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diff --git a/13606-0.txt b/13606-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab29507 --- /dev/null +++ b/13606-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,26911 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13606 *** + +A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, + +ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER: + +FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION, +DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE, BY SEA AND LAND, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE +PRESENT TIME. + + +BY + +ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S. EDIN. + +ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS. + +VOL. XVIII. + + +WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH: + +AND T. CADELL, LONDON. + +MDCCCXXIV. + + + + + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, NAVIGATION, AND COMMERCE, +FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + +BY WILLIAM STEVENSON, ESQ. + + +WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH: + +AND T. CADELL; LONDON. + +MDCCCXXIV. + +Printed by A. & B. Spottiswoode, +New-Street-Square. + + +[Transcriber's Note: The errata listed after the Table of Contents are +marked in the text thus: [has->have]] + + + + +PREFACE. + +The curiosity of that man must be very feeble and sluggish, and his +appetite for information very weak or depraved, who, when he compares the +map of the world, as it was known to the ancients, with the map of the +world as it is at present known, does not feel himself powerfully excited +to inquire into the causes which have progressively brought almost every +speck of its surface completely within our knowledge and access. To develop +and explain these causes is one of the objects of the present work; but +this object cannot be attained, without pointing out in what manner +Geography was at first fixed on the basis of science, and has subsequently, +at various periods, been extended and improved, in proportion as those +branches of physical knowledge which could lend it any assistance, have +advanced towards perfection. We shall thus, we trust, be enabled to place +before our readers a clear, but rapid view of the surface of the globe, +gradually exhibiting a larger portion of known regions, and explored seas, +till at last we introduce them to the full knowledge of the nineteenth +century. In the course of this part of our work, decisive and instructive +illustrations will frequently occur of the truth of these most important +facts,--that one branch of science can scarcely advance, without advancing +some other branches, which in their turn, repay the assistance they have +received; and that, generally speaking, the progress of intellect and +morals is powerfully impelled by every impulse given to physical science, +and can go on steadily and with full and permanent effect, only by the +intercourse of civilised nations with those that are ignorant and +barbarous. + +But our work embraces another topic; the progress of commercial enterprise +from the earliest period to the present time. That an extensive and +interesting field is thus opened to us will be evident, when we contrast +the state of the wants and habits of the people of Britain, as they are +depicted by Cæsar, with the wants and habits even of our lowest and poorest +classes. In Cæsar's time, a very few of the comforts of life,--scarcely one +of its meanest luxuries,--derived from the neighbouring shore of Gaul, were +occasionally enjoyed by British Princes: in our time, the daily meal of the +pauper who obtains his precarious and scanty pittance by begging, is +supplied by a navigation of some thousand miles, from countries in opposite +parts of the globe; of whose existence Cæsar had not even the remotest +idea. In the time of Cæsar, there was perhaps no country, the commerce of +which was so confined:--in our time, the commerce of Britain lays the whole +world under contribution, and surpasses in extent and magnitude the +commerce of any other nation. + +The progress of discovery and of commercial intercourse are intimately and +almost necessarily connected; where commerce does not in the first instance +prompt man to discover new countries, it is sure, if these countries are +not totally worthless, to lead him thoroughly to explore them. The +arrangement of this work, in carrying on, at the same time, a view of the +progress of discovery, and of commercial enterprise, is, therefore, that +very arrangement which the nature of the subject suggests. The most +important and permanent effects of the progress of discovery and commerce, +on the wealth, the power, the political relations, the manners and habits, +and the general interests and character of nations, will either appear on +the very surface of our work, or, where the facts themselves do not expose +them to view, they will be distinctly noticed. + +A larger proportion of the volume is devoted to the progress of discovery +and enterprise among the ancients, than among the moderns; or,--to express +ourselves more accurately,--the period that terminates with the discovery +of America, and especially that which comprehends the commerce of the +Phoeniceans, of the Egyptians under the Ptolemies, of the Greeks, and of +the Romans, is illustrated with more ample and minute details, than the +period which has elapsed since the new world was discovered. To most +readers, the nations of antiquity are known by their wars alone; we wished +to exhibit them in their commercial character and relations. Besides, the +materials for the history of discovery within the modern period are neither +so scattered, nor so difficult of access, as those which relate to the +first period. After the discovery of America, the grand outline of the +terraqueous part of the globe may be said to have been traced; subsequent +discoveries only giving it more boldness or accuracy, or filling up the +intervening parts. The same observation may in some degree be applied, to +the corresponding periods of the history of commerce. Influenced by these +considerations, we have therefore exhibited the infancy and youth of +discovery and commerce, while they were struggling with their own ignorance +and inexperience, in the strongest and fullest light. + +At the conclusion of the work is given a select Catalogue of Voyages and +Travels, which it is hoped will be found generally useful, not only in +directing reading and inquiry, but also in the formation of a library. + +This Historical Sketch has been drawn up with reference to, and in order to +complete Kerr's Collection of Voyages and Travels, and was undertaken by +the present Editor in consequence of the death of Mr. Kerr. But though +drawn up with this object, it is strictly and entirely an independent and +separate work. + +Kerr's Collection contains a great variety of very curious and interesting +early Voyages and Travels, of rare occurrence, or only to be found in +expensive and voluminous Collections; and is, moreover, especially +distinguished by a correct and full account of all Captain Cook's Voyages. + +To the end of this volume is appended a Tabular View of the Contents of +this Collection; and it is believed that this Tabular View, when examined +and compared with the Catalogue, will enable those who wish to add to this +Collection such Voyages and Travels as it does not embrace, especially +those of very recent date, all that are deserving of purchase and perusal. + +W. STEVENSON. + +March 30, 1824. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +CHAPTER I. + +Historical Sketch of the Progress of Discovery and of Commercial +Enterprise, from the earliest records to the time of Herodotus + +CHAPTER II. + +From the age of Herodotus to the death of Alexander the Great + +CHAPTER III. + +From the Death of Alexander the Great to the time of Ptolemy the +Geographer; with a digression on the Inland Trade between India and the +Shores of the Mediterranean, through Arabia, from the earliest ages + +CHAPTER IV. + +From the time of Ptolemy to the close of the Fifteenth Century + +CHAPTER V. + +From the close of the Fifteenth to the beginning of the Nineteenth Century + +CATALOGUE. + +Preliminary Observations on the Plan and Arrangement pursued +in drawing up the Catalogue + +Instructions for Travellers + +Collections and Histories of Voyages and Travels + +Voyages and Travels round the World + +Travels, comprizing different Quarters of the Globe + +Voyages and Travels in the Arctic Seas and Countries + +Europe + +Africa + +Asia + +America + +Polynesia + +Australasia + + +INDEX to the Catalogue + +---- ---- Historical Sketch + +---- ---- XVII. Volumes of Voyages and Travels + +CONTENTS of the XVII. Volumes + + * * * * * + +ERRATA. + +Page 13. line 2. for _has_ read _have_. + 6. for _near_ read _nearly_ + 28. 36. for _could sail_ read _could formerly sail_. + 86. 6. for _Egypt_ read _India_. + 87. 22. for _Leucke_ read _Leuke_. + 102. 5. for _principal_ read _principle_. + 213. 9. for _work_ read _worm_. + 281. 28. for _Ebor_ read _Ebn_. + 282. 20. for _Ebor_ read _Ebn_. + 5O7. 22. for _as_ read _than_. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, &c. &c. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, AND OF COMMERCIAL +ENTERPRISE, FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDS, TO THE TIME OF HERODOTUS. B.C. 450. + +The earliest traces of navigation and commerce are necessarily involved in +much obscurity, and are, besides, few and faint. It is impossible to assign +to them any clear and definite chronology; and they are, with a few +exceptions, utterly uncircumstantial. Nevertheless, in a work like this, +they ought not to be passed over without some notice; but the notice we +shall bestow upon them will not be that either of the chronologist or +antiquarian, but of a more popular, appropriate, and useful description. + +The intercourse of one nation with another first took place in that part of +the world to which a knowledge of the original habitation of mankind, and +of the advantages for sea and land commerce which that habitation enjoyed, +would naturally lead us to assign it. On the shores of the Mediterranean, +or at no great distance from that sea, among the Israelites, the +Phoenicians, and the Egyptians, we must look for the earliest traces of +navigation and commerce; and, in the only authentic history of the remotest +period of the world, as well as amidst the scanty and fabulous materials +supplied by profane writers, these nations are uniformly represented as the +most ancient navigators and traders. + +The slightest inspection of the map of this portion of the globe will teach +us that Palestine, Phoenicia, and Egypt were admirably situated for +commerce both by sea and land. It is, indeed, true that the Phoenicians, by +the conquests of Joshua, were expelled from the greatest part of their +territory, and obliged to confine themselves to a narrow slip of ground +between Mount Lebanon and the Mediterranean; but even this confined +territory presented opportunities and advantages for commerce of no mean +importance: they had a safe coast,--at least one good harbour; and the +vicinity of Lebanon, and other mountains, enabled them to obtain, with +little difficulty and expence, a large supply of excellent materials for +shipbuilding. There are, moreover, circumstances which warrant the +supposition, that, like Holland in modern times, they were rather the +carriers of other nations, than extensively engaged in the commerce of +their own productions or manufactures. On the north and east lay Syria, an +extensive country, covered with a deep rich soil, producing an abundant +variety of valuable articles. With this country, and much beyond it, to the +east, the means and opportunities of communication and commerce were easy, +by the employment of the camel; while, on the other hand, the caravans that +carried on the commerce of Asia and Africa necessarily passed through +Phoenicia, or the adjacent parts of Palestine. + +Egypt, in some respects, was still more advantageously situated for +commerce than Phoenicia: the trade of the west of Asia, and of the shores +of the Mediterranean lay open to it by means of that sea, and by the Nile +and the Red Sea a commercial intercourse with Arabia, Persia, and India +seemed almost to be forced upon their notice and adoption. It is certain, +however, that in the earliest periods of their history, the Egyptians were +decidedly averse to the sea, and to maritime affairs, both warlike and +commercial. It would be vain and unprofitable to explain the fabulous cause +assigned for this aversion: we may, however, briefly and, incidentally +remark that as Osiris particularly instructed his subjects in cultivating +the ground; and as Typhon coincides exactly in orthography and meaning with +a word still used in the East, to signify a sudden and violent storm, it is +probable that by Typhon murdering his brother Osiris, the Egyptians meant +the damage done to their cultivated lands by storms of wind causing +inundations. + +As the situation of Palestine for commerce was equally favourable with that +of Phoenicia, it is unnecessary to dilate upon it. That the Jews did not +engage more extensively in trade either by sea or land must be attributed +to the peculiar nature of their government, laws, and religion. + +Having thus briefly pointed out the advantages enjoyed by the Phoenicians, +Egyptians, and Jews for commercial intercourse, we shall now proceed to +notice the few particulars with which history supplies us regarding the +navigation and commerce of each, during the earliest periods. + +I. There is good reason to believe that most of the maritime adventures and +enterprises which have rendered the Phoenicians so famous in antiquity, +ought to be fixed between the death of Jacob, and the establishment of +monarchy among the Israelites; that is, between the years 1700 and 1095 +before Christ; but even before this, there are authentic notices of +Phoenician commerce and navigation. In the days of Abraham they were +considered as a very powerful people: and express mention is made of their +maritime trade in the last words of Jacob to his children. Moses informs us +that Tarshish (wherever it was situated) was visited by the Phoenicians. +When this people were deprived of a great portion of their territory by the +Israelites under Joshua, they still retained the city of Sidon; and from it +their maritime expeditions proceeded. The order of time in which they took +place, as well as their object and result, are very imperfectly known; it +seems certain, however, that they either regularly traded with, or formed +colonies or establishments for the purpose of trade at first in Cyprus and +Rhodes, and subsequently in Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, Gaul, and the +southern part of Spain. About 1250 years before Christ, the Phoenician +ships ventured beyond the Straits, entered the Atlantic, and founded Cadiz. +It is probable, also, that nearly about the same period they formed +establishments on the western coast of Africa. We have the express +authority of Homer, that at the Trojan war the Phoenicians furnished other +nations with many articles that could contribute to luxury and +magnificence; and Scripture informs us, that the ships of Hyram, king of +Tyre, brought gold to Solomon from Ophir. That they traded to Britain for +tin at so early a period as that which we are now considering, will appear +very doubtful, if the metal mentioned by Moses, (Numbers, chap. xxxi. verse +22.) was really tin, and if Homer is accurate in his statement that this +metal was used at the siege of Troy; for, certainly, at neither of these +periods had the Phoenicians ventured so far from their own country. + +Hitherto we have spoken of Sidon as the great mart of Phoenician commerce; +at what period Tyre was built and superseded Sidon is not known. In the +time of Homer, Tyre is not even mentioned: but very soon afterwards it is +represented by Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the other prophets, as a city +of unrivalled trade and wealth. Ezekiel, who prophesied about the year 595 +B.C. has given a most picturesque description of the wealth of Tyre, all of +which must have proceeded from her commerce, and consequently points out +and proves its great extent and importance. The fir-trees of Senir, the +cedars of Lebanon, the oaks of Bashan, the ivory of the Indies, the fine +linen of Egypt, and the hyacinth and purple of the isles of Elishah, are +enumerated among the articles used for their ships. Silver, tin, lead, and +vessels of brass; slaves, horses, and mules; carpets, ivory, and ebony; +pearls and silk; wheat, balm, honey, oil and gums; wine, and wool, and +iron, are enumerated as brought into the port of Tyre by sea, or to its +fairs by land, from Syria, Damascus, Greece, Arabia, and other places, the +exact site of which is not known.[1] Within the short period of fifteen or +twenty years after this description was written, Tyre was besieged by +Nebuchadnezzar; and after an obstinate and very protracted resistance, it +was taken and destroyed. The inhabitants, however, were enabled to retire +during the siege, with the greatest part of their property, to an island +near the shore, where they built New Tyre, which soon surpassed the old +city both in commerce and shipping. + +A short time previous to the era generally assigned to the destruction of +old Tyre, the Phoenicians are said to have performed a voyage, which, if +authentic, may justly be regarded as the most important that the annals of +this people record: we allude to the circumnavigation of Africa. As this +voyage has given rise to much discussion, we may be excused for deviating +from the cursory and condensed character of this part of our work, in order +to investigate its probable authenticity. All that we know regarding it is +delivered to us by Herodotus; according to this historian, soon after +Nechos, king of Egypt, had finished the canal that united the Nile and the +Arabian Gulf, he sent some Phoenicians from the borders of the Red Sea, +with orders to keep always along the coast of Africa, and to return by the +pillars of Hercules into the northern ocean. Accordingly the Phoenicians +embarked on the Erythrean Sea, and navigated in the southern ocean. When +autumn arrived, they landed on the part of Libya which they had reached, +and sowed corn; here they remained till harvest, reaped the corn, and then +re-embarked. In this manner they sailed for two years; in the third they +passed the pillars of Hercules, and returned to Egypt. They related that in +sailing round Libya, the sun was on their right hand. This relation, +continues Herodotus, seems incredible to me, but perhaps it will not appear +so to others. Before proceeding to an enquiry into the authenticity of this +maritime enterprize, it may be proper to explain what is meant by the sun +appearing on the right hand of the Phoenician navigators. The apparent +motion of the heavens being from east to west, the west was regarded by the +ancients as the foremost part of the world; the north, of course, was +deemed the right, and the south the left of the world. + +The principal circumstance attending this narrative, which is supposed to +destroy or greatly weaken its credibility, is the short period of time in +which this navigation was accomplished: it is maintained, that even at +present, it would certainly require eighteen months to coast Africa from +the Red Sea to the straits of Gibraltar; and "allowing nine months for each +interval on shore, between the sowing and reaping, the Phoenicians could +not have been more than eighteen months at sea." + +To this objection it may be replied, in the first place, that between the +tropics (within which space nearly the whole of the navigation was +performed) nine months is much too long a time to allow for each interval +on shore, between the sowing and the reaping: and, secondly, that though +the period occupied by the whole voyage, and some of the circumstances +attending it, may be inaccurately stated, the voyage itself ought not to be +wholly discredited on these accounts. + +The very circumstance which the historian rejects as incredible, is one of +the strongest arguments possible in favour of the tradition; though this +alone is not decisive, for the Phoenicians might have sailed far enough to +the south to have observed the sun to the north, even if they had not +accomplished the navigation of Africa. The strongest argument, however, in +our opinion, in support of the actual accomplishment of this +circumnavigation, has been unaccountably overlooked, in all the various +discussion to which the subject has given rise. It is evident that in most +voyages, false and exaggerated accounts may be given of the countries +visited or seen, and of the circumstances attendant upon the voyage; +whereas, with respect to this voyage, one most important and decisive +particular lay within reach of the observation of those who witnessed the +departure and arrival of the ships. If they sailed from the Red Sea, and +returned by the Mediterranean, they must have circumnavigated Africa. It is +obvious that if such a voyage was not performed, the story must have +originated with Herodotus, with those from whom he received his +information, or with those who were engaged in the expedition, supposing it +actually to have been engaged in, but not to have accomplished the +circumnavigation of Africa. The character of Herodotus secures him from the +imputation; and by none is he charged with it:--Necho lived about six +hundred and sixteen years before Christ; consequently little more than two +hundred years before Herodotus; moreover, the communication and commerce of +the Greeks with Egypt, was begun in the time of Psammeticus, the immediate +predecessor of Necho, and was encouraged in a very particular manner by +Amasis (who died in 525), who married a Greek, and was visited by Solon. +From these circumstances, it is improbable that Herodotus, who was +evidently not disposed to believe the account of the appearance of the sun, +should not have had it in his power to obtain good evidence, whether a ship +that had sailed from the Red Sea, had returned by the Mediterranean: if +such evidence were acquired, it is obvious, as has been already remarked, +that the third source of fabrication is utterly destroyed. Dr. Vincent is +strongly opposed to the authenticity of this voyage, chiefly on the grounds +that such ships as the ancients had, were by no means sufficiently strong, +nor their seamen sufficiently skilful and experienced, to have successfully +encountered a navigation, which the Portuguese did not accomplish without +great danger and difficulty, and that the alleged circumnavigation produced +no consequences. + +It may be incidentally remarked that the incredulity of Herodotus with +regard to the appearance of the sun to the north of the zenith, is not +easily reconcileable with what we shall afterwards shew was the extent of +his knowledge of the interior of Egypt. He certainly had visited, or had +received communications from those who had visited Ethiopia as far south as +eleven degrees north latitude. Under this parallel the sun appears for a +considerable part of the year to the north. How, then, it may be asked, +could Herodotus be incredulous of this phenomenon having been observed by +the Phoenician circumnavigators. This difficulty can be solved by supposing +either that if he himself had visited this part of Africa, it was at a +season of the year when the sun was in that quarter of the heavens in which +he was accustomed to see it; or, if he received his information from the +inhabitants of this district, that they, not regarding the periodical +appearance of the sun to the north of the zenith as extraordinary, did not +think it necessary to mention it. It certainly cannot be supposed that if +Herodotus had either seen himself, or heard from others, that the sun in +Ethiopia sometimes appeared to the north of the zenith, he would have +stated in such decided terms, when narrating the circumnavigation of the +Phoenicians, that such a phenomenon appeared to him altogether incredible. + +Before we return to the immediate subject of this part of our work, we may +be allowed to deviate from strict chronological order, for the purpose of +mentioning two striking and important facts, which naturally led to the +belief of the practicability of circumnavigating Africa, long before that +enterprise was actually accomplished by the Portuguese. + +We are informed by Strabo, on the authority of Posidonius, that Eudoxus of +Cyzicus, who lived about one hundred and fifty years before Christ, was +induced to conceive the practicability of circumnavigating Africa, from the +following circumstance. As Eudoxus was returning from India to the Red Sea, +he was driven by adverse winds on the coast of Ethiopia: there he saw the +figure of a horse sculptured on a piece of wood, which he knew to be a part +of the prow of a ship. The natives informed him that it had belonged to a +vessel, which had arrived among them from the west. Eudoxus brought it with +him to Egypt, and subjected it to the inspection of several pilots: they +pronounced it to be the prow of a small kind of vessel used by the +inhabitants of Gadez, to fish on the coast of Mauritania, as far as the +river Lixius: some of the pilots recognised it as belonging to a particular +vessel, which, with several others, had attempted to advance beyond the +Lixius, but had never afterwards been heard of. We are further informed on +the same authority, that Eudoxus, hence conceiving it practicable to sail +round Africa, made the attempt, and actually sailed from Gadez to a part of +Ethiopia, the inhabitants of which spoke the same language as those among +whom he had formerly been. From some cause not assigned, he proceeded no +farther: subsequently, however, he made a second attempt, but how far he +advanced, and what was the result, we are not informed. + +The second fact to which we allude is related in the Commentary of Abu +Sird, on the Travels of a Mahommedan in India and China, in the ninth +century of the Christian era. The travels and commentary are already given +in the first volume of this work; but the importance of the fact will, we +trust, plead our excuse for repeating the passage which contains it. + +"In our times, discovery has been made of a thing quite new: nobody +imagined that the sea which extends from the Indies to China, had any +communication with the sea of Syria, nor could any one take it into his +head. Now behold what has come to pass in our days, according to what we +have heard. In the Sea of Rum, or the Mediterranean, they found the wreck +of an Arabian ship which had been shattered by tempest; for all her men +perishing, and she being dashed to pieces by the waves, the remains of her +were driven by wind and weather into the Sea of Chozars, and from thence to +the canal of the Mediterranean sea, and at last were thrown on the Sea of +Syria. This evinces that the sea surrounds all the country of China, and of +Sila,--the uttermost parts of Turkestan, and the country of the Chozars, +and then it enters at the strait, till it washes the shore of Syria. The +proof of this is deduced from the built of the ship we are speaking of; for +none but the ships of Sarif are so put together, that the planks are not +nailed, or bolted, but joined together in an extraordinary manner, as if +they were sewn; whereas the planking of all the ships of the Mediterranean +Sea, and of the coast of Syria, is nailed and not joined together in the +same way." + +When we entered on this digression, we had brought the historical sketch of +the discoveries and commerce of the Phoenicians down to the period of the +destruction of Old Tyre, or about six hundred years before Christ. We shall +now resume it, and add such particulars on these subjects as relate to the +period that intervened between that event and the capture of New Tyre by +Alexander the Great. These are few in number; for though New Tyre exceeded, +according to all accounts, the old city in splendour, riches, and +commercial prosperity, yet antient authors have not left us any precise +accounts of their discoveries, such as can justly be fixed within the +period to which we have alluded. They seem to have advanced farther than +they had previously done along the west coast of Africa, and further along +the north coast of Spain: the discovery of the Cassiterides also, and their +trade to these islands for tin, (which we have shewn could hardly have +taken place so early as is generally supposed,) must also have occurred, +either immediately before, or soon after, the building of New Tyre. It is +generally believed, that the Cassiterides were the Scilly Islands, off the +coast of Cornwall. Strabo and Ptolemy indeed place them off the coast of +Spain; but Diodorus Siculus and Pliny give them a situation, which, +considering the vague and erroneous ideas the antients possessed of the +geography of this part of the world, corresponds pretty nearly with the +southern part of Britain. According to Strabo, the Phoenicians first +brought tin from the Cassiterides, which they sold to the Greeks, but kept +(as was usual with them) the trade entirely to themselves, and were utterly +silent respecting the place from which they brought it. The Greeks gave +these islands the name of Cassiterides, or the Tin Country; a plain proof +of what we before advanced, that tin was known, and generally used, +previous to the discovery of these islands by the Phoenicians. + +There is scarcely any circumstance connected with the maritime history of +the Phoenicians, more remarkable than their jealousy of foreigners +interfering with their trade, to which we have just alluded. It seems to +have been a regular plan, if not a fixed law with them, if at any time +their ships observed that a strange ship kept them company, or endeavoured +to trace their track, to outsail her if practicable; or, where this could +not be done, to depart during the night from their proper course. The +Carthaginians, a colony of the Phoenicians, adopted this, among other +maritime regulations of the parent state, and even carried it to a greater +extent. In proof of this, a striking fact may be mentioned: the master of a +Carthaginian ship observing a Roman vessel following his course, purposely +ran his vessel aground, and thus wrecked his own ship, as well as the one +that followed him. This act was deemed by the Carthaginian government so +patriotic, that he was amply rewarded for it, as well as recompensed for +the loss of his vessel. + +The circumstances attending the destruction of New Tyre by Alexander the +Great are well known. The Tyrians united with the Persians against +Alexander, for the purpose of preventing the invasion of Persia; this +having incensed the conqueror, still further enraged by their refusal to +admit him within their walls, he resolved upon the destruction of this +commercial city. For seven months, the natural strength of the place, and +the resources and bravery of the inhabitants, enabled them to hold out; but +at length it was taken, burnt to the ground, and all the inhabitants, +except such as had escaped by sea, were either put to death or sold as +slaves. + +Little is known respecting the structure and equipment of the ships which +the Phoenicians employed in their commercial navigation. According to the +apocryphal authority of Sanconiatho, Ousous, one of the most ancient of the +Phoenician heroes, took a tree which was half burnt, cut off its branches, +and was the first who ventured to expose himself on the waters. This +tradition, however, probably owes its rise to the prevalent belief among +the ancients, that to the Phoenicians was to be ascribed the invention of +every thing that related to the rude navigation and commerce of the +earliest ages of the world: under this idea, the art of casting accounts, +keeping registers, and every thing, in short, that belongs to a factory, is +attributed to their invention.[2] With respect to their vessels,-- +"Originally they had only rafts, or simple boats; they used oars to conduct +these weak and light vessels. As navigation extended itself, and became +more frequent, they perfected the construction of ships, and made them of a +much larger capacity. They were not long in discovering the use that might +be drawn from the wind, to hasten and facilitate the course of a ship, and +they found out the art of aiding it by means of masts and sails." Such is +the account given by Goguet; but it is evident that this is entirely +conjectural history: and we may remark, by the bye, that a work otherwise +highly distinguished by clear and philosophical views, and enriched by +considerable learning and research, in many places descends to fanciful +conjecture. + +All that we certainly know respecting the ships of the Phoenicians, is, +that they had two kinds; one for the purposes of commerce, and the other +for naval expeditions; and in this respect they were imitated by all the +other nations of antiquity. Their merchant-ships were called Gauloi. +According to Festus's definition of this term, the gauloi were nearly +round; but it is evident that this term must be taken with considerable +restriction; a vessel round, or nearly so, could not possibly be navigated. +It is most probable that this description refers entirely to the shape of +the bottom or hold of the vessel; and that merchant ships were built in +this manner, in order that they might carry more goods; whereas the ships +for warfare were sharp in the bottom. Of other particulars respecting the +construction and equipment of the ships of the Phoenicians, we are +ignorant: they probably resembled in most things those of Greece and Rome; +and these, of which antient historians speak more fully, will be described +afterwards. + +The Phoenicians naturally paid attention to astronomy, so far at least as +might be serviceable to them in their navigation; and while other nations +were applying it merely to the purposes of agriculture and chronology, by +means of it they were guided through the "trackless ocean," in their +maritime enterprises. The Great Bear seems to have been known and used as a +guide by navigators, even before the Phoenicians were celebrated as a +sea-faring people; but this constellation affords a very imperfect and +uncertain rule for the direction of a ship's course: the extreme stars that +compose it are more than forty degrees distant from the pole, and even its +centre star is not sufficiently near it. The Phoenicians, experiencing the +imperfection of this guide, seem first to have discovered, or at least to +have applied to maritime purposes, the constellation of the Lesser Bear. +But it is probable, that at the period when they first applied this +constellation, which is supposed to be about 1250 years before Christ, they +did not fix on the star at the extremity of the tail of Ursa Minor, which +is what we call the Pole Star; for by a Memoir of the Academy of Sciences +(1733. p. 440.) it is shewn, that it would at that period be too distant to +serve the purpose of guiding their track.[3] + +II. The gleanings in antient history respecting the maritime and commercial +enterprises, and the discoveries and settlements of the Egyptians, during +the very early ages, to which we are at present confining ourselves, are +few and unimportant compared with those of the Phoenicians, and +consequently will not detain us long. + +We have already noticed the advantageous situation of Egypt for navigation +and commerce: in some respects it was preferable to that of Phoenicia; for +besides the immediate vicinity of the Mediterranean, a sea, the shores of +which were so near to each other that they almost prevented the possibility +of the ancients, rude and ignorant as they were of all that related to +navigation and the management of ships, deviating long or far from their +route; besides the advantages of a climate equally free from the clouded +skies, long nights and tempestuous weather of more northern regions, and +from the irresistible hurricanes of those within the tropics--besides these +favourable circumstances, which, the Egyptians enjoyed in common with the +Phoenicians, they had, running far into their territory, a river easily +navigable, and at no great distance from this river, and bounding their +country, a sea almost equally favourable for navigation and commerce as the +Mediterranean. Their advantages for land journies were also numerous and +great; though the vicinity of the deserts seemed at first sight to have +raised an effectual bar to those countries which they divided from Egypt, +yet Providence had wisely and benevolently removed the difficulty arising +from this source, and had even rendered intercommunication, where deserts +intervened, more expeditious, and not more difficult, than in those regions +where they did not occur, by the creation of the camel, a most benevolent +compensation to the Egyptians for their vicinity to the extensive deserts +of Africa. + +Notwithstanding the advantageous situation of the Egyptians for navigation, +they were extremely averse, as we nave already remarked, during the +earliest periods of their history, to engage in sea affairs, either for the +purposes of war or commerce; nor did they indeed, at any time, enter with +spirit, or on a large scale, into maritime enterprises. + +The superstitious and fabulous reasons assigned for this antipathy of the +Egyptians to the sea [has->have] been noticed before; perhaps some other +causes contributed to it, as well as the one alluded to. Egypt is nearly +destitute of timber proper for ship-building: its sea-coasts are unhealthy, +and do not appear to have been inhabited [near->nearly] so early as the +higher country: its harbours are few, of intricate navigation, and +frequently changing their depth and direction; and lastly, the advantages +which the Nile presents for intercourse and traffic precluded the necessity +of applying to sea navigation and commerce. + +Some authors are of opinion that the ancient Egyptians did not engage in +navigation and commerce till the era of the Ptolemies; but this is +undoubtedly a mistake, since traces of their commercial intercommunication +with other nations may be found at a very early period of history. It is +probable, however, that for a long time they themselves did not engage in +commerce, but were merely visited by traders from foreign countries; for at +this era it was a maxim with them, never to leave their own country. The +low opinion they entertained of commerce may be gathered from Herodotus, +who mentions, that the men disdained to meddle with it, but left it +entirely to the women. + +The earliest account we possess of traffic with Egypt, is to be found in +the Old Testament, where we are informed, that the Midianites and +Ismaelites traded thither as early as the time of Jacob. + +Sesostris, who is generally supposed to have lived about 1650 years before +Christ, is by most writers described as the king who first overcame the +dislike of the Egyptians to the sea. That this monarch engaged in many +enterprises both by sea and land, not only for conquest, but also for +purposes of trade and colonization, there can be no doubt; though it is +impossible either to trace his various routes, or to estimate the extent of +his conquests or discoveries. The concurrent testimony of Diodorus and +Herodotus assign to him a large fleet in the Red Sea; and according to +other historians, he had also a fleet in the Mediterranean. In order the +more effectually to banish the prejudices of the Egyptians against the sea, +he is said to have instituted a marine class among his subjects. By these +measures he seems to have acquired the sovereignty and the commerce of the +greater part of the shores of the Red Sea; along which his ships continued +their route, till, according to Herodotus, they were prevented from +advancing by shoals and places difficult to navigate; a description which +aptly applies to the navigation of this sea. + +His expeditions and conquests in other parts of the globe do not fall +within our object: one however must be noticed; we allude to the settlement +of the Egyptians at Colchos. Herodotus is doubtful whether this was a +colony planted by Sesostris, or whether part of his army remained behind on +the banks of the Phasis, when he invaded this part of Asia. We allude to +this colony, because with it were found, at the time of the Argonautic +expedition, proofs of the attention which Sesostris had paid to geography, +and of the benefits which that science derived from him. "Tradition," +Gibbon observes, "has affirmed, with some colour of reason, that Egypt +planted on the Phasis a learned and polite colony, which manufactured +linen, built navies, and invented geographical maps." All the information +we possess respecting these maps is derived from Apollonius Rhodius, and +his scholiast: the substance of it is as follows: according to this +poet,--Phineas, king of Colchos, predicted to the Argonauts the events +which would accompany their return. Argus, one of the Argonauts, explained +that prediction to his companions, and told them, that the route which they +must keep was described on tables, or rather on columns, which an Egyptian +conqueror had before left in the city of Oca, the capital of Colchis; on +these columns, the whole extent of the roads, and the limits of the land +and sea were marked out. An ingenious, and by no means an improbable +inference, has been drawn from this circumstance: that if Sesostris left +such columns in a part so remote from Egypt, it is to be supposed that they +were more numerous in Egypt itself. In short, though on a point like this +it is impossible to gain clear and undoubted testimony, we are, upon the +whole, strongly disposed to coincide in opinion with Gibbon, that tradition +has some colour of reason for affirming that the Egyptian colony at Phasis +possessed geographical maps. + +After the death of Sesostris, the Egyptians seem to have relapsed into +their former dislike to the sea: they indeed sent colonies into Greece, and +other parts; but these colonists kept up no relation with the mother +country. Their commerce was carried on, as it had been before the time of +Sesostris, by foreigners. The Old Testament informs us, that in the time of +Solomon many horses were brought from Egypt: and, from the same authority, +as well as from Herodotus and Homer, we learn that the Phoenicians carried +on a regular and lucrative traffic with this country; and, indeed, for a +long time, about this period, they were the only nation to whom the ports +of Egypt were open. Of the navigation and commerce of the Red Sea they were +equally negligent; so that while none of their ships were seen on it, it +was covered with the fleets of the Syrians, Phoenicians, and other nations. + +Bocchoris, who lived about seven hundred years before Christ, is +represented by historians as having imitated the maxims of Sesostris, with +respect to maritime affairs and commerce. Some of his laws on these +subjects are still extant; and they display his knowledge of, and attention +to, the improvement of his kingdom. By some of his immediate successors the +ancient maxims of the Egyptians, which led them to avoid intercourse with +strangers, were gradually done away; but it is to Psammeticus, historians +ascribe the most decisive measures for rooting out this antipathy. In his +reign the ports of Egypt were first opened to foreign ships generally. He +seems particularly to have encouraged commercial intercourse with the +Greeks; though afterwards, either from some particular cause of jealousy or +dislike to this nation, or from the still operating antipathy of the +Egyptians to foreigners, the Greeks were not permitted to enter any port +except Naucratis, which they had been suffered to build for the residence +of their merchants and convenience of their trade. This city lay on the +Canopic branch of the Nile; and if a vessel entered any other mouth of this +river, the master was obliged to return to the Canopic branch; or, if the +wind did not permit this, to unlade his vessel, and send his merchandize to +Naucratis by the country boats. + +From the time of Psammeticus, when the Greeks were allowed to settle in +Egypt, frequent intercourse and correspondence was kept up between them and +their countrymen in Greece; and from this circumstance the Egyptian history +may henceforth be more firmly depended upon. It has already been remarked, +that as the alleged circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians took +place during the reign of Necho, the successor of Psammeticus, the grounds +for its authenticity are much stronger than if it had occurred previously +to the intercourse of the Greeks with Egypt. + +The employment of Phoenician mariners by Necho, to circumnavigate Africa, +bespeaks a monarch bent on maritime and commercial enterprise; and there +are other transactions of his reign which confirm this character. It is +said that Sesostris attempted to unite by a canal the Mediterranean and the +Red Sea, but that he did not succeed in his attempt: Necho also made the +attempt with as little success. He next turned his thoughts to the +navigation and commerce of the Mediterranean and Red Sea, in each of which +he had large fleets. + +The superstitious antipathy of the Egyptians having been thus broken +through, and the recurrence of this antipathy secured against, by the +advantages they derived from navigation and commerce, the Egyptian monarchs +seem, as long as Egypt continued free, to have directed their attention and +resources, with considerable zeal and success, to maritime affairs. Their +strength by sea, as well as their experience, may be estimated by an event +during the reign of Apries, the grandson of Necho: this monarch was engaged +in war with the Sidonians, Tyrians and Cypriots; he took the city of Sidon +by storm, and defeated both the Phoenicians and Cypriots in a sea fight. In +fact, during his reign the Egyptians had the command of the Mediterranean +Sea. It is probable, that if they had continued long after this time an +independent state, they would have been still more celebrated and +successful in their maritime and commercial affairs; but in the year 525 +before Christ, about seventy years after the reign of Apries, Egypt was +conquered by the Persians. + +Notwithstanding, therefore, this temporary dereliction of their antipathy +to the sea, and intercourse with foreigners, the Egyptians can scarcely be +regarded as a nation distinguished for their maritime and commercial +enterprises; and they certainly by no means, either by sea or land, took +advantages of those favourable circumstances by which their country seemed +to be marked out for the attainment of an extensive and lucrative commerce. +It is well remarked by Dr. Vincent, that "while Egypt was under the power +of its native sovereigns Tyre, Sidon, Arabia, Cyprus, Greece, Sicily, and +Carthage, were all enriched by the trade carried on in its ports, and the +articles of commerce which could be obtained there, and there only; the +Egyptians themselves were hardly known in the Mediterranean as the +exporters of their own commodities; they were the Chinese of the ancient +world, and the ships of all nations, except their own, laded in their +harbours." As soon, however, as it passed from the power of its native +sovereigns, and became subject successively to the Persians, Macedonians, +and Romans, it furnished large fleets, and, as we shall afterwards notice, +under the Greeks, Alexandria became one of the principal commercial cities +in the world. The Greek inhabitants of Egypt were the carriers of the +Mediterranean, as well as the agents, factors, and importers of oriential +produce. The cities which had risen under the former system sank into +insignificance; and so wise was the new policy, and so deeply had it taken +root, that the Romans, upon the subjection of Egypt, found it more +expedient to leave Alexandria in possession of its privileges, than to +alter the course of trade, or to occupy it themselves. + +We possess scarcely any notices respecting the construction and equipment +of the Egyptian ships. According to Herodotus, they were made of thorns +twisted together, and their sails of rush mats: they were built in a +particular manner, quite different from those of other nations, and rigged +also in a singular manner; so that they seem to have been the mockery of +the other maritime states in the Mediterranean. But this description can +hardly apply to the Egyptian ships, after they had become powerful at sea, +though the expressions of Herodotus seem to have reference to the Egyptian +ships of his age. There can be no doubt that the vessels that navigated the +Nile, were very rude and singular in their construction; and most probably +the description given by the historian ought to be regarded as exclusively +confined to them. They were built of the Egyptian thorn, which seems to +have been very extensively cultivated, especially in the vicinity of +Acanthus: planks of small dimensions were cut from this tree, which were +fastened together, or rather laid over one another, like tiles, with a +great number of wooden pins: they used no ribs in the construction of their +vessels: on the inside, papyrus was employed for the purpose of stopping up +the crevices, or securing the joints. There was but one rudder; whereas the +ships of the Greeks and Romans had generally two; this passed quite through +the keel. The mast was made of Egyptian thorn, and the sail of papyrus. +Indeed, these two plants appear to have been the entire materials used in +the construction and rigging of their ships. They were towed up the Nile, +as they were not fit to stem its stream, except when a strong favourable +wind blew. Their mode of navigating these vessels down the river was +singular; they fastened a hurdle of tamarisk with a rope to the prow of the +vessel; which hurdle they strengthened with bands of reeds, and let it down +into the water; they also hung a stone, pierced through the middle, and of +a considerable weight, by another rope, to the poop. By this means, the +stream bearing on the hurdle, carried down the boat with great expedition; +the stone at the same time balancing and keeping it steady. Of these +vessels they had great numbers on the river; some very large. + +III. The Jews were still more averse than the Egyptians to intercourse with +foreigners, and maritime and commercial enterprises; indeed, their country +was comparatively ill-situated for maritime commerce. Josephus is not, +however, quite correct, in stating that Judea was not situated on the sea, +and that the people of that country did not carry on any trade, but that +their whole thoughts were turned to agriculture. The words of Jacob, on his +death-bed, are expressly against this opinion: in blessing his twelve sons, +he says of Zebulon, "he shall dwell at the haven of the sea, and he shall +be for an haven of ships;" and we know that the tribe of Zebulon was +extended to the sea shore, and to the gates of Sidon. + +It is not likely, that being in the immediate vicinity of this commercial +city, the Jews would not be stimulated to follow its example, and endeavour +to draw wealth from the same sources. Indeed, the Old Testament expressly +speaks of Joppa as the port of Judea and Jerusalem, into which foreign +articles, and especially many of the materials used by Solomon in the +building of the temple, were imported. + +On the conquest of the Amalekites and Edomites by King David, the Jews +gained possession of some ports in the Red Sea; and during his reign, and +that of Solomon, the Jews certainly employed the ships of their ally, Hiram +king of Tyre, extensively in foreign commerce. Indeed, the commerce of the +Phoenicians from the Red Sea, appears to have been carried on principally, +if not entirely, from the harbours in that sea belonging to the Jews, +though there is no ground for believing that the Jews themselves had any +fleet on it, or were at all engaged in its commerce. These short notices +are all that history supplies us with, on the subject of the navigation and +commerce of the Jews. From the Old Testament we may, however, collect +materials, by which we may estimate the progress they had made in +geography. About 500 years before Christ, they do not appear to have +extended their knowledge of the globe beyond Mount Caucasus to the north, +the entrance of the Red Sea to the south, and the Mediterranean Archipelago +to the west, besides Egypt, Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, and perhaps +a small part of Abyssinia. + +Having thus given a sketch of the progress of discovery, and of commercial +enterprize by sea and land, among those nations who were the most early in +directing their attention to these points, we shall next proceed to an +account of the navigation and commercial enterprizes of the Greeks and +Romans; and as in this part of our work we shall follow a more strictly +chronological arrangement, the navigation and commercial enterprizes of the +Carthaginians will be incidentally noticed in the order of time to which +they belong. Before, however, we proceed to this subject, it may be proper +to enter more particularly and fully than we have hitherto done, into a +description of the construction and equipment of the ancient ships, since, +so far as relates to the ships of the Greeks and Romans, we possess much +more ample materials for such a description, than history supplies us with +respecting the ships of the other nations of antiquity. + +The traditionary story of the Phoenicians, that one of their heroes was the +first man who had the courage to expose himself upon the waters, in a half +burnt tree, stript of its branches, has already been noticed. It is +probable, however, that the first vessels had not even so much resemblance +to our present boats: indeed, conjecture, as well as history, warrant us in +believing that rafts were the most ancient mode of conveyance on the water; +and even in the time of Pliny they were extensively employed, especially in +the navigation of rivers. Boats formed of slender rods or hurdles, and +covered with skins, seem also to have preceded the canoe, or vessel mode of +a single piece of timber. It is probable that a considerable time would +elapse before the means of constructing boats of planks were discovered, +since the bending of the planks for that purpose is not a very obvious art. +The Greeks ascribe this invention to a native of Lydia; but at what period +he lived, is not known. Among some nations, leather was almost the only +material used in the construction of ships; and even in the time of Caesar, +the Veneti, a people of Brittany, distinguished as a maritime and +commercial tribe, made their sails of hides, and their tackle of thongs. In +early ages, also, the Greeks used the common rushes of their country, and +the Carthaginians, the spartum, or broom of Spain. + +But it is to the ships of Greece and Rome, when they were constructed with +more skill, and better adapted to navigation, that we are to pay attention; +and of those, only to such as were used for commercial purposes. The latter +were rounder and more capacious than ships used for war; they were +principally impelled by sails; whereas the ships of war, though not wholly +without sails, were chiefly rowed. Another difference between them was, +that ships of war commonly had an helmet engraven on the top of their +masts, and ships for trade had a basket suspended on the top of their mast +as a sign. There seems to have been great variety in the construction of +the latter, according to the particular trade in which they were to be +engaged; and each ship of burden had its boat attached to it. The name of +the ship, or rather of its tutelary deity, was inscribed on the stern: +various forms of gods, animals, plants, &c. were also painted on other +parts. The inhabitants of Phoeacia, or Corsica, are represented as the +first who used pitch to fill up the seams, and preserve the timber; +sometimes wax was used for this purpose, or rather it was mixed with the +paint, to prevent its being defaced by the sun, winds, or water. The +principal instruments used in navigation were the rudder, anchor, sounding +line, cables, oars, sails, and masts. + +It is evident from ancient authors, that the ships of the Phoenicians, +Greeks, Romans, and other people of antiquity, had frequently more than one +rudder; but it is not easy to perceive in what way more than one could be +applied to the same end for which the rudder of modern ships is used. Small +vessels had only one. Homer in his Odyssey mentions only one, which was +fastened, and perhaps strengthened, so as to withstand the winds and waves +on each side, with hurdles, made of sallow or osier; at the same period the +ships of the Phoenicians had two rudders. When there were two, one was +fixed at each end; this, however, seems to have been the case only where, +as was not uncommon, the ships had two prows, so that either end could go +foremost. With respect to vessels of four rudders, as two are described as +being fixed to the sides, it is probable that these resembled in their +construction and object the pieces of wood attached to the sides of small +Dutch vessels and barges on the Thames, and generally all vessels that are +flat-bottomed, for the purpose of preventing them from making much _lee +way_, when they are _working_ against the wind. + +The first anchors were not made of iron, but of stone, or even of wood; +these were loaded with lead. According to Diodorus, the Phoenicians, in +their first voyages to Spain, having obtained more silver than their ships +could safely hold, employed some of it, instead of lead, for their anchors. +Very anciently the anchor had only one fluke. Anacharsis is said to have +invented an anchor with two. Sometimes baskets full of stones, and sacks +filled with sand, were employed as anchors. Every ship had two anchors, one +of which was never used, except in cases of great danger: it was larger +than the other, and was called the sacred anchor. At the period of the +Argonautic expedition, it does not appear that anchors of any kind but +stone were known; though the scholiast upon Apollonius Rhodius, quite at +variance with the testimony of this author, mentions anchors of iron with +two flukes. It has been supposed that anchors were not used by the Grecian +fleet at the siege of Troy, because "the Greek word which is used to mean +an anchor, properly so called, is not used in any of the poems of Homer." +It is certain that iron anchors were not then known; but it is equally +certain that large stones were used as anchors. + +Homer is entirely silent respecting any implement that would serve the +purpose of a sounding line; but it is expressly mention by Herodotus as +common in his time: it was commonly made of lead or brass, and attached, +not to a cord, but an iron, chain. + +In very ancient times the cables were made of leather thongs, afterwards of +rushes, the osier, the Egyptian byblus, and other materials. The Veneti +used iron cables; hence we see that what is generally deemed an invention +entirely modern, was known to a savage nation in Gaul, in the time of +Caesar. This nation was so celebrated for the building and equipment of +their vessels, which were, from all accounts, better able to withstand the +fury of the ocean than the ships even of the Greeks and Romans, that Caesar +gave orders for the building of vessels, on the Loire, similar to those of +the Veneti, large, flat-bottomed, and high at the head and stern. Yet these +vessels, built on such an excellent model, and supplied with chain-cables, +had no sails but what were made of leather; and these sails were never +furled, but only bound to the mast. Besides cables, the ancients had other +ropes to fasten ships in the harbours: the usual mode was to erect stones +for this purpose, which were bored through. + +In the time of Homer, the ships of the ancients had only one bank of oars; +afterwards two, three, four, five, and even nine and ten banks of oars are +said not to have been uncommon: but it is not easy to understand in what +manner so many oars could have been used: we shall not enter on this +question, which is still unresolved. The Romans had seldom any vessels with +more than five banks of oars. Such vessels as were intended for lightness, +had only one bank of oars; this was particularly the case with the vessels +of the Liburnians, a piratical tribe on the Adriatic. + +The sails, in very ancient times, were made of leather; afterwards of +rushes. In the days of Agricola, the Roman sails were made of flax: towards +the end of the first century, hemp was in common use among them for sails, +ropes, and new for hunting. At first there was only one sail in a ship, but +afterwards there appear to have been several: they were usually white, as +this colour was deemed fortunate; sometimes, however, they were coloured. + +At the time of the Trojan war, the Greek ships had only one mast, which was +lowered upon the deck when the ship was in harbour: near the top of the +mast a ribband was fastened to point out the direction of the wind. In +later times there seem to have been several masts, though this is denied by +some authors. + +It remains now to speak of the materials of which the ships were built, +their size, and their crews. + +The species of wood principally employed in the construction of the Grecian +ships were alder, poplar, and fir: cedar, pine, and cypress, were also +used. The Veneti, already mentioned as celebrated for their ships, built +them of oak; but theirs are the only vessels of antiquity that seem to have +been constructed of this kind of wood. The timber was so little seasoned, +that a considerable number of ships are recorded as having been completely +built and equipped in thirty days, after the timber was cut down in the +forest. In the time of the Trojan war, no iron was used in the building of +ships; the planks were fastened to the ribs with cords. + +In the most ancient accounts of the Grecian ships, the only mode by which +we can form a conjecture of their size, is from the number of men they were +capable of holding. At the siege of Troy, Homer describes the ships of the +Beotians as the largest; and they carried, he says, one hundred and twenty +men. As Thucydides informs us that at this period soldiers served as +rowers, the number mentioned by Homer must comprehend all the ship could +conveniently accommodate. In general the Roman trading vessels were very +small. Cicero represents those that could hold two thousand amphorae, or +about sixty tons, as very large; there were, however, occasionally enormous +ships built: one of the most remarkable for size was that of Ptolemy; it +was four hundred and twenty feet long, and if it were broad and deep in +proportion, its burden must have been upwards of seven thousand tons, more +than three times the burden of one of our first rates; but it is probable +that it was both flat bottomed and narrow. Of the general smallness of the +Greek and Roman ships, we need no other proof, than that they were +accustomed to draw them on land when in port, and during the winter; and +that they were often conveyed for a considerable space over land. They were +sometimes made in such a manner that they could easily and quickly be taken +to pieces, and put together again. Thucydides asserts that the ships which +carried the Greeks to Troy were not covered; but in this he is contradicted +by Homer. + +The principal officer in ships intended for trade was the pilot: he was +expected to know the right management of the sails, rudder, &c. the wind, +and celestial bodies, the harbours, rocks, quick-sands, and course to be +steered. The Greeks were far behind the Phoenicians in many parts of +nautical knowledge: we have seen that the latter at an early period changed +the Greater for the Lesser Bear, for the direction of their course; whereas +the Greeks steered by the Greater Bear. In very early periods it was the +practice to steer all day by the course of the sun, and at night to anchor +near the shore. Several stars were observed by the pilot for the purpose of +foretelling the weather, the principal of which were Arcturus, the Dog +Star, Orion, Castor and Pollux, &c. In the time of Homer, the Greeks knew +only the four cardinal winds; they were a long time ignorant of the art of +subdividing the intermediate parts of the horizon, and of determining a +number of rhombs sufficient to serve the purposes of a navigation of small +extent. Even so late as the date of the Periphes of the Erythræan Sea, +which Dr. Vincent has fixed about the tenth year of Nero's reign, only +eight points of the compass are mentioned; these are the same as are marked +upon the temple of the winds at Athens. The utmost length to which the +ancients arrived in subdividing the compass, was by adding two intermediate +winds between each of the cardinal winds. We have noticed these particulars +relative to the winds and the constellations, in order to illustrate the +duty which the pilot had to perform, and the difficulty and responsibility +of his office, at a period when navigators possessed such a small portion +of experience and knowledge. + +Besides the chief pilot, there was a subordinate one, whose duty it was to +keep a look out at the prow, to manage and direct the sails and rowers, and +to assist the principal pilot by his advice: the directions of the +subordinate pilot were conveyed to the rowers by another officer, who seems +to have answered to the boatswain of our men of war. The rowers were +enabled to pull all at once, or to keep time, by a person who sung and +played to them while they were employed. During the night, or in difficult +navigations, the charge of the sounding lead, or of the long poles, which +were used either for the same purpose, or to push the ship off, when she +got a-ground, was committed to a particular officer. There were, besides, +men whose duty it was to serve out the victuals, to keep the ship's +accounts, &c. + +The usual day's sail of a ship of the ancients was five hundred stadia, or +fifty miles; and the course run over, when they sailed night and day, +double that space. + +We have confined ourselves, in this account of the ships of the ancients, +principally to those particulars that are connected with the construction, +equipment, &c. of those employed for commercial purposes, and shall now +proceed to a historical sketch of the progress of discovery among the +Greeks, from the earliest records to the era of Herodotus, the father of +geographical knowledge. + +The first maritime expedition of the Greeks, of which we have a particular +narration, and certainly one of the most celebrated in ancient times, is +the Argonautic expedition. As we purpose to go into some length on the +subject of this expedition, it may be proper to defend ourselves from the +charge of occupying too much space, and giving too much attention to an +enterprize generally deemed fabulous, and so obscured by fable and +uncertainty, as to be little capable of illustration, and little conducive +to the improvement of geographical knowledge. This defence we shall borrow +from a name deservedly high among those who have successfully illustrated +ancient geography, for the happy and successful mutual adaptation of great +learning and sound judgment, and not less worthy of respect and imitation +for his candour and liberality: we allude to Dr. Vincent, the illustrator +of the Voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea. + +"The reality of the Argonautic expedition, (he observes in the Preliminary +Disquisition to the latter work), has been questioned; but if the +primordial history of every nation but one is tinctured with the fabulous, +and if from among the rest a choice is necessary to be made, it must be +allowed that the traditions of Greece are less inconsistent than those of +the more distant regions of the earth. Oriental learning is now employed in +unravelling the mythology of India, and recommending it as containing the +seeds of primæval history; but hitherto we have seen nothing that should +induce us to relinquish the authority we have been used to respect, or to +make us prefer the fables of the Hindoos or Guebres, to the fables of the +Greeks. Whatever difficulties may occur in the return of the Argonauts, +their voyage to Colchis is consistent: it contains more real geography than +has yet been discovered in any record of the Bramins or the Zendevesta, and +is truth itself, both geographical and historical, when compared with the +portentous expedition of Rám to Ceylon." + +In discussing the subject of the Argonautic expedition, we shall +successively consider its probable era--its supposed object--the voyage to +Colchis, and the various tracks by which the Argonauts are said to have +returned. + +I. Archbishop Usher fixes the era of this expedition at about 1280 years +before Christ: Sir Isaac Newton, on the other hand, fixes it much later, +about 937 years before Christ. His opinion is grounded principally on a +supposition, that the Greek sphere was invented by two of the Argonauts, +who delineated the expedition under the name of Argo, one of the +constellations. And as the equinoctial colure passed through the middle of +Aries, when that sphere was constructed, he infers, by calculations of +their retrograde motion from their place then till the year A.D. 1690, that +the expedition took place in 937 before Christ. To this, however, there +seem to be insurmountable objections, which it is surprising did not occur +to this great man. The chief star in Argo is only 37 degrees from the south +pole; and the greatest part of the constellation is much nearer. The course +of the Argonauts from Greece to Colchis, necessarily lay between 39 and 45 +degrees of north latitude. It will be evident to any person acquainted with +astronomy, that within these latitudes no star of the first magnitude, or +such as would attract observation, especially in those times, could be +visible. But, what is still more decisive against the whole of Sir Isaac +Newton's hypothesis, he takes for granted that the sphere was invented by +the Argonauts: if this indeed could be proved, it would be easy to fix the +era of the Argonautic expedition; but till such proof is given, all that +can be fairly inferred from an inspection of this sphere is, that it was +constructed 937 years before Christ. We have dwelt upon this point, +because, thinking that the Argonautic expedition was not nearly so late as +Newton supposes, we hence regard it as, proportionally to its antiquity, +more creditable to the Greeks, and a stronger proof of their advancement in +maritime skill and enterprize. + +II. Its alleged object was the Golden Fleece: what that actually was can +only be conjectured;--that no commercial advantages would tempt the people +of that age is obvious, when we reflect on their habits and manners;--that +the precious metals would be a powerful attraction, and would be regarded +as cheaply acquired by the most hazardous enterprizes, is equally obvious. +If Sir Walter Raleigh, sound as he was for his era in the science of +political economy, was so far ignorant of the real wealth of nations, as to +be disappointed when he did not find El Dorado in America, though that +country contained much more certain and abundant sources of wealth,--can we +be surprized if the Greeks, at the time of the Argonautic expedition, could +be stimulated to such an enterprize, only by the hope of obtaining the +precious metals? It may, indeed, be contended that plunder was their +object; but it does not seem likely that they would have ventured to such a +distance from Greece, or on a navigation which they knew to be difficult +and dangerous, as well as long, for the sake of plunder, when there were +means and opportunities for it so much nearer home. We must equally reject +the opinion of Suidas, that the Golden Fleece was a parchment book, made of +sheep-skin, which contained the whole secret of transmuting all metals into +gold; and the opinion of Varro, that the Argonauts went to obtain skins and +other rich furs, which Colchis furnished in abundance. And the remarks +which we have made, also apply against the opinion of Eustathius, that the +voyage of the Argonauts was at once a commercial and maritime expedition, +to open the commerce of the Euxine Sea, and to establish forts on its +shore. + +Having rendered it probable, from general considerations, that the object +was the obtaining of the precious metals, we shall next proceed to +strengthen this opinion, by showing that they were the produce of the +country near the Black Sea. The gold mines to the south of Trebizond, which +are still worked with sufficient profit, were a subject of national dispute +between Justinian and Chozroes; and, as Gibbon remarks, "it is not +unreasonable to believe that a vein of precious metal may be equally +diffused through the circle of the hills." On what account these mines were +shadowed out under the appellation of a Golden Fleece, it is not easy to +explain. Pliny, and some other writers, suppose that the rivers impregnated +with particles of gold were carefully strained through sheeps-skins, or +fleeces; but these are not the materials that would be used for such a +purpose: it is more probable that, if fleeces were used, they were set +across some of the narrow parts of the streams, in order to stop and +collect the particles of gold. + +III. It is said that there was an ancient law in Greece, which forbad any +ship to be navigated with more than fifty men, and that Jason was the first +who offended against this law. There can be little doubt, from all the +accounts of the ancients, that Jason's ship was larger than the Greeks at +that period were accustomed to. Diodorus and Pliny represent it as the +first ship of war which went out of the ports of Greece; that it was +comparatively large, well built and equipped, and well navigated in all +respects, must be inferred from its having accomplished such a voyage at +that era. + +In their course to the Euxine Sea, they visited Lemnos, Samothrace, Troas, +Cyzicum, Bithynia, and Thrace; these wanderings must have been the result +of their ignorance of the navigation of those seas. From Thrace they +directed their course, without further wanderings, to the Euxine Sea. At +the distance of four or five leagues from the entrance to the sea, are the +Cyanean rocks; the Argonauts passed between them not without difficulty and +danger; before this expedition, the passage was deemed impracticable, and +many fables were told regarding them: their true situation and form were +first explored by the Argonauts. They now safely entered the Euxine Sea, +where they seem to have been driven about for some time, till they +discovered Mount Caucasus; this served as a land mark for their entrance +into the Phasis, when they anchored near OEa, the capital of Colchis. + +IV. The course of the Argonauts to Colchis is well ascertained; and the +accessions to the geographical knowledge of that age, which we derive from +the accounts given of that course, are considerable. But with respect to +the route they followed on their return, there is much contradiction and +fable. All authors agree that they did not return by the same route which +they pursued in their outward voyage. According to Hesiod, they passed from +the Euxine into the Eastern Ocean; but being prevented from returning by +the same route, in consequence of the fleet of Colchis blockading the +Bosphorus, they were obliged to sail round Ethiopia, and to cross Lybia by +land, drawing their vessels after them. In this manner they arrived at the +Gulph of Syrtis, in the Mediterranean. Other ancient writers conduct the +Argonauts back by the Nile, which they supposed to communicate with the +Eastern Ocean; while, by others, they are represented as having sailed up +the Danube to the Po or the Rhine. + +Amidst such obscure and evidently fictitious accounts, it may appear +useless to offer any conjecture; but there is one route by which the +Argonauts are supposed to have returned, in favour of which some +probability may be urged. All writers agree in opinion that they did not +return by the route they followed on going to the Euxine; if this be true, +the least absurd and improbable mode of getting back into the Mediterranean +is to be preferred: of those routes already mentioned, all are eminently +absurd and impossible. Perhaps the one we are about to describe, may, in +the opinion of some, be deemed equally so; but to us it appears to have +some plausibility. The tradition to which we allude is, that the Argonauts +sailed up some sea or river from the Euxine, till they reached the Baltic +Sea, and that they returned by the Northern Ocean through the straits of +Hercules, into the Mediterranean. The existence of an ocean from the east +end of the Gulf of Finland to the Caspian or the Euxine Sea, was firmly +believed by Pliny, and the same opinion prevailed in the eleventh century; +for Adam of Bremen says, people [could sail->could formerly sail] from the +Baltic down to Greece. Now the whole of that tract of country is flat and +level, and from the sands near Koningsberg, through the calcareous loam of +Poland and the Ukraine, evidently alluvial and of comparatively recent +formation. + +If the Trojan war happened, according to the Arundelian Marbles, 1209 years +before Christ, this event must have been subsequent to the Argonautic +expedition only about fifty years: yet, in this short space of time, the +Greeks had made great advances in the art of ship building, and in +navigation. The equipment of the Argonautic expedition was regarded, at the +period it took place, as something almost miraculous; yet the ships sent +against Troy seem to have excited little astonishment, though, considering +the state of Greece at that period, they were very numerous. + +It is foreign to our purpose to regard this expedition in any other light +than as it is illustrative of the maritime skill and attainments of Greece +at this era, and so far connected with our present subject. The number of +ships employed, according to Homer, amounted to 1186: Thucydides states +them at 1200; and Euripides, Virgil, and some other authors, reduce their +number to 1000. The ships of the Boeotians were the largest; they carried +120 men each; those of the Philoctetæ were the smallest, each carrying +only fifty men. Agamemnon had 160 ships; the Athenians fifty; Menelaus, +king of Sparta, sixty; but some of his ships seem to have been furnished by +his allies; whereas all the Athenian vessels belonged to Athens alone. We +have already mentioned that Thucydides is contradicted by Homer, in his +assertion that the Greek ships, at the siege of Troy, had no decks; +perhaps, however, they were only half-decked, as it would appear, from the +descriptions of them, that the fore-part was open to the keel: they had a +mainsail, and were rowed by oars. Greece is so admirably situated for +maritime and commercial enterprize, that it must have been very early +sensible of its advantages in these respects. The inhabitants of the isle +of Egina are represented as the first people in Greece who were +distinguished for their intelligence and success in maritime traffic: soon +after the return of the Heraclidæ they possessed considerable commerce, and +for a long time they are said to have held the empire of the adjoining sea. +Their naval power and commerce were not utterly annihilated till the time +of Pericles. + +The Corinthians, who are not mentioned by Homer as having engaged in the +Trojan war, seem, however, not long afterwards, to have embarked with great +spirit and success in maritime commerce; their situation was particularly +favourable for it, and equally well situated to be the transit of the land +trade of Greece. Corinth had two ports, one upon each sea. The Corinthians +are said to have first built vessels with three banks of oars, instead of +galleys. + +Although the Athenians brought a considerable force against Troy, yet they +did not engage in maritime commerce till long after the period of which we +are at present treating. + +Of the knowledge which the Greeks possessed at this time, on the subject of +geography, we must draw our most accurate and fullest account from the +writings of Homer and Hesiod. The former represents the shield of Achilles +as depicting the countries of the globe; on it the earth was figured as a +disk surrounded by the ocean; the centre of Greece was represented as the +centre of the world; the disk included the Mediterranean Sea, much +contracted on the west, and the Egean and part of the Euxine Seas. The +Mediterranean was so much contracted on this side, that Ithaca, and the +neighbouring continent, or at the farthest, the straits which separate +Sicily from Italy, were its limits. Sicily itself was just known only as +the land of wonders and fables, though the fable of the Cyclops, who lived +in it, evidently must nave been derived from some obscure report of its +volcano. The fables Homer relates respecting countries to the west of +Sicily, cannot even be regarded as having any connection with, or +resemblance to the truth. Beyond the Euxine also, in the other direction, +all is fable. Colchis seems to have been known, though not so accurately as +the recent Argonautic expedition might have led us to suppose it would have +been. The west coast of Asia Minor, the scene of his great poem, is of +course completely within his knowledge; the Phoenicians and Egyptians are +particularly described, the former for their purple stuffs, gold and silver +works, maritime science and commercial skill, and cunning; the latter for +their river Egyptos, and their knowledge of medicine. To the west of Egypt +he places Lybia, where he says the lambs are born with horns, and the sheep +bring forth three times a year. + +In the Odyssey he conducts Neptune into Ethiopia; and the account he gives +seems to warrant the belief, that by the Ethiopians he meant not merely the +Ethiopians of Africa, but the inhabitants of India: we know that the +ancients, even so late as the time of Strabo and Ptolemy, considered all +those nations as Ethiopians who lived upon the southern ocean from east to +west; or, as Ptolemy expresses it, that under the zodiac, from east to +west, inhabit the inhabitants black of colour. Homer represents these two +nations as respectively the last of men, one of them on the east and the +other on the west. From his description of the gardens of Alcinous, it may +even be inferred that he had received some information respecting the +climate of the tropical regions; for this description appears to us rather +borrowed from report, than entirely the produce of imagination. + + Close to the gates a spacious garden lies, + From storms defended and inclement skies. + Four acres was th' allotted space of ground, + Fenc'd with a green enclosure all around, + Tall thriving trees confess'd the fruitful mould; + The red'ning apple ripens here to gold. + Here the blue fig with luscious juice o'erflows, + With deeper red the full pomegranate glows, + The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, + And verdant olives flourish round the year. + The balmy spirit of the western gale + Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail: + Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, + On apples apples, figs on figs arise: + The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, + The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow; + Here order'd vines in equal ranks appear, + With all th' united labours of the year; + Some to unload the fertile branches run, + Some dry the black'ning clusters in the sun, + Others to tread the liquid harvest join, + The groaning presses foam with floods of wine. + Here are the vines in early flow'r descry'd, + Here grapes discolour'd on the sunny side, + And there in autumn's richest purple dy'd. + Beds of all various herbs, for ever green, + In beauteous order terminate the scene. + + _Odyssey,_ b. vii. v. 142. + +This description perfectly applies to the luxuriant and uninterrupted +vegetation of tropical climates. + +From the time of Homer to that of Herodotus, the Greeks spread themselves +over several parts of the countries lying on the Mediterranean sea. About +600 years before Christ, a colony of Phocean Greeks from Ionia, founded +Massilia, the present Marseilles; and between the years 500 and 430, the +Greeks had established themselves in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and even in +some of the southern provinces of Spain. They were invited or compelled to +these emigrations by the prospect of commercial advantages, or by intestine +wars; and they were enabled to accomplish their object by the geographical +and nautical charts, which they are said to have obtained from the +Phoenicians, and by means of the sphere constructed by Anaximander the +Milesian. The eastern parts of the Mediterranean, however, seem still to +have been unexplored. Homer tells us that none but pirates ventured at the +risk of their lives to steer directly from Crete to Lybia; and when the +Ionian deputies arrived at Egina, where the naval forces of Greece were +assembled, with an earnest request that the fleet might sail to Ionia, to +deliver their country from the dominion of Xerxes, who was at that time +attempting to subdue Greece, the request was refused, because the Greeks +were ignorant of the course from Delos to Ionia, and because they believed +it to be as far from Egina to Samos, as from Egina to the Pillars of +Hercules. + + +[1] Dr. Vincent, in the 2nd vol. of his Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, has + a very elaborate commentary on this chapter of Ezekiel, in which he + satisfactorily makes out the nature of most of the articles mentioned + in it, as well as the locality of the places from which they are said + to have come. + +[2] One of the most celebrated gods of the Phoenicians was Melcartus. He is + represented as a great navigator, and as the first that brought tin + from the Cassiterides. His image was usually affixed to the stern of + their vessels. + +[3] In the time of Solomon, about two hundred years after the period when + it is supposed the Phoenicians began to direct their course by the + Lesser Bear,--it was 17 1/2 degrees from the North Pole: in the time + of Ptolemy, about one hundred and fifty years after Christ, its + distance had decreased to 12 degrees. