'Allemagne, en 1580-81. Paris, 1774. 4to.--Italy and the Tyrol are +particularly the objects of those travels, which are interesting, +much more on account of the name of the author, and of the insight +they afford into his temper and feelings, than from the information +they convey.</p> + +<p>174. Lettres du Baron de Busbec. Paris, 1748. 3 vols. 12mo.--These +are written from Turkey, whither the author was sent as ambassador by +Ferdinand King of Hungary, and from France, where he resided in an +official character. The original is in Latin. There is a translation +in English; but this comprises only the embassy to Turkey. They are +rich in political information, and in depicting the manners, &c. +of the people he visited, especially those inhabiting the +neighbourhood of the Don, &c.</p> + +<p>175. Relations Historiques des Voyages en Allemagne, Angleterre, +Holland, Boheme, et Suisse. Par C. Patin. Lyon, 1674. 16mo.--This +author was son of the celebrated physician, Guy Patin, and +distinguished for his knowledge of medals: his travels principally +relate to antiquities.</p> + +<p>176. Relation d'un Voyage de Paris, en Espagne, en Portugal, et en +Italie, 1769, 1770. Par M. Silhouette. Paris, 1770. 4 vols. +12mo.--This is the minister of finance, whose measures of economy +were so much ridiculed by the Parisians, and from whom the portraits, +called Silhouettes, took their name: his travels indicate +considerable acquaintance with the arts and political affairs.</p> + +<p>177. Lettres sur différens Sujets, écrites pendant +le Cours d'un Voyage en Allemagne, en Suisse, dans la France +Meridionelle, et en Italie. Par Bernouilli. Basle and Berlin, 1777. 3 +vols. 8vo.--The author of these letters, one of the celebrated family +of mathematicians of that name, has borrowed the greater part of his +work that relates to natural history from a Spanish work, entitled, +"Cartas familiares del Abbatè Juan Andres," of which there is +an edition published in Madrid, in 6 vols. small 4to. Bernouilli has, +however, added much information and interest to his letters, by his +description and account of collections of paintings.</p> + +<p>178. Tableau de l'Angleterre et de l'Italie. Par Archenholz. +Strasburgh, 1788. 3 vols. 12mo.--This work is translated from the +German.</p> + +<p>179. Voyage de Deux Français en Allemagne, en Danemarck, en +Suède, en Russe, et en Pologne, 1790-1. Par Portia de Piles. +Paris, 1796. 5 vols. 12mo.--This is a valuable work for all kinds of +statistical information.</p> + +<p>180. Voyage Philosophique et Pittoresque sur les Rives du Rhin, +à Leige, dans la Flandre, le Brabant, la Hollande, +augmentée d'une Voyage en Angleterre, et en France. Par G. +Forster. Paris, 5 vols. 8vo.--The author (whose acquirements in +natural history, and in general science and philosophical research, +as well as whose peculiar temper, are well known from his connection +with Captain Cook during his second voyage, and his works on this +voyage) has here produced an interesting and instructive work; +particularly so far as relates to his favourite study: it is also +interesting as depicting the political state of the countries he +visited, and his strong, ardent, and sanguine views at the +commencement of the French Revolution.</p> + +<p>181. Voyages en Sicile dans la Grande Grèce et au Levant. +Par le Baron de Riedesel. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--This edition comprises +all his travels, which were previously published separately. The +travels in Sicily are the most valuable.</p> + +<p>182. Voyages de Guibert dans diverses Parties de la France et de +la Suisse, 1775. 1785. Paris, 1805. 8vo.--The celebrated author of +the "Essai sur la Tactique" was employed to visit the different +military hospitals in France; his journeys with this object, as well +as when he went to join his regiment, were the occasion of these +travels, in which there is much animated description of nature, and +several well-drawn portraits of public men.</p> + +<p>183. Voyage en Allemagne, dans le Tyrol et en Italie. 4 vols. 8vo. +Paris, 1818.--This work is translated from the German of Mad. de la +Recke, by Madame de Montelieu, and possesses much of that pleasing +narrative and description which characterize female writers of +talent.</p> + +<p>184. Pauli Hertneri Itinera Germaniæ, Galliæ, +Italitæ. Basle, 1611. 4to.</p> + +<p>185. Joh. Bernouilli Reisen durch Brandenburgh, Pommern, Preussen, +Curland, Russland, und Pohlen, 1777-8. Leips. 1779-80. 6 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>186. Sulzer Reisen nach Schweitz, und Hieris, und Nice. 1775. +8vo.--This author is well known for his "Universal Theory of the Fine +Arts;" and these travels, as well as those in the middle states of +Europe, and among the Alps, which he also published, are worthy of +him.</p> + +<p>187. Bauman, Reise durch Deutschland und Walschland. Augsb. 1782. +8vo.--These travels in Germany and Italy contain observations on a +subject little attended to by travellers; but one which they might +much benefit: we mean domestic economy, or the different modes, +plans, &c. pursued by different nations in domestic life, as +regards food, houses, clothing, &c.</p> + +<p>188. Fred. Nicholai, Beschriebung einer Reise durch Deutschland +und de Schweitz, 1781. Berlin, 1783. 12 vols. 8vo.--This work is +swelled beyond all due proportion with political disquisitions; but +though bold and severe, it is a just picture.</p> + +<p>189. Italien und Deutschland. Von C.P. Moritz. Berlin, +1790.--Manners, literature, and arts are the topics of this work. The +same author published "Travels of a German in England."</p> + +<p>190. Reisen durch Deutschland, Danemarck, Schweden, Italien, +1797--99. Von Kuttner. Leip. 4 vols. 8vo.--Statistical and political +information, derived from authentic and official sources, especially +as relates to Austria and Saxony, distinguishes this work.</p> + +<p>191. Streifzuge durch Inner Oestreich, &c. Vien. 1800. +4to.--The quicksilver mines of Idria, the manners, &c. of the +people of Trieste and Venice, and the principal objects of arts and +industry in all the countries described, give to this work a merit +greater than its brevity would seem to deserve.</p> + +<p>192. Briefe woehrend meinis Aufenhalts en England und Portugal. +Hamb. 1802. 8vo.--This work, by Mad. Barnard, is written with that +peculiar charm and vivacity of style, which it would seem females +only can attain. There are in it curious notices of Berlin, Hanover, +and Cuxhaven, besides those on England and Portugal.</p> + +<p>193. Bemerkungen gesammelt auf einer Reise durch Holland, und +einin Theil Franchreichs, 1801. Von J.F. Droysen. Goetting. 1803. +8vo.--Literary establishments and societies, especially those of +Paris, and the state of mathematical, physical, and chemical science, +are particularly attended to by this author.</p> + +<p>194. Arndt, Reisen durch einer Theil Deutschlands, Ungaren, +Italien, und Franckreichs, 1798, 1799. 4 vols. 8vo. Leip. 1804.</p> + +<p>195. Reisen durch das Osterreich, Illyrien, Dalmatien, und +Albanien, 1818. 2 vols. 8vo. Meissen, 1822.</p> + +<p>196. Reisen durch einen Theil Deutschlands, die Schweitz, Italien, +und Griechenland. 8vo. Gotha, 1822.</p> + +<p>197. Bemerkungen auf einer Reise aus Nord Deutschland, uber +Francfort, nach dem sudlichen Franckreich. 1819. 8vo. Leips. +1822.</p> + +<p>198. Lettere Scritte della Sicilia e della Turkia. Dall. Abbote D. +Sestini, 1774-78. Florence, 1780. 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels, which +have been translated into French, are very full on the agriculture of +Sicily, and on its internal and external commerce.</p> + +<p>199. Fred. Snedorfs Samlede Skrivter. Copenh. 1794. 4 vols. +8vo.--Of this work only the first volume relates to our present +subject, containing letters from Germany, Switzerland, France and +England. The author, who travelled at two different times into these +countries, pays particular attention to political and literary +persons, whose character he draws with great spirit, candour, and +acuteness. As he travelled at the commencement of the French +Revolution, his sketches of political characters and events are +especially interesting and valuable. The universities of England and +Germany also attract a deal of his attention, and on these he offers +some judicious remarks.</p> + +<p>V.</p> + +<p>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS AND COUNTRIES.</p> + +<p>200. Chronological History of Voyages into the Polar Regions. By +John Barrow, 1819. 8vo.</p> + +<p>201. History of North-Eastern Voyages of Discovery. By Captain +Jos. Burney, 1819. 8vo.--These two works nearly exhaust the subject +on which they treat: the character of their authors sufficiently +warrants their accuracy and completeness.</p> + +<p>202. J.R. Forster's History of Voyages and Discoveries made in the +North, 1786. 4to.--This work is not confined to voyages and +discoveries in the Arctic regions; but comprises those made in the +central regions of Asia in the middle ages, as well as those in the +northern parts of America. Its character is like that of all +Forster's productions, to some of which we have already had occasion +to advert.</p> + +<p>203. Russian Voyages of Discovery for a North-west Passage. By +Muller. London. 4to. 1800.--The following work, though relating +rather to discoveries in the sea between Asia and America, than to +attempts for a north-east or north-west passage, may be placed here, +as a continuation of the work of Muller, which comes no farther down +than the expedition of Behring, in 1741.</p> + +<p>204. Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America. +By William Coxe, 1780. 8vo.--This work is interesting, not merely +from the particular subject which the title indicates, but also on +account of the sketch it contains of the conquest of Siberia, and of +the Russian commerce with China.</p> + +<p>205. Historia Navigationis Mar. Frobisberi, 1577. Nuremburg, 1580. +8vo.</p> + +<p>206. Descriptio novi Freti, recens inventi, ab Hen. Hudson. +Amsterdam, 1613. 4to.</p> + +<p>207. Captain James's Voyage for the Discovery of the Northwest +Passage, in 1632. London, 1633. 4to.--This narrative contains some +remarkable physical observations on the cold and ice; but no hint of +any discovery of importance.</p> + +<p>208. Henry Ellis's Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west +Passage, in 1746-7. London, 1748. 2 vols. 8vo.--Some important facts +and remarks relating to Hudson's Bay are given in this voyage.</p> + +<p>209. Account of a Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west +Passage, by Hudson's Straits, in 1746-7, in the California. By the +Clerk of that Ship. 2 vols. 8vo. 1748.--This relates to the same +voyage as the work of Ellis.</p> + +<p>210. Hearne's Journey from Prince of Wales' Fort, in Hudson's Bay, +to the Northern Ocean. 1795. 4to.</p> + +<p>211. Mackenzie's Voyage from Montreal, through the Continent of +North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in the Years 1789 and +1793. 4to.--Besides the interesting details in these voyages, +respecting the countries travelled over, and the manners of the +inhabitants, they are important, particularly Mackenzie's, as having +effected the discovery of the Polar Sea by land, and as introductory +to the following work:</p> + +<p>212. Voyage of Discovery for a North-west Passage. By Captain +Ross, 1819. 4to.--Although the end was not accomplished, nor that +done which might have been, yet this volume is valuable for its +scientific details on natural history and meteorology.</p> + +<p>213. Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Passage from the +Atlantic to the Pacific. By Captain Parry, 1821. 4to.--Geography, +natural history, and especially the sciences connected with, and +contributing to the improvement of navigation and geographical +knowledge, together with a most interesting narrative of sound +judgment, presence of mind, perseverance and passive courage, +characterize this volume.</p> + +<p>214. Narrative of a Journey from the Shores of Hudson's Bay to the +Mouth of the Copper Mine River, &c. By Captain. J. Franklin, +1823. 4to.--A work of intense and indeed painful interest, from the +sufferings of those who performed this journey; of value to geography +by no means proportional to those sufferings; but instructive in +meteorology and natural history.</p> + +<p>215. Geschicte der Schiffahrten zur endeckung des Nordeest-lichen +Wegs nach Japan und China. Von J.C. Adelung. Halle, 1768. 4to.--Some +of the above works, as well as others relating to attempts to +discover a north-west and north-east passage, are inserted in Harris +and Churchill's Collections.</p> + +<p>216. Les Trois Navigations faites par les Hollandois au +Septentrion. Par Gerard de Ver. Paris, 1610. 8vo.--This contains +Barentz's Voyages.</p> + +<p>217. Histoire des Peches, des Découvertes, &c. des +Hollandois, dans la Mer du Nord. Paris, 1801. 3 vols. 8vo.--This +work, translated from the Dutch, is full of curious matter, not only +respecting the fish and fisheries of the North Sea, but also +respecting Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and on subjects of +natural history.</p> + +<p>218. Beschriebung des Alten und Neuen Grenland, nebist einem +begrift der Reisen die Frobisher, &c. Nuremberg, 1679. 4to.</p> + +<p>219. A Voyage towards the North Pole. By Lord Mulgrave, in 1773. +4to.</p> + +<p>220. An Account of the Arctic Regions. By W. Scoresby, 1820. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This, together with a voyage to Greenland, published +subsequently by the same author, is full of most valuable information +on the meteorology and natural history of this part of the World, +besides containing interesting particulars on the Whale Fishery.</p> + +<p>221. Déscription et Histoire Générale du +Gröenland. Par Egede, traduite du Danois. Genève, 1763. +8vo.--In 1788-9, Egede published two other works on Greenland in +Danish, which complete his description of this country.</p> + +<p>222. Crantz's History of Greenland, translated from the High +Dutch, 1767. 2 vols. 8vo.--A continuation of this history was +published by Crantz, in German, 1770, which has not been +translated.</p> + +<p>VI. EUROPE.</p> + +<p>LAPLAND AND THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.</p> + +<p>223. Canuti Leemii de Lapponibus. Copenhagen, 1767. 2 vols. +4to.--This work, containing a rich mine from which travellers in +Lapland, particularly Acerbi, have drawn valuable materials, is +seldom met with complete and with all the plates: there should be 100 +of them.</p> + +<p>224. Histoire de la Lapponie, traduite du Latin de M. Schaeffer. +Paris, 1678. 4to.</p> + +<p>225. Journal d'un Voyage au Nord, 1736-7. Amsterdam, 1746. +12mo.--This work, though principally and professedly an account of +the labours of Maupertuis, to ascertain the figure of the earth, is +interesting to the general reader, from the descriptions it gives of +the manners, &c. of the natives of Lapland, &c.</p> + +<p>226. Mémoires sur les Samoyedes et les Lappous. Copenhagen, +1766. 8vo.</p> + +<p>227. Voyage dans le Nord de l'Europe, 1807. Par La Motte. 4to. +Paris.--Norway and part of Sweden were visited by this traveller on +foot, and he gives details of scenery, &c. which only a foot +traveller could procure.</p> + +<p>228. The natural History of Iceland. By Horrebow, 1758. folio.</p> + +<p>229. Von Troil's Letters from Iceland. 1780. 8vo.--This +translation is not nearly so accurate as that into French, published +in Paris, 1781. 8vo.</p> + +<p>230. Travels in Iceland during the Summer of 1810. By Sir G. +Mackenzie, 1811. 4to.--Almost every topic on which a traveller is +expected to give information is here treated of: the history, +religion, natural history, agriculture, manners, &c.; and all +evidently the result of much previous knowledge, good sense, and +information collected on the spot.</p> + +<p>231. Hooker's Journal of a Tour in Iceland in 1809. 2 vols. +8vo.--Natural History, especially Botany; the travels of this author, +Mackenzie, and Henderson, would seem to leave nothing to be desired +on the subject of this extraordinary island and its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>232. Journal of a Residence in Iceland, 1814-15. By Henderson. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The state of society, manners, domestic habits, and +religion, are here treated of; but there is too much minuteness, and +a tediousness and dryness of style and manner.</p> + +<p>233. Voyage en Islande. Par Olafsen et Povelsen. Paris, 1801. 5 +vols. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Danish, though tedious and +prolix, supplies many curious particulars respecting the natural +history of the country and the manners of the people.</p> + +<p>234. OEconomische Reise durch Island. Von Olavius. Leip. 4to.</p> + +<p>235. Landt's Description of the Feroe Islands. Translated from the +Danish. 8vo.--This work, which was published at Copenhagen in 1800, +is the only accurate account of these islands since the Feroe +Reserata of Debes in 1673; but it is too minute and long for the +subjects it describes.</p> + +<p>236. Coxes's Travels in Poland, Russia, Sweden and Denmark. 5 +vols. 8vo.--The substantial merits of this work are well known.</p> + +<p>237. Acerbi's Travels through Sweden, Finland, and Lapland, to the +North Cape, in 1798-9. 2 vols. 4to. 1801.--These travels are +interesting and attractive; but they bear evident marks of having +been made up by an editor. The author has been attacked by Rihs, a +Swede, for misrepresenting the Swedes, and for having borrowed +largely without acknowledgment from Leemius; and by his +fellow-traveller, Skieldebrand, with having appropriated the views +and designs which he made. The latter published in French a +Picturesque Tour to the North Cape.</p> + +<p>238. Lachesis Lapponica, or a Tour in Lapland. By Linnæus, +1811. 2 vols. 8vo.--These travels were performed in 1732, when +Linnæus was very young. Botany of course forms the principal +subject; but the work is also instructive and interesting from the +picture it exhibits of the character of the author, and of the +manners of the Laplanders.</p> + +<p>239. Travels through Norway and Lapland. By Baron Von Buch; with +Notes by Professor Jameson, 1818. 4to.--This work, translated from +the German, contains much new and valuable information, chiefly on +mineralogy and geology.</p> + +<p>240. Thomson's Travels in Sweden, during the Autumn of 1812. +4to.--Mineralogy, geology, satistics, and politics form the chief +topics: the work is carelessly written.</p> + +<p>241. Travels through Sweden, Norway, and Finmark, to the North +Cape, 1820. By A. de Capell Brocke. 4to. 1823. Picturesque.</p> + +<p>242. Nouveau Voyage vers le Septentrion. Amsterdam, 1708. +12mo.--The customs, religion, character, domestic life, &c. of +the Norwegians and Laplanders are here sketched in an interesting and +pleasant manner.</p> + +<p>243. Lettres sur le Danemark. Par Mallet. Genève, 1767. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This work is worthy of the author, whose introduction to +the History of Denmark is so advantageously known to English readers, +by Bishop Percy's excellent translation of it. It gives an excellent +and faithful picture of this country in the middle of the eighteenth +century, and comprises also the southern provinces of Norway.</p> + +<p>244. Voyage en Allemagne et en Suède. Par J.P. Catteau. +Paris, 1810. 3 vols. 8vo.--Sensible and judicious on arts, manners, +literature, literary men, statistics and economics; but more full and +valuable on Sweden than on Germany. Indeed few authors have collected +more information on the North of Europe than M. Catteau; his Tableau +des Etats Danois, and his Tableau Général de la +Suède, are excellent works, drawn up with great accuracy and +judgment. The same may be said of his Tableau de la Mer Baltique; in +which every kind of information relative to the Baltic, its shores, +islands, rivers, ports, produce, ancient and modern commerce, is +given.</p> + +<p>245. Voyage en Norwège, traduit de l'Allemand de J. +Fabricius. Paris, 1803. 8vo.--This too is an excellent work, +especially in what regards the natural history and economics of the +country.</p> + +<p>246. Reise en die Marschlander au der Nordsee. Von J.N. Tetens. +Leip. 1788. 8vo.--Holstein, Jutland, and Sleswick, countries in which +we possess few travels, are accurately described in this work.</p> + +<p>247. Reise durch einige Schwedische Provinzen. Von J.W. Schmidt. +Hamburgh, 1801.--These travels contain curious particulars respecting +the Nomadic Laplanders.</p> + +<p>248. Arndt, Reise durch Schweden, 1804. 4 vols. 8vo. Berlin, +1806.</p> + +<p>There are several travels by Linnæus (besides the one +published by Sir J. Smith, already noticed) and his pupils into +different provinces of Sweden, relating to their natural history, +which botanists will value highly; but we omit them, as interesting +only to them. They are written in Swedish, but German translations +have appeared of most of them. There are also valuable travels by +Germans, especially Huelfer and Gilberg, which give full and accurate +details of the copper mines, and the processes pursued in them; but +these also we omit for a similar reason.</p> + +<p>RUSSIA AND POLAND.</p> + +<p>Whatever object has once been pursued by a Russian sovereign, +seems to descend as a hereditary pursuit to his successors. This is +true, not only of their plans of conquest, but also of their means of +improving their country; but it is evident of all countries, and +especially of such a vast extent of country as Russia exhibits, where +new districts are from time to time added, the very limits of which +are scarcely known, that no sure and regular means of improvement can +be adopted, until the actual state and the capabilities of each +district are fully known. The Empress Catherine gave great attention +and encouragement to these enquiries: a number of men, well qualified +for the undertaking, were sent to investigate the state of each +district, especially its natural history, and the addition to the +national strength and wealth which might be drawn from it. When the +name of Pallas is mentioned as one of the scientific men employed for +this purpose, and empowered to direct the enquiries of his +associates, and to revise them, in it a sufficient pledge is given of +the accuracy and value of their labours.</p> + +<p>249. Michalonis Lithuani de Moribus Tartarorum, Lithuanorum et +Moschorum Fragmenta. Basle, 1615. 4to.--We notice this work as +exhibiting a lively picture of the manners of these nations at this +period. The same reason induces us to notice the following. Indeed, +the chief interest of these old works, and it is no languid one, is +derived from being introduced into the midst of ancient manners and +people.</p> + +<p>250. Ulfedii Legatio Moscovitica. Franck. 1617. 4to.--This work, +which particularly notices the Tartar tribes at that time subject to +Russia, proves, by a comparison with what Pallas relates of them, +that their manners, customs, and acquirements had been quite +stationary for nearly 150 years.</p> + +<p>251. State of Russia. By Captain Perry. London, 1716. +8vo.--Captain Perry, who visited Russia in 1706-12, at the request of +Peter the Great, to assist in the formation of a fleet, navigable +canals, &c., has in this work given an accurate account of this +vast empire; the first indeed that may be said to have introduced a +knowledge of it into England.</p> + +<p>252. View of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. +By the Rev. W. Tooke. 3 vols. 8vo.--As this work is drawn up from a +personal knowledge of the country, and aided by access to the best +authorities, we have admitted it into the Catalogue, though not +exactly falling within the description of travels. It is full of +matter, physical, statistical, political, commercial, &c.; but +heavily written, and displaying rather extent and accuracy of +research, than a perspicuous and profound mind.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal works by Pallas and his +associates, or works undertaken with similar objects. They require no +particular criticism, after the general notice we have given of +them.</p> + +<p>253. Reisen durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs, +1768. 1773. Peters. 3 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>254. Bemerkungen auf einer Reise in die Sudlichen +Statthalterschaften des Russischen Reichs, 1793, 1794.--Of these +travels by Pallas, the last is more particularly devoted to science, +and therefore is interesting to general readers. Both have been +translated into French, and the travels in 1793-4, into English.</p> + +<p>255. Georgi Bemerkungen auf einer Reise im Russischen Reichs, +1772--1774. Peters. 1755. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>256. Georgi Beschriebung alter Nation des Russischen Reichs. +Leipsic. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>257. Georgi Geographische, Physicalische und Naturhistorische, +Beschriebung des Russischen Reichs. Koning. 3 vols. 4to.--This work +of uncommon labour and research, treats of the geography, physical, +and natural history of Russia, divided into zones, each of which will +be separately described, when the work is completed.</p> + +<p>258. Gmelin, Reisen durch Russland. Peters. 1770-4. 3 vols. +4to.--Of the Travels of Lepechin, the other associate of Pallas, +which were performed 1768-1771, and published in Russian, there is a +German translation. Altenburgh, 1774. 3 vols. 4to., of which we have +not been able to procure the exact title.</p> + +<p>259. Reise von Volhynien nach Cherson en Russland, 1787. Von J.C. +Mæller. Hamb. 8vo.</p> + +<p>260. Bemerkungen uber Russland en rucksicht auf wissen-schaften +Kunst, Religion. Von J.J. Bollerman. Erfurt. 1788. 8vo.</p> + +<p>261. Mineralogische, Geographische, und andere vermischte, +Nachrechten von der Altaischen Gebirgen. Von H.M. Renovanz. Freyberg. +1789. 4to.</p> + +<p>262. Tableau Historique et Statistique de l'Empire Russie à +la fin du 18me siècle. Par H. Storch. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work, by the author of the Picture of Petersburgh, well +known to the English reader, is admitted here for the same reason +which gave insertion to Tooke's Russia. It is, however, we believe, +not yet complete according to the original plan of the author; and +the French translation only comprises what relates to the physical +and civil state of the inhabitants. Storch's Work, in conjunction +with that of Georgi, on the geography and natural history of Russia, +will comprise all that is interesting respecting this vast +country.</p> + +<p>263. Polonia, sive de Situ, Populis Moribus, &c. Poloniæ +a Mart. Cromero. Cologne. 1578. 4to.</p> + +<p>264. Sarmatiæ Europeæ Descriptio. ab Alex. Gaguin. +Spire, 1581. fol.</p> + +<p>265. Reise durch Pohlnische Provinzen. Von J.H. Carosi. Leip. +8vo.--These travels are chiefly mineralogical.</p> + +<p>266. Nachrichten uber Pohlen. Von J.J. Kausch. Saltz. 1793. +8vo.</p> + +<p>267 Letters, Literary and Political, on Poland. 1823. 8vo.--Rather +feebly written, and too minute on uninteresting points; in other +respects valuable, as relating to a country of which we know +comparatively little.</p> + +<p>TURKEY, GREECE, DALMATIA, &c.</p> + +<p>The countries of Europe, the travels into which we have hitherto +enumerated, do not present very various and numerous objects of +research. In Scandinavia the natural historian, especially the +mineralogist, will be chiefly interested. The vast extent of the +Russian empire also affords objects of curious and novel research to +the botanist and zoologist, few to the mineralogist. The Salt Mines +of Poland afford the principal objects of investigation to scientific +travellers in this country. Manners, habits, political institutions, +and religion, of course, are interesting in all; and to those whose +studies and enquiries lead them to investigate the differences in the +different families of the human race, the opportunities afforded them +by the Gothic Nations of Scandinavia; the Slavonic nations of Russia +and Poland; and the totally distinct and singular races which inhabit +Lapland and Finland, must be valuable and useful.</p> + +<p>When we enter Turkey, the scene changes, or rather expands. Within +its European, as well as its Asiatic empire, travellers of all +descriptions, however various their objects, will find rich and ample +materials. Situated in a mild climate, with great variety of soil, in +it are found plants remarkable for their uses in medicine and the +arts, or for their beauty: its mountainous districts contain +treasures for the mineralogist; and to the politician and student of +human nature, it exhibits the decided effects of the Mahometan +religion, and of Asiatic despotism. But what principally +distinguishes it from the other countries which have hitherto +occupied us, must be sought in its ruins of Grecian magnificence and +taste: in the traces and evidences it affords of ancient times, +manners, and acquirements: in the hold it possesses over our +feelings, and even over our judgment, as being classic ground--the +soil which nourished the heroes of Marathon and the bard of +Troy.--The language, the manners, the customs, the human form and +countenance of ancient Greece, are forcibly recalled to our +recollection.</p> + +<p>The travels in this part of the world have been so numerous, that +we must be strict and limited in our selection, having regard +principally to those which exhibit it under its various aspects with +the greatest fidelity, at various periods.</p> + +<p>268. Nicholai Clenard Epistola de Rebus Mahomediis, in Itinere +scriptis. Louvain, 1551. 8vo.</p> + +<p>269. Petrus Gyllius de Bosphoro Thracio. Elzerer, 1561. 4to.--This +is one of the first travellers who describes the antiquities of this +part of Turkey: manners and natural history, such as it was in his +time, also come under his notice. Dallaway praises him.</p> + +<p>270. Sandy's (Geo.) Travels, containing the State of the Turkish +Empire, of Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. 1673. fol.--Sandys was +an accomplished gentleman, well prepared by previous study for his +Travels, which are distinguished by erudition, sagacity, and a love +of truth, and are written in a pleasant style.</p> + +<p>271. Ricault's History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire. +1689. 8vo.--Ricault was secretary to the English Embassy at the Porte +in 1661. The Mahometan religion, the seraglio, the maritime and land +forces of Turkey are particularly noticed by him. An excellent +translation into French, with most valuable notes, by Bespier, was +published at Rouen, in 1677. 2 vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>272. Lady Mary Wortley Montague's Letters.--A great number of +editions of these Letters have been published. In 1805, her Works +were published in 5 vols. 12mo., containing Letters which had not +previously appeared. The character of her work, which principally +relates to Turkey, is well known.</p> + +<p>273. Porter's Observations on the Religion, Laws, Government, and +Manners of the Turks. 1768. 2 vols. 12mo.--Sir James Porter was +British ambassador at the Porte; his work is faithful and accurate, +and is chiefly illustrative of the political state, manners, and +habits of the Turks.</p> + +<p>274. Eton's Survey of the Turkish Empire. 1801. 8vo.--This work is +divided into four parts: government, finances, religion, arts, +manners, commerce, and population; state of the provinces, especially +Greece; causes of the decline of Turkey; and British commerce with +Turkey. As it is the result of personal observation, and of excellent +opportunities, it falls within our notice. Many of the opinions, +however, and some of the statements of the author, have been +controverted, particularly by Thornton in his Present State of +Turkey. 2 vols. 8vo. 1809. In a note to the preface, Mr. Eton +enumerates the best authors who have written on Turkey.</p> + +<p>275. History of the Russian Embassy to Constantinople. By M. +Reimers, Secretary to the Embassy, 1804. 3 vols. 4to.--This work is +translated from the German. Though the title in its original language +would lead the reader to suppose that it principally related to the +Russian provinces traversed by the embassy on its going and return, +this is not the case: the Turkish empire, and chiefly Constantinople, +form the most extensive and important division of these volumes; in +all that relates to the Turks there is much curious information; the +work is also interesting from the picture it exhibits of the manner +in which the embassy, consisting of a caravan of 650 persons, +travelled. They were six months in going from one capital to the +other.</p> + +<p>276. Tour in 1795-6 through the Crimea. By Maria Guthrie. 1800. 2 +vols. 4to.--This work contains a lively description of the various +tribes that inhabit the Crimea; their manners, institutions, and +political state; the antiquities, monuments, and natural history, and +remarks on the migrations of the Asiatic tribes. That part of the +work which relates to antiquities was written by her husband, Dr. +Guthrie.</p> + +<p>277. Walpole's Memoirs relative to European and Asiatic Turkey. +Edited from MS. journals.</p> + +<p>278. Travels in various Countries of the East, being a +Continuation of the Memoirs. 2 vols. 4to. 1817 and 1820.--The +information in these volumes is very various, classical, antiquarian, +and statistical: on natural history, manners, religion, politics; and +most of it valuable.</p> + +<p>279. Wheeler and Spon's Travels into Greece, 1681. fol--This work +relates chiefly to the antiquities of Greece and Asia Minor, and is +valuable for its plates of them, and of medals, inscriptions, +&c.</p> + +<p>280. A Journey into Greece, &c. By Wheeler, 1688. fol.--This +work (which embraces, in some degree, the same countries as the +former, but which takes in also Dalmatia) is also devoted to +antiquities, descriptions, and medals, and bears a good character in +these respects.</p> + +<p>281. Travels in Asia Minor, &c. By Richard Chandler, 1775-6. 2 +vols. 4to.--These are valuable travels to the antiquarian. The +author, guided by Pausanias, as respects Greece, Strabo for that +country and Asia Minor, and Pliny, has described with wonderful +accuracy and perspicuity the ruins of the cities of Asia Minor, its +temples, theatres, &c.