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRIZE, +FROM THE AGE OF HERODOTUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, B.C. 324. + +From the scanty materials respecting the Phoenicians, with which we are +supplied by ancient history, it is evident that they founded several +colonies, either for the purpose of commerce, or, induced by other motives, +in different parts of Africa. Of these colonies, the most celebrated was +that of Carthage: a state which maintained an arduous contest with Rome, +during the period when the martial ardour and enterprize of that city was +most strenuously supported by the stern purity of republican virtue, which +more than once drove it to the brink of ruin, and which ultimately fell, +rather through the vice of its own constitution and government, and the +jealousies and quarrels of its own citizens, and through the operation of +extraneous circumstances, over which it could have no controul, than from +the fair and unassisted power of its adversary. + +The era of the foundation of Carthage is unknown. According to some +writers, it was built so early as 1233 years before Christ; but the more +general, as well as more probable opinion, assigns it a much later +foundation--about 818 years before the Christian era. If this opinion be +correct, Rome and Carthage were founded nearly about the same period. The +circumstances which led to and accompanied the foundation of Carthage, +though related with circumstantial fulness by the ancient poets, are by no +means accurately know to authentic history. + +The situation of Carthage was peculiarly favourable to commerce and +maritime enterprize; in the centre of the Mediterranean; in reach of the +east as well as of the west; the most fertile, and most highly cultivated +and civilized part of Africa in her immediate vicinity. Carthage itself was +built at the bottom of a gulph, on a peninsula, which was about forty-five +miles in circumference; and its strength and security were further aided by +the isthmus which connected this peninsula to the main land, as it was +little more than three miles broad; by a projection of land on the west +side, which was only half a stadium in breadth; and by a lake or morass +which lay on the opposite side: this projection, which ran out considerably +into the sea, was naturally strong by the rocks with which it was covered, +and was rendered still stronger by art. In one point only had this +projection been neglected; this was an angle, which from the foundation of +the city had been overlooked, advancing into the sea towards the western +continent, as far as the harbours, which lay on the same side of the city. +There were two harbours, so placed and constructed as to communicate with +each other. They had one entrance, seventy feet in breadth, which was shut +up and secured by strong chains stretched across it. One of these harbours +was exclusively set apart for merchant ships; and in its vicinity were to +be found every thing necessary for the accommodation of the seamen. In the +middle of the other harbour was an island called Cothon; though, according +to some writers, this was the name of the harbour itself. The word Cothon, +we are informed by Festus, (and his etymology is confirmed by Bochart and +Buxtorf,) signifies, in the oriental languages, a port not formed by +nature, but the result of labour and art. The second harbour, as well as +the island in it, seems to have been intended principally, if not +exclusively, for ships of war; and it was so capacious, that of these it +would contain 220. This harbour and island were lined with docks and sheds, +which received the ships, when it was necessary to repair them, or protect +them from the effects of the weather. On the key were built extensive +ranges of wharfs, magazines, and storehouses, filled with all the requisite +materials to fit out the ships of war. This harbour seems to have been +decorated with some taste, and at some expence; so that both it and the +island, viewed at a distance, appeared like two extensive and magnificent +galleries. The admiral's palace, which commanded a view of the mouth of the +harbour and of the sea, was also a building of considerable taste. Each +harbour had its particular entrance into the city: a double wall separated +them so effectually, that the merchant vessels, when they entered their own +harbour, could not see the ships of war; and though the admiral, from his +palace, could perceive whatever was doing at sea, it was impossible that +from the sea any thing in the inward harbour could be perceived. + +Nor were these advantages, though numerous and great, the only ones which +Carthage enjoyed as a maritime city; for its situation was so admirably +chosen, and that situation so skilfully rendered subservient to the grand +object of the government and citizens, that even in case the accidents of +war should destroy or dispossess them of one of their harbours, they had it +in their power, in a great measure, to replace the loss. This was +exemplified in a striking and effective manner at the time when Scipio +blocked up the old port; for the Carthaginians, in a very short time, built +a new one, the traces and remains of which were plainly visible so late as +the period when Dr. Shaw visited this part of Africa. + +Carthage, at a comparatively early period of its history, possessed a very +large extent of sea coast, though in it there were but few harbours fitted +for commerce. The boundaries of the Carthaginian dominions on the west were +the Philænorum Aræ, so called from two brothers of this name, who were +buried in the sand at this place, in consequence of a dispute between the +Carthaginians and the Cyreneans, respecting the boundaries of their +respective countries. On the other, or western side, the Carthaginian +dominions extended as far as the Pillars of Hercules, a distance, according +to Polybius, of 16,000 stadia, or 2000 miles; but, according to the more +accurate observations of Dr. Shaw, only 1420 geographical miles. + +Next to Carthage itself, the city of Utica was most celebrated as a place +of commerce: it lay a short distance to the west of Carthage, and on the +same bay. It had a large and convenient harbour; and after the destruction +of Carthage, it became the metropolis of Africa Propria. Neapolis was also +a place of considerable trade, especially with Sicily, from which the +distance was so short, that the voyage could be performed in two days and a +night. Hippo was a frontier town on the side of Numidia; though Strabo +says, there were two of the same name in Africa Propria. The Carthaginian +Hippo had a port, arsenal, storehouses, and citadel: it lay between a large +lake and the sea. We have already noticed the etymological meaning of the +word Cothon: that this meaning is accurate may be inferred from the word +being applied to several artificial harbours in the Carthaginian dominion, +besides that of Cartilage itself: it was applied to the port of Adrumetum, +a large city built on a promontory,--and to the port of Thapsus, a maritime +town, situated on a kind of isthmus, between the sea and a lake. The +artificial nature, of this latter harbour is placed beyond all doubt, as +there is still remaining a great part of it built on frames: the materials +are composed of mortar and small pebbles, so strongly and closely cemented, +that they have the appearance, as well as durability, of solid rock. It is +singular, that in the dominions of Carthage, extending, as we have seen, +upwards of 1400 miles along the shores of the Mediterranean, there should +be no river of any magnitude or importance for commerce: the Bagrada and +the Catada alone are noticed by ancient historians, and both of these were +insignificant streams. + +Having thus pointed out the natural advantages for commerce possessed by +the Carthaginians, we shall next proceed to notice such of their laws, and +such parts of their political institutions, and features of their +character, as either indicated their bias for commerce, or tended to +strengthen it. The monarchical government of Carthage was not of long +continuance; it afterwards became republican, though the exact form of the +republic is not certainly known. As late as the time of Aristotle, there +seems to have been such a complete and practical counterpoise of the powers +in which the supreme authority was vested, that, according to him, there +had been no instance from the foundation of the city, of any popular +commotions sufficient to disturb its tranquillity; nor, on the other hand, +of any tyrant, who had been able to destroy its liberty. This sagacious +philosopher foresaw the circumstance which would destroy the constitution +of Carthage; for when there was a disagreement between the two branches of +the legislature, the suffetes and the senate, the question in dispute was +referred to the people, and their resolve became the law. Till the second +and third wars between Rome and Carthage, no fatal effects resulted from +this principle of the constitution; but during these, the people were +frequently called upon to exercise their dangerous authority and +privileges; the senate yielded to them; cabals and factions took place +among those who were anxious to please, for the purpose of guiding the +people; rash measures were adopted, the councils and the power of Carthage +became distracted and weak, and its ruin was precipitated and completed. + +But though to this defect in the constitution of Carthage its ruin may +partly be ascribed, there can be little doubt that commerce flourished by +means of the popular form of its government. Commerce was the pursuit of +all ranks and classes, as well as the main concern and object of the +government The most eminent persons in the state for power, talents, birth, +and riches, applied themselves to it with as much ardour and perseverance +as the meanest citizens; and this similarity and equality of pursuit, as it +sprang in some measure from the republican equality of the constitution, so +also it tended to preserve it. + +The notices which we possess respecting the political institutions of the +Carthaginians are very scanty, and are almost entirely derived from +Aristotle: according to him they had a custom, which must at once have +relieved the state from those whom it could not well support, and have +tended to enlarge the sphere of their commercial enterprize. They sent, as +occasion required, colonies to different parts, and these colonies, keeping +up their connection with the mother country, not only drew off her +superabundant trade, but also supplied her with many articles she could not +otherwise have procured at so easy and cheap a rate. + +The fertility and high state of cultivation of those parts of Africa which +adjoined Carthage, has already been alluded to; and their exports consisted +either of the produce of those parts, or of their own manufactures. Of the +former there were all kinds of provisions; wax, oil, honey, skins, fruits, +&c.; their principal manufactures were cables, especially those fit for +large vessels, made of the shrub _spartum_; all other kinds of naval +stores; dressed leather; the particular dye or colour, called from them +punic, the preparation of which seems not to be known; toys, &c. &c. From +Egypt they imported flax, papyrus, &c.; from the Red Sea, spices, drugs, +perfumes, gold, pearls, &c.; from the countries on the Levant, silk stuffs, +scarlet and purple dyes, &c.; and from the west of Europe their principal +imports seem to have been iron, lead, tin, and the other useful metals. + +Such was the commerce by sea, as far as the imperfect notices on this +subject, by the ancient historians, instruct us: but they also carried on a +considerable and lucrative commerce by land, especially with the Persians +and Ethiopians. The caravans of these nations generally resorted to +Carthage; the rarest and most esteemed articles which they brought were +carbuncles, which, by means of this traffic, became so plenty in this city, +that they were generally known by the appellation of Carthaginian gems. The +mode of selling by auction seems to have been practised by this nation; at +least there are passages in the ancient authors, particularly one in +Polybius, which would naturally lead to the conclusion, that in the sale of +their merchandize, the Carthaginians employed a person to name and describe +their various kinds and qualities, and also a clerk to note down the price +at which they were sold. Their mode of trafficking with rude nations, +unaccustomed to commerce, as described by Herodotus, strongly resembles +that which has been often adopted by our navigators, when they arrive on +the coast of a savage people. According to this historian, the +Carthaginians trafficked with the Lybians, who inhabited the western coast +of Africa, in the following manner: having conducted their vessels into +some harbour or creek, they landed the merchandize which they meant to +exchange or dispose of, and placed it in such a manner and situation, as +exposed it to the view of the inhabitants, and at the same time indicated +the purpose for which it was thus exposed. They afterwards lighted a fire +of such materials as caused a great smoke; this attracted the Lybians to +the spot, who laid down such a quantity of gold as they deemed an adequate +price for the merchandize, and then retired. The Carthaginians next +approached and examined the gold: if they deemed it sufficient, they took +it away, and left the merchandize; if they did not, they left both. In the +latter event, the Lybians again returned, and added to the quantity of +gold; and this, if necessary, was repeated, till the Carthaginians, by +taking it away, shewed that in their judgment it was an adequate price for +their goods. During the whole of this transaction, no intercourse or words +passed, nor did the Carthaginians even touch the gold, nor the Lybians the +merchandize, till the former took away the gold. + +The earliest notice we possess of a commercial alliance formed by the +Carthaginians, fixes it a very few years before the birth of Herodotus: it +was concluded between them and the Romans about the year 503 before Christ. +The Carthaginians were the first nation the Romans were connected with out +of Italy. Polybius informs us, that in his time (about 140 years before +Christ) this treaty, written in the old language of Rome, then nearly +unintelligible, was extant on the base of a column, and he has given a +translation of it: the terms of peace between the Carthaginians and their +allies, and the Romans and their allies, were to the following purport. The +latter agreed not to sail beyond the fair promontory, (which lay, according +to our historian, a very short distance to the north of Carthage,) unless +they were driven beyond it by stress of weather, or by an enemy's vessel. +In case they were obliged to land, or were shipwrecked, they were not to +take or purchase any thing, except what they might need, to repair their +ships, or for the purpose of sacrifice. And in no case, or under no +pretext, were they to remain on shore above five days. The Roman merchants +were not to pay any higher, or other duty, than what was allowed by law to +the common crier and his clerk, already noticed, who, it appears from this +treaty, were bound to make a return to government of all the goods that +were bought or sold in Africa and Sardinia. It was moreover provided, that +if the Romans should visit any places in Sicily, subject to the +Carthaginians, they should be civilly treated, and have justice done them +in every respect. On the other hand, the Carthaginians bound themselves not +to interfere with any of the Italian allies, or subjects of the Romans; nor +build any fort in their territory. Such were the principal articles in this +commercial treaty; from it, it appears, that so early as the year 503 +before Christ, the first year after the expulsion of the Tarquins, and +twenty-eight years before the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, the +Carthaginians were in possession of Sardinia, and part of Sicily;--that +they were also acquainted with, and had visited the coasts of Italy; and +there are expressions in the treaty, which render it highly probable that +the Carthaginians had, before this period, attempted to establish, either +for commerce or conquest, colonies and forts in Italy: it is also evident +that they were acquainted with the art of fortification. + +Though it will carry us rather out of chronological order, it may be proper +to notice in this place a second treaty of commerce between the +Carthaginians and Romans, which was entered into about 333 years before +Christ, during the consulship of Valerius Corvus, and Popilius Laenas. The +Carthaginians came to Rome for the purpose of concluding this treaty: it +differed in some particulars from the former, and was to the following +effect. The Romans and their allies were to possess the friendship of the +people of Carthage, the Tyrians, and the inhabitants of Utica, provided +they carried on no hostilities against them, and did not trade beyond the +fair promontory, Mastica and Tarseium. In case the Carthaginians should +take any town in Italy, not under the jurisdiction of the Romans, they +might plunder it, but after that they were to give it up to the Romans. Any +captives taken in Italy, who in any Roman port should be challenged by the +Romans as belonging to any state in amity with Rome, were to be immediately +restored. The Romans, in case they put into the harbours of the +Carthaginians, or their allies, to take in water or other necessaries, were +not to be molested or injured; but they were not to carry on any commerce +in Africa or Sardinia; nor even land on those coasts, except to purchase +necessaries, and refit their ships: in such cases, only five days were +allowed them, at the expiration of which they were to depart. But, in the +towns of Sicily belonging to the Carthaginians, and even in the city of +Carthage itself, the Romans were permitted to trade, enjoying the same +rights and privileges as the Carthaginians; and, on the other hand, the +Carthaginians were to be allowed to traffic in Rome on terms equally +favourable. + +It is not our intention, because it would be totally foreign to the object +and nature of this work, to give a history of Carthage; but only to notice +such events and transactions, supplied by its history, as are illustrative +of the commercial enterprise of by far the most enterprising commercial +nation of antiquity. In conformity to this plan, we shall briefly notice +their first establishment in Spain, as it was from the mines of this +country that they drew great wealth, and thus were enabled, not only to +equip formidable fleets and armies, but also to extend their traffic very +considerably. + +The city of Cadiz, was founded by the Phoenicians, as well as Carthage; and +as there was a close connection between most of the Phoenician colonies, it +is probable that some time before the Carthaginians established themselves +in Spain, they traded with the people of Cadiz: at any rate it is certain, +that when the latter were hard pressed by the Spaniards, they applied to +the Carthaginians for assistance: this was readily given, and being +effectual, the Carthaginians embraced the opportunity, and the pretext thus +afforded for establishing themselves in the part of Spain adjoining Cadiz. +It is singular, however, that though the Carthaginians were in possession +of Majorca and Minorca from so remote an antiquity, "that their first +arrival there is prior to every thing related of them by any historian now +extant," yet they do not seem to have established themselves on the main +land of Spain till they assisted the people of Cadiz. With respect to the +other foreign possessions of the Carthaginians, we have already seen that, +at the period of their first treaty with the Romans, they occupied Sardinia +and part of Sicily; and there are several passages in the ancient +historians, particularly in Herodotus, which render it highly probable that +they had establishments in Corsica about the same time. Malta and its +dependent islands were first peopled by the Phoenicians, and seem +afterwards to have fallen into the possession of the Carthaginians. + +Of the particular voyages undertaken by the Carthaginians, for the purpose +either of discovery or of commercial enterprise, we possess little +information; as, however, these topics are most particularly within the +scope of our work, it will be indispensable to detail all the information +relating to them which can be collected. The voyages of Hamilcar or +Himilco, as he is called by some historians, and of Hanno, are the most +celebrated, or, rather, to speak more accurately, the only voyages of the +Carthaginians of which we possess any details, either with regard to their +object or consequences. Himilco, who was on officer in the navy of +Carthage, was sent by the senate to explore the western coasts of Europe: a +journal of his voyage, and an account of his discoveries, were, according +to the custom of the nation, inscribed in the Carthaginian annals. But the +only information respecting them which we now possess, is derived from the +writings of the Latin poet Rufus Festus Avienus. This poet flourished under +Theodosius, A.D. 450, translated the Phænomena of Aratus, and Dionysius's +Description of the World, and also wrote an original poem, on the sea +coasts. In the last he mentions Himilco, and intimates that he saw the +original journal of his voyage in the Carthaginian annals. According to the +account of Festus, the voyage of Himilco lasted four months, or rather he +sailed for the space of four months, towards the north, and arrived at the +isles Ostrymnides and the coast of Albion. In the extracts given by Avienus +from the journal of Himilco, frequent mention is made of lead and tin, and +of ships cased with leather (or, more probably, entirely made of that +material, like the coracles still used by the Greenlanders, and even in +Wales, for crossing small rivers). In these parts, he adds, the East Rymni +lived, with whom the people of Tartessus and Carthage traded: we have given +this appellation to the inhabitants of the isles Ostrymnides, because in +the first part of the latter word, the Teutonic word, OEst, distinctly +appears. + +Hanno was sent by the senate to explore the western coast of Africa, and to +establish Carthaginian colonies wherever he might deem it expedient or +advantageous. He sailed from Carthage with a fleet of 60 vessels, each +rowed with 50 oars, and had besides, a convoy containing 30,000 persons of +both sexes. He wrote a relation of his voyage, a fragment of a Greek +version of which is still remaining, and has lately been illustrated by the +learning and ingenuity of Dr. Falconer of Bath: his voyage is also cited by +Aristotle, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny. The era at which it was performed, +and the extent of the voyage, have given rise to much discussion. Isaac +Vossius fixes the date of it prior to the age of Homer: Vossius the father, +subsequent to it: Wesseling doubts whether it was even prior to Herodotus. +Campomanes fixes it about the 93d Olympiad: and Mr. Dodwell somewhere +between the 92d and the 129th Olympiad. According to Pliny, Hanno and +Himilco were contemporaries; the latter author mentions the commentaries of +Hanno, but in such a manner as if he had not seen, and did not believe +them. + +With respect to the extent of his voyage along the western coast of Africa, +some modern writers assert, without any authority, that he doubled the Cape +of Good Hope: this assertion is made in direct unqualified terms by Mickle +the translator of the Lusiad. Other writers limit the extent of his +navigation to Cape Nun; while, according to other geographers, he sailed as +far as Cape Three Points, on the coast of Guinea. That there should be any +doubt on the subject appears surprising; for, as Dr. Vincent very justly +remarks, we have Hanno's own authority to prove that he never was within 40 +degrees of the Cape. + +That the Carthaginians, before the voyage of Hanno, had discovered the +Canary Islands, is rendered highly probable, from the accounts of Diodorus +Siculus, and Aristotle: the former mentions a large, beautiful, and fertile +island, to which the Carthaginians, in the event of any overwhelming +disorder, had determined to remove their government; and Aristotle relates +that they were attracted to a beautiful island in such numbers, that the +senate were obliged to forbid any further emigration to it on pain of +death. + +The voyages of the Carthaginians were, from the situation of their +territory, and the imperfect state of geography and navigation at that +period, usually confined to the Mediterranean and to the western shores of +Africa and Europe; but several years antecedent to the date usually +assigned to the voyages of Himilco and Hanno, a voyage of discovery is said +to have been accomplished by the king of a nation little given to maritime +affairs. We allude to the voyage of Scylax, undertaken at the command of +Darius the son of Hystaspes, about 550 years before Christ. There are +several circumstances respecting this voyage which deserve attention or +examination; the person who performed it, is said by Herodotus, (from whom +we derive all our information on the subject), to have been a native of +Caryandria, or at least an inhabitant of Asia Minor: he was therefore most +probably a Greek: he was a geographer and mathematician of some eminence, +and by some writers is supposed to have first invented geographical tables. +According to Herodotus, Darius, after his Scythian expedition, in order to +facilitate his design of conquest in the direction of India, resolved, in +the first place, to make a discovery of that part of the world. For this +purpose he built and fitted out a fleet at Cespatyrus, a city on the Indus, +towards the upper part of the navigable course of that river. The ships, of +course, first sailed to the mouth of the Indus, and during their passage +the country on each side was explored. The directions given to Scylax were, +after he entered the ocean, to steer to the westward, and thus return to +Persia. Accordingly, he is said to have coasted from the mouth of the Indus +to the Straits of Babelmandel, where he entered the Red Sea; and on the +30th month from his first embarking he landed at Egypt, at the same place +from which Necho, king of that country, had despatched the Phoenicians to +circumnavigate Africa. From Egypt, Scylax returned to Susa, where he gave +Darius a full account of his expedition. + +The reality of this voyage, or at least the accuracy of some of the +particulars it records, has been doubted. Scylax describes the course of +the Indus to the east; whereas it runs to the south-west. It is also worthy +of remark, that as Darius, before the voyage of Scylax, was master of the +Attock, Peukeli, and Multan, he needed no information respecting the route +to India, as every conqueror has followed this very obvious and easy route. +Dr. Vincent also objects to the authority of this voyage, or rather to the +track assigned to it: "I cannot believe," he observes, "from the state of +navigation in that age, that Scylax could perform a voyage round India, +from which the bravest of Alexander's navigators shrunk, or that men who +had explored the desert coast of Gadrosia, should be less daring than an +experienced native of Caryandria. They returned with amazement from the +sight of Mussenden and Ras-al-had, while Scylax succeeded without a +difficulty upon record. But the obstacles to such a voyage are numerous; +first, whether Pactzia be Peukeli, and Caspatyrus, Multan: secondly, if +Darius were master of Multan, whether he could send a ship or a fleet down +the sea, through tribes, where Alexander fought his way at every step: +thirdly, whether Scylax had any knowledge of the Indian Ocean, the coast, +or the monsoon: fourthly, if the coast of Gadrosia were friendly, which is +doubtful, whether he could proceed along the coast of Arabia, which must be +hostile from port to port: these and a variety of other difficulties which +Nearchus experienced, from famine, from want of water, from the +construction of his ships, and from the manners of the natives, must induce +an incredulity in regard to the Persian account, whatever respect we may +have to the fidelity of Herodotus." + +Such are the objections urged by Dr. Vincent to the authority of this +voyage. In some of the particular objections there may be considerable +force; but with respect to the general ones, from the manners or hostility +of the natives inhabiting the coasts along which the voyage was performed, +they apply equally to the voyages of the Carthaginians along the western +coasts of Africa and Europe, and indeed to all the voyages of discovery, or +distant voyages of the ancients. It may be added, that according to Strabo, +Posidonius disbelieved the whole history of Scylax. In the Geographi +Minores of Hudson, a voyage ascribed to Scylax is published; but great +doubts are justly entertained on the subject of its authenticity. Dodwell +is decidedly against it. The Baron de Sainte Croix, in a dissertation read +before the Academy of Inscriptions, defends the work which bears the name +of Scylax as genuine. Dr. Vincent states one strong objection to its +authenticity: mention is made in it of Dardanus, Rhetium, and Illium, in +the Troad; whereas there is great doubt whether Rhetium was in existence in +the time of the real Scylax: besides, it is remarkable that nothing is said +respecting India in the treatise now extant. That the original and genuine +work described India is, however, undoubted, on the authority of Aristotle, +who mentions that there was such a person as Scylax, that he had been in +India, and that his account of that country was extant in his (Aristotle's) +time. + +In fact, the work which we possess under the name of Scylax, is evidently a +collection of the itineraries of ancient navigators: it may have been drawn +up by the Scylax whom Darius employed, though, if that were the case, it is +very extraordinary he should not have included the journal of his own +voyage; or his name, as that of a celebrated geographer may have been put +to it; or there may have been another geographer of that name. The +collection is evidently imperfect; what is extant contains the coasts of +the Palus Maeotis, the Euxine, the Archipelago, the Adriatic, and all the +Mediterranean, with the west coast of Africa, as far as the isle of Cerne, +which he asserts to be the limit of the Carthaginian navigation and +commerce in that direction. The sea, according to him, is not navigable +further to the south than this island, on account of the thick weeds with +which it was covered. The mention of this impediment is adduced by +D'Anville to prove the reality of the Carthaginian voyages to the south: it +is not, indeed, true, that the sea is impassable on account of these weeds +to modern navigators, but it is easy to conceive that the timidity and +inexperience of the ancients, as well as the imperfect construction of +their vessels, would prevent them from proceeding further south, when they +met with such a singular obstacle. If a ship has not _much way_ through the +water, these weeds will impede her course. It has been very justly +remarked, that if the latitude where these weeds commence was accurately +determined, it would fix exactly the extent of the voyages of the +Carthaginians in this direction. The weed alluded to is probably the fucus +natans, or gulf-weed. + +Hitherto the knowledge that the ancients possessed of the habitable world, +had not been collected by any writer, and is to be gathered entirely from +short, vague, and evidently imperfect narrations, scattered throughout a +great number of authors. Herodotus has been celebrated as the father of +history; he may with equal justice be styled the father of geographical +knowledge: he flourished about 474 years before Christ. In dwelling upon +the advances to geographical knowledge which have been derived from him, it +will be proper and satisfactory, before we explain the extent and nature of +them, to give an account of the sources from which he derived his +information; those were his own travels, and the narrations or journals of +other travellers. A great portion of the vigour of his life seems to have +been spent in travelling; the oppressive tyranny of Lygdamis over +Halicarnassus, his native country, first induced or compelled him to +travel; whether he had not also imbibed a portion of the commercial +activity and enterprize which distinguished his countrymen, is not known, +but is highly probable. We are not informed whether his fortune were such +as to enable him, without entering into commercial speculations, to support +the expences of his travels; it is evident, however, from the extent of his +travels, as well as from the various, accurate, and, in many cases, most +important information, which he acquired, that these expences must have +been very considerable. From his work it is certain that he was endowed +with that faculty of eliciting the truth from fabulous, imperfect, or +contradictory evidence, at all times so necessary to a traveller, and +indispensably so at the period when he travelled, and in most of the +countries where his enquiries and his researches were carried on. His great +and characteristic merit consists in freeing his mind from the opinions +which must have previously occupied it;--in trusting entirely either to +what e himself saw, or to what he learned from the best authority;--always, +however, bringing the information acquired in this latter mode to the test +of his own observation and good sense. It is from the united action and +guidance of these two qualifications--individual observation and experience +gained by most patient and diligent research and enquiry on the spot, and a +high degree of perspicacity, strength of intellect, and good sense, +separating the truth from the fable of all he learnt from the observation +and experience of others, that Herodotus has justly acquired so high degree +of reputation, and that in almost every instance modern travellers find +themselves anticipated by him, even on points in which such a coincidence +was the least likely. + +His travels embraced a variety of countries. The Greek colonies in the +Black Sea were visited by him: he measured the extent of that sea, from the +Bosphorus to the mouth of the river Phasis, at the eastern extremity. All +that track of country which lies between the Borysthenes and the Hypanis, +and the shores of the Palus Maeotis, he diligently explored. With respect +to the Caspian, his information affords a striking proof of his accuracy, +even when gained, as it was in this instance, from the accounts of others. +He describes it expressly as a sea by itself, unconnected with any other: +its length, he adds, is as much as a vessel with oars can navigate in +fifteen days: its greatest breadth as much as such a vessel can navigate in +eight days. It may be added, as a curious proof and illustration of the +decline of geographical knowledge, or, at least, of the want of confidence +placed in the authority of Herodotus by subsequent ancient geographers, +that Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny, represent the Caspian Sea as a bay, +communicating with the great Northern Ocean; and that even Arrian, who, in +respect to care and accuracy, bears no slight resemblance to Herodotus, and +for some time resided as governor of Cappadocia, asserts that there was a +communication between the Caspian Sea and the Eastern Ocean. + +But to return from this digression to the geographical knowledge of +Herodotus, as derived from his own travels, he visited Babylon and Susa, +and while there, or perhaps in excursions from those places, made himself +well acquainted with the Persian empire. The whole of Egypt was most +diligently and thoroughly explored by him, as well as the Grecian colonies +planted at Cyrene, in Lybia. He traced the course of the river Ister, from +its mouth nearly as far as its source. The extent of his travels in Greece +is not accurately known; but his description of the Straits of Thermopylae +is evidently the result of his own observation. All these countries, +together with a portion of the south of Italy, were visited by him. The +information which his history conveys respecting other parts of the world +was derived from others: in most cases, it would seem, from personal +enquiries and conversation with them, so that he had an opportunity of +rendering the information thus acquired much more complete, as well as +satisfactory, than it would have been if it had been derived from their +journals. + +Herodotus trusted principally or entirely to the information he received, +with respect to the interior of Africa and the north of Europe, and Asia to +the east of Persia. While he was in Egypt he seems to have been +particularly inquisitive and interested respecting the caravans which +travelled into the interior of Africa; and regarding their equipment, +route, destination, and object, he has collected a deal of curious and +instructive information. On the authority of Etearchus, king of the +Ammonians, he relates a journey into the interior of Africa, undertaken by +five inhabitants of the country near the Gulf of Libya; and, in this +journey, there is good reason to believe that the river Niger is accurately +described, at least as far as regards the direction of its course. + +It is evident from the introduction to his third book that the Greek +merchants of his time were eminently distinguished for their courage, +industry, and abilities; that in pursuit of commercial advantages they +visited very remote and barbarous countries in the north-eastern parts of +Europe, and the adjacent parts of Asia; and that the Scythians permitted +the Greek merchants of the Euxine to penetrate farther to the east and +north "than we can trace their progress by the light of modern +information." To them Herodotus was much indebted for the geographical +knowledge which he displays of those parts of the world; and it is by no +means improbable that the spirit of commercial enterprize which invited the +Greek merchants on the Euxine to penetrate among the barbarous nations of +the north-east, also led them far to the east and south-east; and that from +them, as well as from his personal enquiries, while at Babylon and Susa, +Herodotus derived much of the information with which he has favoured us +respecting the country on the Indus, and the borders of Cashmere and +Arabia. Having thus pointed out the sources from which Herodotus derived +his geographical knowledge, we shall now sketch the limits of that +knowledge, as well as mention in what respects he yielded to the fabulous +and absurd notions of his contemporaries. + +He fails most in endeavouring to give a general and combined idea of the +earth; even where his separate sketches are clear and accurate, when united +they lose both their accuracy and clearness. He seems to doubt whether he +should divide the world into three parts; and at last, having admitted such +a division, he makes the rivers Phasis and Araxes, and the Caspian Sea, the +boundaries between Europe and Asia; and to Europe he assigns an extent +greater than Asia and Libya taken together. His knowledge of the west of +Europe was very imperfect: in some part he fixes the Cassiterides, from +which the Phoenicians derived their tin. The Phoenician colony of Gadez was +known to him. His geography extended to the greater part of Poland and +European Russia. Such appear to have been its limits with respect to +Europe; and such the general notion he entertained of this quarter of the +world. As to Asia, he believed that a fleet sent by Darius had +circumnavigated it from the Indus to the confines of Egypt; but though his +general idea of it was thus erroneous, he possessed accurate information +respecting it from the confines of Europe to the Indus. Of the countries to +the east of that river, as well as of the whole of the north and southern +parts of it, he was completely ignorant. He particularly notices that the +Eastern Ethiopians, or Indians, differ from those of Africa by their long +hair, as opposed to the woolly head of the African. In his account of India +he interweaves much that is fabulous; but in the same manner as modern +discoveries in geography have confirmed many things in Herodotus which were +deemed errors in his geography, so it has been ascertained that even his +fables have, in most instances, a foundation in fact. With regard to +Africa, his knowledge of Egypt, and of the country to the north of it, +seems to have been very accurate, and more minute and satisfactory than his +knowledge of any other part of the world. It is highly probable that he was +acquainted with the course of the western branch of the Nile, as far as the +11th degree of latitude. He certainly knew the real course of the Niger. On +the east coast of Africa he was well acquainted with the shores of the +Arabian Gulph; but though he sometimes mentions Carthage, and describes the +traffic carried on, without the intervention of language, between the +Carthaginians and a nation beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which we nave +already mentioned in treating of the commerce of the Carthaginians, yet he +seems to have been unacquainted with any point between Carthage and the +Pillars of Hercules. + +In the history of Herodotus, there is an account of a map constructed by +Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, when he proposed to Cleomenes, king of +Sparta, to attack Darius, king of Persia, at Susa; from this account, the +vague, imperfect, and erroneous ideas entertained in his time of the +relative situations and distances of places, as well as of the extremely +rude and feeble advances which had been made towards the construction of +maps, may be inferred. Major Rennell, in his Illustrations of Herodotus, +has endeavoured to ascertain from his history the parallel and meridian of +Halicarnassus, the birth-place of the historian. According to him, they +intersect at right angles over that town, cutting the 37th degree of north +latitude, and the 45-1/2 of east longitude, from the Fortunate Islands. + +For a considerable period after the time of Herodotus, the ancients seem to +have been nearly stationary in their knowledge of the world. About 368 +years before Christ, Eudoxus, of Cnidus, whose desire of studying astronomy +induced him to visit Egypt, Asia, and Italy, who first attempted to explain +the planetary motions, and who is said to have discovered the inclination +of the moon's orbit, and the retrograde motion of her nodes, is celebrated +as having first applied geographical observations to astronomy; but he does +not appear to have directed his researches or his conjectures towards the +figure or the circumference of the earth, or the distances or relative +situations of any places on its surface. + +Nearly about the same period that Eudoxus died Aristotle flourished. This +great philosopher, collecting and combining into one system of geographical +knowledge the discoveries and observations of all who had preceded him, +stamped on them a dignity and value they had not before possessed, as well +as rendered them less liable to be forgotten or misapplied: he inferred the +sphericity of the earth from the observations of travellers, that the stars +seen in Greece were not visible in Cyprus or Egypt; and thus established +the fundamental principle of all geography. But though this science, in its +most important branch, derived much benefit from his powerful mind, yet it +was not advanced in its details. He supposed the coasts of Spain not very +distant from those of India; and he even embraced a modified notion of +Homer's Ocean River, which had been ridiculed and rejected by Herodotus; +for he describes the habitable earth as a great oval island, surrounded by +the ocean, terminated on the west by the river Tartessius, (supposed to be +the Guadelquiver,) on the east by the Indus, and on the north by Albion and +Ierne, of which islands his ideas were necessarily very vague and +imperfect. In some other respects, however, his knowledge was more +accurate: he coincides with Herodotus in his description of the Caspian +Sea, and expressly states that it ought to be called a great lake, not a +sea. A short period before Aristotle flourished, that branch of geography +which relates to the temperature of different climates, and other +circumstances affecting health, was investigated with considerable +diligence, ingenuity, and success, by the celebrated physician Hippocrates. +In the course of his journeys, with this object in view, he seems to have +followed the plan and the route of Herodotus, and sometimes to have even +penetrated farther than he did. + +Pytheas, of Marseilles, lived a short time before Alexander the Great: he +is celebrated for his knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and +geography, and for the ardour and perseverance with which either a strong +desire for information, or the characteristic commercial spirit of his +townspeople, or both united, carried him forward in the path of maritime +discovery. The additions, however, which he made to geography as a science, +or to the sciences intimately connected with it, are more palpable and +undisputed, than the extent and discoveries of his voyages. + +He was the first who established a distinction of climate by the length of +days and nights: and he is said to have discovered the dependence of the +tides upon the position of the moon, affirming that the flood-tide depended +on the increase of the moon, and the ebb on its decrease. By means of a +gnomon he observed, at the summer solstice at Marseilles, that the length +of the shadow was to the height of the gnomon as 120 to 41-1/5; or, in +other words, that the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23:50. He relates, that +in the country which he reached in his voyage to the north, the sun, at the +time of the summer solstice, touched the northern part of the horizon: he +pointed out three stars near the pole, with which the north star formed a +square; and within this square, he fixed the true place of the pole. +According to Strabo, he considered the island of Thule as the most western +part of the then known world, and reckoned his longitude from thence. + +With respect to the extent and discoveries of his voyage to the north, +there is great difference of opinion. The veracity of Pytheas is utterly +denied by Strabo and Polybius, and is strongly suspected by Dr. Vincent: on +the other hand, it has found able supporters in D'Anville, Huet, Gessner, +Murray of Goettingen, Gosselin, and Malte Brun; and in our opinion, though +it may not be easy to ascertain what was really the country which be +reached in his voyage, and though some of the particulars he mentions may +be fabulous, or irreconcileable with one another, yet it seems carrying +scepticism too far to reject, on these accounts, his voyage as altogether a +fiction. + +The account is, that Pytheas departed from Marseilles, coasted Spain, +France, and the east or north-east side of Britain, as far as its northern +extremity. Taking his departure from this, he continued his voyage, as he +says, to the north, or perhaps to the north-east; and after six days' +navigation, he arrived at a land called Thule, which he states to be 46,300 +stadia from the equator. So far there is nothing improbable or +inconsistent; but when he adds, that being there at the summer solstice, he +saw the sun touching the northern point of the horizon, and at the same +time asserts that the day and night were each of six months' continuance, +there is a palpable contradiction: and when he adds, that millet was +cultivated in the north of this country, and wheat in the south, and that +honey abounded, he mentions productions utterly incompatible with his +description of the climate and latitude. + +As, however, this voyage forms an important epoch in the history of +discovery, it may be proper to endeavour to ascertain what country the +Thule of Pytheas really was. We have already observed, that the day's sail +of an ancient vessel was 500 stadia, or 50 miles; supposing the largest +stadia of 666-2/3 equal to one degree of the equator, if the vessel sailed +during the night as well as day, the course run was, on an average, 1000 +stadia, or 100 miles. Now, as the voyage from the extremity of Britain to +Thule was of course not a coasting voyage, and as the nights in that +latitude, at the season of the year when the voyage was made, were very +short, (Pytheas says the night was reduced to two or three hours) we must +suppose that he sailed night as well as day; and consequently, that in six +days he had sailed 600 miles, either directly north or to east or west of +the north, for his exact course cannot well be made out. + +What country lies 600 miles to the north or the north-east of the extremity +of Britain? None exactly in this direction: if, however, we suppose that +Pytheas could not fix exactly the point of the compass which he steered, (a +supposition by no means improbable, considering the ignorance of the +ancients,) and that his course tended to the west of the north, 600 miles +would bring him nearly to Greenland. There were, however, other stadia +besides those by which we computed the day's sail of the ancients; and +though the stadia we have taken are more generally alluded to by the +ancients, yet it may be proper to ascertain what results will be produced +if the other stadia are supposed to have been used in this instance. The +stadia we have already founded our calculations upon will bring us to the +latitude of 69° 27': the latitude of the southernmost point of Greenland is +very nearly 70°. But the description given by Pytheas of the productions of +the country by no means coincides with Greenland. At the same time, other +parts of his description agree with this country; particularly when he +says, that there the sea, the earth, and the air, seem to be confounded in +one element. In the south of Greenland the longest day is two months which +does not coincide with Pytheas' account; though this, as we have already +pointed out, is contradictory with itself. + +Let us now consider what will be the result if we suppose that a different +stadia were employed: the next in point of extent to that on which we have +already founded our conjectures, (there being 700 equal to one degree of +the equator) will bring him to the latitude of 66° 8'; the latitude of the +northernmost part of Iceland is 66° 30', coinciding with this result as +nearly as possible. The description of the climate agrees with Pytheas' +description; but not his account of the length of the day, nor of the +productions of the country. Of the third kind of stadia, 833-1/3 were equal +to one degree of the equator; calculating that 1000 of these were sailed +during a day and night's voyage, Pytheas would arrive in the latitude of +55° 34', at the end of six days. This, however, is absolutely at variance +with the fact, that he took his departure from the northernmost point of +Britain, and would in fact bring him back from it to the entrance of the +Frith of Forth. It is supposed, however, that this is the real latitude; +but that the west coast of Jutland is the country at which he arrived. But +this obliges us to believe that his course from the northern extremity of +Britain, instead of being north or north-east, or indeed at all to the +north, was in fact south-west; a supposition which cannot be admitted, +unless we imagine that the ancients were totally ignorant of the course +which they steered. On the other hand, Pytheas' description of the +productions of Thule agrees with Jutland; the culture of millet in the +north, and of wheat in the south, and the abundance of honey: there is +also, about a degree to the north of the latitude of 55° 34', a part of the +coast still denominated Thyland; and in the ancient language of +Scandinavia, Thiuland. The account of Pytheas, that near Thule, the sea, +air, and earth, seemed to be confounded in one element, is supposed by +Malte Brun to allude to the sandy downs of Jutland, whose hills shift with +the wind; the marshes, covered with a crust of sand, concealing from the +traveller the gulf beneath, and the fogs of a peculiarly dense nature which +frequently occur. We must confess, however, that the course having been +north, or north-east, or north-west, for this latitude of course may be +allowed in consideration of the ignorance or want of accuracy of the +ancients, never can have brought Pytheas to a country lying to the +south-west of the extremity of Britain. + +We are not assisted in finding out the truth, if, instead of founding our +calculations and conjectures on the distance sailed in the six days, we +take for their basis the distance which Pytheas states Thule to be from the +equator. This distance, we have already mentioned, was 46,300 stadia; +which, according as the different kinds of stadia are calculated upon, will +give respectively the latitude of the south of Greenland, of the north of +Iceland, or of the west coast of Jutland; or, in other words, the limit of +Pytheas' voyage will be determined to be in the same latitude, whether we +ascertain it by the average length of the day and night's sail of the +vessels of the ancients, or by the distance from the equator which he +assigns to Thule. It may be proper to state, that there is a district on +the coast of Norway, between the latitudes of 60° and 62°, called Thele, or +Thelemarle. Ptolemy supposes this to have been the Thule of Pytheas, Pliny +places it within three degrees of the pole, Eratosthenes under the polar +circle. The Thule discovered by Agricola, and described by Tacitus, is +evidently either the Orkney or the Shetland Islands. + +It may appear presumptuous as well as useless, after this display of the +difficulties attending the question, to offer any new conjecture; and many +of our renders may deem it a point of very minor importance, and already +discussed at too great length. It is obvious, from the detail into which we +have entered, that no country exists in the latitude which must be assigned +to it, whether we fix that latitude by Pytheas' statement of the distance +of Thule from the equator, or by the space sailed over in six days, the +productions of which at all agree with those mentioned by Pytheas. On the +other hand, we cannot suppose that his course was south-west, and not at +all to the north, which must have been the case, if the country at which he +arrived in sailing from the northern extremity of Britain, was Jutland. The +object must, therefore, be to find out a country the productions of which +correspond with those mentioned by Pytheas; for, with regard to those, he +could not be mistaken: and a country certainly not the least to the south +of the northern part of Britain. As it is impossible that he could have +reached the pole, what he states respecting the day and night being each +six months long must be rejected; and his other account of the length of +the day, deduced from his own observation of the sun, at the time of the +summer solstice, touching the northern point of the horizon, must be +received. If we suppose that this was the limit of the sun's course in that +direction (which, from his statement, must be inferred), this will give us +a length of day of about twenty hours, corresponding to about sixty-two +degrees of north latitude. The next point to be ascertained is the latitude +of his departure from the coast of Britain. There seems no good reason to +believe, what all the hypothesis we have examined assume, that Pytheas +sailed along the whole of the east coast of Britain: on the other hand, it +seems more likely, that having passed over from the coast of France to the +coast of Britain, he traced the latter to its most eastern point, that is, +the coast of Norfolk near Yarmouth; from which place, the coast taking a +sudden and great bend to the west, it is probable that Pytheas, whose +object evidently was to sail as far north as he could, would leave the +coast and stretch out into the open sea. Sailing on a north course, or +rather with a little inclination to the east of the north, would bring him +to the entrance of the Baltic. We have already conceived it probable that +the country he describes lay in the latitude of about 62°, and six days' +sail from the coast of Norfolk would bring him nearly into this latitude, +supposing he entered the Baltic. The next point relates to the productions +of the country: millet, wheat, and honey, are much more the characteristic +productions of the countries lying on the Gulf of Finland, than they are of +Jutland; and Pytheas' account of the climate also agrees better with the +climate of this part of the Baltic, than with that of Jutland. + +That Pythias visited the Baltic, though perhaps the Thule he mentions did +not lie in this sea, is evident from the following extract from his +journal, given by Pliny:--"On the shores of a certain bay called +Mentonomon, live a people called Guttoni: and at the distance of a day's +voyage from them, is the island Abalus (called by Timæus, Baltea). Upon +this the waves threw the amber, which is a coagulated matter cast up by the +sea: they use it for firing, instead of wood, and also sell it to the +neighbouring Teutones." The inhabitants on the coast of the Baltic, near +the Frish or Curish Sea (which is probably the bay Pytheas describes) are +called in the Lithuanian language, Guddai: and so late as the period of the +Crusades, the spot where amber is found was called Wittland, or Whiteland; +in Lithuanian, Baltika. From these circumstances, as well as from the name +_Baltea_ given by Timaeus to the island mentioned by Pytheas, as the place +where amber is cast up by the waves, there appears no doubt that Pytheas +was in the Baltic Sea, though his island of Thule might not be there. As +amber was in great repute, even so early as the time of Homer, who +describes it as being used to adorn the golden collars, it is highly +probable that Pytheas was induced to enter the Baltic for the purpose of +obtaining it: in what manner, or through whose means, the Greeks obtained +it in Homer's time, is not known. + +After all, the question is involved in very great obscurity; and the +circumstance not the most probable, or reconcileable with a country even +not further north than Jutland is, that, in the age of Pytheas, the +inhabitants should have been so far advanced in knowledge and civilization, +as to have cultivated any species of grain. + +Till the age of Herodotus the light of history is comparatively feeble and +broken; and where it does shine with more steadiness and brilliancy, its +rays are directed almost exclusively on the warlike operations of mankind. +Occasionally, indeed, we incidentally learn some new particulars respecting +the knowledge of the ancients in geography: but these particulars, as must +be obvious from the preceding part of this volume, are ascertained only +after considerable difficulty; and when ascertained, are for the most part +meagre, if not obscure. In the history of Herodotus, we, for the first +time, are able to trace the exact state and progress of geographical +knowledge; and from his time, our means of tracing it become more +accessible, as well as productive of more satisfactory results. Within one +hundred years after this historian flourished, geography derived great +advantages and improvement from a circumstance which, at first view, would +have been deemed adverse to the extension of any branch of science: we +allude to the conquests of Alexander the Great. This monarch seems to have +been actuated by a desire to be honoured as the patron of science, nearly +as strong as the desire to be known to posterity as the conquerer of the +world: the facilities he afforded to Aristotle in drawing up his natural +history, by sending him all the uncommon animals with which his travels and +his conquests supplied him, is a striking proof of this. With respect to +his endeavours to extend geographical knowledge,--this was so intimately +connected with his plans of conquest, that it may appear to be ascribing to +him a more honourable motive than influenced him, if we consider the +improvement that geography received through his means as wholly unconnected +with his character as a conquerer: that it was so, in some measure, however +is certain; for along with him he took several geographers, who were +directed and enabled to make observations both on the coasts and the +interior of the countries through which they passed; and from their +observations and discoveries, a new and improved geography of Asia was +framed. Besides, the books that till his time were shut up in the archives +of Babylon and Tyre were transferred to Alexandria; and thus the +astronomical and hydrographical observations of the Phoenicians and +Chaldeans, becoming accessible to the Greek philosophers, supplied them +with the means of founding their geographical knowledge on the sure basis +of mathematical science, of which it had hitherto been destitute. + +The grand maxim of Alexander in his conquests was, to regard them as +permanent, and as annexing to his empire provinces which were to form as +essential parts of it as Macedonia itself. Influenced by this consideration +and design, he did not lay waste the countries he conquered, as had been +done in the invasions of Persia, by Cimon the Athenian and the +Lacedemonians: on the contrary, the people, and their religion, manners, +and laws were protected. The utmost order and regularity were observed; and +it is a striking fact, "that his measures were taken with such prudence, +that during eight years' absence at the extremity of the East, no revolt of +consequence occurred; and his settlement of Egypt was so judicious, as to +serve as a model to the Romans in the administration of that province at +the distance of three centuries." + +The voyage of Nearchus from Nicea on the Hydaspes, till he arrived in the +vicinity of Susa (which we shall afterwards more particularly describe); +the projected voyage, the object of which was to attempt the +circumnavigation of Arabia; the survey of the western side of the Gulf of +Persia, by Archias, Androsthenes, and Hiero, of which unfortunately we do +not possess the details; the projected establishment of a direct commercial +intercourse between India and Alexandria; and the foundation of this city, +which gave a new turn and a strong impulse to commerce, as will be more +particularly shown afterwards;--are but a few of the benefits geography and +commerce received from Alexander, or would have received, had not his plans +been frustrated by his sudden and early death at the age of 33. + +We have the direct testimony of Patrocles, that Alexander was not content +with vague and general information, nor relied on the testimony of others +where he could observe and judge for himself; and in all cases in which he +derived his information from others, he was particularly careful to select +those who knew the country best, and to make them commit their intelligence +to writing. By these means, united to the reports of those whom he employed +to survey his conquests, "all the native commodities which to this day form +the staple of the East Indian commerce, were fully known to the +Macedonians." The principal castes in India, the principles of the Bramins, +the devotion of widows to the flames, the description of the banyan-tree, +and a great variety of other particulars, sufficiently prove that the +Macedonians were actuated by a thirst after knowledge, as well as a spirit +of conquest; and illustrate as well as justify the observation made to +Alexander by the Bramin mandarin, "You are the only man whom I ever found +curious in the investigation of philosophy at the head of an army." + +When Alexander invaded India, he found commerce flourishing greatly in many +parts of it, particularly in what are supposed to be the present Multan, +Attock, and the Panjob. He every where took advantage of this commerce, not +by plundering and thus destroying it for the purpose of filling his +coffers, but by nourishing and increasing it, and thus at once benefitting +himself and the inhabitants who wore engaged in it. By means of the +commerce in which the natives of the Panjob were engaged on the Indus, +Alexander procured the fleet with which he sailed down that river. This +fleet is supposed to have consisted of eight hundred vessels, only thirty +of which were ships of war, the remainder being such as were usually +employed in the commerce of the Indus. Even before he reached this river, +he had built vessels which he had sent down the Kophenes to Taxila. By the +completion of his campaign at the sources of the Indus, and by his march +and voyage down the course of that river, he had traced and defined the +eastern boundary of his conquests: the line of his march from the +Hellespont till the final defeat of Darius, and his pursuit of that +monarch, had put him in possession of tolerably accurate knowledge of the +northern and western boundaries; the southern provinces alone remained to +be explored: they had indeed submitted to his arms; but they were still, +for all the purposes of government and commerce, unknown. + +"To obtain the information necessary for the objects they had in view, he +ordered Craterus, with the elephants and heavy baggage, to penetrate +through the centre of the empire, while he personally undertook the more +arduous task of penetrating the desert of Gadrosia, and providing for the +preservation of the fleet. A glance over the map will show that the route +of the army eastward, and the double route by which it returned, intersect +the whole empire by three lines, almost from the Tigris to the Indus: +Craterus joined the division under Alexander in the Karmania; and when +Nearchus, after the completion of his voyage, came up the Posityris to +Susa, the three routes through the different provinces, and the navigation +along the coast, might be said to complete the survey of the empire." + +The two divisions of his army were accompanied on their return to Susa by +Beton and Diognetus, who seem to have united the character and duties of +soldiers and men of science; or, perhaps, were like the quarter-masters- +general of our armies. It appears from Strabo and Pliny, in whose time the +surveys drawn by Beton and Diognetus were extant, that they reduced the +provinces through which they passed, as well as the marches of the army, to +actual measurement; and thus, the distances being accurately set down, and +journals faithfully kept, the principles of geographical science, next in +importance and utility to astronomical observations, were established. The +journals of Beton and Diognetus, the voyage of Nearchus, and the works of +Ptolemy, afterwards king of Egypt, and Aristobulus, who accompanied +Alexander in his expedition and wrote his life, all prove that the +authority or the example of the sovereign influenced the pursuits of his +officers and attendants; and it is highly to the credit of their diligence +and accuracy, that every increase of geographical knowledge tends to +confirm what they relate respecting the general appearance and features of +the countries they traversed, as well as the position of cities, rivers, +and mountains. + +Alexander appears to have projected or anticipated an intercourse between +India and the western provinces of his dominions in Egypt, not only by land +but by sea: for this latter purpose he founded two cities on the Hydaspes +and one on the Axesimes, both navigable rivers, which fall into the Indus. +And this also, most probably, was one reason for his careful survey of the +navigation of the Indus itself. When he returned to Susa, he surveyed the +course of the Tigris and Euphrates. The navigation near the mouths of those +rivers was obstructed by cataracts, occasioned by walls built across them +by the ancient monarchs of Persia, in order to prevent their subjects from +defiling themselves by sailing on the ocean[4]: these obstructions he gave +directions to be removed. Had he lived, therefore, the commodites of India +would have been conveyed from the Persian Gulf into the interior provinces +of his Asiatic dominions, and to Alexandria by the Arabian Gulf. + +To conclude in the words of Dr. Vincent: "The Macedonians obtained a +knowledge both of the Indus and the Ganges: they heard that the seat of +empire was, where it always has been, on the Ganges or Indus: they acquired +intelligence of all the grand and leading features of Indian manners, +policy, and religion [and he might have added, accurate information +respecting the geography of the western parts of that country]: they +discovered all this by penetrating through countries, where, possibly, no +Greek had previously set his foot; and they explored the passage by sea +which first opened the commercial intercourse with India to the Greeks and +Romans, through the medium of Egypt and the Red Sea, and finally to the +Europeans, by the Cape of Good Hope." When we reflect on the character and +state of the Macedonians, prior to the reign of Alexander, and the +condition into which they sunk after his death, we shall, perhaps, not +hesitate to acknowledge that Alexander infused his own soul into them; and +that history, ancient or modern, does not exhibit any similiar instance of +such powerful individual influence on the character and fate of a nation. +Alexander himself has always been honoured by conquerors, and is known to +mankind only, as the first of conquerors; but if military renown and +achievements had not, unfortunately for mankind, been more prized than they +deserved, and, on this account, the records of them been carefully +preserved, while the records of peaceful transactions were neglected and +lost, we should probably have received the full details of all that +Alexander did for geographical science and commerce; and in that case his +character would have been as highly prized by the philosopher and the +friend of humanity, civilization, and knowledge, as it is by the powerful +and ambitious. + +Fortunately the details of one of the geographical and commercial +expeditions undertaken by order of Alexander are still extant; we allude to +the voyage of Nearchus. Of this voyage we are now to speak; and as it is +curious and important, not merely on account of the geographical knowledge +it conveys, but also from the insight it gives us into the commercial +transactions of the countries which he visited, we shall give rather a full +abstract of it, availing ourselves of the light which has been thrown upon +it by the learned and judicious researches of Dr. Vincent. + +It was on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Beyah, that Alexander's +army mutinied, and refused to proceed any farther eastward. In consequence +of this insurmountable obstacle to his plans, he resolved to return to the +Hydaspes, and carry into execution his design of sailing down it into the +Indus, and thence by the ocean to the Persian Gulf. He had previously given +orders to his officers, when he had left the Hydaspes to collect, build, +and equip a sufficient number of vessels for this enterprise; and they had +been so diligent and successful, that on his return he found a numerous +fleet assembled. Nearchus was appointed to command the fleet: but Alexander +himself resolved to accompany it to the mouth of the river. + +On the 23d of October, 327 years before Christ, the fleet sailed from +Nicoea, on the Hydaspes, a city built by Alexander on the scite of the +battle in which he defeated Porus. The importance which he attached to this +expedition, as well as his anxiety respecting its skilful conduct and final +issue, are strongly painted by Arrian, to whom we are indebted for the +journal of Nearchus. Alexander at first did not know whom to trust with the +management of the expedition, or who would undertake it. when the length of +the voyage, the difficulties and dangers of a barren and unknown coast, the +want of harbours, and the obstacles in the way of obtaining provisions, +were considered. In this state of anxiety, doubt, and expectation, +Alexander ordered Nearchus to attend him, and consulted him on the choice +of a commander. "One," said he, "excuses himself, because he thinks the +danger insuperable; others are unfit for the service from timidity; others +think of nothing but how to get home; and many I cannot approve for a +variety of other reasons." "Upon hearing this," says Nearchus, "I offered +myself for the command: and promised the king, that under the protection of +God, I would conduct the fleet safe into the Gulf of Persia, if the sea +were navigable, and the undertaking within the power of man to perform." +The only objection that Alexander made arose from his regard for Nearchus, +whom he was unwilling to expose to the dangers of such a voyage; but +Nearchus persisting, and the king being convinced that the enterprise, if +practicable, would be achieved by the skill, courage, and perseverance of +Nearchus, at length yielded. The character of the commander, and the regard +his sovereign entertained for him, removed in a great degree the +apprehension that the proposed expedition was desperate: a selection of the +best officers and most effective men was now soon made; and the fleet was +not only supplied with every thing that was necessary, but equipped in a +most splendid manner. Onesicritus was appointed pilot and master of +Alexander's own ship; and Evagoras was secretary of the fleet. The +officers, including these and Nearchus, amounted to 33; but nearly the +whole of them, as well as the ships which they commanded, proceeded no +farther than the mouth of the Indus. The seamen were natives of Greece, or +the Grecian Islands, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cyprians, Ionians, &c. The +fleet consisted of 800 ships of war and transports, and about 1200 gallies. +On board of these, one-third of the army, which consisted of 120,000 men, +embarked; the remainder, marching in two divisions, one on the left, the +other on the right of the river. + +"The voyage down the river is described rather as a triumphal procession, +than a military progress. The size of the vessels, the conveyance of horses +aboard, the number, and splendour of the equipment, attracted the natives +to be spectators of the pomp. The sound of instruments, the clang of arms, +the commands of the officers, the measured song of the modulators, the +responses of the mariners, the dashing of the oars, and these sounds +frequently reverberated from overhanging shores, are all scenery presented +to our imagination by the historians, and evidently bespeak the language of +those who shared with pride in this scene of triumph and magnificence." + +No danger occurred to alarm them or impede their passage, till they arrived +at the junction of the Hydaspes with the Akesines. At this place, the +channel of the river became contracted, though the bulk of water was of +course greatly increased; and from this circumstance, and the rapidity with +which the two rivers unite, there is a considerable current, as well as +strong eddies; and the noise of the rushing and confined waters, is heard +at some distance. This noise astonished or alarmed the seamen so much, that +the rowers ceased to row, and the modulators to direct and encourage them +by their chant, till the commanders inspired them with confidence; and they +plied the oars with their utmost strength in order to stem the current, and +keep the vessels as steady and free from danger as possible. The eddy, +however, caught the gallies, which from their length were more exposed to +it than the ships of war: two of them sank, many more were damaged, while +Alexander's own ship was fortunate enough to find shelter near a projecting +point of land. At the junction of the Akesines with the Indus, Alexander +founded a city; of which, however, no traces at present remain. + +On the arrival of Alexander at Pattala, near the head of the Delta of the +Indus, he seems to have projected the formation of a commercial city; and +for this purpose, ordered the adjoining country to be surveyed: his next +object was to sail down the western branch of the river. With this view he +left Pattala with all his gallies, some of his half-decked vessels, and his +quickest sailing transports, ordering at the same time a small part of his +army to attend his fleet. Considerable difficulties arose, and some loss +was sustained from his not being able to procure a native pilot, and from +the swell in the river, occasioned by a violent wind blowing contrary to +the stream. He was at length compelled to seize some of the natives, and +make them act as pilots. When they arrived near the confluence of the Indus +with the sea, another storm arose; and as this also blew up the river, +while they were sailing down with the current and the tide, there was +considerable agitation in the water. The Macedonians were alarmed, and by +the advice of their pilots ran into one of the creeks of the river for +shelter: at low tide, the vessels being left aground, the sharp-built +gallies were much injured. + +The astonishment of the Macedonians was greatly excited when they saw the +waters of the river and of the sea ebb and flow. It is well known, that in +the Mediterranean the tides are scarcely perceptible. The flux and reflux +of the Euripus, a narrow strait which separates the island of Euboea from +the coast of Beotia, could give them no idea of the regularity of the +tides; for this flux and reflux continued for eighteen or nineteen days, +and was uncommonly unsettled the rest of the month. Besides, the tides at +the mouth of the Indus, and on the adjacent coast, are very high, and flow +in with very great force and rapidity; and are known in India, in the Bay +of Fundy, and in most other places where this phenomenon occurs, by the +name of the Bore; and at the mouth of the Severn, by the name of Hygre, or +Eagre. Herodotus indeed, mentions, that in the Red Sea there was a regular +ebb and flow of the sea every day; but as Dr. Robertson very justly +observes, "among the ancients there occur instances of inattention to +facts, related by respectable authors, which appear surprising in modern +times." Even so late as the time of Caesar, a spring tide in Britain, which +occasioned great damage to his fleet, created great surprize, and is +mentioned as a phenomenon with which he and his soldiers were unacquainted. + +Soon after Alexander had repaired the damage that his fleet had sustained, +he surveyed two islands lying at the west mouth of the Indus; and +afterwards leaving the river entirely, entered the ocean, either for the +purpose of ascertaining himself whether it were actually navigable, or, as +Arrian conjectures, in order to gratify his vanity by having it recorded, +that he had navigated the Indian Ocean. + +Having accomplished this object, he returned to Pattala, where he had +directed a naval arsenal to be formed, intending to station a fleet at this +place. The eastern branch of the Indus was yet unexplored. In order, that +an accurate knowledge of it might be gained, Alexander resolved to explore +it himself: accordingly, he sailed from Pattala till he arrived at a large +bay or lake, which probably, however, was only a number of the smaller +branches of the Indus, overflowing their banks. The passage from this place +to the ocean, he ascertained to be more open and convenient than that by +the western branch. He does not seem, however, to have advanced into the +ocean by it; but having landed, and proceeded along the coast, in the +direction of Guzerat and Malabar, three days' march, making observations on +the country, and directing wells to be sunk, he re-embarked, and returned +to the head of the bay. Here he again manifested his design of establishing +a permanent station, by ordering a fort to be built, a naval yard and docks +to be formed, and leaving a garrison and provisions for four months. + +Before the final departure of Alexander with his convoy from Pattala, he +directed Nearchus to assume the entire command of the fleet, and to sail as +soon as the season would permit. Twelve months, within a few days, elapsed +between the departure of the fleet from Nicaea, and the sailing of Nearchus +from the Indus; the former having taken place, as we have already observed, +on the 23d of October, in the year 327 before Christ, and the latter on the +2d of October, in the year 326 B.C. Only about nine months, however, had +elapsed in the actual navigation of the Indus and its tributary streams; +and even this period, which to us appears very long, was considerably +extended by the operations of the army of Alexander, as well as by the slow +sailing of such a large fleet as he conducted. + +In consequence, it is supposed, of the prevalence of the north-east +monsoon, Nearchus, after having reached the ocean (which, however, he could +not effect till he had cut a passage for his fleet through a sand bank or +bar at the mouth of the Indus), was obliged to lie in a harbour which he +called Port Alexander, and near which he erected a fort on the 3d of +November; about which time we know that the monsoon changes. Nearchus again +set sail. About the 8th of this month he reached the river Arabis, having +coasted along among rocks and islands, the passage between which was narrow +and difficult. The distance between this river and the Indus is nearly +eighty miles, and the fleet had occupied almost forty days in completing +the navigation of this space. During the greater part of this time, they +were very scantily supplied with provisions, and seem, indeed, to have +depended principally on the shell-fish found on the coast. Soon after +leaving the mouth of the Arabis, they were obliged, by the nature of the +shore and the violence of the wind, to remain on board their ships for two +nights; a very unusual as well as inconvenient and uncomfortable +circumstance for the ancients. We have already described their ships as +either having no deck, or only a kind of half-deck, below which the cables +were coiled. Under this deck there might be accommodation for part of the +crew; but in cases where all were obliged to remain on board at night, the +confinement must have been extremely irksome, as well as prejudicial to +their health. At the end of these two days, they were enabled to land and +refresh themselves; and here they were joined by Leonatus, one of +Alexander's generals, who had been