</p> + +<p>282. Savary's Letters on Greece. Translated from the French, +8vo.--Rhodes and Candia are most particularly described in this +volume,--islands of which we previously had meagre accounts.</p> + +<p>283. Fortis' Travels in Dalmatia. 4to.--The geology, natural +history, and antiquities of this country, with curious and +instructive notices on the singular races which inhabit it, form the +subject of this volume, which is translated from the Italian.</p> + +<p>284. Travels in Hungary. By Rob. Townson, M.D. 1796. 4to.--This is +a valuable work to the natural historian, particularly the +mineralogist: it also contains a very particular account of the Tokay +wines.</p> + +<p>285. Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, and Greece, +1812-13. By Dr. Holland. 4to. 1815.--Classical, antiquarian, and +statistical information is here intermixed with valuable remarks on +the natural history, manners, political state, &c. of the +countries visited, especially Albania.</p> + +<p>286. Dodwell's Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece, +1801. 1805 and 6. 2 vols. 4to. 1819.--This work displays great +research, aided and directed by much preparatory knowledge, and a +sound judgment and good taste.</p> + +<p>287. Hobhouse's Journey through Albania and other Provinces of +Turkey, to Constantinople, in 1809-10. 4to. 1813.--Classical, +antiquarian, and statistical, with sketches of manners, national +character, &c.</p> + +<p>288. Tableau Général de l'Empire Ottoman.--Of this +splendid and celebrated work 2 volumes folio were published in 1787, +which comprised the religious code of Turkey. The 3d volume was +published in 1821, divided into two parts: the first part on the +political, military, civil, and judicial code; the second part on the +state of the Ottoman empire. This completes the plan of the author +D'Ohsson. Under all the heads, into which he has divided his work, he +has introduced authentic and curious notices of the agriculture, +arts, manners, domestic life, &c. of the Turks. The third volume +was published under the superintendence of his son.</p> + +<p>289. Voyage dans la Grèce Asiatique. Par Sestini. Paris, +1789, 8vo.--This work, translated from the Italian, comprises an +account of the environs of Constantinople, the peninsula of Cyzicum, +formerly an island in the Propontis, to which it was united by +Alexander the Great; and the districts of Brusa and Nice. The +antiquities of the peninsula, but especially the botany of the +countries he visited, are treated of in a masterly manner.</p> + +<p>290. Voyage de Vienne à Belgrade. Par N.E. Kleeman, +1768--1770. Neufchâtel, 1780. 8vo.--This work, translated from +the German, comprehends an account of the Crimea, and of the Tartar +tribes who inhabit it, full, minute, and accurate.</p> + +<p>291. Traité sur le Commerce de la Mer Noire. Par M. de +Peysonnel. Paris, 1783. 2 vols. 8vo.--Besides the commerce of the +Crimea, its soil, agriculture, and productions, and its political +state before it was annexed to Russia, are treated of in these +volumes.</p> + +<p>292. Description Physique de la Tauride. La Haye. 8vo.--This work, +translated from the Russian, is intended to complete the survey of +the Russian empire: it relates chiefly to natural history in all its +three branches.</p> + +<p>293. Voyage en Crimea, 1803. Par J. Reuilly. Paris, 1806. +8vo.--The author was assisted by the celebrated Pallas, who, at this +time, lived in the Crimea. The physical as well as political state of +this country are comprised in this work.</p> + +<p>294. Les Ruins des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce, +considérés du côté de l'Histoire et du +côté de l'Architecture. Par M. Le Roi. Paris, 1770. +fol.</p> + +<p>295. Voyage Littéraire de la Grèce, ou Lettres sur +les Grecs Anciens et Modernes, avec un parallèle de leurs +Moeurs. Par M. Guys. Paris, 1783. 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>The peculiar nature of these two works is sufficiently indicated +by their respective title: they are both interesting.</p> + +<p>296. Voyage en Grèce et en Turquie. Par Sonnini. Paris, +1801. 4to.--This work, which is translated into English, is rich in +natural history, commerce, and manners, particularly regarding some +of the islands of the Archipelago, Rhodes, Macedonia, the Morea, and +Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>297. Voyage en Morea, à Constantinople, en Albania, &c. +1799--1801. Par Pouqueville.</p> + +<p>298. Voyage dans la Grèce. Par Pouqueville. vol. 1. 4to. +Paris, 1820.--The first work has been translated into English: they +are both full of information, especially respecting Albania, though +more accurate investigations, or perhaps different views and +opinions, have induced subsequent travellers to differ from him in +some respects.</p> + +<p>299. Bartholdy, Voyage en Grèce, 1803-4. 2 vols. 8vo. +Paris, 1807.</p> + +<p>300. Moeurs, Usages, Costumes des Ottomans. Par Castellan. Paris, +1812. 6 vols.12mo.--The value of this work is enhanced by the +illustrations supplied by Langles from oriental authors.</p> + +<p>301. Lettres sur la Grèce. Par Castellan. Paris, 1810. +8vo.--The Hellespont and Constantinople are the principal subjects of +these letters, which are lively and amusing in their pictures of +manners and life. The same character applies to his "Lettres sur +l'Italie." Paris, 1819. 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>302. Voyage à l'Embouchure de la Mer Noire. Par Andreossy. +Paris, 1818. 8vo.--A valuable work on physical geography, and to the +engineer and architect, and such as might have been expected from the +professional pursuits and favourable opportunities of the author.</p> + +<p>303. Lettres sur le Bosphore, 1816--19. 8vo. 1821.</p> + +<p>304. Voyage Pittoresque et Historique de l'Istrie et de la +Dalmatie, rédigé d'après l'Itineraire de L.F. +Cassas, peintre. Par J. Lavallée. Paris, 1802. fol.--This +splendid work, as its title indicates, principally relates to +antiquities: there are, however, interspersed notices on manners, +commerce, &c. Zara, celebrated for its marasquin, is particularly +described.</p> + +<p>305. Scrofani, Reise en Griechenland, 1794-5. Leip. 1801. +8vo.--The German translation of this work, originally published in +Italian, is superior to the original, and to the French translation, +by the addition of valuable notes by the translator, and the omission +of irrelevant matter. Scrofani pays particular attention to +commercial details respecting the Ionian Isles, Dalmatia, the Morea, +&c.</p> + +<p>The Germans were celebrated for their skill in metallurgy, and +their knowledge of mineralogy, at a period when the rest of Europe +paid little attention to these subjects; and German travels in +countries celebrated for their mines are, therefore, valuable. Of the +German travels in Hungary and Transylvania, the greater part are +mineralogical. We shall select a few.</p> + +<p>306. Born, Briefe uber Mineralogische gegenstande auf einer Reise +durch den Temeswarer Bannat, &c. Leip. 1774. 8vo.--This +mineralogical tour in Hungary and Transylvania by Born, and published +by Ferber, possesess a sufficient guarantee of its accuracy and value +from the names of the author and editor. It is, however, not confined +to mineralogy, but contains curious notices on some tribes inhabiting +Transylvania and the adjacent districts, very little known: it is +translated into French.</p> + +<p>307. Ferber, Physikalisch-metallurgische Abhandlunger uber die +Gebirge and Bergewecke in Ungarn. Berlin, 1780. 8vo.</p> + +<p>308. Balthazar Hacquet, Reise von dem Berge Terglou in Krain, au +den Berg Glokner in Tyrol, 1779--1781. Vienne, 1784. 8vo.</p> + +<p>309. Neueste Reisen, 1788--1795, durch die Daceschen und +Sarmateschen Carpathen. Von B. Hacquet. Nuremb. 1796. 4 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>310. Briefe uber Triestes, Krain, Kærnthen, Steyermark, und +Saltzburgh. Franck. 1793. 8vo.</p> + +<p>311. Briefe uber das Bannet. Von Steube, 1793. 8vo.</p> + +<p>312. F. Grisselini, Lettere di Venetea, Trieste, Carinthia, +Carnioli e Temeswar. Milan, 1780. 4to.--Natural history and manners +are here described.</p> + +<p>GERMANY.</p> + +<p>This large district of Europe offers, not only from its extent, +but also from numerous causes of diversity among its parts,--some +established by nature, and others introduced by man--various numerous +and important objects to the research and observation of the +traveller. Its mines,-- the productions of its soil and its +manufactures,--the shades of its expressive, copious, and most +philosophical language,--from the classical idiom of Saxony, to the +comparatively rude and uncultivated dialect of Austria,--the effects +on manners, habits, feeling, and intellectual and moral acquirements, +produced by the different species of the Christian religion +professed,--and the different forms of government prevailing in its +different parts;--all these circumstances, and others of a more +evanescent and subtle, though still an influential nature, render +Germany a vast field for enquiry and observation.</p> + +<p>The travels in this country, especially by its native inhabitants, +are so numerous, that we must content ourselves with a scrupulous and +limited selection;--referring such of our readers as wish to consult +a more copious catalogue, to "Ersch's Literatur der Geschichte und +deren Hulfswissenschaften." We shall follow our usual plan, selecting +those travels which give the best idea of the country, at remote, +intervening, and late periods.</p> + +<p>313. Martini Zeilleri, Itinerarium Germaniæ +nov-antiquæ. Strasb. 1632. 4to.</p> + +<p>314. Christ. Dorrington's Reflections on a Journey through some +Provinces of Germany in 1698. Lond. 1699. 8vo.</p> + +<p>315. The German Spy. By Thomas Ledyart. 1740. 8vo.</p> + +<p>316. Keysler's Travels through Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, +Switzerland, Italy, and Lorrain. Translated from the German, 1756. 2 +vols. 4to.--Keysler, though a German, was educated at St. Edmund's +Hall: he travelled with the Count of Gleich and other noblemen. His +favourite study was antiquities; but his judgment, in those parts of +his travels which relate to them, has been questioned. His work, +though heavy, is interesting from the picture it exhibits of Germany, +&c. in the middle of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>317. Adams's Letters on Silesia, during a Tour in 1800-2. +Philadelphia, 3 vols. 8vo.--Mr. Adams was ambassador from the United +States to Berlin: his work contains some interesting information, +especially on the manufactures of Silesia.</p> + +<p>318. Cogan's Journey up the Rhine, from Utrecht to Frankfort. 2 +vols. 8vo. 1794.--The style of this work is lively and interesting: +its pictures of manners and scenery good; and it contains a learned +disquisition on the origin of printing. Dr. Cogan resided the greater +part of his life in Holland.</p> + +<p>319. Travels in the North of Germany. By Thomas Hodgskin, Esq. 2 +vols. 8vo. 1820.--That part, of Germany between the Elbe and the +frontiers of Holland is here described: the topic is rather new; and +Mr. H. has given us much information on the agriculture, state of +society, political institutions, manners, &c.; interspersed with +remarks, not in the best taste, or indicating the soundest judgment +or principles.</p> + +<p>320. Letters from Mecklenberg and Holstein, 1820. By G. Downes. +8vo.--This being a part of Germany seldom visited, every thing +relating to it is acceptable. Mr. Downes's work is, however, not so +full and various as might have been expected: on manners and German +literature it is most instructive.</p> + +<p>321. An Autumn near the Rhine, or Sketches of Courts, Scenery, and +Society, in Germany, near the Rhine, 1821. 8vo.--The title indicates +the objects of this volume, which bespeaks an observant and +intelligent mind.</p> + +<p>322. Travels from Vienna, through Lower Hungary. By Dr. Bright. +1817. 4to.--Agriculture and statistics form the principal topics of +this volume, which would have been equally valuable and much more +interesting if the matter had been more compressed.</p> + +<p>323. Historical and Statistical Account of Wallachia and Moldavia. +By W. Wilkinson. 1820. 8vo.--Mr. Wilkinson, from his situation as +British Consul, has been enabled to collect much information on these +portions of Europe, chiefly such as the title indicates, and also of +a political nature.</p> + +<p>324. Voyages de Reisbeck en Allemagne. Paris, 1793. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work was originally published in German, under the title +of Briefe eines reisenden Franzosen durch Deutschland: there is also +an English translation. The travels took place in 1782: and the +character of a French traveller, in the German original, was assumed, +to secure the author from the probable effects of his severe remarks +on the government, manners, and customs of Germany. To these +subjects, and others connected with man, his agriculture, commerce, +and other pursuits, Baron Reisbeck has chiefly confined his +attention: perhaps the truth and impartiality of his strictures would +be more readily acknowledged, if they were not so strongly +impregnated with a satirical feeling.</p> + +<p>325. Journal d'un Voyage en Allemagne, 1773. Par M. Guibert. +Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--The celebrated author of the "Essai +General sur la Tactique," naturally directed his attention during his +travels to military affairs, and to an examination and description of +the sites of famous battles. But this work by no means is confined to +such topics; and the remarks with which it abounds on more +interesting subjects, are so evidently the fruit of an acute and +original mind, that they equally command our attention, and instruct +us.</p> + +<p>326. Voyage en Hanovre, 1803-4. Par M.A.B. Mangourit. Paris, 1805. +8vo.--Politics, religion, agriculture, commerce, mineralogy, manners, +and customs, are discussed in this volume; and in general with good +sense and information. Hamburgh, Hanover, its government, +universities, and especially its mines, are particularly +described.</p> + +<p>327. Voyage dans quelques Parties de la Basse-Saxe, pour la +Recherche des Antiquités Slaves ou Wendes, 1794. Par J. +Potocky. Hambro. 1795. 4to.</p> + +<p>328. Journal d'un Voyage dans les Cercles du Rhin. Par Collini. +Paris, 1777. 8vo.--Chiefly mineralogical.</p> + +<p>329. Voyage sur le Rhin, depuis Mayence jusqu'à Dusseldorf. +Newied, 1791. 8vo.--This tour contains some curious details on the +subject of the wines of the Rhingau.</p> + +<p>330. Voyage en Autriche, &c. Par De Serres. Paris, 1814. 4 +vols. 8vo.--An immense mass of geographical and statistical +information, in a great measure drawn from German authors, on +Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia.</p> + +<p>331. Viaggio sul Reno e ne suoi contorni di P. Bertolo. 1795. +8vo.--These travels, performed in the autumn of 1787, are elegantly +written, rather than very instructive. They contain, however, some +valuable notices respecting the volcanic appearances in the district +of Andernach.</p> + +<p>332. Briefe auf einer reise durch Deutschland, 1791. Leignitz, +1793. 2 vols. 8vo.--Arts, manufactures, and economy, are the +principal topics of these letters.</p> + +<p>333. Die Donnau reise. Ratesbonne. 1760. 8vo.--These travels +describe the banks of the Danube, and the streams which flow into +it.</p> + +<p>334. Donnau Reise von Regensburgh bis Wein. Montag. 1802. +8vo.--The same remark applies to this work, only, as the title +indicates, it is confined to the river and its streams, from Ratisbon +to Vienna.</p> + +<p>335. Reise durch Ober-Deutschland, OEsterreich, Nieder Bayern, +Ober Schwaben, Wirtemberg, Baden, &c. Saltz. 1778. 8vo.</p> + +<p>336. Litterarische reisen durch einen theil von Bayern, Franken +und die Schweitz, 1780-2.; Von Zapf. Aug. 1782. 8vo.--The same author +published another literary tour among the convents of Swabia, and +Switzerland, and Bavaria; and in other parts of Franconia, Bavaria, +and Swabia, in 1782. These tours are strictly literary; that is, have +regard to MSS. and scarce editions, and are not scientific.</p> + +<p>337. Reise durch einige Deutsche Provinzen, von Hollenberg. +Stendal, 1782. 8vo.--Architecture and mechanics are the topics of +these travels.</p> + +<p>The following travels relate to the Hartz:</p> + +<p>338. Geographische und Historische, Merkwurdigkeften des Ober +Hartz. Leip. 1741. 8vo.</p> + +<p>339. Reise nach dem Oberhartz. Von J.C. Sulzer.--Inserted in a +collection of travels published by J. Bernouilli.</p> + +<p>340. Reise nach dern Unterhartz. 1783. Von Burgsdorf.--In the +natural history collection of Berlin.</p> + +<p>341. Reise durch Ober Saxen und Hessen, von J. Apelbad. Berlin, +1785. 8vo.--Apelbad, a learned Swede, published a Collection of +Voyages in different Parts of Europe, in Swedish, Stockholm, 1762, +8vo; and Travels in Saxony, in the same language, Stockholm, 1757, +8vo. There seems to have been another of the same surname, Jonas +Apelbad, who published in Swedish, Travels in Pomerania and +Brandenberg, Stockholm, 1757, 8vo. The work, of which we have given +the title in German, was translated by Bernouilli, who has greatly +enhanced the merits and utility of the original by his remarks. +Bernoulli's Collection of Travels,--Samlung kleiner reise +beschriebungen, Leips. 1781-7, 18 vols. 8vo., contains many +interesting short narratives and descriptions, particularly relating +to Germany.</p> + +<p>342. Reise durch die Norischen Alpen. Von Hacquet. Leips. 8vo. +1791.--These travels, like the former by the same author, which we +have mentioned, are chiefly botanical and mineralogical.</p> + +<p>343. Ausfluge nach dern Schnee-Berg in Unter-OEsterreich. Vienna, +1800. 8vo.--Botany, mineralogy, and what the Germans call economy, +and technology, are principally attended to in this work.</p> + +<p>344. Wanderrungen und Spazierfahrten in die gegenden um Wien. +Vienna, 1802-4. 5 vols. 8vo.--The title of this work would not lead +the reader to expect what he will find; valuable notices on +mineralogy, agriculture, arts, and manufactures, in the midst of +light and lively sketches of manners, places of amusement, +&c.</p> + +<p>345. Reise durch Sacksen. Von N.G. Leske. Leips. 1785. +4to.--Natural history and economy.</p> + +<p>346. Beobachtungen uber Natur und Menschen. Von F.E. Lieberoth. +Frankfort, 1791. 8vo.</p> + +<p>347. Economische und Statische reisen durch Chur-Sacksen, &c. +Von H. Engel. Leips. 1803. 8vo.</p> + +<p>348. Bemerkungen einer Reisenden durch die Prussischen Staaten. +Von J.H. Ulrich. Altenb. 1781. 8vo.</p> + +<p>349. Briefe uber Schlesien Krakau, und die Glatz. 1791. Von J.L. +Zoellner. Berlin, 1793. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>350. Reise durch einer Theil Preussen, Hambro, 1801. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work was drawn up by two travellers: one of whom supplied +the statistical remarks, and the other, who traversed Prussia on +foot, the remarks on entomology, amber, the sturgeon fishery, and +other branches of natural history and economics.</p> + +<p>351. Wanderrungen durch Rugen. Von Carl. Nernst. Dusseld. 1801. +8vo.--This island affords interesting notices on manners, ancient +superstitions, particularly the worship of Ertha, besides statistical +and geographical remarks.</p> + +<p>352. Rhein-Reise. Von A.J. Von Wakerbert. Halberstadt, 1794. +8vo.</p> + +<p>353. Ansichten des Rheins. Von Jno. Vogt. Bremen, 1805. 8vo.--This +is a strange mixture of the picturesque, the romantic, and the +instructive: the instructive parts contain historical and +topographical notices of the cities on the Rhine, and curious details +on its most famous wines.</p> + +<p>354. Historische Jaarbocken, von oud nieven Friesland door Foeke +Siverd. Leowarden, 1769. 8vo.--We insert the title of this work, +though not strictly within our plan, because it gives an accurate +account of a part of Germany, the dialect of which more resembles old +English than any other German dialect; and in which there still lurk +many very curious traditions, customs, and superstitions, which throw +much light on our Saxon ancestors.</p> + +<p>SWITZERLAND.</p> + +<p>Perhaps no country in the world, certainly no district within such +a small circuit, presents so many interesting objects to a traveller +as Switzerland. Be he natural historian, and geologist, drawn by +habit, feeling, and taste, to the contemplation of all that is grand, +romantic, and picturesque in natural scenery, or attached to the +study of man in that state, in which civilization and knowledge have +brought with them the least intermixture of artifice, luxury, and +dissoluteness--in Switzerland, he will find an ample and rich feast. +It does not often happen that one and the same country attracts to it +the abstract and cold man of science, the ardent imagination of the +poet, and the strong, enthusiastic, and sanguine sympathies of the +philanthropist.</p> + +<p>355. Descriptio Helvetiæ, a Marso, 1555-9. 4to.--Marsus was +ambassador from the Emperor and King of Spain, Charles V., to the +Swiss, and gives a curious picture of their manners at this +period.</p> + +<p>356. Helvetia Profana et Sacra. 1642. 4to.--This work by Scotti, +which is written in English, depicts the manners of the Swiss a +century after Marsus.</p> + +<p>357. Travels through the Rhætian Alps. By Beaumont, 1782, +fol.--Travels through the Pennine Alps, by the same, 1788. small +folio, both translated from the French.</p> + +<p>358. Travels in Switzerland, and in the country of the Grisons, by +the Rev. W. Coxe, 1791. 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels were performed in +1776, and again in 1785 and 1787, and bear and deserve the same +character as the author's travels in Russia, &c., of which we +have already spoken. Mr. Coxe gives a list of books on Switzerland at +the end of his 3d volume, which may be consulted with advantage. +There is a similar list at the end of his travels in Russia, +&c.</p> + +<p>359. A Walk through Switzerland, in Sept. 1816. 12mo.--The scenery +and manners sketched with much feeling, taste, and judgment, in an +animated style.</p> + +<p>360. Journal of a Tour and Residence in Switzerland. By L. Simond. +1822. 2 vols. 8vo.--A description of Switzerland and the Swiss, which +brings them in a clearer and stronger point of view, to the presence +and comprehension of the reader than most travels in this country: +though the range of observation and remark is not so extensive in +this work, as in the author's work on Great Britain; in every other +respect it is equal to it. The second volume is entirely +historical.</p> + +<p>The following French works particularly and accurately describe +the natural history and the meteorology of the Swiss mountains and +glaciers; the names of at least two of their authors must be familiar +to our readers, as men of distinguished science.</p> + +<p>361. Histoire Naturelle des Glaciers de Suisse. Paris, 1770. 4to. +Translated from the German of Gruner.</p> + +<p>362. Nouvelle Description des Glaciers. Par M. Bourrit. Geneva, +1785. 3 vols. 8vo.--This work of Bourrit is chiefly confined to the +Valais and Savoy, and its most important contents are given in the +following work by the same author.</p> + +<p>363. Nouvelle Description des Glaciers de la Savoie, +particulièrement de la Vallèe de Chamouny et du Mont +Blanc. 1785, 8vo.--This work contains an account of the author's +successful attempt to ascend the summit of Mont Blanc. There are +several other works of Bourrit on the Glaciers and Mountains of +Savoy: the latest and most complete is the following:</p> + +<p>364. Descriptions des Cols ou Passages des Alpes. Geneva, 1803. 2 +vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>365. Voyage dans les Alpes, précédé d'un +Essai sur l'Histoire Naturelle des Environs de Geneva. Par Saussure. +Geneva, 1787--1796. 8 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>366. Relation abrégée d'un Voyage à la Cime +du Mont Blanc, en Aout, 1787. Par Saussure, Geneva. 8vo.</p> + +<p>367. Voyage Minéralogique en Suisse. Lausanne, 1783-4. +8vo.</p> + +<p>368. Voyage Minéralogique dans le Gouvernement de l'Argh, +et ne partie du Valais. Lausanne, 1783. 8vo.--The first of these +works by Razoumousky, and the other by Behoumwesky, are valuable, as +noticing those parts which Saussure has not noticed.</p> + +<p>369. Lettres sur quelques Parties de la Suisse, &c. Par J.A. +de Luc. Paris, 1785. 8vo. Geological.</p> + +<p>370. Voyage de J.M. Roland en Suisse, 1787: incribed in the 3d +vol. of her works. Paris, 1800.--This celebrated, but mistaken and +unfortunate woman, has thrown into her narrative much information on +the manners of the Swiss, anecdotes of Lavater, &c. besides +giving a most lively account of her visit to the glaciers.</p> + +<p>371. Descriptions des Alpes Grecques et Cottiennes. Par Beaumont. +2 vols. 4to.--Part of this work is historical; the remainder embraces +natural history, mineralogy, statistics, and manners.--The same +character applies to No. 357.</p> + +<p>372. Histoire Naturelle du Jurat et de ses Environs. Par le Comte +de Razoumousky. Lausanne, 1789. 2 vols. 8vo.--The lakes of +Neufchàtel, Morat, and Bienne, and part of the Pays de Vaud, +are described in this work, which contains valuable information in +meteorology, commerce, &c. besides natural history.</p> + +<p>373. Journal du dernier Voyage de Dolomieu dans les Alpes. Par +J.C. Bruien-Neergard. Paris, 1803. 8vo.--The French government +directed Dolomieu to examine the Simplon; he was accompanied by the +author, a young Dane, his pupil. Dolomieu died soon after his return: +this work, therefore, is not nearly so full as it would have been, +had he lived to give his observations to the public.</p> + +<p>374. Lettre sur le Valais. Par M. Eschasseraux. Paris, 1806. +8vo.--This work, written in a pleasing style, gives important +information on the manners and natural history of this most +interesting part of Switzerland.</p> + +<p>375. Voyage dans l'Oberland Bernois. Par J.R. Wyss. Leipsic, 1818. +8vo.--This work, translated from the German, is chiefly +picturesque.</p> + +<p>376. Fodere, Voyage aux Alpes Maritimes. Paris, 1820. 2 vols. +8vo.--Agriculture, natural history, and the state of medicine, are +the principal topics.</p> + +<p>377. Briefe aus der Schweitz, &c. Von Andreæ. Zurich, +1776. 4to.--Natural history, and a particular description of the +celebrated bridge of Schaffhausen, and its mechanism, are what +recommend this volume. Bernouilli, in his travels in Switzerland, has +copied Andreæ in what relates to mineralogy and cabinets of +natural history; but he has added some interesting descriptions of +paintings.</p> + +<p>378. Kleine reisen durch einige Schweizer-Cantons. Bâle, +1780. 8vo.</p> + +<p>379. Letters on a Pastoral District, (the Valley of Samen in +Fribourg). By Bonstellen (in German). Zurich, 1792. 8vo.</p> + +<p>380. Physikalesch-Politische Reisen, aus der Dinarischen durch die +Julischen, &c. in die Norischen. Alpen, 1781-83. Von B. Hacquet. +Leipsic, 1784. 8vo.</p> + +<p>381. Malerische Reise in die Italianische Schweitz. Von J.H. +Mayer. Zurich, 1793. 8vo.--Mayer, in this work, as well as in travels +in Italy, has been very happy in picturesque description.</p> + +<p>382. Meine Wanderungen durch die Romanische Schweitz, Unterwaller +und Savoyen. 1791. Tubingen, 1793. 8vo.</p> + +<p>383. Kleine Fuss-reisen durch die Schweitz. Zurich, 1804. 2 vols. +8vo.--Parts of Switzerland are here described, which are seldom +visited, and can be thoroughly known only by foot travellers.</p> + +<p>384. Anleitung auf die nuzlichste und genussvollste art die +Schweitz zu Bereisen. Von J.C. Ebel. Zurich, 1804-5. 4 vols. +8vo.--This most excellent work affords every kind of information +which a person proposing to travel, or reside in Switzerland, would +wish to acquire. It has been translated into French under the title +of Manuel du Voyageur en Suisse. Zurich, 1818. 3 vols. 8vo. This +contains all the additions of the 3d German edition.</p> + +<p>ITALY.</p> + +<p>As the traveller descends the Alps, the first regions of Italy +into which he passes present him with mountains subdued in size, and +gradually passing from magnificence to grandeur and beauty; then the +rich and luxuriant plains of Lombardy meet him with their improved +agriculture, and in some places curious geology. He next advances to +those parts of Italy which are rich in the finest monuments of art, +and associated with all that is interesting in the period of the +revival of literature; with Dante, Boccacio, Petrarch, Ariosto, +Tasso, and the Medici. The proofs of commercial wealth, united with +magnificence and taste, present themselves to him in the palaces of +Genoa, Venice, and Florence; and he hears, on every side, the most +classical tongue of modern Europe.</p> + +<p>Rome, with which, in conjunction with Greece, the associations of +his frank and enthusiastic youth have been deeply formed, next rises +to view: to the classical scholar, the antiquarian, the man of taste +and virtue, the admirer of all that is most perfect in human +conception, as brought into existence by the genius of Michael +Angelo, and Raphael, this city affords rich and ample materials for +study and description, though it is unable to excite that grandest +feeling of the human breast, which is raised by the land of Leonidas +and of Socrates. Greece fought for liberty! Rome for conquest! The +philosophy of Rome is less original, less pure and disinterested, +less practical than that of Greece.</p> + +<p>Through all this part of Italy the geologist finds materials for +examination and conjecture, in the ridge of the Appennines: and +these, rendered still more interesting, accompany him into the +Neapolitan territory, both continental and insular.</p> + +<p>Such are the principal subjects to which travellers have directed +their attention in Italy; and the travels which chiefly relate to +these subjects, and treat of them in the best manner, we shall +select.</p> + +<p>385. Les Observations Antiques du Seigneur Symion, Florentin, en +son dernier Voyage d'Italie, 1557. Lyons, 1558. 4to--The principal +merit of this work consists in the description and engravings of +several remains of antiquity, which no longer exist.</p> + +<p>386. An Itinerary of a Voyage through Italy, 1646, 1647. By John +Raymond. 1648. 12mo.</p> + +<p>387. Misson's New Voyage to Italy, 1704. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work +is translated from the French; and contains the first general account +of this country which appeared, but in many places incorrect and +prejudiced. Addison's remarks on Italy are published with this +edition of Misson; they are classical; and in fact a commentary made +on the spot, on the descriptions of Virgil. Subsequent travellers, +however, in some places differ from him in opinion, and in others +question his accuracy and judgment.</p> + +<p>388. Grosley's Observations on Italy. 2 vols. 8vo.--Chiefly +political and anecdotal; in some parts of doubtful authority: +translated from the French.</p> + +<p>389. Sharp's Letters on Italy. 1769. 4 vols. 8vo.--Barretti's +Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy. 1770. 2 vols. +8vo.--These works are noticed principally because they afford a +curious and instructive proof of the very different views which may +be taken of the same objects, according to the extent and accuracy of +the knowledge, and the preconceived opinions and feelings of the +observer. Barretti's work is certainly more accurate than that of +Sharp, but in opposing him, he has sometimes gone into the opposite +extreme: from comparing both, perhaps the reality may often be +extracted. Manners and national character are their chief topics.</p> + +<p>390. View of Society and Manners in Italy. By Dr. Moore, 1781. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The peculiar felicity of description and style with which +this author paints manners, render these travels, as well as his +others, extremely interesting.</p> + +<p>391. Observations on Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna, and other +Volcanoes. By Sir W. Hamilton. Naples, 1776. 2 vols. folio.--London, +1772. 8vo.</p> + +<p>392. Travels in the Two Sicilies. By H. Swinburne, 1790. 4 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>393. Denon's Travels in Sicily and Malta, translated from the +French. 8vo.--Denon, an artist, accompanied Swinburne in his +excursions to the vicinity of Naples, and into Sicily. These works +are historical, geographical, and antiquarian, but heavily +written.</p> + +<p>394. Spallanzani's Travels in the Two Sicilies, and some parts of +the Apennines, 1798. 4 vols. 8vo.--Translated from the Italian. +Natural history forms the principal subject of these volumes, which +are worthy of the author, who was esteemed one of the first natural +historians of His age.</p> + +<p>395. Boisgelin's Ancient and Modern Malta. 3 vols. 4to. translated +from the French.--Only the first part of this work is descriptive, +and it certainly contains an interesting account of Malta and the +Maltese; the rest of the work is historical.</p> + +<p>396. Brydon's Tour through Sicily and Malta. 2 vols. 8vo. +1776.--Liveliness of description of scenery and manners, couched in +an easy and elegant style, has rendered these volumes extremely +popular, notwithstanding they do not display much learning or +knowledge, and are even sometimes superficial and inaccurate.</p> + +<p>397. Boswell's Account of Corsica. 1768. 8vo.--Interesting details +respecting Paoli, as well as on the island and its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>398. Eustace's Classical Tour through Italy. 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>399. Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily. By Sir R.C.Hoare, +Bart. 1819. 4to.--Mr. Eustace's work is very full and minute in the +subject which the title indicates; it is written in good taste, but +in rather a prolix style; his statements, however, are not always to +be depended on, especially where his political or religious opinions +interfere. Sir R. Hoare's work is meant as a supplement to Mr. +Eustace's.</p> + +<p>400. Remarks on Antiquities, Arts and Letters, during an excursion +in Italy, in 1802-3. By Joseph Forsyth. 1816. 8vo.--This is an +admirable work, giving in a short compass much information, and +indicating strong powers of mind, and a correct taste.</p> + +<p>401. Sketches Descriptive of Italy, 1816-17. 4 vols. 12mo. +1820.</p> + +<p>402. Letters from the North of Italy. By W.S. Rose, 1819. 2 vols. +8vo.--Free and judicious remarks on the political degradation of this +fair portion of Italy, with notes on manners, the state of society, +&c.</p> + +<p>403. Three Months passed in the Mountains East of Rome, in 1819. +By Maria Graham, 8vo.--An interesting and well-written picture of +manners and character, together with notices on the productions of +the soil, &c.</p> + +<p>404. Voyage to the Isle of Elba. By A.T. de Berneaud, 1814. +8vo.--This work, translated from the French, contains a very accurate +survey of this island.</p> + +<p>405. Tour through Elba. By Sir R.C. Hoare, bart. 1814. 4to.--Only +seventeen pages are devoted to the journal, the remainder of the +books consists of 8 views and a map: and a sketch of the character of +Buonaparte.</p> + +<p>406. Le Voyage et Observations de plusieurs Choses qui se peuvent +remarquer en Italie. Par le Sieur Adelier. Paris, 1656. +8vo.--Interesting, from exhibiting a well-drawn picture of the +manners of Italy at this period: with greater attention to natural +history than was usual when Adelier wrote.</p> + +<p>407. Voyage en Italie. Par M. de Lalande. Geneve, 1790. 7 vols. +8vo.--This large work embraces a vast variety of subjects, and in +general they are treated in a masterly manner; manners, government, +commerce, literature, the arts, natural history, antiquities, +sculpture, paintings, &c. His narration of the building of St. +Peters is very full, curious, and interesting.</p> + +<p>408. Voyage en Italie. Par. M. Duclos. Paris, 1791. 8vo.--Chiefly +remarks on the government and political situation of the various +states of Italy, with anecdotes and facts relating to these topics; +expressed with an open and unshrinking boldness, not to have been +expected from one who was the historiographer of France at the period +when Duclos travelled, 1766-7.</p> + +<p>409. Lettres Historiques et Antiques de Charles de Brosses. Paris, +1799. 3 vols. 8vo.--These letters by the celebrated De Brosses, +author of L'Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes, and other +works, hardly are equal to the literary reputation of the author; +they paint with considerable force, though sometimes in too strong +colours, the imperfections, follies, and vices of the Italians; and +display good taste and judgment respecting the fine arts.</p> + +<p>410. Voyage en Italie. De M. L'Abbé Barthelemi. Paris, +1802. 8vp.--The author of the travels of Anacharsis has here +exhibited himself in the midst of his favourite pursuits; the +precious remains of antiquity are described with an accuracy seldom +equalled, and in a style which renders the description attractive, +even to those who are not particularly conversant or interested in +these topics. The work is grounded on letters written to Count +Caylus; and contains, in an Appendix, some remarks of Winkelman, +Jacquier, &c. This work has been translated into English. The +travels of De Brosses and Barthelemi were performed in the middle of +the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>411. Voyage dans le Montaniata et le Siennois. Par G. Santi. +Lyons, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Italian, +relates to mineralogy, botany, agriculture, and statistics.</p> + +<p>412. Voyage sur la Scène des six derniers livres de +L'Eneide. Par C.V. de Bonstetten. Geneva, 1805. 8vo.--The first part +of this work, the nature of which is expressed by the title, is much +superior to the travels of Addison, in extent of classical research, +in originality of views, and in clearness of description: in this +part there are also interesting particulars respecting Latium. In the +second part, the author principally dwells on the Campagna, the +causes of its depopulation, and its agriculture; this introduces some +excellent observations on the agriculture of the ancient Romans, and +the connection between it and their manners and religion; other +topics are introduced, and treated in an able manner.</p> + +<p>413. Voyages Physiques et Lithologiques dans la Campagna. Par +Scipion Brieslack. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo.--Facts and conjectures +on the formation of the Campagna, and on the soil of the territory +and neighbourhood of Rome; on the extinct craters betwixt Naples and +Canna, and on that of Vesuvius, render this work instructive and +interesting to the geologist, while the picture of the Lazaroni must +render this portion of his work attractive to the general reader.</p> + +<p>414. Voyage en Sicile et dans la Grande-Grèce. Par le Baron +de Riedesel, Paris, 1773. 12mo.--This work, translated from the +German, is formed of letters addressed to Winkelman, describing +minutely, and with great taste, learning, and accuracy, the +magnificent views with which the scene of his travels abounds, and +contrasting them in ruins with their original perfection, as +delineated in ancient authors. Interspersed are remarks on the +manners and character of the inhabitants.</p> + +<p>415. Lettres sur la Sicile et sur Malta, de M. le Comte de Borch, +1777. Turin, 1782. 2 vols. 8vo.--The object of the author is to +supply the omissions and correct the mistakes of Brydon.</p> + +<p>416. Voyage aux Isles Lipari, 1781. Par D. Dolomieu. Paris, 1788, +8vo..--The character of Dolomieu sufficiently points out the nature +and value of this work. A Supplement was published the same year, +under the title of Mémoire sur les Isles Ponces. Par Dolomieu. +Paris. 8vo.</p> + +<p>417. Voyage Historique Littéraire et Pittoresque dans les +Isles et Possessions ci-devant Venétiennes du Levant. Par A. +Grasset-Saint-Sauveur, jun. Paris, 1800. 3 vols. 8vo.--The author was +French Consul at the Ionian Islands for many years; and hence he had +opportunities which he seems to have employed with diligence and +judgment, of gathering materials for this work, which, besides what +its title indicates, enters fully into the agriculture, navigation, +commerce, manners, &c.</p> + +<p>418. Histoire Géographique, Politique, et Naturelle, de la +Sardignie. Par D.A. Azami. Paris, 1801. 2 vols. 8vo.--Of this island +we know less than of any other part of Europe; it has been seldom +explored, and still seldomer described. There is certainly no work we +are acquainted with, that gives such a complete and accurate account +of this island and its inhabitants as Azami's.</p> + +<p>419. Moeurs' et Coutumes des Corses. Par G. Faydel. Paris, 1798. +8vo.--Agriculture and natural history, rather popular than +scientific; commerce and other similar topics are treated of in this +work, though the title would lead us to expect only description of +manners and customs.</p> + +<p>420. Voyage Antique à l'Etna, en 1819. Par Gourbillon. +1820.--Chiefly relating to the natural history, and meteorology of +the mountain.</p> + +<p>421. Historisch Kritische Nachrichten von Italien. Von J.J. +Volkman. Leipsic, 1770--1778. 3 vols. 8vo.--Manners, customs, +politics, commerce, the state of the arts and sciences are treated of +in these volumes.</p> + +<p>422. Zusætze zu der Neusten Reise Beschriebung von Italien. +Von J. Bernouilli. Leip. 1777--1782. 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>423. Darstellungen aus Italien. Von F.J.L. Meyer. Berlin, 1792. +8vo.--This is a romantic work for a German; the author actually +luxuriates in the recollections called up by the country of Michael +Angelo, Raphael, Palladio, &c., and in his contemplation of the +scenes of the convulsions of nature, and of the most striking +incidents in the classical and middle ages. Independently of this +extravagance of style, this work is valuable, especially in what +relates to the Tyrol, where indeed his style is more simple. It is +translated into French.</p> + +<p>424. Briefe uber Calabrien und Sicilien. Von J.H. Bartels. +Gottingen, 1789-1792. 3 vols. 8vo.--This is an excellent work on a +part of the continent of Italy little known; the physical +constitution of the country, natural productions, agriculture, +manners, &c. are treated of in a sensible and pleasant +manner.</p> + +<p>425. Brieven over Italien. Door W.R. Jansen. Lugden, 1793. +8vo.--We notice this work, principally because it relates to the +state of medicine, as well as the natural history of Italy.</p> + +<p>426. Eichholz, neue Briefe uber italien. 4 vols. 8vo. Zurich, +1806.</p> + +<p>427. Reise nach Dalmatien und Ragusa. Von. E.F. Germar, 8vo. Leip. +1817.</p> + +<p>428. Viaggio Geologico sur diversi Parti Meriodinali dell Italia. +Milan, 1804. 8vo.--This work, by Pini, a naturalist of reputation, is +instructive in the geology of the country between Modena and +Florence, of the Campagna, and of part of Naples; there are also +remarks on the antiquity and extent of the Italian Volcanoes.</p> + +<p>429. Viaggio da Milano ai tre Laghi Maggiore, di Lugano, e di +Como. Del C. Amoretti. Milan, 1803. 4to.--Mineralogy, and especially +the various species of marble, zoology, and manners and customs, are +here described, as well as the celebrated lakes mentioned in the +title.</p> + +<p>430. Spallanzani Lettere al Sig. Marchese Luchesini, Sopre le +Coste dell Adriatico. Paris, 1789. 4 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>FRANCE</p> + +<p>The author of the Bibliothèque des Voyages remarks, that no +country in Europe has been so imperfectly described by travellers as +France: certainly, if we compare the descriptions they give of it +with the descriptions given by travellers of other countries, there +appears good ground for this observation. And yet France offers a +rich harvest for travellers of almost all kinds: the customs and +usages of the people; the general character so strongly stamped on +the whole nation, and the various shades of it in different +provinces; the effects that have been produced by the different +events of their history, and especially by their revolution; all +these things present to the traveller, who studies human nature, rich +and ample materials. To the geologist, the mineralogist, and +botanist, especially to the former, France also is an interesting +country, especially since Cuvier and other learned men in this +department of science, have displayed the stores of important facts +which France offers on this subject: her agriculture, and especially +her vine districts, present a source of interest of a different kind; +while, in the southern provinces, her antiquities, though not +numerous, attract by their beauty the man of taste.</p> + +<p>431. Matthæi Quadt Delicicæ Gallicæ, seu +Itinerarium per Universam Galliam. Frankfort, 1603. fol.</p> + +<p>432. Deliciæ Galliae, seu Itinerarium in Universam Galliam, +a Gasp. Ens. Cologne, 1609. 8vo.</p> + +<p>433. A Tour through the Western, Southern, and Interior Provinces +of France. By N.W. Wraxall. London, 1772. 8vo.--This work bears all +the characters of Mr. Wraxall's other productions: slight and +superficial so far as manners are concerned: offering no information +on agriculture, statistics, or natural history; with, however, some +interesting historical details. It is noticed here, because the +travels in France are so few, that even those of moderate merit must +be admitted.</p> + +<p>434. Travels through France: to which is added, a Register of a +Tour into Spain in 1787-89. By Arthur Young. 2 vols. 4to. 1792.--This +is a most valuable and useful work; for though the professed object +of Mr. Young was agriculture, yet it abounds in well-drawn pictures +of manners and national character, and it derives additional interest +from having been performed at the commencement of the revolution.</p> + +<p>435. Journal during a Residence in France, from the beginning of +August to the middle of December 1792. By Dr. John Moore. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work may be regarded in some measure as historical; yet it +may also properly be placed here as exhibiting a strong picture of +manners and feelings, as well as of events, at this interesting +period.</p> + +<p>436. Tour through several of the Midland and Western Departments +of France, in the Summer of 1802. By the Rev. H. Hughes. London, +1802. 8vo.</p> + +<p>437. Bugge's Travels in France. 1798-99. 12mo.--This work was +written originally in Danish, and was afterwards translated into +French. The author, a celebrated astronomer and professor of +mathematics at Copenhagen, was sent to Paris to attend a committee on +weights and measures. His travels are particularly interesting from +the account they give of the different scientific and literary +establishments in France.</p> + +<p>438. Anglo-Norman Antiquities considered, in a Tour through +Normandy. By A.C. Ducarel. Fol. 1767.--A valuable work on this +particular subject.</p> + +<p>439. Narrative of a Three Years' Residence in France, principally +in the Southern Departments. 1802-5. By Anne Plumptree. 3 vols. +8vo.--Some useful information on the productions, scenery, and +manners of this part of France, may be collected from these +volumes.</p> + +<p>440. Travels through the South of France, 1807-8. By Lieut.-Col. +Pinckney. 4to.--These travels were performed in a part of France not +often visited. They give light and amusing sketches of the manners, +customs, and state of society there; but there is a manifest tendency +to exaggeration in them.</p> + +<p>441. Account of a Tour in Normandy. By Dawson Turner. 1821. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Architectural antiquities form the chief topic; +historical notices and manners are also given: all indicating a +well-informed and intelligent mind.</p> + +<p>442. Letters written during a Tour through Normandy, Brittany, and +other Parts of France, in 1818. By Mrs. C. Stothard. 4to. 1821.--Much +information on the manners, habits, &c. of the inhabitants of +Brittany, a part of France not much visited by travellers; besides +local and historical descriptions.</p> + +<p>443. Itinerary of Provence and the Rhine. 1819. By J. Hughes. +8vo.--A useful book, and some parts of it very interesting.</p> + +<p>444. Voyage Littéraire de la France. Par Deux +Bénédictins. (D.D. Martine et Durand.) Paris, 1730. 2 +vols. 4to.--This work relates to monuments and inscriptions, of which +it gives an accurate account.</p> + +<p>445. Voyage Géographique et Pittoresque des +Départements de la France. Paris, 1794-97, 11 vols. fol.</p> + +<p>446. Voyage dans les Départements de la France. Par La +Vallée, pour le Texte; Brun père, pour la Partie +Géographique; Brun fils, pour celle de Dessein. Paris, +1790--1800. 100 cahiers, 8vo.</p> + +<p>447. Voyage en France, enrichi de belles Gravures. Paris, 1798. 4 +vols. 18mo.--These works, in conjunction with the following, though +not strictly within our plan, as being not the result of the +observations of the authors themselves, are noticed here, because +they give the most full and satisfactory information respecting +France, geographical, descriptive, statistical, &c. Statistique +Générale et Particulière de la France. Par une +Société des Gens de Lettres. Paris, 1805. 7 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>448. Collection des Statistiques de chaque Département, +imprimée par Ordre du Ministère du l'Intérieure, +au nombre de trente-quatre.</p> + +<p>449. Recherches Economiques et Statistiques sur le Departement de +la Loire Inférieure. Par J.R. Heuet. Nantes, 1804. 8vo.</p> + +<p>450. Statistique Elémentaire de la France. Par J. Peuchet. +Paris, 1805. 8vo.</p> + +<p>451. Essai sur les Volcans éteints du Vivarais. Par Faujas +de Saint Fond. Paris, 1778. fol.</p> + +<p>452. Histoire Naturelle du Dauphiné. Par le Méme. +Grenoble, 1781. 4to.--These works, the result of travels in the +district to which they allude, are valuable to the mineralogist and +geologist.</p> + +<p>453. Voyage en Provence. Par M. l'Abbé Papou. Paris, 1787. +2 vols. 12mo.--The objects of these travels are historical, literary, +and picturesque.</p> + +<p>454. Observations faites dans les Pyrenées. Par Ramond. +Paris, 1789. 8vo.</p> + +<p>455. Voyage au Mont Perdu, et dans les Partes adjacentes des +Hautes Pyrennées. Par Raymond. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--Although +these works principally relate to the formation, natural history, and +meteorology of the Pyrennees, yet the dryness of scientific +observation and research is most agreeably relieved by a lively +picture of manners, as well as by the interesting personal adventures +of the author in his attempts to reach the summit of the mountains. +There is an English translation of the former of these works.</p> + +<p>456. Voyage en 1787-88, dans la ci-devant Haute et Basse Auvergne. +Par Le Grand D'Aussy. Paris, 1795. 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>457. Tableau de la ci-devant Provence D'Auvergne. Par Rabine +Beauregard, et P.M. Gault. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--No district in France +presents such a variety of interesting objects as Auvergne; its +inhabitants, in their language, dress, manners, and mode of life; its +agriculture, its natural history, and its antiquities of the +classical and middle ages. Le Grand D'Aussy treats well of all but +the last, and this is supplied by the other work; its agriculture is +more fully considered in the following:</p> + +<p>458. Voyage Agronomique en Auvergne. Paris, 8vo. 1803.</p> + +<p>459. Description du Département de l'Oise. Par Cambri. +Paris, 1803. 2 vols. 8vo.--Agriculture, roads, canals, manufactures, +commerce, antiquities, are treated of in this work in such a +satisfactory manner, that the author of the Bibiothèque +expresses a wish that all the departments were described as well as +this, and the department of Finisterre by the same author, and +Auvergne by Le Grand D'Aussy.</p> + +<p>460. Voyage Agronomique dans la Senatorerie de Dijon. Par N. +Francais de Neufchâteau. Paris, 1806. 8vo.</p> + +<p>461. Voyage dans le Jura. Par Lequinio. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--Much +information in agriculture, natural history, &c. is given by this +author, in an unpleasant style, and with little regard to method.</p> + +<p>462. Voyage de Paris à Strasbourg. Paris, 1802. +8vo.--Relates to the agriculture and statistics of the departments +through which the author travelled, and particularly the Lower +Rhine.</p> + +<p>463. Voyage dans la ci-devant Belgique, et sur la Rive Gauche du +Rhin. Par Briton, et Brun père et fils. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. +8vo.--Commerce, manufactures, arts, manners, and mineralogy, enter +into these volumes. Sometimes, however, rather in a desultory and +superficial style.</p> + +<p>464. Voyage dans les Départements nouvellement +réunis, et dans le Départements du Bas Rhin, du Nord, +du Pas de Calais, et de la Somme. 1802. Par A.G. Camus. Paris, 2 +vols. 8vo.--Camus was sent by the French government to examine the +archives and titles of the new departments: the Institute at the same +time deputed him to examine into the state of science, literature, +and manufactures: on the latter topics, and on the state of the +hospitals, the work is full of details. The information he collected +respecting the archives, he does not give.</p> + +<p>465. Briefe eines Sudlanders, von Fischer. Leipsic, 1805. +8vo.--Besides descriptions of the principal cities in France, this +work contains an account of the fisheries of the Mediterranean; the +arsenal of Toulon; the department of Vaucluse; the Provencal +language, &c. The same author has published Travels in the +Pyrennees, drawn up from the works of most scientific travellers +among these mountains.</p> + +<p>466. Reise durch eine theil des Westlichen Franckreichs. Leipsic, +1803. 8vo.--This is also by the same author, and contains an +excellent statistical description of Britanny, a full account of +Brest and its maritime establishments, and of the famous lead mines +of Poulavoine, and of Huelgeat. The first part of this word, +<i>huel</i>, is exactly the prefix to the names of many of the mines +in Cornwall.</p> + +<p>467. Reise door Frankryk. Door Van der Willigen. Haarlem, 8vo.</p> + +<p>468. Reisen durch die Sudlichen, Westlichen und Nordlichen, +Provinzen. Von Frankreich. 1807-9. und 1815. Frank. 2 vols. 8vo. +1816.--French literature, the Spanish revolution in 1808, and the +Basque language, are chiefly treated of.</p> + +<p>469. Remarques faites dans un Voyage de Paris jusqu'à +Munich. Par Depping. Paris, 1814. 8vo.--A most judicious and +instructive book, noticing all that is really interesting in this +route, and nothing else, and thus conveying much information in a +small compass.</p> + +<p>THE NETHERLANDS.</p> + +<p>This portion of Europe presents to the traveller fewer varieties +for his research and observation than any other part of Europe: in +almost every other part the mineralogist and geologist find rich +materials for the increase of their knowledge or the formation of +their theories; and the admirer of the beautiful, the picturesque, or +the sublime, is gratified. The Netherlands are barren to both these +travellers; yet in some respects it is a highly interesting country: +and the interest it excites, chiefly arises from circumstances +peculiar to it. The northern division discovers a district won from +the sea by most laborious, persevering, and unremitted industry, and +kept from it by the same means. The middle division recalls those +ages, when it formed the link between the feeble commerce of the +south of Europe, and of Asia and of the Baltic districts. Antwerp, +Ghent, and Bruges then were populous and rich above most cities in +Europe. The whole of the Netherlands, especially Flanders, may be +regarded as the birth-place of modern agriculture, which spread from +it to England, where alone it flourishes in a vigorous and advanced +state, but still in some points not to be compared to that of the +country from which it came. Such, with the admirable paintings of the +Dutch School, are the chief objects that attract the traveller to the +Netherlands, independently of the desire to study human nature, which +here also will find ample materials.</p> + +<p>470. Descrizione di Ludovico Guicciardini di tutti Paesi Bassi. +Antwerp, 1501. fol.--This work, which was translated into Latin, +French, and Dutch, was written by the nephew of the historian; it is +the result of his own travels in the Netherlands, and contains a full +description of them, particularly of their principal towns, and their +commerce.</p> + +<p>471. Observations on the United Provinces. By Sir W. Temple. 8vo. +& 12mo.--Sir W. Temple was embassador at the Hague in 1668: his +little work contains much information on the history, government, +manners, religion, commerce, &c. of the United Provinces.</p> + +<p>472. Travels in Flanders and Holland in 1781. By Sir Joshua +Reynolds. Confined to pictures.</p> + +<p>473. Tour through the Batavian Republic during the last part of +the year 1800. By R. Fell. 1801. 8vo.--This work gives an interesting +picture of Holland and the Dutch at this period, besides historical +and political details and observations on its connexion with +France.</p> + +<p>474. Neue Beschriebung des Burgundischen und Neiderlan dischen +Kreises. Von Mart. Leiller. Ulm, 1649. 8vo.</p> + +<p>475. Statische-Geographische, Beschriebung der Semtlichen +Esterreichischen Niederlande. Von Crome. Dessau, 1785. 8vo.</p> + +<p>476. Neueste Reisen durch die Sieben Vereinigten-Provinzen. Von +Volkman. Leip. 1783. 8vo.--This is a valuable work, comprising the +arts, manufactures, agriculture, economy, manners, &c. of the +United Provinces.</p> + +<p>477. Briefe uber die Vereinigten Niederlande. Von Grabner. Gothen, +1792. 8vo.</p> + +<p>478. Lettres sur la Hollande Ancienne et Moderne. Par +Beaumarchais. Frankfort, 1738. 8vo.--A good description of Holland +and the Dutch, by a sensible and observant author: principally +relating to manners and politics.</p> + +<p>479. Lettres sur la Hollande, 1777-79. La Haye, 1780. 2 vols. +12mo.--This is by far the fullest, most minute, and, we believe, the +most accurate picture of the Dutch national character, as exhibited +in their manners, customs, cities, villages, houses, gardens, canals, +domestic economy, pursuits, amusements, religion, &c.</p> + +<p>480. Histoire Géographique, Physique, Nationelle et Civile +de la Hollande. Par M. Le Francq de Berkhey, 1782. 4 vols. +12mo.--This work was written in Dutch by the professor of Natural +History in the University of Leyden, and on this topic and manners it +is particularly instructive and interesting.</p> + +<p>481. Statistique de la Batavie. Par M. Estienne. Paris, 1803. +8vo.--In a short compass, this work contains, not only statistical +information, strictly so called, but also much information in natural +history, the state of the arts and sciences, manners and +politics.</p> + +<p>482. Voyage Historique et Pittoresque dans les Pays Bas, 1811-13. +Par Syphorien. Paris, 1813. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</p> + +<p>When we reflect on the political institutions of our own country; +the circumstances in our history to which their origin, improvement, +and modifications may be traced; the influence they have had on our +habits of thought, our feelings, our domestic and public life, and +the other elements of our national character, as well as on +agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and influence and power;--we +shall not be accused of vanity or presumption, if, so far as man is +concerned, we deem our native country rich in materials for the +philosophical traveller. But besides the study of our national +character and institutions, and our agriculture, manufactures, +commerce and arts, Britain is deserving of the careful and repeated +observation of the natural historian, especially of the mineralogist +and geologist; whilst her Roman remains and her Gothic edifices +render her interesting to the antiquarian and the man of taste.</p> + +<p>We must confess, however, that hitherto there are few books of +travels in our country that are worthy of it: till very lately, its +mineralogy and geology have been much neglected; and even at present, +they must be studied rather in professed works on these subjects, or +in the transactions of societies, instituted for their express and +peculiar investigation, than in books of travels. With respect to our +national character, it is obvious, that will be found more carefully +studied, and more frequently attended to, in the travels of +foreigners in Britain, than in native travels, though necessarily in +the former there must be much mistake and misapprehension, and there +is often much prejudice and misrepresentation.</p> + +<p>In one department of travels Britain is, we believe, original and +peculiar; we allude to picturesque travels, of which those of Gilpin +are an interesting and most favourable specimen. These differ +essentially from the picturesque travels of foreigners, which are +confined to the description of antiquities, buildings, and works of +art; whereas our picturesque travels are devoted to the description +of the sublimities and beauties of nature. To these beauties, the +British seem particularly sensible, and Britain, perhaps, if we +regard both what nature has done for her, and the assistance which +tasteful art has bestowed on nature, is as favourable a country for +the picturesque traveller as most in Europe.</p> + +<p>483. Paul Hentzer's Journey into England in 1598. London, 1600. +8vo. In Dodsley's Fugitive Pieces, vol. 2. Also published at the +Strawberry Hill Press. By Horace Walpole.--Interesting from the +description of our manners, &c. in the reign of Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>484. Travels of Cosmo, Grand Duke of Tuscany, through England, +1669. 4to. 1822.--Amidst much that is very tedious and stupid, +relative to the ceremonies observed in receiving this prince, and all +his most minute movements and actions, there are curious notices of +the state of England, the mode of life, manners, and agriculture at +this period.</p> + +<p>485. Letters on the English Nation. By Baptista Angeloni, +translated from the Italian. 1756. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>486. Grosley's Tour to London, translated by Nugent, 1772. 2 vols. +8vo.--These two works exhibit much misrepresentation of our +character; at the same time they are instructive in so far as they, +in several respects, paint accurately our national and domestic +manners, in the middle of the last century, and exhibit them as +viewed by foreigners.</p> + +<p>487. Historical Account of Three Years' Travels over England and +Wales. By Rogers. 1694. 12mo.</p> + +<p>488. Gilpin's Tour in South Wales: his Tour in North Wales: +Observations on the Western Parts of England: Observations on the +Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland: Observations on the River Wye: +Tour in Norfolk and South Wales.--All these works display a deep and +sincere feeling of the beauties of nature; a pure taste and sound +judgment; and are written in a style appropriate to the subject, and +worthy of the matter.</p> + +<p>489. Warner's Tour through Wales--Warner's Second Tour through +Wales--Topographical Remarks on the South Western Parts of Hampshire. +2 vols.--History of the Isle of Wight--Tour through the Northern +Parts of England and the Borders of Scotland. 2 vols.--Excursions +from Bath--Walk through some of the Western Counties of England--Tour +through Cornwall.-- These travels, generally performed on foot, +contain good accounts of the antiquities, and some notices of the +natural history, manners, &c. of those parts of England and Wales +to which they respectively relate.</p> + +<p>490. Pennant's Tours from Downing to Alston Moor--from Alston Moor +to Harrowgate and Brimham Cross--Journey from London to the Isle of +Wight. 2 vols.--Journey from Chester to London--Tour in Wales. 3 +vols.--These travels are written in a dry style; but they abound in +accurate descriptions of antiquities.</p> + +<p>491. Bingley's Tour round North Wales in 1798. 2 vols. 8vo.--The +language, manners, customs, antiquities, and botany, are particularly +attended to and well described.</p> + +<p>492. Rev. J. Evans's Tour through Part of North Wales in 1798; +Tour through South Wales in 1803.--These works likewise are valuable +for botanical information, as well as for descriptions of scenery, +manners, agriculture, manufactures, antiquities, &c. and for +mineralogy.</p> + +<p>493. Barber's Tour in South Wales, 1802. 8vo.--This work is +chiefly picturesque, and descriptive of manners.</p> + +<p>494. The Scenery, Antiquities, and Biography of South Wales. By +B.H. Malkin. 1805, 4to.--This work is hardly valuable in proportion +to its size; but from it may be gleaned interesting notices on the +history and antiquities of this part of Wales, as well as manners, +&c.</p> + +<p>495. Arthur Aikin's Journal of a Tour through North Wales, and +part of Shropshire. 12mo.--An admirable specimen of a mineralogical +and geological tour, in which the purely scientific information is +intermixed with notices of manufactures, and pictures of manners, +&c.</p> + +<p>From the above list of Tours in Wales which comprehends, we +believe, the best, it will be seen that this part of the united +kingdom has not been neglected by travellers. Indeed, its natural +scenery, mineralogy, geology, botany, antiquities, manners, &c. +have been more frequently and better described by travellers, than +those of any other portion of the British empire.</p> + +<p>496. The History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of +Southampton. By the Rev. Gil. White. 1789, 4to.--This most delightful +work has lately been republished in 2 vols. 8vo. It is an admirable +specimen of topography, both as to matter and style; and proves in +how laudable and useful a manner a parish priest may employ his +leisure time, and how serviceable he may be to the natural history +and antiquities of his country.</p> + +<p>497. Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties of England and +Wales. By Arthur Young.--Six Months' Tour through the North of +England. 4 vols.--Farmer's Tour through the East of England.--Though +these works are almost entirely directed to agriculture, yet they +contain much information on the subject of manufactures, population, +&c. as they were about the middle of the last century.</p> + +<p>498. Hassel's Tour in the Isle of Wight, 1790. 2 vols. 4to.--1798. +2 vols. 8vo.--Picturesque.</p> + +<p>499. A Picture of the Isle of Wight. By Penruddocke Wyndham, +1794.--This author also wrote a Tour in Monmouthshire and Wales; they +are both principally picturesque.</p> + +<p>500. Observations relative chiefly to the Natural History, +Picturesque Scenery, and Antiquities of the Western Counties of +England, 1794-96. By W. George Maton. 1796, 2 vols. 8vo.--The title +sufficiently indicates the nature of the work, which is valuable, +especially in what relates to natural history.</p> + +<p>501. Journal of Tour and Residence in Great Britain, 1810-11. By a +Frenchman. M. Simond. 2 vols. 8vo.--There are few Travels superior to +these: literature, politics, political economy, statistics, scenery, +manners, &c. are treated of in a manner that displays much talent +and knowledge, and less prejudice than foreigners usually exhibit. +The only branch of natural history, on which the author descants, is +mineralogy and geology.</p> + +<p>502. Itinerarium Magnæ Brittaniæ, oder Reise +Beschrievbung durch Engel. Schott. und Irland. Strasburg, 1672. +8vo.</p> + +<p>503. Reise durch England. Von Volkman. Leipsic, 1781-2. 4 vols. +8vo.--Arts, manufactures, economy, and natural history.</p> + +<p>504. Der Lustand der Staats, der Religion, &c. in Gros +Britanien. Von Wendeborn. Berlin. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work, which +exhibits a pretty accurate picture of the statistics, religion, +literature, &c. of Britain, at the close of the eighteenth +century, has been translated into English.</p> + +<p>505. Beschriebung einer Reise, von Hamburgh nach England. Von P. A +Nemnich. Tubingen, 1801. 8vo.--The state of our principal +manufactures is the almost exclusive object of this work.</p> + +<p>506. Mineralogische und Technologische Bemerkungen auf einer Reise +durch verschiedene Provinzen in England und Schottland. Von J.C. +Fabricius. Leipsic, 1784. 8vo.