despatched with some troops to watch and +protect their movements, as far on their course as was practicable. He +brought a supply of provisions, which had become very necessary. On leaving +this place, their progress became much more rapid than it had been before, +owing probably to the wind having become more regularly and permanently +favourable. + +As it is our intention, in giving this short abstract of the voyage of +Nearchus, to select only such particulars as illustrate the mode of +navigation practised among the ancients--the progress of discovery, or the +state of commerce,--we shall pass over every topic or fact not connected +with these. We cannot, however, refrain from giving an account of the +transactions of the fleet at the river Tomerus, when it arrived on the 21st +of November, fifty days after it left the Indus; as on reading it, our +readers will be immediately struck with the truth of Dr. Vincent's +observation, that it bears a very strong resemblance to the landing of a +party from the Endeavour, in New Zealand, under protection of the ship's +guns. We make use of Dr. Vincent's translation, or rather abstract:-- + +"At the Tomerus the inhabitants were found living on the low ground near +the sea, in cabins which seemed calculated rather to suffocate their +inhabitants than to protect them from the weather; and yet these wretched +people were not without courage. Upon sight of the fleet approaching, they +collected in arms on the shore, and drew up in order to attack the +strangers on their landing. Their arms were spears, not headed with iron, +but hardened in the fire, nine feet long; and their number about 600. +Nearchus ordered his vessels to lay their heads towards the shore, within +the distance of bow-shot; for the enemy had no missile weapons but their +spears. He likewise brought his engines to bear upon them, (for such it +appears he had on board,) and then directed his light-armed troops, with +those who were the most active and the best swimmers, to be ready for +commencing the attack. On a signal given, they were to plunge into the sea: +the first man who touched ground was to be the point at which the line was +to be formed, and was not to advance till joined by the others, and the +file could be ranged three deep. These orders were exactly obeyed; the men +threw themselves out of the ships, swam forward, and formed themselves in +the water, under cover of the engines. As soon as they were in order, they +advanced upon the enemy with a shout, which was repeated from the ships. +Little opposition was experienced; for the natives, struck with the novelty +of the attack, and the glittering of the armour, fled without resistance. +Some escaped to the mountains, a few were killed, and a considerable number +made prisoners. They were a savage race, shaggy on the body as well as the +head, and with nails so long and of such strength, that they served them as +instruments to divide their food, (which consisted, indeed, almost wholly +of fish,) and to separate even wood of the softer kind. Whether this +circumstance originated from design, or want of implements to pare their +nails, did not appear; but if there was occasion, to divide harder +substances, they substituted stones sharpened, instead of iron, for iron +they had none. Their dress consisted of the skins of beasts, and some of +the larger kinds of fish." + +Along the coast of the Icthyophagi, extending from Malan to Cape Jaser, a +distance, by the course of the fleet, of nearly 625 miles, Nearchus was so +much favoured by the winds and by the straightness of the coast, that his +progress was sometimes nearly 60 miles a day. In every other respect, +however, this portion of the voyage was very unfortunate and calamitous. +Alexander, aware that on this coast, which furnished nothing but fish, his +fleet would be in distress for provisions, and that this distress would be +greatly augmented by the scarcity of water which also prevailed here, had +endeavoured to advance into this desolate tract, to survey the harbours, +sink wells, and collect provisions. But the nature of the country rendered +this impracticable; and his army became so straightened for corn +themselves, that a supply of it, which he intended for the fleet, and on +which he had affixed his own seal, was seized by the men whom he had +ordered to protect and escort it to the coast. At last he was obliged to +give up all attempts of relieving Nearchus; and after struggling 60 days +with want of water,--during which period, if he himself had not, at the +head of a few horse, pushed on to the coast, and there obtained a supply, +by opening the sands, his whole army must have perished,--he with great +difficulty reached the capital of this desert country. Nearchus, thus left +to himself, was indebted to the natives for the means of discovering water, +by opening the sands, as the king had done; but to the Greeks, who regarded +the want of bread as famine, even when its place was supplied by meat, the +fish the natives offered them was no relief. + +We have already remarked, that the real character of Alexander will be much +elevated in the opinion of men of humanity and philosophers, if the +particulars we possess of his endeavours to improve the condition of those +he conquered, and to advance the interests of science, scanty and imperfect +as they are, were more attentively considered, and had not been neglected +and overlooked in the glare of his military achievements. His march through +the deserts of Gadrosia has been ascribed solely to vanity; but this +imputation will be removed, and must give way to a more worthy impression +of his motives on this occasion, when it is stated, that it was part of the +great design which he had formed of opening a communication between his +European dominions and India by sea; and that as the accomplishment of this +design mainly depended on the success of the expedition committed to +Nearchus, it was a paramount object with him to assist the fleet, which he +thrice attempted, even in the midst of his own distress in the deserts. + +On their arrival at the river Kalama, which is supposed to be the Churmut, +60 days after their departure from the Indus, they at length obtained from +the natives some sheep; but the flesh of it, as well as the fowls which +they obtained, had a very fishy taste--the sheep, fowls, and inhabitants, +all feeding on fish, there being no herbage or trees of any kind, except a +few palm-trees. On the next day, having doubled a cape, they anchored in a +harbour called Mosarna, where they found a pilot, who undertook to conduct +the fleet to the Gulf of Persia. It would appear from Arrian, that the +intercourse between this place and the Gulf was frequent, the voyage less +dangerous, and the harbours on the coast better known. Owing to these +favourable circumstances, the skill of the pilot, and the breeze which blew +from the land during the night, their course was more rapid; and they +sailed by night as well as day. The coast, however, still continued barren, +and the inhabitants unable to supply them with any thing but fish till they +arrived at Barna on the 64th day: here the inhabitants were more civilized; +they had gardens producing fruit-trees, flowers, myrtle, &c., with which +the Greek sailors formed garlands to adorn their hair. + +On the 69th day, December 9., they arrived at a small town, the name of +which is not given; nor is it possible to fix its scite. What occurred here +we shall give in the words of Dr. Vincent:-- + +"When the fleet reached this place, it was totally without bread or grain +of any kind; and Nearchus, from the appearance of stubble in the +neighbourhood, conceived hopes of a supply, if he could find means of +obtaining it; but he perceived that he could not take the place by assault, +and a siege the situation he was in rendered impracticable. He concerted +matters, therefore, with Archias, and ordered him to make a feint of +preparing the fleet to sail; while he himself, with a single vessel, +pretending to be left behind, approached the town in a friendly manner, and +was received hospitably by the inhabitants. They came out to receive him +upon his landing, and presented him with baked fish, (the first instance of +cookery he had yet seen on the coast,) accompanied with cakes and dates. +These he accepted with proper acknowledgments, and informed them he wished +for permission to see the town: this request was granted without suspicion; +but no sooner had he entered, than he ordered two of his archers to take +post at the gate, and then mounting the wall contiguous, with two more and +his interpreter, he made the signal for Archias, who was now under weigh to +advance. The natives instantly ran to their arms; but Nearchus having taken +an advantageous position, made a momentary defence till Archias was close +at the gate, ordering his interpreter to proclaim at the same time, that if +they wished their city to be preserved from pillage, they must deliver up +their corn, and all the provisions which the place afforded. These terms +were not rejected, for the gate was open, and Archias ready to enter: he +took charge of this post immediately with the force which attended him; and +Nearchus sent proper officers to examine such stores as were in the place, +promising the inhabitants that, if they acted ingenuously, they should +suffer no other injury. Their stores were immediately produced, consisting +of a kind of meal, or paste made of fish, in great plenty, with a small +quantity of wheat and barley. This, however insufficient for his wants, +Nearchus received: and abstaining from farther oppression, returned on +board with his supply." + +The provisions he obtained here, notwithstanding the consumption of them +was protracted by occasionally landing and cutting off the tender shoots of +the head of the wild palm-tree, were so completely exhausted in the course +of a few days, that Nearchus was obliged to prevent his men from landing, +under the apprehension, that though the coast was barren, their distress on +board would have induced them not to return. At length, on the 14th of +December, on the seventy-fourth day of their departure, they reached a more +fertile and hospitable shore, and were enabled to procure a very small +supply of provisions, consisting principally of corn, dried dates, and the +flesh of seven camels. Nearchus mentions the latter evidently to point out +the extreme distress to which they were reduced. As it is evident that this +supply would be soon exhausted, we are not surprised that Nearchus, in +order to reach a better cultivated district, should urge on his course as +rapidly as possible; and accordingly we find, that he sailed at a greater +rate in this part of his voyage than he ever had done before. Having sailed +day and night without intermission, in which time he passed a distance of +nearly sixty-nine miles, he at length doubled the cape, which formed the +boundary of the barren coast of the Icthyophagi, and arrived in the +district of Karmania. At Badis, the first town in this district, which they +reached on the 17th of December, after a voyage of 77 days, they were +supplied with corn, wine, and every kind of fruit, except olives, the +inhabitants being not only able but willing to relieve their wants. + +The length of the coast of the Icthyophagi is about 462 miles; and, as +Nearchus was twenty-one days on this coast, the average rate of sailing +must have been twenty-one miles a day. The whole distance, from the Indus +to the cape which formed the boundary of Karmania, is about 625 miles: this +distance Nearchus was above seventy days in sailing. It must be +recollected, however, that when he first set out the monsoon was adverse, +and that for twenty-four days he lay in harbour: making the proper +deductions for these circumstances, he was not at sea more than forty days +with a favourable wind; which gives rather more than fifteen miles a day. +The Houghton East Indiaman made the same run in thirteen days; and, on her +return, was only five days from Gomeroon to Scindy Bay. + +The manners of the wretched inhabitants have occasionally been already +noticed; but Nearchus dwells upon some further particulars, which, from +their conformity with modern information, are worthy of remark. Their +ordinary support is fish, as the name of Icthyophagi, or fish-eaters, +implies; but why they are for this reason specified as a separate tribe +from the Gadrosians, who live inland, does not appear. Ptolomy considers +all this coast as Karmania, quite to Mosarna; and whether Gadrosia is a +part of that province, or a province itself, is a matter of no importance; +but the coast must have received the name Nearchus gives it from Nearchus +himself; for it is Greek, and he is the first Greek who explored it. It +may, perhaps, be a translation of a native name, and such translations the +Greeks indulged in sometimes to the prejudice of geography. "But these +people, though they live on fish, are few of them fishermen, for their +barks are few, and those few very mean and unfit for the service. The fish +they obtain they owe to the flux and reflux of the tide, for they extend a +net upon the shore, supported by stakes of more than 200 yards in length, +within which, at the tide of ebb, the fish are confined, and settle in the +pits or in equalities of the sand, either made for this purpose or +accidental. The greater quantity consists of small fish; but many large +ones are also caught, which they search for in the pits, and extract with +nets. Their nets are composed of the bark or fibres of the palm, which they +twine into a cord, and form like the nets of other countries. The fish is +generally eaten raw, just as it is taken out of the water, at least such as +are small and penetrable; but the larger sort, and those of more solid +texture, they expose to the sun, and pound them to a paste for store: this +they use instead of meal or bread, or form them into a sort of cakes or +frumenty. The very cattle live on dried fish, for there is neither grass +nor pasture on the coast. Oysters, crabs, and shell-fish, are caught in +plenty; and though this circumstance is specified twice only in the early +part of the voyage, there is little doubt but these formed the principal +support of the people during their navigation. Salt is here the production +of nature, by which we are to understand, that the power of the sun in this +latitude, is sufficient for exhalation and crystallization, without the +additional aid of fire; and from this salt they formed an extract which +they used as the Greeks use oil. The country, for the most part, is so +desolate, that the natives have no addition to their fish but dates: in +some few places a small quantity of grain is sown; and there bread is their +viand of luxury, and fish stands in the rank of bread. The generality of +the people live in cabins, small and stifling: the better sort only have +houses constructed with the bones of whales, for whales are frequently +thrown upon the coast; and, when the flesh is rotted off, they take the +bones, making planks and doors of such as are flat, and beams or rafters of +the ribs or jaw-bones; and many of these monsters are found fifty yards in +length." Strabo confirms the report of Arrian, and adds, that "the +vertebræ, or socket bones, of the back, are formed into mortars, in which +they pound their fish, and mix it up into a paste, with the addition of a +little meal."--(Vincent's Nearchus, p. 265.) + +Dr. Vincent, in this passage, does not seem to be aware that no whale was +ever found nearly so long as fifty yards, and that half that length is the +more common size of the largest whales, even in seas more suitable to their +nature and growth. That the animal which Nearchus himself saw was a whale, +there can be little doubt: while he was off Kyiza, the seamen were +extremely surprised, and not a little alarmed, at perceiving the sea +agitated and thrown up, as Arrian expresses it, as if it were forcibly +lifted up by a whirlwind. The pilot informed them that it was occasioned by +the whales blowing; this information, however, does not seem to have +quieted their fears: they ceased rowing, the oars dropped from their hands, +and Nearchus found himself under the necessity of exerting all his presence +of mind and authority to recall them to their duty. He gave directions to +steer towards the place where the sea was lifted up: in their advance the +crew shouted all together, dashed the water with their oars, and sounded +their trumpets. The whales were intimidated, sunk on the near approach of +the vessels, and, though they rose again astern, and renewed their blowing, +they now excited no alarm. + +The Gulf of Persia, which Nearchus was now about to enter, comprehends the +coasts of Karmania, Persis, and Susiana. Nothing important occurred till +the vessels arrived off Cape Mussenden in Karmania, where they anchored: at +this place Nearchus and Onesicritus differed in opinion relative to the +further prosecution of the voyage; the latter wished to explore this cape, +and extend the voyage to the Gulf of Arabia. The reason he assigned was, +that they knew more of this gulf, than of the Gulf of Persia; and that, as +Alexander was master of Egypt, in the former gulf they would meet with more +assistance than in the latter. Nearchus, on the contrary, insisted that +Alexander's plan in directing, this voyage should be exactly pursued: this +plan was, to obtain a knowledge of the coast, with such harbours, bays, and +islands, as might occur in the course of the voyage; "to ascertain whether +there were any towns bordering on the ocean, and whether the country was +habitable or desert." The opinion of Nearchus prevailed, and the voyage was +pursued according to its original course and purpose. + +As Nearchus had reason to believe that the army of Alexander was at no +great distance, he resolved to land, form a naval camp, and to advance +himself into the interior, that he might ascertain this point. Accordingly, +on the 20th of December, the 80th day after his departure, he formed a camp +near the river Anamis; and having secured his ships, proceeded in search of +Alexander. The first intelligence of their sovereign, however, seems to +have been obtained accidentally. The crew of Nearchus were strolling up the +country, when some of them met with a man whose dress and language +instantly discovered that he was a Greek: the joy of meeting with a +countryman was greatly heightened when he informed them that the army which +he had lately left, was encamped at no great distance, and that the +governor of the province was on the spot. As soon as Nearchus learnt the +exact situation of the army, he hastened towards it; but the governor, +eager to communicate to Alexander intelligence of his fleet, anticipated +him. Alexander was exceedingly pleased; but when several days elapsed, and +Nearchus did not arrive, he began to doubt the truth of what the governor +had told him, and at last ordered him to be imprisoned. + +[Illustration] + +In the mean time Nearchus was prosecuting his journey along with Archias +and five or six others, when he fortunately fell in with a party from the +army, which had been sent out with horses and carriages for his +accommodation. The admiral and his attendants, from their appearance, might +have passed unnoticed. Their hair long and neglected, their garments +decayed, their countenance pale and weather-worn, and their persons +emaciated by famine and fatigue, scarcely raised the attention of the +friends they had encountered. They were Greeks, however; and if Greeks, it +was natural to inquire after the army, and where it was now encamped. An +answer was given to their inquiry; but still they were neither recognized +by the party, nor was any question asked in return. Just as they were +separating from each other, "Assuredly," says Archias, "this must be a +party sent out for our relief, for on what other account can they be +wandering about the desert? There is nothing strange in their passing us +without notice, for our very appearance is a disguise. Let us address them +once more, and inform them who we are, and learn from them on what service +they are at present employed." Nearchus approved of this advice, and +approaching them again, inquired which way they were directing their +course. "We are in search of Nearchus and his people," replied the officer: +"And I am Nearchus," said the admiral; "and this is Archias. Take us under +your conduct, and we will ourselves report our history to the king." They +were accordingly placed in the carriages, and conducted towards the army +without delay. While they were upon their progress, some of the horsemen, +impatient to carry the news of this happy event, set off to the camp to +inform the king, that Nearchus and Archias were arrived with five or six of +his people; but of the rest they had no intelligence. This suggested to +Alexander that perhaps these only were preserved, and that the rest of the +people had perished, either by famine or shipwreck; nor did he feel so much +pleasure in the preservation of the few, as distress for the loss of the +remainder. During this interval, Nearchus and his attendants arrived. It +was not without difficulty that the king discovered who they were, under +the disguise of their appearance; and this circumstance contributed to +confirm him in his mistake, imagining that both their persons and their +dress bespoke ship wreck, and the destruction of the fleet. He held out his +hand, however, to Nearchus, and led him aside from his guards and +attendants without being able to utter a word. As soon as they were alone, +he burst into tears, and continued weeping for a considerable time; till, +at length recovering in some degree his composure,--"Nearchus," says he, "I +feel some satisfaction in finding that you and Archias have escaped; but +tell me where and in what manner did my fleet and my people perish?" "Your +fleet," replied Nearchus, "are all safe,--your people are safe; and we are +come to bring you the account of their preservation." Tears, but from a +different source, now fell much faster from his eyes. "Where then are my +ships?" says he. "At the Anamis," replied Nearchus; "all safe on shore, and +preparing for the completion of their voyage." "By the Lybian Ammon and +Jupiter of Greece, I swear to you," rejoined the king, "I am more happy at +receiving this intelligence, than in being conqueror of all Asia; for I +should have considered the loss of my fleet and the failure of this +expedition, as a counterbalance to all the glory I have acquired." Such was +the reception of the admiral; while the governor, who was the first bearer +of the glad tidings, was still in bonds: upon the sight of Nearchus, he +fell at his feet, and implored his intercession. It may be well imagined +that his pardon was as readily granted as it was asked.--(Vincent's +Nearchus, p. 312.) + +Sacrifices, games, and a festival ensued; and when these were ended, +Alexander told Nearchus that he would expose him to no further hazard, but +despatch another to carry the fleet to Susa. "I am bound to obey you," +replied the admiral, "as my king, and I take a pleasure in my obedience; +but if you, wish to gratify me in return, suffer me to retain my command, +till I have completed the expedition. I shall feel it as an injustice, if, +after having struggled through all the difficulties of the voyage, another +shall finish the remainder almost without an effort, and yet reap the +honour of completing what I have begun." Alexander yielded to this just +request, and about the end of the year Nearchus rejoined his fleet. + +By the 6th of January, B.C. 345, he reached the island of Kataia, which +forms the boundary between Karmania and Persis. The length of the former +coast is rather more than three hundred miles: the time occupied by +Nearchus in this part of his voyage was about twelve days. He arrived at +Badis, the first station in Karmania, on the 7th of December; at Anamis on +the 10th; here he remained three days. His journey to the camp, stay there, +return, and preparations for again sailing, may have occupied fifteen days. +Three hundred miles in twelve days is at the rate of twenty-five miles a +day. + +Hitherto the voyage of Nearchus has afforded no information respecting the +commerce of the ancients. The coasts along which he sailed were either +barren and thinly inhabited by a miserable and ignorant people, or if more +fertile and better cultivated, Nearchus' attention and interest were too +keenly occupied about the safety of himself and his companions, to gather +much information of a commercial nature. The remainder of his voyage, +however, affords a few notices on this subject; and to these we shall +attend. + +In the island of Schitwar, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Persia, +Nearchus found the inhabitants engaged in a pearl fishery: at present +pearls are not taken on this side of the Gulf. At the Rohilla point a dead +whale attracted their attention; it is represented as fifty cubits long, +with a hide a cubit in thickness, beset with shell-fish, probably barnacles +or limpets, and sea-weeds, and attended by dolphins, larger than Nearchus +had been accustomed to see in the Mediterranean Sea. Their arrival at the +Briganza river affords Dr. Vincent an opportunity of conjecturing the +probable draught of a Grecian vessel of fifty oars. At ebb-tide, Arrian +informs us, the vessels were left dry; whereas at high tide they were able +to surmount the breakers and shoals. Modern travellers state that the +flood-tide rises in the upper part of the Gulf of Persia, nine or ten feet: +hence it may be conjectured that the largest vessel in the fleet drew from +six to eight feet water. The next day's sail brought them from the Briganza +to the river Arosis, the boundary river between Persis and Susiana, the +largest of the rivers which Nearchus had met with in the Gulf of Persia. +The province of Persis is described by Nearchus as naturally divided into +three parts. "That division which lies along the side of the Gulf is sandy, +parched, and sterile, bearing little else but palm-trees." To the north and +north-east, across the range of mountains, the country improves +considerably in soil and climate; the herbage is abundant and nutritious; +the meadows well watered; and the vine and every kind of fruit, except the +olive, flourishes. This part of the province is adorned by the parks and +gardens of the kings and nobles; the rivers flow from lakes of pure water, +abounding in water-fowl of all descriptions; horses and cattle feed on the +rich pastures, while in the woods there is abundance of animals for the +chace. To this the third division of Persis forms a striking contrast. This +lies farther north, a mountainous district, wild and rugged, inhabited by +barbarous tribes: the climate is so cold, that the tops of the mountains +are constantly covered with snow. + +The coast of Susiana, along which Nearchus was now about to sail, he +represents as difficult and dangerous, from the number of shoals with which +it was lined. As he was informed that it would not be easy to procure water +while he was crossing the mouths of the streams which divide the Delta, he +took in a supply for five days before he left the Arosis. On account of the +shoals which stretch a considerable way out to sea, they could not approach +the coast, and were consequently obliged to anchor at night, and sleep on +board. In order to pass this dangerous coast with the least risk, they +formed a line by single ships, each following in order, through a channel +marked by stakes; in the same manner, Arrian remarks, as the passage +between Leukas and Akarnania in Greece, except that at Leukas there is a +firm sand, so that a ship takes no damage, if she runs ashore: whereas in +this passage there was deep mud on both sides, in which a vessel grounding +stuck fast; and if her crew endeavoured to get her off by going overboard, +they sunk above the middle in the mud. The extent of this difficult passage +was thirty-seven miles, at the end of which Nearchus came to an anchor at a +distance from the coast. Their course next day was in deep water, which +continued till they arrived, after sailing a day and a half, at a village +at the mouth of the Euphrates: at this village there was a mart for the +importation of the incenses of Arabia. Here Nearchus learnt that Alexander +was marching to Susa; this intelligence determined him to return back, to +sail up the Pasi-Tigris, and join him near that city. At Aginis he entered +the Pasi-Tigris, but he proceeded only about nine miles to a village which +he describes as populous and flourishing; here he determined to wait, till +he received further information respecting the exact route of the army. He +soon learnt that Alexander with his troops was at a bridge which he had +constructed over the Pasi-Tigris, at the distance of about one hundred and +twenty miles: at this place Nearchus joined him. Alexander embraced +Nearchus with the warmth of a friend; and his reception from all ranks was +equally gratifying and honourable. Whenever he appeared in the camp, he was +saluted with acclamations: sacrifices, games, and every other kind of +festivity celebrated the success of his enterprize. Nearly five months had +been occupied in performing the voyage from the mouth of the Indus--a +voyage which a modern vessel could perform in the course of three weeks. + +Immediately after the junction of the fleet and army, Alexander crossed the +Pasi-Tigris, and proceeded to Susa: here he distributed rewards and honours +among his followers for their long, arduous, faithful, and triumphant +services. Those officers who had served as guards of Alexander's person +received crowns of gold; and the same present was made to Nearchus as +admiral, and to Onesicritus as navigator of the fleet. + +We have already mentioned that Alexander projected the circumnavigation of +Arabia to the Red Sea, in order to complete the communication between India +and Egypt, and through Egypt with Europe. Nearchus was selected for this +enterprize; its execution, however, was prevented by the death of +Alexander. That he was extremely anxious for its completion, is evident +from the personal trouble he took in the preparations for it, and in the +necessary preliminary measures. In order that he might himself take a view +of the Gulf of Persia, he embarked on board a division of his fleet, and +sailed down the same stream which Nearchus had sailed up. At the head of +the Delta, the vessels which had suffered most in Nearchus' voyages were +directed to proceed with the troops they had on board, through a canal +which runs into the Tigris, Alexander himself proceeding with the lightest +and best sailing vessels through the Delta to the sea. + +Soon after his return to Opis, where the mutiny of his troops took place, +Alexander gave another proof of his attention to maritime affairs; for he +despatched Heraclides into Hyrcania, with orders to cut timber and prepare +a fleet for the purpose of exploring the Caspian Sea--an attempt which, +like that of the projected voyage of Nearchus up the Arabian Gulf, was +prevented by Alexander's death. In the mean time Nearchus had been +collecting the vessels that were destined for his expedition; they were +assembled at Babylon: to this city also were brought from Phoenicia +forty-seven vessels which had been taken to pieces, and so conveyed over +land to Thapsacus. Two of these were of five banks, three of four, twelve +of three, and thirty rowed with fifteen oars on a side. Others likewise +were ordered to be built on the spot of cypress, the only wood which +Babyloni afforded; while mariners were collected from Phoenicia, and a dock +was directed to be cut capable of containing one thousand vessels, with +buildings and arsenals in proportion to the establishment. To accomplish +this extensive design, Alexander had sent one of his officers to Phoenicia +with 500 talents (about 106,830_l_.) to buy slaves fit for the oar, and +hire mariners. These preparations were so extensive, that it seems highly +probable that Alexander meant to conquer Arabia, as well as explore the +navigation of the Arabian Gulf; and indeed his plan and policy always were +to unite conquest with discovery. As soon as he had put these preparations +in a proper train, he again embarked, and sailed down the Euphrates as far +as Pallacopas. The immediate object of this voyage is not exactly known. As +the Euphrates flows over the adjacent country at certain seasons, the +Persian monarchs had cut a canal at Pallacopas, which diverted its +superfluous waters into a lake, where they were employed to flood the land. +This and similar canals had been long neglected; but as Alexander seems to +have fixed on Babylon as the future capital of his empire, it was necessary +to restore the canals to their original utility, in order that the ground +on both sides of the Euphrates might be drained or flooded at the proper +season. This may have been the only object of Alexander's voyage, or it may +have been connected with the projected voyage of Nearchus. It is certain, +however, that by his directions the principal canal was much improved; +indeed it was in reality cut in a more convenient and suitable place; for +the soil where it had been originally cut was soft and spongy, so that much +labour and time were required to restore the waters to their course, and +secure its mouth in a safe and firm manner. A little lower down, the soil +was much more suitable, being strong and rocky; here then Alexander ordered +the opening of the canal to be made: he afterwards entered it with his +fleet, and surveyed the whole extent of the lake with which it +communicated. On the Arabian side of the Gulf, he ordered a city to be +built: immediately afterwards he returned to Babylon, where he died. + +In the mean time, and while Nearchus was at Babylon, three vessels were +sent down the Arabian side of the Gulf, to collect such information as +might be useful to him in his projected voyage. One was commanded by +Archias, who proceeded as far as Tylos, or Bahrein, the centre of the +modern pearl fishery. A short distance from the mouth of the Euphrates, +Archias discovered two islands; on one of which a breed of goats and sheep +was preserved, which were never killed, except for the purpose of +sacrifice. The second vessel sailed a little way round the coast of Arabia. +The third, which was commanded by Hiero of Soli, went much farther than +either of the other two, for it doubled Cape Mussendoon, sailed down the +coast below Moscat, and came in sight of Cape Ras-el-hed: this cape he was +afraid to double. On his return he reported that Arabia was much more +extensive than had been imagined. None of these vessels proceeded so far as +to be of much service to Nearchus, or to carry into effect the grand object +of Alexander: for his instructions to Hiero in particular were, to +circumnavigate Arabia; to go up the Red Sea; and reach the Bay of +Hieropolis, on the coast of Egypt. All these vessels were small, having +only fifty oars, and therefore not well calculated for such a long and +hazardous navigation. + +At the time when Alexander was seized with the illness which occasioned his +death, Nearchus was ready to sail, and he himself, with the army, was to +accompany him as far as was practicable, in the same manner as he had done +from the Indus to the Tigris: two days before the fever commenced, he gave +a grand entertainment to Nearchus and his officers. + +Only a very few circumstances regarding Nearchus are known after the death +of Alexander: he was made governor of Lycia and Pamphylia, and seems to +have attached himself to the fortunes of Antigonus. Along with him, he +crossed the mountains of Loristan, when he marched out of Susiana, after +his combat with Eumenes. In this retreat he commanded the light-armed +troops, and was ordered in advance, to drive the Cosseams from their passes +in the mountains. When Antigonus deemed it necessary to march into Lesser +Asia, to oppose the progress of Cassander, he left his son Demetrius, with +part of his army, in Syria; and as that prince was not above 22 years old, +he appointed him several advisers, of whom Nearchus was one. It is by no +means improbable that the instructions or the advice of Nearchus may have +induced Demetrius to survey with great care the lake of Asphaltes, and to +form a computation of the profit of the bitumen which it afforded, and of +the balm which grew in the adjacent country, and may have contributed to +his love for and skill in ship-building; for after he was declared king of +Macedonia, he built a fleet of five hundred gallies, several of which had +fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen benches of oars. We are informed that they +were all built by the particular contrivance of Demetrius himself, and that +the ablest artizans, without his directions, were unable to construct such +vessels, which united the pomp and splendour of royal ships to the strength +and conveniences of ordinary ships of war. The period and circumstances of +the death of Nearchus are not known. Dr. Vincent supposes that he may have +lost his life at the battle of Ipsus, where Antigonus fell: or, after the +battle, by command of the four kings who obtained the victory. Previous to +his grand expedition, it appears that he was a native of Crete, and +enrolled a citizen of Amphipolis, it is supposed, at the time when Philip +intended to form there a mart for his conquests in Thrace. He soon +afterwards came to the court of Philip, by whom he and some others were +banished, because he thought them too much attached to the interests of +Alexander in the family dissensions which arose on the secession of +Olympias, and some secret transactions of Alexander in regard to a marriage +with a daughter of a satrap of Caria. On the death of Philip, Nearchus was +recalled, and rewarded for his sufferings by the favour of his sovereign. + + +[4] The object of these dykes is supposed by Niebuhr to have been + very different: be observes that they were constructed for the purpose + of keeping up the waters to inundate the contiguous level: he found + these dykes both in the Euphrates and Tigris. And Tavernier mentions + one, 120 feet high, in the fall between Mosul and the great Zab. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRIZE, +FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, TO THE TIME OF PTOLEMY THE +GEOGRAPHER, A.D. 150.--WITH A DIGRESSION ON THE INLAND TRADE BETWEEN INDIA +AND THE SHORES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN, THROUGH ARABIA, FROM THE EARLIEST +AGES. + +For several centuries after the death of Alexander, the impulse and +direction of discovery and commercial enterprize continued towards the +countries of the East. Of his successors, Seleucus Nicanor and some of the +Ptolemies of Egypt prosecuted his plans of commerce with this part of the +world with the most zeal and success. Seleucus, after the death of +Alexander, obtained possession of those provinces of his empire which were +comprized under the name of Upper Asia; he, therefore, naturally regarded +the conquered districts of India as belonging to him. In order to secure +these, and at the same time to derive from them all the political and +commercial advantages which they were capable of bestowing, he marched into +India; and it is supposed that he carried his arms into districts that had +not been visited by Alexander. The route assigned to his march is obscurely +given; but it seems to point out the country from the Hyphasis to the +Hysudrus, from thence to Palibothra, at the junction of the Saone and the +Ganges, or, perhaps, where Patna now stands. There is no good reason to +believe, with some authors, that he reached the mouth of the Ganges. +Seleucus was stopt in his progress by the intelligence that Antigonus was +about to invade his dominions; but before he retraced his steps towards the +Euphrates, he formed a treaty with the Indian king Sandracottus, who +resided at Palibothra: and afterwards sent Megasthenes, who had some +knowledge of the country, from having accompanied Alexander, as his +ambassador to him. In this city, Megasthenes resided several years, and on +his return he published an account of that part of India; fragments of this +account are given by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Arrian; and though it +contains many false and fabulous stories, yet these are intermixed with +much that is valuable and correct. He gives a faithful picture of the +Indian character and manners; and his account of the geography and +dimensions of India is curious and accurate. Some further insight into +these countries was derived from the embassy of Daimachus, to the son and +successor of Sandracottus; this terminated the connection of the Syrian +monarchs with India which was probably wrested from them soon after the +death of Seleucus. At the time when this monarch was assassinated, Pliny +informs us, that he entertained a design of joining the Euxine and Caspian +seas, by means of a canal; he was undoubtedly the most sagacious of the +Syrian kings, and the only one who imitated Alexander in endeavouring to +unite conquest with commerce. + +But it is to the Egyptian successors of Alexander that we must look for the +systematic extension of commerce; towards which they were in a manner +impelled by the highly favourable situation of Alexandria. It has justly +been observed by Harris, in his Collection of Voyages, that most of the +cities founded by the Syrian kings existed little longer than their +founders; and, perhaps, with the exception of Antioch, on the Orontes, and +Seleucia, on the Tigris, none of them, from the situation in which they +were built, and the countries by which they were surrounded, could under +any circumstances be of long duration. With respect to the cities founded +by Alexander it was quite otherwise. The Alexandria of Paropamisus may +still be traced in Candahar; and the Alexandria on the Iaxartes, in Cogend: +and the Alexandria of Egypt, after surviving the revolutions of empires for +eighteen ages, perished at last, (as a commercial city,) only in +consequence of a discovery which changed the whole system of commerce +through the world. + +On the destruction of Tyre, Alexander sought for a situation on which he +might build a city that would rival it in the extent of its commerce; and +he quickly perceived the advantages that would be derived from the seat of +commerce being established near one of the branches of the Nile. By means +of this river his projected city would command at once the commerce of the +Red Sea and the Mediterranean. It was, however, necessary to select a spot +near the mouths of the Nile, which would secure these advantages in the +highest degree, and which would at the same time be of the highest +importance in a military point of view, and afford a harbour constantly +accessible. The site of Alexandria combined all these advantages: on three +sides it has the sea, or the lake Mareotis, which, according to Strabo, was +nearly 300 stadia long, and 150 broad; the country adjoining this lake was +fertile, and by means of it, and natural or artificial channels, there was +a communication with the Delta and Upper Egypt. Between this lake and the +Canopic branch of the Nile, Alexander built his city: to less sagacious +minds this site would have appeared improper and injudicious in some +respects; for the sea-coast from Pelusium to Canopus is low land, not +visible at a distance; the navigation along this coast, and the approach to +it, is dangerous, and the entrance into the mouths of the Nile, at some +seasons, is extremely hazardous. But these disadvantages the genius of +Alexander turned to the benefit of his city, by the erection of the Pharos, +and the plan of a double harbour, which was afterwards completed by the +Ptolemies; for he thus united in a single spot the means of defence and +facility of access. + +Denocrates, a Macedonian architect, who proposed to Alexander to cut Mount +Athos in the form of a statue holding a city in one hand, and in the other +a bason, into which all the waters of the mountain should empty themselves, +was employed by that monarch to build and beautify Alexandria. Its site was +on a deep and secure bay, formed by the shore on the one side, and the +island of Pharos on the other; in this bay numerous fleets might lie in +perfect safety, protected from the winds and waves. The form in which the +city was built was that of a Macedonian chlamys, or cloak; the two ports, +one of which only was built by Alexander, though both (as has been already +observed) were projected by him, were formed and divided from each other by +a moat a mile long, which stretched from the isle of Pharos to the +continent: that harbour which lay to the north was called the Great +Harbour, and the other, to the west, was called Eunostus, or the Safe +Return. In order to secure the vessels from the storms of the +Mediterranean, even more effectually than they could be by the natural +advantages of these harbours, the piers on each side were bent like a bar, +so that only a small space was left for the entrance of vessels. + +The successors of Alexander in the Egyptian empire followed his example, in +nourishing commerce and improving Alexandria. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, as +soon as he took possession of Egypt, established the seat of government +there, and succeeded, partly by harsh and despotic measures, and partly by +offering great advantages, and by his just and humane character, to draw +thither a great number of inhabitants. He began, and his son completed, the +famous watch-tower in the island of Pharos; the causeway which united it to +the main land, already mentioned, was built by Dexiphanes. Sostratus, the +son of this architect, was employed to erect the watch-tower: the design of +this tower was to direct the vessels which entered the harbour, and it was +justly reckoned one of the wonders of the world. It was a large and square +structure of white marble, on the top of which fires were constantly kept +burning for the direction of sailors. The building of this tower cost 800 +talents, which, if they were Attic talents, were equivalent to 165,000_l_. +sterling, but if they were Alexandrian, to double that sum. This stupendous +and most useful undertaking was completed in the fortieth year of the reign +of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and in first year of the reign of Ptolemy +Philadelphus; and at the same time that Sostratus finished it, his father, +Dexiphanes, finished the mole, which united the island of Pharos to the +continent. The inscription on the tower was, "King Ptolemy to the Gods, the +saviours, for the benefit of sailors;" but Sostratus put this inscription +on the mortar, while underneath he cut, in the solid marble, the following +inscription, "Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods, the +saviours, for the benefit of sailors." In process of time the mortar wore +off, the first inscription disappeared along with it, and the second +inscription became visible. + +The erection of the tower of Pharos was by no means the only service the +first Ptolemy did to commerce; throughout all his reign he manifested great +attention to it and maritime affairs, as well as to those sciences by which +they might be improved and advanced. As soon as he had made himself master +of Palestine, Syria, and Phoenicia, he turned his thoughts to the conquest +of Cyprus: this island abounded in wood, of which Egypt was almost +destitute; and on this account, as well as on account of its situation, in +the bosom, as it were, of the Levant, it was of the utmost importance to a +maritime power. He succeeded in obtaining possession of this valuable +island, and thus improved and enlarged the commercial advantages of Egypt. +His next step, with this view, was to invite the sailors of Phoenicia to +his new capital. His increasing power, especially at sea, roused the envy +of Antigonus, who, by extraordinary exertions, in the course of twelve +months built and equipped a fleet, which was able to cope with the naval +power of Ptolemy. It is foreign to our purpose to notice the wars between +them, except in so far as they are connected with the commercial history of +Alexandria. This city was benefited by these wars, for Antigonus, in his +progress, had driven many of the inhabitants of Syria, Palestine, and +Phoenicia from their native lands: to these Ptolemy gave great +encouragement, and extraordinary privileges and immunities, which induced +them to settle in Alexandria, where they followed their mercantile or +commercial pursuits. The report of these advantages granted to foreigners, +led Jews, Greeks and Macedonians to flock to Egypt, by which means the +population and wealth of that country, and particularly of its capital, +were greatly augmented. + +The foundation of the museum and library of Alexandria, both of which +contributed so essentially to science and to the establishment of the +Alexandrian school of philosophy, which, as we shall afterwards perceive, +produced men that greatly advanced geographical knowledge, is another proof +of the wise and comprehensive character of Ptolemy's mind. + +But Ptolemy rather prepared the way for the advancement of commerce and +maritime discovery, than contributed directly to them himself: fortunately, +his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was a worthy successor, and emulous of +treading in his father's steps. About the beginning of his reign, Tyre, the +ancient station of the trade with India, again reared its head as a +commercial city, and engaged extensively and successfully in this lucrative +traffic. It became necessary, therefore, in order to draw it from Tyre and +to secure its centering in Alexandria, to extend the facilities and +advantages of this city for this traffic. With this view, Ptolemy sent +travellers to penetrate into the interior of his dominions, bordering on +the Red Sea, by land, while his fleet was exploring the coast: he began to +make a canal, 100 cubits broad and 30 deep, between Arsinoe on the Red Sea, +and the eastern branch of the Nile, in order to complete a +water-communication between India and Alexandria. This canal, however, was +never completed; probably on account of the tedious and difficult +navigation towards the northern extremity of the Red Sea. He therefore +altered his plan, and instead of Arsinoe fixed on Myos Hormos, as the port +from which the navigation to India should commence. The same reason which +induced him to form this port; led him afterwards to the establishment of +Berenice; he was farther led to this, as Berenice was lower down in the Red +Sea, and consequently ships sailing from it reached the ocean sooner and +with less difficulty. It appears, however, that till the Romans conquered +Egypt, the greatest portion of the trade between Alexandria and +[Egypt->India] was carried on through Myos Hormos. The route in the time of +Ptolemy and his successors was as follows: vessels passed up the Canopic +branch of the Nile to Memphis, and thence to Coptus; from Coptus the goods +were transported in caravans to Myos Hormos: from this port the vessels +sailed for Africa, or Arabia in the month of September, and for India in +July. As the country over which the caravans travelled was the desart of +Thebais, which is almost destitute of water, Ptolemy ordered springs to be +searched for, wells to be dug, and caravanseras to be erected. + +In order to protect his merchant ships in the Mediterranean and the Red +Sea, he fitted out two great fleets, one of which he constantly kept in +each sea. That in the Mediterranean was very numerous, and had several +ships of an extraordinary size: two of them in particular had 30 oars on a +side, one 20, four 14, two 12, fourteen 11, thirty 9, &c., besides a great +number of vessels of four oars and three oars on a side. With these fleets +he protected the commerce of his subjects, and kept in subjection most of +the maritime provinces of Asia Minor; viz. Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia and +Caria. The names of some of the most celebrated geographers who were +patronized by this monarch, have been handed down to us: Pliny mentions +Dalion, Bion, Boselis, and Aristocreon, as having visited Ethiopia, and +contributed to the geographical knowledge of that country; and Simonides as +having resided five years at Meroe. Timosthenes lived in this reign: he +published a description of the known sea-ports, and a work on the measure +of the earth. He sailed down the coast of Africa, probably as far as +Madagascar, certainly lower down than the Egyptians traded under the +Ptolemies, or even under the Romans. + +The reign of Ptolemy Euergetes was equally distinguished, with, those of +his predecessors, by attention to commerce, and a desire to extend it. As +the navigation of the Red Sea had now become a source of great wealth to +his subjects, he deemed it necessary to free it as much as possible from +the pirates that infested it's coasts; for this purpose, as well as to +preserve a communication between Egypt and the countries which extended to +its mouth, he established governors from the isthmus of Suez, along the +Arabian and African coasts, as far as the straits of Babelmandeb; and +planted colonies of Greeks and Egyptians to carry on the commerce, and +protect the interests of his subjects. But the most extraordinary instance +of his enterprising spirit is to be found in his conquest (evidently for +the purpose of facilitating and securing the commerce of the Red Sea) of +part of Abyssinia. The proof of this, indeed, rests entirely on an +inscription found at Aduli, which there can be no doubt is the harbour and +bay of Masuah; the only proper entrance, according to Bruce, into +Abyssinia. The inscription to which we have alluded was extant in the time +of Cosmas (A.D. 545), by whom it was seen. From it, Ptolemy appears to have +passed to the Tacazze, which he calls the Nile, and to have penetrated into +Gojam, in which province the fountains of the Nile are found. He made +roads, opened a communication between this country and Egypt, and during +this expedition obliged the Arabians to pay tribute, and to maintain the +roads free from robbers and the sea from pirates; subduing the whole coast +from [Leucke->Leuke] Come to Sabea. The inscription adds: "In the +accomplishment of this business I had no example to follow, either of the +ancient kings of Egypt, or of my own family; but was the first to conceive +the design, and to carry it into execution. Thus, having reduced the whole +world to peace under my own authority, I came down to Aduli, and sacrificed +to Jupiter, to Mars, and to Neptune, imploring his protection for all who +navigate these seas." + +Ptolemy Euergetes was particularly attentive to the interests of the +library at Alexandria. The first librarian appointed by Ptolemy the +successor of Alexander, was Zenodotus; on his death, Ptolemy Euergetes +invited from Athens Eratosthenes, a citizen of Cyrene, and entrusted to him +the care of the library: it has been supposed that he was the second of +that name, or of an inferior rank in learning and science, because he is +sometimes called Beta; but by this appellation nothing else was meant, but +that he was the second librarian of the royal library at Alexandria. He +died at the age of 81, A.C. 194. He has been called a second Plato, the +cosmographer and the geometer of the world: he is rather an astronomer and +mathematician than a geographer, though geography is indebted to him for +some improvements in its details, and more especially for helping to raise +it to the accuracy and dignity of a science. By means of instruments, which +Ptolemy erected in the museum at Alexandria, he ascertained the obliquity +of the ecliptic to be 23° 51' 20". He is, however, principally celebrated +as the first astronomer who measured a degree of a great circle, and thus +approximated towards the real diameter of the earth. + +The importance of this discovery will justify us in entering on some +details respecting the means which this philosopher employed, and the +result which he obtained. + +It is uncertain whether the well at Syene, in Upper Egypt, which he used +for this purpose, was dug by his directions, or existed previously. Pliny +seems to be of the former opinion; but there is reason to believe that it +had a much higher antiquity. The following observations on its structure by +Dr. Horsley, Bishop of Rochester, are ingenious and important. "The well, +besides that it was sunk perpendicularly, with the greatest accuracy, was, +I suppose, in shape an exact cylinder. Its breadth must have been moderate, +so that a person, standing upon the brink, might safely stoop enough over +it to bring his eye into the axis of the cylinder, where it would be +perpendicularly over the centre of the circular surface of the water. The +water must have stood at a moderate, height below the mouth of the well, +far enough below the mouth to be sheltered from the action of the wind, +that its surface might be perfectly smooth and motionless; and not so low, +but that the whole of its circular surface might be distinctly seen by the +observer on the brink. A well formed in this manner would afford, as I +apprehend, the most certain observation of the sun's appulse to the zenith, +that could be made with the naked eye; for when the sun's centre was upon +the zenith, his disc would be seen by reflection on the water, in the very +middle of the well,--that is, as a circle perfectly concentric with the +circle of the water; and, I believe, there is nothing of which the naked +eye can judge with so much precision as the concentricity of two circles, +provided the circles be neither very nearly equal, nor the inner circle +very small in proportion to the outer." + +Eratosthenes observed, that at the time of the summer solstice this well +was completely illuminated by the sun, and hence he inferred that the sun +was, at that time, in the zenith of this place. His next object was to +ascertain the altitude of the sun, at the same solstice, and on the very +same day, at Alexandria. This he effected by a very simple contrivance: he +employed a concave hemisphere, with a vertical style, equal to the radius +of concavity; and by means of this he ascertained that the arch, +intercepted between the bottom of the style and the extreme point of its +shadow, was 7° 12'. This, of course, indicated the distance of the sun from +the zenith of Alexandria. But 7° 12' is equal to the fiftieth part of a +great circle; and this, therefore, was the measure of the celestial arc +contained between the zeniths of Syene and Alexandria. The measured +distance between these cities being 5000 stadia, it followed, that 5000 X +50 = 250,000, was, according to the observations of Eratosthenes, the +extent of the whole circumference of the earth. + +If we knew exactly the length of the stadium of the ancients, or, to speak +more accurately, what stadium is referred to in the accounts which have +been transmitted to us of the result of the operations of Eratosthenes, +(for the ancients employed different stadia,) we should be able precisely +to ascertain the circumference which this philosopher ascribed to the +earth, and also, whether a nearer approximation to the truth was made by +any subsequent or prior ancient philosopher. The circumference of the earth +was conjectured, or ascertained, by Aristotle, Cleomedes, Posidonius, and +Ptolemy respectively, to be 400, 300, 240, and 180 thousand stadia. It is +immediately apparent that these various measures have some relation to each +other, and probably express the same extent; measured in different stadia; +and this probability is greatly increased by comparing the real distances +of several places with the ancient itinerary distances. + +The observation of Eratosthenes respecting the obliquity of the ecliptic +(though undoubtedly not so immediately or essentially connected with our +subject as his observation of the circumference of the earth) is too +important to be passed over entirely without notice. He found the distance +between the tropics less than 53° 6', and greater than 52° 96', which gives +a mean of 23° 51' for the obliquity of the ecliptic. The observations of +Hipparchus (who flourished at Alexandria about 140 years before Christ, and +whom we shall have occasion to mention more particularly afterwards) +coincided with those of Eratosthenes. Plutarch, however, who died A.D. 119, +informs us, that, in his time, the gnomons at Syene were no longer +shadowless on the day of the summer solstice. As the interval between +Eratosthenes and Plutarch was only about 512 years, Bishop Morsley has very +naturally expressed his doubts of the accuracy of Plutarch's assertion. He +says, that the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic in this interval was +only 2' 36". "A gnomon, therefore, at Syene, of the length of twelve +inches, if it cast no shadow on the day of the solstice in the time of +Eratosthenes, should have cast a shadow in the time of Plutarch of the +length only of 9/1000th, or not quite 1/100th part of an inch. The shadow +of a perpendicular column of the height of 100 feet would have been 9/10ths +of an inch." As, however, the ancients do not appear to have constructed +gnomons of such a size, and as gnomons of inferior size would have given a +shadow scarcely perceptible, it is probable that Plutarch is mistaken in +his assertion; or, at any rate, that the very small variation which did +take place between his time and that of Eratosthenes (if it were observed +at all) was ascertained by means of the well itself, which would point it +out much more distinctly and accurately than any gnomon the ancients can be +supposed to have used. + +We are also indebted to Eratosthenes for the first regular parallel of +latitude, and also for tracing a meridian. His parallel of latitude began +at the Straits of Gibraltar, and passed eastward through Rhodes to the +mountains of India; the intermediate places being carefully set down. His +meridian line passed through Rhodes and Alexandria, as far as Syene and +Meroe. Meroe, on this account, became an object of the greatest interest +and importance to all the succeeding ancient geographers and astronomers, +and they have taken the utmost labour and care to ascertain its latitude +accurately. Strabo informs us, that Eratosthenes constructed a map of the +world; but he does not give such particulars as will enable us to trace the +extent of his geographical knowledge. At the extremity of the world to the +east, bounded by the ocean, Thina was placed in the map of Eratosthenes, in +the parallel of Rhodes; a parallel which passes through the empire of +China, within the Great Wall. Eratosthenes, according to Strabo, (to whom +we are indebted for nearly all we know respecting this philosopher,) +asserts that Thina had been, previously to the construction of his map, +incorrectly placed in the more ancient maps. His information respecting +Meroe or Abyssinia, is most probably derived from Dalion, Aristocreon, and +Bion, who had been sent by Ptolemy Philadelphus and his successors into +that country, or from Timosthenes, who sailed down the coast of Africa as +low as Cerne. His information on the subject of India (which, however, as +far as regards oriental commerce, is very confused) must have been derived +from the Macedonians. There is little doubt that the library of Alexandria +afforded him access to all the knowledge which then existed respecting the +various countries of the globe; but the turn of his mind led him rather to +astronomical than geographical studies; or rather, perhaps, he directed his +labours and his talents to the discovery of the figure and circumference of +the earth, thinking, that till this was effected, the delineation of the +habitable world, and the relative position of different countries, must be +very inaccurate as well as incomplete. This opinion regarding Eratosthenes, +that he was more of a geometrician than a geographer, seems to be confirmed +by the testimony of Marcian of Heraclia, who informs us, that Eratosthenes +took the whole work of Timosthenes, preface and all, as it stood, and in +the very same words. If this account be accurate, it is probable that +Eratosthenes' knowledge of Thina, and his being able to correct the +erroneous position of this country in more ancient maps, was derived from +Timosthenes, who had commanded the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus on the +Indian Ocean. + +If we reflect on the rude and imperfect state of science at this period, +the paucity and inadequacy of the instruments by means of which it might be +improved, and the superstitions and prejudices which opposed the removal of +error or the establishment of truth, we shall not be disposed to question +the justice of the panegyric pronounced by Pliny on Eratosthenes. This +author, after detailing all that was then known on the subject of the +circumference of the earth, and on the distances which had been ascertained +by actual admeasurement, or approximated by analogy or probable conjecture, +between the most remarkable places on its surface, adds, that Eratosthenes, +whose acuteness and application had advanced him far in every branch of +knowledge, but who had outstripped all his predecessors or contemporaries +in that particular branch which was connected with the admeasurement of the +earth, had fixed its circumference at 250,000 stadia; a bold and almost +presumptuous enterprize, (_improbum ausum_,) but which had been conducted +with so much judgment, and on such sound principles, that it commanded and +deserved our credit. Hipparchus, who was distinguished for his correctness +and diligence in every part of geometrical and astronomical science, and +who had specially exerted those qualities in his endeavours to correct the +errors of Eratosthenes, had been able to add only the comparatively small +extent of 25,000 stadia to the computation of Eratosthenes.--_Plin. Nat. +Hist._ lib. ii. c. 108. + +Eratosthenes seems, from the nature of his studies, not to have availed +himself so much as he might have done of the treasures contained in the +Alexandrian library under his care, to correct or extend the geographical +knowledge of his contemporaries. The same observation will not apply to +Agatharcides, who was president of the library after Eratosthenes. The +exact time at which he flourished is not known: according to Blair, he was +contemporary with Eratosthenes, though younger than him, and flourished 177 +A.C., Eratosthenes having died at the age of eighty-one, in the year 194 +A.C. Dodwell, however, fixes him at a later period; viz. 104 A.C.; but this +date must be erroneous, because Artemidorus of Ephesus, who evidently +copies Agatharcides, undoubtedly lived 104 A.C. Agatharcide's was born at +Cnidus in Caria: no particulars are known respecting him, except that he +was president of the Alexandrian library, in the reign of Ptolemy +Philometor, if he flourished 177 A.C.; and in the reign of Ptolemy +Lathyrus, if, according to Dodwell, he did not flourish till 104 A.C. + +The only work of his which is preserved, is a Treatise on the Erythraean +Sea; and this we possess only in the Bibliotheca of Photius, and +incorporated in the history of Diodorus Siculus. The authority of +Agatharcides was very high among the ancients. Strabo, Pliny, and Diodorus, +always mention him with the utmost respect, and place implicit confidence +in his details. Diodorus expressly states that Agatharcides and Artemidorus +(who, as we have already mentioned, was merely his copyist) are the only +authors who have written truth concerning Egypt and Ethiopia; and Strabo +follows him in all that relates to the latter country, the countries lying +to the south of Egypt, and the western coast of Arabia. In fact, for nearly +200 years, the ancient historians and geographers drew all the information +they possessed respecting the portions of the world embraced in the work of +Agatharcides from that work. It has been well observed, "that when Pliny +speaks of the discoveries on the coast of Malabar in his own age, and adds, +that the names he mentions are new, and not to be found in previous +writers, we ought to consider him as speaking of all those who had followed +the authority of the Macedonians, or the school of Alexandria; of which, in +this branch of science, Eratosthenes and Agatharcides were the leaders." +From the circumstance that Strabo appeals very frequently to the authority +of Eratosthenes, in conjunction with that of Agatharcides, it has been +conjectured, that the work of the latter contains all that the former knew, +with the addition of his own information; and this conjecture is highly +probable, considering that Agatharcides had access to the sources whence +Eratosthenes drew his information; to the works of Eratosthenes themselves, +which of course would be deposited in the Alexandrian library; and to all +the additional works which had enriched the library from the time of +Eratosthenes, as well as the additional information which the extensive +commerce of Alexandria would supply. + +The work of Agatharcides, therefore, having been in such estimation by the +ancient historians and geographers, and the only source from which, during +200 years, they drew their information, and having been compiled by a +person, who, it is probable, had better and fuller means of rendering it +accurate and complete than any of his contemporaries enjoyed; it will be +proper to give a pretty full abstract of the most interesting and important +part of its contents. + +The veracity of this author was questioned by Plutarch, from his narrating +a circumstance, which, to us of the present day, is a strong confirmation +of the truth and accuracy of his information. Agatharcides takes notice of +the worm which is formed in the legs, and which insinuates itself there in +such a manner, that it is necessary to wind it out with the utmost caution. +Plutarch ridicules and rejects this story, and says it never has happened, +and never will. But that such a worm exists, and that when it insinuates +itself into the leg it must be drawn out with the utmost caution, lest the +smallest portion of it remain, and thus produce disease, is directly and +fully attested by all the travellers, and particularly by Bruce, who +carried with him to the grave the marks and effects of the attack of this +species of worm. + +But the most curious and important portion of the work of Agatharcides on +the Red Sea, relates to Abyssinia; for in this work we meet with the first +genuine characteristics of this nation. He specifies particularly the gold +mines wrought by the kings of Egypt on the coast of the Red Sea;--the +process which they followed to procure and separate this metal;--the +sufferings which the miners underwent in their operations are painted in +very strong language: "The multitude of bones still found in these +excavations, he says, is incredible, of wretches crushed by the falling-in +of the earth, as must naturally happen in a loose and crumbling soil." He +adds a circumstance, to which there are many parallel in our own country, +in those mines which are supposed to have been wrought by the Romans; viz. +the tools of copper found in these gold mines, supposed to have been used +by the native Egyptians, prior to the conquest of Egypt by the Persians. +The next particular mentioned by Agatharcides, respecting the Abyssinian +coast of the Red Sea, is very conclusive, with respect to his accuracy and +credibility. In Meroe, or Abyssinia, he says, they hunt elephants and +hamstring them, and afterwards cut the flesh out of the animal alive: he +adds, that the inhabitants are so extremely fond of the flesh of the +elephant, thus procured, that when Ptolemy would have paid any price to +purchase these animals alive, as he wanted them for his army, the +Abyssinian hunters refused his offer, declaring that not all the wealth of +Egypt would tempt them to forego their favourite and delicious repast. It +is a remarkable fact, that the credit of Bruce on this topic should thus be +confirmed by a writer who lived nearly 2000 years before him, of whose +writings we possess only a very short treatise, and of whose life we know +scarcely a single particular. It may be added, that Strabo, in a passage, +in which he is apparently copying Agatharcides, mentions [Greek: +Kreophagoi] and as he would scarcely particularize the fact of a native +eating the flesh of animals cooked, it is to be presumed, he means raw +flesh. In the same place he mentions the _excisio feminarum_. + +Every reader of Brace's Travels in Abyssinia must remember the fly, called +Tsalpsalza, an insect more formidable than the strongest or most savage +wild beasts: "As soon as the buzzing of this insect is heard, the utmost +alarm and trepidation prevails; the cattle forsake their food and run +wildly about the plain, till at length they fall down, worn out with +terror, hunger and fatigue; even the camel, elephant and rhinoceros, are +not safe from the attacks of this formidable insect." This fly is described +by Agatharcides in the same manner as by Bruce. The ensete tree of Bruce, +the leaves of which resemble the banana, with fruit like figs, but not +eatable, with a trunk esculent till it reaches its perfect growth and is +full of leaves, resembles in some of its particulars a tree described by +Agatharcides. This author also describes the locusts, as generally used for +food; the troglodytes; the rhinoceros; the cameleopard; what he calls +sphinxes, but which are represented as tame, and are supposed to be apes, +distinguished from the common ape in the face being smooth and without +hair. He also mentions an animal he calls crocetta, which is described as +being between a wolf and a dog, and as imitating the human voice; these +particulars seem to point it out as the hyena, though some suppose it to be +the jackall. It deserves to be remarked, that the animals enumerated by +Agatharcides as natives of Abyssinia, are all named in the same manner, as +well as depicted on the celebrated Palestrine Mosaic. + +In his description of the coast of the Red Sea he commences with Arsinoe, +and goes down the western side as far as Ptolemais Theron; a place so +called, because elephants were there hunted and taken, and are still, +according to Bruce. Agatharcides adds, that the usual navigation was to +this place for elephants. He notices Myos Hormos, but not Berenice; he has +even mentioned the islands at the straits of Babelmandeb, and the prodigies +which in his time, and much later, were supposed to lie beyond them. There +is, however, one part of his work, in which he seems to indicate the +curvature of the African coast to the east beyond the straits; but it is +doubtful whether in this place he is speaking of the coast within or +without the straits. + +In his description of the coast between Myos Hormos and Ptolemais, he +points out a bay, which, both from the identity of the name, and the +circumstances respecting it which he narrates, undoubtedly is the Foul Bay +of the moderns. Strabo, who, as we have already stated, borrows freely and +frequently from Agatharcides, describes this bay as full of shoals and +breakers, and exposed to violent winds; and he adds, that Berenice lies at +the bottom of it. The accuracy of our author, even when he is opposed by +the testimony of Bruce, is fully proved in what he relates of the coast +below Foul Bay: after mentioning two mountains, which he calls the Bulls, +he particularly adverts to the dangerous shoals which often proved fatal to +the elephant ships on their passage to and from Ptolemais. Bruce says no +such shoals exist; but, as is justly observed by Dr. Vincent; the +correctness of the ancients respecting them, especially Eratosthenes, +Agatharcides and Artemidorus, is fully borne out by the danger and loss to +which many English ships have been exposed by reason of these very shoals. + +The description of Agatharcides of this side of the coast of the Red Sea, +reaches no lower down than Ptolemais; this circumstance is remarkable, +since we have seen that, from the inscription found at Aduli there can be +no doubt that Ptolemy Euergetes had conquered Abyssinia, and established a +commerce considerably lower down than Ptolemais Theron. As, however, we +have not the original, and perhaps not the entire work of Agatharcides, we +cannot infer any thing, either respecting his ignorance or inattention, +from this omission. + +Agatharcides, having thus described this coast, returns from Ptolemais to +Myos Hormos, and passing the Bay of Arsinoe, crosses to Phoenicum, in the +Elanitic Gulf, and describes the coast of Arabia as far as Sabea. Almost +the very first particular noticed by him in this part of his work, bears +evidence to his accuracy as a geographer. He states that, at the entrance +of the Elanitic Gulph there are three islands, one of which is dedicated to +Isis: he describes them as, "covering several harbours on the Arabian +shore. To these islands succeeds the rocky coast of Thamudeni, where, for +more than 1000 stadia, there is no harbour, no roadsted in which a vessel +could anchor, no bay into which she could run for shelter, no point of land +which could protect her; so that those who sail alone this part of the +coast are exposed to certain destruction, if they should be overtaken by a +storm." Yet these islands lying in such a conspicuous situation, and of +such importance to the mariner, and this coast so dangerous to him, do not +appear to have been noticed in any European chart or description, till, +after the lapse of twenty centuries, they were restored to geography by Mr. +Irwin. + +As one of our principal objects is to do justice to the accuracy of the +ancient geographers, by pointing out instances of the extreme care which +many of them took to obtain correct information we shall adduce one other +proof of this accuracy and care in Agatharcides. This author particularly +describes the sea as having a white appearance off the coast of Arabia; on +this point he was well informed though the circumstance is treated as +fabulous by the ancients, and even by some of the moderns; but more +observant modern travellers confirm this phenomenon. It is well observed by +Dr. Vincent, that we are every day lessening the bulk of the marvellous +imputed to the ancients; and as our knowledge of the east increases, it is +possible that the imputation will be altogether removed. + +The account which Agatharcides gives of Sabæa is very curious and +important; and, as we shall afterwards have occasion to make use of it, in +endeavouring to prove that, in very early ages, the Arabians supplied the +western world with the productions of the east, we shall extract here what +he says of Sabæa from the translation of Dr. Vincent. + +"Sabæa, (says Agatharcides,) abounds with every production to make life +happy in the extreme: its very air is so perfumed with odours, that the +natives are obliged to mitigate the fragrance by scents that have an +opposite tendency, as if nature could not support even pleasure in the +extreme. Myrrh, frankincense, balsam, cinnamon, and casia are here +produced, from trees of extraordinary magnitude. The king, as he is, on the +one hand, entitled to supreme honour, on the other, is obliged to submit to +confinement in his palace; but the people are robust, warlike, and able +mariners: they sail in very large vessels to the country where the +odoriferous commodities are produced; they plant colonies there, and import +from thence the larimna, an odour no where else to be found. In fact, there +is no nation on the earth so wealthy as the Gerrheans and Sabeans, as being +in the centre of all the commerce that passes between Asia and Europe. +These are the nations which have enriched the kingdom of Ptolemy: these are +the nations that furnish the most profitable agencies to the industry of +the Phoenicians, and a variety of advantages which are incalculable. They +possess themselves every profusion of luxury, in articles of plate and +sculpture, in furniture of beds, tripods, and other household +embellishments, far superior in degree to any thing that is seen in Europe: +their expence of living rivals the magnificence of princes: their houses +are decorated with pillars glistening with gold and silver: their doors are +crowned with vases and beset with jewels: the interior of their houses +corresponds with the beauty of their outward appearance, and all the riches +of other countries are here exhibited in a variety of profusion. Such a +nation, and so abounding in superfluity, owes its independence to its +distance from Europe; for their luxurious manners would soon render them a +prey to the European sovereigns, who have always troops on foot prepared +for any conquest; and who, if they could find the means of invasion, would +soon reduce the Sabeans to the condition of their agents and factors; +whereas they are now obliged to deal with them as principals." + +The importance and the bearing of these curious facts, first brought to our +notice by Agatharcides, as well as the inferences which may be drawn from +them regarding the mode in which the ancients obtained their commodities of +India, will call our particular attention afterwards: at present we shall +merely notice the characteristic and minute picture which Agatharcides has +drawn of the Sabeans, and the just notions he had formed on the nature of a +commerce, of which all the other writers of antiquity seemed to have been +utterly ignorant. + +Beyond Sabæa to the east, Agatharcides possessed no information, though, +like all the ancients, he is desirous of supplying his want of it by +indulging in the marvellous: it is, however, rather curious that, among +other particulars, undoubtedly unfounded, such as placing the Fortunate +islands off the coast beyond Sabæa, and his describing the flocks and herds +as all white, and the females as polled;--he describes that whiteness of +the sea, to which we have already alluded, as confirmed by modern +travellers. From these unfounded particulars, our author soon emerges again +into the truth; for he describes the appearance of the different +constellations, and especially notices that to the south of Sabæa there is +no twilight in the morning; but when he adds, that the sun, at rising, +appears like a column--that it casts no shadow till it has been risen an +hour, and that the evening twilight lasts three hours after it has set; it +is obvious that the information of that age (of which we may justly suppose +the library of Alexandria was the great depository) did not extend beyond +Sabæa. + +That Agatharcides had access to and made ample use of the journal of +Nearchus (of which we have given such a complete abstract), is evident from +various parts of his work; but it is also evident, by comparing his +description of those countries and their inhabitants, which had been +visited and described by Nearchus, that he had access to other sources of +intelligence, by means of which he added to the materials supplied by the +latter. + +It will be recollected that Nearchus describes in a particular manner, the +Icthyophagi of Gadrosia: Agatharcides also describes Icthyophagi, though it +is not clear whether he means to confine his description to those of +Gadrosia, or to extend it to others on the coast of Arabia and Africa. The +mode practised by the Icthyophagi, according to him, is exactly that which +was practised by them in catching fish, according to Nearchus: he also +coincides with that author in various other particulars respecting the use +of the bones of whales, or other large fish, in the construction of their +houses; their ignorance and barbarism, their dress and mode of life. All +this he probably borrowed from Nearchus; but he adds one circumstance which +indubitably proves, that the knowledge of the eastern part of the world had +considerably advanced since the era of Alexander: he expressly states, that +beyond the straits that separate Arabia from the opposite coast, there are +an immense number of islands, scattered, very small, and scarcely raised +above the surface of the ocean. If we may advert to the situation assigned +to these islands, on the supposition that the straits which separate Arabia +from the opposite coast, mean the entrance to the Gulph of Persia, we shall +not be able to ascertain what these islands are; but if in addition to the +circumstances of their being scattered, very small, and very low, we add +what Agatharcides also notices, that the natives have no other means of +supporting life but by the turtles which are found near them in immense +numbers, and of a very large size, we shall be disposed, with Dr. Vincent, +to consider these as the Maldive Islands. It may be objected to this +supposition, that the Maldives are situated at a very great distance from +the straits that separate Arabia from the opposite coast; but a cursory +acquaintance with the geographical descriptions of the ancients will +convince us, that their information respecting the situation of countries +was frequently vague and erroneous, (as indeed it must have been, +considering the imperfect means they possessed of measuring or even judging +of distances, especially by sea) while, at the same time, their information +respecting the nature of the country, the productions of its soil, and the +manners, &c. of its inhabitants, was surprisingly full and accurate. In +identifying places mentioned by the ancients, we should therefore be guided +more by the descriptions they give, than by the locality they assign to +them. Agatharcides, it is true, adds that these islands extend along the +sea, which washes Gadrosia and India; but he probably had very confused +notions of the extent and form of India; and, at any rate, giving the +widest latitude to the term, the same sea may be said to wash Gadrosia and +the Maldive Islands. If these are the islands actually meant by +Agatharcides, it is the earliest notice of them extant. + +Our concern with Agatharcides relates only to the geographical knowledge +which his writings display; and even of that we can only select such parts +as are most important, and at the same time point out and prove the +advances of geographical knowledge, and of commercial enterprize; before, +however, we leave him, we may add one fact, not immediately relating to our +peculiar subject, which he records: after stating that the soil of Arabia +was, as it were, impregnated with gold, and that lumps of pure gold were +found there from the size of an olive to that of a nut, he adds, that iron +was twice, and silver ten times, the value of gold. If he is accurate in +the proportionate values which he respectively assigns to these metals, it +proves the very great abundance of gold; since, in most of the nations of +antiquity, the values of gold and silver were the reverse of what they were +in Arabia, gold being ten times the value of silver. The comparative high +value of iron to gold is still more extraordinary, and seems to indicate +not only a great abundance of the latter metal, but also a great scarcity +of the former, or a very great demand for it in consequence of the extended +and improved state of those arts and manufactures in which iron is an +essential requisite, and which indicate an advanced degree of knowledge and +civilization. We are not aware of a similar fact, with respect to the +proportionate value of iron and silver, being recorded of any other nation +of antiquity. It is not to be supposed, however, that the cheapness of +gold, measured by iron and silver, could long continue in Arabia, unless we +believe that their intercourse with other nations was very limited; because +a regular and extensive intercourse would soon assimilate, in a great +degree at least, the value of gold measured by iron and silver, as it +existed in Arabia, to its value, as measured by the same metals in those +countries with which Arabia traded. + +But to return from this slight digression;--Artemidorus has been already +mentioned as a geographer subsequent to Agatharcides, who copied +Agatharcides, and from whom Diodorus Siculus and Strabo in their turns +copied. There were two ancient writers of this name born at Ephesus; the +one to whom we have alluded, is supposed to have lived in the reign of +Ptolemy Lathyrus, A.C. 169; by others he is brought down to A.C. 104. +Little is known respecting him; nor does he seem to have added much to +geographical science or knowledge: he is said by Pliny to have first +applied the terms of length and breadth, or latitude and longitude. By +comparing those parts of Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, which they avowedly +copy from him, with the track of Agatharcides: in the Red Sea, we are +enabled to discover only a few additions of importance to the geographical +knowledge supplied by the former: Agatharcides, it will be remembered, +brings his account of the African side of the Red Sea no lower down than +Ptolemais: he does not even mention the expedition of Ptolemy Euergetes to +Aduli; nor the passage of the straits, though Eratosthenes, as cited by +Strabo, proves that it was open in his time. In the time of Artemidorus, +however, the trade of Egypt on the coast of Africa had reached as low down +as the Southern Horn; that this trade was still in its infancy, is apparent +from a circumstance mentioned by Strabo, on the authority of Artemidorus; +that at the straits the cargo was transferred from ships to boats; bastard +cinnamon, perhaps casia lignea or hard cinnamon, is specified as one of the +principal articles which the Egyptians obtained from the coast of Africa, +when they passed the straits of Babelmandeb. + +The next person belonging to the Alexandrian school, to whom the sciences +on which geography rest, as well as geography itself, is greatly indebted, +was Hipparchus. Scarcely any particulars are known respecting him: even the +exact period in which he flourished, is not accurately fixed; some placing +him 159 years, others 149, and others again bringing him down to 129 years +before Christ. He was a native of Nice in Bithynia, but spent the greater +part of his life at the court of one of the Ptolemies. It is supposed that +he quitted his native place in consequence of some ill treatment which he +had received from his fellow citizens: at least we are informed by Aurelius +Victor, that the emperor Marcus Aurelius obliged the inhabitants of Nice to +send yearly to Rome a certain quantity of corn, for having beaten one of +their citizens, by name Hipparchus, a man of great learning and +extraordinary accomplishments. They continued to pay this tribute to the +time of Constantine, by whom it was remitted. As history does not inform us +of any other person of note of this name, a native of Nice in Bithynia, it +is highly probable that this was the Hipparchus, the astronomer and +geographer. That it was not unusual for conquerors and sovereigns to reward +or punish the descendants of those who had behaved well or ill to +celebrated men who had flourished long previously, must be well known to +those conversant with ancient history. The respect paid to the memory of +Pindar, by the Spartans, and by Alexander the Great, when they conquered +Thebes, is a striking instance of the truth of this observation. + +Hipparchus possessed the true spirit of philosophy: having resolved to +devote himself to the study of astronomy, his first general +[principal->principle] was to take nothing for granted; but setting aside +all that had been taught by former astronomers, to begin anew, and examine +and judge for himself: he determined not to admit any results but such as +were grounded either in observations and experiments entirely new, made by +himself or on a new examination of former observations, conducted with the +utmost care and caution. In short, he may justly be regarded as one of the +first philosophers of antiquity who had a slight glimpse of the grand +maxim, which afterwards immortalized Bacon, and which has introduced modern +philosophers to a knowledge of the most secret and most sublime operations +of nature. + +One of his first endeavours was, to verify the obliquity of the ecliptic, +as settled by Eratosthenes: he next fixed, as accurately as possible, the +latitude of Alexandria; but it would lead us far from the object of our +work, if we were even briefly to mention his discoveries in the science of +pure astronomy. We must confine ourselves to those parts of his discoveries +which benefitted geography, either directly or indirectly. After having, as +successfully as his means and the state of the science would permit him to +do, fixed the position of the stars, he transferred the method which he had +employed for this purpose to geography: he was the first who determined the +situation of places on the earth, by their latitudes and longitudes, with +any thing like accuracy. The latitude, indeed, of many places had been +fixed before; and the means of doing it were sufficiently simple and +obvious: but with respect to some general and safe mode of ascertaining the +longitudes, the ancient philosophers before Hipparchus, were ignorant of +it. He employed for this purpose the eclipses of the moon. After having +ascertained the latitudes and longitudes of a great many places, he +proposed to draw up a catalogue of terrestial latitudes and longitudes, but +this he was not able to accomplish: he had set the example, however and it +was followed by subsequent astronomers. He fixed on the Fortunate Islands, +which are supposed to be the Canaries, for his first meridian. His +principal works most probably were destroyed in the conflagration of the +Alexandrian library. His catalogue of the stars is preserved in the +Almagest of Ptolemy; and his commentary on Aratus and Eudoxus is still +extant. + +Such is a brief sketch of the advantages which geography, as founded on +astronomy, derived from the labours of Hipparchus. We possess little +information respecting his ideas of the form of the earth, or the relative +position or extent of the different quarters and countries on the surface +of the globe. He seems to have been the first who conceived the idea of a +southern continent, uniting Africa and India: he had evidently some +information, though very vague and erroneous, of India, beyond the Ganges. +On the east coast of Africa, his knowledge did not extend beyond Cape +Guardaferi. On the whole, geography is more indebted to him for his +discoveries in astronomy, and, above all, for his setting the example of +carefully ascertaining facts, and not indulging, so much as his +predecessors had done, in conjectures and hypotheses, than for any actual +discoveries or advances he made in it. The eulogium which Pliny has +pronounced on him is very eloquent, and fully deserved. "Hipparchus can +scarcely receive too high praise: he has proved, more satisfactorily than +any other philosopher, that man is allied to heaven, and his soul derived +from on high. In his time, more than one new star was discovered, or rather +appeared for the first time; and this induced him to believe, that future +ages might witness stars for the first time moving from the immense regions +of space, within the limits of our observation. But the grandeur and +boldness of Hipparchus's mind rested not here: he attempted, and in some +measure succeeded in doing, what seems above human knowledge and power: he +numbered the stars, laid down rules by which their rising and setting might +be ascertained beforehand; and, finally, he constructed an apparatus on +which the position of each star was accurately given, and a miniature +picture of the heavens, with the motions of the celestial bodies, their +rising and setting, increase and diminution. He thus may be said to have +left the heavens as a legacy to that man, if any such were to be found, who +could rival him and follow his steps." + +From the time of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy the geographer, the +Alexandrian school, though rich in philosophers, who devoted their studies +and labour to other branches of physical and metaphysical science, did not +produce one, who improved geography, or the sciences on which it depends, +with the exception of Posidonius. This philosopher, who belonged to the +sect of the Stoics, was born at Apamea in Syria: he usually resided at +Rhodes, and was the friend of Pompey and Cicero. The former, on his return +from Syria, came thither to attend his lectures. Arriving at his house, he +forbad his lictor to knock, as was usual, at the door; and paid homage to +philosophy, by lowering the fasces at the abode of Posidonius. Pompey, +being informed that he was at that time ill of the gout, visited him in his +confinement, and expressed himself very much disappointed that he could not +have the benefit of his lectures. Posidonius, thus honoured and flattered, +in spite of his pain, delivered a lecture in the presence of his noble +visitor; the subject of which was to prove, that nothing is good which is +not honourable. Cicero informs us, that he also attended his lectures; and +according to Suidas Marcellus, brought him to Rome in the year of the city +702; in this, however, Suidas is not supported by other and contemporary +writers. + +We are indebted to Cleomedes for most of what we know of his opinions and +discoveries; with such as relate to morals or to pure astronomy, we have no +concern. But he was of service also to geography. He measured an arc of the +terrestrial meridian; but his operation, as far as we can judge by the +details which have reached us, was far from exact, and of course his result +could not be accurate; it would appear, however, that his object was rather +to verify the ancient measures of the earth, particularly that of +Eratosthenes, and that he found them to agree nearly with his own. He +explained the ebbing and flowing of the sea, from the motion of the moon, +and seems to have been the first who observed the law of this phenomenon. +In order to represent the appearance of the heavens, Cicero informs us that +he constructed a kind of planetarium, by means of which he exhibited the +apparent motion of the sun, moon, and planets round the earth. It is on the +authority of Posidonius, that Strabo relates the voyage of Eudoxus of +Cyzicum from the Persian Gulf round Africa to Cadiz, which we have already +mentioned. + +Having thus exhibited a view of the discoveries in geography, the advances +in the sciences connected with it, and the commercial enterprises of the +Egyptians, while under the dominion of the Ptolemies, it will be proper, +before beginning an account of the geographical knowledge and commercial +enterprises of the Romans (who, by their conquest of Egypt, may be said to +have absorbed all the geographical knowledge, as well as all the commerce +of the world, at that period), to recapitulate the extent of the Egyptian +geography and commerce, especially towards the east We shall direct our +retrospect to this quarter, because the commodities of the east being most +prized, it was the grand object of the sovereigns and merchants of Egypt, +to extend and facilitate the intercourse with that quarter of the globe as +much as possible. And we are induced to undertake the retrospect, because +the exact limit of the geographical knowledge and commercial enterprise of +the Ptolemies is differently fixed by different authors: some maintaining +that the Egyptians had a regular and extensive trade directly with India, +and of course, were well acquainted with the seas and coasts beyond the Red +Sea; while other authors maintain, that they never passed the straits of +Babelmandeb, and that even within the straits, their geographical knowledge +and commercial enterprises were very limited. + +It cannot be doubted that commerce and the spirit of discovery flourished +with more vigour, and pushed themselves to a greater distance in the reigns +of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and Ptolemy Euergetes, than in the reign of any of +their successors. If, therefore, there are no proofs or traces of a direct +and regular trade with India in their time, we may safely conclude it did +not exist in Egypt, previously to the conquest of that country by the +Romans. + +We are well aware, that there are great authorities opposed to the opinion +which we hold; but these authorities are modern; they are not, we think, +supported by the ancient writers, and in opposition to them, we can place +the authority of Dr. Vincent, a name of the very greatest weight in +questions of this nature. The authorities we alluded to in support of the +opinion, that there was a direct trade with India under the Ptolemies, are +Huet, in his History of the Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients; Dr. +Robertson, in his Disquisition on India, and Harris, or perhaps, more +properly speaking, Dr. Campbell, in his edition of Harris's Collection of +Voyages and Travels. Huet, as is justly remarked by Dr. Vincent, drops the +prosecution of the question at the very point he ought to introduce it; and +afterwards countenances, or seems to countenance, the opposite opinion. Dr. +Robertson bestows much labour, ingenuity, and learning in support of the +opinion, that under the Ptolemies, a direct trade was carried on with +India; yet, after all, he concludes in this manner: "it is probable that +their voyages were circumscribed within very narrow limits, and that under +the Ptolemies no considerable progress was made in the discovery of India:" +and when he comes to the discovery of the Monsoon by Hippalus and the +consequent advantage taken of it to trade directly to India, by sailing +from shore to shore, he acknowledges that all proofs of a more early +existence of such a trade are wanting. Dr. Campbell virtually gives up his +support of the opinion, that a direct trade was carried on under the +Ptolemies, in the same manner. + +We have already remarked, that the strongest spirit of enterprize that +distinguished Egypt existed in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus and +Ptolemy Euergetes; that these monarchs pushed their discoveries, and +extended their commercial connections much farther than any of their +predecessors; and that therefore, if a direct and regular communication +between Egypt and India did not take place in their reigns, we may be +assured it was unknown to the Egyptians at the period of the Roman +conquest. To their reigns, then, we shall principally direct our enquiries. + +That Ptolemy Philadelphus was extremely desirous to improve the navigation +of the Red Sea, is evident from his having built Myos Hormos, or rather +improved it, because it was more convenient than Arsinoe, on account of the +difficulty of navigating the western extremity of that sea: he afterwards +fixed on Berenice in preference to Myos Hormos, when the navigation and +commerce on this sea was extended and improved, since Berenice being lower +down, the navigation towards the straits was shorter, as well as attended +with fewer difficulties and dangers. But there is no evidence that his +fleets, which sailed from Berenice, were destined for India, or even passed +the Straits of Babelmandeb. It is, however, not meant to be asserted that +no vessels passed these straits in the time of this Ptolemy. On the +contrary, we know that his admiral, Timosthenes, passed the straits as low +as Cerne, which is generally supposed to be Madagascar; but commerce, which +in our times, directed by much superior skill and knowledge, as well as +stimulated by a stronger spirit of enterprize and rivalship, and a more +absorbing love of gain, immediately follows in the track of discovery, was +then comparatively slow, languid, and timid as well as ignorant; so that it +is not surprizing that it did not follow the track of Timosthenes. Ptolemy +Philadelphus also pushed his discoveries by land as far as Meroc: he opened +the route between Coptus and Berenice, establishing ports and opening +wells; and from these and other circumstances he seems to have been +actuated by a stronger wish to extend commerce, and to have formed more +plans for this purpose, than any of his successors. + +Ptolemy Euergetes directed his thoughts more to conquest than to commerce, +though he rendered the former, in some degree, useful and subservient to +the latter. After having passed the Nile, and subdued the nations which lay +on the confines of Egypt, he compelled them to open a road of communication +between their country and Egypt. The frankincense country was the next +object of his ambition: this he subdued; and having sent a fleet and army +across the Red Sea into Arabia, he compelled the inhabitants of the +district to maintain the roads free from robbers, and the sea from +pirates--a proof that these people had made some advances in seafaring +matters, and also of the attention paid by Euergetes to the navigation of +the Red Sea, as well as to the protection of land commerce. Indeed the +whole of his progress to Aduli, which we have more particularly mentioned +in another place, was marked as much by attention to commerce as by the +love of conquest; but though by this enterprize he rendered both the coasts +of the Red Sea tributary, and thus better adapted to commerce, there is no +proof that he passed the Straits of Babelmandeb. It is true, indeed, that +he visited Mosullon, which lies beyond the straits, but not by sea, having +marched by land to that place, through the interior of Abyssinia and Adel. +From the whole of this enterprize of Euergetes we may justly infer, that +though he facilitated the intercourse by land between Egypt and those parts +of Africa which lay immediately beyond the straits, yet his ships did not +pass the straits, and that in his reign the discoveries of Timosthenes had +not been followed up or improved for the purpose of trading by sea with the +coast of Africa. The navigation of the whole of the Red Sea, at least on +the Arabian side, from Leuake Kome to Sabaea, was undoubtedly known and +frequently used at this period; but this was its utmost limit. + +In the reign of Ptolemy Philometor, when Agatharcides lived, the commercial +enterprizes of the Egyptians had begun rather to languish; on the Arabian +side of the Red Sea, they did indeed extend to Sabaea, as in the time of +Euergetes; but there is evidence that on the opposite coast they did not go +so low, as in the reign of the latter sovereign. Agatharcides makes no +mention of Berenice; according to his account, Myos Hormos had again become +the emporium, and the only trade from that part seems to have been for +elephants to Ptolemais Theron. It may, indeed, be urged that Berenice was +not, properly speaking, a harbour, but only an open bay, to which the ships +did not come from Myos Hormos, till their cargoes were completely ready. +But that Myos Hormos was the great point of communication with Coptus is +evident from the account which Agatharcides gives of the caravan road +between these two places. Even so late as the time of Strabo, this road was +much more frequented than the road between Coptus and Berenice: of the +latter he merely observes, that Philadelphus opened it with his army, +established ports, and sunk Wells; whereas he particularly describes the +former road, as being seven or eight days' journey, formerly performed on +camels in the night, by observation of the stars, and carrying water with +them. Latterly, he adds, deep wells had been sunk, and cisterns formed for +holding water. Every detail of the road to Berenice is Roman, and relates +to periods considerably posterior to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans--a +proof that the plan of Philadelphus, of substituting Berenice for Myos +Hormos, had not been regularly adopted by his successors, nor till the +Romans had firmly and permanently fixed themselves in Egypt. + +In the extract we have already given from Agatharcides respecting Arabia, +he expressly mentions that the Gerrheans and Sabeans are the centre of all +the commerce that passes between Asia and Europe, and that these are the +nations which have enriched the Ptolemais: this statement, taken in +conjunction with the fact that his description of the coast of the Red Sea +reaches no farther than Sabaea on the one side, and Ptolemais Theron on the +other, seems decisive of the truth of the opinion, that in the time of +Philometor the Egyptians did not trade directly to India. It may be proper +to add, that in the extracts from Agatharcides, given by Photius, it is +expressly mentioned that ships from India were met with by the Egyptian +ships in the ports of Sabaea. The particulars of this trade between India +and Egypt, by means of the Arabians, will be afterwards detailed, and its +great antiquity traced and proved; at present we have alluded to it merely +to bear us out in our position, that Indian ships, laden with Indian +commodities, frequenting the ports of Sabaea, and those ports being +described by Agatharcides as the limits of his knowledge of this coast of +the Red Sea, we are fully justified in concluding, that, in the reign of +Philometor, there was not only no direct trade to India, but no inducement +to such trade; and that 146 years after the death of Alexander, the Greek +sovereigns of Egypt had done little to complete what that monarch had +projected, and in part accomplished by the navigation of Nearchus--the +communication by sea between Alexandria and India. + +Under the successors of Philometor, the trade in the Red Sea languished +rather than increased, and the full benefits of it were not reaped till +some time after the Roman conquest. Even in the time of Strabo, the bulk of +the trade still passed by Coptus to Myos Hormos. We are aware of a passage +in this author, which, at first, sight seems to contradict the position we +have laid down, and to prove, that at least in his time, there was a direct +and not unfrequent navigation between the Red Sea and India. He expressly +states, that in the course of six or seven years, 120 ships had sailed from +Myos Hormos to India: but on this it may be observed, in the first place, +that he begins his description of India, with requesting his readers to +peruse what he relates concerning it with indulgence, as it was a country +very remote, and few persons had visited it; and even with regard to Arabia +Felix, he says, that the knowledge of the Romans commenced with the +expedition of his friend Ælius Gallus into that country;--facts not very +consistent with his statement that 120 ships had sailed in six or seven +years to India: secondly, he expressly mentions, that formerly scarcely +twenty ships dared to navigate the Red Sea, so far as to shew themselves +beyond the straits; but we can hardly suppose that skill, enterprize, and +knowledge, had increased so rapidly as to extend within a very few years +navigation, not merely beyond the straits, but even to India; we say a few +years, for certainly, at the time when the Romans conquered Egypt, the +straits were not usually passed: lastly, the name India was used so vaguely +by the ancients, even by Strabo occasionally, that it is not improbable he +meant by it, merely the coast of Arabia, beyond the straits. It is well +asked by Dr. Vincent, in reference to this account of Strabo, might not +that geographer, from knowing the ships brought home Indian commodities, +have supposed that they sailed to India, when in reality they went no +farther than Hadramant, in Arabia, or Mosullon, on the coast of Africa, +where they found the produce of India? + +It is not, however, meant to be denied that a few vessels, in the time of +Ptolemies, reached some part of India from the Red Sea, by coasting all the +way. The author of the Periplus of the Red Sea, informs us that, before the +discovery of the monsoon, by Hippalus, small vessels had made a coasting +voyage from Cana, in Arabia, to the Indies. But these irregular and +trifling voyages are deserving of little consideration, and do not militate +against the position we have laid down and endeavoured to prove, that in +the time of the Ptolemies the commerce of Egypt was confined within the +limits of the Red Sea, partly from the want of skill and enterprize, and +from the dangers that were supposed to exist beyond the straits, but +principally because the commodities of India could be procured in the ports +of Sabæa. + +Many instances have already been given of the patronage which the Ptolemies +bestowed on commerce, of the facilities and advantages they afforded, and +of the benefits which the science of geography derived from the library and +observatory of Alexandria: every instrument which could facilitate the +study of astronomy was purchased by the Ptolemies and placed in that +observatory, for they were fully aware of the dependency of a full and +accurate knowledge of geography, as a science, on a full and accurate +knowledge of astronomy. With respect to commerce, the advancement of which, +may fairly be supposed to have had some weight in their patronage of these +sciences, they encouraged it as much as possible to centre in Alexandria, +and with citizens of Egypt, by making it a standing law of the country, +that no goods should pass through the capital, either to India or Europe, +without the intervention of an Alexandrian factor, and that even when +foreign merchants resided there, they should employ the same agency. The +roads and canals they formed, and the care they took to keep the Red Sea +free from pirates, are further proofs of their regard for commerce. + +And justly was it held by the Ptolemies in high estimation, for from it +they derived their immense wealth. We are informed by Strabo, that the +revenue of Alexandria, in the worst of times, was 12,500 talents, +equivalent to nearly two millions and a half sterling; and if this was the +revenue under the last and most indolent of the Ptolemies, what must it +have been under Ptolemy Philadelphus, or Ptolemy Euergetes? But the account +given by Appian of the treasure of the Ptolemies is still more +extraordinary: the sum he mentions is 740,000 talents, or £191,166,666, +according to Dr. Arbuthnot's computation; we should be disposed to doubt +the accuracy of this statement, did we not know that Appian was a native of +Alexandria, and did he not moreover inform us, that he had extracted his +account from the public records of that city. When we consider that this +immense sum was accumulated by only two of the Ptolemies, Ptolemy Soter and +Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that the latter maintained two great fleets, one +in the Mediterranean, and the other in the Red Sea, besides an army of +200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse; and that he had 300 elephants, 2000 armed +chariots, and an armoury at Alexandria, stocked with 300,000 complete suits +of armour, and all other necessary weapons and implements of war,--we shall +form some idea of the extent and fruitfulness of Egyptian commerce, from +which the whole, or nearly the whole, of this immense wealth must have been +derived. + +Having thus brought our historical sketch of the progress of discovery and +commercial enterprize among the Egyptians down to the period of the +conquest of Egypt by the Romans, we shall, in the next place, revert to the +Romans themselves, in whom, at the date of their conquest of this country, +the geographical knowledge and the commerce of the whole world may justly +be said to have centered. As, however, we have hitherto only adverted to +the Romans, in our account of the discoveries and commerce of the +Carthaginians, it will be proper to notice them in a much more detailed and +particular manner. We shall, therefore, trace, their geographical +knowledge, their discoveries and their commerce, from the foundation of +Rome, to the period of their conquest of Egypt; and in the course of this +investigation, we shall give a sketch of the commerce of those countries +which successively fell under their dominion--omitting such as we have +already noticed: by this plan, we shall be enabled to trace the commerce of +all the known world at that time, down to the period when Rome absorbed the +whole. + +The account which Polybius gives, that before the first Carthaginian war +the Romans were entirely ignorant of, and inattentive to sea affairs--if by +this statement he means to assert that they were unacquainted with maritime +commerce, as well as maritime warfare, is expressly contradicted by the +treaties between Rome and Carthage, which we have already given in our +account of the commerce of Carthage. The first of those treaties was made +250 years before the first Punic war; and the second, about fifty years +before it. Besides, it is not probable that the Romans should have been +entirely ignorant of, and inattentive to maritime commerce for so long a +period; since several nations of Italy, with which they were at first +connected, and which they afterwards conquered, were very conversant in +this commerce, and derived great consideration, power, and wealth from it. + +The Romans had conquered Etruria, and made themselves masters of the Tuscan +powers both by sea and land, before the commencement of the first Punic +war; and though at this period, the Tuscans were not so celebrated for +their commerce as they had been, yet the shipping and commerce they did +possess, must have fallen into the power of the Romans; and we can scarcely +suppose that these, together with the facilities which the Tuscans enjoyed +for commerce, by means of their ports, and their skill and commercial +habits and connections, would be entirely neglected by their conquerors. +Besides, there are several old Roman coins, by some supposed to have been +as old as the time of the kings, and certainly prior to the first Punic +war, on the reverses of which different parts of ships are visible. Now, as +the Roman historians are diffuse in the accounts they give of the wars of +the Romans, but take no notice of their commercial transactions, we may +safely conclude, from their not mentioning any maritime wars, or +expeditions of a date so early as these coins, that the ships at that +period preserved by the Romans, and deemed of such consequence as to be +struck on their coins, were employed for the purposes of commerce. + +The Tuscans and the Grecian colonies in the south of Italy, certainly had +made great progress in commerce at an early period; and as,--if their +example did not stimulate the Romans to enterprises of the same kind,--the +Romans, at least when they conquered them, became possessed of the commerce +which they then enjoyed, it will be proper to take a brief view of it. + +If we may credit the ancient historians, the Etrurians or Tyrrhenians, even +before the reign of Minos, had been for a long time masters of the greatest +part of the Mediterranean Sea, and had given their name to the Tyrrhenian +Sea, upon which they were situate. Piracy, as well as commerce, was +followed by them; and they became at last so expert, successful, and +dangerous, for their piracies, that they were attacked, and their maritime +power greatly abridged, by the Carthaginians and the Sicilians. Their most +famous port was Luna, which was situated on the Macra, a river which, +flowing from the Apennines, divided Liguria from Etruria, and fell into the +Tyrrhenian Sea. There seems good reason to believe that Luna was a place of +great trade before the Trojan war; it was extremely capacious, and in every +respect worthy of the commercial enterprise and wealth of the Tuscans. +Populonium, a city which was situate on a high promontory of the same name, +that ran a considerable way into the sea, also possessed a very commodious +harbour, capable of receiving a great number of ships. It had an arsenal +well supplied with all kinds of naval stores, and a quay for shipping or +landing merchandize. One of the principal articles of export consisted in +copper vessels, and in arms, machines, utensils, &c. of iron: these metals +were at first supplied to the inhabitants from the island of Æthalia (now +Elba); but the copper-mines there failing, iron alone, from the same +island, was imported for the purpose of their various manufactures; the +trade in these flourished in very remote times, and continued in the days +of Aristotle and Strabo. + +But the most direct and unequivocal testimony to the power of the Tuscans, +and that that power was principally, if not entirely, derived from their +maritime skill and commerce, is to be found in Livy. This historian informs +us, "that before the Roman empire, the Tuscan dominions extended very far +both by sea and land, even to the upper and lower sea, by which Italy is +surrounded, in form of an island. Their very names are an argument for the +vast power of this people; for the Italian natives call the one the Tuscan +Sea, and the other the Adriatic, from Adria, a Tuscan colony. The Greeks +call them the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas. This people, in twelve cities, +inhabited the country extending to both seas; and by sending out colonies +equal in number to the mother cities, first on this side of the Apennines +towards the lower sea, and afterwards as many on the other side, possessed +all the country beyond the Po, even to the Alps, except the corner +belonging to the Venetians, who dwelt round a bay of the sea." Homer, +Heraclides, Aristides, and Diodorus Siculus, all concur in their +representations of the maritime power and commercial opulence of the +Tuscans at a very early period. Diodorus Siculus expressly says, that they +were masters of the sea; and Aristides, that the Indians were the most +powerful nation in the east, and the Tuscans in the west. + +Of the Grecian colonies in the south of Italy, that of Tarentum was the +most celebrated for its commerce. Polybius expressly informs us, that +Tarentum, their principal city, was very prosperous and rich, long before +Rome made any figure, and that its prosperity and riches were entirely the +fruit of the extensive and lucrative trade they carried on, particularly +with Greece. The city of Tarentum stood on a peninsula, and the citadel, +which was very strong, was built on the narrowest and extremest part of it; +on the east was a small bay, on the west the main sea; the harbour is +represented by ancient historians as extremely large, beautiful and +commodious. Its vicinity to Greece, Sicily, and Africa, afforded it great +opportunities and facilities for commerce. The inhabitants are represented +by some authors as having been the inventors of a particular kind of ship, +which retained in some degree the form of a raft or float. Their +government, which at first was aristocratical, was afterwards changed to a +democracy; and it is to this popular form of government that their +prosperity and wealth are ascribed. The number of people in the whole state +amounted to 300,000; Tarentum had twelve other cities under its dominion. +Besides a considerable fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, they had constantly +on foot a very large army, principally of mercenaries. Eighteen years +before the first Punic war, the Romans had entered into a maritime treaty +with the Tarentines; according to this treaty, neither party were to +navigate beyond the Cape of Lacinia. Soon afterwards, however, the Roman +fleet accidentally appearing near Tarentum, the inhabitants took the alarm, +sunk four of the ships, killed or took prisoners the commander and some +other officers, sold the seamen for slaves, and behaved with great +insolence to the ambassador whom the Romans sent to remonstrate and demand +satisfaction. They were soon, however, obliged to submit to the superior +power of the Romans. In the second Punic war, it was finally subdued, and a +Roman colony planted there. + +The Spinetes, Liburnians, and Locrians, were also celebrated for their +skill in naval affairs, and for their commerce, before Rome manifested the +slightest wish to distinguish herself in this manner. Indeed, the situation +of Italy naturally turned the attention of its inhabitants (especially of +those who were early civilized, as the Tuscans, or those who had emigrated +from a civilized country, as the nations in the south of Italy,) to naval +affairs and maritime commerce. Washed by three seas, the Adriatic on the +north-east, the Tyrrhenian on the west, and the Ionian on the south, Italy +enjoyed advantages possessed by few nations of antiquity. Of the first of +these seas, the Spinetes became masters, of the second the Tuscans, and of +the third the Tarentines. The Spinetes, were originally Pelasgi, who had +emigrated and settled by chance rather than design, on the south banks of +the Po. Spina, their capital, was situated on the north side of the +southernmost mouth of that river. We do not possess any particular account +of their commerce, but that it rendered them powerful and rich we are +assured; and their dominion over the Adriatic is a decisive proof of the +former, while their magnificent offerings to Delphos may as justly be +deemed a proof of the latter. Spina was strong both by nature and art, on +the sea side, but the reverse on the land side; so that at last it was +abandoned by its inhabitants not being able to withstand the attacks of +their neighbours, who were either jealous of their prosperity, or attracted +to the assault by the love of plunder. In the reign of Augustus it was +reduced to a small village; and the branch of the Po, on which it was +situated, had changed its course so much, that it was then upwards of +fifteen miles distant from the sea, on the shore of which it had been +built. The gradual alteration in the course of the river, it is probable, +contributed with the other cause already mentioned to reduce it to +comparative insignificance. + +Opposite to the Spinetes across the Adriatic, on the coast of Dalmatia, the +Liburnians dwelt. In some respects their coast was preferable to that of +Italy for maritime affairs, as it is studded with islands, which afforded +shelter to ships, and likewise possessed many excellent harbours; but the +Liburnians, as well as most of the inhabitants of Illyria, were more eager +after piracy than commerce; and, as we shall afterwards see, carried their +piracies to such a daring and destructive extent, that the Romans were +compelled to attack them. Their devotedness to piracy explains what to +Mons. Huet appears unaccountable. He observes, that it is remarkable that +neither the Dalmatians, who were powerful at sea by means of their port +Salona, which was their capital, nor the Liburnians themselves, according +to all appearance, had the use of money among them. Commerce cannot be +carried on to great extent, or in a regular and expeditious manner, by +natives ignorant of the use of money; but money seems to be not at all +requisite to the purposes of piracy. The Liburnian ships, or more properly +speaking, those ships which were denominated Liburnian, from having been +invented and first employed by this people, were of two kinds; one large, +fit for war and long voyages, but at the same time built light and for +quick sailing. After the victory of Actium, which Augustus gained in a +great measure by means of these ships, few were built by the Romans of any +other construction. The other Liburnian vessels were small, for fishing and +short voyages; some of these were made with osiers and covered with hides. +But strength and lightness, and quick sailing, were the qualities by which +the Liburnian ships were chiefly distinguished and characterised. + +At what precise period the Romans directed their attention to maritime +affairs we are not accurately informed: that the opinion of Polybius on +this subject is not well founded, is evident from several circumstances. He +says, that before the first Punic war the Romans had no thought of the sea; +that Sicily was the first country, out of Italy, in which they ever landed; +and that, when they went to that island to assist the Mamertines, the +vessels which they employed in that expedition were hired, or borrowed from +the Tarentines, the Locrians, &c. He is correct in his statement that +Sicily was the first country in which the Romans had any footing; but that +he is inaccurate with respect to the period when the Romans first applied +themselves to maritime affairs, will appear from the following facts. + +In the first place, the Romans (as we have already shown in our account of +the Carthaginian commerce,) had several treaties with the Carthaginians, +which may properly be called commercial treaties, before the first Punic +war. The earliest treaty, according to Polybius himself, was dated about +250 years before the war; and in this treaty the voyages undertaken by the +Romans on account of trade to Africa, Sardinia, and that part of Sicily at +that time possessed by the Carthaginians, are expressly mentioned and +regulated. The second treaty, about 100 years before the first Punic war, +is not so specific respecting commerce. The third treaty, occasioned by the +invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, points out a decline in the naval power of +the Romans; for it stipulates, that the Carthaginians should furnish them +with ships, if required, either for trade or war. Secondly, seventy-four +years before the first Punic war, the Romans having subdued the Antiates, +and thus become masters of their fleet, among which were six armed with +beaks, the tribune was ornamented with these beaks, the ships to which they +belonged were burnt, and the others were brought to Rome and laid upon the +place allotted to the building and preservation of ships. Lastly, the +circumstances which gave rise to the war between the Romans and Tarentines, +to which we have already adverted, plainly prove that Polybius is wrong in +his assertion. Valerius, who commanded the Roman fleet, which was attacked +by the Tarentines, according to Livy, was one of the _duumviri navales_, +officers who had been already appointed nearly thirty years (that is, +nearly fifty years before the first Punic war), on the motion of Decius +Mus, expressly for the purpose of equipping, repairing, and maintaining the +fleets. + +From these circumstances, it appears that the Romans possessed ships both +for war and commerce, previous to the commencement of their wars with the +Carthaginians, though it is extremely probable that their commerce was very +limited, and for the most part carried on in vessels belonging to the other +maritime nations of Italy, and that their ships of war were very small and +rude in their construction and equipment. + +It is foreign to the object of this work to enter into a detail of the wars +between the Romans and the Carthaginians: but as the great efforts of the +Romans to become powerful at sea were made during these wars; as these +efforts, being successful, laid the foundation of the future commerce of +Rome; and as by the destruction of Carthage, in some measure caused by the +naval victories gained by the Romans, the most commercial nation of +antiquity was utterly ruined, and their commerce transferred to Rome, it +will be proper briefly to notice the naval contests between these rival +powers during the three wars in which they were engaged. + +The first Punic war was occasioned by a desire on the part of the +Carthaginians to enlarge and secure their acquisitions in Sicily, and to +preserve their dominion of the sea, and by a determination on the part of +the Romans to check the progress of the Carthaginians in that island, so +immediately adjoining the continent of Italy. An opportunity soon occurred, +which seemed to promise to each the accomplishment of their respective +objects: the Mamertines, being hard pursued by Hiero king of Syracuse, and +shut up in Messina, the only city which remained to them, were divided in +opinion; some were for accepting the protection offered them by Hannibal, +who at that time commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily; others were for +calling in the aid of the Romans. Both these powers gladly accepted the +proffered opportunity of extending their conquests, and checking their +rival. + +The consul Appius Claudius, was ordered by the senate to proceed to Sicily: +previously to his departure, he despatched Caius Claudius, a legionary +tribune, with a few vessels to Rhegium, principally, it would seem, to +reconnoitre the naval force of the Carthaginians. The consul himself soon +followed with a small fleet, hired principally from the Tarentines, +Locrians, and Neapolitans. This fleet being attacked by the Carthaginian +fleet, which was not only much more numerous, but better equipped and +manned, and a violent storm rising during the engagement, which dashed many +of the Roman vessels in pieces among the rocks, was completely worsted. The +Carthaginians, however, restored most of the vessels they captured, only +expostulating with the Romans on the infraction of the treaty at that time +subsisting between the two republics. This loss was in some measure +counterbalanced by Claudius capturing, on his voyage back to Rhegium, a +Carthaginian quinquireme, the first which fell into the possession of the +Romans, and which served them for a model. According to other historians, +however, a Carthaginian galley, venturing too near the shore, was stranded, +and taken by the Romans; and after the model of this galley, the Romans +built many of their vessels. + +Claudius was not in the least discouraged by his defeat, observing that he +could not expect to learn the art of navigation without paying dear for it; +but having repaired his fleet, he sailed again for Sicily, and eluding the +vigilance of the Carthaginian admiral, arrived safe in the port of Messina. + +After the alliance formed between the Romans and Hiero king of Syracuse, +and the capture of Agrigentium, they resolved to use all their efforts for +the entire subjugation of Sicily. As, however, the Carthaginians were +extremely powerful by sea, they could not hope to accomplish this object, +unless they were able to cope with them on that element. They resolved, +therefore, no longer to trust in any degree to hired vessels, but to build +and equip a formidable fleet of their own. Powerfully actuated by this +resolution, they began the arduous undertaking with that ardour and spirit +of perseverance, which so eminently distinguished them; they deemed it +absolutely necessary to have 120 ships. Trees were immediately cut down in +the forests, and the timber brought to the sea shore: and the whole fleet, +according to Polybius, was not only built, but perfectly equipped and ready +for sea, in two months from the time the trees were felled. Of the 120 +vessels of which it was composed, 100 had five benches of rowers, and 20 of +them had three benches. + +There was, however, another difficulty to be overcome. It was absolutely +necessary that the men, who were to navigate and fight these ships, should +possess some knowledge of their art; but it was in vain to expect that with +the Carthaginians, so powerful and watchful at sea, the Roman ships would +be permitted to cruise safely long enough to make them practised sailors +and fighters. To obviate this difficulty, they had recourse, according to +Polybius, to a singular but tolerably effectual mode. "While some men were +employed in building the galleys, others, assembling those who were to +serve in the fleet, instructed them in the use of the oar after the +following manner: they contrived benches on the shore in the same fashion +and order as they were to be in the galleys, and placing their seamen, with +their oars, in like manner on the benches, an officer, by signs with his +hand, instructed them how to dip their oars all at the same time, and how +to recover them out of the water. By this means they became acquainted with +the management of the oar; and as soon as the vessels were built and +equipped, they spent some time in practising on the water, what they had +learnt ashore." + +The necessity of possessing a fleet adequate to cope with that of the +Carthaginians became more and more apparent; for though the Romans had +obtained possession of all the inland cities in Sicily, the Carthaginians +compensated for this by having the ascendancy by sea, and in the cities on +the coast. The Roman fleet was commanded by Cornelius Scipio, who put to +sea with seventeen ships, in order to secure at Messina reception and +security for the whole fleet; but his enterprise was unfortunate; for, +being deceived by false information, he entered the port of Lipara, where +he was blockaded by the enemy, and obliged to surrender. This partial loss, +however, was soon counterbalanced by a naval victory; for the remainder of +the Roman fleet, amounting to 103 sail, being encountered by a Carthaginian +fleet under Hannibal, who despising the Romans, had advanced to the contest +with only fifty galleys, succeeded in capturing or destroying the whole of +them. + +In the mean time, the senate had appointed Duilius commander of the fleet; +and his first object was to survey it accurately, and, if possible, to +improve the construction or equipment of the vessels, if they appeared +defective, either for the purpose of sailing or fighting. It seemed to him, +on examining them, that they could not be easily and quickly worked during +an engagement, being much heavier and more unwieldy than those of the +Carthaginians. As this defect could not be removed, he tried whether it +could not be compensated; and an engineer in the fleet succeeded in this +important object, by inventing that machine which was afterwards called +_corvus_. + +The immediate purpose which this machine was to serve is clearly explained +by all the ancient authors who mention it: its use was to stop the enemy's +ships as soon as the Roman vessels came up with them, and thus to give them +an opportunity of boarding them; but the construction and mode of operation +of these machines it is not easy to ascertain from the descriptions of +ancient authors. Polybius gives the following description of them: "They +erected on the prow of their vessels a round piece of timber, about one +foot and a half in diameter, and about twelve feet long, on the top of +which a block or pully was fastened. Round this piece of timber a stage or +platform was constructed, four feet broad, and about eighteen feet long, +which was strongly fastened with iron. The entrance was lengthways, and it +could be moved about the piece of timber, first described, as on a spindle, +and could be hoisted within six feet of the top. Round this there was a +parapet, knee high, which was defended with upright bars of iron, sharpened +at the end. Towards the top there was a ring, through which a rope was +fastened, by means of which they could raise and lower the engine at +pleasure. With this machine they attacked the enemy's vessels, sometimes on +their bow, and sometimes on their broadside. When they had grappled the +enemy with these iron spikes, if the ships happened to swing broadside to +broadside, then the Romans boarded them from all parts; but when they were +obliged to grapple them on the bow, they entered two and two, by the help +of this engine, the foremost defending the forepart, and those who followed +the flanks, keeping the boss of their bucklers level with the top of the +parapet." + +From this description of the corvus, it is evident that it had two distinct +uses to serve: in the first place, to lay hold of and entangle the enemy's +ships; and, secondly, after it had accomplished this object, it served as a +means of entering the enemy's vessels, and also as a protection while the +boarding was taking place. With respect to the question, whether the +_harpagones_ or manus ferrææ; were the same with the _corvi_, it appears to +us that the former were of much older invention, as they certainly were +much more simple in their construction; and that, probably, the engineer +who invented the corvi, borrowed his idea of them from the harpagones, and +in fact incorporated the two machines in one engine. The harpagones were +undoubtedly grappling irons, but of such light construction that they could +be thrown by manual force; but they were of no other service; whereas the +corvi were worked by machinery, and served, as we have shown, not only to +grapple, but to assist and protect the boarders. We have been thus +particular in our account of the corvus, because it may fairly be regarded +as having essentially contributed to the establishment of the Roman naval +power over that of the Carthaginians. + +After Duilius had made a trial of the efficacy of this machine, he sailed +in quest of the enemy. The Carthaginians, despising the Romans as totally +inexperienced in naval affairs, did not even take the trouble or precaution +to draw up their ships in line of battle, but trusting entirely to their +own superior skill, and to the greater lightness of their ships, they bore +down on the Romans in disorder. They, however, were induced, for a short +time, to slacken their advance at the sight of the corvi; but not giving +the Romans credit for any invention which could counterbalance their want +of skill, experience, and self-confidence, they again pushed forward and +attacked the Romans. They soon suffered, however, the consequences of their +rashness: the Romans, by means of their corvi, grappled their ships so +closely and steadily, that the fight resembled much more a land than a sea +battle; and thus feeling themselves, as it were, on their own element, +while their enemies seemed to themselves no longer to be fighting in ships, +the confidence of the former rose, while that of the latter fell, from the +same cause, and nearly in the same proportion. The result was, that the +Romans gained a complete victory. The loss of the Carthaginians is +variously related by the Roman writers: this is extraordinary, since they +must have had access to the best possible authority; the inscription of the +Columna Rostrata of Duilius, which is still preserved at Rome. According to +this inscription, Duilius fitted out a fleet in sixty days, defeated the +Carthaginians, commanded by Hannibal, at sea, took from them thirty ships, +with all their rigging, and the septireme which carried the admiral +himself; sunk thirty, and took several prisoners of distinction. When +Hannibal saw the Romans about to enter his septireme, he leaped into a +small boat and escaped. + +A circumstance occurred during this engagement which clearly manifested the +ardour and perseverance, by means of which the Romans had already become +expert, not only in the management of their ships, but also in the use of +their corvi. It has already been noticed that the Carthaginians bore down +on them in disorder, each ship endeavouring to reach them as soon as +possible, without waiting for the rest: among the foremost was Hannibal. +After the defeat of this part of the fleet, the rest, amounting to 120, +having come up, endeavoured to avoid the fate of their companions by rowing +as quickly as possible round the Roman ships, so as not to allow them to +make use of the corvi. But the Romans proved themselves to be even more +expert seamen than their enemies; for, though their vessels were much +heavier, they worked them with so much ease, celerity, and skill, that they +presented the machines to the enemy on whatever side they approached them. + +The vanquished Hannibal was disgraced by his country; whereas the +victorious Roman was honoured and rewarded by the senate, who were fully +sensible of all the advantages derived by a naval victory over the +Carthaginians. The high and distinguished honour of being attended, when he +returned from supper, with music and torches, which was granted for once +only to those who triumphed, was continued to Duilius during life. To +perpetuate the memory of this victory, medals were struck, and the pillar, +to which we have already alluded, was erected in the forum. This pillar, +called Columna Rostrata, from the beaks of the ships which were fastened to +it, was discovered in the year 1560, and placed in the capital. + +In the year after this splendid victory the Romans resolved to attempt the +reduction of Corsica and Sardinia; for this purpose L. Cornelius Scipio +sailed with a squadron under his command. He easily succeeded in reducing +Corsica; but it appears, from an inscription on a stone which was dug up in +the year 1615, in Rome, that he encountered a violent storm off the coast +of that island, in which his fleet was exposed to imminent danger. The +words of the inscription are, "He took the city of Aleria and conquered +Corsica, and built a temple to the tempests, with very good reason." This +storm is not mentioned in any of the ancient authors. Scipio was obliged to +be more cautious in his attempts on Sardinia, but afterwards the Romans +succeeded in gaining possession of this island. + +The Romans having thus acquired Corsica and Sardinia, and all the maritime +towns of Sicily, determined to invade, or at least to alarm, the African +dominions of Carthage. Accordingly Sulpicius, who commanded their fleet, +circulated a report that he intended to sail for the coasts of Africa: this +induced the Carthaginians to put to sea; but after the hostile fleets had +approached each other, and were about to engage, a storm arose and +separated them, and obliged them both to take shelter in the ports of +Sardinia. As soon as it abated, Sulpicius put to sea again, surprised the +Carthaginians, and captured or destroyed most of their ships. + +Five years after the victory of Duilius, the Romans were able to put to sea +a fleet of 330 covered gallies. Ten of these were sent to reconnoitre the +enemy, but approaching too near, they were attacked and destroyed. This +unfortunate event did not discourage the consul Attilius Regulus, who +commanded: on the contrary, he resolved to wipe off this disgrace by +signalizing his consulship in a remarkable manner. He was ordered by the +senate to cross the Mediterranean, and invade Carthage. The Roman fleet, +which consisted of 330 galleys, on board of each of which were 120 soldiers +and 300 rowers, was stationed at Messina: from this port they took their +departure, stretching along the coast of Sicily, till they doubled Cape +Pachynum, after which they sailed directly to Ecnomos. The Carthaginian +fleet consisted of 360 sail, and the seamen were more numerous, as well as +more skilful and experienced, than those of the Romans: it rendezvoused at +Heraclea, not far from Ecnomos. Between these two places the hostile fleets +met, and one of the most obstinate and decisive battles ensued that are +recorded in ancient history. As Polybius has given a very particular +account of the manner in which the respective fleets were drawn up, and of +all the incidents of the battle, we shall transcribe it from him, because +the issue of it may justly be regarded as having proved the Roman +superiority at sea, and because the details of this accurate historian will +afford us a clear insight into the naval engagements of the ancients. + +As there were 330 ships, and each ship had on board 300 rowers, and 120 +soldiers, the total number of men in the fleet amounted 140,000. The whole +fleet was formed into four divisions: the first was called the first +legion; the second, the second; and the third, the third legion. The fourth +division had a different name; they were called triarians: the triarii who +were on board this division, being old soldiers of approved valour, who, in +land battles, formed the third line of the legion, and hence obtained their +appellation. The first division was drawn up on the right, the second on +the left, and the third in the rear of the other two, in such a manner that +these three divisions formed a triangle, the point of which was the two +gallies, in which were the consuls, in front of their respective squadrons, +parallel to the third legion, which formed the base of the triangle, and in +the rear of the whole fleet; the triarian division was drawn up, but +extended in such a manner as to out-flank the extremes of the base. Between +the triarian division and the other part of the squadron, the transports +were drawn up, in order that they might be protected from the enemy, and +their escape accelerated and covered in case of a defeat; on board of the +transports were the horses, and baggage of the army. + +According to Polybius, the seamen and troops on board the Carthaginian +fleet amounted to 150,000 men. Their admiral waited to see the disposition +of the Roman fleet before he formed his own in order of battle; he divided +it into four squadrons, drawn up in one line; one of these was drawn up +very near the shore, the others stretched far out to sea, apparently for +the purpose of out-flanking the Romans. The light vessels were on the +right, under the command of Hanno; the squadron on the left, which was +formed of heavier vessels, was under the command of Hamilcar. + +It is evident from this description of the order of battle of the +Carthaginians, that their line, being so much extended, could easily be +broken; the Romans perceiving this, bore down on the middle with their +first and second divisions. The Carthaginians did not wait the attack, but +retired immediately with the intention of drawing the Romans after them, +and thus by separating, weakening their fleet. The Romans, thinking the +victory was their own, pushed after the flying enemy, thus weakening their +third division, and at the same time exposing themselves to an attack while +they were scattered. The Carthaginians, perceiving that their manoeuvre had +so far succeeded, tacked about, and engaged with their pursuers. But the +Romans, by means of their corvi, which they were now very skilful in using, +grappled with the enemy, and as soon as they had thus rendered the +engagement similar to a land battle, they overcame them. + +While these things were going on between Hamilcar with the left wing of the +Carthaginian fleet, and the first and second divisions of the Romans, +Hanno, with his light vessels, which formed the right wing, attacked the +triarians, and the ships which were drawn up near the shore, attacked the +third legion and the transports. These two attacks were conducted with so +much spirit and courage, that many of the triarians, transports, and third +legion were driven on shore, and their defeat would probably have been +decisive, had not the Roman first and second divisions, which had defeated +and chased to a considerable distance the Carthaginians opposed to them, +returned most opportunely from the chace, and supported them. The +Carthaginians were no longer able to withstand their enemies, but sustained +a signal defeat; thirty of their vessels having been sunk, and sixty-three +taken. The immediate result of this victory was, that the Romans landed in +Africa without opposition. + +The next victory obtained by the Romans over the Carthaginians was achieved +soon after the defeat and captivity of Regulus, and was justly regarded by +them as an ample compensation for that disaster. It was a wise and politic +maxim of the Roman republic never to appear cast down by defeat, but, on +the contrary, to act in such a case with more than their usual confidence +and ardour. Acting on this maxim they equipped a fleet and sent it towards +Africa, immediately after they learnt the defeat of Regulus. The +Carthaginians, who were endeavouring to take all possible advantage of +their victory, by expelling the Romans from Africa, as soon as the news +arrived of the sailing of this fleet, abandoned the seige of Utica, before +which they had sat down,--refitted their old ships, built several new ones, +and put to sea. The hostile fleets met near Cape Herme, the most northern +point of Africa, a little to the north-east of Carthage. They were again +unsuccessful on what they had formerly justly regarded as their own +element. One hundred and four of their ships were captured, and 15,000 men, +soldiers, and rowers, were killed in the action. + +This victory, however, proved of little benefit to the Romans in their +grand enterprise of establishing a firm and permanent footing, in Africa; +for, in consequence of their inability to obtain a regular supply of +provisions for their army, they were obliged soon afterwards to evacuate +Clupea and Utica, the principal places they held there, and to re-embark +their troops for Italy. + +In order to make up for this hard necessity, they resolved to land in +Sicily on their return, and, if possible, reduce some cities which the +Carthaginians still retained in that island. Such was the plan of the +consuls, but it was vehemently opposed by the pilots of the fleet, who +represented to them, that as the season was far advanced, the most prudent +measure would be to sail directly for Italy, and not go round the northern +coast of Sicily, as the consuls wished. The latter, however, persisted in +their resolution; the consequences were extremely fatal; a most violent +storm arose, during which the greater part of the fleet was destroyed or +rendered completely useless, either foundering, or being driven on shore. +All the sea coast from Camarina to Pachynum, was covered with dead bodies +of men and horses, as well as with the wrecks of the ships. The exact +number of ships that were lost is differently represented by different +authors, but according to the most accurate account, out of 370 which +composed the fleet, only eighty escaped. Besides the destruction of these +vessels, a numerous army was lost, with all the riches of Africa, which had +been amassed and deposited in Clupea, by Regulus, and which was in the act +of being conveyed to Rome. + +The Carthaginians, animated by the news of this event, resolved to attempt +the subjugation of Sicily, Africa being now liberated from the enemy. But +the Romans, by incredible efforts, fitted out a new fleet in the short +space of three months, consisting of 120 ships; which, with the old vessels +which had escaped, made up a fleet of 250 sail. With these, they passed +over to Sicily, where they were successful in reducing the Carthaginian +capital in that island. + +The next year they sent to sea a fleet of 260 ships to attempt the +reduction of Lilibæum, but this place being found too strong, the consuls +directed their course to the eastern coast of Africa, on which they carried +on a predatory warfare. Having filled their ships with the spoils, they +were returning to Italy, when they narrowly escaped shipwreck. On the coast +of Africa, there were two sand-banks, called the Greater and Lesser Syrtes, +which were very much dreaded by the ancients, on account of their +frequently changing places; sometimes being easily visible, and at other +times considerably below the water. On the Lesser Syrtes the Roman fleet +grounded; fortunately it was low water, and moderate weather at the time, +so that on the return of flood tide, the vessels floated off, with little +or no damage, but the consuls were dreadfully alarmed. + +This, however, was only a prelude to real disaster: the fleet arrived safe +at Panormus, where they remained a short time. On their departure for +Italy, the wind and weather were favourable till they reached Cape +Palinurus; here a dreadful storm arose, in which 160 galleys, and a +considerable number of transports, were lost. This second storm seems to +have so dispirited the Roman senate, that they resolved to confine their +efforts to land, and accordingly a decree was issued, that, as it seemed +the will of the gods that the Romans should not succeed against their enemy +by sea, no more than fifty vessels should in future be equipped; and that +these should be employed exclusively in protecting the coasts of Italy, and +in transporting troops to Sicily. + +This decree, however, was not long acted upon; for the Carthaginians, +perceiving that the Romans no longer dared to meet them at sea, made such +formidable preparations for invading Sicily, by equipping a fleet of 200 +sail, and raising an army of 30,000 men, besides 140 elephants, that the +Romans, being reduced to the alternative of either losing that valuable +island, or of again encountering their enemy at sea, resolved on the latter +measure. Accordingly a new fleet was built, consisting of 240 galleys, and +sixty smaller vessels, and Lilibæum was besieged by sea and land. This city +was deemed impregnable, and as it was the only place of retreat for the +Carthaginian armies in Sicily, it was defended with the utmost obstinacy. + +During this siege, two bold and successful enterprises were undertaken for +the purpose of supplying the garrison with provisions. The Romans had shut +up the port so closely, that the governor could have no communication with +Carthage: nevertheless, Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, resolved to enter it +with a supply of provisions. With this intention, he anchored with a few +vessels under an island near the coast, and as soon as a strong south wind +arose, he set all sail, and plied his oars with so much vigour and +alacrity, that he passed safely through the midst of the Roman fleet, and +landed 10,000 men and a considerable quantity of provisions. Having +succeeded thus far, and being convinced that the Romans would be on the +alert to prevent his sudden escape, he resolved to intimidate them, if +possible, by the open boldness of the attempt; and in this also he +succeeded. + +Shortly afterwards the harbour was again so closely blockaded, that the +senate of Carthage were quite uninformed of the state and resources of the +garrison. In this emergency, a Rhodian, of the name of Hannibal, undertook +to enter the harbour, and to come back to Carthage with the requisite and +desired intelligence. The Roman fleet lay at anchor, stretched across the +mouth of the harbour. Hannibal, following the example of his namesake, with +a very light galley of his own, concealed himself near one of the islands +which lie opposite to Lilibæum. Very early in the morning, before it was +light, with a favourable wind blowing rather strong, he succeeded in +getting through the Roman fleet, and entered the port. The consul, +mortified at this second enterprise, ordered ten of his lightest vessels to +lie as close as possible to each other, across the mouth of the harbour; +and that they might not be taken by surprise and unprepared, he further +directed that the men should constantly have their oars in their hands, +stretched out, so as to be ready to plunge them into the water at a +moment's warning. The skill and experience of the Rhodian, however, and the +extreme lightness and celerity of his vessel, rendered all these +precautions unavailing; for, not content with securing his escape, he +mocked the Romans, by often lying to till they came near him, and then +rowing round them. The Carthaginian senate were now able to have frequent +communication with the garrison by means of this Rhodian: his success, and +the recompence which rewarded it, induced several Carthaginians to make the +same attempt. They were all successful except one, who, not knowing the +force and direction of the currents, was carried by them ashore, and fell +into the power of the Romans. The Rhodian still continued to pass between +the besieged and Carthage; but his good fortune was near an end. The Romans +had fitted out the Carthaginian galley which they had captured, and "waited +with impatience for a fresh insult from the Rhodian: it was not long before +he entered the port in the night time, according to custom, and was +preparing to sail out in broad day, not knowing that the Romans were now +masters of a galley which was as good a sailer as his own. He weighed +anchor with great confidence, and sailed out of the port in sight of the +enemy's fleet, but was greatly surprized to see the Romans pursue him +close, and at length come up with him, notwithstanding the lightness of his +vessel. He had now no way left but to engage them, which he did with an +undaunted bravery; but the Romans, who were all chosen men, soon put an end +to the dispute. The Rhodian vessel was boarded and taken with all her crew. +The Romans being now in possession of two light galleys, shut up the port +so effectually, that no Carthaginian ever after attempted to enter it." + +The following year the Romans were obliged to convert the siege into a +blockade, in consequence of the Carthaginians having succeeded in +destroying all their works. One of the consuls was P. Claudius Pulcher, an +obstinate and ambitious man, who, contrary to the advice of those who were +better skilled in maritime affairs, and better acquainted with the +Carthaginians than he was, determined to surprize Drepanon, where the +Carthaginian admiral was posted. Claudius had under his command a fine and +formidable fleet of 120 galleys; with these he sailed from before Lilibæum +in the night time, having taken on board a great number of the best troops +employed in the blockade of that place. At break of day, Asdrubal, the +Carthaginian admiral, was surprized to perceive the hostile fleet +approaching Drepanon: he formed his plan immediately, preferring an +immediate engagement to the certainty of being shut up in the harbour. +Accordingly, with ninety ships, he sailed out, and drew them up behind some +rocks which lay near the harbour. As the Romans had not perceived him come +out, they continued to sail on without forming themselves into line of +battle, when as they were about to enter the harbour, the Carthaginians +attacked them, with such celerity and vigour, that, being taken quite +unprepared, they were thrown into confusion. Claudius might still have +saved his fleet by immediate flight, but this he absolutely refused to do, +notwithstanding the strong and urgent remonstrances of his officers. By +great exertions the Roman fleet was formed into line of battle, on a lee +shore, and close to rocks and shoals. It was on this occasion, that the +Romans' veneration for auguries was so dreadfully shocked, by Claudius +exclaiming, when the sacred chickens refused to feed, "If they will not +feed, let them drink," at the same time ordering them to be thrown into the +sea. The bad omen, and the sacrilegious insult, added to the situation in +which they were placed, and their want of confidence in Claudius, seemed to +have paralysed the efforts of the Romans: they fought feebly: the enemy +boarded their ships without difficulty or resistance; so that ninety +vessels were either taken or driven ashore, 8,000 of their seamen and +soldiers were killed, and 20,000 taken prisoners. As soon as Claudius +perceived the probable result of the battle, he fled precipitately with +thirty vessels. The Carthaginians did not lose a single ship or man on this +occasion. This was the most signal and disastrous defeat which the Romans +had suffered at sea since the commencement of the war. According to +Polybius, Claudius was tried, condemned, and very severely punished. + +The other consul, Lucius Pullus, was not more successful, though his want +of success did not, as in the case of Claudius, arise from ignorance and +obstinacy. He was ordered to sail from Syracuse with a fleet of 120 +galleys, and 800 transports, the latter laden with provisions and stores +for the army before Lilibaeum. As the army was much pressed for +necessaries, and the consul himself was not ready to put to sea directly, +he sent the quaestors before him with a small squadron. The Carthaginians, +who were very watchful, and had the best intelligence of all the Romans +were doing, having learnt that the consul was at sea with a large fleet, +sent 100 galleys to cruize off Heraclea. As soon as the squadron under the +quaestors came in sight, the Carthaginian admiral, though he mistook it for +the consular fleet, yet resolved to engage it: but the quaestors, having +received orders not to hazard a battle if they could possibly avoid, took +refuge behind some rocks, where they were attacked by the enemy. The Romans +defended themselves so well with balistae and other engines, which they had +erected on the rocks, that the Carthaginian admiral, after having captured +a few transports, was obliged to draw off his fleet. + +In the mean time, the light vessels, employed on the lookout, informed him +that the whole consular fleet were directing their course for Lilibaeum: +his obvious plan was to engage this fleet before it could join that of the +quæstors; he therefore steered his course to meet them. But the consul was +equally averse with the quaestors to hazard the supply of the army by a +battle, and he, therefore, also took shelter near some rocks. The +Carthaginian admiral was afraid to attack him in this position, but +resolved to watch him: while thus employed his pilots observed certain +indications of an approaching storm, which induced him to take shelter on +the other side of Cape Pachynum. He had scarcely doubled the cape, when the +storm arose with such violence that the whole Roman fleet was destroyed. +According to Polybius, not one vessel, not even a plank, was saved out of a +fleet which consisted of 120 galleys and 800 transports. + +Two such losses occurring during the same consulate, induced the Romans +again to resolve to desist from all naval enterprizes and preparations, so +that for some time no public fleet was equipped. This resolution, however, +yielded to the conviction that they could not hope even to retain their +possessions in Sicily, or even to secure their commerce on the coasts of +Italy, if they did not endeavour to cope with the Carthaginians by sea. But +as the senate thought it would appear derogatory to their dignity and +consistency to equip a public fleet, after they had a second time resolved +solemnly and officially not to do so, they passed a decree, by which all +the Roman citizens who were able and so disposed, were permitted to build, +equip, and arm vessels at their own expence; with these ships they were +directed to land on the coast of Africa, for the purpose of pillage, the +fruit of which was to be their own private gain. The senate even went +further to evade, by a pitiful subterfuge their own decree, for they lent +the few ships which still remained to the republic, to private citizens, on +condition that they should keep them in repair, and make them good if they +were lost. By these measures a very considerable fleet was equipped, which +committed great depredations on the coast of Africa. Emboldened by their +predatory warfare, they resolved to attempt a more arduous enterprize. One +of the most celebrated of the Carthaginian harbours was that of Hippo; +besides the port there was a citadel, and large arsenals for naval stores, +&c. As the inhabitants were much engaged in commerce, there were in the +town always a considerable quantity of merchandize. This port the privateer +squadron determined to enter. The inhabitants, aware of their design, +stretched a very strong chain across the harbour mouth; but it did not +avail; for the Roman ships broke through it, took possession of the town +and ships, burnt most of them, and returned safe with an immense booty. +This success was quickly followed by another, for as they were re-entering +Panormus, they fell in with a Carthaginian fleet loaded with provisions for +Hamilcar, who commanded in Sicily, and captured several of the transports. +These advantages began to inspire the Romans with renewed confidence and +hopes that their naval disasters were at an end, and that the gods had at +length permitted them to become masters of the sea, when the privateer +fleet, after having gained a considerable victory over a Carthaginian +squadron, near the coast of Africa, was almost totally destroyed in a +storm. + +For a few years afterwards, the Romans seem to have desisted entirely from +maritime enterprizes; but in the year of the city 516, they changed their +plan, as it was indeed evident that unless they were masters at sea, they +must be content to lose the island of Sicily. In order, however, that the +Roman armies might not suffer by their losses at sea, it was decreed that +the new fleet should be manned with hired troops. There was still another +difficulty to overcome; the protracted war with Carthage, and the heavy and +repeated losses which they had suffered during it, had nearly exhausted the +Roman treasury; from it therefore could not possibly be drawn the sums +requisite for the proper and effective equipment of such a fleet as would +be adequate to meet that of the enemy. This difficulty was removed by the +patriotism of all ranks and classes of the citizens. The senators set the +example; the most wealthy of whom built, each at his own cost, a +quinquereme: those who were not so wealthy joined together, three or four +of them fitting out a single galley. By these means a fleet of 200 large +vessels was made ready for any expedition, the state having bound +themselves to repay the individuals whenever her finances were adequate to +such an expence. This fleet was not only very numerous and well equipped, +but most of the vessels which composed it were built on an entirely new +model, which combined an extraordinary degree of celerity with strength. +The model was taken from that light Rhodian galley, which