--This work, the nature of which is +indicated in the title, is enriched by the notes of that +distinguished mineralogist Ferber.</p> + +<p>507. Reise nach Paris, London, &c. Von. Franck. Vienna, 1804. +2 vols. 8vo--This work of Dr. Franks, which is chiefly confined to +England and Scotland, is principally interesting to medical men, as +it contains an account of hospitals, prisons, poor-houses, +infirmaries, &c.</p> + +<p>508. Gedenkwaardije a antkeningen gedaan door en reisiger, van +geghel England, Schottland, ent Irland. Utrecht, 1699. fol.</p> + +<p>509. Kort Journel eller Reise beskrievelse til England, ved Christ +Gram. Christiana, 1760. 4to.</p> + +<p>510. Reise durch einen Theil von England und Schottland, 1802-3. +8vo. Marburg, 1811.--These travels,--which, like all travels in our +own country by foreigners, are interesting, independently of any +intrinsic merit, because they exhibit the impressions made on them by +what to us is either common or proper,--are translated from the +Swedish: the author's name is Svedensgerna.</p> + +<p>511. Erinnerungen von einer Reise durch England, 1803-5. Von +Johanna Schopenhauser. 2 vols. 8vo. Rudolst, 1813.--Light and lively +sketches.</p> + +<p>512. P. Coronelli Viaggio nell' Enghilterra. Venice, 1697. +8vo.--These three works, Nos. 509, 510, and 512, by a Dutchman, a +Dane, and Italian, are interesting from the picture they exhibit of +Britain at the close of the seventeenth, and in the middle of the +eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>513. Journée faite en 1788 dans la Grande Bretagne. Paris, +1790. 8vo.--The author, who recommends himself by stating that he +could speak English, principally directs his enquiries to agriculture +and manufactures.</p> + +<p>514. Voyages dans les Trois Royaumes d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, et +d'Irlande, 1788-89. Par Chantreau. Paris, 1792. 3 vols. 8vo.--The +political constitution, religious opinions, manners, prejudices, +state of arts and sciences, &c. of Britain, are treated of here +with considerable talent for observation, and on the whole not +unfairly.</p> + +<p>515. Tableau de la Grande Bretagne et de l'Irlande. Par A. Baert. +Paris, 1800. 4 vols. 8vo.--This author frequently visited England, +and resided here for some time: his work relates to our commerce, +finances, naval and military force, religious opinions, literature, +arts and manufactures, and physical and moral character.</p> + +<p>516. Voyage de trois Mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande. +Par M.A. Pictet. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--The state of the arts and +sciences principally, and the state of agriculture, and the natural +history, especially geology, are the objects of this work. The +literary character of the author is well known; this work, perhaps, +hardly is worthy of it.</p> + +<p>517. Londres et les Anglais. Par Saint Constant. Paris, 1804. 4 +vols. 8vo.--Manners, government, religion, domestic life, and the +state of agriculture, the arts, sciences, manufactures, and of +literature in general,--all fall within the observation of our +author, and are treated of fully, and with fewer mistakes and +prejudices than Frenchmen generally discover when writing on +England.</p> + +<p>518. Voyage en Ecosse, &c. Par L.A. Necker-Saussure. Paris, +1821. 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels, by the honorary professor of +mineralogy and geology at Geneva, were performed in 1806--8. They +relate chiefly to the geology of the country, and the character and +usages of the Highlanders, and will be found interesting to the +general reader, as well as instructive to the scientific.</p> + +<p>519. Faujas St. Fond's Travels in England, Scotland, and the +Hebrides, 1797. 2 vols. 8vo.--Amidst much mineralogical and +geological information (the latter, perhaps, led sometimes astray by +theory), there are some interesting notices of the arts and sciences, +and of literary men.</p> + +<p>520. Monroe's Description of the Western Isles of Scotland, in +1549. Edin. 1774. 12mo.</p> + +<p>521. Account of the Orkney Islands. By James Wallace. Edin. 1693. +8vo.</p> + +<p>522. Martin's Voyage to St. Kilda. Lond. 1698. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>523. Martin's Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, and +of the Orkney and Shetland Isles. 1716. 8vo.</p> + +<p>524. Edmonstone's View of the Ancient and Present State of the +Shetland Islands. 2 vols. 8vo. 1809.--Dr. E. is a native of these +Islands, and has long resided there: perhaps, if these favourable +circumstances had been aided by a sounder judgment, a better taste, +and more knowledge, this work would have been improved. As it is, it +may advantageously be consulted for what relates to the civil, +political, and natural history; agriculture, fisheries, and commerce; +antiquities, manners, &c. of these islands.</p> + +<p>525. Description of the Shetland Islands, comprising an Account of +their Geology, Scenery, Antiquities, and Superstitions. By Dr. +Hibbert. 4to.--The title indicates the objects of the work: the +information is valuable: some of it new; but not sufficiently select +or condensed.</p> + +<p>526. The Rev. Dr. Barry's History of the Orkney Islands. +4to.--Besides historical information, Dr. B. gives full notices on +the inhabitants and natural history: in the latter respect, however, +this work is improved in the Second Edition, published by Mr. +Headrich.</p> + +<p>527. Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the +Isle of Man. By Dr. J. Macculloch. 2 vols. 8vo. and 1 vol. of plates, +4to. 1819.--Although, as might be expected from the pursuits of the +author, mineralogy and geology are particularly attended to, yet this +work is valuable and instructive also on the subjects of the +agriculture, scenery, antiquities, and economy of these islands, and +is indeed a work of great merit.</p> + +<p>528. Sibbald's History and Description of Fife. 1720. fol.</p> + +<p>529. Sibbald's History and Description of Lithgow and +Stirlingshires. 1710. fol.</p> + +<p>These works are curious from the description they give of these +parts of Scotland, at a period when manners, customs, sentiments, +feelings, and superstitions, had not been acted upon by much +civilization, knowledge, or intercourse with England. Sir Robert +Sibbald's works also are valuable, even yet, for their natural +history.</p> + +<p>530. Letters from the North of Scotland. Written by a Gentleman to +his Friend in London. 2 vols. 8vo.--These letters, which describe the +Highlanders a century ago, are extremely curious and interesting. +They seem to have been little known, till the author of Waverley +introduced them to public approbation. Since that they have been +twice republished; once with dissertations and notes.</p> + +<p>531. Pennant's Tour to Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides. 3 +vols. 4to. 1774.</p> + +<p>532. Dr. Johnson's Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. +1775. 8vo.</p> + +<p>533. Account of the present State of the Hebrides and Western +Coast of Scotland. By John Anderson. Edin. 1785.--Written expressly +to point out means of improvement. The two following works had the +same object in view:</p> + +<p>534. Knox's Tour in the Highlands of Scotland and the Hebrides. +1786. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>535. Buchanan's Travels in the Western Hebrides, 1782-90. Lond. +1793. 8vo.</p> + +<p>536. Cardonnel's Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of the North +of Scotland. 1798. 4to.</p> + +<p>537. Stoddart's Remarks on the Local Scenery and Manners of +Scotland, 1799-1800. Lond. 1801. 2 vols.8vo.--The principal design of +these two works is sufficiently indicated in their titles.</p> + +<p>538. Dr. Garnett's Tour through the Highlands and Part of the +Western Islands of Scotland. 1800. 2 vols. 4to.--Agriculture, +manufactures, commerce, antiquities, botany, and manners, are treated +of, though not in a masterly manner.</p> + +<p>539. Travels in Scotland and Ireland, 1769-72. Chester, 1774. 2 +vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>540. Tour in Scotland and Ireland, 1775, 8vo.</p> + +<p>541. Ed. Spencer's View of the State of Ireland, 1633. +folio.--Also in his works, and in a collection of old tracts lately +published on this kingdom.</p> + +<p>542. A Natural History of Ireland, in Three Parts. By several +hands. Boate and Molyneaux. Dublin, 1726.--This work contains much +curious information, sound and accurate, considering when it was +written.</p> + +<p>543. Tour in Ireland, in 1715. London, 1716. 8vo.</p> + +<p>544. Bush's Hiberna Curiosa. Dublin. 4to.--The materials of this +work, which chiefly is occupied with a view of manners, agriculture, +trade, natural curiosities, &c. were collected during a tour in +1764-69.</p> + +<p>545. Hamilton's Letters on the Northern Coast of Ireland, 1764. +8vo.--This is a valuable work respecting the mineralogy and geology, +and especially the Giant's Causeway.</p> + +<p>546. Campbell's Philosophical Survey of the South of Ireland, +1777. 8vo.</p> + +<p>547. Arthur Young's Tour in Ireland, 1776-79. 2 vols. 8vo.--An +admirable picture of the agriculture and general state of Ireland at +this period.</p> + +<p>548. Cooper's Letters on the Irish Nation, 1800. 8vo.--Manners, +national character, government, religion principally; with notices on +agriculture, commerce, &c.</p> + +<p>549. Account of Ireland, Statistical and Political. By Edward +Wakefield, 1812. 4to.--An immense mass of information, chiefly +relating to the agriculture, statistics, political and religious +state of Ireland, not well arranged; and the bulk much increased by +irrelevant matter.</p> + +<p>550. Robertson's Tour through the Isle of Man, 1794. 8vo.</p> + +<p>551. Wood's Account of the Past and Present State of the Isle of +Man, 1811. 8vo.</p> + +<p>552. Falle's Account of Jersey, 1734, 8vo.</p> + +<p>553. Berry's History of Guernsey, with particulars of Alderney, +Sark, and Jersey, 1815. 4to.</p> + +<p>554. Dicey's Account of Guernsey, 1751. 12mo.</p> + +<p>555. Neueste reisen durch Schottland and Ireland. Von Volkman. +Leip. 1784. 8vo.--Economy, manufactures, and natural history.</p> + +<p>556. Briefe uber Ireland. Von Kuttner, Leip. 1785, 8vo.--This +author published Travels in Holland and England, which, as well as +the present, indicate an attentive, careful, and well-informed +observer of manners, national character, and statistics.</p> + +<p>PORTUGAL AND SPAIN.</p> + +<p>Good travels in the Peninsula, especially in the English language, +are by no means numerous, yet there are portions of it highly +interesting in a physical point of view; and the Spanish national +character, and manners, as well as the Roman and Arabian antiquities +in Spain and Portugal, furnish ample and rich materials to the +traveller.</p> + +<p>557. Memoirs of Lord Carrington, containing a Description of the +Government and Manners of the present Portuguese, 1782. 8vo.</p> + +<p>558. Murphy's Travels in Portugal, 1789-90. 4to.--Monuments, +public edifices, antiquities principally; the physical state of the +country, its agriculture, commerce, arts, literature, &c. +sensibly but not extensively.</p> + +<p>559. Link's Travels in Portugal, 1797-99. 8vo.--This work, +originally published in German, consists in that language of 2 vols. +8vo. There was likewise published in French, Paris, 1805. 1 vol. +8vo., Voyage en Portugal, par M. le Comte de Hoffmansegg,--as a +continuation of Link's Travels, the Count having travelled in this +country with Mr. Link, and continued in it after the latter left it. +Mr. Link being a distinguished natural historian, directed his +attention chiefly to geology, mineralogy and botany; but he does not +neglect other topics, and he has added a dissertation on the +literature of Portugal, and on the Spanish and Portuguese languages. +The supplemental volume is also rich in natural history, and extends +to an account of the manufactures, political institutions, &c. of +Portugal.</p> + +<p>560. Twiss's Travels through Portugal and Spain, 1772-73. +4to.--Literary, antiquarian, and descriptive of manners, customs, and +national characters.</p> + +<p>561. Dalrymple's Travels through Spain and Portugal, 1774. Dublin, +1777. 12mo.</p> + +<p>562. Southey's Letters on Spain and Portugal, 1797. +8vo.--Literature and manners; but in a manner not worthy of the +author's talents and reputation.</p> + +<p>563. Ed. Clarke's Letters on the Spanish Nation, 1765. 4to.--The +author was chaplain to Lord Bristol, in his Spanish Embassy. +Antiquities and Spanish literature; in the Appendix there is a +catalogue of MSS. in the library of the Escurial.</p> + +<p>564. Swinburne's Travels through Spain, 1775-76. 2 vols. 8vo. +Roman and Moorish architecture are particularly attended to; this +work is also valuable and instructive for its full details in every +thing relating to Catalonia and Grenada, two of the most interesting +provinces in Spain.</p> + +<p>565. Dillon's Travels through Spain, 1782. 4to.--Natural history +and physical geography.</p> + +<p>566. Bourgoing's Travels in Spain, with Extracts from the Essays +on Spain. By M. Peyren, 1789. 3 vols. 8vo.--This is an excellent +work, translated from the French. The author, however, did not visit +Catalonia or Grenada. Natural history is not attended to; but all +that relates to manufactures, the civil, political, and religious +state of Spain, manners, literature and similar topics, is treated of +fully and well. The work of M. Peyren, from which extracts are given, +is entitled Nouveau Voyage en Espagne, Paris, 1782. 2 vols. 8vo. and +treats of antiquities, manners, commerce, public tribunals, &c.; +it notices some cities and parts of Spain omitted, or but partially +noticed by Swinburne and Bourgoing. The work of the latter has also +been added to by the following work, Voyage en Espagne, 1797-8. Par +C. A. Fischer. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo. Fischer also published in +1804. 8vo., Description de Valence, to complete his Travels in Spain. +Both these were originally published in German, and translated into +French, by Cramer; and they both are most valuable additions to +Bourgoing's works.</p> + +<p>567. Townshend's Journey through Spain, in 1786. 3 vols. 8vo.--An +excellent work, particularly on the economy, agriculture, +manufactures, commerce, and general statistics of Spain.</p> + +<p>568. Voyage du ci-devant duc du Chatelet en Portugal, 1777. Paris, +1798. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work, which has been translated into +English, was in reality written by M. Cormartin, one of the Vendean +chiefs; it is very full and various, as well as excellent in its +contents, embracing physical geography, agriculture, arts, sciences +and manufactures, government, manners, religion, literature, &c., +in short, every thing but antiquities and public buildings.</p> + +<p>569. Observations du Physique et de Médecine, faites en +différens lieux de l'Espagne. Par M. Thiery. Paris, 1791. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This medical Tour contains much information on the +climate, soils, geology of Spain; and on the food, domestic life of +its inhabitants, particularly relating to Castile, Arragon, Navarre, +Biscay, Gallicia and Asturia. There is also a particular description +of the quicksilver mine at Almaden, in La Mancha.</p> + +<p>570. Voyage Pittoresque et Historique de l'Espagne. Par La Borde. +Paris, 4 vols. fol.</p> + +<p>571. Itinéraire Descriptif de l'Espagne. Par La Borde. +Paris, 1809. 5 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>572. Lettres sur l'Espagne, ou Essais sur les Moeurs, les Usages, +et la Litérature de ce Royaume. Par Beauharnois. Paris, 1810. +2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>573. A Visit to Spain in the latter part of 1822, and the first +four Months of 1823. By Michael Quin. 8vo. 1823.--A sensible and +impartial view of the state of Spain at this interesting period; +giving much insight into the character of the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>574. Reise beschriebung durch Spanien und Portugal. Von M. +Zeiller. Ulm, 1631. 8vo.</p> + +<p>575. Reise beschrieburg nach Spanien. Franchfort, 1676. +8vo.--These two works are chiefly valuable for that which gives +interest and value to all old travels; as describing manners, &c. +at a distant period.</p> + +<p>576. Neueste reise durch Spanien. Von Volkman. Leipsic, 1785. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Arts, manufactures, commerce and economy.</p> + +<p>577. Nieuve Historikal en Geographische Reise beschryving van +Spanien en Portugal. Don W. Van den Burge. Hague, 1705. 2 vols. +4to.</p> + +<p>578. Descripcion de España de Harif Alcides Coneido. +Madrid, 1799. 4to.--This work, by the geographer of Nubia, as he is +generally called, is extremely interesting from the picture it gives +of Spain under the Moors. It was translated by D.J.A. Condé, +who has added notes, comparing its state at that remote period, and +in 1799.</p> + +<p>579. Ponz Viage de España. Madrid, 1776, &c. 18 vols. +12mo.--Full of matter of various kinds, but tedious and dry.</p> + +<p>580. Introduccion a la Historia natural y geographia-fisico del +Reyno de España. Par D. Guill. Bowles.--The Italian +translation of this work, Parma, 1783. 8vo. (the nature of which is +sufficiently indicated by the title) contains a commentary and notes +by the translator, A. Zara, which adds to its value, in itself not +small.</p> + +<p>581. Descrizione della Spagna di Don A. Conca. Parma, 1793-7. 4 +vols. 8vo.--This work is chiefly devoted to the fine arts, of which +it enters into a full and minute description. There are also notices +of antiquities, and natural history. It is admirably printed by +Bodoni.</p> + +<p>VII. AFRICA.</p> + +<p>AFRICA IN GENERAL.</p> + +<p>582. Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Africa. By +the late John Leyden, M.D., enlarged and completed to the present +time by Hugh Murray, Esq., 2 vols. 8vo. 1817.--A useful, correct, +and, in general, accurate and complete compilation, which satisfies +the purpose and promise held out in the title.</p> + +<p>583. Leoni Africani totius Africæ Descriptionis. Lib. VIII. +Leyd. 1682. 8vo.--This work was originally written in Arabic, then +translated into Italian by the author, and from Italian into Latin, +French, Dutch, and English. The Italian translation is the only +correct one: to the French, which is expanded into 2 vols. folio, and +was published at Lyons in 1566, there are appended several accounts +of Voyages and Travels in Africa. Leo was a Spanish Moor, who left +Spain at the reduction of Grenada, and travelled a long time in +Europe, Asia, and Africa: his description of the northern parts of +Africa is the most full and accurate.</p> + +<p>584. L'Afrique de Marmol. Paris, 1669. 3 vols. 4to.--This +translation, by D'Ablancourt, of a very scarce Portuguese writer, is +not made with fidelity. The subsequent discoveries in Africa have +detailed several inaccuracies in Marmol; but it is nevertheless a +valuable work: the original was published in the middle of the +sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>585. Geschichte der neuestin Portugeiesischen Entdeckungen en +Africa, von 1410, bis 1460. Von M.C. Sprengel. Halle, 1783. +8vo.--This account of the discoveries of Prince Henry is drawn up +with much judgment and learning.</p> + +<p>586. Neue Beitrage zur Keuntniss von Africa. Von J.R. Forster. +Berlin, 1794. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>587. Neue Systematescke Erd-beschriebung von Africa. Von Bruns. +Nurem. 1793-99. 6 vols. 8vo.--A most valuable work on Africa in +general.</p> + +<p>THE NORTH OF AFRICA.</p> + +<p>Those portions of Africa which are washed by the Mediterranean +sea, possess strong and peculiar attractions for the traveller. It is +only necessary to name Egypt, to call up associations with the most +remote antiquity,--knowledge, civilization, and arts, at a period +when the rest of the world had scarcely, as it were, burst into +existence. From the earliest records to the present day, Egypt has +never ceased to be an interesting country, and to afford rich +materials for the labours, learning, and researches of travellers. +The rest of the Mediterranean coast of Africa, where Carthage first +exhibited to the world the wonderful resources of Commerce, and Rome +established some of her most valuable and rich possessions, are +clothed with an interest and importance scarcely inferior to that +which Egypt claims and enjoys. While the countries on the north-east, +washed by the Red Sea, in addition to sources of interest and +importance common to them, and to Egypt and Barbary, are celebrated +on account of their having witnessed and assisted the first maritime +commercial intercourse between Asia, and Africa, and Europe.</p> + +<p>588. Relation d'un Voyage de Barbarie, fait à Alger, pour +la Redemption des Captifs. Paris, 1616. 8vo.</p> + +<p>589. Relation de la Captivité à Alger d'Emmanuel +d'Arande. Paris, 1665. 16mo.--This work, originally published in +Spanish, contains, as well as the preceding one, some curious +particulars regarding the manners of Algiers, especially the court, +in the middle of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>590. Voyage en Barbarie, 1785-88, par Poiret. Paris, 1789. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work, which was translated into English in 1791, is +chiefly confined to that part of Barbary which constituted the +ancient Numidia, and is interesting from the picture it exhibits of +the Bedouin Arabs, and from the details into which it enters +regarding the natural history of the country, especially the +botany.</p> + +<p>591. Relations des Royaumes de Fez et de Maroc, traduites de +Castellan de Diego Torrez. Paris, 1636. 4to.</p> + +<p>592. Histoire de la Mission des Pères Capuchins, au royaume +de Maroc. 1644. 12mo.</p> + +<p>593. Relation des Etats du Roi de Fez et de Maroc, par Frejus. +Paris, 1682. 12mo.--Frejus was sent by the French King to Fez in +1666, for the purpose of establishing a commercial intercourse: his +work is full and particular on the manners, customs, &c., of the +country and people of this part of Africa; there is, besides, much +curious information drawn from the observations of M. Charant, who +lived 25 years in Fez and Morocco, respecting the trade to Tombuctoo. +The coasts, currents, harbours, &c., are also minutely described. +The French edition of 1682, and the English translation of 1771, +contain the letters of M. Charant, giving the results of his +information on these points.</p> + +<p>594. Recherches Historiques sur les Maures, et Histoire de +l'Empereur de Maroc, par Chenier. Paris, 1788. 3 vols. 8vo. M. +Chenier was Charge des Affaires from the King of France to the +Emperor of Morocco. The two first volumes are historical; in the +third volume there is much valuable information on the physical, +moral, intellectual, commercial, and political state of this +kingdom.</p> + +<p>595. Histoire du Naufrage, et de la Captivité de M. de +Brisson. Paris, 1789. 8vo. This work, together with the travels of +Saugnier, is translated into English; it contains a description of +the great desert. This singular portion of Africa is also +particularly described in the following works.</p> + +<p>596. Voyage dans les Deserts de Sahara, par M. Follies Paris, +1792. 8vo.</p> + +<p>597. Travels or Observations relating to several parts of Barbary +and the Levant, by T. Shaw. 1757. 4to.--The character of this work, +for the information it contains in antiquities and natural history, +is too well known and firmly established to require any particular +notice or commendation. Algiers, Tunis, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia +Petrea, were the scene of these travels and researches.</p> + +<p>598. A Journey to Mequinez, by J. Windhus. 1723. 8vo. In 1721, +Captain Stewart was sent by the English government to Fez and Morocco +to redeem some captives; this work, drawn up from the observations +made during this journey, is curious: the same remark applies +generally to the other works, which are drawn from similar sources, +and of which there are several in French and English.</p> + +<p>599. History of the Revolution in the Empire of Morocco in 1727-8, +by Captain Braithwaite. 1729. 8vo. Besides the historical details, +the accuracy of which is undoubted, as Braithwaite was an eye-witness +of the events he describes, this work gives us some valuable +information on the physical and moral state of the people.</p> + +<p>600. Lemprieres Tour from Gibraltar to Tangier, Sals, Mogador, +&c., and over Mount Atlas, Morocco, &c. 1791.--The author of +this work, (who was a medical man, sent by the Governor of Gibraltar +at the request of the Emperor of Morocco, whose son was dangerously +ill,) possessed, from the peculiar circumstances in which he was +placed, excellent opportunities of procuring information; the most +interesting and novel parts of his work relate to the haram of the +Emperor, to which, in his medical character, he had access; the +details into which he enters, respecting its internal arrangements +and the manners of its inhabitants, are very full and curious.</p> + +<p>601. Tully's Letters from Tripoly. 3 vols. 8vo.--Much curious +information on the domestic life and manners of the inhabitants, and +more insight into female manners and character, than is generally +gained respecting the females of this part of Africa.</p> + +<p>602. Captain Lyons' Travels in Northern Africa, from Tripoly to +Mouzzook. 1821. 4to.--Though the object of these travels was not +accomplished, they contain much information on the geography of +central Africa collected during them. On this important point, the +Quarterly Review should be consulted.</p> + +<p>603. Schousboe Betrachtungen uber das Gewæsrich, en Marokko. +Copenhag. 1802. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Danish, relates +chiefly to the botany, metereology, soil and productions of Morocco; +and on other topics it gives accurate and valuable information.</p> + +<p>604. Viaggio da Tripoli alto Frontiere dell' Egitto. 1817. P. +Della Cella.--The scene of these travels must give them an interest +and value, since they embrace "one of the oldest and most celebrated +of the Greek colonies," and a country "untrodden by Christian feet +since the expulsion of the Romans, the Huns, and the Vandals, by the +enterprising disciples of Mahomet," The work, however, proves that +its author was not qualified to avail himself of such a new and +interesting field of enquiry, remark, and research, to the extent +which might have been expected.</p> + +<p>EGYPT</p> + +<p>Whoever wishes to be informed respecting the state of Egypt and +its inhabitants during the remotest ages to which they can be traced, +must have recourse to the accounts given of them in the Scriptures, +and by Herodotus and other ancient writers. During the dark and +middle ages, as they are called, information may be drawn from the +following sources.</p> + +<p>605. Abdollatiphi Historiæ Egypti Compendium, Arabice et +Latine. Oxford, 1800. 4to.--There are several editions of this work: +the one, the title of which we have just given, was edited by +Professor White. He also published a preceding one without the Latin +version; which was republished at Tubingen, with a preface by Paulus. +An interesting and instructive "Notice de cet ouvrage," was published +by Sacy, the celebrated orientalist, at Paris, in 1803. The Arabian +author relates what he himself saw and learnt in Egypt, and is +particularly full on the plants of the country; the historical part +occupies only the two last chapters; he lived towards the end of the +twelfth century.</p> + +<p>606. Abulfedæ Descriptio Egypti, Arabice et Latine, notas +adjecit J. Michaelis. Gottingen, 1776. 4to.--This author lived in the +fourteenth century, and was celebrated for his geographical +knowledge, of which this work is a valuable proof.</p> + +<p>607. L'Egypti de Murtadi. Paris, 1666. 12mo.--This work of the +middle ages, translated from an Arabic manuscript belonging to +Cardinal Mazarin, is curious, but extremely rare.</p> + +<p>608. Nouvelle Relation d'un Voyage en Egypte. Par Wansleb. +1672-73. Paris, 1678. 12mo.--Wansleb was a German, sent into Egypt +and Ethiopia by the Duke of Saxe Gotha, to examine the religious +rites and ceremonies of the Christians there. He was afterwards sent +again into Egypt by Colbert; the fruit of this journey was a great +number of curious and valuable manuscripts, which were deposited in +the Royal Library at Paris. Besides the work just stated, he +published in Italian "Relatione dello Stato presente dell' Egypto". +Pans, 1671. 12mo.--Both these works are particularly useful and +instructive on the subject of antiquities, and for the accuracy of +the descriptions and names he gives to the different places and +ruins.</p> + +<p>609. Description de l'Egypte, composée sur les +Mémoires de M. Maillet. Paris, 1741. 2 vols. 12mo.--Maillet +was French Consul at Cairo for sixteen years: his work is valuable on +antiquities, and the religion of the ancient and modern Egyptians. It +may also be consulted with advantage for information on the manners +and customs; but in what he relates regarding the Nile and natural +history, he is not so accurate and judicious.</p> + +<p>610. Lettres sur l'Egypte. Par M. Savary. Paris, 1786. 3 vols. +8vo.--This work, very celebrated and much read for some time after it +appeared, and translated into English, German, Dutch, and Swedish, +gradually lost the character it had acquired; partly because his +descriptions were found to be overcharged and too favourable, and +partly because he describes Upper Egypt as if he had visited it, +whereas he never did. Nevertheless, the learning and judgment which +this author displays in drawing from scarce and little known Arabic +authors, curious notices respecting ancient and modern Egypt, give to +the work an intrinsic and real value, which is not affected by the +observations we have made.</p> + +<p>611. Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte. Par Sonnini. Paris, +1799. 3 vols. 8vo.--This work deservedly bears a high character for +the accuracy and fulness of its natural history; especially its +ornithology: antiquities, manners and customs, are by no means +overlooked: there are two translations into English,--the one +published by Debrett, 1800, 4to. is the best; it was afterwards +published in 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>612. Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte. Par Denon. Paris, 1802. +2 vols. folio.</p> + +<p>613. Description de l'Egypte, ou Recueil des Observations, &c. +faites pendant l'Expédition de l'Armie Française, en 3 +livraisons. Paris, 1809, &c.</p> + +<p>These magnificent works, the result of the observations and +researches of the savans who accompanied Bonaparte, undoubtedly add +much to our knowledge of Egypt; but they are more decidedly specimens +of French vanity and philosophism, than of sober and real science. +Denon's work is translated into English and German: the best English +translation is by Aikin.</p> + +<p>614. Norden's Travels in Egypt and Nubia, with Templeman's notes, +published and translated under the inspection of the Royal Society of +London, 1757, 2 vols. folio.--Norden was a Danish physician; his work +was originally published in that language. A French translation was +published at Copenhagen, in 1755; and a subsequent one at Paris in +1795-98, in 3 vols. 4to. with very valuable notes and illustrations +from ancient and modern authors, and Arabian geographers, by Langles. +The merits of Norden's work, are of the most enduring and substantial +kind, so far as relates to the Antiquities of Egypt, and the +Cataracts: it is high and unequivocal commendation of this author, +that subsequent travellers have found him a judicious and sure +guide.</p> + +<p>615. Legh's Journey in Egypt, and the Country beyond the Cataract, +1816, 4to.--In a small compass, there is much new information in +these Travels, though not so much respecting the ancient country of +the Ethiopians, in which Mr. Legh went beyond most former travellers, +as could have been wished. Some parts of the personal narrative are +uncommonly interesting.</p> + +<p>616. Belzoni's Operations and Discoveries in Egypt, 4to. +1820.--Whoever has read this book, (and who has not?) will agree with +us in opinion, that its interest is derived, not less from the manner +in which it is written, the personal adventures, and the picture it +exhibits of the author's character, than from its splendid and +popular antiquarian discoveries.</p> + +<p>617. Edmonston's Journey to two of the Oases of Upper Egypt, 1823. +8vo.</p> + +<p>618. Notes during a Visit to Egypt, Nubia, &c. By Sir F. +Henniker, 8vo. 1823.</p> + +<p>619. Waddington's Journal of a Visit to some parts of Ethiopia, +1823. 4to.</p> + +<p>620. Narrative of the Expedition to Dangda and Sennaar. By An +American. 1823. 8vo.--These works, and especially the last, make us +acquainted with parts of Africa inaccessible to Europeans till very +lately, and add considerably to our stock of physical and moral +geography. Sir F. Henniker's work brings us in contact, in a very +lively and pleasing manner, with many points in the character and +habits of the natives of the country he visited.</p> + +<p>WESTERN AFRICA, AND THE ADJACENT ISLES.</p> + +<p>622. Voyages de Aloysio Cadamosto aux Isles Madère, et des +Canaries au Cap Blanc, au Sénégal, &c. en 1455. +4to. Paris, 1508.--This work was originally published in Italian; its +author was employed by Don Henry of Portugal, to prosecute discovery +on the Western Coast of Africa. Besides an interesting detail of the +voyage, it makes us acquainted with the manners and habits of the +people, before they had been accustomed to European intercourse.</p> + +<p>622. Voyage de Lybie, ou du Royaume de Sénégal, fait +et composé par C. Jannequin, de retour en France, in 1659. +Paris, 1645. 8vo.--This also is an interesting work, as depicting +with great naïveté and force the manners of the +inhabitants, and affording some curious particulars respecting their +diseases.</p> + +<p>623. Nouvelle Relation de l'Afrique occidentale. Par Labat. Paris, +1728. 5 vols. 12mo.