we have already +mentioned, as having been employed by its owner, Hannibal, in conveying +intelligence between Carthage and Lilibæum, and which was afterwards +captured by the Romans. The command of this fleet was given to the consul +Lutatius: and the great object to be accomplished was the reduction of +Lilibæum, which still held out. The first step of the consul was to occupy +all the sea-ports near this place: the town of Drepanon, however, resisting +his efforts, he resolved rather to decide its fate, and that of Sicily in +general, by a sea battle, than to undertake a regular siege. + +The Carthaginians soon gave him an opportunity of acting in this manner, +for they sent to sea a fleet of 400 vessels, under the command of Hanno. In +the building and equipment of this fleet, the senate of Carthage had nearly +exhausted all their means; but though their fleet was numerically much +greater than that of Rome, in some essential respects it was inferior to +it. Most of the seamen and troops on board it were inexperienced and +undisciplined; and the ships themselves were not to be compared, with +regard to the union of lightness and strength, with the Roman vessels, as +they were now built. Besides, the Romans trusted entirely to themselves-- +the Carthaginians, in some measure, to their allies or to hired seamen. The +Romans, though firm and determined, were not rashly confident; whereas the +Carthaginians even yet regarded their adversaries with feelings of +contempt. + +The hostile fleets met off Hiera, one of the Aeolian islands. The +Carthaginian admiral's first object was to reach Eryx, a city which had +lately been taken by Hamilcar, there to unload his vessels, and after +having taken on board Hamilcar and the best of his troops, to sail again in +quest of the Roman fleet. But the consul prevented this design from being +carried into execution, by coming up with the Carthaginians, as we have +just stated, off Hiera, while they were steering for Eryx. As the wind was +favourable for the Romans, they were extremely anxious to commence the +engagement immediately; but before they had formed into order of battle, it +changed, blew hard, and a heavy sea arose. The determination of the consul +to engage was for a short time shaken by this circumstance, but he +reflected that though the sea was rough, the enemy's ships were heavily +laden, and therefore would suffer more from it than his ships would; while +if, on the other hand, he delayed the engagement till the Carthaginians +reached Eryx, they would then have lighter vessels, as well as a greater +number of experienced seamen and soldiers on board of them. These +considerations determined him to fight immediately, and accordingly he gave +orders for the line of battle to be formed. The battle was of very short +duration, and terminated decidedly in favour of the Romans. The loss of the +Carthaginians is variously stated, but, according to Polybius, who is the +best authority for every thing relating to the Punic wars, the Romans sunk +fifty of their vessels, and captured seventy, with all their crews. The +remainder would probably have been either captured or destroyed, had not +the wind again changed, and enabled them to save themselves by flight. + +The consequences of this defeat, in the capitulation of Hamilcar, which, in +a manner, determined the fate of Sicily, were so disheartening to the +Carthaginians, that they were obliged to submit to a disadvantageous and +dishonorable peace. Among other terms, it was stipulated that they should +evacuate all the places they held in Sicily, and entirely quit that island; +that they should also abandon all the small islands that lie between Italy +and Sicily; and that they should not approach with their ships of war, +either the coasts of Italy or any of the territories belonging to the +Romans or their allies. + +Soon after the conclusion of the first Punic war, a circumstance occurred +which nearly renewed the hostilities. The Carthaginians were engaged in a +bloody and arduous contest with their Mercenaries, and the Roman merchants +supplied the latter with military stores and provisions. While engaged in +this unlawful enterprize, several of them were captured by the +Carthaginians, and their crews detained as prisoners of war. The senate of +Carthage, however, were not then in a condition to offend the Romans; they +therefore restored both the ships and their crews. During this war between +the Carthaginians and the Mercenaries, the latter having obtained +possession of Sardinia, (which though formerly conquered by the Romans, had +been restored to the Carthaginians,) offered to put the Romans in +possession of it. At first the senate refused to occupy it; but they soon +changed their mind, and accepted the offer, and moreover obliged the +Carthaginians to pay the expence of the armament by which it was occupied, +and the further sum of 1200 talents. + +Sicily, which immediately after the conclusion of the Punic war, was made a +Roman province, and Sardinia, were the first territories which the Romans +possessed out of Italy. In conformity with our plan, we shall enquire into +the advantages they brought to the commerce of the Romans, before we +proceed to the naval occurrences of the second Punic war. + +Sicily was anciently called Sicania, Trinâcria, and Triquetra; its three +promontories are particularly celebrated in the classic authors; viz. +Lilibæum on the side of Africa; Pachynum on the side of Greece, and Pelorum +towards Italy. Its vicinity to the continent of Italy, and the resemblance +of their opposite shores, gave rise to an opinion among the ancients that +it was originally joined to Italy. Pliny particularly mentions their +separation, as a circumstance beyond all doubt. The dangers which were +supposed to beset mariners in their passage through the narrow strait which +divides it from Italy, on one side of which was Sylla, and on the other +Charybdis, sufficiently point out the ignorance and inexperience of the +ancients in the construction and management of their ships. + +The principal town on the eastern coast of Sicily, opposite Greece, was +Messana, now called Messina: it was the first which the Romans possessed in +the island: it was one of the most wealthy and powerful cities in ancient +Sicily. Taurominium stood near Mount Taurus, on the river Taurominius; the +coast in its vicinity was anciently called Coproea, because the sea was +supposed to throw up there the wrecks of such vessels as were swallowed up +by Charybdis. The hills near this city were famous for the excellent grapes +they produced. On a gulph in the Ionian Sea, called Catana, stood a city of +the same name; it was one of the richest and most powerful cities in the +island. + +But by far the most celebrated city in this island for its advantageous +situation, the magnificence of its buildings, its commerce, and the wealth +of its inhabitants, was Syracuse. According to Thucydides, in his time it +might justly be compared to Athens, even when that city was at the height +of its glory; and Cicero describes it as the greatest and most wealthy of +all the cities possessed by the Greeks. Its walls were eighteen miles in +circumference, and within them were in fact four cities united into one. It +seems also to have possessed three harbours: the great harbour was nearly +five thousand yards in circumference, and the entrance to it five hundred +yards across; it was formed on one side by a point of the island Ortygia, +and on the other by another small island, on each of which were forts. The +second harbour was divided from the greater by an island of inconsiderable +extent; both these were surrounded with warehouses, arsenals, and other +buildings of great magnificence. The river Anapis emptied itself into the +great harbour; at the mouth of this river was the castle of Olympia. The +third harbour stood a little above the division of the city called +Acradina. The island of Ortygia, which formed one of the divisions, was +joined to the others by a bridge. + +The other maritime towns of consequence were Agrigentum, Lilibaeum, and +Drepanum; though the first stood at a short distance from the sea, yet +being situated between and near two rivers, it conveniently imported all +sorts of provisions and merchandize. Lilibaeum was famous for its port, +which was deemed a safe retreat for ships, either in case of a storm, or to +escape from an enemy. During the wars between the Romans and Carthaginians, +the former repeatedly attempted to render it inaccessible and useless by +throwing large stones into it, but they were always washed away by the +violence of the sea, and the rapidity of the current. Drepanum, which had +an excellent harbour, was much resorted to by foreign ships, and possessed +a very considerable commerce. + +The Greeks were the first who colonized Sicily; and they founded Syracuse +and other towns. About the same period the Phoenicians settled on the coast +for the purposes of commerce; but they seem to have retired soon after the +Greek colonies began to flourish and extend themselves. The Carthaginians, +who generally pushed their commerce into all the countries with which their +parent state had traded, seem to have visited Italy as merchants or +conquerors at a very early period; but when their first visit took place in +either character is not known. The treaty between them and the Romans, (to +which we have had occasion to refer more than once,) which was formed in +the year after the expulsion of the Tarquins, expressly stipulated that the +Romans, who should touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily which belonged +to the Carthaginians, should be received there in the same manner as the +Carthaginians themselves. They must, however, soon afterwards have been +driven out of the island; for at the time of the invasion of Greece by +Xerxes, (which happened about thirty years after the expulsion of the +Tarquins,) Gelon, the king of Syracuse, expressly states that they no +longer possessed any territory there, in a speech which he made to the +ambassadors of Athens and Sparta, the Cathaginians having united with +Xerxes, and he having offered to ally himself with the Greeks. The +circumstances and even the very nature of the victory which Gelon gained +over the Carthaginians, which ended in their expulsion from Sicily, cannot +accurately be ascertained: but from a comparison of the principal +authorities on this point, it would, appear that it was a naval victory; or +at least that the Carthaginian fleet was defeated as well as their army. +Their loss by sea was enormous, amounting to nearly the whole of their +ships of war and transports, the former consisting of 2000 and the latter +of 3000. + +Such is a short sketch of the island of Sicily, so far as its commercial +facilities and its history are concerned previously to its conquest by the +Romans. It was peculiarly valuable to them on account of its extreme +fertility in corn; and by this circumstance it seems to have been +distinguished in very early times; for there can be no doubt that by its +being represented by the poets as the favourite residence of the goddess +Ceres, the fertility of the island in corn, as well as its knowledge of +agriculture, were intended to be represented. When Gelon offered to unite +with the Greeks in their war with Xerxes, one of his proposals was that he +would furnish the whole Greek army with corn, during all the time of +hostilities, if they would appoint him commander of their forces. In the +latter period of the Roman republic, it became their principal dependence +for a regular supply of corn. + +Sardinia seems to have been as little explored by and known to the +ancients, as it is to the moderns. The treaty between the Carthaginians and +Romans, the year after the expulsion of the Tarquins, proves that the +former nation possessed it at that time. Calaris, the present Cagliari, was +the principal town in it. From the epithet applied to it by Horace, in one +of his odes, _Opima_, it must have been much more fertile in former times +than it is at present; and Varro expressly calls it one of the granaries of +Rome. Its air, then, as at present, was in most parts very unwholsome; and +it is a remarkable circumstance that the character of the Sardi, who, after +the complete reduction of the island by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, were +brought to Rome in great numbers, and sold as slaves, and who were +proverbial for their worthlessness, is still to be traced in the present +inhabitants; for they are represented as extremely barbarous, and so +treacherous, and inhospitable, that they have been called the Malays of the +Mediterranean. The island of Corsica, which, indeed, generally followed the +fate of Sardinia, was another of the fruits of the first Punic war which +the Romans reaped, in some degree favourable to their commerce. It +possessed a large and convenient harbour, called Syracusium. The +Carthaginians must have reduced it at an early period, since, according to +Herodotus, the Cyrnians (the ancient name for the inhabitants), were one of +the nations that composed the vast army, with which they invaded Sicily in +the time of Gelon. + +During the interval between the first and second Punic wars, the Roman +commerce seems to have been gradually, but slowly extending itself, +particularly in the Adriatic: we do not possess, however, any details on +the subject, except a decisive proof of the attention and protection which +the republic bestowed upon it, in repressing and punishing the piracies of +the Illyrians and Istrians. These people, who were very expert and +undaunted seamen, enriched themselves and their country by seizing and +plundering the merchant vessels which frequented the Adriatic and adjacent +Mediterranean sea; and their piracies were encouraged, rather than +restrained by their sovereigns. At the period to which we allude, they were +governed by a queen, named Teuta, who was a woman of a bold and +enterprising spirit: the Roman merchants, who traded, in the Adriatic, had +frequently been plundered and cruelly treated by her subjects; upon this, +the Roman senate sent two ambassadors to her, to insist that she should put +a stop to these measures. The Romans had also other grounds of complaint +against her and her subjects; for the latter extended their piracies to the +allies of Rome, as well as to the Romans themselves, and the former was at +that time besieging the island of Issa, in the Adriatic, which was under +the protection of the republic. The inhabitants of this island seem to have +been rather extensively engaged in commerce, and were celebrated for +building a kind of light ships, thence called _Issaei lembi_. + +Teuta received and treated the Roman ambassadors with great scorn and +haughtiness; she promised, indeed, that she would no longer authorise the +piracies of her subjects; but, with regard to restraining them, she would +not do it, as they enjoyed a perfect and full right to benefit themselves +as much as possible, and in every way they could, by their skill and +superiority in maritime affairs. On the ambassadors' replying in rather +threatening language, she ordered one of them to be put to death. + +For a short time Teuta was alarmed at the probable consequences of her +conduct, and endeavoured to avert them by submission; but, the Romans being +otherwise engaged, and she having experienced some successes over the +Acheans, her haughtiness and confidence revived, and she sent a fleet to +assist in the reduction of Issa. Upon this, the Romans resolved to act with +immediate vigour; and they had little difficulty in compelling Teuta to sue +for peace. It was granted to her, on condition that not more than three +ships of war should at any one time sail beyond Lyssus, on the frontier of +Macedonia, and that the islands of Corcyra, Issa, and Pharos, together with +Dyrrhachium should be given up to the Romans. + +It was not, however, to be supposed that the Illyrians and Istrians, who +had been so long accustomed to piracy, and who in fact derived nearly all +their wealth from this source, would totally abstain from it. A few years +after this treaty of peace, they resumed their depredations, which they +carried on with so much audacity and disregard to the power of Rome, that +they even seized the ships that were laden with corn for Rome. As this +commerce was one of the greatest consequence to the Romans, in which the +Roman government, as well as individuals, principally embarked, and on the +regularity and safety of which the subsistence and tranquillity of the city +itself depended, the senate resolved to punish them more effectually; and +this resolution was strengthened by the Illyrians having broken the terms +of the peace by sending no fewer than 50 vessels of war beyond the +prescribed limits, as far as the Cyclades. The consequence of the new war +which the Romans waged against them, was the reduction of Istria and of +Illyricum Proper. + +The destruction of Saguntum by the Carthaginians was the cause of the +second Punic war. At what period the Carthaginians first established +themselves in Spain, is not known. Their principal object in colonizing and +retaining it, undoubtedly may be found in the richness of its mines, and +the fertility of its soil. According to Diodorus Siculus, they were +principally enabled to equip and support their numerous, and frequently +renewed fleets, by the silver which they drew from these mines. And Strabo +expressly informs us, that when the Carthaginians first colonized Spain, +silver was in such abundance, and so easily obtained, that their most +common utensils, and even the mangers for their horses, were made of it. +One mine of extreme richness is particularly described by Pliny: according +to him, it yielded 300 pounds of silver in a day. There are other +circumstances which point out the extreme value of Spain to whoever +possessed it, and lead us to the motives which induced the Romans to use +all their efforts to wrest it from the Carthaginians. It cannot be doubted +that the Carthaginians drew from it all the wealth, in various shapes, +which it could possibly supply; and yet we know that in the short space of +nine years, 111,542 pounds weight of silver, 4095 of gold, besides coin, +were brought out of it by the Roman praetors, who governed it. Scipio, when +he returned to Rome, brought from Spain 14,342 pounds weight of silver, +besides coin, arms, and corn, &c. to an immense amount. And Lentulus +returned from this country with 44,000 pounds of silver, and 2550 of gold, +besides the coin, &c., which was divided among his soldiers. Manlius +brought with him 1200 pounds of silver, and about 30 of gold. Cornelius +Lentulus, who was praetor of Hither Spain for two years, brought with him +1515 pounds of gold, and 2000 of silver, besides a large amount of coin, +while the praetor of Farther Spain returned with 50,000 pounds of silver. +And these immense sums, as we have already stated, were brought away in the +space of nine years. + +Cornelius Scipio was sent into Spain at the commencement of the second +Punic war. Of the events of this war, however, we shall confine ourselves +exclusively to such as were maritime, and which trace the steps of the +Roman superiority at sea, and, consequently, of the advancement and +extension of their commerce. The exertions of the rival nations to contest +the empire of the sea were very great: the Romans equipped 220 +quinqueremes, and twenty other light vessels, beside 160 galleys, and +twenty light vessels, which were employed to transport troops to Africa. +Their allies, the Syracusans, also, were active and alert in the equipment +of a fleet to assist their allies, the Romans; and Hiero, their king, had +the good fortune to give an auspicious commencement to the war, by +capturing some Carthaginian ships, part of a fleet, whose object was to +plunder the coasts of Italy, but which had been dispersed by a storm. The +Carthaginians were equally unfortunate in their second maritime enterprise +against Lilibaeum, for the Syracusans and Romans, having learnt their +intention, anchored before the mouth of the harbour. The Carthaginians, +finding that they could not, as they expected, surprise the place, drew up +their fleet in line of battle, a little way out at sea: the allies +immediately got under weigh; a battle ensued, in which the Carthaginians +were defeated, with the loss of seven ships. These successes, however, were +dreadfully counterbalanced by the advance of Hannibal into Italy, and the +decisive victories which he obtained in the very heart of the Roman +territories. Under these circumstances, maritime affairs were naturally +disregarded. + +Of the actual state of the Roman commerce about this time we know very +little, but that it was lucrative, may fairly be inferred from the +following circumstance:--A little before the commencement of the second +Punic war, Caius Flaminnus was extremely desirous to obtain the support and +good will of the populace; with this object in view, he joined the tribunes +of the people in passing a law, which is called the Flaminian, or Claudian +law. By it, the senators, who had been accustomed to acquire considerable +wealth by fitting out ships and trading, were expressly forbidden to +possess or hire any vessel above the burden of 300 amphorae or eight tons, +and not more than one vessel even of that small tonnage. This vessel was +allowed them, and was deemed sufficient to bring the produce of their farms +to Rome. By the same law, the scribes, and the clerks, and attendants of +the quæstors, were prohibited from trading; and thus the liberty of +commerce was exclusively confined to the plebeians. + +Whilst Hannibal threatened the Romans in the vicinity of Rome itself, they +had neither leisure, inclination, or means, to cope with the Carthaginians +by sea; at length, however, Marcellus, having checked the enemy in Italy, +maritime affairs were again attended to. Scipio, who had been successful in +Spain, resolved to attempt the reduction of New Carthage: this place was +situated, like Old Carthage, on a peninsula betwixt a port and a lake: its +harbour was extremely commodious, and large enough to receive and shelter +any fleet. As it was the capital of the Carthaginian dominions in Spain, +here were deposited all their naval stores, machines used in war, besides +immense treasures. It was on this account extremely well fortified, and to +attempt to take it by a regular siege seemed to Scipio impracticable: he, +therefore, formed a plan to take it by surprise, and this plan he +communicated to C. Lælius, the commander of the fleet, who was his intimate +friend. The Roman fleet was to block up the port by sea, while Scipio was +to blockade it by land. The ignorance of the Romans with regard to one of +the most common and natural phenomena of the sea, is strongly marked in the +course of this enterprise. Scipio knew that when the tide ebbed, the port +of New Carthage would become dry and accessible by land; but his soldiers, +and even his officers, were ignorant of the nature of the tides, and they +firmly believed that Neptune had wrought a miracle in their favour, when, +according to Scipio's prediction, the tide retired, and the army was thus +enabled to capture the town, the walls of which on that side were extremely +low, the Carthaginians having directed all their attention and efforts to +the opposite side. The capture of New Carthage depressed, in a great +degree, the spirits, as well as weakened the strength of the Carthaginians +in Spain: eighteen galleys were captured in the port, besides 113 vessels +laden with naval stares; 40,000 bushels of wheat, 260,000 bushels of +barley, a large number of warlike machines of all descriptions, 260 cups of +gold, most of which weighed a pound, 18,300 pounds weight of silver, +principally coin, besides brass money, were among the spoils. + +About the year of Rome 556, Scipio had succeeded in reducing all Spain. It +does not appear, however, that the Romans were thus enabled greatly to +extend their commerce; indeed, at this period, we have no evidence that any +other town in Spain, except Gades, possessed any considerable trade. This +island and city were situated in a gulph of the same name, between the +straits of Gibraltar and the river Boetis; and, from the remotest period of +which we possess any records, was resorted to by foreigners for the +purposes of commerce. Gradually, however, the inhabitants of Spain, under +the Roman government, enriched themselves and their conquerors by their +industry: large quantities of corn, wine, and oil were exported, besides +wax, honey, pitch, vermilion, and wool. The oil and wool were deemed equal, +if not superior, to those of any other part of the world: the excellent +quality of the wool is a strong fact, against an opinion entertained by +many, that the fineness of the Spanish was originally derived from the +exportation of some English sheep to Spain, since it appears to have been +celebrated even in the time of the Romans: how important and lucrative an +object it was considered, may be collected from the attention that was paid +to the breed of sheep; a ram, according to Strabo, having been sold for a +talent, or nearly 200_l_. Horace incidentally gives evidence of the +commercial wealth of Spain in his time, when he considers the master of a +Spanish trading vessel and a person of great wealth as synonimous terms. + +As Hannibal still continued in Italy, the senate of Rome resolved to send +Scipio into Italy, with a discretionary power to invade Africa from that +island. He lost no time in equipping a fleet for these purposes, and his +efforts were so well seconded by the zeal and activity of the provinces and +cities, many of which taxed themselves to supply iron, timber, cloth for +sails, corn, &c. that, in forty days after the timber was felled, Scipio +had a fleet of thirty new galleys. + +Soon after he landed in Sicily, he resolved to invade Africa: for this +purpose his fleet was collected in the port of Lilibæum. Never was +embarkation made with more order and solemnity: the concourse of people who +came from all parts to see him set sail, and wish him a prosperous voyage, +was prodigious. Just before he weighed anchor, he appeared on the poop of +his galley, and, after an herald had proclaimed silence, addressed a solemn +prayer to the gods. It is foreign to our purpose to give any account of the +campaign in Africa, which, it is well known, terminated in the utter defeat +of the Carthaginians, who were obliged to sue for peace. This was granted +them on very severe terms: all the cities and provinces which they +possessed in Africa previously to the war, they were indeed permitted to +retain, but they were stripped of Spain, and of all the islands in the +Mediterranean; all their ships of war, except ten galleys, were to be +delivered up to the Romans; and, for the future, they were not to maintain +above that number at one time: even the size of their fishing boats and of +their trading vessels was regulated. In the course of fifty years ten +thousand talents were to be paid to the Romans. During a short truce which +preceded the peace, the Carthaginians had seized and plundered a Roman +squadron, which had been dispersed by a storm, and driven near Carthage; as +a satisfaction for this, they were obliged to pay the Romans 25,000 pounds +weight of silver. The successful termination of the second Punic war gave +to the Romans complete dominion of the sea, on which they maintained +generally 100 galleys. Commerce flourished, particularly that most +important branch, the trade in corn, with which Rome, at this period, is +said to have been so plentifully furnished, that the merchants paid their +seamen with it. + +The power of the Romans at sea was now so well established, that no foreign +power could hope to attack, or resist them, unless they were expert +navigators, as well as furnished with a numerous fleet. Under this +impression, Philip king of Macedon, who had long been jealous and afraid of +them, applied himself sedulously to maritime affairs. As it was about this +period that the Romans began to turn their thoughts to the conquest of +Greece, it may be proper to take a retrospective view of the maritime +affairs and commerce of that country. An inspection of the map of Greece +will point out the advantages which it possessed for navigation and +commerce. Lying nearly in the middle of the Mediterranean, with the sea +washing three of its sides; possessed of almost innumerable inlets and +bays, it was admirably adapted to ancient commerce. Its want of large and +navigable rivers, which will always limit its commerce in modern times, +presented no obstacle to the small vessels in which the ancients carried on +their trade; as they never navigated them during the winter, and from their +smallness and lightness, they could easily drag them on shore. + +Athens, the most celebrated state in Greece for philosophy, literature, and +arms, was also the most celebrated for commerce. The whole of the southern +angle of Attica consisted of a district called Parali, or the division +adjacent to the sea. In the other districts of Attica, the soldiers of the +republic were found: this furnished the sailors; fishing and navigation +were the chief employments of its inhabitants. About 46 miles distant from +the Piraeus, stood Sunium, the most considerable town in this district: it +possessed a double harbour in the Mediterranean. + +The principal commerce of Attica, however, was carried on at Athens: this +city had three harbours: the most ancient was that of Phalerum, distant +from the city, according to some authors, 35 stadia; according to others +only 20 stadia. It was nearer Athens than the other two, but smaller, and +less commodious. Munichea was the name of the second harbour: it was formed +in a promontory not far distant from the Pirasus, a little to the east of +Athens, and naturally a place of great strength; it was afterwards, at the +instance of Thrasybulus, rendered still stronger by art. But by far the +most celebrated harbour of Athens was the Piraeus. The republic of Athens, +in order to concentrate its military and mercantile fleets in this harbour, +abandoned that of Phalerum, and bent all their efforts to render the +Piraeus as strong and commodious as possible. This occurred in the time of +Themistocles; by whose advice both the town and the harbour were inclosed +with a wall, about seven miles and a half long, and sixty feet high. +Themistocles' intention was to have made it eighty cubits high, but in this +he was opposed. Before this connecting wall was built, the Piraeus was +about three miles distant from the city. As the strength of the wall was of +the utmost importance, it was built of immense square stones, which were +fastened together with iron or leaden cramps. It was so broad that two +waggons could have been driven along it. The Pireus contained three docks; +the first called Cantharus, the second Aphrodisium, and the third Zea. +There were likewise five porticos, and two forums. The Piraeus was so +celebrated for its commerce, that it became a proverbial saying in Greece, +"Famine does not come from the Piræus." The extent and convenience of the +Piræus may be judged of from this circumstance, that under the demagogue +Lycurgus, the whole naval force of the nation, amounting to 400 triremes, +were safely and easily laid up in its three harbours. + +Before the time of Themistocles, Athens does not appear to have devoted her +attention or resources to maritime affairs: but this celebrated general not +only rendered the Piræus stronger and more commodious, but also procured a +decree, which enabled him to add twenty ships to the fleet annually. The +sums arising from the sale of the privileges of working the mines, or the +eventual profits of the mines, which had formerly been distributed among +the people, were, through his influence, set apart for the building of +ships. Afterwards a law was passed, which taxed all the citizens who +possessed land, manufactories, or money in trade or with their bankers; +these classes of the citizens were also obliged to keep up, and increase, +if occasion required it, the naval force of the republic. When it was +necessary to fit out an armament, as many talents as there were galleys to +be built and equipped, were raised in each of the ten tribes of Athens. The +money thus collected was given to the captains of the galleys, to be +expended in the maintenance of the crew. The republic furnished the rigging +and sailors: two captains were appointed to each galley, who served six +months each. + +Although the vessels employed by the Athenians both for war and commerce +were small compared with those of modern days, and their merchant ships +even much smaller than those of the Phoenicians, if we may judge by the +description given by Xenophon of a Phoenician merchant vessel in the +Piræus, yet the expence attending their equipment was very great. We learn +from Demosthenes, that the light vessels could not be kept in commission, +even if the utmost attention was paid to economy, and no extraordinary +damage befel them, for a smaller sum than about 8000_l_. annually; of +course, such vessels as from their size, strength, and manning, were +capable of standing the brunt of an engagement, must have cost more than +double that sum. + +In the time of Demosthenes, the trade of Athens seems to have been carried +on with considerable spirit and activity; the greater part of the money of +the Athenians having been employed in it. From one of his orations we +learn, that in the contract executed when money was lent for this purpose, +the period when the vessel was to sail, the nature and value of the goods +with which she was loaded, the port to which she was to carry them, the +manner in which they were to be sold there, and the goods with which she +was to return to Athens, were all specifically and formally noticed. In +other particulars the contracts varied: the money, lent was either not to +be repaid till the return of the vessel, or it was to be repaid as soon as +the outward goods were sold at the place to which she was bound, either to +the agent of the lender, or to himself, he going there for that express +purpose. The interest of money so lent varied: sometimes it rose as high as +30 per cent: it seems to have depended principally on the risks of the +voyage. + +In another oration of Demosthenes we discover glimpses of what by many has +been deemed maritime insurance, or rather of the fraud at present called +barratry, which is practised to defraud the insurer: but, as Park in his +learned Treatise on Marine Insurance has satisfactorily proved, the +ancients were certainly ignorant of maritime insurance; though there can be +no doubt frauds similar to those practised at present were practised. +According to Demosthenes, masters of vessels were in the habit of borrowing +considerable sums, which they professed to invest in a cargo of value, but +instead of such a cargo, they took on board sand and stones, and when out +at sea, sunk the vessel. As the money was lent on the security either of +the cargo or ship, or both, of course the creditors were defrauded: but it +does not appear how they could, without detection, substitute sand or +stones for the cargo. + +The Athenians passed a number of laws respecting commerce, mostly of a +prohibitory nature. Money could not be advanced or lent on any vessel, or +the cargo of any vessel, that did not return to Athens, and discharge its +cargo there. The exportation of various articles, which were deemed of the +first necessity, was expressly forbidden: such as timber for building, fir, +cypress, plane, and other trees, which grew in the neighbourhood of the +city; the rosin collected on Mount Parnes, the wax of Mount Hymettus--which +two articles, incorporated together, or perhaps singly, were used for +daubing over, or caulking their ships. The exportation of corn, of which +Attica produced very little, was also forbidden; and what was brought from +abroad was not permitted to be sold any where except in Athens. By the laws +of Solon, they were allowed to exchange oil for foreign commodities. There +were besides a great number of laws respecting captains of ships, +merchants, duties, interest of money, and different kinds of contracts. One +law was specially favourable to merchants and all engaged in trade; by it a +heavy fine, or, in some cases, imprisonment, was inflicted on whoever +accused a merchant or trader of any crime he could not substantiate. In +order still farther to protect commerce, and to prevent it from suffering +by litigation, all causes which respected it could be heard only during the +period when vessels were in port. This period extended generally to six +months--from April to September inclusive--no ships being at sea during the +other portion of the year. + +The taxes of the Athenians, so far as they affected commerce, consisted of +a fifth, levied on the corn and other merchandize imported, and also on +several articles which were exported from Athens. These duties were +generally farmed. In an oration of Andocides, we learn that he had farmed +the duty on foreign goods imported for a term of three years, at twelve +talents annually. In consequence of these duties, smuggling was not +uncommon. The inhabitants of the district called Corydale were celebrated +for illicit traffic: there was a small bay in this district, a little to +the north of Piræus, called. Thieves' Harbour, in which an extensive and +lucrative and contraband trade was carried on; ships of different nations +were engaged in it. Demosthenes informs us, that though this place was +within the boundaries of Attica, yet the Athenians had not the legal power +to put a stop to traffic by which they were greatly injured, as the +inhabitants of Corydale, as well as the inhabitants of every other state, +however small, were sovereigns within their own territory. + +In an oration of Isocrates an operation is described which bears some +resemblance to that performed by modern bills of exchange. A stranger who +brought grain to Athens, and who, we may suppose, wished to purchase goods +to a greater amount than the sale of his grain would produce, drew on a +person living in some town on the Euxine, to which the Athenians were in +the habit of trading. The Athenian merchant took this draft; but not till a +banker in Athens had become responsible for its due payment. + +The Athenian merchants were obliged, from the nature of trade in those +ancient times, to be constantly travelling from one spot to another; either +to visit celebrated fairs, or places where they hoped to carry on an +advantageous speculation. We shall afterwards notice more particularly the +Macedonian merchant mentioned by Ptolemy the Geographer, who sent his +clerks to the very borders of China; and from other authorities we learn +that the Greek merchants were accurately informed respecting the interior +parts of Germany, and the course of most of the principal rivers in that +country. The trade in aromatics, paints, cosmetics, &c., was chiefly +possessed by the Athenians, who had large and numerous markets in Athens +for the sale of these articles. Even in the time of Hippocrates, some of +the spices of India were common in the Peloponnesus and Attica; and there +is every reason to believe that most of these articles were introduced into +Greece in consequence of the journeys of their merchants to some places of +depôt, to which they were brought from the East. + +We have already mentioned that the importation of corn into a country so +unfertile as Attica, was a subject of the greatest moment, and to which the +care and laws of the republic were most particularly directed. There were +magistrates, whose sole business and duty it was to lay in corn for the use +of the city; and other magistrates who regulated its price, and fixed also +the assize of bread. In the Piræus there were officers, the chief part of +whose duty it was to take care that two parts at least of all the corn +brought into the port should be carried to the city. Lysias, in his oration +against the corn merchants, gives a curious account of the means employed, +by them to raise its price, very similar to the rumours by which the same +effect is often produced at present: an embargo, or prohibition of +exporting it, by foreigners, an approaching war, or the capture or loss of +the vessels laden with it, seem to have been the most prevalent rumours. +Sicily, Egypt, and the Crimea were the countries which principally supplied +Attica with this necessary article. As the voyage from Sicily was the +shortest, as well as exposed to the least danger, the arrival of vessels +with corn from this island always reduced the price; but there does not +appear to have been nearly such quantities brought either from it or Egypt, +as from the Crimea. The Athenians, therefore, encouraged by every possible +means their commerce with the Cimmerian Bosphorus. One of the kings of that +country, Leucon II., who reigned about the time of Demosthenes, favoured +them very much. As the harbours were unsafe and inconvenient, he formed a +new one, called Theodosia, or, in the language of the country, Ardauda: he +likewise exempted their vessels from paying the duty on corn, to which all +other vessels were subject on exporting it--this duty amounted to a +thirtieth part,--and allowed their merchants a free trade to all parts of +his kingdom. In return, the Athenians made him and his children citizens of +Athens, and granted to such of his subjects as traded in Attica the same +privileges and exemptions which their citizens enjoyed in Bosphorus. It was +one of the charges against Demosthenes, by his rival, the orator Dinarchus, +that the sons and successors of Leucon sent yearly to him a thousand +bushels of wheat. Besides the new port of Theodosia, the Athenians traded +also to Panticapæum for corn: the quantity they exported is stated by +Demosthenes to have amounted to 400,000 mediniri, or bushels, yearly, as +appeared from the custom books; and this was by far the greatest quantity +of corn they received from foreign countries. Lucian, indeed, informs us +that a ship, which, from his description, must have been about the size of +our third-rates, contained as much corn as maintained all Attica for a +twelvemonth; but, in the time of this author, Athens was not nearly so +populous as it had been: and besides, as is justly remarked by Hume, it is +not safe to trust to such loose rhetorical illustrations. + +From a passage in Thucydides we may learn that the Athenians derived part +of their supply of corn from Euboea; this passage is also curious as +exhibiting a surprising instance of the imperfection of ancient navigation. +Among the inconveniences experienced by the Athenians, from the fortifying +of Dacelia by the Lacedemonians, this historian particularly mentions, as +one of the most considerable, that they could not bring over their corn +from Euboea by land, passing by Oropus, but were under the necessity of +embarking it, and sailing round Cape Sunium; and yet the water carriage +could not be more than double the land carriage. + +The articles imported by the Athenians from the Euxine Sea, besides corn, +were timber for building, slaves, salt, honey, wax, wool, leather, and +goat-skins; from Byzantium and other ports of Thrace and Macedonia, salt +fish and timber; from Phrygia and Miletus, carpets, coverlets for beds, and +the fine wool, of which their cloths were made; from the islands of Egean +Sea, wine and different fruits; and from Thrace, Thessaly, Phrygia, &c., a +great number of slaves. + +The traffic in slaves was, next to that in corn, of the greatest +consequence to the Athenians, for the citizens were not in sufficient +numbers, and, if they had been, were not by any means disposed, to +cultivate the land, work the mines, and carry on the various trades and +manufactures. The number of slaves in Attica, during the most flourishing +period of the republic, was estimated at 400,000: of these the greater part +had been imported; the rest were natives of Greece, whom the fate of arms +had thrown into the hands of a conqueror irritated by too obstinate a +resistance. The slaves most esteemed, and which brought the highest price, +were imported from Syria and Thrace, the male slaves of the former country, +and the females of the latter: the slaves from Macedonia were the least +valued. The price of a slave seems to have been extremely low, as Xenophon +mentions that some were sold at Athens for half an Attic mina, or rather +more than thirty shillings: those, however, who had acquired a trade, or +were otherwise particularly useful, were valued at five minæ, or about +fifteen pounds. + +Our idea of the commerce of Athens, and of Greece in general, would be very +imperfect and inadequate if we neglected to notice their fairs. It has been +ingeniously supposed, that at the celebrated games of Greece, such as those +of Olympia, &c., trade was no subordinate object; and this idea is +certainly confirmed by various passages in ancient authors. Cicero +expressly informs us, that even so early as the age of Pythagoras, a great +number of people attended the religious games for the express purpose of +trading. At Delphi, Nemæa, Delos, or the Isthmus of Corinth, a fair was +held almost every year. The amphyctionic fairs were held twice a year. In +the time of Chrysostom, these lairs were infamously distinguished for a +traffic in slaves, destined for public incontinence. The amphyctionic +spring fair was held at Delphi, and at Thermopylæ in the autumn; in fact, +at the same times that the deputies from the states of Greece formed the +amphyctionic council;--another proof that wherever large assemblies of +people took place in Greece, for religious or political purposes, advantage +was taken of them to carry on traffic. At the fairs of Thermopylæ medicinal +herbs and roots, especially hellebore, were sold in large quantities. One +principal reason why the religious games or political assemblies of the +states were fixed upon to hold fairs was, that during them all hostilities +were suspended; and every person might go with his merchandize in safety to +them, even through an enemy's country. The priests, so far from regarding +these fairs as a profanation of the religions ceremonies, encouraged them; +and the priests of Jupiter, in particular, advanced large sums on interest +to such merchants as had good credit, but had not sufficient money with +them. + +The island of Delos calls for our particular attention, as the grand mart +of the Athenians, as well as of the rest of Greece, and of the other +countries in the Mediterranean, which at this period were engaged in +commerce. The peace of this island always remained undisturbed, from an +opinion that it was under the special protection of Apollo and Diana; and +when the fleets of enemies met there, out of respect to the sacredness of +the place, they forbore all manner of hostilities. There were also other +circumstances which contributed to render it a place of great importance to +commerce: its commodious situation for the navigation from Europe into +Asia; its festivals, which brought immense crowds to it (and as we have +just observed, wherever a multitude of Greeks were collected, by +superstitious rites or amusements, commerce was mingled with their duties +and pursuits); and the bias which its original, or at least its very early +inhabitants, had to commerce: all these combined to render it a place of +great importance to commerce. Its trade consisted chiefly in slaves: +according to Strabo, in the time of Perseus, king of Macedonia, above +10,000 slaves came in and went out daily. The corn, wine, and other +commodities of the neighbouring islands; the scarlet linen tunics, +manufactured in the island of Amorgos; the rich purple stuffs of Cos; the +highly esteemed alum of Melos, and the valuable copper, which the mines, of +Delos itself (that had been long worked,) and the elegant vases, +manufactured from this copper,--were the principal commodities exported +from Delos. In return and exchange, foreign merchants brought the produce +and manufactures of their respective countries; so that the island became, +as it were, the storehouse of the treasures of nations; and the scene, +during this mixture of religious festivals and commercial enterprise, was +peculiarly gay and animated. The inhabitants were, by an express law, which +is noticed by Athenæus, obliged to furnish water to all the strangers who +resorted thither; to which, it would appear, they added, either +gratuitously, or for a small remuneration, cakes and other trifling +eatables. + +The Athenians were so anxious to protect and extend the commerce carried on +in Delos, that they gave encouragement to such strangers to settle there as +were conversant in commerce, as well as strictly guarded its neutrality and +privileges. On the destruction of Tyre, and afterwards of Carthage, events +which gave a new direction to the commerce of the Mediterranean, a great +number of merchants from these cities fled to Delos, where they were taken +under the protection of the Athenians; and it appears by an inscription +found in the 17th century, that the Tyrians formed a company of merchants +and navigators there. The Romans traded to it, even before their war with +Philip, king of Macedon. After the restoration of Corinth, the Athenians +used all their efforts to keep up the commerce of Delos; but the wars of +Mithridates put an end to it; and in a very short period afterwards, it +seems to have been entirely abandoned by the merchants of all nations, and, +as a commercial place, to have fallen into utter neglect and decay. + +Corinth, next to Athens, demands our notice, as one of the most commercial +cities of Greece. The Corinthian dominions were extremely small, their +extent from east to west being about half a degree, and from north to south +about half that space: according to the geographer Scylax, a vessel might +sail from one extremity to the other in a day. It had no rivers of any +note, and few rich plains, being in general uneven, and but moderately +fertile. The situation of Corinth itself, however, amply compensated for +all these disadvantages: it was built on the middle of the isthmus of the +same name, at the distance of about 60 stadia on either side from the sea; +on one side was the Saronic Gulf, on the other the sea of Crissa. On the +former was the port of Lechæum, which was joined to the city by a double +wall, 12 stadia in length; on the latter sea, was the port of Cinchræa, +distant from Corinth 70 stadia. There was, besides, the port and castle of +Cromyon, about 120 stadia distant from the capital. Hence, it will appear +that Corinth commanded the trade of all the eastern part of the +Mediterranean by the port of Cinchræa; and of the Ionian sea, by that of +Lechæum. But the Corinthians possessed other advantages; for their citadel +was almost impregnable, commanded from its situation both these seas, and +stood exactly in the way of communication by land between one part of +Greece and the other. The other states, however, would not permit the +Corinthians to interdict them the passage of the Isthmus; but they could +not prevent them from taking advantage of their situation, by carrying on +an extensive and lucrative commerce. The Isthmian games, which were +celebrated at Corinth, also contributed very much to its splendour and +opulence, and drew additional crowds to it, who, as usual, mingled commerce +with religion. According to Thucydides, Corinth had been a city of great +traffic, even when the Greeks confined their trade to land: at this period, +the Corinthians imposed a transit duty on all commodities, which entered or +left the Peloponnessus by the Isthmus. But the extended knowledge and +enterprise of the Greeks, and, above all, the destruction of the pirates +which infested the narrow seas, led them to prefer sea carriage part of the +way. The reason why they did not transport their goods the whole passage by +sea, may be found in their ignorance and fears: their inexperienced +mariners and frail ships could not succeed in doubling Cape Malea in +Laconia; off which, and between it and Crete, the sea was frequently very +boisterous. Hence, the merchants were under the necessity of transporting, +by land carriage, their goods to the seas which formed the Isthmus. Such as +came from Italy, Sicily, and the countries to the west, were landed at +Lechæum; while the merchandize from Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and the islands +in the Egean Sea, were landed at the port of Cinchræa. The breadth of the +Isthmus was so small that the goods were easily and quickly conveyed from +one harbour to the other; and afterwards the Corinthians succeeded in +transporting the ships themselves. + +At first it would appear that the Corinthians contented themselves with the +wealth derived from their city being the great mart of commerce, and from +the duties which they imposed: but they soon began to engage very +extensively and with great spirit in trade themselves. Several kinds of +manufactures were encouraged, which were highly valued by foreign nations, +especially coverlets for beds, and brass and earthen-ware vessels. But +their most valuable manufacture consisted in a metal compounded of copper +and a small quantity of gold and silver, which was extremely brilliant, and +scarcely liable to rust or decay. From this metal they made helmets, &c., +little figures, cups, vessels, &c., which were highly esteemed, not only on +account of the metal of which they were formed, but still more on account +of the tasteful foliage and other ornaments with which they were covered. +Their earthen-ware was ornamented in the same beautiful and tasteful +manner. + +All these were exported by the Corinthians in great quantities, and formed +very lucrative articles of trade. Paper and sailcloth from Egypt; ivory +from Lybia; leather from Cyrene; incense from Syria; dates from Phoenicia; +carpets from Carthage; corn and cheese from Sicily; apples and pears from +Euboea;--filled the warehouses of Corinth. + +As soon as Corinth resolved to participate in maritime commerce, she +applied herself to this object with great industry and success: she built +ships of a novel form, and first produced galleys with three benches of +oars; and history assures us that the Greeks obtained their first maritime +experience during the naval war between the Corinthians and the inhabitants +of Corfu; and by their instruction the Samians put to sea those powerful +fleets for which they were distinguished. + +Besides Athens and Corinth, there were no states in ancient Greece, the +consideration of whose maritime and commercial affairs will detain us long. +Lacedæmonia was favourably situated in these respects; but either her laws, +or the disposition and pursuits of her inhabitants, prevented her from +taking advantage of her situation. All the south part of Laconia was +encompassed by the sea, and on the east and north-east was the Argelic Bay: +on its coasts were a great number of capes, the most celebrated of which +were those of Malea and Tanara; they were also furnished with a great +number of sea-port towns and commodious harbours. In consequence of the +capes extending far into the sea, and the deepness of some of the bays, the +ancients took three days to navigate the length of the coast in vessels +wrought by oars, following, as they generally did, all the windings of the +land. The little river Pameros, which divided Beotia from Laconia, formed +one extremity, and the port of Prais, on the Gulf of Argelis, formed the +other. The most difficult and dangerous part of this navigation consisted +in doubling Cape Malea. + +The most convenient and frequented sea-ports in Laconia were Trinassus and +Acria, situated on each side the mouth of the Eurotas; and Gythium, not far +from Trinassus, at the mouth of a small river on the Laconic Gulf. The +mouth of this river, which was navigable up to Sparta, was defended by a +citadel, the ruins of which were remaining in the time of Pausanias. As the +Lacedæmonians regarded this town as their principal port, in which their +naval forces, as well as the greater part of their merchant ships +assembled, they employed considerable labour and expence in rendering it +commodious and safe; for this purpose they dug a very spacious basin which, +on one side was defended by motes, and on the other by numerous +fortifications: the strength of these may be judged of from the +circumstance, that even after the armies of Sparta had been utterly +defeated by Epaminondas, and Philip, the son of Demetrius, neither of these +conquerors could capture this sea-port. In it were deposited all the +requisites for their naval force, and from it sailed their merchant ships +with cargoes to Crete, Africa, and Egypt; to all of which countries, +according to Thucydides, the Lacedæmonians carried on a lucrative and +regular traffic. Another of their sea-ports was Epidaurus, situated on the +Gulf of Argos, in the eastern part of Laconia. The country round it +contained many vineyards, the wine of which was exported in considerable +quantities, and supplied other parts of Greece. This district is still +celebrated for its wine, called Malvasia, (or Malmsey,) a corruption from +Maleates, the ancient name of this part of Laconia. + +We have already alluded to the supposed aversion of the Spartans to +maritime affairs, which, according to some authors, arose from Lycurgus +having prohibited them from building vessels, or employing sailors; but +this idea is unfounded, and seems to have arisen from the fact, that their +kings were prevented, by a positive law, from commanding the fleets. That +the Spartans engaged in commerce, we have, as has been just stated, the +express testimony of Thucydides; and there is abundant evidence that they +had always armed vessels during their wars; and even so early as the time +of Croesus, they sent some troops to Satnos, and plundered that island: and +in later times, they used such efforts to equip vessels, in order to gain +the mastery of the seas, that, according to Xenophon, they entirely +neglected their cavalry. They were stimulated to this line of conduct by +Alcibiades, who advised the kings, ephori, and the nation at large, to +augment their marine, to compel the ships of all other nations to lower +their flag to theirs, and to proclaim themselves exclusive masters of the +Grecian seas. Isocrates informs us, that, before Alcibiades came to +Lacedaemon, the Spartans, though they had a navy, expended little on it; +but afterwards they increased it almost daily. The signal defeat they +sustained at the battle of Cnidus, where Conon destroyed their whole fleet, +not only blasted their hopes of becoming masters of the seas, but, +according to Isocrates, led to their defeat at the battle of Leuctra. + +Off the coast of Laconia, and about forty stadia from Cape Malea, lies the +island of Cythera; the strait between it and the mainland was deemed by the +ancients extremely dangerous in stormy weather; and indeed its narrowness, +and the rocks that lay off Cape Malea must, to such inexperianced +navigators, have been very alarming. The Phoenicians are supposed to have +had a settlement in this island: afterwards it became an object of great +consequence to the Lacedaemonians, who fortified, at great expence, and +with much labour and skill, its two harbours, Cythera and Scandea. The +convenience of these harbours to the Lacedaemonians compensated for the +sterility of the island, which was so great that when the Athenians +conquered it, they could raise from it only four Attic talents annually. +The chief employment and source of wealth to the inhabitants consisted in +collecting a species of shell-fish, from which an inferior kind of Tyrian +dye was extracted. There were several fisheries on the mainland of Laconia +for the same purpose. + +Some of the other Greek islands require a short and general notice, on +account of the attention they paid to maritime affairs. Corcyra was +inhabited by skilful mariners, who, in the time of Herodotus, possessed a +greater number of ships than any other people in Greece, with the exception +of the Athenians; and, according to Thucydides, at one period they were +masters of the Mediterranean Sea. On the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, they +fitted out a fleet of sixty ships, with which they promised to assist their +countrymen; but, instead of this, their ships anchored in a place where +they could see the result of the battle of Salamis, and when they +ascertained that the Greeks were victorious, they pretended that they had +been prevented from affording the promised succours by contrary winds, so +that they could not double Cape Malea. Of the commerce of this island we +have no particulars detailed by ancient writers. + +Egina, in the Saronic Gulf, acquired great wealth from the cultivation of +commerce: in the time of the Persian war, they equipped a very powerful and +well-manned fleet for the defence of Greece; and at the battle of Salamis +they were adjudged to have deserved the prize of valour. According to +Elian, they were the first people who coined money. + +The island of Euboea possessed excellent harbours, from which, as it was +very fertile, the Athenians exported large quantities of corn. This island +is divided from the mainland of Greece by the Euripus, which the ancients +represented to be so extremely narrow, that a galley could scarcely pass +through it: its frequent and irregular tides were, also the subject of +their wonder, and the cause of them, of their fruitless researches and +conjectures. It hits several promontories, the doubling of one of which, +Cape Catharius, was reckoned by the ancients very dangerous, on account of +the many rocks and whirlpools on the const. Of all the cities of Euboea, +Chalcis was the most famous: its inhabitants applied themselves, at a very +early period, to navigation, and sent numerous colonies to Thrace, Macedon, +Italy, &c. In the vicinity of another of its towns, Carystus, there were +quarries of very fine marble, the exportation of which seems to have been a +lucrative trade: in the same part of the island also was found the +asbestos. Euboea possessed several rich copper and iron mines; and as the +inhabitants were very skilful in working these metals, the exportation of +armour, and various vessels made from them, was also one important branch +of their commerce. + +Of the numerous colonies sent out by the Greeks, we shall notice only those +which were established for the purposes of commerce, or which, though not +established for this express purpose, became afterwards celebrated for it. +None of the Athenian colonies, which they established expressly for the +purpose of trading with the capital, was of such importance as Amphipolis. +This place was situated at the mouth of the river Strymon, on the borders +of Macedonia. The country in its vicinity was very fertile in wood, and +from it, for a considerable length of time, the Athenians principally +derived timber for building their fleets: they also levied on its +inhabitants a heavy tribute in silver coin. As this city was well situated +for commerce, and the Athenians, wherever they went, or were settled, were +eager in pursuit of gain, their colonists in Amphipolis extended their +trade, on one side into Thrace, and on the other into Macedonia. They were +enabled, in a great measure, to monopolize the commerce of both these +countries, at least those parts of them which were contiguous, from the +situation of their city on the Strymon; of which river they held, as it +were, the key, so that nothing could depart from it without their consent. +The ancients represent this river as frequently exhibiting immense logs of +wood floating down it, which had been felled either on Mount Rhodope, or in +the forests of Mount Hemus. The Athenians retained this important and +valuable colony till the time of Philip, the father of Alexander, by whom +it was taken from them. + +The island of Samos may justly be regarded as a Grecian colony; having been +chiefly inhabited by the Iones, to whose confederacy it belonged. Its +situation between the mainland of Asia and the island of Icaria, from both +of which it is separated by very narrow straits, which were the usual +course for the ancient vessels in their voyage from the Black Sea to Syria +and Egypt, rendered it the resort of pirates, as well as celebrated for its +ships and commerce. The city of Samos, as described by the ancients, seems +to have been a place of great consequence. Herodotus mentions three things +for which it was remarkable in his time; one of which was a mole or pier, +120 feet long, which formed the harbour, and was carried two furlongs into +the sea. The principal design of this mole was to protect ships from the +south wind, to which they would otherwise have been much exposed. Hence it +would appear, that even at this early period, they had made great advances +in commerce, otherwise they would neither have had the disposition or +ability to build such a mole. But we have the express testimony of +Thucydides, that even at a much earlier period,--nearly 300 years before +the Peloponnesian war,--the Samians gave great encouragement to +shipbuilding, and employed Aminodes, the Corinthian, who was esteemed the +most skilful ship-builder of his time; and Herodotus speaks of them as +trading to Egypt, Spain, &c., before any of the other Greeks, except +Sostrates, of Egina, were acquainted with those countries. The same author +informs us, that the Samians had a settlement in Upper Egypt, and that one +of their merchant ships, on its passage thither, was driven by contrary +winds, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, to the island of Tartessus, which +till then was unknown to the Greeks. This island abounded in gold; of the +value of which, the inhabitants were so utterly ignorant, that they readily +allowed the Samians to carry home with them sixty talents, or about +13,500_l_. According to Pliny, they first built vessels fit to transport +cavalry. We are not informed of what articles their exports and imports +consisted, except that their earthen-ware was in great repute among the +ancients, in their most splendid entertainments, and was exported in great +quantities for this purpose. The Samian earth, from which these vessels +were made, was itself also exported, on account of its medicinal +properties. It is well known that the victory obtained by the Greeks over +the Persians, at the sea-fight of Mycale, was chiefly owing to the Samians. + +The commerce of the Black Sea was of so much importance and value to the +Greeks, that we cannot be surprised that they founded several colonies on +its shores, and in the adjacent countries. Heraclea, in this sea, is said +to have been founded by the Beotians: the inhabitants availed themselves of +their situation to engage very extensively in maritime affairs and in +commerce, so that in a short time they were not inferior in wealth or power +to any of the Greek states in Asia. When Xenophon was obliged to retreat +after his expedition into Asia Minor, the Heracleans supplied him with +ships, to transport his army into Greece. Their maritime strength and +skill, or their commercial pursuits, involved them in almost every maritime +war, their friendship and support being sought after by all the Asiatic +princes. When the war broke out between Ptolemy and Antigonus, they sent to +the assistance of the former a numerous fleet, all of which were well +equipped and manned. Some were of an extraordinary size, especially one, +which had on each side 800 oars, besides 1200 fighting men. + +Trapezus was a Greek city, in Pontus, situated on a peninsula, in the Black +Sea, where it begins to turn to the east: it had a large and convenient +port, and carried on a considerable trade. But the most celebrated of the +Grecian colonies in this part of the world, was Byzantium: it was anciently +founded by the Megareans, and successively rebuilt by the Milesians and +other nations of Greece. Its harbour, which was in fact an arm of the +Bosphorus, obtained, at a very remote period, the appellation of the Golden +Horn; most of the recesses, which were compared to the horn of a stag, are +now filled up. The epithet "golden" was given to it as expressive of the +riches, which (to use the language of Gibbon) every wind wafted from the +most distant countries into its secure and capacious port. Never was there +a happier or more majestic situation. The river Lycus, which was formed by +the junction of two small streams, pouring into the harbour, every tide, a +regular supply of fresh water, cleansed the bottom; while the tides in +those seas being very trifling, the constant depth of the harbour allowed +goods to be landed on the quay without the assistance of boats: and in some +parts, the depth near the shore was so considerable, that the prows of the +vessels touched the houses, while they were fully afloat. The distance from +the mouth of the river to that of the harbour, or the length of this arm of +the Bosphorus is seven miles; the entrance, about 500 yards broad, was +defended, when necessary, by a strong chain drawn across it. The city of +Byzantium was situated on a promontory, nearly of a triangular form; on the +point of the promontory stood the citadel. The walls of the city itself +were very strong, but not so lofty towards the sea as towards the land, +being on the former side defended by the waves, and in some places by the +rocks on which they were built, and which projected into the sea. + +Thus favoured by nature, and strengthened by art, and situated in a +territory abounding in grain and fruits, Byzantium was crowded with +merchants, and supported and enriched by an active and flourishing +commerce: its harbour, which was sheltered on every side from tempests, +besides being easy of access and capacious, attracted to it ships from all +the states of Greece, while its situation at the head of the strait +enabled, and seemed to authorize it to stop and subject to heavy duties, +the foreign merchants who traded to the Euxine, or to reduce the nations +who depended on the countries bordering on this sea for their supplies of +corn to great difficulties, and in some cases, even to famine. On these +accounts the Athenians and Lacedaemonians were generally rivals for its +alliance and friendship. Besides the necessary article of grain and +abundance of rich and valuable fruit, the Byzantines derived great wealth +from their fisheries: these were carried on with great spirit, enterprize, +and success. A surprising quantity of fish was caught in the harbour +itself, in autumn, when they left the Euxine for the Archipelago; and in +the spring, on their return to Pontus. A great many people were employed +both in this fishery, and in the curing of the fish: great sums were +derived from this source, as well as from the sale of salt provisions; for +the quality of which, Byzantium was in greater renown than even +Panticapeum. The only disadvantage under which the Byzantines laboured, to +counterbalance the excellence of their harbour, the fertility of their +soil, the productiveness of their fisheries, and the extent of their +commerce, arose from the frequent excursions of the Thracians, who +inhabited the neighbouring villages. + +There were many other Grecian colonies on the Bosphorus and the adjacent +seas. Panticapeum, built by the Milesians, according to Strabo, the capital +of the European Bosphorus, with which, as has been already mentioned, the +Athenians carried on a considerable trade. Theodosia, also mentioned +before, was likewise formed and colonized by the Milesians: its port could +contain 100 ships. Tanais, on the Cimmerian Bosphorus; Olbia and +Borysthenes, both situated near the mouth of the river from which the +latter took its name; Panagorea and Hermonassa on the Bosphorus, and +several others. Besides these colonies in this part of the world, the +Greeks founded others, for the express purposes of commerce; as Syracuse, +in Sicily; Marseilles, in Gaul, the mother of several colonies established +on the neighbouring coasts, and, as we shall afterwards notice, a place of +very considerable wealth, consequence, and strength, derived entirely from +commerce, as well as the seat of the arts and sciences; Cyrene, an opulent +city in Africa, and Naucratis, situated on one of the mouths of the Nile. +They likewise formed settlements in Rhodes and Crete, in the islands of the +Egean Sea, on the opposite coasts of Asia, &c.; most of which were of +importance to the mother country, from the facilities they offered to the +extension of its commerce. + +The war between the Romans, and Philip king of Macedon, which intervened +between the second and third Punic war, first afforded the former an +opportunity and an excuse for interfering in the affairs of Greece. Till +the time of Philip, the father of Alexander, Macedonia does not appear to +have had any connexion with the rest of this celebrated portion of the +ancient world; the Greeks, indeed, regarded its inhabitants as savages; but +from that period, Macedonia became the most important and influential state +in Greece. Its boundaries varied at different periods of its history: it +seems originally to have been bounded on the east by the Egean Sea; on the +south by Thessaly and Epirus; on the west by the Ionian Sea; and on the +north by the river Strymon, at the mouth of which, as has been already +mentioned, the Athenians founded one of their most flourishing and useful +colonies. The princes of Macedonia viewed with jealousy, but for a long +time were unable to prevent the states of Greece from forming colonies in +the immediate vicinity of their dominions: their union, however, with the +king of Persia, when he first fixed his ambition on Greece, was rewarded by +a great accession of territory, which enabled them to contest the +possession of the sea-coasts with the most powerful of the Greek republics. +They then extended their territories to the Eastern Sea, but there were +till the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander, several nations between +them and the Adriatic, all of which were subdued by him; and thus this sea +became their western boundary. + +Some of the most celebrated cities of Macedonia were founded by foreign +nations. Epidamnus, which was seated at the entrance of the Ionian Gulf, +was a colony of the Corcyrians: it was the occasion of a fierce naval war +between them and the Corinthians, generally called the Corinthian war. +Apollonia, distant seven miles from the sea, on the river Laus, was a +Corinthian colony: it was renowned for its excellent laws. On another part +of the coast of the Adriatic were the sea-ports of Elyma and Bullis. The +district of Paraxis, which was full of gulfs and inlets formed by the Egean +Sea, had several ports, but none of any repute. From this description of +Macedonia and its principal sea coasts and ports, it is evident that it +possessed many advantages for commerce and naval affairs, which, however, +were never embraced till the period when the Romans first turned their +thoughts to Greece. Had its sovereigns been disposed to engage in commerce, +the Adriatic, with its extensive and safe haven of Epidamnus, in which +there were several ports, would have opened the trade to Italy; the Egean +Sea, still more advantageous, would have secured the trade of Greece and +Asia, by means of its spacious bays, one of which, the Sinus Thermæus, was +at least sixty miles long. + +The produce of Macedonia also would have favoured its commerce; the soil +was every where fruitful, and, especially near the sea, abounding in corn, +wine, and oil: its principal riches, however, consisted in its mines of +almost all kinds of metals, but particularly of gold. In the district of +Pieria, it is said, there were found large quantities of this metal in the +sand, sometimes in lumps of considerable size: but by far the most +productive and valuable mines of gold were in the mountain Pangæus, in a +district which Philip, the father of Alexander, added to Macedonia. The +people who inhabited the country near the river Strymon derived great +wealth from these mines, and it was the knowledge of this, as much as the +facility of obtaining timber, which induced the Athenians to found their +colony near this river. The Thracians drove the Athenians from this part of +Macedonia, and Philip expelled them: he paid great attention to the working +of the mines; and by employing persons well skilled in this and in refining +the ore, he rendered them so extremely valuable, that, according to ancient +authors, he obtained the empire of Greece principally by means of the +immense sums he drew from them, amounting annually, according to Diodorus, +to 1000 talents of gold. When the Romans reduced Macedonia, they expressly +forbade the inhabitants from working the mines of gold or silver, or +refining either of those metals; permitting them, however, to manufacture +any other metal. + +The princes of Macedonia previous to Philip, the father of Alexander, +notwithstanding the great advantage for maritime affairs and commerce +afforded by the sea-coasts, bays, harbours, &c., neither practised nor +understood them: this arose in a great measure from their being continually +engaged in wars, or having their ports occupied or blocked up by the +maritime states of Greece. Philip was the first who freed his country from +these evils and inconveniences; but his thoughts were too intently and +constantly fixed on other objects to allow him to turn his attention to +maritime affairs or commerce. Alexander, as we have already seen, bestowed +much care on his fleet, while engaged in the conquest of Asia; and when he +died at Babylon, had formed the design of placing his fleets, in every port +of his dominions, on a regular and extensive scale. But the advantages of +Macedonia for commerce were neglected in the midst of his vast plans +elsewhere, and the Macedonians, at the period of his death, were still +inattentive to maritime affairs. + +Philip, the antagonist of the Romans, of whose power and success he was not +only jealous but apprehensive, as soon as he resolved to engage in +hostilities with them, applied himself to maritime affairs. His +determination seems to have been fixed when he learnt that the Romans had +been defeated at the Lake of Thrasymenus: he instantly formed the plan of +invading Illyrium, and then crossing over to Italy. But the latter step +could not be taken, nor, indeed, could he expect to cope with the Romans, +till he had formed a fleet, and trained his subjects to the management of +it. At this period the Macedonians seem to have had some merchant ships; +for we are informed that a petty king of Illyria seized some of them in the +port of Leucas, and also all that his squadron met with on the coast of +Greece, as far as Malea. This insult and attack afforded Philip an +excellent reason for declaring war against Illyricum: he began by +exercising the Macedonians in the art of navigation; he built ships after +the Illyrian manner, and he was the first king of Macedonia that put to +sea 100 small vessels at one time. + +He was urged still more strongly to go on with his plan of invading Italy, +when he learnt the result of the battle of Cannæ; he immediately formed an +alliance with Hannibal, and engaged to invade Italy with 200 sail of ships, +and plunder its eastern coasts: in return for this service he was to retain +all the islands in the Adriatic, lying near the coast of Macedonia, that he +might subdue. + +His first naval enterprize was the siege of Oricum on the coast of Epirus, +and of Apollonia on the coast of Macedonia, both of which he carried on at +the same time, with 120 ships of two banks of oars. He was, however, +successfully opposed by the Roman consul Laevinus, who obliged him to burn +great part of his fleet, and raise the siege of Doth the places. + +About twelve years afterwards, or about 200 years before Christ, Philip +engaged in a maritime war with Attalus, king of Pergamus, and the Rhodians, +near the isle of Chio: the fleet of Philip consisted of fifty-three decked +vessels and 150 gallies; besides these he had several ships called pristis, +from the figure of a large fish which was affixed to, or engraved on their +bows, either to distinguish them, or as a mark of their swift sailing. The +fleet of his opponents consisted of sixty-five covered ships, besides those +of their allies, the people of Byzantium. + +Notwithstanding, however, the exertions he made to acquire a naval force +equal to that of the Romans, and the experience which his subjects +gradually obtained in maritime affairs, he was not able to sustain their +attacks, either by land or sea, but was compelled in a very few years to +sue for peace. This he obtained, on the condition, that he should deliver +up to the Romans all his covered gallies, and reserve to himself only a few +smaller vessels: he was permitted, however, to retain one galley of sixteen +banks of oars, a vessel rather for shew than use. + +The success of the Romans, the extent of their conquests, and the ambitious +views, which seemed wider and wider in proportion to their successes, +alarmed Antiochus, king of Syria, who, not intimidated by the fate of +Philip, resolved to declare war against them. They were never averse to +engage in hostilities. The fleet of Antiochus consisted of 100 ships; that +of the Romans was nearly equal in number; the ships of Antiochus, however, +were inferior to those of his opponents in respect to strength and size, +though surpassing them in swiftness. The hostile fleets met and engaged on +the coast of Ionia; that of Antiochus was defeated, and would have been +utterly captured or destroyed, had it not been for the swiftness of the +vessels. In order to repair his loss, Antiochus sent for additional vessels +from Sicily and Phoenicia; but these were taken on their passage by the +Rhodians, who were at this time in alliance with the Romans. The Rhodians, +however, in their turn were attacked and defeated by the fleet of +Antiochus, near Samos, whither they had gone to join a Roman squadron. + +In the meantime the Romans had collected a fleet of eighty ships, and with +these they fought one hundred ships of their opponent off the coast of +Ionia; the victory of the former was decisive, all the ships of Antiochus +being captured or destroyed. This disaster, in connection with a signal +defeat he sustained by land, compelled him to submit; and the Romans, +always attentive to their maritime interests, which however they had not +hitherto pushed nearly to the extent which they might have done, refused to +grant him peace, except on the conditions, that he should cede all that +part of Asia which lies between the sea and Mount Taurus; that he should +give up all his vessels except ten; and that these should not, on any +account, sail beyond the promontories of Cilicia. The Romans, extremely +strict, and even severe, in enforcing the conditions of peace, not only +destroyed fifty covered galleys, but, the successor of Antiochus having +built additional vessels to the ten he was by treaty allowed to keep, they +compelled him to burn them. + +The temporary success of the Carthaginians against the Romans induced +Philip, king of Macedon, to engage in that war which proved his ruin. The +advice of Hannibal, when an exile at the court of Antiochus, likewise led +to the disastrous war of that monarch with the same people; and by the +advice of Hannibal also, Prusias, king of Bythinia, was engaged in +hostilities with them. This king seems to have paid considerable attention +to naval and commercial affairs, for both of which, indeed, his territories +were admirably suited. In conjunction with the Rhodians, he made war +against the inhabitants of Byzantium, and obliged them to remit the tax +which they had been accustomed to levy on all vessels that sailed to or +from the Euxine Sea, The maritime war between this sovereign and the +Romans, who were at this time in alliance with Eumenes, king of Pergamus, +offers nothing deserving our notice, except a stratagem executed by +Hannibal. In order to compensate for the inferiority of Prusias' fleet, +Hannibal ordered a great many serpents to be collected; these were put into +pots, which, during the engagement, were thrown into the enemy's ships. The +alarm and consternation occasioned by this novel and unexpected mode of +warfare, threw his opponents into disorder, and compelled them to save +themselves by flight. + +The conquest of all the islands on the coast of Greece, from Epirus to Cape +Malea, by the Romans, was the result of a naval war, in which they engaged +with the Etolians, a people who, at this time, were so powerful at sea, and +so much addicted to piracy, as to have drawn upon themselves the jealousy +and the vengeance of the Romans. This extension of their dominions was +followed by a successful war with the Istrians, which made them masters of +all the western parts of the Mediterranean Sea; and by an equally +successful war with Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, who was compelled to +deliver up his fleet to them, as well as all the sea-ports of consequence +on the coast of Sparta. + +The Rhodians hitherto had been generally in alliance with the Romans; but +differences arose between them during the war between the latter and +Perseus, king of Macedon. + +The island of Rhodes was remarkably well situated for maritime commerce; +and its inhabitants did not fail to reap all the advantages in this respect +which nature had so kindly bestowed on them. It appears from Homer, that in +his time there were three cities in the island; but during the +Peloponnesian war, the greater part of the inhabitants, having formed the +resolution to settle in one place, built the city of Rhodes, after the +designs of the same Athenian architect, who built the Piræus. This city was +situated on the east coast of the island, at the foot of a hill, in the +form of an amphitheatre: it possessed a very convenient and safe harbour, +at the entrance of which there were two rocks; and on these, which were +fifty feet asunder, the famous Colossus was placed. The arsenals of Rhodes +were filled with every thing requisite for the defence of the city, or the +equipment of a large fleet: its walls, which were extremely high, were +defended by towers: its houses were built of stone: in short, the whole +city presented a striking picture of wealth, magnificence, and beauty, for +which it was not less indebted to art and commerce than to nature. + +Before the era of the Olympiads, the Rhodians applied themselves to +maritime affairs: for many years they seem to have been masters of the +Mediterranean Sea; and their code of maritime laws became the standard with +all the maritime nations of antiquity, by which all controversies regarding +maritime affairs were regulated. There is great doubt among the learned, +whether what still exist as the fragments of these laws are genuine: we +know, however, that the Romans had a law which they called Lex Rhodia; +according to some, this contained the regulations of the Rhodians +concerning naval affairs; according to others, however, only one clause of +the law, _de jactu_, about throwing goods overboard in a storm, was +borrowed from the Rhodians. + +Besides the commerce in which they themselves were engaged, the constant +arrival of ships from Egypt to Greece, and from Greece to Egypt, the island +being situated exactly in the passage between these countries, contributed +much to their wealth. As this encreased, they formed settlements and +colonies in many places; at Parthenope and Salapia, in Italy; Agrigentum +and Geta, in Sicily; Rhodes, on the coast of Spain, near the foot of the +Pyrenees, &c. They were particularly celebrated for and attentive to the +construction of their vessels; aiming principally at lightness and speed, +the discipline observed on board of them, and the skill and ability of +their captains and pilots. All these things were under the direct +management and controul of magistrates, appointed for the express purpose, +who were excessively attentive and even rigid in the execution of their +duty. Whoever entered certain places in the arsenals without permission, +was punished with death. + +A few of the most remarkable events in the maritime history of Rhodes, +prior to their dispute with the Romans, call for some general and cursory +notice. Till the foundation of the city of Rhodes, which, as we have +already stated, took place during the Peleponnesian war, there is scarcely +any thing to attract our attention: a short time before this, the +republican form of government was established, and the trade and navigation +of the Rhodians seem to have acquired a fresh impulse and spirit. But their +enterprizes were soon checked by Artemisia, queen of Caria, gaining +possession of their city: this she effected by a stratagem. The Rhodians +invaded Caria with a design of gaining possession of Halicarnassus: by the +direction of the queen, the inhabitants made a signal that they +surrendered; the Rhodians suspecting no treachery, and delighted with their +apparent success, left their fleet to take possession of the town; in the +meantime, the queen brought her fleet from an adjoining creek, by means of +some canal or other inland communication, to the port where the Rhodian +vessels lay, and quietly took them. This disaster was the cause of another, +still more calamitous to the Rhodians; for Artemisia sailed with the +Rhodian ships to Rhodes, and the inhabitants, under the belief that their +fleet was returning victorious, permitted the enemy to land and to seize +the city. To what cause the Rhodions were indebted for the restoration of +their liberty and independence we are not informed; but it was owing, +either to the interference of the Athenians, or the death of Artemisia. + +From the period of these events, which occurred about 350 years before +Christ, till the reign of Alexander the Great, the Rhodians enjoyed +profound and uninterrupted tranquillity; their commerce extended, and their +wealth encreased. To this conqueror they offered no resistance, but of +their own accord surrendered their cities and harbours; as soon, however, +as they learnt that he was dead, they resumed their independence. About +this time the greater part of their city was destroyed by a dreadful +inundation, which would have swept the whole of it away, if the wall +between it and the sea had not been broken down by the force of the waters, +and thus given them free passage. This misfortune seems only to have +encouraged the inhabitants to attend still more closely and diligently to +commerce, which they carried on with so much industry and skill, and in +such a profitable manner, that they soon rebuilt their city, and repaired +all the losses they had sustained. Their alliance was courted by all their +neighbours; but they resolved to adhere to a strict neutrality, and thus, +while war raged among other nations, they were enabled to profit by that +very circumstance, and thus became one of the most opulent states of all +Asia. Their commerce, as well as that of all the states on the +Mediterranean, being much molested and injured by the pirates, they +undertook, of their own accord, and at their own expence, to root them out; +and in this they completely succeeded. + +But that commerce, on account of which they were so very anxious to keep at +peace, involved them in war. Their most lucrative trade was with Egypt. +When hostilities began between Ptolemy and Antigonus, the latter insisted +that they should join him; this they refused to do; upon which his fleet +blockaded Rhodes, to prevent their commerce with Egypt. The Rhodians were +thus compelled to act against him in their own defence, in order to free +their harbour. The raising of the blockade, and the defeat of his fleet, +incensed Antiochus; and to the remonstrances and entreaties of the Rhodians +to be permitted to remain at peace, he replied, "that they must declare war +against Ptolemy, admit his fleet into their harbour, and give hostages for +the performance of these articles." War now was inevitable, and great +preparations for it were made on both sides: the attack on the city was +committed by Antigonus to his son Demetrius; for this purpose he collected +a fleet of 200 ships of war, 170 transports with 40,000 men on board, and +1000 vessels laden with provisions, stores, warlike engines, etc. This +immense armament was composed partly of pirates and mercenaries, who were +induced to join Demetrius, by the hope of partaking in the plunder of +Rhodes. It is foreign to our purpose to enter on the details of this +memorable siege: the Rhodians trusted principally to their own valour and +resources; from Ptolemy, however, they received most ample and seasonable +supplies of provisions: at one time he sent them 300,000 measures of corn; +a few days afterwards Cassandra sent them 100,000 bushels of barley, and +Lysimachus 400,000 bushels of corn, and as many of barley: these supplies, +the valour of the inhabitants, and the ill success of some new and immense +engines, on which Demetrius had mainly depended, at length induced him to +raise the siege and make peace with the Rhodians. + +The Rhodians endeavoured to make up for the time they had lost, and the +money they had expended, during their war with Antiochus, by applying +themselves entirely to navigation and commerce; so that, according to +Polybius, they became masters of the sea, and the most opulent and +flourishing state of those times. The next war in which they were engaged +was occasioned entirely by their attention and regard to their commercial +interests. We have already slightly noticed this war; but in this place it +will be proper to go more into detail respecting it. The people of +Byzantium determined to lay a toll on all ships that traded to the Euxine, +in order to defray an annual tribute which they were obliged to pay to the +Greeks. As one of the most important and lucrative branches of the commerce +of Rhodes was to the countries lying on this sea, they were much aggrieved +by this toll, and endeavoured to persuade the Byzantines to take it off, +but in vain. Under these circumstances, they, in conjunction with Prusias, +king of Bythinia, declared war against the Byzantines; and while their ally +took Hieron, which seems to have been a great mart of the Byzantines, and +the resort of most of the merchants trading to these parts, the Rhodians, +with a powerful fleet, ravaged their coasts, and seized all their ships +trading to the Euxine. The war was at length terminated under the mediation +of the king of the Thracian Gauls; the Byzantines agreeing to take off the +toll. + +Their success in this war was counterbalanced by a dreadful earthquake, +which threw down the Colossus, destroyed the arsenal, and damaged part of +the walls and city. As the Rhodians, however, were much esteemed by most of +their neighbours, who found their prosperity intimately connected with the +prosperity of Rhodes, they soon recovered from these calamities and losses. +Hiero, king of Syracuse, gave them 100 talents, and exempted them from all +duties and taxes. Ptolemy gave them also the like sum, besides one million +measures of wheat, and timber, etc. requisite for building fifty ships. +Antiochus exempted all their vessels, which traded to his ports, from every +kind of tax and duty. They received from other princes presents or +privileges of equal importance and value; so that, in a very short time, +they recovered their former opulence and trade, and rebuilt their walls, +etc. + +Their alliance with Attalus, king of Pergamus, involved them in a war with +Philip king of Macedonia, and was the cause of their forming an alliance +with the Romans. In this war the Rhodian fleet, in conjunction with the +fleets of their allies, gained several victories over the fleet of Philip. +The latter was at length obliged to sue to the Romans for peace, and they, +in fixing the terms, included the Rhodians, to whom were ceded Stratonice, +and the greater part of Caria. In the meantime Antiochus and the Romans had +commenced hostilities, and the Rhodians were again involved in them: almost +at their very commencement, their fleet was surprized by a stratagem of +Antiochus's admiral, and of thirty ships of war of which it consisted, only +seven escaped. + +They soon, however, repaired their losses, and fitted out another fleet, +with which they put to sea, for the purpose of preventing the junction of +Hannibal with Antiochus's ships: the former had thirty-seven large ships; +the Rhodian fleet was nearly equal in numbers, but inferior in size. The +hostile fleets met off the coast of Pamphilia. The battle was obstinate: at +first, by an oversight of the Rhodian admiral, some disorder occurred in +part of his fleet; but this was soon repaired, and a decisive victory +obtained. Part of Hannibal's fleet was captured, and the rest blocked up in +the harbours of Pamphilia. The defeat of Antiochus, both at sea and land, +by the Romans, to which we have already adverted, obliged this monarch to +sue for peace, in which the Rhodians were included. + +We have now arrived at that period of the history of Rhodes when the first +difference arose between that city and the Romans: the latter suspected +that the Rhodians favoured Perseus king of Macedon, with whom they were at +war, and were moreover displeased at their presuming to interfere with them +in his favour. In order to watch their inclinations and motions, the senate +sent three commissioners to Rhodes: these found a fleet of forty galleys, +which there was reason to believe had been intended to act against the +Romans; but which, by the advice of the chief magistrate, were, on the +arrival of the commissioners, ordered to sea, to act in union with them. +Scarce, however, were the commissioners departed, when the Rhodians became +lukewarm in the cause of the Romans; and although they sent a few of their +galleys to join the Roman admiral, they kept the greatest number in port, +waiting the issue of the war between them and the king of Macedonia. As +soon as they heard of the defeat of the former in Thessaly, they entered +into negotiations with Perseus, and at the same time sent ambassadors to +Rome, who complained, that in consequence of the war between Perseus and +the Romans, the navigation and commerce of Rhodes was greatly injured, +their island deprived of provisions and other necessaries, and the customs +and duties which their maritime situation formerly afforded them kept back, +from their no longer being able to sail with safety along the coasts of +Asia, where they used to levy the most important and productive of them. + +After the defeat of Perseus, they ceased to remonstrate, and became +submissive to the Romans. It is probable, however, that the Romans would +have seized this opportunity of attacking them, had not Cato spoken very +strongly in their favour: in consequence of his arguments and influence, +and by the cession of Lycia and Caria, they were again admitted to an +alliance with the Romans. + +The advantages they derived from this alliance were so great, that they +resisted the promises and the threats of Mithridates, when he engaged in +hostilities with the Romans. This monarch, therefore, resolved to employ +his whole force by sea and land against them: they were not however +dismayed, but placed a firm reliance on their skill in maritime affairs. +They divided their fleet into three squadrons: one drawn up in a line +protected the entrance of the harbour; and the other two, at a greater +distance from the shore, were stationed to watch the approach of the enemy. +Mithridates also divided his fleet, which was more numerous than that of +the Rhodians, into three squadrons; one of these he himself commanded, on +board of a quinquereme, and directed to attack the squadron which was +protecting the port. The Rhodians gradually retired before the enemy, till +they came close to the mouth of the harbour: Mithridates in vain +endeavoured to break their line, and force an entrance; in all his attempts +he was defeated with considerable loss; and his land forces, which he had +embarked in transports, being dispersed in a storm, he was obliged to +retire from before the city. + +The Romans acknowledged the benefits they derived from the valour of the +Rhodians on this occasion; and they again experienced it, in the war which +Pompey carried on against the Cilician pirates, though that commander took +all the merit to himself. In the civil war between him and Caesar, they +assisted the former with a numerous fleet, under the command of one of +their best seamen, who distinguished himself above all Pompey's captains, +and gained very considerable advantages over Caesar's fleet. On the death +of Pompey they joined Csesar: this exposed them to the hostility of +Cassius; they endeavoured to pacify him by promising to recal the ships +they had sent to the assistance of Caesar, but he demanded the delivery of +their whole fleet, and that he should be put in possession of their harbour +and city. To these terms they would not accede, but prepared for war, by +equipping a fleet of thirty-three ships, and placing it under the command +of one of their best officers. A battle ensued which was fought on both +sides with great skill and bravery; but the Rhodians were obliged to yield +to the superior number of the Roman fleet, and to return to the harbour, +having lost two of their ships, and the rest being very much damaged. It is +remarked by the ancient historians who relate this battle, that it was the +first time the Rhodians were fairly overcome in a sea-fight. + +Cassius followed up his success by bringing against Rhodes a fleet of +eighty ships of war, and 200 transports. Against this formidable armament +the Rhodians again put to sea, and a second battle ensued, which was more +obstinately contested than the first: the Romans however were again +victorious, and the city of Rhodes was blocked up by sea and land. Its fate +was soon determined; for some of the inhabitants, dreading a famine, opened +the gates to the Romans. Cassius, besides other severe terms, obliged the +Rhodians to deliver up all their ships, and all their public treasures; the +temples were plundered, and 8000 talents extorted from private individuals, +besides a fine of 500 levied on the city. + +From this time till the reign of Vespasian, when the island became a Roman +province, it was sometimes oppressed, and sometimes favoured by the Romans; +according, as Tacitus remarks, as they obliged them with their assistance +in foreign wars, or provoked them with their seditions at home. + +In order to complete the maritime history of Rhodes, we have rather +advanced beyond the period to which we had brought down our notices of the +Roman navigation and commerce: these therefore we shall now resume at the +war between Perseus king of Macedonia and the Romans. Perseus harassed the +coasts of Italy, plundered and sunk all their ships, while they found it +difficult to oppose him by sea, or protect their coasts, for want of a +fleet. This induced them to prepare for service fifty vessels; but though +their allies augmented this number, the Romans do not seem to have +performed any thing of consequence by sea. This is attributed principally +to the circumstance, that the fleet, on examination, was discovered to be +in bad condition, neither equipped sufficiently in stores or provisions, +and the seamen who were to have navigated it were either dead or absent, +while those who did appear were ill paid and worse clothed; these facts +sufficiently demonstrate the little care which the Romans, even at this +period, bestowed on maritime affairs. The defeat of Perseus at Pidna, and +his subsequent capture by the Romans in the island of Samothrace, rendered +it unnecessary for them to supply the deficiences of their fleet. The +immense ship, which, as we have already mentioned, Philip, Perseus's +father, employed in his war against the Romans, was taken on this occasion; +and Paulus Emilius, the consul, sailed up the Tiber in it: it had 16 banks +of oars. Many other ships of large size were also captured; these were +brought to Rome, and drawn into the Campus Martius. + +One of the allies of the unfortunate Perseus was the king of Illyria, who +was powerful at sea, and ravaged the coasts of Italy opposite to his +dominions. While the consul was sent against Perseus, the management of the +naval war against the Illyrians was committed to the praetor: as he was +well aware of the maritime force of his opponent, he acted with great +caution; his first success, in capturing some of their snips, induced him +to land all his forces in Illyria, where, after an obstinate battle, he +compelled the king to surrender at discretion. Macedonia and Illyria were +thus reduced to the state of Roman provinces; but the Romans regarded these +victories as of importance, more on account of the accession they made to +their territories, than on account of the advantages which they might +thence derive to their commerce or their naval power: so little, indeed, +did they regard them in the latter point of view, that they gave the 220 +ships which were surrendered to them by the king of Illyria, to the +inhabitants of Cephalonia, of Apollonia, and Dyrrhachium, who at the time +were much celebrated for their trade and navigation. Although their +seacoasts had been repeatedly ravaged, we are informed by Polybius, that, +from the time of Philip, king of Macedonia, till long after the defeat of +Perseus, they entirely neglected the coasts of Illyria, from which, till +this country was subdued by them, their own coasts were generally invaded, +and by means of the ports and produce of which, after it became a Roman +province, they might greatly have augmented their navy and commerce. + +The Carthaginians had been gradually recovering from the losses which they +had sustained during the second Punic war, and witnessed with satisfaction +their enemies involved in constant hostilities, in the hope that the issue +of these would prove fatal to them, or, at least, so far weaken them, as to +enable them to oppose Rome with more success than they had hitherto done. +While the war was carried on between the Romans and the Macedonians, they +made great, but secret, preparations to regain their former power; but the +Romans, who always kept a watchful and jealous eye on the operations of all +their rivals, were particularly nearsighted with regard to whatever was +doing by the Carthaginians. They received information that at Carthage +there was deposited a large quantity of timber, and of other naval stores: +on learning this, Cato, their inveterate enemy, who had been sent into +Africa, to mediate between them and Masinissa, with whom they were at war, +went to Carthage himself, where he examined every thing with a malicious +eye. On his return to Rome, he reported that Carthage was again become +excessively rich,--that her magazines were filled with all kinds of warlike +stores,--that her ports were crowded with ships, and that by her war with +Masinissa, she was only preparing to renew the war against Rome. His +exhortations to his countrymen to anticipate the Carthaginians, by +immediately commencing hostilities, had no effect at first; but being +frequently repeated, and intelligence being received, that preparations +were making at Carthage for an open declaration of war, and that the +Carthaginians were fitting out a fleet, contrary to the terms of their +treaty with the Romans; and this information being confirmed by the report +of deputies sent to Carthage; war was declared against Carthage in the year +of Rome 605. The Carthaginians endeavoured to pacify the Romans by +surrendering to them their cities, lands, rivers, &c., in short, by a +complete surrender of whatever they possessed, as well as of themselves. At +first the Romans appeared disposed to abstain from war on these conditions; +and the Carthaginians actually delivered up all their arms and warlike +engines, and witnessed the burning of their fleet; but the Romans, having +thus degraded them, and stript them in a great measure of the means of +defence, now insisted that Carthage itself should be destroyed, and that +the inhabitants should build a city at the distance of five leagues from, +the sea. Indignant at these demands, they resolved to sustain a siege; and, +in a very short time, they made immense preparations for defending their +city. At first they gained some success over the Romans; for their fleet +having come very near the shore, to transport the troops, who were +suffering from the vicinity of the marshes, to a healthier spot, the +Carthaginians fitted out a great number of fire ships, filled with tar, +sulphur, bitumen, &c., and taking advantage of a favourable wind, they sent +them among the Roman fleet, great part of which was thus destroyed. + +But these and other successes did not ultimately avail them: Scipio who had +been chosen consul, arrived in Africa, and Carthage was immediately +strictly blocked up by sea and land. His exertions were indeed astonishing; +as the new port of Carthage was effectually shut up by the Roman fleet, so +that no assistance or provisions could enter by it; and as lines of +circumvallation were formed on land, the consul's great object was to block +up the old port. The Romans were masters of the western neck of land, which +formed one side of its entrance; from this to the other side they built a +mole, ninety feet broad at bottom, and eighty at top; when this was +completed, the old port was rendered quite inaccessible and useless. + +The Carthaginians on their part, imagined and executed works as surprising +as those of the Romans: deprived of both their ports, they dug, in a very +short time, a new harbour, from which they cut a passage to the sea; and +they built and equipped a fleet of fifty ships, which put to sea through +this new harbour. The Romans were astonished when they beheld a fleet, of +the existence or possibility of which they had no conception, advancing out +of a harbour, the formation of which equally astonished them, and this +fleet daring to hazard an engagement. The battle continued during the whole +day, with little advantage on either side; but, notwithstanding all their +efforts, and some partial and temporary successes, Carthage was at length +compelled to submit to Scipio, and was at first plundered, and afterwards +destroyed. The Romans burnt the new fleet which the Carthaginians had +built: indeed, in general, instead of augmenting their own naval force, +when they subdued any of their maritime enemies, they either destroyed +their ships or bestowed them on some of their allies; a certain proof, as +Huet remarks, of the very little regard they paid to sea affairs. + +We are expressly informed, in the Life of Terence, generally ascribed to +Suetonius, that before the destruction of Carthage, the Romans did not +trade to Africa: but though his words are express, they must not be taken +literally; for we have already proved, that in the treaties between Rome +and Carthage at a very early period, the voyages undertaken by the Romans, +on account of trade, to Sicily, Sardinia, and parts of Africa are expressly +mentioned in diem, and the people of Utica are particularized as the allies +of the Romans, and a people with whom they traded. It is certain, however, +that the author of the Life of Terence is correct, if he merely meant, that +till after the destruction of Carthage the Romans had no regular commerce +with Africa. From the date of this event, it became of great importance, +though confined chiefly to slaves, most of whom were brought from Africa, +to the island of Delos: this, as has been already stated, was a great depôt +for them, as well as other kinds of merchandize. The capture of Carthage +and of Corinth, which took place nearly at the same time, increased +considerably the number of slaves for sale. + +Still, however, though the Romans now began to be sensible of the value of +commence, they did little to protect it; for soon after the termination of +the third Punic war, the Mediterranean swarmed with pirates, who plundered +the merchant ships of all nations. These pirates belonged principally to +the Balearic islands, to Cilicia and to Crete. In one of the Balearic +islands, called Minor by the ancients, the present Minorca, there were two +cities built near the mouths of convenient harbours; the inhabitants of +these carried on a considerable commerce, and at the same time engaged in +piracy. They were uncommonly active and daring in this pursuit, attacking +and robbing every ship they met with; they even had the courage, or the +rashness, to oppose the Roman fleet, under the command of the consul +Metellus; but they were beaten, and for a time obliged to abstain from +their piratical proceedings. + +They were soon again, however, emboldened to resume them, by the assistance +and example of the inhabitants of Crete and Cilicia. This latter country, +situated in Asia Minor, and possessing a sea-coast which extended along the +Mediterranean, from east to west, nearly 250 miles, was fertile beyond most +parts of Asia Minor; though on the coast, it was reckoned unhealthy. The +principal commercial town was Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, +between Issus and the straits that lead from Cilicia into Syria; its +situation being very favourable for carrying on trade to all the western +parts of the Mediterranean, as well as to Egypt, the Euxine, &c. it soon +became one of the most flourishing cities in the world. But the Cilicians +were not content with lawful and regular trade: in the time of the +Mithridatic war, and even before it, they began to plunder the neighbouring +coasts; and being successful in these predatory expeditions, they extended +them as far as the coasts of Greece and Italy, on which they landed, and +carried off a great number of the inhabitants, whom they sold as slaves. +The Romans at length deemed it absolutely necessary to act with vigour +against them. Publius Servilius, who was employed on this occasion, +defeated them in a sea-battle, and took most of their strong-holds. For a +short time afterwards, they abstained from their predatory excursions; but, +as we shall soon have occasion to notice, they resumed them whenever they +had repaired their losses, and thought the Romans otherwise employed. + +The island of Crete was regarded by the ancients as difficult of access; +most of its harbours were exposed to the wind; but as it was easy for ships +to sail out of them, when the wind was moderate and favourable, they were +convenient for commerce to almost any part of the then commercial world. +The ancients, according to Strabo, reckoned that ships which sailed from +the eastern part of Crete would arrive in Egypt in three or four days; and, +according to Diodorus Siculus, in ten days they would arrive at the Pulus +Mæotis. The principal seaports were Bithynia, which had a very convenient +haven; and Heracles, the seaport of the Gnossians. To these, merchants from +all parts of the world resorted. There were, besides, a great many creeks +and bays. This island would have been much more commercial and flourishing +than it actually was, considering its favourable situation, &c., had it not +been divided into a great number of independent states, who were jealous of +each other's prosperity, and almost constantly at war amongst themselves. +In very early times, when the whole island was subject to one sovereign, +the Cretans were powerful at sea; they had subjected even before the Trojan +war, some of the islands in the Egean Sea, and formed colonies and +commercial establishments on the coasts of Asia Minor and Europe. At the +breaking out of the Trojan war, they sent eighty ships to the assistance of +the Greeks. But as soon as the island was divided into independent +republics, their navigation and commerce seem to have declined. Their +piratical expeditions were conducted with so much boldness and success, +especially at the time when the Romans were engaged in hostilities with +Mithridates, that they determined to curb them. Anthony, the father of Marc +Anthony, was appointed to execute their vengeance; but, too confident of +success, he was beaten by the Cretans in a sea-battle. This naturally +encouraged them to carry on their piracies on a greater scale, and with +more boldness; but their triumph was of short duration, for Metellus, the +proconsul, having defeated their forces, united with those of the Cilician +pirates, landed on the island, and subdued the whole of it. + +In the meantime, Mithridates, who had been very instrumental in encouraging +the pirates to commit depredations on the Roman vessels and coasts, was +vigorously preparing for war with the republic. His naval force, formed +partly of his own ships, and partly from those of most of the maritime +states, all of whom were jealous and afraid of the Romans, and regarded +Mithridates as their protector and deliverer, insulted even the coasts of +Italy. We have already noticed his unsuccessful sea-fight with the +Rhodians, almost the only people who continued faithful to the Romans. The +latter, at length, were fully sensible of the absolute necessity of forming +such a fleet as would enable them successfully to oppose Mithridates, who +was master, not only of Asia, but of all Greece, and the adjacent islands, +except Rhodes. Sylla was employed against him; but as he had very few +ships, he sent Lucullus to Syria, Egypt, Lybia, and Cyprus, to collect a +fleet. From Ptolemy, who was afraid of the power of Mithridates, and, +perhaps, jealous of the Romans, he received no vessels; but from the other +quarters he received considerable supplies of ships and experienced +mariners. It is probable, however, that by sea the Romans would not have +been able to cope with Mithridates, had not that monarch been beaten by +land, and had not his admiral, Archelaus, delivered up the fleet under his +command to Sylla. In the meantime, Mithridates was blocked up in Pitane, a +city near Troy, from which he could not have escaped, if Lucullus had +brought his fleet against it; this, however, out of jealousy to the Roman +general Fimbria, he refused to do, contenting himself with naval +operations. In these he was successful, gaining two victories over +Mithridates's fleet, near the coast of Troy. These defeats, and the +treachery of Archelaus, nearly annihilated the maritime force of +Mithridates. But this monarch was not easily dispirited; in a short time he +collected another fleet, and invaded Bithynia. It was therefore necessary +for the Romans to send a fleet thither, which they did, under the command +of Cotta. This fleet, however, was far inferior to that of the king, which +consisted of 400 ships of thirty oars, besides a great many smaller +vessels. On learning this, Lucullus, who had the chief command, ordered +Cotta to remain in the harbour of Chalcedon; but Mithridates, relying on +his strength, sailed into the very harbour, and burnt the Roman fleet. The +loss of the Romans consisted of sixty ships, and 8000 of their mariners +slain, besides 4500 taken prisoners. As this success of Mithridates +encouraged the cities of Asia to revolt, Lucullus resolved, if possible, to +counterbalance it with still more decisive success on his part by land; he +accordingly besieged him in his camp. Being reduced to great straits, +Mithridates was forced to escape by sea towards Byzantium; but on his +voyage he was overtaken by a violent storm, in which sixty of his ships +were sunk; he himself must have perished, if he had not been rescued by a +pirate, who landed him safe in Pontus. Mithridates still had a small float +of fifty ships, on board of which were 10,000 land forces. These were at +sea; but with what object does not appear: they were met, however, near +Lemnos, by a Roman squadron, and entirely defeated; thirty-two of them +being captured, and the rest sunk. On receiving information of this +victory, the Roman senate ordered Lucullus to be paid 3000 talents to +repair and augment his fleet; but he refused them, answering, "that with +the succours he could get from their allies, he should be able to gain the +dominion of the sea, and conquer Mithridates:" at the same time he sent to +Rome 110 galleys, armed with beaks. Mithridates, however, was still +formidable at sea, and continued so, till the Romans gained another victory +over him, near the island of Tenedos, in which they took and sunk sixty +ships: after this, he was not able to fit out another fleet. As the +remainder of the war between him and the Romans was entirely confined to +land operations, we shall pass it by, and proceed to the other naval +enterprizes of the Romans about this period. + +The war with Mithridates employed the attention and the resources of the +Romans so completely, that the pirates again infested the Mediterranean +seas without control. Their numbers and force were greatly augmented by the +destruction of Carthage and Corinth; for the inhabitants of these cities, +having neither a place of retreat, nor the means of subsistence, naturally +turned their thoughts to piracy, having been accustomed to sea affairs, and +to commerce. In this they were encouraged by Mithridates, and assisted by +some persons of considerable rank and wealth. The inability of the Romans +to attend to them, and the success and encouragement they obtained, induced +them to conduct their piracies on a regular, systematic, and extensive +plan. Their ships were constantly at sea: all commerce was interrupted; +with their 1000 galleys--for so numerous were they--they exercised a +complete sovereignty over all the coasts of the Mediterranean. They formed +themselves into a kind of commonwealth, selected magistrates and officers, +who appointed each fleet its respective station and object, and built +watch-towers, arsenals, and magazines. They depended chiefly on Cilicia for +the necessary supplies for their fleets. Emboldened by their success, and +by the occupation afforded to the Romans by Mithridates, they ravaged the +whole line of the Italian coast; sacked the towns and temples, from which +they expected a considerable booty; plundered the country seats on the +sea-shore; carried off the inhabitants for slaves; blocked up all the ports +of the republic; ventured as far as the entrance of the Tiber; sunk part of +the Roman fleet at Ostia, and even threatened Rome itself, which they more +than once deprived of its ordinary and necessary subsistence. The scarcity +of provisions was, indeed, not confined to Rome; but no vessel venturing to +sea in the Mediterranean without being captured, it extended to those parts +of Asia and Africa which lie on that sea. Their inveteracy, however, was +principally directed against the Roman commerce, and the Romans themselves. +If any of their captives declared himself to be a Roman, they threw +themselves in derision at his feet, begging his pardon, and imploring his +protection; but after they had insolently sported with their prisoner, they +often dressed him in a toga, and then, casting out a ship's ladder, desired +him to return home, and wished him a good journey. If he refused to leap +into the sea, they threw him overboard, saying, "that they would not by any +means keep a free-born Roman in captivity!" + +In order to root out this dreadful evil, Gabinius, the tribune of the +people, proposed a law, to form, what he called, the proconsulate of the +seas. This law, though vigorously opposed at first, eventually was carried. +The person to whom this new office was to be entrusted, was to have +maritime power, without control or restriction, over all the seas, from the +Pillars of Hercules to the Thracian Bosphorus, and the countries lying on +these seas, for fifty miles inland: he was to be empowered to raise as many +seamen and troops as he deemed necessary, and to take, out of the public +treasury, money sufficient to pay the expence of paying them, equipping the +ships, and executing the objects of the law. The proconsulate of the +seas was to be vested in the same person for three years. + +As Gabinius was the known friend of Pompey, all Pompey's enemies +strenuously opposed this law, as evidently intended to confer authority on +him; but the people not only passed it, but granted Pompey, who was chosen +to fill the office, even more than Gabinius had desired, for they allowed +him to equip 500 ships, to raise 120,000 foot, and to select out of the +senate twenty senators to act as his lieutenants. + +As soon as Pompey was vested with the authority conferred by this law, he +put to sea; and, by his prudent and wise measures, not less than by his +activity and vigour, within four months (instead of the three years which +were allowed him) he freed the seas from pirates, having beaten their fleet +in an engagement near the coast of Cilicia, and taken or sunk nearly 1000 +vessels, and made himself master of 120 places on the coast, which they had +fortified: in the whole of this expedition he did not lose a single ship. +In order effectually to prevent the pirates from resuming their +depredations, he sent them to people some deserted cities of Cilicia. + +It might have been supposed that as the Romans had suffered so much from +the pirates, and as Rome itself was dependent for subsistence on foreign +supplies of corn, which could not be regularly obtained, while the pirates +were masters of the seas, they would have directed their attention more +than they did to maritime affairs and commerce, especially after the +experience they had had of the public calamities which might thus be +averted. This, however, was not the case, even after the war against the +pirates, which was so successfully terminated by Pompey; for Pompey's son, +who opposed the triumvirate, by leaguing with the pirates, (of what nation +we are not informed,) repeatedly, during his warfare, reduced the city of +Rome to great straits for want of corn. + +As the operations by sea which he carried on, in conjunction with the +pirates, are the last recorded in history, by means of which Rome was +reduced to such straits, and as this repeated proof of the absolute +necessity of rendering her independent of any maritime power for supplies +of corn, seems to have been the chief inducement with Augustus to establish +regular and powerful corn fleets, we shall notice them in this place, +though rather posterior to the period of Roman history at which we have +arrived. + +The younger Pompey, it would appear, was sensible that his father's fame +and fortune had been first established by his success at sea: this induced +him to apply himself to maritime affairs, and, when he resolved to oppose +the triumvirate, to trust principally to his experience and force by sea, +to oblige them to comply with his terms. Accordingly, he built several +ships, some of which are said to have been covered with leather: he +associated himself with all the pirates he could meet with; and, when +sufficiently powerful, he took possession of Sardinia, Sicily, and Corcyra, +made himself master of the whole Mediterranean sea, and intercepted all the +convoys which were carrying provisions and other necessaries to Rome. The +occupation of Sicily enabled him to prevent any corn from being shipped +from that island, and to intercept all that came from the eastern ports of +the Mediterranean. His possession of Sardinia and Corcyra enabled him to +intercept all that came from the west, while he captured all that came from +Africa by his squadrons, which were constantly cruising in that direction. + +It may easily be imagined, that when Rome was deprived of her supplies of +corn from Sicily, Africa, and the Euxine, she could not long subsist, +without being threatened with famine: this was actually the case, the +inhabitants were near starving, and it became necessary for the triumvirate +to relieve them, either by conquering Pompey, or coming to terms with him. +But Rome alone did not suffer: the rest of Italy was also deprived, in a +great measure, of provisions, and its coasts insulted and plundered. +Octavianus, one of the triumvirate, at first resolved, with the advice of +Anthony, to raise a naval force, and oppose Pompey; but when he attempted +to lay a tax on the inhabitants of Rome and the rest of Italy, though it +was to prevent them from starving, they resisted it with so much violence +and determination, that he was obliged to abandon the measure. + +As, however, the famine still continued, the triumvirate agreed to come to +an accommodation with Pompey: the principal terms were, that the latter +should retain possession of Sicily, Sardinia,. &c.; and that he should +moreover receive Peloponnesus; that he might endeavour to obtain the +consulate; that the dignity of Pontifex Maximus should be granted him; that +he should be paid 70,000 great sesterces out of his father's confiscated +estate; and that such of his companions as chose should be allowed to +return. On his part, he promised, that he would no longer interrupt the +Roman trade and navigation; that he would no longer build ships, nor make +descents on the coasts of Italy, nor receive the slaves who fled to him; +and that he would immediately send to Rome the corn he had detained, oblige +the Sicilians to pay annually the tribute of corn due to Rome by that +island, and clear the seas of all the pirates. + +From these terms it may be seen how dependent Rome, even at this period, +was on foreign supplies of corn, and how weak she was at sea. Pompey and +the triumvirate seem neither to have been sincere in this treaty: the +former, who still retained the title of governor of the maritime coasts, +had derived too great advantage from his superiority at sea, and his +connection with the pirates, easily to relinquish either; while, on the +other hand, the triumvirate could not regard themselves as masters of the +republic, so long as Pompey had it in his power to starve the city of Rome. +They, therefore, soon quarrelled; upon which Pompey caused his old ships to +be refitted, and new ones to be built; and, when he had got a sufficient +force, he again blocked up the ports of Italy, and reduced the inhabitants +of the capital to the utmost distress for want of provisions. Octavianus, +(Augustus Cæsar,) to whom the protection of Italy was assigned, had neither +the courage nor the means to oppose Pompey, who, probably, would speedily +have forced the triumvirate, to grant him conditions still more favourable +than the former ones, had it not been for the defection of one of his +admirals. As he was an officer of great valour and experience in maritime +affairs, and carried over with him the numerous fleet which he commanded, +Augustus was emboldened and rendered better able to cope with Pompey by +sea. The latter, rather enraged than intimidated by this defection, sent +another of his admirals, who had always been jealous of the one who had +gone over to Augustus, with a numerous fleet, to ravage the coasts of +Italy. On his return, he fell in with a fleet of Augustus, on board of +which was his rival. An obstinate battle ensued: at first Pompey's fleet +was worsted; but in the issue it was victorious, and the greater number of +Augustus' ships were sunk, captured, or driven on shore. As soon as +Augustus learnt the issue of this battle, he resolved to sail from +Tarentum, where he then was, pass the straits of Messina, and reinforce the +shattered remains of his squadron; but, while he was in the straits, his +ships were attacked by Pompey himself, and most of them sunk or dashed to +pieces: with great difficulty he escaped. He was now in a dreadful +situation; without ships or money; while the inhabitants of Rome were on +the point of rising against his authority, for want of corn. In this +extremity he applied to Anthony, who immediately came to his aid with 300 +sail of ships. As Anthony needed land-forces, which, under the present +circumstances, were of no use to Augustus, they agreed to an interchange: +Augustus gave Anthony two legions; and Anthony, on his part, left with +Augustus 100 armed galleys. In addition to these, Octavia obtained from her +husband twenty small ships, as a reinforcement to her brother. + +Augustus, though now superior in naval force to Pompey, (for his ships were +more numerous, as well as larger and stronger, though not so light and +expeditious, nor so well manned,) was not willing to expose himself any +more to the hazards of a sea-fight: he therefore appointed Agrippa +commander-in-chief of his navy, with directions to cruise off Mylæ, a city +on the northern coast of Sicily, where Pompey had assembled all his naval +forces. As the possession of this important island was absolutely necessary +to the reduction of Pompey's power, and the relief and supply of the city +of Rome, Augustus, Lepidus, and another general were to invade it in three +different places, while Agrippa was watching Pompey's fleet. The whole of +Augustus's expeditions sailed from different ports of Italy at the same +time; but they had scarcely put to sea, when a violent storm arose, in +which a great number of his ships perished. On this occasion Augustus +behaved with great presence of mind and judgment: his first object and care +was to send Mæcenas to Rome, to prevent the disturbances which the +intelligence of this disaster might occasion there: Mæcenas succeeded in +his mission completely. In the meantime Augustus went in person to the +several ports, into which his ships had escaped from the storm, encouraged +and rewarded the workmen, and soon got his fleet refitted and ready for +sea. In his second attempt to invade Sicily, which he put in execution as +soon as his fleet was repaired, he was more successful than in his first; +and Agrippa considerably weakened Pompey's naval forces, by defeating one +of his admirals, from whom he captured thirty galleys. Pompey was still so +formidable at sea, at least to the fears of Augustus, that, when he +appeared unexpectedly on the coast of Sicily with his fleet, the latter was +completely intimidated: apprehending that Pompey would land and attack his +camp, he deserted it and went on board his fleet. Pompey, however, who +always preferred naval enterprizes, attacked the fleet, put it to flight at +the first onset, captured most of the ships, and burnt and sunk the +remainder. Augustus with difficulty escaped in a boat; but, instead of +returning to his camp, in Sicily, he fled to Italy, attended only by one +domestic. + +As soon as he recovered from his alarm, he, in conjunction with Lepidus, +determined to attack Messina, in which place Pompey had deposited all his +stores, provisions, and treasure. The city accordingly was closely +invested, both by sea and land. Pompey, in this emergency, challenged +Augustus to decide the war by a sea-fight, with 300 ships on each side. +Augustus acceding to this proposal, both fleets were drawn up in line of +battle, between Mylæ and Naulocus; the land forces having agreed to suspend +hostilities, and wait the event of the engagement. Agrippa, who commanded +Augustus's fleet, fought with great bravery, and was as bravely opposed by +Pompey; their respective officers and men emulated their example. For a +considerable time, the event was doubtful; but, at last, Pompey's fleet was +defeated: only seventeen of his vessels escaped, the rest were taken or +burnt. This victory Agrippa obtained at an easy rate, not more than three +of his snips being sunk or destroyed. Augustus, who, according to all +accounts, behaved in a most cowardly manner during the battle, was so fully +sensible of the obligations he was under to Agrippa, that he immediately +honoured him with a blue standard and a rostral crown, that is, a crown, +the flower-work of which represented the beaks of galleys, and afterwards, +when he became emperor, he raised him, by rank and honours, above all his +other subjects. According to Livy, and some other authors, the rostral +crown had never been given in any preceding wars, nor was it afterwards +bestowed; but Pliny is of a different opinion, he says that it was given to +M. Varro, in the war against the pirates, by Pompey. + +After this signal and decisive defeat of his fleet, Pompey fled from Sicily +to Asia, where he attempted to raise disturbances; but he was defeated, +taken prisoner, and put to death. + +We must now look back to the naval and commercial history of Rome, +immediately after the defeat of the pirates by Pompey the Great. The +immediate consequence of his success against them was the revival of trade +among the people who inhabited the coasts of the Mediterranean; but the +Romans, intent on their plans of conquest, or engaged in civil wars, had +little share in it The very nature and extent, however, of their conquests, +by making them masters of countries which were either commercial, or which +afforded articles of luxury, gradually led them to become more commercial. +Hitherto, their conquests and their alliances had been confined almost +entirely to the nations on the Mediterranean, or within a short distance of +that sea: but Julius Cæsar directed his ambition to another district of the +world; and Gaul was added to the Roman dominions. + +Transalpine Gaul comprehended Flanders, Holland, Switzerland, and part of +Germany, as well as France, Its situation, having the ocean to the north +and west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south, was particularly +favourable to commerce; and though, when Caesar conquered it, its +inhabitants in general were very ignorant and uncivilized, yet we have his +express authority, that the knowledge they possessed of foreign countries, +and commodities from abroad, made them abound in all sorts of provisions. +About 100 years before the Christian era, the Romans, under pretence of +assisting the people of Marseilles, carried their arms into Gaul, and +conquered the district to the south of the Rhine. + +This part of Gaul, long before the Romans invaded it, was celebrated for +its commerce, which was carried on very extensively at the port of +Marseilles. We have already mentioned, that this city was founded, or, at +least, greatly increased by the Greeks. As the colonists could not, from +the narrow boundaries of their territory, and the barrenness of the soil, +support themselves by their own industry on land, they applied themselves +to the sea: at first, as fishermen; then, as pirates; and afterwards, as +merchants. For forty years they are said to have been the most warlike, as +well as the most commercial people who frequented the Mediterranean, and +were celebrated for the excellent construction and equipment, both of their +merchant ships, and their ships of war. Their maritime laws and +institutions were nearly as much celebrated and respected as those of the +Rhodians. The wealth which the inhabitants of Marseilles had acquired by +commerce, and which was contained or displayed in their fleets, arsenals, +and magazines, and in their public buildings, drew upon them the envy of +their more savage and poorer neighbours; and it is probable they would have +fallen a prey to their more warlike habits, had they not formed an alliance +with the Romans, who sent an army to their assistance. The commander of +this army, after defeating their enemies, granted them all the harbours, +and the whole sea-coast, between their city and the confines of Italy; and +thus at once secured their safety and extended their territory. A short +time afterwards, Marius conferred on them another benefit, not inferior in +importance and utility. While he was waiting for the Cimbri in Transalpine +Gaul, he was under great difficulty to procure provisions up the Rhone, in +consequence of the mouth of the river being obstructed with sand-banks. To +remedy this inconvenience, he undertook a great and laborious work, which, +from him, was called Fossa Marina: this was a large canal, beginning at his +camp, near Arles, and carried on to the sea, which was fed with water from +the Rhone; through this canal, the largest transports could pass. After his +victory over the Cimbrians, Marius gave this canal to the people of +Marseilles, in return for the support and supplies they had afforded him in +his war against them. As there was no passage into the interior of this +part of Gaul, except either through the Rhone or this canal, the +Marseillians, who were now masters of both, enriched themselves +considerably, partly by the traffic they carried on, and partly by the +duties they levied on all goods which were sent up the canal and the river. +In the civil war between Pompey and Cæsar, they took part with the former, +who, in return, gave them all the territory on the western bank of the +Rhone. Cæsar, exasperated at their hostility towards him, and at their +ingratitude (for he, on the conquest of Gaul, had enlarged their +territories, and augmented their revenues), blocked up their port by sea +and land, and soon obliged them to surrender. He stripped their arsenals of +arms, and obliged them to deliver up all their ships, as well as deprived +them of the colonies and towns that were under their dominion. + +The Marseillians, in the pursuit of commerce, made several voyages to +distant, and, till then, unknown parts of the world: of these, the voyage +of Pytheas, the extent, direction, and discoveries of which we have already +investigated, was the most remarkable and celebrated. Euthymenes, another +Marseillian navigator, is said to have advanced to the south, beyond the +line; but little credit seems due to the very imperfect accounts which we +possess of his voyage. The Marseillians also planted several colonies on +the coasts of Gaul, Italy, and Spain, viz. Nicæa, Antipolis (Antibes,) Telo +Martius (Toulon,) &c. + +Arelas (Arles) was also a place of some trade, and celebrated for its +manufactures, especially its embroidery, and its curious and rich works in +gold and silver. It was at this place that Cæsar built, in the short period +of thirty days, the twelve galleys which he used in blocking up the port of +Marseilles; and he manned them with its inhabitants;--a proof, as Huet +observes, that they were well versed in maritime affairs at this time. + +Narbo Marcius (Narbonne) was founded by Marius: it soon became, according +to Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, a place of very great trade. The British +tin, besides other articles, was brought by land-carriage through the +centre of Gaul, and exported, either from it or Marseilles, to the +different countries on the Mediterranean. It derived great importance and +wealth, from its being a convenient place of rest and refreshment for the +Roman troops, as they passed from the Pyrennees to the Alps, or from the +Alps to the Pyrennees. Its harbour was crowded with ships from Africa, +Spain, Italy, &c.; but, in the latter ages of the Roman Empire, it fell +into decay, principally in consequence of the course of the river being +changed, so that it no longer ran through it. The Romans endeavoured to +supply this misfortune, by cutting a canal to the sea, the traces and +remains of which are still visible. + +Lugdunum (Lyons), at the confluence of the Rhone and Arar, was founded by +Manucius Plancus, after the death of Julius Caesar. In the time of +Augustus, according to Strabo, it had increased so much, by means of its +commerce, that it was not inferior to any city in Gaul, except Narbonne. +Indeed, not long after the entire conquest of Gaul by the Romans, the +advantages which that country might derive, with respect to foreign +commerce, and internal trade, by its rivers, seem to have been fully and +clearly understood. The head of the Saone being near to that of the Moselle +and the Seine, merchandize was easily conveyed by land from one of these +rivers to the other. The Rhone also received many goods by means of the +rivers which joined it, which were conveyed, not only to the Saone, but +also to the Loire, in carriages. The Seine brought up goods almost as far +as the Moselle, from which they were conveyed to the Rhine. In the fourth +year of Nero's reign, the commander of the Roman army in Gaul joined the +Saone and the Moselle by a canal; and, though these canals were generally +made by the Romans, for purposes connected with the army, yet they were +soon applied to commerce. The merchandize of the Saone was brought by land +carriage to the Seine, and by it conveyed to the ocean, and thence to +Britain. There seems to have been regular and established companies of +watermen on these rivers, whose business it was to convey goods on them: an +ancient inscription at Lyons mentions Tauricius of Vannes, as the general +overseer of the Gallic trade, the patron or head of the watermen on the +Seine and Loire, and the regulator of weights, measures, and carriages; and +other ancient inscriptions state, that the government of the watermen who +navigated the Rhone and the Saone, was often bestowed on Roman knights. + +Besides the ports on the Mediterranean, or on the rivers which flow into +that sea, the Gauls in Cæsar's time, or shortly afterwards, seem to have +had several, ports on the ocean. Cæsar reckons the present Nantz, though at +some distance from the sea, as inhabited by people who were skilled in +maritime affairs; and he expressly informs us, that he built his ships at a +port at the mouth of the Seine, when he was preparing to invade Britain. In +his wars against the Vanni he brought ships from the present provinces of +Saintoinge and Poitou, which we may thence conclude were inhabited by +people skilled in maritime affairs. In later times, there was a marsh +filled with sea-water, not far from Bourdeaux, which made that city a +convenient port, and a place of considerable commerce. Strabo mentions a +town of some commerce, situated on the Loire, which he represents as equal +in size to Narbonne and Marseilles; but what town that was has not been +ascertained. + +The most powerful and commercial, however, of all the tribes of Gaul, that +inhabited the coasts near the ocean, in the time of Cæsar, were the Vanni. +These people carried on an extensive and lucrative trade with Britain, +which was interrupted by the success of Cæsar, (who obliged them, as well +as the other tribes of Gaul, to give him hostages,) and which they +apprehended was likely to be still further injured by his threatened +invasion of Britain; in order to prevent this, as well as to liberate +themselves, they revolted against the Romans. As Cæsar was sensible that it +would be imprudent and unsafe to attempt the invasion of Britain, so long +as the Vanni were unsubdued and powerful at sea, he directed his thoughts +and his endeavours to build and equip such a fleet as would enable him +successfully to cope with them on their own element. In building his ships, +he followed the model of those of his enemies, which were large, +flat-bottomed, and high in the head and stern: they were strong-built, and +had leathern sails, and anchors with iron chains. They had a numerous +squadron of such vessels, which they employed chiefly in their trade with +Britain: they seem also to have derived considerable revenue from the +tribute which they levied on all who navigated the adjacent seas, and to +have possessed many ports on the coast. Besides their own fleet, the +Britons, who were their allies, sent ships to their assistance; so that +their united force amounted to 220 sail, well equipped, and manned by bold +and expert seamen. + +To oppose this formidable fleet, Caesar ordered ships to be built on the +Loire, and the rivers running into it, exactly, as we have just stated, +after the model of the ships of the Vanni; for he was informed, or learnt +by experience, that the vessels which were used in the Mediterranean were +not fit for navigating and fighting on the ocean, but that such as were +employed on the latter must be built, not only stronger, but flat-bottomed, +and high at the head and stern, in order to withstand the fury of the waves +and winds, which was greater in the ocean than in the Mediterranean, and at +the same time to sail up the rivers, or in very shallow water, and to take +the ground, without injury or danger. Not being able, however, to build in +time a sufficient number of ships in Gaul, after the model of those of the +Vanni, he was under the necessity of bringing some from the south coast of +Gaul, and other parts of the Mediterranean Sea; he also collected all the +experienced pilots he could meet with, who were acquainted with the coasts, +and with the management of such ships, and exercised a sufficient number of +men at the oar, to navigate them. + +These preparations were all indispensably requisite; for in the battle +which ensued, the Vanni and their allies fought their ships with a skill +and a valour of which the Romans had not had any previous example; and they +would certainly have been beaten, if they had not, by means of sharp +engines, cut the ropes and sails of the hostile fleet, and thus rendered +their ships unmanageable: in this state they were easily and speedily +captured. As the Vanni had on this occasion mustered all their forces, +their defeat put an end to their resistance, and removed Caesar's principal +obstacle to the invasion of Britain. + +The motives which induced Caesar to invade Britain can only be conjectured, +if, indeed, any other motive operated on his mind besides ambition, and the +love of conquest and glory; stimulated by the hope of subduing a country, +which seemed the limit of the world to the west, and which was in a great +measure unknown. He was, probably, also incited by his desire to punish the +Britons for having assisted the Vanni; and Suetonius adds, that he was +desirous of enriching himself with British pearls, which were at that time +in high repute. + +Before he undertook this expedition, which, even to Caesar, appeared +formidable, he resolved to learn all he could respecting Britain. For this +purpose, he collected the merchants who traded thither from all parts of +Gaul; but they could afford him no satisfactory information. They had +visited only the opposite coast of Britain; of the other parts of the +country, of its extent, its inhabitants, &c., they were utterly ignorant. +Under these circumstances, therefore, he sent one of his officers in a +galley, who, after being absent five days, during which however he had not +ventured to land, returned to Caesar, and acquainted him with the little he +had observed. + +Caesar resolved to invade Britain immediately: for this purpose, he ordered +eighty transports to take on board two legions; and the cavalry to be +embarked in eighteen more, at a port a few miles off. The enterprize was +attended with considerable difficulty, from the opposition of the Britons, +and the large ships of the Romans not being able to approach very near the +land. It was however successful, and the Britons sued for and obtained +peace. + +This they were soon induced to break, in consequence of Caesar's fleet +being greatly injured by a storm; and the violence of the wind raising the +tide very high, the Roman sailors, unaccustomed to any tides except the +very trifling ones of the Mediterranean, were still more alarmed and +dispirited. The Britons, after attacking one of the legions, ventured on a +still bolder enterprize, for they endeavoured to force the Roman camp: in +this attempt they were defeated, and again obliged to sue for peace. This +was granted, and Caesar returned to Gaul. But the Britons not fulfilling +the conditions of the peace, Caesar again invaded their country with 600 +ships and twenty-eight galleys; he landed without opposition, and defeated +the Britons. His fleet again encountered a storm, in which forty ships were +lost, and the rest greatly damaged. In order to prevent a similar accident, +he drew all his ships ashore, and enclosed them within the fortifications +of the camp. After this, he had no further naval operations with the +Britons. + +It will now be proper to consider the state of Britain at the period of its +invasion by the Romans, with respect to its navigation and commerce. It is +the generally received opinion, that the Britons, at the time of the +invasion of their island by Caesar, had no ships except those which he and +other ancient authors, particularly Solinus and Lucan, describe. These were +made of light and pliant wood, their ribs seem to have been formed of +hurdles, and they were lined as well as covered (so far as they were at all +decked) with leather. They had, indeed, masts and sails; the latter and the +ropes were also made of leather; the sails could not be furled, but, when +necessary, were bound to the mast. They were generally, however, worked +with oars, the rowers singing to the stroke of their oars, sometimes +accompanied by musical instruments. These rude vessels seem not to have +been the only ones the Britons possessed, but were employed solely for the +purpose of sailing to the opposite coasts of Gaul and of Ireland. They +were, indeed, better able to withstand the violence of the winds and waves +than might be supposed from the materials of which they were built. Pliny +expressly states that they made voyages of six days in them; and in the +life of St Columba, (in whose time they were still used, the sixth +century,) we are informed of a vessel lined with leather, which went with +oars and sails, sailing for fourteen days in a violent storm in safety, and +gaining her port. The passage therefore in these boats across the Irish +Channel, could not be so very dangerous as it is represented by Solinus. + +But notwithstanding the authority of Caesar, Pliny, Solinus, and Lucan, who +mention only these leathern vessels, and that the poet Avienus, who lived +in the fourth century, expressly states, that even in his time the Britons +had no ships made of timber, but only boats covered with leather or hides; +there are circumstances which must convince us that they did possess +larger, stronger, and more powerful ships. Caesar informs us, that the +Britons often assisted the Gauls, both by land and sea; and we have seen +that they sent assistance to the Vanni, in their sea-fight against Caesar; +but it is not to be supposed that their leathern boats, small and weak as +they were, could have been of any material advantage in an engagement with +the Roman ships. Besides, the Britons, who inhabited the coast opposite to +Gaul, carried on, as we have remarked, a considerable and regular trade +with the Vanni; it is, therefore, reasonable to presume, that they would +learn from this tribe, the art of building ships like theirs, which were so +well fitted for these seas, as well as for war, that Caesar built vessels +after their model, when he formed the determination of opposing them by +sea. + +The Britons, however, certainly did not themselves engage much in the +traffic with Gaul, and therefore could not require many vessels of either +description for this purpose. From the earliest period, of which we have +any record, till long after the invasion by Caesar, the commodities of +Britain seem to have been exported by foreign ships, and the commodities +given in exchange brought by these. + +In our account of the commerce of the Phoenicians, their trade to Britain +for tin has been described. Pliny, in his chapter on inventions and +discoveries, states that this metal was first brought from the Cassiterides +by Midacritus, but at what period, or of what nation he was, he does not +inform us. This trade was so lucrative, that a participation in it was +eagerly sought by all the commercial nations of the Mediterranean, and even +by the Romans, who, as we have seen, were not at this period, much given to +commerce. This is evident, by the well known fact, of one of their vessels +endeavouring to follow the course of a Phoenician or Carthaginian vessel, +in her voyage to Britain. The Greeks of Marseilles, according to Polybius, +first followed, successfully, the course of the Phoenicians, and, about 200 +years before Christ, began to share with them in the tin trade. Whether, at +this period, they procured it exclusively by direct trade with Britain, is +not known; but afterwards, as we have already mentioned, Marseilles became +one of the principal depots for this metal, which was conveyed to it +through Gaul, and exported thence by sea. + +If we may believe Strabo, the Romans had visited Britain before it was +invaded by Caesar, as he expressly mentions that Publius Crassus made a +voyage thither: if he means P. Crassus the younger, he was one of Caesar's +lieutenants in Gaul; and, as he was stationed in the district of the Vanni, +it is not improbable that he passed from thence into Britain; or he may +have been sent by Caesar, at the same time that Volusenus was sent, and for +the same purpose. + +However this may be, there was no regular intercourse between Britain and +Rome till some time after Caesar's invasion; in the time of Tiberius, +however, and probably earlier, the commerce of Britain was considerable. +Strabo, who died at the beginning of that emperor's reign, informs us, that +corn, cattle, gold, silver, tin, lead, hides, and dogs, were the +commodities furnished by the Britons. The tin and lead, he adds, came from +the Cassiterides. According to Camden, 800 vessels, laden with corn, were +freighted annually to the continent; but this assertion rests on very +doubtful authority, and cannot be credited if it applies to Britain, even +very long after the Roman conquest. Though Strabo expressly mentions gold +and silver among the exports, yet Caesar takes notice of neither; and +Cicero, in his epistles, writing to his friend, respecting Britain, states, +on the authority of his brother, who was there, that there were neither of +these metals in the island. The dogs of Britain formed a very considerable +and valuable article of export; they seem to have been known at Rome even +before Caesar's expedition: the Romans employed them in hunting, and the +Gauls in hunting and in their wars: they were of different species. Bears +were also exported for the amphitheatres; but their exportation was not +frequent till after the age of Augustus. Bridle ornaments, chains, amber, +and glass ware, are enumerated by Strabo among the exports from Britain; +but, according to other authors, they were imported into it. Baskets, toys +made of bone, and oysters, were certainly among the exports; and, according +to Solinus, gagates, or jet, of which Britain supplied a great deal of the +best kind. Chalk was also, according to Martial, an article of export: +there seems to have been British merchants whose sole employment was the +exportation of this commodity, as appears by an ancient inscription found +in Zealand, and quoted by Whitaker, in his history of Manchester. This +article was employed as a manure on the marshy land bordering on the Rhine. +Pliny remarks that its effect on the land continued eighty years. The +principal articles imported into Britain were copper and brass, and +utensils made of these metals, earthen ware, salt, &c. The traffic was +carried on partly by means of barter, and partly by pieces of brass and +iron, unshaped, unstamped, and rated by weight. The duties paid in Gaul, on +the imports and exports of Britain, formed, according to Strabo, the only +tribute exacted from the latter country by the Romans in his time. + +Of that part of Europe which lies to the north of Gaul, the Romans, at the +period of which we are treating, knew little or nothing, though some +indirect traffic was carried on with Germany. The feathers of the German +geese were preferred to all others at Rome; and amber formed a most +important article of traffic. This was found in great abundance on the +Baltic shore of Germany: at first, it seems to have been carried the whole +length of the continent, to the Veneti, who forwarded it to Rome. +Afterwards, in consequence of the great demand for it there, and its high +price, the Romans sent people expressly to purchase it in the north of +Germany: and their land journies, in search of this article, first made +them acquainted with the naval powers of the Baltic. The Estii, a German +tribe, who inhabited the amber country, gathered and sold it to the Roman +traders, and were astonished at the price they received for it. In Nero's +time it was in such high request, that that emperor resolved to send +Julianus, a knight, to procure it for him in large quantities: accordingly, +a kind of embassy was formed, at the head of which he was placed. He set +out from Carnuntum, a fortress on the banks of the Danube, and after +travelling, according to Pliny, 600 miles, arrived at the amber coast. +There he bought, or received as a present, for the emperor, 13,000 pounds +weight, among which was one piece that weighed thirteen pounds. The whole +of this immense quantity served for the decoration of one day, on which +Nero gave an entertainment of gladiators. In the time of Theodoric, king of +the Goths, the Estii sent that monarch a large quantity of amber, as the +most likely present by means of which they could obtain his alliance. They +informed the ambassadors, whom he sent with a letter acknowledging this +present, that they were ignorant whence the amber came, but that it was +thrown upon their coast by the sea, a fact which exactly agrees with what +occurs at present. + +Whether the Estii, with whom the Romans carried on this traffic, were a +maritime nation, we are not informed; but there was another nation or tribe +of Germans on the Baltic, of whose maritime character some notices are +given. These were the Sitones, who, according to Tacitus, had powerful +fleets; their ships were built with two prows, so as to steer at both ends, +and prevent the necessity of putting about; their oars were not fixed, like +those of the Mediterranean vessels, but loose, so that they could easily +and quickly be shifted: they used no sails. The people of Taprobane +(Ceylon)--the Byzantines, and, on some occasions, the Romans also, employed +vessels, like those of the Sitones, which could be steered at both ends. + +One of the most considerable revolutions in the maritime and commercial +affairs of Rome, was brought about by the battle of Actium. The fleet of +Anthony was composed chiefly of ships belonging to the Egyptians, Tyrians, +and other nations of the east, and amounted, according to some accounts, to +200 sail, whereas the fleet of Augustus consisted of 400 sail. Other +authors estimate them differently; but all agree that the ships of Anthony +were much larger, stronger, and loftier, than those of Caesar: they were +consequently more unwieldy. We have the express testimony of Plutarch, that +it was principally this victory which convinced Caesar of the advantages +and extraordinary use of the Liburnian ships; for though they had been +employed before this time in the Roman fleet, yet they had never been so +serviceable in any previous battle. Augustas, therefore, as well as most of +the succeeding emperors of Rome, scarcely built any other ships but those +according to the Liburnian model. + +One of the first objects of Augustus, after he had obtained the empire, was +to secure the command of the sea: he made use of the ships which he had +captured from Anthony to keep the people of Gaul in subjection; and he +cleared the Mediterranean of the pirates which infested it and obstructed +commerce. He formed two fleets, one at Ravenna, and the other at Misenum; +the former to command the eastern, the latter the western division of the +Mediterranean: each of these had its own proper commanders, and to each was +attached a body of several thousand mariners. Ravenna, situated on the +Adriatic, about ten or twelve miles from the most southern of the seven +mouths of the Po, was not a place of much consequence till the age of +Augustus: that emperor, observing its advantages, formed at the distance of +about three miles from the old town and nearer the sea, a capacious +harbour, capable of containing 250 ships of war. The establishment was on a +large and complete scale, consisting of arsenals, magazines, barracks, and +houses for the ship-carpenters, &c.: the principal canal, which was also +formed by Augustus, and took its name from him, carried the waters of the +river through the middle of Ravenna to the entrance of the harbour. The +city was rendered still stronger by art than nature had formed it. As early +as the fifth or sixth centuries of the Christian era the port was +converted, by the retreat of the sea, into dry ground, and a grove of pines +grew where the Roman fleet had anchored. + +Besides the principal ports of Ravenna and Misenum, Augustus stationed a +very considerable force at Frejus, on the coast of Provence, forty ships in +the Euxine, with 3000 soldiers; a fleet to preserve the communication +between Gaul and Britain, another near Alexandria, and a great number of +smaller vessels on the Rhine and the Danube. As soon as the Romans had +constant and regular fleets, instead of the legionary soldiers, who used to +fight at sea as well as at land, a separate band of soldiers were raised +for the sea service, who were called Classiarii; but this service was +reckoned less honourable than that of the legionary soldiers. + +The period at which we are arrived seems a proper one to take a general +view of the commerce of the Roman empire; though, in order to render this +view more complete, it will be necessary in many instances to anticipate +the transactions posterior to the reign of Augustus. We shall, therefore, +in the first place, give a statement of the extent of the Roman empire when +it had reached its utmost limits; secondly, an account of its roads and +communications by land; and, lastly, an abstract of the principal imports +into it, and the laws and finances, so far as they respect its commerce. + +1. The empire, at the death of Augustus, was bounded on the west by the +Atlantic ocean, on the north by the Rhine and the Danube, on the east by +the Euphrates, and on the south by the deserts of Arabia and Africa. The +only addition which it received during the first century was the province +of Britain: with this addition it remained till the reign of Trajan. That +emperor conquered Dacea, and added it to the empire: he also achieved +several conquests in the east; but these were resigned by his successor +Adrian. At this period, therefore, the Roman empire may be considered as +having attained its utmost limits. It is impossible to ascertain the number +of people that were contained within these limits. In the time of Claudius +the Roman citizens were numbered; they amounted to 6,945,000: if to these +be added the usual proportion of women and children, the number will be +encreased to about 20,000,000. If, therefore, we calculate, as we may +fairly do, that there were twice as many provincials as there were citizens +with their wives and children, and that the slaves were at least equal in +number to the provincials, the total population of the Roman empire will +amount to 120,000,000. + +Our ideas of the vastness and wealth of the empire will be still farther +encreased, if we regard the cities which it contained, though it is +impossible to decide in most instances the extent and population of many +places which were honoured with the appellation of cities. Ancient Italy is +said to have contained 1197, Gaul 1200, of which many, such as Marseilles, +Narbonne, Lyons, &c. were large and flourishing; Spain 300, Africa 300, and +Asia Proper 500, of which many were very populous. + +2. All these cities were connected with one another and with Rome itself by +means of the public highways: these issuing from the forum, traversed +Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers of +the empire. The great chain of communication formed by means of them from +the extreme north-west limit of the empire, through Rome to the south-east +limit, was in length nearly 4000 miles. These roads were formed in the most +substantial manner, and with astonishing labour and expence; they were +raised so as to command a prospect of the adjacent country; on each side +was a row of large stones for foot passengers. The miles were reckoned from +the gates of the city and marked on stones: at shorter distances there were +stones for travellers to rest on, or to assist those who wished to mount +their horses: there were cross roads from the principal roads. The care and +management of all the roads were entrusted only to men of the highest rank. +Augustus himself took charge of those near Rome, and appointed two men of +prætorian rank to pave the roads: at the distance of five or six miles +houses were built, each of which was constantly provided with forty horses; +but these could only be used in the public service, except by particular +and express authority. By means of the relays thus furnished, the Romans +could travel along their excellent roads 100 miles a day: they had no +public posts. Augustus first introduced public couriers among the Romans; +but they were employed only to forward the public despatches, or to convey +public intelligence of great and urgent importance. + +Such was the