--Though Labat never visited the countries he +describes, which are, Senegal, and those that lie behind Cape Blanc +and Sierra Leone; yet as he derived his information from the Director +General of the French African Company, it may be depended upon. This +work enters into full particulars on the subject of African commerce, +especially that carried on by the Moors in the interior. The plants, +animals, soil, &c. as well as the religion, government, customs, +manufactures are also described.</p> + +<p>624. Histoire Naturelle du Sénégal. Par M. Adanson. +Paris. 1757. 4to.--M. Adanson was in this part of Africa, from 1749 +to 1753; his chief study and investigation seems to have been +directed to conchology; and the descriptions and admirable plates in +his book, certainly leave little to be desired on this subject. There +are besides remarks on the temperature, productions, economy, and +manufactures of the country.</p> + +<p>625. Nouvelle Histoire de l'Afrique Française. Par M. +l'Abbé Dumanet. Paris, 1767. 2 vols. 12mo.--Dumanet was a +missionary in Africa, and seems to have united to religious zeal, +much information, and an ardent desire to gain all the knowledge, +which his residence and character placed within his reach. His +notices regarding Senegal in particular, are very valuable, but his +work is not distinguished for order or method.</p> + +<p>626. Relations de plusieurs Voyages entrepris à la +Côte d'Afrique, au Sénégal, à Goree, +&c. tirées des Journeaux de M. Saugnier. Paris, 1799. +8vo.--M. Saugnier was shipwrecked on the Coast of Africa, along with +M. Follies, and was a long time a slave to the Moors, and the Emperor +of Morocco: he afterwards, on his liberation, made a voyage to Galam. +The first part of his work relates to the great desert, and has been +already noticed; the second part describes the manners, &c. of +several tribes near Galam; and the third relates to the commerce of +Galam and Senegal.</p> + +<p>627. Voyage au Sénégal, 1784-5. Paris, 1802. +8vo.--The materials of this work were drawn from the Memoirs of La +Jaille, who was sent by the French Government to examine the coasts +from Cape Blanc, to Sierra Leone. The editor, La Barthe, had access +to the MS. in the bureau of the minister of marine and colonies, and +was thus enabled to add to the accuracy and value of the work. It +chiefly relates to geography, navigation, and commerce, and on all +these topics gives full and accurate information.</p> + +<p>628. Fragmens d'un Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale, 1785-87. Par +Golbery. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--The French commercial +establishments in Senegal, the tribes in their vicinity, and the +diseases to which Europeans are liable in this part of Africa, and +more particularly the topics of this work, which has been translated +into English.</p> + +<p>629. Account of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Sierra +Leone. By T. Winterbottom, 1803. 2 vols. 8vo.--A very instructive +work, entering into many details on subjects not generally noticed by +travellers, but to which, the thoughts and enquiries of the author, +as a medical man, were naturally drawn.</p> + +<p>630. Description of the Coast of Guinea. By W. Bosman, translated +from the Dutch, 1703. 8vo.--This work is very full on most topics +relating to Guinea, not only in its physical, but also its economical +and commercial state; and deservedly bears the character of one of +the best old accounts of this part of Africa.</p> + +<p>631. New Accounts of some parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade. By +Wm. Snelgrave, 1727. 8vo.--Works that describe the Slave Trade, +before it roused the notice and indignation of England, are valuable +and useful, because in them no exaggeration can be suspected in the +detail, either of its extent or its horrors: on this account, as well +as for its other commercial information, this work deserves to be +read.</p> + +<p>632. New Voyage to Guinea. By W. Smith, 1750. 8vo.--The author +embraces almost every thing relating to Guinea, and has succeeded, in +a short compass, to give much information.</p> + +<p>633. Observations on the Coast of Guinea. By John Atkin, 1758. +8vo.--Personal adventures, which however let the reader into the +manners and habits of the people, and are told in an interesting +manner, nearly fill this volume.</p> + +<p>634. Historical Account of Guinea. By An. Benezet, Philadelphia, +1771, 12mo.--This is one of the first works, which exposed the horrid +iniquity of the Slave Trade.</p> + +<p>635. History of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa. By And. +Dalzell, 1789. 4to.--The official situation which the author held, +gave him opportunities of gaining much valuable information in this +kingdom and its inhabitants, the accuracy of which may be depended +on.</p> + +<p>636. Bowditch's Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, 1819. +4to.--This work is full and minute, but we suspect exaggerated +respecting the Court of Ashantee; on the mass of the people it gives +little information. The part that relates to the geography of middle +Africa, is confused and unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>637. Tuckey's Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River +Zaire, in 1816. 4to. The Quarterly Review very justly remarks, that +this volume "contains an important and valuable addition to the +records of African discovery." Natural history was especially +advanced by this unfortunate expedition.</p> + +<p>638. Relatio et Descriptio Congo et Cham. Amsterdam, 1659. +4to.--The materials of this work, are drawn from that of Lopez, which +was originally published in Italian, and forms part of the Grands +Voyages. It it very full on the different races of people, their +manners, government, religion, traffic, &c. as well as on the +productions of the soil.</p> + +<p>640. Histoire de Loango, Kakougo, et autres Royaumes d'Afrique. +Paris, 1776. 12mo.--This work, which is drawn up from the Memoirs of +the French Missionaries, describes the physical state of the country, +the manners, language, government, laws, commerce, &c. of the +inhabitants, with great care; a large portion of it, however, is +devoted to an account of the labours of the missionaries.</p> + +<p>641. Voyage à la Côte Méridionale d'Afrique, +1786-7. Par L. de Grandpiè. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--Much +information on the Slave Trade, and a plan for abolishing it, by +introducing civilization and a love of commerce into this part of +Africa, occupy the greater part of the first volume; the second +volume, which comprises the Cape of Good Hope, gives details which +will be found useful to those who navigate and trade in these parts. +The manners, &c. of the people are by no means overlooked.</p> + +<p>INTERIOR OF AFRICA.</p> + +<p>642. Travels in the inland parts of Africa, to which is added, +Captain Stubbs's Voyage up the Gambia, in 1723. By Francis Moore, +1758. 4to.--1742. 8vo.--This is a valuable work, and introduces the +reader to many parts and tribes of Africa, which even yet are little +known, partly drawn from the accounts of an African prince who came +to England. Of this information, and that collected by Captain +Stubbs, Moore, who was superintendant of the African Company's +establishments in the Gambia, availed himself in drawing up this +work.</p> + +<p>Little additional information respecting the interior of Africa +was obtained, till the establishment of the African Association in +1788. It is unnecessary to give an individual and particular +character of the works which were drawn up under their auspices; the +persons they employed, were, in many respects, in general admirably +calculated for the ardous enterprize, and certainly by their labours +have added not a little to our knowledge of the geography, manners, +trade, &c. of this part of Africa. But it is to be regretted, +that they were not qualified to investigate the natural history of +the countries they visited, especially as these must be extremely +rich in all the departments of this branch of science. To these +preliminary observations and general character, we add the titles of +the principal travels undertaken under the auspices of the African +Association.</p> + +<p>643. African Association, their Proceedings for prosecuting the +discovery of the interior parts of Africa, containing the Journals of +Ledyard, Lucas, Houghton, Horneman, Nicholls, &c. 1810. 2 vols. +8vo.</p> + +<p>644. Park's Travels in the interior districts of Africa, 1795-97, +with geographical illustrations, by Major Rennell, 1799. 4to.</p> + +<p>645. The Journal of a Mission to the interior of Africa, in 1805. +By Park, 1815. 4to.</p> + +<p>In 1803, there was published at Paris, a French translation of +Horneman's Travels, with notes, and a memoir on the Oases, by +Langles. Those notes and memoirs were principally drawn from Arabian +authors; and, together with the rectification of the names of places, +render the translation valuable.</p> + +<p>646. Jackson's account of Tombuctoo and Housa, with Travels +through West and South Barbary, and across the Mountains of Atlas, +8vo. 1820.--So long as it is so extremely dangerous and difficult for +Europeans to penetrate into the interior of Africa, we must be +content to derive our information regarding it, from Africans who +have travelled thither; and it is evident that those will be best +calculated to collect accurate information from them, who are +acquainted with their language and character, and who have resided +among them. On these accounts, Mr. Jackson's work is valuable and +important; the same remarks apply to his Account of Morocco, 1809. +4to.</p> + +<p>647. Riley's Loss of the Brig Commerce, on the west Coast of +Africa, 1815. With an account of Tombuctoo and Wassanah, 4to.</p> + +<p>648. Adam's Narrative of a Residence in Tombuctoo. 4to. If these +Narratives can be perfectly depended upon, they add considerably to +our information respecting the Great Desert and the interior of +Africa.</p> + +<p>649. Sammlung Merkwurdiger Reisen in das innere von Africa, heraus +gegeben. Von E.W. Kuher. Leips. 1790. 8vo.</p> + +<p>650. Descrizione dell' Isola della Madera, scritta nella Lingua +Latina dal Conte Julio Laedi, tradotta in volgare da Alemano Fini. +Plaisance, 1574. 4to.</p> + +<p>651. Histoire de la première Découverte et +Conquête des Canaries, 1412. Par J. Bethancourt: écrite +du temps même. Par P. Bouthier, et J. Leverier. Paris, 1630. +12mo.--This curious and rare work, depicts with great fidelity and +naïveté, the manners, opinions, government, religion, +&c. that prevailed in the Canaries, when they were first +conquered.</p> + +<p>652. Essai sur les Isles Fortunées, et l'Antique Atlantide. +Par Borry de Saint Vincent. Paris, 1803. 4to. The author of this work +resided for some time in these Islands; and his work, besides +historical information, bears testimony to his having employed his +residence in gaining minute information respecting their soil, +climate, natural history, and productions; and likewise respecting +the manners, &c. of the inhabitants. There is much learned +discussion respecting the origin of the Guanches, and interesting +information regarding their civilization and knowledge.</p> + +<p>653. Noticias de la Historia general de las Islas de Canaria. Par +D.J. Dariera y Clavigo. Madrid, 1771. 3 vols. 8vo. Borry de Saint +Vincent, who derived much of his information from this work, justly +characterizes it as a valuable and accurate performance.</p> + +<p>The Islands of Madeira, Teneriffe, St. Jago, &c. are described +in many Voyages to the East Indies, particularly in Barrow's Voyage +to Cochin China. In the first volume of Sir Hans Sloane's Jamaica, +there is also a good account of Madeira.</p> + +<p>THE SOUTH OF AFRICA.</p> + +<p>The Cape of Good Hope being generally visited by ships going to +the East Indies and China, there are many accounts of it and the +adjacent country, in the relation of voyages to those parts. Since it +came into the possession of the British, this part of Africa has +frequently become the ultimate and special object of travellers. The +oldest accounts were published in the Dutch and German languages.</p> + +<p>654. Reise Beschriebung, 1660-1667 unter die Africanisken +Vælker besonders die Hottentiten. Von. J. Breyer. Leips. 1681. +8vo.</p> + +<p>655. Reise nach dem Vorgeberg der Guten Hopnung. Von Peter Kolb. +Nuremberg, 3 vol. fol.--This voluminous work, originally published in +Dutch, was abridged and published in French, in 3 vols. 12mo. From +this abridgment, an English translation was published in 2 vols. 8vo. +in 1738. Both the entire and abridged work have been frequently +published. The reason for this popularity and general sale, must be +sought in Kolben's work, being, for a long time, the only detailed +account of this part of Africa, and from its enjoying a reputation +for accuracy, which subsequent travellers have destroyed, especially +De la Caille, the celebrated astronomer, in the following work.</p> + +<p>656. Journal du Voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance. +Paris, 1673. 12mo.--This work is well known to astronomers; but it +also deserves to be perused by those who wish to detect the errors of +Kolben, and by the light which it throws on the manners of the +Hottentots.</p> + +<p>657. Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance. Amsterdam, +1778. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Dutch, contains a Journal +of Travels into the interior, undertaken by order of the Dutch +Governor. The first part gives a short description of the Cape, and +the adjacent districts, which seems drawn from the authority of +Kolben, in too many particulars; the second part contains the Journal +of the Travels: and it is more full and instructive on objects of +natural history, than on the customs and manners of the people. The +plates of these are very valuable.</p> + +<p>658. Voyage de M. Levaillant, dans l'Intérieur de +l'Afrique, 1780-85. Paris, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>659. Second Voyage, 1783-1785. Paris, 3 vols. 8vo.--These Travels, +which have been translated into English, possess a wonderful charm in +the narrative, attained, however, too often by the sacrifice of plain +and unadorned truth, to the love of romance and effect. +Notwithstanding this drawback, Levaillant's Travels are valuable for +the light they throw on the natural history of the South of +Africa.</p> + +<p>660. Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, 1772-1776. By Sparman, 1785. +2 vols. 4to.--This work was originally published in Swedish; it is +interesting, not only on account of the valuable information it +conveys on natural history, especially botany, and on the manners, +&c. of the people, but likewise for the perseverance and zeal +with which Sparman, without friends, assistance, and almost without +pecuniary assistance, forced his way into remote and barbarous +districts.</p> + +<p>661. Barrows Travels into the interior of Southern Africa, +1797-1798. 4to. 2 vols. Very few writers of travels have possessed +such a variety and extent of information, both political and +scientific, as Mr. Barrow; hence these volumes are acceptable and +instructive to all classes of readers, and have attained a celebrity +not greater than they deserve. In Mr. Barrow's voyage to Cochin +China, there is some information respecting the Cape, especially an +account of a journey to the Booshuana nation. In Thunberg's voyage to +Japan, there is also much information on the geography, natural +history, manners, &c. of the South of Africa.</p> + +<p>662. La Trobe's Journal of a Visit to South Africa, in 1815. +4to.</p> + +<p>663. Lichtenstein's Travels in Southern Africa, 1803-06. 2 vols. +4to.</p> + +<p>664. Campbell's Travels in Africa, by order of the Missionary +Society. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>Additional information may be gleaned from these travels, +respecting South Africa; Campbell penetrated farthest, and discovered +some populous tribes and large towns. La Trobe's is the most +interesting narrative.</p> + +<p>665. Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar. Par du Flacourt. +Paris, 1661. 4to.</p> + +<p>666. Relation des Premiers Voyages de la Compagnée des +Indes, faits en l'Isle de Madagascar. Par de Rennefort. Paris, 1668. +16mo.</p> + +<p>667. Voyage à l'Isle de France, à l'Isle de Bourbon, +&c. Par Bernardin de St. Pierre. Paris, 1773. 8vo.--This work is +full. of accurate and detailed information on the soil, climate, +productions, &c. of the Isle of France, and on the manners and +morals of its inhabitants: on the other Island it is less +instructive.</p> + +<p>668. Voyage à l'Isle de Madagascar, et aux Indes +Orientates. Par Rochon. Paris, 1791. 8vo.--This work enters into +every subject relating to this isle and its inhabitants, which can be +interesting and instructive to the naturalist, the political +economist, and the moralist; and the information bears all the marks +of accuracy and completeness.</p> + +<p>669. Voyages dans les quatre principales Isles des Mers d'A +Afrique, 1801-2. Par Borry de Saint Vincent. Paris, 1804. 3 vols. +8vo.--The author was chief naturalist in the voyage of discovery, +under the command of Captain Baudin. The isles of France and Bourbon +are most minutely described in this work; and the isles of Teneriffe +and St. Helena in a less detailed manner. The information, as might +be imagined, relates principally to natural history, on all the +branches of which the author is very full and instructive; he also +extends his remarks to the soil, climate, agriculture, topography, +commerce, manners, &c.</p> + +<p>670. Grant's History of Mauritius, or the Isle of France. 1801. +4to.--This work is drawn principally from the memoirs of Baron Grant, +by his son. The Baron resided nearly twenty years in the island: +hence, and from his acquaintance with most of the scientific and +nautical men who visited the island, he has been enabled to collect +much information connected with its physical state, its harbours, +climate, soil, productions, and the manners of its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>ABYSSINIA, NUBIA, &c.</p> + +<p>The most ancient descriptions of these countries are to be found +in the collections of M. Thevenot, and Ramusio, already noticed.</p> + +<p>671. Lobos's Voyage to Abyssinia, with fifteen Dissertations +relating to Abyssinia. By Le Grand. 8vo. 1789.--This account of +Abyssinia during the middle of the seventeenth century, though +principally relating to church affairs, is yet valuable for its +information on the government and manners of the people, and curious, +as giving indications or descriptions of several animals and birds, +the existence of which had been previously doubted.</p> + +<p>672. Travels in Abyssinia. By James Barretti. 1670. 8vo.</p> + +<p>673. A new History of Ethiopia. By Joseph Ludolphus. fol. +1684.--Though Ludolphus did not visit this country, yet his work, +originally published in Latin, with a commentary and appendix by +himself, is well worthy of perusal, as it is full of recondite and +important information on the origin of the Abyssinians, the climate, +soil, productions, and the natural history, physical and moral state +of the inhabitants, &c.</p> + +<p>674. Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile. 5 vols. +4to. 1790.--Account of his Life and Writings, and additions to his +Travels. By Alex. Murray. 4to. 1808.</p> + +<p>675. Observations on Bruce's Travels. By Warton. 1799, 4to.</p> + +<p>676. Observations on the authenticity of Bruce's Travels. +Newcastle. 1800. 4to. We have added to the title of Bruce's work, +those of two works which remarked on its authenticity; there were +also some acute papers on the subject in the Monthly Magazine: the +result of these, and of the researches of subsequent travellers, +seems to have established the credit of Bruce generally, though it is +now known he did not reach the source of the real Nile, and that in +some descriptions he coloured too highly. After all these drawbacks, +however, his Travels are very valuable, and, with the exception of +the tedious annals of Abyssinia, may be perused with interest and +profit.</p> + +<p>677. Salt's Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels into the interior of +that country. 1809-10: with an account of the Portuguese Settlements +on the east coast of Africa. 4to. 1814.</p> + +<p>678. Pearce's true account of the ways and manners of the +Abyssinians. (In the Transactions of the Bombay Society, vol. 2.)</p> + +<p>These two works have extended our knowledge of Abyssinia, +especially of the moral state of the people, much beyond what it +might have been expected we should have acquired regarding a country +formerly so inaccessible. Mr. Salt's zeal, and opportunities of +information and observation, have left little to be desired: and from +Mr. Pearce, who resided fourteen years in the country, many +particulars may be gathered, which only a long residence, and that +intimacy and amalgamation with the natives which Mr. Pearce +accomplished, can furnish accurately, minutely, and fully.</p> + +<p>VIII. ASIA.</p> + +<p>Several circumstances concurred to direct the travels of the dark +and middle ages to Asia. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land;--the wish to +ingratiate the Tartar chiefs, which was naturally felt by the +European powers, when the former were advancing towards the western +limits of Asia; and subsequently, and perhaps consequently, the +spirit of commercial enterprise, were amongst the most obvious and +influential circumstances which led to travels into this quarter of +the world, from the ninth to the fifteenth centuries. Although the +travellers during this period were by no means, in general, qualified +to investigate the physical peculiarities of the countries they +visited, and are even meagre, and often inaccurate in detailing what +was level to their information and capacities, yet, as has been +justly observed, "there is a simplicity in the old writers, which +delights us more than the studied compositions of modern travellers;" +to say nothing of the interest which the first glimpses of a newly +discovered country never fail to impart.</p> + +<p>We shall therefore annex the titles of the most interesting and +instructive of these travels, which were performed between the ninth +and fifteenth centuries, referring such of our readers who wish for a +more complete list or fuller information on the subject, to the +Bibliothèque des Voyages, Vol. I. p. 32., &c.; Murray's +Asiatic Discoveries; the Review of Murray's work in the 48th number +of the Quarterly Review; Forster's Voyages and Discoveries in the +North; and Collection portative de Voyages. Par C. Langles.</p> + +<p>679. Ancient accounts of India and China. By Two Mahomedan +Travellers in the ninth century; translated from the Arabic by E. +Renaudot. 8vo. 1733.--The authenticity of this work is established by +M. de Guignes, having found the original in the Royal Library at +Paris: and the information it contains, though mixed with much that +is fabulous, is very curious and valuable, especially in what relates +to China.</p> + +<p>680. Voyages faites principalement dans les 12, 13, 14, and 15 +siècles, par Benjamin de Tudela, Carpin, Ancilin, Rubruquis, +Marco Polo, Haiton, Mandeville, et Contarini; publiés par P. +Bergerin, avec des Cartes Géographiques. La Haye, 1735. 2 +vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>This is a valuable collection, except so far as regards Marco +Polos' Travels, the translation of which is neither elegant nor +faithful. The most elaborate and instructive edition of this +excellent traveller is the following:</p> + +<p>681. Marco Polos' Travels, translated from the Italian, with +notes. By W. Marsden. 4to. 1818.--"The reproach of dealing too much +in the marvellous, which had been attached to the name of Marco Polo, +was gradually wearing away, as later experience continued to +elucidate his veracity; but Mr. Marsden (who has rendered a special +service to literature by his elegant and faithful translation of +these remarkable travels,) has completely rescued his memory from all +stain on that score, and proved him to be not only an accurate +observer, but a faithful reporter of what he saw, and what he learned +from others."--(<i>Quarterly Review, No. 48. page 325.</i>)</p> + +<p>682. Marco Polo Reisen en der Orient, 1272-1295. 8vo. Ronneburgh, +1802.--This translation is accompanied by a learned commentary by the +Editor, F.B. Peregrin.</p> + +<p>683. Sauveboeuf, Mémoires des ses Voyages en Turque, en +Perse, et en Arabic. 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1807.</p> + +<p>VOYAGES AND TRAVELS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ASIA.</p> + +<p>684. Voyages célèbres et remarquables, faits de +Perse aux Indes Orientates. Par J.A. De Mandeso. Amsterdam, folio, +1727.--This work, originally published in German, exhibits a curious +picture of Indostan, the Mogul empire, Siam, Japan, China, &c., +as they existed in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>685. Les Voyages et Missions de P. Alex. de Rhodes. Paris, 1682. +4to.--This is one of the most valuable of the missionary travels in +Asia, comprising Goa, Malacca, Macao, Cochin China, Tonkin, +&c.</p> + +<p>686. Amenitatum exoticarum fasciculi. Autore E. Koempfer. Lemgo, +1712. 4to.--This work relates principally to Persia, and the +easternmost parts of Asia: M. Langles justly characterizes it as a +rich mine of information of all kinds respecting this portion of the +world.</p> + +<p>687. Samlung der murkwurdigsten Reisen in den Orient. Von E. +Panlus. Jena, 1792-1798. 10 vols. 8vo.--This collection contains many +scarce and curious articles, and is illustrated by learned and +judicious notes.</p> + +<p>688. Asiatic Researches. 12 vols. 8vo. 1801. 1818.--Though many of +the articles in this valuable work do not strictly and immediately +come under the description of travels, yet even these are so +essentially necessary to a full acquaintance with the most +interesting parts of Asia, that we have deemed it proper to insert +the title of this work. A valuable translation of most of the volumes +has been published in Paris, enriched by the oriental literature of +M. Langles; the astronomical and physical knowledge of M. Delambre; +and the natural history knowledge of Cuvier, Lamark, and Olivier.</p> + +<p>689. De la Roque, Voyage de Syrie et du Mont Liban. 2 vols. 12mo. +Paris, 1722.</p> + +<p>690. Voyage de l'Arabie heureuse par l'Océan Oriental. +12mo. Paris, 1716.</p> + +<p>691. Voyage de M. d'Arvieux dans la Palestine, avec Description de +l'Arabie, par Abulfeda. Mémoires du Chevalier d'Arvieux, +contenant ses Voyages à Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la +Palestine, l'Egypte, la Barbarie, &c. Paris, 6 vols. 12mo. +1735.--These are all valuable works, containing much and accurate +information on almost every topic of physical, statistical, +commercial, political and moral geography; the result of long +personal observation, enquiry, and experience. The travels of la +Roque into Arabia are particularly full respecting the history of +coffee in Asia and Europe. The Voyage de M. d'Arvieux was published +separately from his Mémoires, and previously to it, by la +Roque, and is very interesting not only from the simplicity of its +style and manner, but also from the vivid picture which it exhibits +of the Bedouins.</p> + +<p>692. Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, 1783-1785. Par Volney. Paris, +1800. 2 vols. 8vo.--The character of this work, of which there is an +English translation, is too well known to be insisted upon here. What +relates to Syria is the most detailed and important, and has been +less superseded by subsequent travellers.</p> + +<p>693. A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, in 1697. By H. +Maundrel.</p> + +<p>694. The Natural History of Aleppo, and parts adjacent. By Alex. +Rumel. 2 vols. 4to. 1794.--This excellent work was translated into +German by Gmelin, with valuable annotations.</p> + +<p>695. Mariti's Travels through Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine. 3 +vols. 8vo.--The original work in Italian consists of 5 volumes. On +all that relates to Cyprus, this work is particularly interesting and +full; there is also much information regarding it in Sonnini's +Travels.</p> + +<p>696. Kinnear's Journey though Asia Minor, Armenia, and Koordestan, +1812-14. 8vo.--This work will be particularly interesting to those +who wish to trace the marches of Alexander, and the retreat of the +ten thousand, on which points of history Mr. Kinnear has made some +judicious remarks.</p> + +<p>697. Beaufort's Karamania. 1818. 8vo.--A valuable addition to the +maritime geography and antiquities of a part of Asia Minor not often +described.</p> + +<p>698. Reisebescriebung von Arabien. Von C. Niebuhr. Copenhagen, +1772. 4to.</p> + +<p>699. Reisebescriebung nach Arabien. Von C. Niebuhr. Copenhagen +1774-1778. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>700. Recueil des Questions proposées à une +société des Savans, qui, par ordre de S.M. Danoise, +font le Voyage de l'Arabie. Par M. Michaelis. Frankfort, 1753. +4to.</p> + +<p>701. Pet. Forskal Descriptiones Animalium, Avium, &c. &c. +in Itinere Orientale observatorum. Hafnioe, 1775. 4to.</p> + +<p>702. Pet. Forskal Icones rerum naturalium, quas in Itinere Orient, +depingi curavit. Hafnioe, 1776. 4to.--Every thing preparatory to, and +connected with the travels of Niebuhr and his associate, was +judiciously and well planned and executed: the selection of Michaelis +to draw up the enquiries and observations to be made; those he +actually proposed: and the learned men sent out, who were +respectively conversant in physics, natural history, geography, and +the connected and auxiliary branches of science. Hence resulted most +admirable works on Arabia: those of Niebuhr, together with Michaelis, +have been translated into French, in 4 vols. 4to. The English +translation, besides omitting the most valuable and scientific parts, +is, in other respects, totally unworthy of the original.</p> + +<p>703. Il Viaggio dell Ambrosio Contarini, Ambasciatore della +Signiora di Venetia, al Uxam Cassan, Re de Persia. Ven. 1543, +12mo.</p> + +<p>704. Relacion de Don Juan de Persia, en III Libros. Vallad. 1604. +4to.</p> + +<p>705. Chardin, Voyages en Persie, et autres lieux de l'Orient. +Amsterd. 3 vols. 4to. 1711.--It may justly be said of these travels, +that by means of them, Persia was made better known in every thing +relating to its civil, military, religious, intellectual, moral, +scientific, and statistical condition, than any other part of Asia, +at the period when they were published. Very few travellers are more +to be depended upon than Chardin.</p> + +<p>706. Tavernier, Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes. 6 +Vols. 12mo. Rouen, 1713.--The credit of this traveller, which had +been for some time suspected, is recovering itself since it has been +ascertained that many points in which he was supposed to have been +inaccurate or credulous, are well founded. As his object was +commercial, especially for the purchase of diamonds, his travels may +be consulted with advantage on the subject of the diamond mines, the +traffic in these precious stones, and the various monies of Asia, and +other topics not to be found in other travellers.</p> + +<p>707. Observations made on a Tour from Bengal to Persia. By W. +Franklin. 1790. 8vo.--The most original and valuable portion of this +work relates to Persia, especially the province of Farsistan; it +contains also much information respecting Goa, Bombay, &c., M. +Langles translated it into French, and added a learned memoir on +Persepolis.</p> + +<p>The same orientalist, M. Langles, has added to the value and +interest of his translation of G. Forster's Journey from Bengal to +England, by his judicious and instructive notes.</p> + +<p>708. Waring's Tour to Sheeraz. 1807. 4to.--This work is chiefly +confined to the manners, laws, religion, language, and literature of +the Persians; on all of which it is instructive and interesting.</p> + +<p>709. Morier's Two Journeys through Persia, Armenia, and Asia +Minor. 1808-1816. 2 vols. 4to.--The opportunities which M. Morier +possessed from his residence in Persia being much superior to those +of a mere traveller, his work is justly regarded as one of authority +on the civil, political, domestic, and commercial circumstances of +the Persians.</p> + +<p>710. Sir W. Ousely's Travels in Persia. 1810-12. 4to.--The +connexion between England and Persia, formed, or rather strengthened, +in consequence of the vicinity of our East India possessions to that +country, has much extended our knowledge of it, and this work has +contributed not a little to that knowledge.</p> + +<p>711. Kotzebue's Narrative of a Journey into Persia, in the Suite +of the Imperial Embassy, in 1817. 8vo.--It is always desirable to +have travels performed in the same country, especially if it be one +remote and little known, by persons of different nations: thus, +different views of the same circumstances are given, and the truth is +elicited. These travels are interesting in this and other points of +view.</p> + +<p>712. Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient +Babylonia, &c. 2. vols. 4to.--A severer judgment, by suppressing +much that is minute and uninteresting, and dwelling more on important +matters, and a knowledge of natural history, would have enhanced the +value of these travels, which, however, are much more creditable to +the author than his Travels in Russia.</p> + +<p>713. Reise in den Kaukasies und nach Georgien, 1807-8. 2 vols. +8vo. Halle, 1812.--These travels were undertaken by command of the +Russian government, and are similar in design to those of Pallas; +there is an English translation, but it is indifferently +executed.</p> + +<p>714. Reisen nach Georgien und Imerethi. Von J.A. Guldenstadt. 8vo. +Berlin, 1813.--This work is edited by Klaproth, and is chiefly +mineralogical.</p> + +<p>715. Lettres sur la Caucase et la Georgie, et un Voyage en Perse +en 1812. 8vo.</p> + +<p>THE EAST INDIES.</p> + +<p>The histories of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese +in the East Indies are interspersed with various and numerous +particulars regarding the political state of that country, and the +manners, customs, religion, &c. of the inhabitants. The following +French work is valuable in this respect.</p> + +<p>716. Histoire de Portugal; contenant les Entreprises, &c. des +Portugais, tant en la Conquête des Indes Orientales par eux +découvertes, qu'en Guerres d'Afrique et autres Exploits: +nouvellement mise en Français. Par S. Goullard. Paris, 1581. +4to.</p> + +<p>717. Navigatio et Itinerarium in Orientalem Indiam, &c. Autore +Joanne Linschot. Amsterd. 1614. folio.</p> + +<p>718. Premier Livre de l'Histoire de la Navigation aux Indes +Orientales, par les Hollandois. Amsterd, folio, 1558.</p> + +<p>719. Le Second Livre. Amsterd. 1609, folio.</p> + +<p>720. Relatio de Rebus in India Orientale, a Patribus. Soc. Jesu. +1598-1599, peractis, Mayence, 1601. 8vo.--The preceding works give an +interesting picture of the East Indies during the 16th century.</p> + +<p>721. Beschrievyng van oude niewe Ostinden. Von. F. Valyntyn. +Amster. 1724-1726. 8 vol. fol.--This work appears to be little known, +except in Holland; the author resided upwards of twenty years in +India, and has most industriously, though not always with a good +taste, or scrupulous judgment, collected much minute information on +its natural, civil, and religious state.</p> + +<p>722. Alex. Hamilton's Account of the East Indies, 2 vols. 8vo. +1744.</p> + +<p>723. Grose's Travels to the East Indies, 1772. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>724. Zend Avesta. Par Anquetil du Perrin. Paris, 1771. 3 vols. +4to.--M. Anquetil has prefixed to his translation of this supposed +work of Zoroaster, an account of his travels in the East Indies, in +which there is much valuable information, especially on antiquarian +subjects. The Germans have translated and published separately, this +part of M. Anquetil's work.</p> + +<p>725. Voyages dans les Mers de l'Inde. Par M. Legentil, 1781. 5 +vols. 8vo.--M. Legentil's object was to observe the transit of Venus, +in 1761 and 1769. His work, besides entering into the subject of +Indian astronomy, gives many important details on antiquities and +natural history.</p> + +<p>726. Description Historique et Geographique de l'Inde. Par J. +Tieffenthaler. Recherches Historiques et Geographiques sur l'Inde. +Par Anquetil du Perrin. Publiées par J. Bernouilli. Berlin, +1785. 3 vols. 4to.--The most curious and original portion of this +work is that which relates to the Seiks, by the missionary +Tieffenthaler.</p> + +<p>727. Forrest's Voyage from Calcutta to the Menguy Archipelago, +1792. 2 vols. 4to.--This work is justly of great authority, for its +details in maritime geography,</p> + +<p>728. Stavorinus's Voyages to the East Indies, comprising an +account of all the possessions of the Dutch in India, and at the Cape +of Good Hope, 3 vols. 8vo. 1798.</p> + +<p>729. Fra. Paolino's Voyage to the East Indies. With notes by J. +Reinold Forster. 8vo. 1800.--A translation of this valuable work, +which originally appeared in Italian, was published in Paris, in +1805, by Anquetil du Perrin, in 3 Vols. 8vo. There are few works +which throw more light than this does, on the religious antiquities +of India.</p> + +<p>730. Rennel's Memoir of a Map of Indostan. 2 Vols. 4to. 1793.--For +geographical research, this work justly bears the highest +character.</p> + +<p>Particular parts of the East Indies are specially described in the +following works:</p> + +<p>731. Nouvelle Relation d'un Voyage fait aux Indes Orientales. Par +M. Dellen. Amsterd. 1699. 12mo.---Malabar, Calecut, and Goa, are +particularly noticed by this author, who, being a medical man, is +full and instructive on the poisonous animals, and the diseases.</p> + +<p>732. Voyage de Francois Bernier, contenant la Description des +Etats du Grand Mogul. Amsterd. 1725. 2 Vols. 12mo.--This author was +also a medical man, and from that circumstance obtained favour from +the Mogul, and an opportunity of visiting parts of Asia, at that time +little known, particularly Cachemere, of which he gives a full and +interesting description.</p> + +<p>733. Voyage aux Indes Orientales, 1802-6, revu et augmenté +de notes. Par Sonnini. 2 Vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.--The notes by +Sonnini sufficiently point out the nature and character of this +work.</p> + +<p>734. Voyage dans la Peninsule Occidentale de l'Inde, et dans +l'Isle de Ceylon. 2 Vols. 8vo. Paris, 1811.--This work is translated +from the Dutch of Haafner; and as latterly few, except the English, +have published accounts of India, it is for this reason +interesting.</p> + +<p>735. A Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. +By F. Buchanan. 1811, 4to.--Much information, not well arranged or +agreeably communicated, on the most valuable productions of these +districts, on their climate, manufactures, and the manners, religion, +&c. of their inhabitants.</p> + +<p>736. Heyne's Tracts, historical and statistical, on India; with +Journals of several Tours: and an account of Sumatra. 1814, 4to. A +work not so well known, as from its information, particularly +statistical, it deserves to be.</p> + +<p>737. Forbes's Oriental Memoirs. 1813, 4 Vols. 4to.--It is to be +regretted that this very splendid and expensive work was not +published in a cheaper form, as it abounds in most striking pictures +of the manners, customs, &c. of India.</p> + +<p>738. Major Symes's Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, in +1795. 4to 1800--Little was known in Europe respecting Pegu and Ava +before the travels of Hunter, and Loset and Erkelskrom were +published; these travels, translated respectively from the English +and German, were published together in Paris, in 1793. From these, +and Major Symes's works, much may be gathered respecting the manners, +religion, and government of the inhabitants of this part of Asia; but +unfortunately, these travellers do not instruct us on the topics of +natural history. We are indebted for most that we know respecting +Siam, to a notion that was put into Louis XIV.'s mind, that the King +of Siam was desirous of becoming a convert to Christianity. Under +this idea, Louis sent an embassy and missionaries, from whom +proceeded the following works: in which, allowing for a little +exaggeration, in order to flatter the vanity of the French monarch, +there is a deal of curious and valuable information of all kinds.</p> + +<p>739. Premier Voyage de Siam des P.P. Jésuites. +Redigé par Tachard.--Second Voyage du P. Tachard, Paris, +1686-89. 2 Vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>740. Histoire Naturelle et Civile de Siam. Par Gervaise. Paris, +1688, 4to.</p> + +<p>741. Description du Royaume de Siam. Par M. de la Loubere, +Envoyé Extraordinaire du Roi auprès du Roi de Siam. +Amsterd. 1714. 2 Vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>742. Barrow's Voyage to Cochin China, 1792-93. 4to. 1806. This is +perhaps the most valuable of Mr. Barrow's works, as it relates to a +country not previously known, except by the accounts of the +missionaries, and which has been scarcely visited since Mr. Barrow's +time.</p> + +<p>743. Relation Nouvelle et Curieuse du Royaume de Tonquin, et de +Laos. Traduite de l'Italien du P. de Marini. Paris, 1666, 4to. This +work is full of a variety of topics connected with the civil, +political, military, agricultural, and commercial state of Tonquin; +nor is it deficient in what relates to the natural history, and the +manners, religion, &c. of the inhabitants,</p> + +<p>744. Histoire Naturelle et Civile du Tonquin. Par l'Abbé +Richard. Paris, 1788. 2 Vols. 12mo.--The first volume of this work, +which describes Tonquin and its inhabitants, is drawn from the +accounts of the missionary St. Phalte, and from other sources, with +considerable neatness and judgment; the second volume is confined to +a history of the missions thither.</p> + +<p>745. Exposé Statistique du Tunkin. London, 2 Vols. 8vo. +1811. This work is drawn up from the papers of M. de la Bessachere, +who resided 18 years in Tunkin; and it is rich in new and curious +information on the physical properties of the country, and the +national character.</p> + +<p>746. Letters on the Nicobar Islands. By the Rev C.G. Haensel, +Missionary of the United Brethren. 1812. 8vo.--This short account is +written with great simplicity and appearance of truth, and conveys +much information on the inhabitants, as well as the soil, climate, +&c. of these islands.</p> + +<p>747. A Description of Prince of Wales Island. By Sir Home Popham. +1806, 8vo.</p> + +<p>748. Sir George Leith's Account of the Settlement, Produce, and +Commerce of Prince of Wales Island. 8vo. 1805.</p> + +<p>INDIAN ISLANDS.</p> + +<p>749. Historical Relation of Ceylon. By Robert Knox. 1681. +folio.--This work, though published so long ago, and by one who was a +prisoner, still retains its character, as the fullest and most +interesting account of the inhabitants of Ceylon in the English +language. The voluminous work of Valyntyn, in Dutch, which we have +already noticed, may be advantageously consulted on this island, as +well as on all parts of India formerly possessed by the Dutch.</p> + +<p>750. John C. Wolfe's Life and Adventures in Ceylon. 1785. +8vo.--This work, translated from the Dutch, amidst much that is +merely personal, contains some curious notices on Ceylon and its +inhabitants. To the English translation is appended an account by +Erkelskrom, which is valuable, as describing the island at the period +when it passed from the Dutch to the English.</p> + +<p>751. Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon. 1821, 4to.--This is +an excellent work, though like many other works of excellence, too +bulky; its chief and peculiar merit and recommendation consist in its +details on the natural history of Ceylon.</p> + +<p>752. Marsden's History of Sumatra. 1783. 4to.--This is a most +excellent work in the plan and execution, embracing almost every +topic connected with the island and its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>753. Voyage to the Isle of Borneo. By Capt. Beckman. 1718, +8vo.--Of this large island, so little known, this volume, and an +article inserted in the Transactions of the Batavian Society of Java, +gives us many interesting particulars; there are also some notices of +it in Forrest's Voyage.</p> + +<p>754. The Narrative of Captain Woodward, with a Description of the +Island of Celebes. 1804, 8vo.--Woodward was an American captain who +was taken prisoner by the Malays of Celebes: this work is the result +of his observations and experience during his captivity; but it is +confined to the western division of the isle: of this, however, it +gives many particulars, respecting the produce, animals, inhabitants, +&c. Stavorinus's works may also be consulted regarding +Celebes.</p> + +<p>755. Crawfurd's History of the Indian Archipelago. 1820. 3 vols. +8vo.--This is a valuable work, particularly in what relates to the +actual commerce and commercial capabilities of these islands: it also +treats of the manners, religion, language, &c. of the +inhabitants; but on some of these points not with the soundest +judgment, or the most accurate information.</p> + +<p>756. Raffles's History of Java. 1817. 2 vols. 4to.--Had this work +been compressed into a smaller compass, by a judicious abridgment of +the historical part, its value as well as interest would have been +enhanced; these, however, are not small, as it gives by far the +fullest and most accurate account of Java, and its inhabitants, that +has appeared; and as the author, from his residence and high official +situation, possessed every advantage, its accuracy may be depended +on. When the natural history illustrations of Java, by Mr. Horsfield, +are completed, they will, in conjunction with this work, and the +Transactions of the Batavian Society, leave nothing to be desired on +the subject of this part of Asia.</p> + +<p>757. E. Koempfer's Geschichte und Beschriebung von Japan. Lemgo, +1777-79. 2 vols. 4to.--This edition of Koempfer's celebrated work on +Japan contains several things which are not to be found in the +English translation.</p> + +<p>758. Histoire du Japan. Par Charlevoix. Paris, 1754, 6 vols. +12mo.--This is the best edition of Charlevoix's work, many parts of +which, especially what relates to natural history, are drawn from +Koempfer. Charlevoix has added important details on the +administration of justice in Japan, and on the moral character of the +Japanese; but the bulk of the work is swelled by tiresome +ecclesiastical details.</p> + +<p>759. Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa. By Thunberg. 1794, 4 +vols. 8vo.--This work relates principally to Japan; and it may justly +be remarked, that few parts of the world have met with sucn admirable +describers as Japan has done, in Koempfer and Thunberg. Certainly the +natural history of no part, so rich in this respect, has been so +fully and scientifically investigated. A French translation of this +work was published in Paris in 1796, in 2 vols. 4to. enriched by the +notes of Langles and La Marck.</p> + +<p>760. Golownin's Narrative of his Captivity in Japan, 1811-13. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Japan is a country so little accessible, that every work +on it is acceptable. This work does not add very much to what +Koempfer and Thunberg have told, but perhaps quite as much as the +author, under his circumstances, could collect or observe. The same +remarks apply to his Recollections of Japan. 1 vol. 8vo.</p> + +<p>The history of the missions in the East Indies, Japan, and China, +which were published in the Italian, Spanish, German, and French +languages, towards the end of the sixteenth, and the beginning of the +seventeenth century, is interspersed with some curious and valuable +information regarding these countries; the titles and character of +the principal of these may be found in the Bibliothèque, vol. +5. p. 264, 272, &c.</p> + +<p>761. Voyage to China and the East Indies, by Rel. Osbeck; with a +Voyage to Surat, by Torreens; and an Account of the Chinese +Husbandry, by Ekelberg. Translated from the German by J.R. Forster. +To which is added a Fauna et Flora Sinensis. 1777, 2 vols. +8vo.--Travels, embracing scientific natural history, by competent +persons, are so rare and valuable, that the titles of such should not +be omitted: the nature of this work is sufficiently indicated by the +title, and its merit by its having been translated by Forster.</p> + +<p>762. Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes Orientals et à la +Chiné, 1774. 1781. Paris, 1806. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work is +particularly full and minute on the theography of the Hindoos: +besides the East Indies and China, it embraces Pegu, the Cape of Good +Hope, Ceylon, Malacca, &c. A translation of part of it into +English was printed at Calcutta.</p> + +<p>763. Nouvelles Mémoires sur l'État present de la +Chine. Par Le Comte. Paris, 1701, 3 vols. 12mo--The best account of +China previous to Duhalde's work, though in many particulars +extremely partial to the Chinese.</p> + +<p>764. Mémoires concernant l'Histoire, les Sciences, et les +Arts des Chinois. Par les Missionaires de Pekin. Paris, 1775, &c. +15 vols. 4to.--In this voluminous work is contained a wonderful deal +of information on China; the continuation of the work was put a stop +to by the French Revolution: it is by far the best the Jesuits have +produced on China; and if there are materials for perfecting it, they +ought to be given to the public.</p> + +<p>765. Description Geographique, Historique, Chronologique, +Politique, et Physique de la Chiné et de Tartarie Chinoise. +Par Duhalde. Le Hague, 1736, 4 vols. 4to.--Of this work there is an +English translation. Duhalde has drawn his materials from a variety +of sources, especially from the printed and manuscript accounts of +the missionaries; but he has failed to exercise a sound judgment, and +a scrupulous examination into the truth of many facts and opinions +which he has admitted into his work.</p> + +<p>But though the public are certainly much indebted to the +missionaries for the information they have given respecting this +singular country, yet there are obvious circumstances which rendered +their accounts suspicious in some points, and defective in others, so +that the publication of the accounts of the Dutch and British +Embassies added much to our stock of accurate knowledge regarding +China. The following is the title of the French translation of part +of the Dutch Embassy:</p> + +<p>766. Voyage de la Campagne des Indes Orientales vers l'Empire de +la Chiné, 1794-5. Tiré du Journal de Van Braam. +Philadelphe. 1797, 4to.--There is also an English translation.</p> + +<p>767. Sir George Staunton's Account of the Embassy of the Earl of +Macartney to China. 2 vols. 4to. 1797.</p> + +<p>768. John Barrow's Travels to China. 4to. 1804.</p> + +<p>These works, especially the latter, together with Lord Macartney's +own journal in the second volume of his life, contain a deal of +information, considering the jealousy of the Chinese; some additions, +corrections, and different views of the same circumstances, as well +as a further insight into the manners of the Chinese, as indicated by +their conduct, will be found in the two following works which relate +to the Embassy of Lord Amherst. The first is by the naturalist to the +Embassy.</p> + +<p>769. Abel's Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China. +1816-17. 4to.</p> + +<p>770. Ellis's Journal of the Proceedings of the late Embassy to +China. 4to.</p> + +<p>771. Relation du Naufrage sur la Côte de l'Isle de +Quælpeart, avec la Description de Coree. Paris, 1670, +12mo.--This work, translated from the Dutch, besides the interest +which personal adventures in a foreign country, and under unusual +circumstances, always inspires, gives much information regarding the +manners of the inhabitants, and the ceremonies, &c. of the court +of Corea,--a part of Asia very little known.</p> + +<p>772. Captain Hall's Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of +Corea, and the Great Loo-choo Island. 4to.--A work not less valuable +for its maritime geography and science, than for the pleasing +interest which it excites on behalf of the natives of Loo-choo, and +the favourable impression it leaves of Captain Hall, his officers and +seamen.</p> + +<p>TARTARY, &c.</p> + +<p>773. Noord-Oost Tartarie. Par Nic. Witsen. Amsterd. 1705, 2 vols. +folio.--Forster, an excellent and seldom too favourable a judge, +speaks highly of this work.</p> + +<p>774. Nomadische Streifereisen unter den Kalmuken. Von B. Borgman. +Riga, 1805-6, 4 vols. 8vo.--The author of this work resided some time +with the Kalmucks, at the command of the Emperor of Russia; and he +seems to have employed his time well, in gaining information +respecting the past and present state of their country, and their +manners, intellectual, moral, and religious state.</p> + +<p>THIBET, &c.</p> + +<p>775. Antonio de Andrada novo Descubrimento de Grao Catayo ou dos +Regnos de Tibet. Lisbon, 1626, 4to.--This work has been translated +into French, Italian, Flemish, and Spanish; it contains the narrative +of the first passage of the Himalaya Mountains. (<i>See Quarterly +Review, No. 48. page 337, &c.</i>)</p> + +<p>776. Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teesho +Lama, in Thibet. 1800, 4to.--This work is full of information and +interest: it relates to the soil, climate, and produce of Thibet; the +moral character, and especially the singular religion of the +inhabitants, and their institutions, manufactures, disorders, +&c.</p> + +<p>777. Kirkpatrick's Account of Nepaul in 1793. 4to.--This is one of +the best accessions to our information respecting this part of Asia +which has been produced by our establishments in India.</p> + +<p>778. Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul. By Francis Hamilton, +(formerly Buchanan). 1819, 4to.--The same character applies to this +as to the other work by the same author.</p> + +<p>779. Fraser's Journal of a Tour through part of the Snowy Ridge of +the Himalaya Mountains. 1820. 4to.--Notwithstanding Mr. Fraser's +ignorance of natural history, in a country quite new, and full of +most interesting objects in this science, and that he had no means of +measuring heights, or ascertaining the temperature or pressure of the +air; and notwithstanding a want of method, and a heaviness and +prolixity in the style, this book possesses great interest, from the +scenes of nature and pictures of manners which it exhibits.</p> + +<p>780. Elphinstone's Account of Caubul and its Dependencies. 1815. +4to.--The interest and value of this work arises more from the +subject of it, than from the manner in which it is executed; +respecting such countries, however, as Caubul, and others as little +known and remote, we are glad of all accessions of information.</p> + +<p>ASIATIC RUSSIA.</p> + +<p>781. Reisen durch Siberien, 1733-1743. Von J.G. Gmelin. Gott. 4 +vols. 8vo.--This work is worthy of the name which it bears: it is +full and particular on the physical and moral geography of Siberia, +but especially on its mines and iron foundries.</p> + +<p>782. Voyage en Siberie, 1761. Par Chappe d'Auteroche. Paris, 1768. +3 vols. 4-to.--This work gave rise to a severe attack on it, under +the title of Antidote. D'Auteroche's object on his travels was +principally scientific, but he has entered fully into the character +of the inhabitants, and especially those of the capital, and into the +character, and intellectual and moral state of the Russians in +general.</p> + +<p>783. Relation d'un Voyage aux Monts d'Altai en Siberie, 1781. Par +Patrin. Peters. 1785, 8vo.--Mineralogical.</p> + +<p>784. Recherches Historiques sur les Principales Nations +Établies en Siberie. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--This work, translated +from the Russian of Fischer, displays a great deal of research, and +is not unworthy of an author who imitated Pallas, Gmelin, +Müller, &c.</p> + +<p>785. Recherches sur les Principales Nations en Siberie. Traduit du +Russe de Stollenweck. 8vo.</p> + +<p>786. Description de Kamschatcha. Par Krascheninnikof. Amsterd. +1770. 2 vols. 8vo.--The soil, climate, productions, minerals, furs, +habitations, manners, employments, religious ceremonies and opinions, +&c., and even the dialect spoken in different parts, are here +treated of.</p> + +<p>787. Journal Historique du Voyage de M. Lesseps. Paris, 1790. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Lesseps sailed with Le Peyrouse, but left him in +Kamschatcha, and travelled by land to France with despatches from +him; his narrative gives a lively picture of the inhabitants of the +northern parts of Asiatic and European Russia. The work has been +translated into English; there is also a German translation by +Forster.</p> + +<p>788. Sauer's Account of Billing's Geographical and Astronomical +Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia, 1785-94. 4to.--An account +of this expedition was also published in Russian by Captain +Saretschewya, one of the officers engaged in it. Parts of the +continent, and islands and seas little known, are described in these +two works, but they are deficient in natural history.</p> + +<p>789. Holderness's Notes relating to the Manners and Customs of the +Crim Tartars. 1823. 8vo.--Mrs. Holderness resided four years in the +Crimea, and she seems to have employed her time well, having produced +an instructive book on the manners, domestic life, &c., not only +of the Crim Tartars, but likewise of the various colonists of the +Crimea.</p> + +<p>IX. AMERICA.</p> + +<p>Those works which relate to the discovery of America, derive their +interest rather from their historical nature than from the insight +they give into the physical and moral state of this portion of the +globe. In one important particular; America differs from all the +other quarters of the world, very early travels in Asia or Africa +unfold to us particulars respecting races of people that still exist, +and thus enable us to compare their former with their present state, +whereas nearly all the original inhabitants of America have +disappeared.</p> + +<p>Referring therefore our readers to the historians of the discovery +and conquest of America, and to the Bibliothèque des Voyages, +for the titles and nature of those works which detail the voyages of +Columbus, Vespucius, &c., we shall confine ourselves chiefly to +such works as enter more fully into a description of the country and +its colonized inhabitants.</p> + +<p>790. Journal des Observations Physiques, Mathematiques, et +Botaniques, faites par le P. Feuillée, sur les Côtes de +l'Amerique Méridionale et dans les Indes Occidentales. Paris, +1714. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>791. Suite du Journal. Paris, 1715. 4to.--Excellent works on the +subjects indicated in the title.</p> + +<p>792. Notizias Americanas sobre las America Meridionel y la +Septentrionel- Oriental. Par Don Ant. de Ulloa. Madrid, 1772. +4to.--This work, which must not be confounded with the conjoint work +of Ulloa and Juan, is rich in valuable matter, physical, political, +and moral; it was translated into German by M. Diez, Professor of +Natural History at Gottingen, who has added learned and judicious +observations.</p> + +<p>793 Voyages intéressans dans differentes Colonies +Françaises, Espagnoles, Anglaise. Paris, 1788. 8vo.--The most +original and interesting portions of this work relate to Porto Rico, +Curaçoa, Granada, the Bermudas, &c.; there are also +valuable remarks on the climate and diseases of St. Domingo.</p> + +<p>794. Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the +Bahama Islands. 1734-43. 2 vols. folio.</p> + +<p>795. Appendix to ditto. 1748. folio.--The celebrated naturalist, +George Edwards, published an edition of this splendid work, with the +appendix, in Latin and French, in 2 vols. folio. 1764-71.</p> + +<p>796. Peter Kalm's Travels in North America, translated by R. +Forster. 1772. 2 vols. 8vo.--Chiefly geological and mineralogical; in +other respects not interesting.</p> + +<p>797. Adair's History of the American Indians. 1775. 4to.--The +speculations of this writer are abundantly absurd; but there are +interspersed some curious notices of the Indians, collected by the +author, while he resided and traded with them.</p> + +<p>798. Travels through Carolina, Georgia, Florida, &c. By W. +Bertram. 1792. 2 vols. 8vo.--A most interesting work to lovers of +natural history, especially botany, a study to which Bertram was +enthusiastically attached. There is an account of Mr. Bertram in the +American Farmer's Letters.</p> + +<p>799. An Account of the Countries adjoining to Hudson's Bay. By Ar. +Dobbs. 1744. 12mo.</p> + +<p>800. The State of Hudson's Bay. By Ed. Humphraville. 1790. +8vo.</p> + +<p>801. Account of Prince of Wales Island, in the Gulph of St. +Lawrence. By J. Stewart. 1808. 8vo.--A good deal of information on +the soil, agriculture, productions, climate, &c.: the zoology +imperfect.</p> + +<p>802. Hall's Travels in Canada and the United States, 1816-17. +8vo.</p> + +<p>802. Howison's Sketches of Upper Canada. 8vo. 1821.</p> + +<p>Hall's is a pleasant and lively work, unfolding many of the +peculiarities of the manners, customs, &c., of Canada and the +adjacent parts of the United States. Howison's is the work of an +abler man: it is rich in valuable information to emigrants; and is, +moreover, highly descriptive of scenery and manners. The part +relative to the United States is superficial.</p> + +<p>804. Collection des Plusieures Relations du Canada, 1632-1672. 43 +vols. 12mo.</p> + +<p>805. Charlevoix's Travels in North America, translated from the +French. 1772. 2 Vols. 4to.--The physical and moral state of the +inhabitants are the principal objects of this work.</p> + +<p>806. Carver's Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, +1766-68. 8vo.--There is much information in this work respecting that +part of America, which has lately attracted so much attention from +its vicinity to the supposed north-west passage; it is in all other +respects, except natural history, an interesting and instructive +work.</p> + +<p>807. Long's Voyage and Travels of an Indian Interpreter. 1774. 3 +vols. 4to. Volney characterizes this work as exhibiting a most +faithful picture of the life and manners of the Indians and Canadian +traders.</p> + +<p>808. Weld's Travels through North America, 1795-7. 2 vols. +8vo.--Travels in the United States derive their interest and value +from a variety of sources: the inhabitants of these states under +their government, and the peculiar circumstances in which they are +placed, must be a subject of deep attention and study to the +moralist, the philosopher, the politician, and the political +economist, while the country itself presents to the naturalist many +and various sources of information and acquisitions to his knowledge. +The travels of Mr. Weld, and most of those which we shall have to +enumerate, were undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining what +advantages and disadvantages an emigrant would derive from exchanging +Europe for America. Thus led to travel from the principal motive of +self-interest, it might be imagined that these travellers would +examine every thing carefully, fully, most minutely, and impartially: +in all modes except the last, it has certainly been done by several +travellers; but great caution must be used in reading all travels in +the United States, because the picture drawn of them is too often +overcharged, either with good or evil. Mr, Weld's is a respectable +work; and like all travels, even a few years back, in a country so +rapidly changing and improving, from this cause as well as its +information on statistics, toil, climate, morals, manners, &c. +may be consulted with advantage. It is to be regretted that he, as +well as most other travellers in America, was not better prepared +with a scientific knowledge of natural history. Canada, as well as +the United States, is comprized in Mr. Weld's travels.</p> + +<p>809. Mellish's Travels through the United States of America, +1816-17. 2 vols. 8vo.--This is perhaps as impartial and judicious an +account of the United States as any that has lately appeared.</p> + +<p>810. Lettres d'un Cultivateur Americain, 1770-86. Par M. St. John +de Crevecoeur. Paris, 1787. 3 vols. 8vo.--We give the French edition +of this work in preference to the English, because it is much fuller. +This work of a Frenchman, long settled in the Anglo-American +colonies, gives, in an animated and pleasing manner, much information +on the manners of America at this period, the habits and occupations +of the new settlers, and on the subject of natural history.</p> + +<p>811. Voyages dans les États Unis, 1784. Par J.F.D. Smith. +Paris, 1791. 2 vols. 8vo.--Virginia, Maryland, the two Carolinas, and +Louisiana, parts of North America, not so often visited by travellers +as the northern states, are here described with considerable talent, +and in a pleasing style. We are not acquainted with the English work, +of which this professes to be a translation.</p> + +<p>812. Nouveau Voyage dans les États Unis, 1788. Par Brissot. +Paris, 3 vols. 8vo.--Statistics, religion, manners, political +economy, agriculture, commerce, manufactures, the arts and sciences, +are here treated of in a sensible, but rather an uninteresting +manner.</p> + +<p>813. La Rochefoucault's Travels to the United States of America, +1799. 2 vols. 4to.--Agriculture, statistics, manufactures, commerce, +national and domestic habits, form the chief topic of these volumes, +which, allowing for some prejudices, present a fair picture of +America at this period.</p> + +<p>814. Tableau du Climat et du Sol des États Unis. Par C.F. +Volney. 1803. 2 vols. 8vo.--Though physical geography and statistics +form the principal portion of this valuable work, yet it is by no +means uninstructive on the subject of national and domestic +character; and it enters fully into the condition of savage life.</p> + +<p>Particular histories and descriptions have been published of +several of the United States; we shall merely notice such as are the +result of personal observation, and as give interesting and +instructive information respecting their past or present state.</p> + +<p>815. Belknap's History of New Hampshire, 1792. Boston, 3 vols. +8vo.--The two first volumes are historical, but many things in them +are instructive to those who wish to trace the formation of +character: the third volume relates to climate, soil, +produce,&c.</p> + +<p>816. The History of Virginia, by a Native and Inhabitant of the +place. R.B. Beverley. 1722. 8vo.--The first part is purely +historical; in the second, the author gives an account of the +productions of the country; the third relates to the manners, &c. +of the Indians; the fourth is political. There are, besides, many +pertinent remarks on the physical geography of Virginia, and on its +climate and diseases.</p> + +<p>817. Notes on Virginia. By Thos. Jefferson. 1788. 8vo.--Politics, +commerce, manufactures, and navigation, are here treated of in a +satisfactory and instructive manner, but with rather too much the air +of philosophy.</p> + +<p>818. Michaux's Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains. +1805. 8vo.--These travels are instructive regarding the manners, +commerce, soil, climate, and especially botany.</p> + +<p>819. Lewis and Clarke's Travels up the Missouri to the Pacific +Ocean, 1804-6. 4to.</p> + +<p>820. Pike's Exploratory Travels through the Western Territory of +North America. 4to.</p> + +<p>821. James's Account of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, +1819-20. 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>822. Schoolcraft's Travels to the Sources of the Mississippi. +1820. 8vo.</p> + +<p>823. Nuttall's Travels into the Arkansa Territory. 1819. +8vo.--These travels describe a vast portion of America to the west of +the Alleghany Mountains, especially the valley of the Mississippi, +and its tributary streams. They are rather prolix and heavily +written. Mr. James's work is richest in natural history.</p> + +<p>824. A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida. By +Bernard Romans. New York, 1766. 12mo.--The climate, productions, and +diseases of Florida are here treated of by this author, who was a +medical man, and had good opportunities of observation and +experience.</p> + +<p>825. Description de la Louisiane. Par L.P. Hennepin, Paris, 1688. +12mo.--This author first made Europe acquainted with Louisiana; but +his work is meagre on every topic, except the manners, &c. of the +natives.