facililty of communication by land from all parts of the +empire to Rome, and from each part to all the other parts: nor was the +communication of the empire less free and open by sea than it was by land. +"The provinces surrounded and enclosed the Mediterranean; and Italy, in the +shape of an immense promontory, advanced into the midst of that great +lake." From Ostia, situated at the mouth of the Tiber, only sixteen miles +from the capital, a favourable wind frequently carried vessels in seven +days to the straits of Gibraltar, and in nine or ten to Alexandria, in +Egypt. + +3. In enumerating the principal articles imported into Rome, for the use of +its immense and luxurious population, we shall, necessarily, recapitulate, +in some degree, what has already been stated in giving an account of the +commerce of the different countries which were conquered by the Romans. But +this objection, we conceive, will be abundantly counterbalanced by the +connected and complete view which we shall thus be enabled to give of the +commerce of the Roman empire. + +Before, however, we enter on this subject, we shall briefly consider the +ideas entertained by the Romans on the subject of commerce. We have already +had occasion incidentally to remark that the Romans thought meanly of it, +and that their grand object in all their conquests was the extension of +their territory; and that they even neglected the commercial facilities and +advantages, which they might have secured by their conquests. This was most +decidedly the case during the time of the republic. The statue of Victory, +which was erected in the port of Ostia, and the medals of the year of Rome +630, marked on the reverse with two ships and a victory, prove that at this +period the Roman fleets that sailed from this port were chiefly designed +for war. The prefects of the fleet were not employed, nor did they consider +it as their duty to attend to commerce, or to the merchant ships, except so +far as to protect them against the pirates. Of the low opinion entertained +by the Romans respecting commerce we have the direct testimony of Cicero: +writing to his son on the subject of professions, he reprobates and +condemns all retail trade as mean and sordid, which can be carried on +successfully only by means of lying. Even the merchant, unless he deals +very extensively, he views with contempt; if, however, he imports from +every quarter articles of great value and in great abundance, and sells +them in a fair and equitable manner, his profession is not much to be +contemned; especially if, after having made a fortune, he retires from +business, and spends the rest of his life in agricultural pursuits: in this +case, he deserves even positive praise. There is another passage of Cicero, +quoted by Dr. Vincent, in his Periplus, in which the same sentiments are +expressed: he says, "Is such a man, who was a merchant and neighbour of +Scipio, greater than Scipio because he is richer?" Pliny, also, though in +his natural history he expatiates in praise of agriculture and gardening, +medicine, painting and statuary, passes over merchandize with the simple +observation that it was invented by the Phoenicians. In the periplus of the +Erythrean sea, and in the works of Ptolemy, &c. the names of many merchants +and navigators occur; but they are all Greeks. Even after the conquest of +Egypt, which gave a more commercial character to the Roman manners, habits +and mode of thinking than they previously possessed, no Roman was permitted +to engage in the trade of that country. + +Although, however, mercantile pursuits were thus underrated and despised by +the warlike portion of the nation, as well as by the philosophers, yet they +were followed by those who regarded gain as the principal object of life. +The wealth of merchants became proverbial: immense numbers of them followed +the armies, and fixed in the provinces subdued or allied,--the _Italici +generis homines_, who were agents, traders, and monopolizers, such as +Jugurtha took in Zama, or the 100,000 Mithridates slaughtered in Asia +Minor, or the merchants killed at Genabum (Orleans). + +In the passage quoted from Cicero de Officiis, he expressly mentions the +merchant who _imports_; but he does not once allude to exportation. +Indeed, the commerce of the Romans, in the most luxurious period of the +empire, was entirely confined to importation, and may, with few exceptions, +be designated as consisting in the expenditure of the immense revenue they +derived from their conquests, and the immense fortunes of individuals, in +the necessaries, comforts, and, above all, the luxuries of the countries +which they had conquered. + +By far the most extensive and important trade which the Romans carried on +at all periods of their history, was the conveyance of corn and other +provisions to the capital. The contiguous territory at no time was +sufficient to supply Rome with corn; and, long before the republic was +destroyed, even Italy was inadequate to this purpose. As the population +encreased, and the former corn fields were converted into pleasure-grounds +or pasture, the demand for corn was proportionally encreased, and the +supply from the neighbourhood proportionally diminished. But there was +another circumstance which rendered a regular and full supply of corn an +object of prime importance: the influence of the patron depended on his +largesses of corn to his clients; and the popularity, and even the reign of +an emperor, was not secure, unless he could insure to the inhabitants this +indispensable necessary of life. There were several laws respecting the +distribution of corn: by one passed in the year of Rome 680, five bushels +were to be given monthly to each of the poorer citizens, and money was to +be advanced annually from the treasury, sufficient to purchase 800,000 +bushels of wheat, of three different qualities and prices. By the +Sempronian law, this corn was to be sold to the poor inhabitants at a very +low price; but by the Clodian law it was to be distributed _gratis_: +the granaries in which this corn was kept were called Horrea Sempronia. The +number of citizens who received corn by public distribution, in the time of +Augustus, amounted to 200,000. Julius Caesar had reduced the number from +320,000 to 150,000. It is doubtful whether five bushels were the allowance +of each individual or of each family; but if Dr. Arbuthnot be correct in +estimating the _modius_ at fourteen pounds, the allowance must have +been for each family, amounting to one quarter seven bushels, and one peck +per annum. + +We have dwelt on these particulars for the purpose of pointing out the +extreme importance of a regular and full supply of corn to Rome; and this +importance is still further proved by the special appointment of +magistrates to superintend this article. The prefect, or governor of the +market, was an ancient establishment in the Roman republic; his duty was to +procure corn: on extraordinary occasions, this magistrate was created for +this express purpose, and the powers granted him seem to have been +increased in the latter periods of the republic, and still more, after the +republic was destroyed. Pompey, who held this office, possessed greater +power and privileges than his immediate predecessor, and in a time of great +scarcity. Augustus, himself, undertook the charge of providing the corn: it +was at the same time determined, that for the future, two men of the rank +of praetors should be annually elected for this purpose; four were +afterwards appointed. It would seem, however, that even their appointment +became an ordinary and regular thing: the emperors themselves superintended +the procuring of corn, for one of their titles was that of +commissary-general of corn. + +Besides this magistrate, whose business was confined to the buying and +importing of corn, there were two aediles, first appointed by Julius +Caesar, whose duty it was to inspect the public stores of corn and other +provisions. + +Till the time of Julius Caesar, the foreign corn for the supply of Rome was +imported into Puteoli, a town of Campania, between Baiae and Naples, about +seventy miles from the capital. As this was very inconvenient, Caesar +formed the plan of making an artificial harbour at the mouth of the Tiber, +at Ostia. This plan, however, was not at this time carried into execution: +Claudius, however, in consequence of a dreadful famine which raged at Rome, +A.D. 42, resolved to accomplish it. He accordingly dug a spacious basin in +the main land; the entrance to which was formed and protected by artificial +moles, which advanced far into the sea; there was likewise a little island +before the mouth of the harbour, on which a light-house was built, after +the model of the Pharos of Alexandria. By the formation of this harbour, +the largest vessel could securely ride at anchor, within three deep and +capacious basins, which received the northern branch of the Tiber, about +two miles from the ancient colony of Ostïa. + +Into this port corn arrived for the supply of Rome from various countries; +immense quantities of wheat were furnished by the island of Sicily. Egypt +was another of the granaries of the capital of the world; according to +Josephus, it supplied Rome with corn sufficient for one-third of its whole +consumption: and Augustus established regular corn voyages from Alexandria +to the capital. Great quantities were also imported from Thrace, and from +Africa Proper. The ships employed in the corn trade, especially between +Egypt and Rome, were the largest of any in the Mediterranean: this probably +arose from the encouragement given to this trade by Tiberius, and +afterwards increased by Claudius. The former emperor gave a bounty of about +fourpence on every peck of corn imported: and Claudius, during the time of +the famine, made the bounty so great as, at all events, and in every +instance, to secure the importers a certain rate of profit. He also used +all his efforts to persuade the merchants to import it even in winter, +taking upon himself all the losses, &c. which might arise from risking +their ships and cargoes, at a time of the year when it was the invariable +practice of the ancients to lay the former up. Whenever an emperor had +distinguished himself by a large importation of corn, especially, if by +this means a famine was avoided or removed, medals seem to have been struck +commemorative of the circumstance; thus, on several medals there is a +figure of a ship, and the words _Annona Aug_. or _Ceres Aug_. Many of these +were struck under Nero, and Antoninus Pius. During the time of the +republic, also, similar medals were struck, with the figure of a prow of a +ship, and an inscription shewing the object for which the fleets had been +sent. + +Having been thus particular in describing the importation of corn, we shall +notice the imports of other articles in a more cursory manner. The northern +parts of Italy furnished salt pork, almost sufficient for the whole +consumption of Rome, tapestry, and woollen cloths, wool, and marble; to +convey the latter, there were ships of a peculiar form and construction; +steel, crystal, ice, and cheese. + +From Liguria, Rome received wood for building, of a very large size, ship +timber, fine and beautiful wood for tables, cattle, hides, honey, and +coarse wool. Etruria, also, supplied timber, cheese, wine, and stone; the +last was shipped at the ports of Pisa and Luna. Pitch and tar were sent +from Brutium; oil and wine from the country of the Sabines. Such were the +principal imports from the different parts of Italy. + +From Corsica, timber for ship building; from Sardinia, a little corn and +cattle; from Sicily, besides corn,--wine, honey, salt, saffron, cheese, +cattle, pigeons, corals, and a species of emerald. Cloth, but whether linen +or cotton is uncertain, was imported from Malta; honey, from Attica. +Lacedemon supplied green marble, and the dye of the purple shell-fish. From +the Grecian islands, there were imported Parian marble, the earthenware of +Samos, the vermilion of Lemnos, and other articles, principally of luxury. +Thrace supplied salted tunnies, the produce of the Euxine Sea, besides +corn. The finest wool was imported from Colchis, and also hemp, flax, +pitch, and fine linens: these goods, as well as articles brought overland +from India, were shipped from the port of Phasis. The best cheese used at +Rome, was imported from Bithynia. Phrygia supplied a stone like alabaster, +and the country near Laodicea, wool of excellent quality, some of which was +of a deep black colour. The wine drank at Rome, was principally the produce +of Italy; the best foreign wine, was imported from Ionia. Woollen goods, +dyed with Tyrian purple, were imported from Miletus, in Caria. An inferior +species of diamond, copper, resin, and sweet oil were imported from Cyprus. +Cedar, gums, balsam, and alabaster, were supplied by Syria, Phoenicia, and +Palestine. Glass was imported from Sidon, as well as embroidery and purple +dye, and several kinds of fish, from Tyre. The goods that were brought from +India, by the route of Palmyra, were shipped for Rome, from the ports of +Syria. Egypt, besides corn, supplied flax, fine linen, ointments, marble, +alabaster, salt, alum, gums, paper, cotton goods, some of which, as well as +of their linens, seem to have been coloured or printed, glass ware, &c. The +honey lotus, the lotus, or nymphæa of Egypt, the stalk of which contained a +sweet substance, which was considered as a luxury by the Egyptians, and +used as bread, was sometimes carried to Rome; it was also used as provision +for mariners. Alexandria was the port from which all the produce and +manufactories of Egypt, as well as all the ports which passed through this +country from India, were shipped. In consequence of its becoming the seat +of the Roman government in Egypt, of the protection which it thus received, +and of its commerce being greatly extended by the increased wealth and +luxury of Rome, its extent and population were greatly augmented; according +to Diodorus Siculus, in the time of Augustus, from whose reign it became +the greatest emporium of the world, it contained 300,000 free people. + +That part of Africa which was formerly possessed by the Carthaginians, +besides corn, sent to Rome, honey, drugs, marble, the eggs and feathers of +the ostrich, ostriches, elephants, and lions; the last for the +amphitheatre. From Mauritania, there were exported to the capital, timber +of a fine grain and excellent quality, the exact nature of which is not +known; this was sold at an enormous rate, and used principally for making +very large tables. + +Spain supplied Rome with a very great number and variety of articles; from +the southern parts of it were exported corn, wine, oil, honey, wax, pitch, +scarlet dye, vermilion, salt, salted provisions, wool, &c. From the eastern +part of the north of Spain were exported salted provisions, cordage made of +the _spartum_, silver, earthenware, linen, steel, &c. The Balearic +islands exported some wine. The trade of Spain to Rome employed a great +number of vessels, almost as many as those which were employed in the whole +of the African trade; this was especially the case in the reigns of +Augustus and Tiberius. Even in the time of Julius Caesar, Spain had +acquired great wealth, principally by her exports to Rome. The ports from +which the greatest part of these commodities were shipped, were Cadiz, New +Carthage, and a port at the mouth of the Boetis, where, for the security of +the shipping, a light-house had been built. Cadiz was deemed the rival of +Alexandria in importance, shipping, and commerce; and so great was the +resort of merchants, &c. to it, that many of them, not being able to build +houses for want of room on the land, lived entirely upon the water. + +From Gaul, Rome received gold, silver, iron, &c. which were sent as part of +the tribute; also linens, corn, cheese, and salted pork. Immense flocks of +geese travelled by land to Rome. The chief ports which sent goods to Rome +were Marseilles, Arles, and Narbonne, on the Mediterranean; and on the +Ocean, Bourdeau, and the port of the Veneti. It appears that there were a +considerable number of Italian or Roman merchants resident in Gaul, whose +principal trade it was to carry the wine made in the south of this +province, up the Rhine, and there barter it for slaves. + +From Britain, Rome was supplied with tin, lead, cattle, hides, ornaments of +bone, vessels made of amber and glass, pearls, slaves, dogs, bears, &c. The +tin was either shipped from the island of Ictis (Isle of Wight), or sent +into Gaul: most of the other articles reached Rome through Gaul. The +principal article brought to Rome was amber. + +We now come to the consideration of the articles with which Asia supplied +Rome; these, as may be easily imagined, were principally articles of +luxury. The murrhine cups, of the nature of which there has been much +unsatisfactory discussion, according to Pliny, came from Karmania in +Parthia; from Parthia they came to Egypt, and thence to Rome. It is +probable, however, that they came, in the first instance, from India, as +they are expressly mentioned by the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean +Sea, as brought down from the capital of Guzerat, to the port of Baragyza. +These cups were first seen at Rome, in the triumphal procession of Pompey, +when he returned from the shores of the Caspian Sea. They sold at enormous +prices; and were employed at the tables only of the great and wealthy, as +cups for drinking; they were in general of a small size. One, which held +three pints, sold for nearly 14,000_l_.; and Nero gave nearly +59,000_l_. for another. So highly were they prized, that, in the +conquest of Egypt, Augustus was content to select, for his own share, out +of all the spoils of Alexandria, a single murrhine cup.[5] Precious stones +and pearls were imported from Persia and Babylonia; the latter country also +furnished the wealthy Romans with _triclinaria_, which was furniture +of some description, but whether quilts, carpets, or curtains is not +ascertained. Persia supplied also incense of a very superior quality. The +various and valuable commodities with which Arabia supplied the profusion +and luxury of Rome, reached that capital from the port of Alexandria in +Egypt. We cannot enumerate the whole of them, but must confine ourselves to +a selection of the most important and valuable. Great demand, and a high +rate of profits necessarily draw to any particular trade a great number of +merchants; it is not surprising, therefore, that the trade in the luxuries +of the east was so eagerly followed at Rome. Pliny informs us, that the +Roman world was exhausted by a drain of 400,000_l_. a year, for the +purchase of luxuries, equally expensive and superfluous; and in another +place, he estimates the rate of profit made at Rome, by the importation and +sale of oriental luxuries at 100 per cent. + +Arabia furnished diamonds, but these were chiefly of a small size, and +other gems and pearls. At Rome the diamond possessed the highest value; the +pearl, the second; and the emerald, the third. Nero used an emerald as an +eye-glass for short sight. But though large and very splendid diamonds +brought a higher price at Rome than pearls, yet the latter, in general, +were in much greater repute; they were worn in almost every part of the +dress, by persons of almost every rank. The famous pearl ear-rings of +Cleopatra were valued at 161,458_l_., and Julius Caesar presented the +mother of Brutus with a pearl, for which he paid 48,457_l_. +Frankincense, myrrh, and other precious drugs, were also brought to Rome +from Arabia, through the port of Alexandria. There was a great demand at +Rome for spices and aromatics, from the custom of the Romans to burn their +dead, and also from the consumption of frankincense, &c. in their temples. +At the funeral of Sylla 210 bundles of spices were used. Nero burnt, at the +funeral of Poppaea, more cinnamon and cassia than the countries from which +they were imported produced in one year. In the reign of Augustus, +according to Horace, one whole street was occupied by those who dealt in +frankincense, pepper, and other aromatics. Frankincense was also imported +into Rome from Gaza, on the coast of Palestine; according to Pliny, it was +brought to this place by a caravan, that was sixty-two days on its journey: +the length of the journey, frauds, impositions, duties; &c. brought every +camel's load to upward of 22_l_.; and a pound of the best sort sold at +Rome for ten shillings. Alexandria, however, was the great emporium for +this, as well as all the other produce of India and Arabia. Pliny is +express and particular on this point, and takes notice of the precautions +employed by the merchants there, in order to guard against adulteration and +fraud. Cinnamon, another of the exports of Arabia to Rome, though not a +production of that country, was also in high repute, and brought an +extravagant price. Vespasian was the first who dedicated crowns of +cinnamon, inclosed in gold filagree, in the Capitol and the Temple of +Peace; and Livia dedicated the root in the Palatine Temple of Augustus. The +plant itself was brought to the emperor Marcus Aurelius in a case seven +feet long, and was exhibited at Rome, as a very great rarity. This, +however, we are expressly informed came from Barbarike in India. It seems +to have been highly valued by other nations as well as by the Romans: +Antiochus Epiphanes carried a few boxes of it in a triumphal procession: +and Seleucus Callinicus presented two minae of it and two of cassia, as a +gift to the king of the Milesians. In the enumeration of the gifts made by +this monarch, we may, perhaps, trace the comparative rarity and value of +the different spices of aromatics among the ancients: of frankincense he +presented ten talents, of myrrh one talent, of cassia two pounds, of +cinnamon two pounds, and of costus one pound. Frankincense and myrrh were +the productions of Arabia; the other articles of India; of course the +former could be procured with much less difficulty and expence than the +latter. Spikenard, another Indian commodity, also reached Rome, through +Arabia, by means of the port of Alexandria. Pliny mentions, that both the +leaves and the spices were of great value, and that the odour was the most +esteemed in the composition of all unguents. The price at Rome was 100 +denarii a pound. The markets at which the Arabian and other merchants +bought it were Patala on the Indus, Ozeni, and a mart on or near the +Ganges. + +Sugar, also, but of a quality inferior to that of India, was imported from +Arabia, through Alexandria, into Rome. The Indian sugar, which is expressly +mentioned by Pliny, as better and higher priced, was brought to Rome, but +by what route is not exactly known, probably by means of the merchants who +traded to the east coast of Africa; where the Arabians either found it, or +imported it from India. In the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, and likewise +in the rescript of the Roman emperors, relative to the articles imported +into Egypt from the East, which was promulgated by Marcus Aurelius and his +son Commodus, about the year A.D. 176, it is denominated cane-honey, +otherwise called sugar (sacchar). So early, therefore, as the Periplus +(about the year A.D. 73,) the name of sacchar was known to the Romans, and +applied by them to sugar. This word does not occur in any earlier author, +unless Dioscorides lived before that period, which is uncertain. It may be +remarked, that the nature, as well as the proper appellation of sugar, must +have been but imperfectly, and not generally known, even at the time of the +rescript, otherwise the explanatory phrase, honey made from cane, would not +have been employed. + +The first information respecting sugar was brought to Europe by Nearchus, +the admiral of Alexander. In a passage quoted from his journal by Strabo, +it is described as honey made from reeds, there being no bees in that part +of India. In a fragment of Theophrastus, preserved by Photius, he mentions, +among other kinds of honey, one that is found in reeds. The first mention +of any preparation, by which the juice of the reed was thickened, occurs in +Eratosthenes, as quoted by Strabo, where he describes roots of large reeds +found in India, which were sweet to the taste, both when raw and boiled. +Dioscorides and Pliny describe it as used chiefly, if not entirely, for +medical purposes. In the time of Galen, A.D. 131, it would appear to have +become more common and cheaper at Rome; for he classes it with medicines +that may be easily procured. It seems probable, that though the Arabians +undoubtedly cultivated the sugar-cane, and supplied Rome with sugar from +it, yet they derived their knowledge of it from India; for the Arabic name, +shuker, which was adopted by the Greeks and Romans, is formed from the two +middle syllables of the Sanskrit word, ich-shu-casa. + +But to return from this digression to the view of the imports into Rome: +Ethiopia supplied the capital with cinnamon of an inferior quality; marble, +gems, ivory; the horns of the rhinoceros and tortoiseshell. The last +article was in great demand, and brought a high price: it was used for +ornament, for furniture; as beds, tables, doors, &c.; not only in Italy, +but in Greece and Egypt: the finest sort was sold for its weight of silver. +It was imported not only from Ethiopia but also from the east coast of +Africa, and reached Rome even from Malabar and Malacca. The opsian stone +mentioned in the Periplus, and the opsidian stone described by Pliny, are +stated in both these authors to have come from Ethiopia; but whether they +were the same, and their exact nature, are not known. The opsian is +described as capable of receiving a high polish, and on that account as +having been used by the Emperor Domitian to face a portico. Pliny describes +it as employed to line rooms in the same manner as mirrors; he +distinguishes it from a spurious kind, which was red, but not transparent. +The dye extracted from the purple shell fish was imported into Rome from +Getulia, a country on the south side of Mauritania. + +Rome was supplied with the commodities of India chiefly from Egypt; but +there were other routes by which also they reached the capital: of these it +will be proper to take some notice. + +The most ancient communication between India and the countries on the +Mediterranean was by the Persian Gulf, through Mesopotamia, to the coasts +of Syria and Palestine. To facilitate the commerce which was carried on by +this route, Solomon is supposed to have built Tadmor in the wilderness, or +Palmyra: the situation of this place, which, though in the midst of barren +sands, is plentifully supplied with water, and has immediately round it a +fertile soil, was peculiarly favorable; as it was only 85 miles from the +Euphrates, and about 117 from the nearest part of the Mediterranean. By +this route the most valuable commodities of India, most of which were of +such small bulk as to beat the expence of a long land carriage, were +conveyed. From the age of Nebuchadnezzar to the Macedonian conquest, +Tiredon on the Euphrates was the city at which this commercial route began, +and which the Babylonians made use of, as the channel of their oriental +trade. After the destruction of Tyre by that monarch, a great part of the +traffic which had passed by Arabia, or the Red Sea, through Idumea and +Egypt, and that city, was diverted to the Persian Gulf, and through his +territories in Mesopotamia it passed by Palmyra and Damascus, through Syria +to the west. After the reduction of Babylon by Cyrus, the Persians, who +paid no attention to commerce, suffered Babylon and Ninevah to sink into +ruin; but Palmyra still remained, and flourished as a commercial city. +Under the Seleucidæ it seems to have reached its highest degree of +importance, splendour, and wealth; principally by supplying the Syrians +with Indian commodities. For upwards of two centuries after the conquest of +Syria by the Romans it remained free, and its friendship and alliance were +courted both by them and the Parthians. During this period we have the +express testimony of Appian, that it traded with both these nations, and +that Rome and the other parts of the empire received the commodities of +India from it. In the year A.D. 273, it was reduced and destroyed by +Aurelian, who found in it an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and +precious stones. From this period, it never revived, or became a place of +the least importance or trade. + +On the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the commercial communication between +India and Europe returned to Arabia in the south, and to the Caspian and +the Euxine in the north: there seem to have been two routes by these seas, +both of great antiquity. In describing one of them, the ancient writers are +supposed to have confounded the river Ochus, which falls into the Caspian, +with the Oxus, which falls into the lake of Aral. On this supposition, the +route may be traced in the following manner: the produce and manufactuers +of India were collected at Patala, a town near the mouth of the Indus; they +were carried in vessels up this river as far as it was navigable, where +they were landed, and conveyed by caravans to the Oxus: being again +shipped, they descended this river to the point where it approached nearest +to the Ochus, to which they were conveyed by caravans. By the Ochus they +were conveyed to the Caspian, and across it to the mouth of the river +Cyrus, which was ascended to where it approached nearest the Phasis: +caravans were employed again, till the merchandize were embarked at +Serapana on the Phasis, and thus brought to the Black Sea. According to +Pliny, Pompey took great pains to inform himself of this route; and he +ascertained, that by going up the Cyrus the goods would be brought within +five day's journey of the Phasis. There seems to have been some plan formed +at different times, and thought of by the Emperor Claudius, to join Asia to +Europe and the Caspian Sea, by a canal from the Cimmerian Bosphorus to the +Caspian Sea. + +The route which we have thus particularly described was sometimes deviated +from by the merchants: they carried their goods up the Oxus till it fell +into lake Aral; crossing this, they transported them in caravans to the +Caspian, and ascending the Wolga to its nearest approach to the Tanais, +they crossed to the latter by land, and descended it to the sea of Azoph. + +Strabo describes another route: viz. across the Caucasus, from the Caspian +to the Black Sea; this writer, however, must be under some mistake, for +camels, which he expressly says were employed, would be of no use in +crossing the mountains; it is probable, therefore, that this land +communication was round by the mouth of the Caspian,--a route which was +frequented by the merchants of the middle ages. + +As the Euxine Sea was the grand point to which all these routes tended, the +towns on it became the resort of an immense number of merchants, even at +very early ages; and the kingdoms of Prusias, Attalus, and Mithridates were +enriched by their commerce. Herodotus mentions, that the trade of the +Euxine was conducted by interpreters of seven different languages. In the +time of Mithridates, 300 different nations, or tribes, met for commercial +purposes at Dioscurias in Colchis; and soon after the Romans conquered the +countries lying on the Euxine, there were 130 interpreters of languages +employed in this and the other trading towns. The Romans, however, as soon +as they became jealous, or afraid, of the power of the Parthians, would not +suffer them, or any other of the northern nations, to traffic by the +Euxine; but endeavoured, as far as they could, to confine the commerce of +the East to Alexandria: the consequence was, that even so early as the age +of Pliny, Dioscurias was deserted. + +The only article of import into Rome that remains to be considered is silk: +the history of the knowledge and importation of this article among the +ancients, and the route by which it was obtained, will comprise all that it +will be necessary to say on this subject. + +The knowledge of silk was first brought into Europe through the conquests +of Alexander the Great. Strabo quotes a passage from Nearchus, in which it +is mentioned, but apparently confounded, with cotton. It is well known that +Aristotle obtained a full and accurate account of all the discoveries in +natural history which were made during the conquests of Alexander, and he +gives a particular description of the silk worm; so particular, indeed, +that it is surprising how the ancients could, for nearly 600 years after +his death, be ignorant of the nature and origin of silk. He describes the +silk worm as a horned worm, which he calls bombyx, which passes through +several transformations, and produces bombytria. It does not appear, +however, that he was acquainted either with the native country of this +[work->worm], or with such a people as the Seres; and this is the only +reason for believing that he may allude entirely to a kind of silk made at +Cos, especially as he adds, that some women in this island decomposed the +bombytria, and re-wove and re-spun it. Pliny also mentions the bombyx, and +describes it as a natiye of Assyria; he adds, that the Assyrians made +bombytria from it, and that the inhabitants of Cos learnt the manufacture +from them. The most propable supposition is, that silk was spun and wove in +Assyria and Cos, but the raw material imported into these countries from +the Seres; for the silk worm was deemed by the Greeks and Romans so +exclusively and pre-eminently the attribute of the Sinae, that from this +very circumstance, they were denominated seres, or silk worms, by the +ancients. + +The next authors who mention silk are Virgil, and Dionysius the geographer; +Virgil supposed the Seres to card their silk from leaves,--_Velleraque ut +foliis depectunt tentuia Seres_.--Dionysius, who was sent by Augustus to +draw up an account of the Oriental regions, says, that rich and valuable +garments were manufactured by the Seres from threads, finer than those of +the spider, which they combed from flowers. + +It is not exactly known at what period silk garments were first worn at +Rome: Lipsius, in his notes on Tacitius, says, in the reign of Julius +Csesar. In the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, a law was made, that no +man should dishonor himself by wearing a silken garment. We have already +stated the opinion entertained by Pliny respecting the native country of +the silk worm; this author condemns in forcible, though affected language, +the thirst of gain, which explored the remotest parts of the earth for the +purpose of exposing to the public eye naked draperies and transparent +matrons. In his time, slight silks, flowered, seem to have been introduced +into religious ceremonies, as he describes crowns, in honour of the +deities, of various colours, and highly perfumed, made of silk. The next +author who mentions silk is Pausanias; he says, the thread from which the +Seres form their web is not from any kind of bark, but is obtained in a +different way; they have in their country a spinning insect, which the +Greeks call seer. He supposes that the insect lived five years, and fed on +green haulm: by the last particular, it is not improbable he meant the +leaves of the mulberry tree. For 200 years after the age of Pliny, the use +of silk was confined to the female sex, till the richer citizens, both of +the capital and the provinces, followed the example of Heliogabalus, the +first man, who, according to Lampridius, wore _holosericum_ that is, a +garment which was all of silk. From this expression, however, it is +evident, that previous to this period the male inhabitants of Rome had been +in the habit of wearing garments made of silk mixed with linen or woollen. + +Hitherto there is no intimation in ancient authors of the price of silk at +Rome; in the time of Aurelian, however, that is towards the end of the +third century, we learn the high price at which it was rated, in an +indirect manner. For when the wife of that Emperor begged of him to permit +her to have but one single garment of purple silk; he refused it, saying, +that one pound of silk sold at Rome for 12 ounces, or its weight of gold. +This agrees with what is laid down in the Rhodian maritime laws, as they +appear in the eleventh book of the Digests, according to which unmixed silk +goods paid a salvage, if they were saved without being damaged by the sea +water, of ten per cent., as being equal in value to gold. + +In about 100 years after the reign of Aurelian, however, the importation of +silk into Rome must have increased very greatly; for Ammianus Marcellinus, +who flourished A.D. 380, expressly states that silk, which had formerly +been confined to the great and rich, was, in his time, within the purchase +of the common people. Constantinople was founded about forty years before +he wrote; and it naturally found its way there in greater abundance than it +had done, when Rome was the capital of the empire. + +From this time, till the middle of the sixth century, we have no particular +information respecting the silk trade of the Roman empire. At this period, +during the reign of Justinian, silk had become an article of very general +and indispensible use: but the Persians had occupied by land and sea the +monopoly of this article, so that the inhabitants of Tyre and Berytus, who +had all along manufactured it for the Roman market, were no longer able to +procure a sufficient supply, even at an extravagant price. Besides, when +the manufactured goods were brought within the Roman territories, they were +subject to a duty of ten per cent. Justinian, under these circumstances, +very impolitically ordered that silk should be sold at the rate of eight +pieces of gold for the pound, or about 3_l_. 4s. The consequence was +such as might have been expected: silk goods were no longer imported; and +to add to the injustice and the evil, Theodora, the emperor's wife, seized +all the silk, and fined the merchants very heavily. It was therefore +necessary, that Justinian should have recourse to other measures to obtain +silk goods; instead, however, of restoring the trade of Egypt, which at +this period had fallen into utter decay, and sending vessels directly from +the Red Sea to the Indian markets, where the raw material might have been +procured, he had recourse to Arabia and Abyssinia. According to Suidas, he +wished the former to import the silk in a raw state, intending to +manufacture it in his own dominions. But the king of Abyssinia declined the +offer; as the vicinity of the Persians to the Indian markets for silk +enabled them to purchase it at a cheaper rate than the Abyssinians could +procure it. The same obstacle prevented the Arabians from complying with +the request of Justinian. + +The wealthy and luxurious Romans, therefore, must have been deprived of +this elegant material for their dresses, had not their wishes been +gratified by an unexpected event. Two Persian monks travelled to Serindi, +where they had lived long enough to become acquainted with the various +processes for spinning and manufacturing silk. When they returned, they +communicated their information to Justinian; and were induced, by his +promises, to undertake the transportation of the eggs of the silk-worm, +from China to Constantinople. Accordingly, they went back to Serindi, and +brought away a quantity of the eggs in a hollow cane, and conveyed them +safely to Constantinople. They superintended and directed the hatching of +the eggs, by the heat of a dunghill: the worms were fed on mulberry leaves: +a sufficient number of butterflies were saved to keep up the stock; and to +add to the benefits already conferred, the Persian monks taught the Romans +the whole of the manufacture. From Constantinople, the silk-worms were +conveyed to Greece, Sicily, and Italy. In the succeeding reign, the Romans +had improved so much in the management of the silk-worms, and in the +manufacture of silk, that the Serindi ambassadors, on their arrival in +Constantinople, acknowledged that the Romans were not inferior to the +natives of China, in either of these respects. It may be mentioned, in +further proof of the opinion already given, that the silk manufactures of +Cos were not supplied from silk-worms in that island, that we have the +express authority of Theophanes and Zonaras, that, before silk-worms were +brought to Constantinople, in the reign of Justinian, no person in that +city knew that silk was produced by a worm. This, certainly, would not have +been the case, if there had been silk-worms so near Constantinople as the +island of Cos is. All the authors whom we have quoted, (with the exception +of Aristotle, Pliny, and Pausanias,) including a period of six centuries, +supposed that silk was made from fleeces growing upon trees, from the bark +of trees, or from flowers. These mistakes, may, indeed, have arisen from +the Romans having heard of the silk being taken from the mulberry and other +trees, on which the worms feed; but, however they originated, they plainly +prove that the native country of the silk-worm was at a very great distance +from Rome, and one of which they had very little knowledge. + +Having thus brought the history of this most valuable import into Rome, +down to the period, when, in consequence of the Romans having acquired the +silk-worm, there existed no longer any necessity to import the raw +materials; we shall next proceed to investigate the routes by which it was +brought from the Seres to the western parts of Asia, and thence to Rome. It +is well ascertained, that the silk manufacture was established at Tyre and +Berytus, from a very early period; and these places seem to have supplied +Rome with silk stuffs. But, by what route did silk arrive thither, and to +the other countries, so as to be within the immediate reach of the +Romans?--There were two routes, by which it was introduced to Europe, and +the contiguous parts of Asia: by land and sea. + +The route by sea is pointed out in a clear and satisfactory manner, by some +of the ancient authors, particularly the author of the Periplus of the +Erythrean Sea. In enumerating the exports from Nelkundah, he particularly +mentions silk stuffs, and adds, that they were brought to this place from +countries further to the east. Nelkundah was a town in Malabar, about +twelve miles up a small river, at the mouth of which was the port of +Barake; at this port, the vessels of the ancients rode till their lading +was brought down from Nelkundah. This place seems to have been the +centrical mart between the countries that lie to the east and west of Cape +Comorin, or the hither and further peninsula of India; fleets sailed from +it to Khruse, which there is every reason to believe was part of the +peninsula of Malacca; and we have the authority of Ptolemy, that there was +a commercial communication between it and the northern provinces of China. +But at a later period than the age of the Periplus, silk was brought by sea +from China to Ceylon, and thence conveyed to Africa and Europe. Cosmos, who +lived in the sixth century, informs us, that the Tzenistæ or Chinese, +brought to Ceylon, silks, aloes, cloves, and sandal wood. That his +Tzenistsæ, are the Chinese, there can be no doubt; for he mentions them as +inhabiting a country producing silk, beyond which there is no country, for +the ocean encircles it oh the east. From this it is evident that the +Tzenistæ of this author, and the Seres of the ancients, are the same; and +in specifying the imports into Ceylon, he mentions silk thread, as coming +from countries farther to the east, particularly from the Chinese. We thus +see by what sea route silk was brought from China to those places with +which the western nations had a communication; it was imported either into +the peninsula of Malacca by sea, and thence by sea to Nelkundah, whence it +was brought by a third voyage to the Red Sea; or it was brought directly +from China to Ceylon, from which place there was a regular sea +communication also with the Red Sea. + +The author of the Periplus informs us, that raw as well as manufactured +silk were conveyed by land through Bactria, to Baraguza or Guzerat, and by +the Ganges to Limurike; according to this first route, the silks of China +must have come the whole length of Tartary, from the great wall, into +Bactria; from Bactria, they passed the mountains to the sources of the +Indus, and by that river they were brought down to Patala, or Barbarike, in +Scindi, and thence to Guzerat: the line must have been nearly the same when +silk was brought to the sources of the Ganges; at the mouth of this river, +it was embarked for Limurike in Canara. All the silk, therefore, that went +by land to Bactria, passed down the Indus to Guzerat; all that deviated +more to the east, and came by Thibet, passed down the Ganges to Bengal. + +A third land route by which silk was brought to the Persian merchants, and +by them sold to the Romans, was from Samarcand and Bochara, through the +northern provinces of China, to the metropolis of the latter country: this, +however, was a long, difficult, and dangerous route. From Samarcand to the +first town of the Chinese, was a journey of from 60 to 100 days; as soon as +the caravans passed the Jaxartes, they entered the desert, in which they +were necessarily exposed to great privations, as well as to great risk from +the wandering tribes. The merchants of Samarcand and Bochara, on their +return from China, transported the raw or manufactured silk into Persia; +and the Persian merchants sold it to the Romans at the fairs of Armenia and +Nisibis. + +Another land route is particularly described by Ptolemy: according to his +detail, this immense inland communication began from the bay of Issus, in +Cilicia; it then crossed Mesopotamia, from the Euphrates to the Tigris, +near Hieropolis: it then passed through part of Assyria and Media, to +Ecbatana and the Caspian Pass; after this, through Parthia to Hecatompylos: +from this place to Hyrcania; then to Antioch, in Margiana; and hence into +Bactria. From Bactria, a mountainous country was to be crossed, and the +country of the Sacæ, to Tachkend, or the Stone Tower. Near this place was +the station of those merchants who traded directly with the Seres. The +defile of Conghez was next passed, and the region of Cosia or Cashgar +through the country of the Itaguri, to the capital of China. Seven months +were employed on this journey, and the distance in a right line amounted to +2800 miles. That the whole of this journey was sometimes performed by +individuals for the purchase of silk and other Chinese commodities, we have +the express testimony of Ptolemy; for he informs us, that Maes, a +Macedonian merchant, sent his agent through the entire route which we have +just described. It is not surprising, therefore, that silk should have +borne such an exorbitant price at Rome; but it is astonishing that any +commodity, however precious, could bear the expence of such a land +carriage. + +The only other routes by land, by which silk was brought from China into +Europe, seem to have corresponded, in the latter part of their direction, +with the land routes from India, already described. Indeed, it may +naturally be supposed, that the Indian merchants, as soon as they learned +the high prices of silk at Rome, would purchase it, and send it along with +the produce and manufactures of their own country, by the caravans to +Palmyra, and by river navigation to the Euxine: and we have seen, that on +the capture of Palmyra, by Aurelian, silk was one of the articles of +plunder. + +We are now to take notice of the laws which were passed by the Romans for +the improvement of navigation and commerce; and in this part of our subject +we shall follow the same plan and arrangement which we have adopted in +treating of the commerce itself; that is, we shall give a connected view of +these laws, or at least the most important of them, from the period when +the Romans began to interest themselves in commerce, till the decline of +the empire. + +These laws may be divided into three heads: first, laws relating to the +protection and privileges allowed to mariners by the Roman emperors; +secondly, laws relating to particular fleets; and lastly, laws relating to +particular branches of trade. + +1. The fifth title of the thirteenth book of the Theodosian code of laws +entirely relates to the privileges of mariners. It appears, from this, that +by a law made by the Emperor Constans, and confirmed by Julian, protection +was granted to them from all personal injuries; and it was expressly +ordered, that they should enjoy perfect security, and be defended from all +sort of violence and injustice. The emperor Justinian considered this law +so indispensably necessary to secure the object which it had in view, that +he not only adopted it into his famous code, but decreed that whoever +should seize and apply the ships of mariners, against their wishes, to any +other purpose than that for which they were designed, should be punished +with death. In the same part of his code, he repeats and confirms a law of +the emperors Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, inflicting death on any one +who should insult seafaring men. In another law, adopted into the same code +from the statutes of former emperors, judges and magistrates are forbidden, +on pain of death, to give them any manner of trouble. They were also +exempted from paying tribute, though the same law which exempts them, taxes +merchants. No person who had exercised any mean or dishonourable employment +was allowed to become a mariner; and the emperors Constantine and Julian +raised them to the dignity of knights, and, shortly afterwards, they were +declared capable of being admitted into the senate. + +As a counterbalance to those privileges and honours, it appears, that +mariners, at least such of them as might be required for the protection of +the state, were obliged to conform themselves to certain rules and +conditions, otherwise the laws already quoted did not benefit them. They +were obliged to possess certain lands; and, indeed, it would seem that the +profession and privileges of a mariner depended on his retaining these +lands. When these lands were sold, the purchaser was obliged to perform +towards the state all those services which were required of a mariner, and +in return he obtained all the privileges, dignities, and exemptions granted +to that class of men. This, however, was productive of great inconvenience +to the state; since, if the lands were purchased by persons ignorant of +maritime affairs, they could not be so effective as persons accustomed to +the sea. From this consideration a law was passed, that when such lands as +were held on condition of sea-service passed into the possession of those +who were unaccustomed to the sea, they should revert to their original +owners. It was also ordered, that such privileged mariners should +punctually perform all services required of them by the state; that they +should not object to carry any particular merchandize; that they should not +take into their vessels above a certain quantity of goods, in order that +they might not, by being over laden, be rendered unfit for the service of +the state; and that they should not change their employment for any other, +even though it were more honourable or lucrative. The whole shipping, and +all the seamen, seem thus to have been entirely under the management and +controul of the state; there were, however, a few exceptions. Individuals, +who possessed influence sufficient, or from other causes, were permitted to +possess ships of their own, but only on the express condition that the +state might command them and the services of their crews, whenever it was +necessary. The legal rate of interest was fixed by Justinian at six per +cent.; but for the convenience and encouragement of trade, eight was +allowed on money lent to merchants and manufacturers; and twelve on the +risk of bottomry. + +2. There are several laws in the Theodosian code which relate to the +different fleets of the empire: the Eastern fleet, the principal port of +which was Seleucia, a city of Syria, on the Orontes, by which were conveyed +to Rome and Constantinople, all the oriential merchandize that came by the +land route we have described to Syria, was particularly noticed, as well as +some smaller fleets depending on it, as the fleet of the island of +Carpathus. The privileges granted to the African fleet are expressly given +to the Eastern fleet. + +In another part of the code of Justinian, the trade between the Romans and +Persians is regulated: the places were the fairs and markets are to be kept +are fixed and named; these were near the confines of the two kingdoms; and +these confines neither party was allowed to pass. + +From a law of the emperor Constans, inserted in the Theodosian code, it +appears that some of the ships which came from Spain to Rome were freighted +for the service of the state; and these are particularly regulated and +privileged in this law. + +There were several laws made also respecting the fleet which the emperors +employed for the purpose of collecting the tribute and revenue, and +conveying it to Home and Constantinople. The law of the emperors Leo and +Zeno, which is inserted in the Justinian code, mentions the fleet which was +kept to guard the treasures: and by another law, taken from the Theodosian +code, we learn, that the guards of the treasures, who went in this fleet, +were officers under the superintendent of the imperial revenue. + +3. We have already mentioned the dependence of Rome on foreign nations for +corn, and the encouragement given, during the republic and in the early +times of the empire, to the importation of this necessary article. In the +Theodosian and Justinian code, encouragement to the importation of it seems +still to have been a paramount object, especially from Egypt; for though +from an edict of Justinian it would appear that the cargoes from this +country, of whatever they consisted, were guarded and encouraged by law, +yet we know that the principal freight of the ships which traded between +Alexandria and Rome and Constantinople was corn, and that other merchandize +was taken on board the corn fleets only on particular occasions, or, where +it was necessary, to complete the cargoes. Among the other edicts of +Justinian, regulating the trade of Egypt, there is one which seems to have +been passed in consequence of the abuses that had crept into the trade of +corn and other commodities, which were shipped from Alexandria for +Constantinople. These abuses arose from the management of this trade being +in the hands of a very few persons: the emperor therefore passed a law, +dividing the management into different branches, each to be held by +separate individuals. From the code of Justinian we also learn, that corn +was embarked from other ports of Egypt besides Alexandria, by private +merchants; but these were not permitted to export it without permission of +the emperor, and even then not till after the imperial fleet was fairly at +sea. The importance of the corn trade of Egypt fully justified these laws; +for at this period Constantinople was annually supplied with 260,000 +quarters of wheat from this country. + +The resources of the Romans were principally derived from the tribute +levied on the conquered countries; but in part also from duties on +merchandize: in the latter point of view, alone, they fall under our +notice. No custom duties seem to have been imposed till the time of +Augustus; but in his reign, and that of his immediate successors, duties +were imposed on every kind of merchandize which was imported into Rome; the +rate varied from the eighth to the fortieth part of the value of the +article. The most full and minute list of articles of luxury on which +custom duties were levied, is to be found in the rescript of the emperors +Marcus and Commodus, relating to the goods imported into Egypt from the +East. In the preamble to this rescript it is expressly declared, that no +blame shall attach to the collectors of the customs, for not informing the +merchant of the amount of the custom duties while the goods are in transit; +but if the merchant wishes to enter them, the officer is not to lead him +into error. The chief and most valuable articles on which, by this +rescript, duties were to be levied, were cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, ginger, +and aromatics; precious stones; Parthian and Babylonian leather; cottons; +silks, raw and manufactured: ebony, ivory, and eunuchs. + +Till the reign of Justinian, the straits of the Bosphorus and Hellespont +were open to the freedom of trade, nothing being prohibited but the +exportation of arms for the service of the barbarians: but the avarice, or +the profusion of that emperor, stationed at each of the gates of +Constantinople a praetor, whose duty it was to levy a duty on all goods +brought into the city, while, on the other hand, heavy custom duties were +exacted on all vessels and merchandize that entered the harbour. This +emperor also exacted in a most rigorous manner, a duty in kind: which, +however, had existed long before his time: we allude to the annona, or +supply of corn for use of the army and capital. This was a grievous and +arbitrary exaction: rendered still more so "by the partial injustice of +weights and measures, and the expence and labour of distant carriage." In a +time of scarcity, Justinian ordered an extraordinary requisition of corn to +be levied on Thrace, Bithynia, and Phrygia; for which the proprietors, (as +Gibbon observes,) "after a wearisome journey, and a perilous navigation +received so inadequate a compensation, that they would have chosen the +alternative of delivering both the corn and price at the doors of their +granaries." + +Having thus given a connected and general view of the Roman commerce, we +shall next proceed to investigate the progress of geographical knowledge +among them. In our chronological arrangement of this progress, incidental +and detached notices respecting their commerce will occur, which, though +they could not well be introduced in the general view, yet will serve to +render the picture of it more complete. + +It is evident that the principal accessions to geographical knowledge among +the Romans, at least till their ambition was satinted, or nearly so, by +conquest, must have been derived from their military expeditions. It is +only towards the time of Augustus that we find men, whose sole object in +visiting foreign countries was to become acquainted with their state, +manners, &c. + +Polybius is one of the earliest authors who give us a glimpse of the state +of geographical knowledge among the Romans, about the middle of the second +century before Christ, the period when he flourished. lie was the great +friend of Scipio, whom he accompanied in his expedition against Carthage. +From his enquiries while in Africa, he informed himself of the geography of +the northern parts of that quarter of the world; and he actually visited +the coast as far as Mount Atlas, or Cape Nun, beyond which, however, he +does not seem to have proceeded. He wrote a Periplus, or account of his +voyage, which is not in existence, but is referred to and quoted by Pliny. +He possessed also more accurate information of the western coasts of Europe +than was had before; derived, it would appear, from the voyages of some +Romans. Yet, with all this knowledge of what we may deem distant parts, +Polybius was ignorant of the real shape of Italy, which he describes as +stretching from east to west; a mistake which seems to have originated with +him, and was copied by Strabo. + +Varro, who was Pompey's lieutenant during the war against the pirates, and +obtained a naval crown on that occasion, among the almost infinite variety +of topics on which he wrote, was the author of a work on navigation; +unfortunately, however, only the title of it is extant: had it yet +remained, it would have thrown much light on the state of navigation, +geography, and commerce among the Romans in his time. + +Julius Caesar's attention to science in the midst of his wars and perils is +well known. He first formed the idea of a general survey of the whole +empire; and for this purpose obtained a decree of the senate. The survey +was finished by Augustus: the execution of it was committed to three Greek +geographers. The survey of the eastern portion of the empire was committed +to Zenodoxus, who completed it, in fourteen years, five months, and nine +days. The northern division was finished by Theodoras in twenty years, +eight months, and ten days: and the southern division was finished in +twenty-five years, one month, and ten days. This survey, with the +supplementary surveys of the new provinces, as they were conquered and +added to the empire, formed the basis of the geography of Ptolemy. It +appears from Vegetius, that every governor of a province was furnished with +a description of it, in which were given the distance of places, the nature +of the roads, the face of the country, the direction of the rivers, &c.: he +adds, that all these were delineated on a map as well as described in +writing. Of this excellent plan for the itineraries and surveys of the +Roman empire, from which the ancient geographers obtained their fullest and +most accurate information, Julius Cæsar was the author. + +Julius Cæsar certainly added much to geographical knowledge by his +conquests of Gaul and Britain: his information respecting the latter, +however, as might be expected, is very erroneous. Yet, that even its very +northern parts were known by name to the Romans soon after his death, is +apparent, from this circumstance, that Diodorus Siculus, who died towards +the middle of the reign of Augustus, mentions Orkas; which, he says, forms +the northern extremity of the island of Britain. This is the very first +mention of any place in Scotland by any writer. + +One of the first objects of Augustus, after he had reduced Egypt, was to +explore the interior of Africa, either for the purpose of conquest, or to +obtain the precious commodities, especially frankincense and aromatics, +which he had learned were the produce of those countries. Ælius Gallus was +selected by the emperor for this expedition, and he was accompanied by the +geographer Strabo; who, however, has not given such accurate information of +the route which was pursued as might have been expected. This is the more +to be lamented, as Pliny informs us that the places which were visited +during this expedition are not to be found in authors previous to his time. + +Gallus was directed by the emperor to explore Ethiopia, the country of the +Troglodytæ and Arabia. The expedition against Ethiopia, which Gallus +entrusted to Petronius, we shall afterwards examine, confining ourselves at +present to the proceedings and progress of Gallus himself. His own force +consisted of 10,000 men, to which were added 500, supplied by Herod, king +of the Jews; and 1000 Nabathians from Petra; besides a fleet of eighty +ships of war and 130 transports. Syllæus, the minister of the king of the +Nabathians, undertook to conduct the expedition; but as it was not for the +interest either of his king or country that it should succeed, he betrayed +his trust, and, according to Strabo, was executed at Rome for his treachery +on this occasion. His object was to delay the expedition as much as +possible: this he effected by persuading Gallus to prepare a fleet, which +was unnecessary, as the army might have followed the route of the caravans, +through a friendly country, from Cleopatris, where the expedition +commenced, to the head of the Elanitic Gulf. The troops, however, were +embarked, and, as the navigation of the Sea of Suez was intricate, the +fleet was fifteen days in arriving at Leuke Kome: here, in consequence of +the soldiers having become, during their voyage, afflicted with various +disorders, and the year being far advanced, Gallus was obliged to remain +till the spring. Another delay was contrived by Syllæus on their leaving +Leuke Kome. After this, they seem to have proceeded with more celerity, and +with very little opposition from the natives, till they came to a city of +some strength: this they were obliged to besiege in regular form; but, +after lying before it for six days, Gallus was forced, for want of water, +to raise the siege, and to terminate the expedition. He was told that at +this time he was within two days' journey of the land of aromatics and +frankincense, the great object which Augustus had in view. On his retreat, +he no longer trusted to Syllæus, but changed the route of the army, +directing it from the interior to the coast. At Nera, in Petræa, the army +embarked, and was eleven days in crossing the gulf to Myos Hormos: from +this place it traversed the country of the Troglodytes to Coptus, on the +Nile. Two years were spent in this unfortunate expedition. It is extremely +difficult to fix on the limit of this expedition, but it is probable that +the town which Gallus besieged, and beyond which he did not penetrate, was +the capital of the Mineans. From the time of this expedition, the Romans +always maintained a footing on the coast of the Red Sea; and either during +the residence of Gallus at Leuke Kome, or soon afterwards, they placed a +garrison in this place, where they collected the customs, gradually +extending their conquests and their geographical knowledge down the Gulf, +till they reached the ocean. This seems to have been the only beneficial +consequence resulting from the expedition of Gallus. + +We must now attend to the expedition of Petronius against the Ethiopians. +This was completely successful, and Candakè, their queen, was obliged, as a +token of her submission, to send ambassadors to Augustus, who was at that +time in the island of Samos. About this period the commerce of the +Egyptians,--which, in fact, was the commerce of the Romans,--was extended +to the Troglodytes,--with whom previously they had carried on little or no +trade. + +The first account of the island of Ceylon, under the name of Taprobane, was +brought to Europe by the Macedonians, who had accompanied Alexander into +the east. It is mentioned, and a short description given of it, by +Onesicritus and Eratosthenes. Iambulus, however, who lived in the time of +Augustus, is the first author who enters into any details regarding it; and +though much of what he states is undoubtedly fabulous, yet there are +particulars surprizingly correct, and such as confirm his own account, that +he actually, visited the island. According to Diodorus Siculus, he was the +son of a merchant, and a merchant himself; and while trading in Arabia for +spices, he was taken prisoner and carried into Arabia, whence he was +carried off by the Ethiopians, and put into a ship, which was driven by the +monsoon to Ceylon. The details he mentions, that are most curious and most +conformable to truth, are the stature of the natives and the flexibility of +their joints; the length of their ears, bored and pendant; the perpetual +verdure of the trees; the attachment of the natives to astronomy; their +worship of the elements, and particularly of the sun and moon; their cotton +garments; the men having one wife in common; the days and nights being +equal in length; and the Calamus, or Maiz. It is extraordinary, howeve'r, +that Iambulus never mentions cinnamon, which, as he was a dealer in spices, +it might have been supposed would have attracted his particular attention. + +One of the most celebrated geographers among the ancients, flourished +during the reign of Augustus;--we allude to Strabo: his fundamental +principles are, the globosity of the earth, and its centripetal force; he +also lays down rules for constructing globes, but he seems ignorant of the +mode of fixing the position of places by their latitude or longitude, or, +at least, he neglects it. In order to render his geographical knowledge +more accurate and complete, he travelled over most of the countries between +Armenia on the east and Etruria on the west, and from his native country, +on the borders of the Euxine sea, to the borders of Ethiopia. The portion +of the globe which he describes, is bounded on the north by the Baltic, on +the east by the Ganges, on the south by the mouth of the river Senegal, and +on the west by Spain. In describing the countries which he himself had +visited, he is generally very accurate, but his accounts of those he had +not visited, are frequently erroneous or very incomplete. His information +respecting Ceylon and the countries of the Ganges, seems to have been +derived entirely from the statements brought to Europe by the generals of +Alexander. + +In the reign of Claudius, the knowledge of the Romans respecting the +interior of Africa, was slightly extended by the expedition of Suetonius +Paulinus; he was the first Roman who crossed Mount Atlas, and during the +winter penetrated through the deserts, which are described as formed of +black dust, till he reached a river called the Niger. Paulinus wrote an +account of this expedition, which, however, is not extant: Pliny quotes it. +In the reign of Claudius, also, the island of Ceylon became better known, +in consequence of an accident which happened to the freedman of a Roman, +who farmed the customs in the Red Sea. This man, in the execution of his +duty, was blown off the coast of Arabia, across the ocean to Taprobane, or +Ceylon; here he was hospitably received by the king, and after a residence +of six months was sent back, along with ambassadors, to Claudius. They +informed the emperor that their country was very extensive, populous, and +opulent, abounding in gold, silver, and pearls. It seems probable that the +circumstance of the freedman having been carried to Ceylon by a steady and +regular wind, and this man and the ambassadors having returned by a wind +directly opposite, but as steady and regular, had some influence in the +discovery of the monsoon. As this discovery led necessarily to a direct +communication between Africa and India, and grea'ly enlarged the knowledge +of the Romans respecting the latter country, as well as their commercial +connections with it, it will be proper to notice it in a particular manner. + +This important discovery is supposed to have been made in the seventh year +of the reign of Claudius, answering to the forty-seventh of the Christian +era. The following is the account given of it by the author of the Periplus +of the Erythrean Sea, as translated by Dr. Vincent: + +"The whole navigation, such as it has been described from Adan in Arabia +Felix and Kanè to the ports of India, was performed formerly in small +vessels, by adhering to the shore and following the indention of the coast; +but Hippalus was the pilot who first discovered the direct course across +the ocean, by observing the position of the ports and the general +appearance of the sea; for, at the season when the annual winds peculiar to +our climate settle in the north, and blow for a continuance upon our coast +from the Mediterranean, in the Indian ocean the wind is constantly to the +south west; and this wind has in those seas obtained the name of Hippalus, +from the pilot who first attempted the passage by means of it to the east. + +"From the period of that discovery to the present time, vessels bound to +India take their departure either from Kanè on the Arabian, or from Cape +Arometa on the African side. From these points they stretch out to the open +sea at once, leaving all the windings of the gulfs and bays at a distance, +and make directly for their several destinations on the coast of India. +Those that are intended for Limurike waiting some time before they sail, +but those that are destined for Barugaza, or Scindi, seldom more than three +days." + +If we may credit Pliny, the Greek merchants of Egypt for some years after +the discovery of the monsoon, did not venture further out to sea than was +absolutely necessary, by crossing the widest part of the entry of the +Persian Gulf, to reach Patala at the mouth of the Indus; but they +afterwards found shorter routes, or rather stretched more to the south, so +as to reach lower down on the coast of India: they also enlarged their +vessels, carried cargoes of greater value, and in order to beat off the +pirates, which then as at present infested this part of the Indian coast, +they put on board their vessels a band of archers. Myos Hormos, or +Berenice, was the port on the Red Sea from which they sailed; in forty days +they arrived at Musiris, on the west coast of India. The homeward passage +was begun in December or January, when the north east monsoon commenced; +this carried them to the entrance of the Red Sea, up which to their port +they were generally favored by southerly winds. + +As there is no good reason to believe that the ancients made regular +voyages to India, previously to the discovery of the monsoons; yet, as it +is an undoubted fact that some of the exclusive productions of that +country, particularly cinnamon, were obtained by them, through their +voyages on the Red Sea; it becomes an important and interesting enquiry, by +what means these productions were brought to those places on this sea, from +which the Romans obtained them. In our opinion, the Arabians were the first +who introduced Indian productions into the west from the earliest period to +which history goes back, and they continued to supply the merchants who +traded on the Red Sea with them, till, by the discovery of the monsoon, a +direct communication was opened between that sea and India. + +At least seventeen centuries before the Christian era, we have undoubted +evidence of the traffic of the Arabians in the spices, &c. of India; for in +the 27th chapter of Genesis we learn, that the Ishmaelites from Gilead +conducted a caravan of camels laden with the spices of India, and the +balsam and myrrh of Hadraumaut, in the regular course of traffic to Egypt +for sale. In the 30th chapter of Exodus, cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, +frankincense, &c. are mentioned, some of which are the exclusive produce of +India; these were used for religious purposes, but at the same time the +quantities of them specified are so great, that it is evident they must +have been easily obtained. Spices are mentioned, along with balm and other +productions of Canaan, in the present destined by Jacob for Joseph. These +testimonies from holy writ are perfectly in unison with what we learn from +Herodotus; this author enumerates oriental spices as regularly used in +Egypt for embalming the dead. + +It is sufficiently evident, therefore, that, at a very early period, the +productions of India were imported into Egypt. That the Arabians were the +merchants who imported them, is rendered highly probable from several +circumstances. The Ishmaelites, mentioned in the 37th chapter of Genesis, +are undoubtedly the Nabathians, whose country is represented by all the +geographers, historians, and poets, as the source of all the precious +commodities of the east; the ancients, erroneously supposing that cinnamon, +which we know to be an exclusive production of India, was the produce of +Arabia, because they were supplied with it, along with other aromatics, +from that country. The proof that the Nabathians and the Ishmaelites are +the same, is to be found in the evident derivation of the former name, from +Nebaioth, the son of Ishmael. The traditions of the Arabians coincide with +the genealogy of the Scriptures, in regarding Joktan, the fourth son of +Shem, as the origin of those trihes which occupied Sabæa and Hadraumaut, or +the incense country; Ishmael as the father of the families which settled in +Arabia Deserta; and Edom as the ancestor of the Idumeans, who settled in +Arabia Petræa. + +Eight hundred years before the Christian era, the merchandize of the +Sabeans is particularly noticed by the prophet Isaiah; and even long before +his time, we are informed, that there were no such spices as the Queen of +Sheba gave to Solomon. That Sheba is Sabæa, or Arabia Felix, we learn from +Ezekiel:--"The merchants of Sheba and Ramah, they were thy merchants: they +occupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices, and with all precious +stones and gold." Six hundred and fifty years after Isaiah bore his +testimony to the commerce of Sabæa, we have the authority of Agatharcides, +that the merchants of this country traded to India; that the great wealth +and luxury of Sabæa were principally derived from this trade; and that, at +the time when Egypt possessed the monopoly of the Indian trade, with +respect to Europe, the Sabeans enjoyed a similar advantage with regard to +Egypt. + +Having thus established the fact, that, from the earliest period of which +we have any record, the Arabians were the merchants who brought the +cinnamon, &c. of India into the west, we must, in the next place, endeavour +to ascertain by what means and route this commerce was carried on; and we +think we can prove that the communication between Arabia and India, at a +very early period, was both by sea and land. + +There were many circumstances connected with Arabia and the Arabians, which +would necessarily turn their thoughts to maritime affairs, and when they +had once embarked in maritime commerce, would particularly direct it to +India. The sea washed three sides of the peninsula of Arabia: the Arabians +were not, like the Egyptians, prejudiced, either by their habits or their +religion, against the sea. The monsoons must have been perceived by them, +from part of the sea-coast lying within their influence; and it can hardly +be supposed that a sea-faring people would not take advantage of them, to +embark in such a lucrative trade as that of India. "There is no history +which treats of them which does not notice them as pirates, or merchants, +by sea, as robbers, or traders, by land. We scarcely touch upon them, +accidentally, in any author, without finding that they were the carriers of +the Indian Ocean." From the earliest period that history begins to notice +them, Sabæa, Hadraumaut, and Oman, are described as the residences of +navigators; and as these places are, in the earliest historians, celebrated +for their maritime commerce, it is reasonable to suppose that they were +equally so before the ancient historians acquired any knowledge of them. + +We cannot go farther back, with respect to the fact of the Arabians being +in India, than the voyage of Nearchus; but in the journal of this +navigator, we find manifest traces of Arabian navigators on the coast of +Mekran, previous to his expedition: he also found proofs of their commerce +on the coast of Gadrosia, and Arabic names of places--a pilot to direct +him, and vessels of the country in the Gulf of Persia. Large ships from the +Indus, Patala, Persis, and Karmania came to Arabia, as early as the time of +Agatharcides; and it is probable that these ships were navigated by +Arabians, as the inhabitants of India were not, at this time, and, indeed, +never have been celebrated for their maritime enterprize and skill. The +same author mentions a town, a little without the Red Sea, from whence, he +says, the Sabeans sent out colonies or factories into India, and to which +the large ships he describes came with their cargoes from India. This is +the first historical evidence to prove the establishment of Arabian +factories and merchants in the ports of India. In the time of Pliny, the +Arabians were in such numbers on the coast of Malabar, and at Ceylon, that, +according to that author, the inhabitants of the former had embraced their +religion, and the ports of the latter were entirely in their power. Their +settlements and commerce in India are repeatedly mentioned in the Periplus +of the Erythrean Sea, and likewise their settlements down the coast of +Africa to Rhaptum, before it was visited by the Greeks from Egypt. For, +besides their voyages from India to their own country, they frequently +brought Indian commodities direct to the coast of Africa. At Sabaea, the +great mart of the Arabian commerce with India, the Greeks, as late as the +reign of Philometor, purchased the spices and other productions of the +east. As there was a complete monopoly of them at this place, in the hands +of the Arabians, the Greek navigators and merchants were induced, in the +hopes of obtaining them cheaper, to pass the Straits of Babelmandeb, and on +the coast of Africa they found cinnamon and other produce of India, which +had been brought hither by the Arabian traders. + +The evidence of the land trade between Arabia and India, from a very early +period, is equally clear and decisive: Petra, the capital of Arabia Petrea, +was the centre of this trade. To it the caravans, in all ages, came from +Minea, in the interior of Arabia, and from Gherra, in the Gulf of +Persia,--from Hadraumaut, on the Ocean, and some even from Sabaea. From +Petra, the trade again spread in every direction--to Egypt, Palestine, and +Syria, through Arsinoe, Gaza, Tyre, Jerusalem, Damascus, and other places +of less consequence, all lying on routes terminating in the Mediterranean. + +The Gherrheans, who were a Babylonian colony settled in that part of +Arabia, which extends along the south coast of the Persian Gulf, are the +earliest conductors of caravans upon record. They are first mentioned by +Agatharcides, who compares their wealth with that of the Sabeans, and +describes them as the agents for all the precious commodities of Asia and +Europe: he adds that they brought much wealth into Syria, and furnished a +variety of articles, which were afterwards manufactured or resold by the +Phoenicians. But the only route by which Syria and Phoenicia could have +been supplied by them, was through Petra. The particular articles with +which their caravans were loaded, according to Strabo, were the produce of +Arabia, and the spices of India. Besides the route of their caravans, +across the whole peninsula to Petra, it appears that they sometimes carried +their merchandize in boats up the Euphrates to Babylon, or even 240 miles +higher up, to Thapsacus, and thence dispersed it in all directions by land. + +The exact site of the country of the Mineans cannot be certainly fixed; but +it is probable that it was to the south of Hedjaz, to the north of +Hadraumaut, and to the eastward of Sabaea. According to Strabo, their +caravans passed in seventy days from Hadraumaut to Aisla, which was within +ten miles of Petra. They were laden with aloes, gold, myrrh, frankincense, +and other aromatics. + +We can but faintly and obscurely trace the fluctuations in the trade of +Petra, in the remote periods of history. We know that Solomon was in +possession of Idumea, but whether it was subdued by Nebuchadnezzar is +doubtful. This sovereign, however, seems to have formed some plan of +depriving the Gherrheans of the commerce of the Gulf of Persia. He raised a +mound to confine the waters of the Tigris: he built a city to stop the +incursions of the Arabs, and opened a communication between the rivers +Tigris and Euphrates. After this there is no account of Idumea till some +years subsequent to the death of Alexander the Great: at this period two +expeditions were sent into it against its capital, Petra, by Antigonus, +both of which were unsuccessful. These expeditions were undertaken about +the years 308 and 309 before Christ. The history of Idumea, from this +period, is better ascertained: harassed by the powerful kingdoms of Syria +and Egypt,--contiguous to both of which it lay,--it seems to have been +governed by princes of its own, who were partly independent, and partly +under the influence of the monarchs of Syria and Egypt. About sixty-three +years before Christ, Pompey took Petra; and, from that period, the +sovereigns of Idumea were tributary to the Romans. This city, however, +still retained its commerce, and was in a flourishing condition, as we are +informed by Strabo, on the authority of his friend Athenedorus, who visited +it about thirty-six years after it. He describes it as built on a rock, +distinguished, however, from all the rocks in that part of Arabia, from +being supplied with an abundant spring of water. Its natural position, as +well as art, rendered it a fortress of importance in the desert. He +represents the people as rich, civilized, and peaceable; the government as +regal, but the chief power as lodged in a minister selected by the king, +who had the title of the king's brother. Syllaeus, who