</p> + +<p>826. Histoire de la Louisiane. Par M. Le Page du Prats. Paris, +1758. 3 vols. 12mo.--During a residence of 15 years, this author +seems to have paid particular attention to geology, mineralogy, and +other branches of natural history, and has given the results of his +observations in these volumes.</p> + +<p>827. Travels through that part of North America called Louisiana. +Translated and illustrated with notes by R.B. Forster. 1771-2. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The author of this work was a M. Bossu; who also +published, a few years afterwards, Nouveaux Voyages dans l'Amerique +Septentrionale. Amsterdam. 8vo.--The first of these works is chiefly +interesting from the minute details into which it enters respecting +the Illinois territory. Mr. Forster's translation contains a +catalogue of American plants.</p> + +<p>828. Voyage en Californie. Par l'Abbé Chappe D'Auteroche. +Paris, 1778. 4to.--The city of Mexico, as well as California, is here +described in an interesting manner. As concerns the latter, this work +may be regarded as a standard one.</p> + +<p>829. The History of Mexico; to which are added, Dissertations on +the Land, Animals, &c. Translated from the Italian of Clavigero, +by C. Cullen. 1787. 2 vols. 4to.--Besides natural history, there is +in this work much learned research on the ancient history of +Mexico.</p> + +<p>THE WEST INDIES.</p> + +<p>830. Histoire Generale des Antilles. Par le P. Dututie. 1667-1671. +4 vols. 4to.--This work is very full in all the branches of natural +history, and is by no means uninstructive on intellectual and moral +geography.</p> + +<p>831. Voyages aux Antilles, &c., 1767-1802. Par J.B. Le Blond. +Paris, 1813. 8vo.--Statistics, climate, geology, mineralogy, +diseases, and manners, are the principal topics of this work, and are +treated of with ability and interest.</p> + +<p>832. Voyages aux Isles de Trinidad, &c. Par J.J.D. Laraysee. +Paris, 1813. 2 vols. 8vo.--The first volume relates to Trinidad: the +second to Tobago, Cumana, Guiana, and Margarita. The soil, climate, +productions, and occasionally the natural history and geology of +these parts are here treated of.</p> + +<p>833. Baudin Voyage aux Isles Teneriffe la Trinite, Porto Rico, +&c. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.--To these travels Sonnini has added +some valuable notes.</p> + +<p>834. Voyage d'un Suisse dans differentes Colonies de l'Amerique. +1783. 8vo.--Martinique and St. Domingo are particularly described, +and the mineralogy of the latter fully entered into.</p> + +<p>835. Bryan Edwards' History of the British Colonies in the West +Indies, and the French Colony in St. Domingo. 1801. 3 vols. +8vo.--This work justly bears an excellent character, and is very full +and minute on almost every topic connected with these islands.</p> + +<p>836. Histoire de St. Domingue. Par le P. Charlevoix. Paris, 1722. +2 vols. 4to.--This work, drawn up chiefly from the memoirs of the +missionaries, treats of the political, military, and moral state of +the island, and more briefly of its produce, animals, &c.--This +briefness is compensated in the following work:</p> + +<p>837. Essai sur I'Histoire Naturelle de St. Domingue. Par le P. +Nicolson. Paris, 1766. 8vo.</p> + +<p>838. Ed. Long's History of Jamaica. 3 vols. 4to. 1774.--A work of +sterling merit, and if read in conjunction with the following to +supply the natural history of the island, will leave little to be +known respecting this important island.</p> + +<p>839. Pat. Brown's Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. 1756. +folio.</p> + +<p>840. Ligon's History of Barbadoes. 1695. 8vo.</p> + +<p>841. Labat Voyage aux Isles de l'Amerique. La Haye, 1724. 6 vols. +12mo.--This is esteemed the best work of Labat, and it certainly is +very instructive in all that relates to Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. +Vincent, St. Thomas, St. Lucia, St. Eustatius, &c.</p> + +<p>842. Voyage à la Martinique. Par Chauvalson. Paris, 1763. +4to.--Natural history, meteorology, agriculture, and manners.</p> + +<p>843. Account of St. Michael, one of the Azores. By Dr. +Webster.--This work, which is published in America, contains an +interesting description of St. Michael, particularly in what relates +to its natural history and geology.</p> + +<p>SOUTH AMERICA.</p> + +<p>844. Preliminar al Tomo primero de las Memorias +Historico-Physicas, Critico-Apologeticas, de la America Meridional. +Par D.J.E. Lamo Zaputa. Cadiz, 1759. 8vo.</p> + +<p>845. Reise eineger Missionarien in Sud America. Von C. Gott. Von +Murr. Nurem. 1785. 8vo.</p> + +<p>846. Depon's Travels in South America, 1801-4. 2 vols. 8vo.--The +Caraccas, Venezuela, Guyana, Cumana, are the principal objects of +this work; the rural economy, the political and commercial situation +of these parts at this period, and the manners of the Spanish +Americans are here treated of in a superior manner.</p> + +<p>847. Nouvelle Description de la France Equinoctiale. Par Pierre +Barrere. Paris, 1743. 12mo.</p> + +<p>848. Essai sur l'Histoire Naturelle de la France Equinoctiale. Par +P. Barrere. Paris, 1749. 2 vols. 8vo.--The former of these works is +chiefly confined to a description of the natives, their weapons, +manners, mode of life, &c.: the latter work is full on the +natural history of Guyana.</p> + +<p>849. Bancroft's Essay on the Natural History of Guyana. 1769. +8vo.--Besides natural history, this work may be consulted with +advantage on the manners, &c. of the natives.</p> + +<p>850. Stedman's Narrative of a Five-Years' Expedition against the +Revolted Negroes of Surinam, 1772-7. 2 vols. 4to.--There is an air of +romance in several parts of this work, which, though it adds to its +interest, raises suspicions of its accuracy and faithfulness, and +that it has been in the hands of a trading editor; still it is a work +from which a lively picture may be obtained of Surinam and its +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>851. Tableau de Cayenne. Paris, 1793. 8vo.--Climate, produce, mode +of culture, manners and nautical observations form the principal +topics of this work.</p> + +<p>852. Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil. By Th. Lindley. 1804. +8vo.--This work contains much information regarding the political, +commercial, and domestic state of the Brazilians, with some notices +on natural history. As Brazil used to be visited by our ships before +we obtained the Cape, on their voyage to the East Indies and China, +much information may be gained from several voyages to the latter, +especially from the accounts of Lord Macartney's Embassy by Staunton +and Barrow.</p> + +<p>853. Luccock's Notes on Rio Janeiro, and the Southern Parts of +Brazil. 1820. 4to.--Mr. Luccock resided eleven years in Brazil, and +he seems to have been a careful observer; his work gives much new and +important information on agriculture, statistics, commerce, mines, +manners, &c., but it is heavily written.</p> + +<p>854. Koster's Travels in the Brazils. 1816. 4to.--This work, +together with Luccock's, Henderson's, and Mawe's, comprize a body of +information on Brazil, nearly complete on all points except natural +history, and that must be sought in Prince Maximilian's Travels.</p> + +<p>855. History of Paraguay. By Charlevoix. 1760. 2 vols. 8vo.--This +work is full on the plants, animals, fruits, &c., of this +country; and is particularly interesting from the account it gives of +the celebrated and singular Jesuit establishment in Paraguay.</p> + +<p>856. Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale, 1781-1801. Par Don F. de +Azara. 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1809.--The author, who was commissioner of +the lines of the Spanish frontier in Paraguay, gives in this work +much information on the climate, soil, &c. of countries little +known; and the value of it is enhanced by the notes of Cuvier and +Sonnini on natural history.</p> + +<p>857. Relation de la Voyage dans les Provinces de la Plata. 8vo. +Paris, 1819.</p> + +<p>858. Historia de Abifponibus. Autore Dobutzhoffen. Vienna, 1784. +8vo.--This work has lately been translated into English: had it been +carefully and judiciously abridged it would have been acceptable, but +it is tiresome from its extreme minuteness on uninteresting +points.</p> + +<p>859. Historia del Descubriniento y Conquesta del Peru. Par August +de Zarate. Anvers, 1555. 8vo.--This work is not merely historical, +but it also embraces many interesting particulars on physical +geography, and the manners, religion, &c., of the Peruvians.</p> + +<p>860. Histoire des Incas, traduit de l'Espagnole de Garcilasso de +la Vega. Amsterdam, 1737. 2 vols. 4to.--The interest of this work +arises from its accuracy and fullness on the laws, government, +religion, &c., of the ancient Peruvians. To this French +translation is added a history of the conquest of Florida.</p> + +<p>861. A Voyage to the South Sea along the Coasts of Chili and Peru, +1712-14. By Mr. Frezier. 1717. 4to.--The object for which Mr. Frezier +was sent related to the defence of Peru and Chili; but he also enters +fully into an account of the mines and the mode of working them, and +into a description of manners, domestic life, &c.</p> + +<p>862. Journal du Voyage fait à l'Equateur. Par M. de la +Condamine. Paris, 1751. 4to.--Besides the detail of astronomical +observations, this work is interesting from the personal narrative of +the labours of the academician, and instructive on several points of +physical and moral geography.</p> + +<p>863. Humboldt, Voyage aux Régions Equinoctiales du Nouveau +Continent, 1799-1804. 6 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>864. Humboldt, Relation Historique de son Voyage aux +Régions Equinoctiales du Nouveau Continent. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>865. Humboldt, Essai Politique sur le Royaume de la Nouvelle +Espagne, Paris, 5 vols. 8vo. 1811.--Perhaps no traveller ever +equalled Humboldt in the possession and exercise of such an union of +qualifications requisite to render travels instructive and +interesting; nor would it be easy to name any travels which have so +completely exhausted the subject of them, as those, the titles of +which we have given, if taken in connexion with the more purely +scientific appendages to them.</p> + +<p>866. A Voyage to South America. By Don George Juan and Don Ant. de +Ulloa. 1758. 2 vols. 8vo.--Peru, Chili, Carthagena, Porto Bello, and +Panama, are described in these volumes with great talent and science +with regard to their natural history, climate, and productions; and +together with the civil, political, and domestic life of the +inhabitants, and various other topics.</p> + +<p>867. Helm's Travels from Buenos Ayres by Potosi to Lima, 1806. +12mo.--Natural history, and chiefly geology and mineralogy, with a +very particular account of the mines of Potosi.</p> + +<p>868. Compendio della Istoria Geografica, Naturale e Civile de +Chili. Bologna, 1776. 8vo.</p> + +<p>869. Chiliduga sive res Chilenses. Opera Bern. Havestad. Munster, +1777-79. 8vo.--Natural history, the character of the inhabitants, +their music and language are here treated of in a superior +manner.</p> + +<p>870. Molina's Geographical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili, +1809. 2 vols. 8vo.--An excellent work, which fulfils what the title +promises.</p> + +<p>POLYNESIA.</p> + +<p>871. An Historical Collection of the several Voyages and +Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean. By Alex. Dalrymple. 1770. 2 +vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>872. Captain James Burney's Chronological History of the Voyages +and Discoveries in the South Seas. 5 vols. 4to. 1803-16.--Both these +works are by men well qualified by science, learning, research, and +devotedness to their object, to perform well what they undertook on +any subject connected with geography and discovery.</p> + +<p>873. Keate's Account of the Pelew Islands. 1788. 4to.</p> + +<p>874. A Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific Ocean. By Captain +Wilson. 1799. 4to.--Otaheite is the principal subject of this +work.</p> + +<p>875. Mariner's Account of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific. +1817. 2 vols. 8vo.--This is a very full, accurate, and interesting +picture of the manners and character of a singular people, drawn from +long and attentive observation on the spot.</p> + +<p>AUSTRALASIA.</p> + +<p>876. Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes. Par le +President de Brosses. Paris, 1756. 2 vols. 4to--This work is more +highly prized on the continent than with us: it certainly is not +equal to some of our histories of voyages either in judgment, +accuracy of information, or extensive views.</p> + +<p>877. Relation de deux Voyages dans les Mers Australes et des +Indes. 1771-73. Par M. de Kerguelen. Paris, 1781. 8vo.</p> + +<p>878. Voyage à la Nouvelle Guinée. Par Sonnerat. +Paris, 1776. 4to.--Natural history, and especially zoology and +ornithology.</p> + +<p>879. Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Australes. 1800-4. +Par Peron. 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1811.</p> + +<p>880. Captain Th. Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas, +1774-6. Dublin, 1779. 4to.--This work supplies what is wanting in +Sonneret's, as it is full on the physical and moral character of the +inhabitants, and on their language, mode of life, and trade.</p> + +<p>881. Governor Phillips's Voyage to Botany Bay. 1789. 4to.</p> + +<p>882. Collins' Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. +1801. 2 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>883. Wentworth's Statistical, Historical, and Political +Description of New South Wales, and Van Dieman's Land. 1819. 8vo.</p> + +<p>884. Oxley's Journey of Two Expeditions into the Interior of New +South Wales. 1820. 4to.--These British colonies are improving so +rapidly that no description can long be full and accurate. Mr. +Wentworth's work is, we believe, as good an account as we have; and +Mr. Oxley's is interesting from giving an authentic description of +the interior of this singular country. A perusal and comparison of +the best works that have been published regarding it from the date of +that of Collins to the present time, would exhibit a rapidity of +improvement, of which there are few examples.</p> + +<p>885. Some Account of New Zealand. By John Savage. 1808. 8vo.--A +judicious and instructive work on the manners, religion, and +character of the natives. Further information on these points, and +likewise on the productions of New Zealand, may be gathered from +Captain Cruise's Ten Months' Residence there, just published.</p> + +<p><a name="index1" id="index1"></a></p> + +<h3>GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO THE CATALOGUE, WITH REFERENCE TO THE +NUMBERS PREFIXED TO THE TITLE OF EACH WORK.</h3> + +<pre> +A + +Abyssinia, 134. 671-678. +Adriatic, Shores of, 430. +Africa, 112. 116. 147. 582-587. +---- West Coast, 622-641. +---- South, 654-664. +---- Interior, 642-649. +Algiers, 113. 588, 589. +Alps, 168. 186. 342. 357. 364-366. +371-373. 376. 380. +Albania, 169. 195. 285. 287. 297, 298. +Aleppo, 693, 694. +Apennines, 394. +Arctic Seas and Countries, 200-222. +Archipelago, 80. 89. 296. +Armenia, 80. 92. 696. 708. 712. +Arabia, 102. 104. 110. 117. 129. 132. +136, 137, 138. 683. 690, 691. +698-702. +Asia Minor, 80. 89. 114. 116. 132. +281. 296. +----, Eastern parts, 82-84. +----, Upper, 112. +Ashantee, 636. +Austria, 191. 195. 330. 343, 344. +Auvergne, 456-458. +Ava, 738. +Australasia, 876-885. + +B + +Barbary, 77. 108. 117. 590. 597. +Balbec, 135. +Basque Language, 468. +Bahamas, 794. +Barbadoes, 840. +Bedouin Arabs, 590. +Bermudas, 793. +Black Sea, 80, 291, 302. +Bohemia, 124. 158. 175. 316. 330. +Bosphorus, 303. +Bornea, 753. +Brazil, 147. 150, 151. 852-854. +Britain, 158. 483-538. + +C + +Collections of Voyages and Travels, 14-43. +Cape of Good Hope, 78. 641. 654-664. +---- Verde, 149. +Caspian Sea, 83. +Carraib Islands, 146. +Canaries, 149. 622. 651-653. +Candia, 282. +Campagna, the, 412, 413. 428. +Cachemere, 732. +Caubul, 780. +Carolina, 794. 798. +Canada, 802-807. +California, 828. +Carpathian Mountains, 309. +Caraccas, 846. +Cayenne, 851. +Ceylon, 134. 734. 749-751. +Celibes, 754. +China, 92. 679-682. 684, 685. 761-770. +Chili, 868-870. +Circassia, 101. +Constantinople, 80. 94, 95. 97. 108. 111. 287. 289. 297. 301. +Corsica, 397. 419. +Congo, 638. +Cochin-China, 742. +Corea, 771, 772. +Crimea, 290-293. 789. +Cumana, 846. +Cyprus, 136. 695. + +D + +Damascus, 97. 135. +Darfour, 131. +Dalmatia, 195. 283. 304, 305. 427. +Danube, 333, 334. +Dauphiny, 452. +Dahomy, 635. +Denmark, 179. 190. 236. 243. +Desert, Great, of Africa, 595, 596. + +E + +East Indies, 81. 85. 90. 102. 110. 118. 123. 132. 134. 137. 151-154. 679. +690. 706, 707. 716-748. +Egypt, 100. 102-104. 106-108. 110, 111. 113. 117, 118. 121. 131. 135-138. +605--620. +Elba, 404, 405. +England, 96. 175. 178. 180. 192. 199. 483-520. +----, Western Counties, 488. 500. +----, Northern, 489, 490. 497. +----, Southern, 497. +----, Eastern, 488. 497. +Ethiopia, 137. 608. 615. 619, 620. 673. +Etna, 391. 420. + +F + +Feroe Isles, 235. +Fez, 591. 593. 598-600. +Finland, 237. +Florida, 794. 798. 824. +France, 77. 79. 96. 104. 158, 159. 163-165. 167. 171, 172. 177. 180. 182. +184. 193, 194. 197. 199. 431-469. +Friesland, 354. + +G + +Georgia, 80. 88. 712-715. +---- in America, 798. +Germany, 79. 83. 85. 104. 158-160. 162. 165, 166. 172. 175. 177. 179. +183, 184. 187-190. 194. 196, 197. 199. 244. 313-354. +Glaciers, the, 361-363. +Greece, 89. 101. 103, 104. 107, 108. 113, 114. 116. 160. 169. 181. 196. +279-282. 285-287. 294-299. 301-305. +Guadaloupe, 841. +Guayana, 846-849. +Guernsey, 553, 554. +Guinea, 145. 149, 150. 630-634. + +H + +Histories of Voyages and Travels, 14-43. +Hanover, 326. +Hartz Mountains, 338-340. +Hesse, 341. +Hebrides, 519, 520. 522, 523. 527. 531-535. 538. +Holland, 83. 96. 162. 167. 172. 175. 193.--See Netherlands. +Holstein, 246. 320. +Hungary, 107. 124. 160. 194. 284. 306, 307. 316. 322. 330. +Hudson's Bay, 799. + +I and J + +Japan, 681. 684. 757-760. +Java, 756. +Jamaica, 148. +Jerusalem, 95. 97. 135. 140. +Jersey, 552. +Jura, 461. +Jutland, 246. +<i>Instructions</i> for Travellers, 1-13. +Iceland, 228-234. +Indian Archipelago, 755. +Ionian Islands, 285. 305. 417. +Ireland, 78. 508. 514-516. 539-549. +Italy, 99, 100, 101. 104. 114. 121. 159-163. 167. 171. 173. 176-178. 183, +184. 187. 189, 190. 194. 196. 316. 385-430. + +K + +Kamstchatcha, 130. 786-788. +Karamania, 697. + +L + +Lapland, 104, 223-226. 237-239. 242. 247. +Lakes of Cumberland, &c., 488. +Levant, 81. 88. 115. 128. 139. 181. 597. +Lithuania, 249. +Lipari Isles, 416. +Loo Choo, 772. +Louisiania, 825-827. + +M + +Madeira, 127. 148. 622. 650. +Madagascar, 130. 150. 665, 666. 668. +Magellan Straits, 147. +Maldives, 151. +Malta, 170. 393. 395, 396. 415. +Man, Isle of, 527. 550, 551. +Malacca, 685. +Martinique, 841, 842. +Mauritius, 667. 669, 670. +Mecklenbergh, 320. +Mexico, 828, 829. 863-865. +Morocco, 156. 591-594. 598. 603. +Moluccas, 151. +Moldavia, 323. +Mogul Empire, 684.--See E. Indies. + +N + +Naples, 392-394. 414. 424. 428. +Netherlands, 159, 160. 167. 180. 470-482.--See Holland. +Nepaul, 777-779. +New Hampshire, 815. +--- Guinea, 878. 880. +--- Holland, 881-884. +--- Zealand, 885. +Norway, 78. 227. 239. 241-245. +Normandy, 438. 441, 442. +Nubia, 133. 614. 618. 620. + +O + +Orkney Islands, 521. 523. 526. +Otaheite, 57-61. 874. + +P + +Palestine, 99, 100. 104. 107, 108. 113, 114. 117, 118. 133. 138. +Paraguay, 855, 856. +Persia, 81. 87, 88. 90, 91. 95. 102. 106. 111. 114. 118. 137. 683. +703-712. 715. +Peru, 859-867. +Pelew Islands, 873. +Portugal, 77. 164. 171. 176. 192. 557-562. 568. 574. 577. +Poland, 104. 124. 179. 185. 236. 263-267. +Polynesia, 871-875. +Prussia, 98. 158. 185. 348. 350. +Provence, 443. 453. +Prince of Wales Island, 747, 748. +Pyrenees, 454, 455. + +R + +Ragusa, 427. +Red Sea, 129. 132. 134. +Rhine, the, 180. 318. 321. 328, 329. 331. 352, 353. 443. 462, 463. +Rhodes, 282. 296. +Rugen, Isle of, 351. +Russia, 81. 85. 87, 88. 90, 91, 92. 98. 107. 124. 179. 185. 236. 249-262. + +S + +Saxony, 327. 341. 345. 347. +Sardinia, 418. +Sahara, Desert of, Africa, 595, 596. +St. Eustatius, 841. +St. Lucea, 841. +St. Michael, 843. +St. Thomas, 841. +St. Vincent, 841. +St. Helena, 127. +Scandinavia, 107. +Scotland, 501, 502. 506, 507, 508. 510. 513-516. 518-540. +Selborne, 496. +Senegal, 622-628. +Shetland, 524, 525. +Sicily, 121. 166. 169, 170. 181. 198. 392-394. 396. 399. 414, 415. 424. +Silesia, 316, 349. +Sierra Leone, 629. +Siam, 739-741. +Siberia, 781-785. +Sleswick, 246. +Spain, 77, 78. 96. 164. 176. 434. 560-567. 569-581. +Spanish possessions in Europe and America, 120. +Surat, 127. +Surinam in South America, 850. +Sumatra, 752. +Sweden, 101. 158. 179. 190. 227. 236, 237. 240, 241. 244. 248. +Switzerland, 161, 162. 165. 171. 175. 177. 182. 186. 188. 199. 316. +355-384. +Syria, 103, 104. 131. 133. 136-138. 689. 692. + +T + +Tangier, 79. +Tartary, 85. 90, 91, 92. 94. 101 107. 249. 773, 774. +Thibet, 775, 776. +Thessaly, 285. +Thrace, 104. +Tonquin, 685. 743-745. +Tonga Isles, 875. +Transylvania, 107. 306. 311, 312. +Tripoli in Africa, 601, 602. 604. +----in Asia, 136. 170. +Turkey, 88, 89. 92-95. 100-102. 106, 107. 112. 118. 124. 136. 158. 174. +198. 268-278. 288, 289. 296. 683. +Tunis, 113. 170. +Tyrol, 173. 183. 308. 310. 512. 423. + +U and V + +United States, 794,795-798. 802, +803. 808-814. 818-823. +Valais, the, 368. 374. +Venezuela, 846. +Vesuvius, 391. +Virginia, 816, 817. +Volcanoes, 391. 428. 451. + +W + +Wallachia, 323. +Wales, 488-495. +Wendes, the, 327. +West Indies, 148. 150. 152-154. 793. 830-842. + +Z + +Zurich, 79. +Zaire River, in Africa, 637. + +</pre> + +<p><a name="index2" id="index2"></a></p> + +<h3>INDEX TO THE HISTORICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<pre> +A + +Abyssinia, ancient trade, 93. +Adam of Bremen, 293. +Africa, East of, trade to in time of Nero, 241. +----, Discoveries in by Portuguese, 333. +----, Travels and Discoveries in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 472. +----, in the west and interior, 473. +----, in the N. 478. +----, in the S. 485. +Agatharcides, geographical knowledge, 93. +Alexander the Great encourages geography and commerce, 57. 77. + Knowledge of India, 60. +Alexandria built, 83. + Its advantages for commerce, 83. + Library and librarians, 87. +Alfred's attention to geography and commerce, 288. +America discovered by the Icelanders, 291. + By Columbus, 348. + Productions when discovered, 349. +----, travels in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 488. +Antwerp commerce in 16th century, 375. +Argonautic expedition, 24. +Aristotle's knowledge of geography, 50. +Arabians carrying trade with India at a very early period, 229. + In time of Nero, 240. + Commerce in middle ages, 275. + Geography in ditto, 279. +Arrian's knowledge of geography, 251. +Athens, ancient commerce, 144. + Commercial laws and taxes, 146. + Corn trade, 148. + Slave trade, 150. +Asia, commerce of, in middle ages, 316. +----, N.E. discoveries in, 428. +----, travels in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 486. +Augustus's attention to maritime affairs and commerce, 197. +Australasia, discoveries in, 467. + +B + +Baltic commerce in 11th century, 293. +Barcelona, early commerce of, 313. +Baffin's voyages and discoveries, 360. +Benjamin of Tudela, his notices of Asiatic commerce, 316. +Behaim's Chart, 351. +Behring's discoveries, 360. +Black Sea, ancient commerce in, 159. +Britain invaded by Cæsar, 192. +Britons, their ships, 193. +---- ---- ---- commerce, 195. +Bruce's Travels, 479. +Burckhardt, 481. + +C + +Carthage, ancient, 34. + Commerce, 37. + Destroyed, 176. + Naval wars, 121. 124. +Cæsar, Julius, survey of the Empire, 223. +Carpini, 317. +Cape of Good Hope discovered, 357. +---- ---- ----, travels in, 485. +Cabot, 353. +Caravan trade, 525. +Ceylon, ancient notices of, 226. +Cilicia, ancient commerce, 177. +China, in middle ages, 279. +----, route from, in 14th century, 322. +Corvus, the, described, 120. +Corinth, ancient commerce, 152. +Cosmas, 269. +Cook's, Captain, discoveries, 431. 454. 468. +Commerce in 18th century, 502. 512. +Crete, ancient commerce, 177. +Crusades, effect of, on commerce, 300. + +D + +Denmark, commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 422. +Dutch commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 383. 410. + +E + +Egyptian ancient commerce, 13. 82. 106. + Ships, 17. +English commerce in 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, 314. 390. 397, 398. +401. 4O4. 407. 410. 412. +---- shipping, 409. +England, commerce and shipping in 1822. 520. +English and Dutch commerce in 16th and 17th centuries compared, 410. +Eratosthenes, 88. +Etruscans, commerce, 112. +Ethiopia explored by Romans, 825. +Euxine, ancient commerce, 251. +Europe, general view of its trade in 15th century, 314. + At present, 512. + +F + +Fairs, ancient, 150. +France, commerce in middle ages, 304. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 417. + At present, 516. +Florence, commerce in middle ages, 304. + +G + +Gaul, commerce of, 186. +Genoa, commerce in middle ages, 302. +Gama's Voyages, 339. +Germany, ancient commerce, 195. + At present, 515. +Greenland discovered, 291. +Grecian ancient commerce, geography, and ships, 20. 30. 144. +---- Colonies, 157. + +H + +Hamilcar's Voyage, 41. +Hannos, 41. +Hanseatic League, 294. +Henry, Prince of Portugal, 334. +Herodotus, 45. +Hipparchus, 101. +Hudson's Voyages, 359. + +I and J + +Iceland discovered, 290. +Jews, commerce of, 18. +India, as known to Alexander, 60. + Direct ancient trade with, 105. + Ancient routes to, 210. + Trade in time of Nero, 243. + And China, ancient trade between, 271. + In middle ages, 279. +Indian commodities, price of, + affected by discovery of the Cape, 370. + Trade at present, 522. +Inland trade in middle ages, 311. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 416. +Itineraries, Roman, 253. +Italian commerce in middle ages, 299. +Justinian's Fleets, 273. + +K + +Kotzebue's discoveries, 434. + +L + +Liburnians, 115. +Laconia, ancient commerce, 154. +La Maire, 356. +La Perouse, 433. +Lyons, ancient commerce, 189. + +M + +Macedonia, ancient commerce, 161. +Marseilles, ditto, 187. +Marinus, the Geographer, 254. +Marco Polo, 318. +Mariners' Compass, earliest notice of, 328. +Maps and Charts of middle ages, 329. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 367. +Magellan, 352. +Mauro's Map, 330. +Mercator, 366. +Monsoon discovered, 227. + +N + +Navigation, improvements in, in 18th century, 497. +Nearchus, 61. +New South Shetland discovered, 456. +New Holland, 363. 468. +Netherland commerce in 16th century, 374. +North-west passage, 358. 438. +North-east passage, 361. + +P + +Park's Travels, 475. +Petrea, ancient trade of, 232. +Periplus, geography of the, 235. + Commerce of, 236. +Persia, ancient trade, 243. +Penteugarian Tables, 267. +Peter the Great's attention to geography and commerce, 425. 429. +Phoenician commerce and ships, 3. 5. 10. +Pharos described, 84. +Pliny, 248. +Polynesia, 470. +Posidonius, 104. +Ptolemy, 255. +Ptolemies of Egypt, their attention to commerce, 84. +Polybius, 223. +Portuguese discoveries, 333. 342. +Pythias of Marseilles, 51. + +R + +Red Sea, 95. 225. 236. +Rhodes, ancient commerce, 166. + Maritime history, 39. 116. 167. + Conquered by Romans, 172. +Rome, ancient naval wars, 118. 123. + Commerce, 197. 200. 219. 221. 264. +Romans, ancient geography of, 223. 261. + Survey of empire, 223. +Rubruquis, 317. +Russian commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 424. + At present, 514. + +S + +Sabea, commerce of, 97. +Sanuto, his notices of commerce, 321. +Scandinavian maritime affairs, 287. +Scotland, commerce of, in middle ages, 310. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 414. +Scylax's Voyage, 43. +Sicily, ancient trade, 134. +Silk, history of, 212. +Spain, ancient commerce, 129. + At present, 517. +Sugar, history of, 208. +Sweden, commerce in 16th and 17th century, 482. + At present, 513. +Strabo, 326. +Syene, Well of, 88. + +T + +Troy, Siege of, ships at, 39. +Travellers, modern, advantages of, 500. + +V + +Vancouver, 433. +Venetian commerce in middle ages, 299. 3O3. +United States, commerce, 524. + +W + +World, what still unknown of, 491. + +</pre> + +<p><a name="index3" id="index3"></a></p> + +<h3>INDEX TO THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES OF A GENERAL HISTORY AND +COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.</h3> + +<p><i>The Roman Numerals refer to the Volumes: the Arabic Numerals to +the Pages.</i></p> + +<pre> +A + +Abyssinia, vi. 176. +---- Customs of, 306. +Acapulco described, x. 264. +Adams, W. Voyage to, and Residence in Japan, viii. 64. +Aden, in Arabia, vi. 265. 298. vii. 68. +Africa in general, vii. 220. + West Coast .ii. 210. 270. xi. 73. + Manners, dress, &c. ii. 223. 227. 242. 251. + Animals, 231. + Produce, 230. + Ships, 250. + East Coast, ii. 319. vi. 448. 470. viii. 406. 468. +Alfred's Geography of the World, i. 21. +Albuquerque's Voyage, ii. 456. + Conquests, vi. 402. + Death, 161. +Almago, iv. 415. + Defeated by F. Pizarro, 4.37. + Put to death by him, 440. + Character, 459. + Expedition against Chili, v. 262. +Aleppo, viii. 3. +Aloes, vi. 114. viii. 181. 267. +Alligator, x. 302. +Albicore, x. 309. +Ambergriss, i. 92. +Ambassadors, Voyage of three, from England to Constantinople, i. 56. +America discovered by Icelanders, i. 43. + Discovered by Columbus, ii. 52. 59. iii. 43. 255. +----, North West Coast, Cook's discoveries on, xvi. 260. +Americus Vespasius, iii. 342. + His first Voyage, 352. + Second Voyage, 366. + Third Voyage, 373. + Fourth Voyage, 379. +Amboina, Massacre at, ix. 537. + Described, x. 319. xv. 143. +Amsterdam, Isle of, and Inhabitants, xiv. 190. 204. xv. 385. + Dances, 395. + Wrestling and Boxing, 401. + Kava, mode of preparing, 412. + Natural History, 421. + Grand solemnity, 427. + See also Friendly Isles. +Anson's Voyage round the World, xi. 200. + Controversy respecting the account of, 527. +Armenia, i. 281. +Arabia in general, vi. 336. +---- Felix, interior of, described, viii. 380. +Arabian Settlements, on East Coast of Africa, vi. 73. + Arabian Manners, vii. 50. +Armada, the Spanish, vii. 365. +Assassins, History of the, i. 291. +Ascension Island, xii. 346. xv. 66. +ASIA, North East Cape of, xvi. 356. + Remarks on the Geography of the North East of, xvii. 122. +Atlantic South, discoveries in, xv., 118. +Atooi, Isle, xvi. 148. 173. + Produce, 176. + Inhabitants, 150. 177. + Morai, 156. + Feather cloaks, 159. + Dress, 179. + Houses, 181. + Amusements, 182. + Manufactures, 184. + Canoes, 188. + Agriculture, 189. + Government, 190. + Weapons, 191. + Religion, 192. + Language, 193. +Auracanians, Manners, &c. v. 233. x. 122. + Religion, v. 256. + Orators, Poets, &c. 260. +----, War with the Spaniards, v. 276. +Azores discovered, ii. 196. + Described, xi. 195. +---- Fayal, vii. 381. xv. 73. + +B + +Babylon, vii. 145. +Bagdat, vii. 473. viii. 5. +Bahamas, iii. 410. +Baker's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 299. +Banda Isles, vii. 117. 187. xi. 147. + Trade of, ix. 449. + Wrongs done the English at, 432. +Bantam, xi. 183. +Barbaro's Travels to Azof, i. 501. +Bassora, vii. 146. 474. viii. 6. +Bashee Islands, x. 284. +Batavia.x. 330. 395. xi. 123. xii. 113. xiii. 425. + Fruit, 435. + Flowers, 441. + Inhabitants, 447. +Bear hunting, xvii. 154. +Benjamin of Tudela's, Travels to China, i. 95. +Bengal, vi. 242. See India and Mogul. +Benzoin, viii. 181. +Best's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 96. +Betel Nut, vii. 163. ix. 390. +Betagh's Appendix to Shelvock's Voyage, xi. 20. +Bezoar, viii. 182. +Birmah Empire, vi. 255. See Pegu. +Bolabola, xvi. 101. +Borneo, x. 21. xi. 174. +Bourgainville, abstract of his Voyage, xiii. 477. +Brazil discovered, ii. 57. 398. + Described, 105. xi. 79. 259. + Gold, 259. + Diamonds, 261. xii. 388. + St. Sebastian, xi. 79. + Rio Janeiro, xii. 382.391. + Manners, 382. + Produce, 386. +Burrough's Voyage to the Azores, vii. 444. +Butkeley's Narrative of Byron's shipwreck, xvii. 419. +Byron's own Narrative, xvii. 315. + Shipwrecked, 324. + Occurrences during his Voyage in the boats, 343. + Lands in Chiloe, 381. + Arrival at St. Jago, 399. + In England, 414. + +C + +Cabral's Voyage, ii. 395. +Cabot, iii. 346. vi. 3. +Cabbage-tree, x. 246. +Caffres, xi. 187. +Calicut, vii. 90. See India. +California, xi. 4. +Camboya, vi. 227. + Island, x. 390. +Camoens, v. 421. +Canary Islands discovered, ii. 19. iii. 352. + Described, ii. 207. x.402 +Canada, + Natives, vi.50. + Language, 67. +Candish's Voyage round the World, x. 66. +Cannibalism, xiv. 237. +Cape Verd Islands discovered, ii. 246. + Described, 269. x. 194. 404. +Cape of Good Hope discovered, ii. 286. + Described, viii. 16. 88. 115. + ix. 117. 122. 221. x. 234, xi. + 154. 182. xii. 117. + Animals, 188. + Sheep, xv. 209. note. + Remarkable stone, 212. +Cape Horn discovered, x. 171. + Remarks on the navigation round, xi. 288. + Real position of, xv. 3. note. +Carpini's Travels into Tartary, i. 123. +Carvagal, Francis de, character, v. 26. + Death, 167. +Cartier's Voyage to Newfoundland and Canada, vi. 15. +Carlet's Voyage to Guinea, vii, 306. +Caravans, vii. 52. viii. 7. +Carteret's Voyage round the World, xii. 243. +Cassowary, x. 325. +Caspian Sea, ii. 151. +Cattle, mode of slaughtering in South America, xi. 272. +Celebes, x. 328. xi. 149. xii. 334. +Ceylon, early notices of, i. 49. 382. 412. + Described, vi. 167. vii. 104. 169. 501. xi. 141-165. +Charts of the Sea between Asia and + America, account of, xvi. 380. +Chili, geographical view of, v. 219. x. 121. + Produce, v. 250. + Agriculture, 253. + Food, Houses, &c. 254. + Religion, 256. + Origin, Manners, Language, 239. + Natives of the Mountains, 256. + Trade, xi. 47. + State of in the 18th century, v. 380. + Proper, v.221. + St. Jago, v. 223. xvii. 399. + Climate, 401. + Inhabitants, 401. + Houses, 403. + Bull Feasts, 404. + Amusements, 405. + Cujo Province, v. 229. + Productions, 230. + Mines, 231. xi. 52. + Inhabitants, 231. +Chiloe Archipelago discovered, v. 314. + Described, 228. 392. x. 447. +China, early notices of, i. 51. 68. + Manners, Dress, Food, &c. 53. 60. 72. 364. xi. 127. + Laws, i. 62. 66. 71. 81. + Paper-money, 233. + Kublai Khan, 318. 420. 429. + Court, 326. 330. 368. 475. + Ships, 374. + Junks, x. 283. + Notices of early trade to, ix. 549. + Commodities, viii. 190. + Ware, early notice of, i. 59. +Cambalu (Pekin, i. 323. 