betrayed Elius +Gallus, appears to have been a minister of this description. + +The next mention that occurs of the trade of Petra is in the Periplus of +the Erythrean Sea, the date of which, though uncertain, there is good +reason to fix in Nero's reign. According to this work, Leuke Kome, at the +mouth of the Elanitic Gulf, was the point of communication with Petra, the +capital of the country, the residence of Malachus, the king of the +Nabathians. "Leuke Kome, itself, had the rank of a mart in respect to the +small vessels which obtained their cargoes in Arabia, for which reason +there was a garrison placed in it, under the command of a centurion, both +for the purpose of protection, and in order to collect a duty of +twenty-five in the hundred." In the reign of Trajan, Idumea was reduced +into the form of a Roman province, by one of his generals; after this time +it not does fall within our plan to notice it, except merely to state, that +its subjection does not seem to have been complete or permanent, for during +the latter empire, there were certainly sovereigns of this part of Arabia, +in some degree independent, whose influence and alliance were courted by +the Romans and Persians, whenever a war was about to commence between these +two powers. + +From this sketch of the trade of the Arabians from the earliest period, we +may conclude, in the first place, that when navigation was in its infancy, +it was confined, or almost entirely so, to a land trade carried on by +caravans; and that Petra was the centre to which these caravans tended from +the east and the south, bringing with them from the former the commodities +of India, and from the latter the commodities of the more fertile part of +Arabia. From Petra, all these goods were again transported by land to the +shores of the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the second place, when +navigation became more commonly known and practised, (and there is good +reason to believe that it was known and practised among the Arabians, +especially those near the Persian Gulf, at a very early period,) a portion +of the Indian commodities, which before had been carried by land to Petra +were brought by sea to Sabaea. It appears that in the age of Agatharcides, +the monopoly of the trade between India and Europe by this route was wholly +possessed by the Sabeans; that, in order to evade the effects of this +monopoly, the Greeks of Egypt found their way to Aden and Hadraumaut, in +Arabia, and to Mosullon on the coast of Africa. Here they met with other +Arabians, who at this time also traded to India, and sold them Indian goods +at a cheaper rate. And, lastly, we have seen that these ports on the +southern coast of Arabia, and on the coast of Africa, were frequented by +the merchants of Egypt, till, by the discovery of the monsoon, their ships +were enabled to sail directly to India. It is undoubtedly true that before +this discovery, single ships occasionally reached India by adhering to the +coast all the way, but the direct communication was very rare. After the +nature of the monsoon was thoroughly understood, and it was ascertained +that complete dependence could be placed on its steadiness and regularity, +and that by its change, the ships could be brought as safely and quickly +back from India, as they had reached it, the ancients, who at first only +ventured to the mouth of the Indus, gradually made their way down the +western coast of the Indian peninsula. + +The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a work which has been frequently +referred to, is rich in materials to illustrate the geographical knowledge +and the commercial enterprize of the ancients in the part of the world to +which it relates. We have already assigned its date to the age of Nero. Our +limits will prevent us from giving a full account of this work; we shall +therefore, in the first place, give a short abstract of the geographical +knowledge which it displays, and in the next place, illustrate from it, the +nature of the commerce carried on, on the Red Sea, the adjacent coasts of +Africa and Arabia, and the ports of India, which are noticed in it. + +At the time of Strabo, the geography of the ancients did not extend, on the +eastern coast of Africa, further to the south than a promontory called Noti +Cornu, (the Southern Horn,) which seems to have been in about 12-1/2 +degrees north latitude. Beyond this an arid coast, without ports or fresh +water, arrested the progress of navigation; but it appears by the Periplus, +that this promontory was now passed, and commerce had extended to the port +of Rhapta and the isle of Menutias, which are supposed to correspond with +Babel Velho and the island of Magadoxa. The author of the Periplus, who +seems to have been a merchant personally acquainted with most of the places +he describes, had heard of, but not visited the promontory Prasum: he +represents the ocean beyond Rhapta as entirely unknown, but as believed to +continue its western direction, and after having washed the south coast of +Ethiopia, to join the Western Ocean. The whole of the west coast of India, +from the Indus to Trapobane, is minutely described in the Periplus. Some of +the particulars of the manners and customs of the inhabitants coincide in a +striking manner with those of the present day; this observation applies, +among other points, to the pirates between Bombay and Goa. + +Dr. Vincent, in his learned commentary on the Periplus, gives it as his +opinion, that the author of the Periplus never went further than Nelkundah +himself, that is, to the boundary between the provinces of Canara and +Malabar. The east coast of the Indian peninsula is not traced so minutely +nor so accurately as the west coast, though there are names and +descriptions in the Periplus, from which it may fairly be inferred, that +the author alludes to Cavary, Masulapatam, Calingapatam, Coromandel, and +other places and districts of this part of India. The countries beyond the +Ganges, the Golden Chersonese, and the countries towards China, are very +obscurely noticed in the Periplus, though the information he gives +respecting the trade carried on in these parts is much more minute and +accurate. His description of the direction of the coast of India, is on the +whole, surprisingly consonant to truth: according to him, it tends from +north to south, as far as Colchos (Travancore); at this place it bends to +the east, and afterwards to the north; and then again a little to the east, +as far as the Ganges. He is the first author in whom can clearly be traced +the name of the great southern division of India: his term is +Dachanabades,--Dachan signifying south, and abad a city; and Decan is still +the general name of all the country to the south of Baroche, the boundary +assigned by the author. The particulars he mentions of the bay of Cutch, of +Cambay, of Baroche, and of the Ghauts, may also be mentioned as proofs of +his accuracy with respect to those parts of India, which he visited in +person. + +Having thus given a sketch of the geographical knowledge contained the +Periplus, we shall next attend to the commercial information which it +conveys. As this work is divided into two distinct parts, the first +comprising the coast of the Red Sea, and of Africa, from Myos Hormos on the +former, to Rhapta in the latter: and the second part, beginning at the same +place, and including the whole coast of Arabia, both that which lies on the +Red Sea, and that which lies on the Ocean, and then stretching from the +Gulf of Persia to Guzerat, describing the coast of Malabar, as far as +Ceylon, we shall, in our abstract of the commercial intelligence it +contains, enumerate the principal imports and exports of the most +frequented marts in Africa, (including the Red Sea,) Arabia, and India. + +I. The Red Sea and Africa. Myos Hormos is described as the first port of +Egypt on the Red Sea; as it lies in twenty-seven degrees north latitude, +and Rhapta, the boundary of the Periplus to the south, in nearly ten +degrees south latitude, the distance between them will be about 2,500 +miles. It is to be supposed, that every thing relating to the geography, +navigation, and commerce of the Red Sea, from Myos Hormos to Aduli, on the +western side, and Moosa, on the eastern side of it, was well known to the +merchants of Egypt, as the author of the Periplus gives no circumstantial +account of any port, till he arrives at these places. It appears, also, +that till the ships arrived at these places, they kept the mid-channel of +the Red Sea, and, consequently, there was no occasion, or indeed, +opportunity of describing the intermediate ports. We have already +mentioned, that Myos Hormos was fixed on by Ptolemy Philadelphus, in +preference to Arsinoe, because the navigation of the western part of the +Red Sea, on which the latter was placed, was intricate and tedious. +Berenice was afterwards selected, as being still lower down: but it is +worthy of remark, that neither Berenice, nor Ptolemais Theron, another port +of the Ptolemies, were harbours, but merely roadsteads, though from our +author's description, there were an almost infinite number of safe +harbours, creeks, bays, &c. in every part of the Red Sea. + +Aduli, the first port on the west side of the Red Sea, and the port of +communication with Axuma, was, in the age of the Periplus, subject to the +same prince, who possessed the whole coast, from Berenice. The exports from +this place were confined to ivory, brought from the interior on both sides +of the Nile; the horns of the rhinoceros, and tortoise-shell. The imports +were very numerous, forming an assortment, as Dr. Vincent justly observes, +as specific as a modern invoice: the principal articles were, cloth, +manufactured in Egypt, unmilled, for the Barbarian market. The term, +Barbarii, was applied to the Egyptians, to the whole western coast of the +Red Sea, and was derived from Barbar, the native name of the country +inhabited by the Troglodytes, Icthyophagi, and shepherds: as these were +much hated and dreaded by the Egyptians, Barbarii became a term of reproach +and dread, and in this sense it was adopted by the Greeks and Romans, and +has passed into the modern European languages. But to return from this +digression,--the other imports were robes, manufactured at Arsinoe; cloths +dyed, so as to imitate the Tyrian purple; linens, fringed mantles, glass or +crystal, murrhine cups, orichalchum, or mixed metal for trinkets and coin; +brass vessels for cooking, the pieces of which, when they happened to be +broken, were worn by the women as ornaments; iron, for weapons and other +purposes; knives, daggers, hatchets, &c.; brass bowls, wine, oil, gold and +silver plate, camp cloaks, and cover-lids: these formed the principal +articles of import from Myos Hormos, and as they are very numerous, +compared with the exports, it seems surprising that coin should also have +been imported, but that this was the case, we are expressly told by the +author of the Periplus, who particularizes Roman currency, under the name +of Denarii. The following articles imported into Aduli, must have come +through Arabia, from India: Indian iron; Indian cottons; coverlids, and +sashes made of cotton; cotton cloth, dyed the colour of the mallow-flower, +and a few muslins. + +The Periplus next passes without the Straits of Babelmandeb: on the African +side, four principal marts are mentioned, to all of which the epithet of +Tapera, is applied, signifying their position beyond the straits. The first +of these marts is Abalitis: as this place had no port, goods were conveyed +to the ships in boats and rafts; they were also employed by the natives, in +carrying on a trade with the opposite ports of Arabia: what they imported +from Arabia, is not specified; but they exported thither gums, a small +quantity of ivory, tortoise-shell, and myrrh of the finest quality. This +last article being purchased by the Greek merchants, in Sabæa, was regarded +by them as a native production of that part of Arabia, when, in reality, as +we learn from the Periplus, it was the produce of Africa. There were +imported into Abalitis, from Egypt, flint glass, and glass vessels +unsorted; unripe grapes from Diospolis, which were used to make the rob of +grapes; unmilled cloths, for the Barbaric market; corn, wine, and tin; the +last article must have come from Britain. + +The next mart is Malao, likewise a roadstead; the imports were the same as +those of Abalitis, with the addition of tunics; cloaks manufactured at +Arsinoe, milled and dyed; iron, and a small quantity of specie: the exports +were, myrrh, frankincense, cassia, inferior cinnamon, substituted for the +oriential; gum, and a few slaves. The only article of export peculiar to +the third mart, Mundus, was a fragrant gum, which seems to have grown only +in its vicinity. + +The fourth and last mart mentioned as lying on the African side of the +channel, which opens from the Straits of Babelmandeb, is Mosullon; this was +the most important mart on the whole coast, and that which gave a specific +name to the trade of the ancients: the imports were numerous, comprising, +besides those already mentioned, some that were peculiar to this place, +such as vessels of silver, a small quantity of iron, and flint glass: the +exports were, cinnamon, of an inferior quality; the quantity of this +article is noticed as so great, that larger vessels were employed in the +trade of this port, expressly for conveying it, than were seen in the other +ports of Africa. We are informed by Pliny, that Mosullon was a great market +for cinnamon,--and it would seem, from its being conveyed in large vessels +by sea, that it came from Arabia. The cinnamon mentioned in the Periplus, +is, indeed, particularized as of an inferior quality, which is directly at +variance with the authority of Dioscorides, who expressly states that the +Mosulletic species is one of prime quality; if this were the case, it must +have been Indian. The other exports were gums, drugs, tortoise-shell, +incense, frankincense, brought from distant places; ivory, and a small +quantity of myrrh. The abundance of aromatic articles, which the Greeks +procured on this part of the coast, induced them to give the name of +Aromatic to the whole country, and particularly to the town and promontory +at the eastern extremity of it. Cape Aromata, the Gardefan of the moderns, +is not only the extreme point east of the continent of Africa, but also +forms the southern point of entrance on the approach to the Red Sea, and is +the boundary of the monsoon. At the marts between Mosullon and this Cape, +no articles of commerce are specified, except frankincense, in great +abundance and of the best quality, at Alkannai. At the Cape itself, there +was a mart, with an exposed roadsted; and to the south of it, was another +mart; from both these, the principal exports consisted of various kinds of +aromatics. + +At Aromata, the Barbaria of the ancients, or the Adel of the moderns, +terminates; and the coast of Azania, or Agan, begins. The first mart on +this coast is Opone, from which there were exported, besides the usual +aromatics and other articles, slaves of a superior description, chiefly for +the Egyptian market, and tortoise-shell, also of a superior sort, and in +great abundance. There was nothing peculiar in the imports. In this part of +his work, the author of the Periplus, mentions and describes the annual +voyage between the coast of Africa and India: after enumerating the +articles imported from the latter country, which consisted chiefly of corn, +rice, butter; oil of Sesanum; cotton, raw and manufactured sashes; and +honey from the cane, called sugar; he adds, that "many vessels are employed +in this commerce, expressly for the importation of these articles, and +others, which have a more distant destination, sell part of their cargoes +on this coast, and take in the produce in return." This seems to be the +first historical evidence of a commercial intercourse between India and +Africa, independent of the voyages of the Arabians; and as the parts from +which the ships sailed to India, lay within the limits of the monsoon, it +most probably was accomplished by means of it, and directly from land to +land, without coasting round by the Gulf of Persia. The ports on the west +coast of India, to which the trade was carried on, were Ariake and +Barugaza, in Guzerat and Concan. + +No mart is mentioned after Opone, till we arrive at Rhapta. This place was +so named by the Greeks, because the ships employed by the inhabitants were +raised from a bottom composed of a single piece of wood, and the sides were +sewed to it, instead of being nailed. In order to preserve the sewing, the +whole outside was covered over with some of the gums of the country. It is +a circumstance worthy of notice, that when the Portuguese first visited +this coast, they found ships of exactly the same materials and +construction. At Rhapta, the customs were farmed by the merchants of Moosa, +though it was subject to one of the princes of Yeman. Arabian commanders +and supercargoes were always employed in their ships, from their experience +in the navigation: the imports of Rhapta were, lances, principally +manufactured at Moosa; axes, knives, awls, and various kinds of glass: the +exports were, ivory, inferior to the Aduli ivory, but cheap, and in great +abundance; the horns of the rhinoceros, tortoise shell, superior to any of +this coast, but not equal to the Indian; and an article called Nauplius, +the nature of which is not known. + +At the period when the Periplus was written, the coast was unknown beyond +Rhapta; at this place, therefore, the journal of this voyage terminates; +but this place, there is every reason to believe that the author visited in +person. + +The commencement of the second voyage is from Berenice: from this port he +conducts us to Myos Hormos, and there across the Red Sea to Leuke Kome in +Arabia. This port we have already noticed as in the possession of the +Romans, and forming the point of communication with Petra. We have also +stated from our author, that at Leuke Kome the Romans kept a garrison, and +collected a duty of twenty-five per cent. on the goods imported and +exported. From it to the coast below Burnt Island, there was no trade +carried on, in consequence of the dangers of the navigation from rocks, the +want of harbours, the poverty and barbarism of the natives, who seem to +have been pirates, and the want of produce and manufactures. + +In the farthest bay of the east or Arabian coast of the Red Sea, about +thirty miles from the straits, was Moosa, the regular mart of the country, +established, protected, and privileged as such by the government. It was +not a harbour, but a road with good anchorage on a sandy bottom. The +inhabitants were Arabians, and it was much resorted to by merchants, both +on account of the produce and manufactures of the adjacent country, and on +account of its trade to India. The imports into Moosa were principally +purple cloth of different qualities and prices; garments made in the +Arabian manner, with sleeves, plain and mixed; saffron; an aromatic rush +used in medicine; muslins, cloaks, quilts, but only a few plain, and made +according to the fashion of the country; sashes of various colours; some +corn and wine, and coin to pay for the balance of trade. In order to +ingratiate the sovereigns of the country, horses, mules, gold plate, silver +plate richly embossed, splendid robes, and brass goods were also imported, +expressly as presents to them. One of these sovereigns was styled the +friend of the Roman emperors. Embassies were frequently sent to him from +Rome, and it is probable that for him the presents were chiefly designed. +The exports from Moosa were myrrh of the best quality, gum, and very pure +and white alabaster, of which boxes were made; there was likewise exported +a variety of articles, the produce and manufacture of Aduli, which were +brought from that place to Moosa. + +We are next directed to the ports beyond the Straits of Babelmandeb. The +wind in passing them is described as violent, coming on in sudden and +dangerous squalls, in consequence of its confinement between the two capes +which formed the entrance to the straits. The first place beyond them, +about 120 miles to the east, described in the Periplus, is a village called +Arabia Felix: this, there is every reason to believe, is Aden. It is +represented in the Periplus as having been a place of great importance +before the fleets sailed directly from India to Egypt, or from Egypt to the +east. Till this occurred, the fleets from the east met in this harbour the +fleets from Egypt. This description and account of it exactly corresponds +with what Agatharcides relates: he says it received its name of Eudaimon, +(_fortunate,_) on account of the ships from India and Egypt meeting +there, before the merchants of Egypt had the courage to venture further +towards the eastern marts. Its importance seems to have continued in some +degree till it was destroyed by the Romans, probably in the time of +Claudius: the object and reason of this act was to prevent the trade, which +in his time had begun to direct its course to India, from reverting to this +place. + +About 200 miles to the east of Aden was the port of Kane. The country in +its vicinity is represented as producing a great quantity of excellent +frankincense, which was conveyed to Kane by land in caravans, and by sea in +vessels, or in rafts which were floated by means of inflated skins. This +was a port of considerable trade; the merchants trading to Baragyza, +Scindi, Oman, and Persis, as well as to the ports in Africa, beyond the +straits. The goods imported were principally from Egypt, and consisted of a +small quantity of wheat, wine, cloaths for the Arabian market, common, +plain, and mixed; brass, tin, Mediterranean coral, which was in great +repute in India, so that the great demand for it prevented the Gauls in the +south of France, according to Pliny, from adorning their swords, &c. with +it, as they were wont to do; storax, plate, money, horses, statues or +images, and cloth. The exports were confined to the produce of the country, +especially frankincense and aloes. At Syagros, which is described as a +promontory fronting the east, and the largest in the world, there was a +garrison for the protection of the place, which was the repository of all +the incense collected in these parts. + +The island of Dioscorides (Socotra) is next described. It was inhabited on +its northern side, (the only part of it that was then inhabited,) by a few +Arabians, Indians, and Greeks, who seem to have fixed a permanent or +temporary abode here, for the purpose of obtaining tortoise-shell: this was +much prized, being of a yellow colour, very hard and durable, and used to +make cases, boxes, and writing tables; this and dragon's blood were its +chief productions. In exchange for them, there were imported rice, corn, +Indian cotton goods, and women slaves. + +The first mart beyond Cape Syagros is Moscha, which is represented as much +resorted to on account of the sacchalitic incense which is imported there. +This was so extremely abundant that it lay in heaps, with no other +protection than that which was derived from the gods, for whose sacrifices +it was intended. It is added that it was not possible for any person to +procure a cargo of it without the permission of the king; and that the +vessels were observed and searched so thoroughly, that not a single grain +of it could be clandestinely exported. The intercourse between this port +and Kane was regular; and besides this, it was frequented by such ships as +arrived from India too late in the season: here they continued during the +unfavourable monsoon, exchanging muslins, corn, and oil, for frankincense. +A small island, which is supposed to be the modern Mazeira, was visited by +vessels from Kane to collect or purchase tortoise-shell: the priests in the +island are represented in the Periplus as wearing aprons made of the fibres +of the cocoa tree: this is the earliest mention of this tree. + +Moçandon, the extreme point south of the Gulf of Persia, was the land from +which the Arabians, (to use a maritime phrase) took their departure, with +various superstitious observances, imploring a blessing on their intended +voyage, and setting adrift a small toy, rigged like a ship, which, if +dashed to pieces, was supposed to be accepted by the god of the ocean, +instead of their ship. + +It is impossible to determine from the Periplus, whether the author was +personally acquainted with the navigation, ports, and trade of the Gulf of +Persia: the probability is that he was not, as he mentions only two +particulars connected with it; the pearl fishery, and the town of Apologus, +a celebrated mart at the mouth of the Euphrates; the pearl fishery he +describes as extending from Moçandon to Bahrain. Apologus is the present +Oboleh, on the canal that leads from the Euphrates to Basra. + +If the author of the Periplus did not enter the Gulf of Persia, he +certainly stretched over, with the monsoon, either to Karmania, or directly +to Scindi, or to the Gulf of Cambay; for at these places the minuteness of +information which distinguishes the journal again appears. + +Omana in Persia is the first mart described; it lay in the province of +Gadrosia, but as it is not mentioned by Nearchus, who found Arabs in most +other parts of the province, we may conclude that it was founded after his +time. The trade between this place and Baragaza in India, was regular and +direct, and the goods brought from the latter to the former, seems +afterwards to have been sent to Oboleh at the head of the Gulf; the imports +were brass, sandal-wood; timber, of what kind is not specified; horn, +ebony; this is the first port the trade of which included ebony and +sandal-wood: frankincense was imported from Kane. The exports to Arabia and +Baragaza were purple cloth for the natives; wine, a large quantity of +dates, gold, slaves, and pearls of an inferior quality. + +The first place in India to which the merchants of Egypt, while they +followed the ancient course of navigation by coasting, were accustomed to +trade, was Patala on the Indus; for we have admitted that single vessels +occasionally ventured beyond the Straits of Babelmandeb, before the +discovery of the monsoon, though the trade from Egypt to India, previously +to that discovery, was by no means frequent or regular. The goods imported +into Patala were woollen cloth of a slight fabric, linen, woven in checquer +work, some precious stones, and some kind of aromatics unknown in India, +probably the produce of Africa or Arabia; coral, storax, glass vessels of +various descriptions, some plate, money, and wine. From Patala, the +Egyptian merchants brought spices, gems of different kinds, particularly +sapphires, silk stuffs, silk thread, cotton cloths, and pepper. As Patala +is not mentioned in the Periplus, it is probable it was abandoned for +Baragaza, a far more considerable mart on the same coast, and most probably +Baroche on the Nerbuddah. + +Before describing Baragaza, however, the author of the Periplus mentions +two places on the Indus, which were frequented for the purposes of +commerce: the first near the mouth of the river, called Barbarike; and the +other higher up, called Minagara: the latter was the capital of a kingdom +which extended as far as Barogaza. As the king of this country was +possessed of a place of such consequence to the merchants as Baragaza, and +as from his provinces, or through them, the most valuable cargoes were +obtained, it was of the utmost moment that his good will and protection +should be obtained and preserved. For this purpose there were imported, as +presents for him, the following articles, all expensive, and the very best +of their kind: plate of very great value; musical instruments; handsome +virgins for the haram; wine of the very best quality; plain cloth, but of +the finest sort; and perfumes. Besides these presents, there were likewise +imported a great quantity of plain garments, and some mixed or inferior +cloth; topazes, coral, storax, frankincense, glass vessels, plate, specie, +and wine. The exports were costus, a kind of spice; bdellium, a gum; a +yellow dye, spikenard, emeralds, sapphires, cottons, silk thread, indigo, +or perhaps the indicum of Pliny, which was probably Indian ink: skins are +likewise enumerated, with the epithet _serica_ prefixed to them, but +of what kind they were cannot be determined: wine is specified as an +article of import into this and other places; three kinds of it are +particularized: wine from Laodicea in Syria, which is still celebrated for +its wine; Italian wine, and Arabian wine. Some suppose that the last was +palm or toddy wine, which seems to have been a great article of trade. + +We come now to Baragaza: the author first mentions the produce of the +district; it consisted of corn, rice, oil of Sesamum, ghee or butter, and +cotton: he then, in a most minute and accurate manner, describes the +approach to the harbour; the extraordinarily high tides, the rapidity with +which they roll in and again recede, especially at the new moon, the +difficult pilotage of the river, are all noticed. On account of these +dangers and difficulties, he adds, that pilots were appointed by the +government, with large boats, well manned, who put to sea to wait the +approach of ships. These pilots, as soon as they come on board, bring the +ship's head round, and keep her clear of the shoals at the mouth of the +river; if necessary, they tow the ship from station to station, where there +is good anchorage; these stations were called Basons, and seem to have been +pools retaining the water, after the tide had receded from other parts. The +navigation of the river was performed only as long as the tide was +favorable; as soon as it turned, the ships anchored in these stations. + +The sovereign to whom Baragaza belonged is represented as so very anxious +to render it the only mart, that he would not permit ships to enter any of +his other harbours; if they attempted it, they were boarded and conducted +to Baragaza; at this place were collected all the produce and manufactures +of this part of India: some of which were brought down the river Nerbuddah; +others were conveyed across the mountains by caravans. The merchandize of +Bengal, and even of the Seres, was collected here, besides the produce of +Africa, and of the countries further to the south in India. The whole +arrangement of this place was correspondent to this extensive commerce, for +the author informs us, that such was the despatch in transacting business, +that a cargo could be entirely landed and sold, and a new cargo obtained +and put on board in the space of three days. + +From Ozeni to the east of Baragaza, formerly the capital of the country, +there was brought to the latter place for exportation, chiefly the +following articles: onyx stones, porcelaine, fine muslins, muslins dyed of +the colour of the melon, and common cotton in great quantities: from the +Panjab there were brought for exportation, spikenard of different kinds, +costus, bdellium, ivory, murrhine cups, myrrh, pepper, &c. The imports were +wine, of all the three sorts already mentioned, brass, tin, lead, coral, +topazes, cloth of different kinds, sashes, storax, sweet lotus, white +glass, stibium, cinnabar, and a small quantity of perfumes: a considerable +quantity of corn was also imported; the denarius, both gold and silver, +exchanging with profit against the coin of the country, on account of its +greater purity. + +From Baragaza the author proceeds to a description of the coast of the +Decan, which, as we have already mentioned, is remarkable for its accuracy, +as well as for its first mentioning the appellation Decan. At the distance +of twenty days' journey to the south lies Plithana, and ten days' journey +to the east of this is Tagara, both marts of great consequence, and the +latter the capital of the country. From these are brought down, through +difficult roads, several articles to Baragaza, particularly onyx stones +from Plithana, and cottons and muslin from Tagara "If we should now +describe, (observed Dr. Vincent) the arc of a circle from Minnagar, on the +Indus, through Ougein to Dowlatabad on the Godavery, of which Baroche +should be the centre, we might comprehend the extent of the intelligence +acquired by the merchant of the Periplus. But allowing that this was the +knowledge of the age, and not of the individual only, where is this +knowledge preserved, except in this brief narrative? which, with all the +corruption of its text, is still an inestimable treasure to all those who +wish to compare the first dawning of our knowledge in the east with the +meridian light which we now enjoy by the intercourse and conquests of the +Europeans. An arc of this sort comprehends near three degrees of a great +circle: and if upon such a space, and at such a distance from the coast, we +find nothing but what is confirmed by the actual appearance of the country, +at the present moment, great allowance is to be made for those parts of the +work which are less conspicuous, for the author did certainly not visit +every place which he mentions; and there are manifest omissions in the +text, as well as errors and corruptions." + +The province of Canara, called by the author of the Periplus Limurike, +follows in his description the pirate coast; after Limurike, he describes +Pandion, corresponding with what is at present called Malabar Proper; this +is succeeded by Paralia and Comari, and the description of the west coast +of India is terminated by the pearl fishery and Ceylon. There were several +small ports in Limurike frequented by the country ships; but the only mart +frequented by vessels from Egypt was Musiris: it was likewise a great +resort of native vessels from Ariake or Concan. The articles imported were +nearly the same as those at Baragaza, but the exports from it were more +numerous and valuable: this seems to have arisen from its lying nearer to +the eastern and richer parts of India. The principal exports were, pearls +in great abundance and extraordinary beauty; a variety of silk stuffs; rich +perfumes; tortoise-shell; different kinds of transparent gems, especially +diamonds; and pepper in large quantites, and of the best quality. + +The port of Nelkundah, which, as we have already remarked, was the limit of +our author's personal knowledge, was a place of very great trade; it was +much frequented, principally on account of the betel and pepper, which were +procured there on very reasonable terms: the pepper is distinguished, in +the list of its imports, as the pepper of Cottonara. Besides this article +and betel, the only exports were, pearls, ivory, silks, spikenard, precious +stones, and tortoise-shell; the imports were chiefly specie, topazes, +cloth, stibium, coral, glass, brass, tin, lead, wine, corn, &c. + +The ports to the south of Nelkundah are described in a cursory manner in +the Periplus; they were frequented principally by the country ships, which +carried on a lucrative trade between them and the ports in the north of +India. The exports of the island of Trapobane, or Ceylon, are +particularized as consisting chiefly of pearls, gems, tortoise-shells, and +muslins: cinnamon is not named; an almost decisive proof, if other proof +were wanting, that the author of the Periplus had never visited this +island. That trading voyages were carried on by the natives from the +southern ports of India, not only to the northern ports of the western side +of that country, but also to the eastern ports in the Bay of Bengal, and to +the farther peninsula itself, we are expressly informed, as our author +mentions vessels of great bulk adapted to the voyages made to the Ganges +and the Golden Chersonese, in contradistinction to other and smaller +vessels employed in the voyages to Limurike. + +Of the remainder of the Periplus little notice is requisite, the account of +the countries beyond Cape Comorin being entirely drawn from report, and +consequently erroneous, both in respect to geography and commerce. In some +particulars regarding the latter, however, it is surprisingly accurate: the +Gangetic muslins are praised as the finest manufacture of the sort, and +Gangetic spikenard is also noticed; the other articles of traffic in the +ports on the Ganges were betel and pearls. Thina is also mentioned as a +city, in the interior of a country immediately under the north, at a +certain point where the sea terminates; from this city both the raw +material and manufactured silks are brought by land through Bactria to +Baragaza, or else down the Ganges, and thence by sea to Limurike: the +routes we have already described. The means of approach to Thina are +represented as very difficult; some merchants, however, came from it to a +great mart which is annually held near it. The Sesatoe, who from the +description of them are evidently Tartars, frequent this mart with their +wives and children. "They are squat and thick-set, with their face broad +and their nose greatly depressed. The articles they bring for trade are of +great bulk, and inveloped in mats made of rushes, which, in their outward +appearance, resemble the early leaves of the vine. Their place of assembly +is between their own borders and those of China; and here spreading out +their mats, they hold a fair for several days, and at the conclusion of it, +return to their own country in the interior. Upon their retreat the Thinæ, +who have continued on the watch, repair to the spot and collect the mats +which the strangers left behind at their departure; from these they pick +out the haulm, and drawing out the fibres, spread the leaves double, and +make them into balls, and then pass the fibres through them. Of these balls +there are three sorts, in this form they take the name of Malabathrum." + +On this account Dr. Vincent very justly remarks, that we have here, upon +the whole, a description of that mode of traffic, which has always been +adopted by the Chinese, and by which they to this hour trade with Russia, +Thibet, and Ava. + +Many of the particulars which we have given on the subject of the Roman +trade are supplied by Pliny, who wrote his natural history when Rome was in +its most flourishing state under the reign of Vespasian. His works consist +of thirty-seven books, the first six comprise the system of the world and +the geography as it was then known. After examining the accounts of +Polybius, Agrippa, and Artemidorus, he assigns the following comparative +magnitudes to the three great divisions of the earth. Europe rather more +than a third, Asia about a fourth, and Africa about a fifth of the whole. +With few exceptions, his geographical knowledge of the east and of the +north, the parts of the world of which the ancients were the most ignorant, +was very inaccurate: he supposes the Ganges to be the north-eastern limit +of Asia, and that from it the coast turned to the north, where it was +washed by the sea of Serica, between which and a strait, which he imagined +formed a communication from the Caspian to the Scythian ocean, he admits +but a very small space. According to the system of Pliny, therefore, the +ocean occupied the whole county of Siberia, Mogul Tartary, China, &c. He +derived his information respecting India from the journals of Nearchus, and +the other officers of Alexander; and yet such is his ignorance, or the +corrupt state of the text, or the vitiated medium through which he received +his information, that it is not easy to reconcile his account with that of +Nearchus. Salmasius, indeed, charges him with confounding the east and west +in his description of India. His geography, in the most important +particular of the relative distances of places, is rendered of very little +utility or authority, from the circumstance pointed out and proved by +D'Anville, that he indiscriminately reckons eight stadia to the mile, +without reference to the difference between the Greek and Roman stadium. He +has, however, added two articles of information to the geographical and +commercial knowledge of the east possessed before his time; the one is the +account of the new course of navigation from Arabia to the coast of +Malabar, which has been already described; the other is a description of +Trapobane, or Ceylon, which, though inaccurate and obscure in many points, +must be regarded as a real and important addition to the geographical +knowledge of the Romans. + +Pliny's geography of the north is the most full and curious of all +antiquity. After describing the Hellespont, Moeotis, Dacia, Sarmatia, +ancient Scythia, and the isles in the Euxine Sea, and proceeding last from +Spain, he passes north to the Scythic Ocean, and returns west towards +Spain. The coast of part of the Baltic seems to have been partly known to +him; he particularly mentions an island called Baltia, where amber was +found; but he supposes that the Baltic Sea itself was connected with the +Caspian and Indian Oceans. Pliny is the first author who names Scandinavia, +which he represents as an island, the extent of which was not then known; +but by Scandinavia there is reason to believe the present Scandia is meant. +Denmark may probably be rcognised in the Dumnor of this author, and Norway +in Noligen. The mountain Soevo, which he describes as forming a vast bay +called Codanus, extending to the promontory of the Cimbri, is supposed by +some to be the mountains that run along the Vistula on the eastern +extremity of Germany, and by others to be that chain of mountains which +commence at Gottenburgh. The whole of his information respecting the north +seems to have been drawn from the expeditions of Drusus, Varus, and +Germanicus, to the Elbe and the Weser, and from the accounts of the +merchants who traded thither for amber. + +Tacitus, who died about twenty years after Pliny, seems to have acquired a +knowledge of the north more accurate in some respects than the latter +possessed. In his admirable description of Germany, he mentions the +Suiones, and from the name, as well as other circumstances, there can be +little doubt that they inhabited the southern part of modern Sweden. + +The northern promontory of Scotland was known to Diodorus Siculus under the +name of Orcas; but the insularity of Britain was certainly not ascertained +till the fleet sent out by Agricola sailed round it, about eighty-four +years after Christ. Tacitus, who mentions this circumstance, also informs +us, that Ireland, which was known by name to the Greeks, was much +frequented in his time by merchants, from whose information he adds, that +its harbours were better known than those of Britain: this statement, +however, there is much reason to question, as in the time of Cæsar, all +that the Romans knew of Ireland was its relative position to Britain, and +that it was about half its size. + +The emperor Trajan, who reigned between A.D. 98 and A.D. 117, was not only +a great conqueror, carrying the Roman armies beyond the Danube into Dacia, +and into Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, and thus extending and +rendering more accurate the geographical knowledge of his subjects; but he +was also attentive to the improvement and commercial prosperity of the +empire. He made good roads from one end of the empire to the other; he +constructed a convenient and safe harbour at Centum Cellæ (Civita Vecchia), +and another at Ancona on the Adriatic: he dug a new and navigable canal, +which conveyed the waters of the Nahar-Malcha, or royal canal of +Nebuchadnezzar, into the river Tigris; and he is supposed to have repaired +or renewed the Egyptian canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. He also +gave directions and authority to Pliny, who was appointed governor of +Pontus and Bithynia, to examine minutely into the commerce of those +provinces, and into the revenues derived from it, and other sources. + +The emperor Adrian passed nearly the whole of his reign in visiting the +different parts of his dominions: he began his journey in Gaul, and thence +into Germany; he afterwards passed into Britain. On his return to Gaul, he +visited Spain; on his next journey he went to Athens, and thence into the +east; and on his second return to Rome, he visited Sicily; his third +journey comprised the African provinces; his fourth was employed in again +visiting the east; from Syria he went into Arabia, and thence into Egypt, +where he repaired and adorned the city of Alexandria, restoring to the +inhabitants their former privileges, and encouraging their commerce. On his +journey back to Rome, he visited Syria, Thrace, Macedonia, and Athens. By +his orders, an artificial port was constructed at Trebizond on a coast +destitute by nature of secure harbours, from which this city derived great +wealth and splendour. + +The only writer in the time of Adrian, from whom we can derive any +additional information respecting the geography and trade of the Romans, is +Arrian. He was a native of Nicodemia, and esteemed one of the most learned +men of his age; to him we are indebted for the journal of Nearchus's +voyage, an abstract of which has been given. His accuracy as a geographer, +is sufficiently established in that work, and indeed, in almost all the +particulars respecting India, which he has detailed in his history of the +expedition of Alexander the Great; and in his Indica, which may be regarded +as an appendix to that history. He lived at Rome, under the emperors +Adrian, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius, and was preferred to the highest +posts of honour, and even to the consulship. In the year A.D. 170, he was +appointed governor of Pontus, by Adrian, for the special purpose of +opposing the Alani, who were invading that part of the empire. His +situation and opportunities as governor, enabled him to derive the most +accurate and particular information respecting the Euxine Sea, which he +addressed in a letter to Adrian; this Periplus, as it is called, "contains +whatever the governor of Pontus had seen, from Trebizond to Dioscurias; +whatever he had heard from Dioscurias to the Danube and whatever he knew +from the Danube to Trebizond." + +The letter begins with the arrival of Arrian at Trebizond, at which place, +the artificial port already noticed was then forming. At Trebizond he +embarked, and surveyed the eastern coast of the Euxine Sea, visiting every +where the Roman garrisons. His course led him past the mouth of the Phasis, +the waters of which, he remarks, floated a long time on those of the sea, +by reason of their superior lightness. A strong garrison was stationed at +the mouth of this river, to protect this part of the country against the +Barbarians; he adds, however, in his letter, that the new suburbs which had +been built by the merchants and veterans, required some additional defence, +and that he had, accordingly, for the greater security of the place, +strengthened it with a new ditch: he ended his voyage at Sebastapolis, the +most distant city garrisoned by the Romans. The description of the coasts +of Asia, from Byzantium to Trebizond, and another of the interior, from +Sebastapolis to the Bosphorus Cimmerius, and thence to Byzantium, is added +to his voyage. The great object of this minute and accurate survey was to +enable the emperor to take what measures he might deem proper, in case he +designed to interfere in the affairs of the Bosphorus, as well as to point +out the means of defence against the Alani, and other enemies of the Roman +power. + +We have contented ourselves with this short abstract of the Periplus of the +Euxine, because we have already given all the important information it +contains on the subject of the commerce of this sea. It is very inferior in +merit to the Periplus of the Euxine, which has also been attributed to this +Arrian, though Dr. Vincent, we think, has proved that it is the work of an +earlier writer, and of a merchant. + +As the Roman conquests extended, their geographical knowledge of course +increased. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, their armies had forced a +passage much further north in Britain than they had ever ventured before. +One of the results of this success was a maritime survey, or rather two +partial surveys of the north part of Britain, from which the geography of +that part of the island was compiled by Ptolemy. + +The maritime laws of the Rhodians, or those which passed under their name, +seem to have been the basis and authority of the Roman maritime laws at +this period; for we are told, that when a merchant complained to the +emperor that he had been plundered by the imperial officers at the +Cyclades, where he had been shipwrecked, the latter replied, that he indeed +was lord of the earth, but that the sea was governed by the Rhodian laws, +and that from them he would obtain redress. This part of the Rhodian law, +however, had been but lately adopted by the Romans; for Antoninus is +expressly mentioned as having enacted, among other laws, that shipwrecked +merchandize should be the entire property of the lawful owners, without any +interference or participation of the officers of the exchequer, and that +those who were guilty of plundering wrecks should be severely punished. + +One of the most important and complete surveys of the Roman empire (the +idea of which, as has been already stated, was first formed by Julius +Cæsar) was begun and finished in the reign of Antoninus, and is well known +under the appellation of his Itinerary. It has, indeed, been objected to +this date of the Itinerary, that it contains places which were not known in +the time of Antonine, and names of places which they did not bear till +after his reign; thus mention is made of the province of Arcadia in Egypt, +and of Honorius in Pontus, so styled in honor of the sons of the emperor +Theodosius. But the fact seems to be that alterations and additions were +made to the Itinerary, and that occasionally, or perhaps under each +subsequent emperor, new editions of it were published. From the maritime +part of this Itinerary of Antoninus we derive a clear idea of the timidity +or want of skill and enterprise of the Mediterranean seamen in their +commercial voyages. All the ports which it was prudent or necessary, for +the safety of the voyage, to touch at, in sailing from Achaia to Africa are +enumerated; and of these there are no fewer than twenty, some of them at +the heads of bays on the coasts of Greece, Epirus, and Italy, and within +the Straits of Sicily as far as Messina. Their course was then to be +directed along the east and south coasts of Sicily to the west point of it; +from an island off this point they took their departure for the coast of +Africa, a distance of about ninety miles. + +These Itineraries undoubtedly were drawn up in as accurate a manner as +possible; but till the time of Ptolemy they were of little service to +geography or commerce, as, for a private individual to have one in his +possession was deemed a crime little short of high treason. Geography as a +science, therefore, had hitherto made little advances; indeed the discovery +and example of Hipparchus, of reducing it to astronomical basis, seems to +have been forgotten or neglected till the middle of the second century. The +first after him, who attempted to fix geography on the base of science was +Marinus, of Tyre, who lived a short time before Ptolemy; of his work we +have only extracts given by this geographer. He divided the terms latitude +and longitude, which, as we have already stated, were introduced by +Artemidorus (A.C. 104) into degrees, and these degrees into their parts, +though this improvement was not reduced generally to practice before +Ptolemy, for we are informed by him, that Marinus had the latitude of some +places and the longitude of others, but scarcely one position where he +could ascertain both. + +With regard to the extent of Marinus' geographical knowledge, or the +accuracy of his details, we cannot form a fair judgment from the fragments +of his works which remain. According to Ptolemy, he had examined the +history of preceding ages, and all the information that had been collected +in his own time, comparing and rectifying them as he proceeded in his own +account. + +It will be recollected that the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea did not trace +the African coast lower down than Rhapta; but Marinus mentions Prasum, +which, according to that hypothesis, which fixes it in the lowest southern +latitude, must have been seven degrees to the south of Rhapta. So far, +therefore, the knowlege of the ancients, in the time of Marinus, respecting +the east coast of Africa extended; but, as neither he nor Ptolemy mentions +a single place between Rhapta and Prasum, it is probable that the latter +was not frequently or regularly visited for the purposes of trade, but that +commercial voyages were still confined to the limit of Rhapta. We have just +stated that Prasum, according to the most moderate hypothesis, must be +fixed seven degrees to the south of Rhapta. Marinus, however, fixes it +either in thirty-five degrees south, or under the tropic of Capricorn. He +was led into this and similar errors by assigning too great a number of +stadia to the degree. Ptolemy endeavours to correct him, and places Prasum +in latitude 15, 30 south; it is remarkable that the Prasum of Ptolemy is +precisely at Mosambique, the last of the Arabian settlements in the +following ages, and the Prasum of Marinus, if under the tropic of +Capricorn, is the limit of the knowledge of the Arabians on this coast of +Africa. + +Marinus, as quoted by Ptolemy, affirms that he was in possession of the +journals of two expeditions under the command of Septimus Flaccus and +Julius Maternus: the former of these officers set off from Cyrene, and the +latter from Leptis; and, according to Marinus, they penetrated through the +interior of Africa to the southward of the Equator, as far as a nation they +styled Agesymba. The error of Marinus with respect to the valuation of the +stadium, has led him to fix this nation in twenty-four degrees south +latitude; if allowance, however, be made for his error, the Agesymba will +still be placed under the Equator,--a great distance for a land expedition +to have readied in the interior of Africa. Flaccus reported that the +Ethiopians of Agesymba, were three months journeying to the south of the +Garamantes, and the latter were 5400 of the stadia of Marinus, distant from +Cyrene. According to the journal of Maternus, when the king of the +Garamantes set off to attack the people of Agesymba, he marched four months +to the south. + +There are also some notices in Marinus of voyages performed along the coast +of Africa, between India and Africa, and along part of the coast of India; +he particularly mentions one Theophilus who frequented the coast of Azania, +and who was carried by a south-west wind from Rhapta to Aromata in twenty +days; and Diogenes, one of the traders to India, who on his return after he +had come in sight of Aromata, was caught by the north-east monsoon, and +carried down the coast during twenty-five days, till he reached the lakes +from which the Nile issues. Marinus also mentions a Diogenes Samius, who +describes the course held by vessels from the Indus to the coast of Cambay, +and from Arabia to the coast of Africa. According to him, in the former +voyage they sailed with the Bull in the middle of the heavens, and the +Pleiades in the middle of the main yard; in the latter voyage, they sailed +to the south, and by the star Canobus. + +We now arrive at the name of Ptolemy, certainly the most celebrated +geographer of antiquity. He was a native of Alexandria, and flourished in +the reign of the emperor Marcus Antoninus. In the application of astronomy +to geography, he followed Hipparchus principally, and he seems from his +residence at Alexandria to have derived much information through the +merchants and navigators of that city, as well as from its magnificent and +valuable library. His great work, as it has reached us, consists almost +entirely of an elementary picture of the earth, (if it may be so called,) +in which its figure and size, and the position of places are determined. +There is only a short notice of the division of countries, and it is very +seldom that any historical notice is added. To this outline, it is supposed +that Ptolemy had added a detailed account of the countries then known, +which is lost. + +His geography, such as we have described it, consists of eight books, and +is certainly much more scientific than any which had been previously +written on this science. In it there appears, for the first time, an +application of geometrical principles to the construction of maps: the +different projections of the sphere, and a distribution of the several +places on the earth, according to their latitude and longitude. Geography +was thus established on its proper principles, and intimately connected +with astronomical observations and mathematical science. The utility and +merit of Ptolemy's work seems to have been understood and acknowledged soon +after it appeared. Agathemidorus, who lived not long after him, praises him +for having reduced geography to a regular system; and adds, that he treats +of every thing relating to it, not carelessly, or merely according to the +ideas of his own, but to what had been delivered by more ancient authors, +adopting from them whatever he found consonant to truth. Agathodæmon, an +artist of Alexandria, observing the request in which his work was held, +prepared a set of maps to illustrate it, in which all the places mentioned +in it were laid down, with the latitudes and longitudes he assigned them. +The reputation of his geography remained unshaken and undiminished during +the middle ages, both in Arabia and Europe; and even now, the scientific +language which he first employed, is constantly used, and the position of +places ascertained by specifying their latitude and longitude. + +It was not to be expected, however, that Ptolemy could accurately fix the +longitude and latitude of places in the remoter parts of the then known +world; his latitudes and longitudes are accordingly frequently erroneous, +but especially the latter. This arose partly from his taking five hundred +stadia for a degree of a great circle, and partly from the vague method of +calculating distances, by the estimate of travellers and merchants, and the +number of days employed in their journies by land, and voyages by sea. As +he took seven hundred stadia for a degree of latitude, his errors in +latitude are not so important; and though the latitude he assigns to +particular places is incorrect, yet the length of the globe, according to +him, or the distance from the extreme points north and south, then known, +is not far from the truth. Thus the latitude of Thule, according to +Ptolemy, is 64 degrees north, and the parallel through the cinnamon country +16° 24' south, that is, 80° 24' on the whole, a difference from the truth +of not more than six or seven degrees. It is remarked by D'Anville, and Dr. +Vincent coincides in the justice of the remark, that the grandest mistake +in the geography of Ptolemy has led to the greatest discovery of modern +times. Strabo had affirmed, that nothing obstructed the passage from Spain +to India by a westerly course, but the immensity of the Atlantic ocean; +but, according to Ptolemy's errors in longitude, this ocean was lessened by +sixty degrees; and as all the Portuguese navigators were acquainted with +his work, as soon as it was resolved to attempt a passage to India, the +difficulty was, in their idea, lessened by sixty degrees; and when Columbus +sailed from Spain, he calculated on sixty degrees less than the real +distance from that country to India. Thus, to repeat the observation of +D'Anville, the greatest of his errors proved eventually the efficient cause +of the greatest discovery of the moderns. + +Beside the peculiar merit of Ptolemy, which was perceived and acknowledged +as soon as his work appeared, he possesses another excellence, which, as +far as we know, was first pointed out and dwelt upon by Dr. Vincent. +According to him, Ptolemy, in his description of India, serves as the point +of connection between the Macedonian orthography and the Sanscrit, +dispersing light on both sides, and showing himself like a luminary in the +centre. He seems indeed to have obtained the native appellations of the +places in India, in a wonderful manner; and thus, by recording names which +cannot be mistaken, he affords the means of ascertaining the country, even +though he gives no particulars regarding it. We have applied this remark to +India exclusively, but it might be extended to almost all the names of +places that occur in Ptolemy, though, as respects India, his obtaining the +native appellations is more striking and useful. + +Having offered these general remarks on the excellencies and errors of +Ptolemy, we shall next proceed to give a short and rapid sketch of his +geographical knowledge respecting Europe, Asia, and Africa. On the +north-east of Europe he gives an accurate description of the course of the +Wolga; and further to the south, he lays down the course of the Tanais, +much nearer what it really is than the course assigned it by Strabo. He +seems to have been acquainted with the southern shores of the Baltic from +the western Dwina, or the Vistula, to the Cimbric Chersonesus: he also +describes part of the present Livonia. The Chersonesus, however, he +stretches two degrees too far to the north, and also gives it too great a +bend to the east. He applies the name of Thule to a country situated to the +north-east of Britain; if his usual error in longitude is rectified, the +position he assigns Thule would correspond with that of Norway. Such seem +to have been the limits of his Europe, unless, perhaps, he had some vague +idea of the south of Sweden. + +He begins his geographical tables with the British isles; and here is one +of his greatest errors. According to him, the north part of Britain +stretches to the east, instead of to the north: the Mull of Galloway is the +most northern promontory, and the land from it bends due east. The Western +Islands run east and west, along the north shore of Ireland, the west being +the true north point in them. He is, however, on the whole, pretty accurate +in his location of the tribes which at that period inhabited Scotland. +Strabo had placed Ireland to the north of Britain, but in its true +latitude. Ptolemy's map, which is the first geographical document of that +island, represents it to the west of Britain, but five degrees further to +the north than it actually is. He delineates its general shape, rivers, and +promontories with tolerable accuracy, and some of his towns may be traced +in their present appellations, as Dublin in Eblana. It has already been +noticed that he was probably acquainted with the south of Sweden, and his +four Scandinavian islands are evidently Zealand, Funen, Laland, and +Falster. It is remarkable that his geography is more accurate almost in +proportion as it recedes from the Mediterranean. The form which he assigns +to Italy is much farther removed from the truth than the form of most of +the other European countries which he describes. His fundamental error in +longitude led him to give to the Mediterranean Sea a much greater extent +than it actually possesses. According to him, it occupies nearly sixty-five +degrees; and it is a singular circumstance, as well as a decisive proof of +the influence of his authority, as well of the slow progress of accurate +and experimental geography, that his mensuration of this sea was reputed as +exact till the reign of Louis XIV., when it was curtailed of nearly +twenty-five degrees by observation. + +The principal points in the geography of Asia, as given by Ptolemy, respect +the coasts of India, the route to the Seres, and the Caspian sea. His +delineation of India is equally erroneous with his delineation of the +British Isles: according to him, it stretches in a right line from west to +east, a little to the south of a line drawn between the Ganges and the +Indus. He possessed, however, information respecting places in the farther +peninsula of India, the locality of several of which, by comparing his +names with the Sanscrit, may be traced with considerable certainty. He +assigns to the island of Ceylon a very erroneous locality, arising from his +error respecting the form of India, and likewise an extent far exceeding +the truth. He is the first author, however, who mentions the seven mouths +of the Ganges. The route to the Seres, which he describes, has been already +noticed: it is remarkable that the latitude which he assigns to his Sera +metropolis, is within little more than a degree of the latitude of Pekin, +which, in the opinion of Dr. Vincent, is one of the most illustrious +approximations to truth that ancient geography affords. His description of +Arabia is, on the whole, accurate; he has, however, greatly diminished the +extent of the Arabian Gulf, and by at the same time increasing the size of +the Persian, he has necessarily given an erroneous form to this part of +Asia. The ancient opinion of Herodotus, that the Caspian was a sea by +itself, unconnected with any other, which was overlooked or disbelieved by +Strabo, Arrian, &c. was adopted by Ptolemy, but he erroneously describes it +as if its greatest length was from east to west. The peninsula to which he +gives the name of the Golden Chersonesus, and which is probably Malacca, he +describes as stretching from north to south: to the east of it he places a +great bay, and in the most distant part of it the station of Catigara. +Beyond this, he asserts that the earth is utterly unknown, and that the +land bends from this to the west, till it joins the promontory of Prasum in +Africa, at which place this quarter of the world terminated to the south. +Hence it appears that he did not admit a communication between the Indian +and Atlantic oceans, and that he believed the Erythrean sea to be a vast +basin, entirely enclosed by the land. + +Strabo and Pliny believed that Africa terminated under the torrid zone, and +that the Atlantic and Indian oceans joined. Ptolemy, as we have just seen, +rejected this idea, and following the opinion of Hipparchus, that the earth +was not surrounded by the ocean, but that the ocean was divided into large +basins, separated from each other by intervening land, maintained, that +while the eastern coast of Africa at Cape Prasum united with the coast of +Asia at the bay of the Golden Chersonesus, the western coast of Africa, +after forming a great gulf, which he named Hespericus, extended between the +east and south till it joined India. The promontory of Prasum was +undoubtedly the limit of Ptolemy's knowledge of the east coast of Africa: +the limit of his knowledge of the west coast is not so easily fixed: some +suppose that it did not reach beyond the river Nun; while others, with more +reason, extend it to the Gulf of St. Cyprian, because the Fortunate +Islands, which he assumed as his first meridian, will carry his knowledge +beyond the Nun; and because, at the Gulf of St. Cyprian, the coast turns +suddenly and abruptly to the east, in such a manner as may be supposed to +have led Ptolemy to believe that it stretched towards and joined the coast +of India. + +Of some of the interior parts of Africa Ptolemy possessed clear and +accurate information; regarding others, he presents us with a mass of +confused notions. He clearly points out the Niger, though he fixes its +source in a wrong latitude. In the cities of Tucabath and Tagana, which he +places on its banks, may perhaps be recognized Tombuctoo and Gana. The most +striking defect in his geography of the interior of Africa is, that he does +not allow sufficient extent to the great desert of Sahara, while the +southern parts are too much expanded. He places the sources of the Nile, +and the Mountains of the Moon in south latitude thirteen, instead of north +latitude six or seven; but the error of latitude is not so remarkable and +unaccountable as the very erroneous latitude which he assigns to Cape +Aromata, on a coast which was visited every year by merchants he must have +seen at Alexandria. The most difficult point to explain in Ptolemy's +central Africa is the river Gir, which he describes as equal in length to +the Niger, and running in the same direction, till it loses itself in the +same lake. What this river is, geographers have not agreed. It is mentioned +by Claudian, as resembling the Nile in the abundance of its waters. +Agethimedorus, a geographer of the third century, regards it and the Niger +as the same river. + +What then was the amount of the knowledge of the ancients, as it existed +among the Romans, in the height of their power, respecting the form, +extent, and surface of the globe? If we view a map drawn up according to +their ideas, we are immediately struck with the form they assigned the +world, and perceive with what propriety they called the extent of the world +from east to west longitude or _length_, and the extent from north to +south latitude, or _breadth_. In some maps, especially that drawn up +from the celebrated Peutingerian Tables, which contain an itinerary of the +whole Roman empire, thirty-five degrees of longitude occupy twenty-eight +feet eight inches, whereas thirteen degrees of latitude are compressed +within the space of one foot. It is easy to conceive how it happened that +too much space is assigned between places situated east and west of each +other, as the latitude of a place is much more easily determined than its +longitude. At the same time, as the routes of the Roman armies generally +were from east to west, the countries lying in that direction were better +known than those lying to the north and south, though the longitudes, and +general space assigned the world, in the former deviation, were erroneous. +It was the opinion of most of the ancient geographers, that there was a +southern continent or hemisphere, to correspond to and balance the +northern; and this they formed by cutting off the great triangle to the +south. The ancients also, while they curtailed those parts of the world +with which they were unacquainted, extended the known parts. + +The limit of the Roman geography of Europe to the north was the Baltic, +beyond which they had some very imperfect and obscure notion of the south +of Sweden, and perhaps of Norway. They were acquainted with the countries +on the eastern boundary of Europe lying on the Danube and the Vistula, and +the rivers Wolga and Tanais seem also to have been tolerably well known to +them. Of the whole of the west of Europe they were well informed, with the +exception of the general figure, and some part of the British isles. + +With respect to Africa, the Romans seem to have been acquainted with +one-third of it. The promontory of Prasum was the limit of their knowledge +on the east coast: its limits on the western coast it is not so easy to +fix. The western horn was the limit of the voyage of Hanno, which, +according to some, is Cape Nun; and, according to others, Cape Three +Points, in Guinea; and we have observed already, that the Gulf of St. +Cyprian was probably the limit of Ptolemy's knowledge. The coasts of Africa +on the Mediterranean, and on the Red Sea, were of course well known to the +Romans; and some points of their information respecting the interior were +clear and accurate, but, as for these, they trusted almost entirely to the +reports of merchants, they were as frequently erroneous. + +The northern, north-western, north-eastern, and east parts of Asia were +almost utterly unknown to the Romans; but they possessed tolerably accurate +information regarding the whole hither peninsula of India, from the Indus +to the Ganges, and some partial and unconnected notices of the farther +peninsula and of China. + + +[5] The most probable opinion is, that they were made of fluat of + lime, or Derbyshire spar. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND OF COMMERCIAL +ENTERPRISE, FROM THE TIME OF PTOLEMY TILL THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH +CENTURY. + +Although the period, which the present chapter embraces, extends to +thirteen centuries, yet, as it is by no means rich or fruitful either in +discovery or commercial enterprise, it will not detain us long. The +luxuries and wealth of the east, which, in all ages of the world and to all +nations have been so fascinating, had, as we have already seen, drawn to +them the interest and the enterprise of the Romans, in the height of their +conquests; and towards the east, with few exceptions, discovery and +commerce pointed, during the whole of the period which this chapter +embraces. Yet, notwithstanding this powerful attraction, geography made +comparatively little progress: the love of luxury did not benefit it nearly +so much as the love of science. The geography of Ptolemy, and the +description of Greece by Pausanias, are, as Malte Brun justly remarks, the +last works in which the light of antiquity shines on geography. We may +further observe, that as circumstances directed the route to the east, +during the middle ages, principally through the central parts of Asia, the +countries thus explored, or visited, were among the least interesting in +this quarter of the globe, and those of which we possess, even at the +present day, very obscure and imperfect information. + +The nations to whom geography and commerce were most indebted, during the +period which this chapter embraces, were the Arabians,--the Scandinavians, +--under that appellation comprehending the nations on the Baltic and in the +north of Germany,--and the Italian states. Before, however, we proceed to +notice and record their contributions to geography, discovery, and +commerce, it will be proper briefly to attend to a few circumstances +connected with those subjects, which occurred between the age of Ptolemy +and the utter decline of the Roman empire. + +We have already alluded to the intercourse which was begun between Rome and +China, during the reign of Marcus Antoninus, for the purpose of obtaining +silk. Of the embassy which preceded and occasioned this commercial +intercourse, we derive all our information from the Chinese historians. A +second embassy seems to have been sent in the year A.D. 284, during the +reign of Probus: that the object of this also was commercial there can be +no doubt; but the particulars or the precise object in view, and the result +which flowed from it, are not noticed by the Chinese historians. There can +be no doubt, however, that these embassies contributed to extend the +geography and commerce of the Romans towards the eastern districts of Asia. + +Of the attention which some of the Roman emperors, during the decline of +the empire, paid to commerce, we possess a few notices which deserve to be +recorded. The emperor Pertinax, whose father was a manufacturer and seller +of charcoal, and who, himself, for some time pursued the same occupation, +at that period an extensive and profitable one, preserved and exercised, +during his reign, that sense of the value of commerce which he had thus +acquired. He abolished all the taxes laid by Commodus on the ports, +harbours, and public roads, and gave up his privileges as emperor, +especially in all those points where they were prejudicial to the freedom +and extension of commerce. It may indeed be remarked, that the very few +good or tolerable princes who, at this period, filled the government of +Rome, displayed their wisdom as well as their goodness by encouraging +trade. Alexander Severus granted peculiar privileges and immunities to +foreign merchants who settled in Rome: he lowered the duties on +merchandises; and divided all who followed trade, either on a large or +small scale, into different companies, each of which seems to have +preserved the liberty of choosing their own governor, and over each of whom +persons were appointed, conversant in each particular branch of trade, +whose duty it was to settle all disputes that might arise. + +Soon after this period the commerce of Rome in one particular direction, +and that a most important one, received a severe blow. The Goths, who had +emigrated from the north of Germany to the banks of the Euxine, were +allured to the "soft and wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which produced +all that could attract, and nothing that could resist a barbarian +conqueror." It is on the occasion of this enterprise, that we first became +acquainted with the maritime usages and practices of the Goths; a branch of +whom, under the name of Scandinavians, we shall afterwards find contributed +so much to the extension of geography and commerce. In order to transport +their armies across the Euxine, they employed "slight flat-bottomed barks, +framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and occasionally +covered with a shelving roof on the appearance of a tempest." Their first +object of importance was the reduction of Pityus, which was provided with a +commodious harbour, and was situated at the utmost limits of the Roman +provinces. After the reduction of this place, they sailed round the eastern +extremity of the Euxine, a distance of nearly three hundred miles, to the +important commercial city of Trebizond. This they also reduced; and in it +they found an immense booty, with which they filled a great fleet of ships, +that were lying in the port at the time of the capture. Their success +encouraged and stimulated them to further enterprises against such of the +commercial cities or rich coasts of the Roman empire, as lay within their +grasp. In their second expedition, having increased their fleet by the +capture of a number of fishing vessels, near the mouths of the Borysthenes, +the Niester, and the Danube, they plundered the cities of Bithynia. And in +a third expedition, in which their force consisted of five hundred sail of +ships, each of which might contain from twenty-five to thirty men, they +passed the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and ravaged Greece, and threatened +Italy itself. + +The extent to which some branches of trade were carried by the Romans about +this time, may be deduced from what is related of Firmus, whose ruin was +occasioned by endeavouring to exchange the security of a prosperous +merchant for the imminent dangers of a Roman emperor. The commerce of +Firmus seems principally to have been directed to the east; and for +carrying on this commerce, he settled himself at Alexandria in Egypt. +Boasting that he could maintain an army with the produce of paper and glue, +both of which articles he manufactured very extensively, he persuaded the +people of Egypt that he was able to deliver them from the Roman yoke, and +actually had influence sufficient to prevent the usual supplies of corn +from being shipped from Alexandria to Rome. His destruction was the +consequence. As an instance of his wealth and luxury, Vopiscus relates that +he had squares of glass fixed with bitumen in his house. The Roman commerce +suffered considerably during the reign of Dioclesian by the revolt of +Britain, under Carausius, who, by his skill and superiority, especially in +naval affairs, which enabled him to defeat a powerful Roman fleet fitted +out against him, obtained and secured his independence. Carausius was +murdered by Alectus: against the latter the emperor Constantine sailed with +a powerful fleet, and having effected a landing in Britain, Alectus was +defeated and slain. This fleet requires to be particularly noticed from two +considerations. In the first place, it sailed with a side wind, and when +the weather was rather rough,--circumstances so unusual, if not +unprecedented, that they were deemed worthy of an express and peculiar +panegyric: and, secondly, this fleet was not equipped and ready for sea +till after four years' preparation, whereas, in the first Punic war, +"within sixty days after the first stroke of the axe had been given in the +forest, a fleet of 160 galleys proudly rode at anchor in the sea." + +Soon after this event, we are furnished with materials, from which we may +judge of the comparative opulence, commerce, and shipping of the several +countries which bordered on the Mediterranean. Constantine and Licinius +were contending for the Roman empire; and as the contest mainly depended on +superiority at sea, each exerted himself to the utmost to fit out a +formidable and numerous fleet. Licinius was emperor of the east: his fleet +consisted of 380 gallies, of three ranks of oars; eighty were furnished by +Egypt, eighty by Phoenicia, sixty by Ionia and Doria, thirty by Cyprus, +twenty by Caria, thirty by Bithynia, and fifty by Africa. At this period +there seems to have been no vessels larger than triremes. The naval +preparations of Constantine were in every respect inferior to those of his +rival: he seems to have got no ships from Italy: indeed, the fleets which +Augustus had ordered to be permanently kept up at Misenum and Ravenna, were +no longer in existence. Greece supplied the most if not all Constantine's +vessels: the maritime cities of this country sent their respective quotas +to the Piraeus; and their united forces only amounted to 200 small vessels. +This was a feeble armament compared with the numerous and powerful fleets +that Athens equipped and maintained during the Peloponnesian war. While +this republic was mistress of the sea, her fleet consisted of 300, and +afterwards of 400 gallies, of three ranks of oars, all ready, in every +respect, for immediate service. The scene of the naval battle between +Licinius and Constantine was in the vicinity of Byzantium: as this city was +in possession of the former, Constantine gave positive orders to force the +passage of the Hellespont: the battle lasted two days, and terminated in +the complete defeat of Licinius. Shortly after this decisive victory, the +Roman world was again united under one emperor, and the imperial residence +and seat of government was fixed by Constantine at Byzantium, which +thenceforth obtained the name of Constantinople. + +In the middle of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus gives us some +important and curious information respecting the Roman commerce with the +East. According to him it was customary to hold an annual fair at Batnae, a +town to the east of Antioch, not far from the banks of the Euphrates. +Merchandize from the East was brought hither overland by caravans, as well +as up the Euphrates; and its value at this fair was so great, that the +Persians made an attempt to plunder it. To the same author we are indebted +for some notices respecting the countries which lay beyond the eastern +limits of the Roman empire, and also for the first clear and undoubted +notice of rhubarb, as an extensive article of commerce for medicinal +purposes. + +Towards the end of the fourth century, the naval expeditions of the Saxons +attracted the notice and excited the fears of the Britons and the Gauls: +their vessels apparently were unfit for a long voyage, or for encountering +either the dangers of the sea or of battle; they were flat-bottomed and +slightly constructed of timber, wicker-work, and hides; but such vessels +possessed advantages, which to the Saxons more than compensated for their +defects: they drew so little water that they could proceed 100 miles up the +great rivers; and they could easily and conveniently be carried on waggons +from one river to another. + +We have already noticed the itineraries of the Roman empire: of these there +were two kinds, the _annotota_ and the _picta_; the first +containing merely the names of places; the other, besides the names, the +extent of the different provinces, the number of their inhabitants, the +names of the mountains, rivers, seas, &c.; of the first kind, the itinerary +of Antoninus is the most celebrated: to it we have already alluded: to the +second kind belong the Peutingarian tables, which are supposed to have been +drawn up in the reign of Theodosius, about the beginning of the fifth +century, though according to other conjectures, they were constructed at +different periods. + +The beginning of the tables is lost, comprising Portugal, Spain, and the +west part of Africa; only the south-east coast of England is inserted. +Towards the east, the Seres, the mouth of the Ganges, and the island of +Ceylon appear, and routes are traced through the heart of India. Dr. +Vincent remarks, that it is a very singular circumstance that these tables +should have the same names in the coast of India as the Periplus, but +reversed