419. 472.) + Macao, xi. 471. + Manners there, 522. + Canton, xvii. 237. + Sampanes there, 238. + Price of provisions at, 264. +Christmass Harbour, productions and animals, xv. 241. +Christmas Island, xvi. 141. +Chronometer, Table of its going, xvii. 165. 169. +Cinnamon, early notice of, ii. 108. +Civet, viii. 181. +Clerke's, Capt., Death, xvii. 136. 158. +Clipperton's Voyage round the World, x. 400. +Cloves, xi. 144. x.22. 322. +Cocoa Nut Tree, vii. 98. x. 304. xi. 112. +Coffee, ix. 390. +Columbus, ii. 52. + His Life, iii. 8. 245. + Death, 241. + First Voyage, 43. 255. + Second, 90. 307. + Third, 147. 339. + Fourth, 191. 339. +Cold, effects of excessive, xii. 398. +Comora Isles, ix. 224. +Compass, variation of, xii. 239. 307. 352. xiii. 73. 473. xiv. 58. 438. +488. xv. 215. 286. 489. xvi. 108. 196. 249. 330. 368. 401. xvii. 18. 264. +282. 289. 292. 298. +Contarini's Journey to Persia, ii. 117. +Cook, Capt. <i>John</i>, Voyage round the World, x. 66. +----, Capt. <i>James</i>, First Voyage, xii. 359. + Second Voyage, xiv. 1. + Third Voyage, xv. 114. + Circumstances of his Death, xvi. 446. 469, note. + Character, xv. 177. xvi. 455. + Orders from France and United States respecting, xvii. 268. +Cook's river, xvi. 299. +Coral Islands, formation of, xiv. 141. + note. xv. 344. +Corea, ix. 77. +Cortes, Hermando, iii. 454. 468. iv. 314. +Coryat's Journey to India, ix. 419. +Covilhaim's Journey to Æthiopia, ii. 300. +Cotton-tree, x. 245. +Cuba, iii. 271. 320. 404. +Cumana, iii. 361. +Cumberland's, Earl of, Voyage to the Azores, vii. 375. + +D + +Damascus described, vii. 47. +Dampier's Voyage round the World, x. 236. +Darien described, iii. 397. +Dates, viii. 267. +Davis's, Capt. John, Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 43. +Dangerous Archipelago discovered and described, xii. 167. +Derbent described, ii. 150. +Diamond Mines in Brazil, xi. 261. +---- ---- ---- in India, i. 387. +Downton's Voyages to India, viii. 406. ix. 167. +Drake's, Sir F., Voyage to the West Indies, vii. 356. 360. + Round the World, x. 27. +Drugs, account of various, viii. 181. +Dutch factories in the East, at the beginning of the 18th century, xi. 131. + +E + +Easter Island, and its Inhabitants, described, xi. 91. xiv. 270. 278. +East India Company, English, established, viii. 102. + First Voyage to the East Indies, 507. +Egypt, Cairo, i. 109. vii. 45. +----Alexandria, i. 111. + Trade of, 112. +Eimeo Isle described, xvi. 62. 70. +Eldred's Voyages and Travels to Bagdat, Bassora, &c. viii. 1. +Elephants, ii. 252. vii. 87. 189. 236. ix 394. +Eooa Isle, xv. 441. +Erigena's Voyage to Athens, i. 20. +Euphrates, Navigation of, viii. 3. + +F + +Falkland Islands described, xii. 47. +Fayal described, vii.381. See Azores. +Fenner's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 310. +Fernando de Noranha, Isle, described, xv. 69. +Fitch's Journey overland to India, vii, 470. viii. 254. +Flamingo, iii. 406. +Flick's Voyage to the Azores, vii. 417. +Flowers, great variety of, at Batavia, xiii. 435. +Florida, iii. 410. v. 410. 419. 440. 488. +Frederic, Caesar, Travels in India, vii. 142. +Friendly Islands, xiv. 204. 369. + General description of, and of the Inhabitants, xv. 447. + Number and names, 449. + Inhabitants, stature, 459. + Character, 462. 474. + Dress, 465. + Domestic life, 467. + Agriculture, 468. + Houses, 469. + Manufactures, 467. 470. + Food, 472. + Burials, 475. + Religion, 477. + Government, 479. + Language, 485. 491. + See Amsterdam Isle. +Fruit, great variety of, at Batavia, xiii. 435. +Funnell's Voyage round the World, x. 291. +Furs, collection of, at Oonalashka, xvi. 386. + At Kamtschatka, xvii. 184. + +G + +Galvana's Summary of Discoveries to the Year 1555. ii. 23. +Gama's Voyages, ii. 302. 432. +----Stephano de, Voyage to Suez, vi. 287. +----Vasco de, vi. 200. +Gasca, Pedro de la, v. 101. 107. l61. 170. +Gambia River, ii. 251. +Gambroon described, xi. 158. +Georgia, Isle of, described, xv. 25. +Gold Trade in Africa, early notice of, ii. 218. +Goa conquered by the Portuguese, vi. 131. + Described, 477. +Goitres in India, ix. 236. +Gothic Language, i. 165. 507. +Greenlanders described, i. 41. +Guadaloupe described, iii. 98. 142. 308. +Guam Island described, x. 230. +Guana, The, described, x. 306. +Guava fruit, x. 261. +Guayaquil described, x. 365. +Guinea, Voyages to, in the 16th Century, vii. 211. +----, Natives of, described, vii. 245. + See Africa, West Coast. +Guinea pepper described, x. 461. + +H + +Haicho's Travels into Tartary. i. 262. +Hawkin's residence in the Mogul Empire, viii. 220. +Hawkesworth's, Dr., vindication of himself, as editor of the Voyages, +xiii. 272 note. +Hearne's Journey in the North-west parts of America, Abstract of, xv. 148. +Hepaei Isles described, xv. 358. + Music and Dancing, 583. + Lefoogan, one of them described, 369. +Hervey's Isle discovered and described, xv. 334. +Helix Janthina and Violacea described, xii. 370. +Hippopotamus described, ii. 253. +Hispaniola described, iii. 133. 159. 277. 329. 387. +Hippon's Voyage to India, viii. 436. +----Account of, by Floris, viii. 440. +Hogan's Embassy to Morocco, vii. 320. +Holythura Physalis described, xii. 370. +Honduras described, iv. 267. +Horn Island, x. 179. +----, Cape. See CAPE Horn. +Hottentot's described, x. 234. xi. 185. +Huahcine Island described, xiii. 78. +----, religious ceremonies in, xvi. 73. + See Society Islands. +Hudson's Bay, Abstract of Discoveries in, xv. 144. +Hurricanes in American Seas, xi. 83. + +I and J + +Iceland discovered, i. 4. +Ice Islands, xiv. 48. 243. note. +----, on the formation of, xv. 43. +Icy Cape, xvi. 344. +Incas of Peru, iv. 362. +India described, ix. 373. + Produce, Animals, vi. 269. ix. 387. 392. 394. + Pepper, i. 404. + Diamond Mines, 387. + Houses, ix. 391. + Castles, viii. 280. 284. + Climate, ix. 393. + Manners, Customs, i. 85. 94. 384. 408. vi. 269. vii. 157. 482. + Mahometans in, ix. 404. + Hindoos, 409. + Brahmins, i. 387. + Idols, 407. + Pagodas, ii. 362. + Laws, 253. + Court Ceremonies in the 16th Century, 364. 407. See Mogul. + Bengal described, i. 251. vi. 242. vii. 109. 478. + Calicut described, ii. 345. 522. vii. 90. + Cambay, vii. 80. 475. viii. 302. + Candahar, ix. 212. + Cochin, ii. 419. vii. 164. xi. 162. + Coromandel Coast, xi. 155. + Deccan, vii. 84. + Delhi, viii. 292. See Mogul. + Goa, Diu, vii. 149. + Guzerat, vi. 227. + Lahore, viii. 295. ix. 208. + Malabar Coast, ii. 347. 467. vi. 481. xi. 160. + Surat, viii. 275. ix. 119. 230. 391. xi. 157. + Sinde, ix. 131. + Trade before discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, vi. 73. + State of, at the beginning of the 16th century, vi. 81. + English Factories in, in 1616, ix. 258. +Indians of America, food, iii. 215. + Dress, Canoes, &c. 266. 270. 277. 322. 369. + At south extremity of South America, v. 40l. xii. 152. 155. 405. See +Patagonians. +Indigo, viii. 289. +Irish, account of, in 16th century, vii. 394. +Isabella, first colony in the West Indies, iii. 313. +Jaloffs, ii. 221. 227. +Jamaica described, iii. 115. +Japan described, i. 375. vi. 382. viii. 78. xi. 178. + Commodities vendible in, ix. 71. 75. +Japanese manners, ix. 10. + Court, 25. + Festival, 51. +Java described, i. 378. 408. vi. 153. vii. 119. viii. 142. 183. x. 46. +86. 331. xi. 118. 166. + Court Ceremonies, viii. 166. + Bantam, viii. 183. + First English Factory in, viii. 141. +Jesso, ix. 70. xvii. 227. note. + +Juan Fernandez described, x. 201. + 219. 296. 353. 481. xi. 88. 311. + +K + +Kamtschatka, description of, xvii. 66. 171. + Climate, 175. + Produce, 173. 178. + Curious Plants in, 180. + Animals, 184. 194. note. + Furs, 184. + Fish, 191. + Salmon, 192. + Volcanoes, 177. + Inhabitants, 197. + Dress, 216. + Houses, 87. 213. + Towns, 215. + Sledge, 77. + Trade, 307. + Discovery and History of, 198. +Kava drink, xv. 412. +Keeling's Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 199. +King George's Island discovered and described by Byron, xii. 83. +Kossir, part of, described, vi. 330. +Kublai Khan, Account of, i. 318. +Kurile Isles described, xvii. 217. + +L + +Lancaster's Voyages to India, viii. 13. 107. +Ladrones, the, described, x. 13. 206. +Le Maire's Voyage round the World, x. 162. + Straits discovered, 170. + On the Navigation of, xii. 412. +Le Hermite's Voyage, x. 192. +Lediard, Mr., account of, xvi. 375. note. +Lima, account of, in 1550, iv. 350. + See Peru. +Llama, the, described, x. 462. +Locusts described, ii. 219. +Lok's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 229. + +M + +Mahommedans, Travels of two, to + India and China in the 9th century, i. 47. +Macassar, Straits of, described, xii. 318. +Madagascar described, vii. 2. viii. 261. +Madeira discovered, ii. 19. 177. + Described, 206. xi. 234. xii. 362. + Vines of, 363. +Malacca described, vii. 113. xi. 152. +Mandeville's Travels, i. 432. +Maro Polo's Travels, i. 266. +Mauritius described, viii. 218. +Marlow's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 91. +Magellan's, F., Voyage round the World, x. 4. +---- Straits discovered, x. 11. +----, remarks on the Navigation of, xii. 74. + Anchoring places and distances in, 157. +Manilla, x. 83. 281. +Mallicolo Island described, xiv. 379, 425. +Mangea Isle described, xv. 306. +Marquesas Islands and Inhabitants + described, xiv. 295. +Melinda described, ii. 336. +Mecca, Port of, vi. 262. City, vii. 58. +Medina described, vii. 54. +Mexico, iii. 421. 432. +----City described, iv. 37. 167. + taken by the Spaniards, 165. +Mexican Painters, iii. 477. + Manufactures, 478. + Idols, 495. +Michelburne's Voyage to India, viii. 86. +Middleton's, Capt. Henry, Voyage to + India, viii. 191. 361. +---- Capt. David, Voyage to Bantam and the Moluccas, viii. 3O7. 343. +Mindanao Islands described, xii. 309. +Middleburg Islands described, xiv. 204. +Moscow described, ii. 162. +Mosquito Shore described, iii. 189. +Montezuma, iii. 21. 35. 39. 55. 67. 70. + His court, 43. + Treasures, 71. + Death, 109. +Moluccas described, vi. 183. vii. 117. viii. 188. + Trade and State of, ix. 3. x. 22. +Mogul, meaning of the word, and Empire, of in the 16th Century, + vi. 233., in 1616. ix. 378. + Court of, viii. 229. ix. 302. 311. 320. + His birth-day, ix. 343. + Tomb, viii. 306. + Power, customs, &c. viii. 245. 291. ix. 260. 413. 421. +Mogul Empire, climate of, ix. 389. + Animals, 387. + Trees, 389. + Rivers, 390. + See India. +Mocha described, viii. 328. xi. 172. + Trade, viii. 483. 489. + Governor of, his feast, viii. 479. +Monomotapa, vi. 449. + See Africa, East Coast. +Monsoons, account of, viii. 9. +Musk, i. 313. viii. 181. + +N + +Navy, English, in Queen Elizabeth's time, vii. 460. +Nautical Instruments, account of, taken by Capt. Cooke in his Second + Voyage, xiv. 20. note. +Natural History, notices on, xv. 335. xvi. 266. 312. + Shells, xii. 370. 372. + Botany, xii. 395. xiv. 507. note. xvii. 180. + Green Ants, xiii. 253. 341. + Their Nests, 260. 342. + Caterpillars, ibid. + Crabs, xiii. 257. + Two new species of Birds, xv. 17. + Of Van Dieman's Land, xv. 259. + Of Amsterdam Isle, xv. 421. + Blatta, the, xvi. 77. + Medusa, &c. xvi. 98. + Arctic Walrus, xvi. 345. + Arctic Gull, xvii. 104. + White Bear, xvii. 114. +New Holland, general description, x. 288. xiii. 338. + Produce, 339. + Animals, 302. 341. + Inhabitants, 345. + Personal appearance, 346. + Houses, 349. + Food, 351. + Weapons, 355. + Canoes, 357. + Language, 359. + Botany Bay, xiii. 230. 240. + Port Jackson, xiii. 243. + Endeavour River, xiii. 311. + Straits, xiii. 335. +Newfoundland discovered and described, iii. 346, vi, 3. + Language of, iii. 32. +Newport's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 137. +New Guinea described, x. 188. +New Britain, xi. 107. xii. 296. +New Zealand, xiii. 101. + Face of the country, 118. 148. 155. 161. 218. xv. 267. + Plants, Animals, xiv. 99. xv. 287. + Inhabitants, xiii. 125. 147. 164. 187. 192. xiv. 103. 119. xv. 281. 293. + Language, xv. 301. + Villages, xiii. 150. + Queen Charlotte's Sound, xiii. 199. xiv. 119. 226. + Dusky Bay, xiv. 97. +New Caledonia, xiv. 139. 451. 473. + Contrast between its Inhabitants and those of the New Hebrides, + xiv. 451. note. +New Hebrides, xiv. 423. +Norfolk Isle, xiv. 476. +Norway, i. 493. Food, Manners, 494. +Nootka Sound, xvi. 221. + Produce, 223. + Animals, 225. + Inhabitants, 208. 214. 217. 230. + Houses, 239. + Villages, 216. + Furniture, 241. + Food, 244. + Employment, 245. + Weapons, 247. + Manufactures, 248. + Languages, 255. + Vocabulary of, 301. +Nutmegs, vii. 117. x. 323. xi. 147. + +O + +Oderic's Travels into China and the East, i. 392. +Omai, notices of, xiv. 165. xv. 183. 327. + His reception among his Countrymen, xvi. 7. + Established on his Island, xvi. 73. 81. +Oonalashka described, xvi. 321. 373. + Vegetables, 395. + Animals, 394. + Furs at, 386. + Inhabitants, 387. 398. +Ormus described, vi. 105. vii. 78. 148. 475. + Ships of, viii. 6. +Ostrich, xi. 189. +Otaheite discovered and described by Wallis, xii. 175. 204. + Extent, xiv. 131. + Surface, xiii. 2. + Produce, 3. xvi. 112. 119. + Winds, 111. + Animals, xiii. 4. + Inhabitants' stature, xiii. 4. + Personal customs, 6. xiv. 155. note. + Tattooing, xiii. 7. + Clothing, 10. + Houses, 12. + Food, 15. xiv. 176. xvi. 119. + Bread-fruit, xiii. 16. + Drink, 18. xiv. 179. + Meals, xiii. 19. + Musical instruments, xiii. 23. + Dances, 25. + Theatre, xiv. 153. xvi. 39. + Female morals, xiii. 26. xiv. 180. xvi. 122. + Arreoy, xiii. 27. + Manufactures, xiii. 294. xvi. 118. + Cloth, 29. + Dyes, 32. + Matting, &c. 34. + Fish-hooks, 36. + Tools, 37. + Canoes, xii. 214. xiii. 38. xiv. 315. + Naval review, xiv. 307. 326. xvi. 46. + Extent of their navigation, xvi. 138. + Swimming, xii. 467. + Wrestling match, 454. + Division of time, xiii. 44. + Numeration, 45. + Language, 46. xvi. 117. + Diseases, xiii. 47. xvi. 115. + Mourning and Funerals, xii. 478. 491. xiii. 54. xvi. 41. 51. + Religion, xiii. 59. xvi. 125. + Human Sacrifices, xv. 24. + Priests, xiii. 61. + Government, 66. xvi. 132. + Inhabitants contrasted with those of the Friendly Isles, xvi. 114. + Customs of, similar to those of distant Islands, xvi. 122. note. + Circumnavigation, xii. 482.--See Society Islands. +Owhyhee discovered and described, xvi. 321. 373. + Ceremonies used to Captain Cook, 424. + Inhabitants, 431. + Games, 436. + Taboo, 427.--See Sandwich Islands. + +P + +Pagodas, ii. 362. +Palm-tree in Chili described, v. 230. +Palmito described, viii. 260. +Patagonians, account of, x. 8. xi. 272. xii. 29. 127. 133. +Panama described, x. 250. Produce, 255. +Paradise, bird of, described, x. 325. xi. 114. +Palliser Islands described, xi. 99. +Pacific Ocean, discoveries in, xv. 120. +Payta described, xi. 372. +Pearl Fishery, account of, i. 93. iii. 392. vii. 167. x. 506. +Pearl Oysters, account of, x. 248. 3O6. +Pear, prickly, v. 261. +Pegu described, vi. 173. 255. vii. 110. 184. 490. viii. 448. +Pelican described, x. 305. +Peruvian Spaniards, their character, v. 182. +Peru, houses, &c. x. 240. + Pedlars, xi. 25. + Lima, xi. 30. + Climate, 32. + Manners, food, &c. 32. + Mines near, 37. +Persia described, vii. 77. +Persian Gulf, account of, vi. 189. +Pepper, viii. 183. +Penguins described, x. 145. Penguin fruit, 269. +Peyton's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 45l. +Philippine Islands described, x. 274. + See Manilla. +Pizarro, v. 75. 129. 151. 161. Death of, 167. +Plaintain Tree, viii. 259. x. 204. +Portuguese transactions in India, vi. 88. + Empire in the East, in the 17th century, vii. 36. + Settlements in the East in 1616, ix. 239. +Potosi Mines discovered, v. 94. +Prince William's Sound described, xvi. 279. + Animals, xvi. 286. + Inhabitants, 279. + Language, 285. +Pring's Voyage to India, ix. 451. +Proa, flying, described, xi.464. +Pulo Timooan described, xii. 1O9. +Pulo Condore described, x. 281. xvii. 280. + +Q + +Queen Charlotte's Island (o' Wales) discovered and described, xii. 168. + Islands of Carteret, xii. 275. +Quito, Island of, described, xi. 393. +Quirinis's Voyage into Norway, i. 485. + +R + +Rainold's and Dassel's Voyage to the Senegal and Gambia, vii. 342. +Red Sea, vi. 149. 262. 285. 291. 299, 315. 334. 349. 352. +Rhinoceros, account of, i. 379. viii. 25. +Robart's Embassy to Morocco, vii. 327. +Roe's, Sir Thomas, Embassy to the Mogul, ix. 247. +Roger's, Wood, Voyage round the World, x. 327. +Roggewin's Voyage round the World, xi. 65. +Rowle's Voyage to the East-Indies, viii. 335. +Rubruquis' Travels into Tartary, i. 161. +Russia, early account of, i. 509. ii. 162. +Rutter's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 293. + +S + +Salt Trade in Africa, account of, ii. 215. +Solomon's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 110. +Sago described, x. 175. +Samarkand described, i. 298. +Saris' Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 465. +Savage Island described, x. 359. +Sandwich Island, of Carteret, xii. 298. +Sandwich Land, xv. 34. +Sandwich Islands of Cook discovered and described, xvi. 172. 195. xvii. 1. + Number, xvii. 2. + Owhyhee, 3.--See Owhyhee. + Mowee, 11. + Atooi, 13.--See Atooi. + Climate, 14. + Animals, 15. + Inhabitants, 19. + Stature, 20. + Numbers, 22. + Character, 23. + Dress, 27. + Villages, 32. + Food, 33. + Dances and other amusements, 34. + Arts, 38. + Government, 41. + Religion, 45. + Taboo, 48. + Marriages and Funerals, 49. 51. +Savu Island and Inhabitants described, xiii. 387. 407. +Schouten and Le Maires' Voyage round the World, x. 162. +Senegal River described, ii. 220. +Sea Fights in the 16th century, vii. 396. +Selkirk, Alexander, account of, x. 349. +Sea Lion described, xi. 318. xv. 6. 15. +---- Bear, xv. 15. +Sea, warmth at different depths, xiv. 33. note. +Shelvock's Voyage round the World, x. 434. xi. 20. +Sharpey's Voyage to India, viii. 314. +Shah Rokh's, the Embassador, Travels to Cathay, i. 461. +Siam described, vi. 169. vii. 177. viii. 188. 448. ix. 110. xi. 171. +Silver Fish, early notice of, x. 295. +Small Pox, Ravages of, among the Auracanians, v. 297. +Soto's Expedition into Florida, v. 440. +Solyman Pacha's Expedition to India, vi. 257. +Sofala kingdom described, vi. 89. +Socotra described, vi. 96. 227. viii. 264. 412. ix. 226. +Solomon's Islands described, xi. 103. +Society Islands, general description of, xiii. 92. + Vocabulary, xv. 81.--See Otaheite. +South Hemisphere, short account of Voyages to, xiv. 2. +Spanish Commere between Manilla and Acapulco, in the middle of the 18th +century, xi. 405. +Spilbergen's Voyage round the World, x. 149. +Steven's Voyage to Goa, vii. 462. +Steele and Crowther's Voyage from India to Persia, ix. 206. +Staten Island described, xv. 5. 11. +St. Laurence River described, vi. 44. 55. +St. Helena described, ix. 116. x. 88. xi. 193. xv. 64. +St. Catherine off Brazil, x. 437. xi. 254. +St. Jago, Port Praga Bay, xiv, 29. +Sugar, early notice of, i. 373. +Sumatra, Account of, i. 381. iv. 180. vii. 113. 174. viii. 50. 55. 121. + xi. 167. +Surat described, viii. 275. + +T + +Tanna Island described, xiv. 393. 415. + Volcano and hot springs in, 403. 411. +Tartary described, i. 115. + Soil and climate, i. 127. + Dress, manners, 128. + Superstitions, 131. + Military habits, 140. 311. + Court, 152. 180. 188. 197. 217. 224. + Khan of, 154. + Houses, 166. + Food, &c. 188. + Laws, 177. + Burial, &c. 177. 184. 501. + Religion, 209. + Samarcand, i. 298. +Tea, early notice of, i. 61. + Manner of cultivating, ix. 554. +Terry's Voyage to India, ix, 368. +Terra del Fuego described, x. 196. xii. 404. 410. xiv. 497. 505. +Ternate described, xi. 151. +Teneriffe, Peak of, account of, xii. 368. +----Island described, xv. 191. 194. +Thibet, early notice of, i, 342. 425. vii. 34. +Timor Isle described, viii. 187. +Tinian Isle described, xii. 102. note. +Timoan Isle described, xii. 109. +Tobacco, early notices of, in. 213. 369. vi, 54. +Towerson's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 273. +Torpedo Fish, account of, xi. 423. +Tongataboo Isle described, xv. 385. + Natural history of, 421. + Inhabitants, dancing, 395. + Wrestling and boxing, 401. + Grand solemnity at, 427. + Kava, mode of preparing, + 412.--See Amsterdam Isle and Friendly Isles. +Tortoises' Land, x. 122. +Toobouai Isle described, xvi. 3. + Inhabitants, 5. +Trade Winds, xiv. 139. note. +Trinidad, iii. 340. +Tripoli in Asia, viii. 2. +Tschutski described, xvi. 338. 362. 387. +Turkey, Account of, i. 96. Constantinople, 96. +Turtles described, x. 223. 306. 376. xi. 396. xv. 67. + +U and V + +Ulietea Island and Inhabitants described, xvi. 97.--See Society Island. +Unicorn, early notice of, i. 57. +Verthema's Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, vii. 41. +Van Noort's Voyage round the World, x. 112. +Vanilla described, x. 261. +Van Dieman's Land, notices of, xv. 256. + Natural history and animals of, 259. + Inhabitants, 262. +Vicuma, the, described, x. 462. +Voyages of Discovery, advantages of, xv. 154. + To nautical science, 160. + To the history of the Human Species, and its migrations, 167. + To the inhabitants discovered, 170. + +W + +Wallis's, Capt., Voyage round the World, xii. 120. +Wallis's Island described, xii. 221. +Water Spouts described, x. 287. xix. 105. xiv. 106. note. +Wateeoo Isle described, xv. 312. +Weenooa-ette Isle described, xv. 332. +Weert Sibbald's Voyage round the World, x. 130. +Welsh's Voyage to Benin, vii. 331. +Whales, notices respecting, xv. 4. note. +Whiddon's Voyage to the Azores. vii. 358. +Windham's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 216. +Wood, Benj., Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 40. +Wulfstan's Voyage to the Baltic, i. 15. + +Z + +Zenos' Voyage, i. 438. +</pre> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<p><a name="contents" id="contents"></a></p> + +<h3>GENERAL PLAN OF KERR'S COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.</h3> + +<p>PART I.</p> + +<p>Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era +of Alfred King of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry +of Portugal, at the commencement of the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>PART II.</p> + +<p>General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of +Don Henry in 1412, to that of George III. in 1760.</p> + +<p>PART III.</p> + +<p>General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George +III., which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which +the Geography of the globe has been nearly perfected.</p> + +<p>PART IV.</p> + +<p>Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and +Commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present +period.</p> + +<hr align="center" width="25%"> +<h4>TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES.</h4> + +<p><b>VOLUME I.</b></p> + +<p>Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians.</p> + +<p>Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic.</p> + +<p>Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J.R. +Forster.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic.</p> + +<p>---- of Sighelm to India.</p> + +<p>Travels of John Erigena to Athens.</p> + +<p>Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred.</p> + +<p>Travels of Andrew Leucander.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>---- of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople.</p> + +<p>Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>---- of Ingulphus.</p> + +<p>Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth +century.</p> + +<p>Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001.</p> + +<p>Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth +century.</p> + +<p>---- of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth +century.</p> + +<p>---- of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243.</p> + +<p>Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary.</p> + +<p>Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. in 1246.</p> + +<p>---- of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253.</p> + +<p>---- of Haitho, in 1254.</p> + +<p>---- of Marco Polo into China, &c. from 1260 to 1295.</p> + +<p>---- of Oderic, in 1318.</p> + +<p>---- of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322.</p> + +<p>Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355.</p> + +<p>Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380.</p> + +<p>Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394.</p> + +<p>---- of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419.</p> + +<p>Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431.</p> + +<p>Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in +1436.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME II.</b></p> + +<p>Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between +1097 and 1107.</p> + +<p>Discovery of Madeira.</p> + +<p>Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands.</p> + +<p>Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, +from 1412 to 1505.</p> + +<p>Summary of the discoveries of the world, from their commencement +to 1555, by Antonio Galvano.</p> + +<p>Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6.</p> + +<p>Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of +Africa, during the life of Don Henry.</p> + +<p>Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de +Cintra, to the coast of Africa, from 1455.</p> + +<p>Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, +from the death of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of +Good Hope in 1486.</p> + +<p>History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, +between 1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla.</p> + +<p>Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, +respecting the discovery of the route by sea to India, &c.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME III.</b></p> + +<p>History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early +conquests in the New World.</p> + +<p>Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don +Ferdinand Columbus.</p> + +<p>---- written by Antonio de Herrera.</p> + +<p>An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, +written by himself.</p> + +<p>Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, +from the death of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes +against Mexico.</p> + +<p>History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, +by Captain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME IV.</b></p> + +<p>History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus +Zarate.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME V.</b></p> + +<p>Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the +Commentaries of Garcilosso de la Vega.</p> + +<p>History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various +sources.</p> + +<p>Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that +country by the Spaniards,--from the General History of America, by +Herrera.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME VI.</b></p> + +<p>Early English Voyages of discovery to America.</p> + +<p>Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and +Canada, in 1534-5.</p> + +<p>Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in +the East; with some account of the early Voyages of other European +nations to India.</p> + +<p>Discoveries, &c. &c. from 1505 to 1539.</p> + +<p>A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from +Suez to India, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer +in the Turkish service on that occasion.</p> + +<p>Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in +1540; written by Don Juan de Castro.</p> + +<p>Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in +India, from 1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's +Asia.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME VII.</b></p> + +<p>Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by +Ludovico Verthema, in 1503-8.</p> + +<p>---- in India, &c. by Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81.</p> + +<p>Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham.</p> + +<p>Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and +Antonio Anes Pinteado.</p> + +<p>---- in 1554, by Captain John Lok.</p> + +<p>---- in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London.</p> + +<p>Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, +of London.</p> + +<p>Third, in 1558.</p> + +<p>Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561.</p> + +<p>Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter.</p> + +<p>Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage.</p> + +<p>Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker.</p> + +<p>---- in 1564, by Captain David Carlet.</p> + +<p>---- and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George +Fenner.</p> + +<p>Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by +himself.</p> + +<p>Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth +to Morocco, in 1585; by himself.</p> + +<p>Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh.</p> + +<p>Supplement to the foregoing.</p> + +<p>Second Voyage of ditto in 1590.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and +Gambia, in 1591.</p> + +<p>Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English.</p> + +<p>Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas +Stevens.</p> + +<p>Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch.</p> + +<p>Supplement to ditto.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME VIII.</b></p> + +<p>Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river +to Bagdat and Basorah, in 1583.</p> + +<p>Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret.</p> + +<p>First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. +Raymond and James Lancaster.</p> + +<p>Supplement to ditto, by John May.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596.</p> + +<p>---- of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598.</p> + +<p>---- of William Adams to Japan, in 1598.</p> + +<p>---- of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604.</p> + +<p>First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under +Captain James Lancaster.</p> + +<p>Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to +1605.</p> + +<p>Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry +Middleton.</p> + +<p>Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William +Keeling.</p> + +<p>Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions +of the Great Mogul.</p> + +<p>Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the +Moluccas.</p> + +<p>Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander +Sharpey.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles.</p> + +<p>Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David +Middleton.</p> + +<p>Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry +Middleton.</p> + +<p>Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton.</p> + +<p>Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony +Hippou.</p> + +<p>Notices of the same, by Peter Floris.</p> + +<p>Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John +Saris.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME IX.</b></p> + +<p>Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward +Marlow.</p> + +<p>Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best.</p> + +<p>Observations made on the foregoing by different persons.</p> + +<p>Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon.</p> + +<p>Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher +Newport.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614.</p> + +<p>Supplement to ditto.</p> + +<p>Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to +Ispahan, in 1615-16.</p> + +<p>Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615.</p> + +<p>Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes.</p> + +<p>Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. to the Emperor +of Hindoostan.</p> + +<p>Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry.</p> + +<p>Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great +Mogul.</p> + +<p>Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18.</p> + +<p>Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under +Captain Pring.</p> + +<p>Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618.</p> + +<p>Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620.</p> + +<p>War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and +Persians, in 1622.</p> + +<p>Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623.</p> + +<p>Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, +by Dr. James Cunningham.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME X.</b></p> + +<p>Historical account of early circumnavigations;<br> + of Magellan, in 1519-22.<br> + of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80.<br> + of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8.<br> + of Van Noort, in 1598-1601.<br> + of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17.<br> + of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17.<br> + of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6.<br> + of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, +in 1683-91. in 1703-6, by William Funnell.<br> + in 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney.<br> + in 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton.<br> + in 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XI.</b></p> + +<p>Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein.</p> + +<p>---- in 1740-4, by Lord Anson.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XII.</b></p> + +<p>Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6.</p> + +<p>Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8.</p> + +<p>Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9.</p> + +<p>Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XIII.</b></p> + +<p>Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded..</p> + +<p>Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XIV.</b></p> + +<p>Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XV.</b></p> + +<p>Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded.</p> + +<p>Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XVI.</b></p> + +<p>Captain Cook's third Voyage continued.</p> + +<p><b>VOLUME XVII.</b></p> + +<p>Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded.</p> + +<p>Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c.; written by +himself.</p> + +<p>Bulkeley's narrative of the same.</p> + +<h3>THE END.</h3> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13606 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + |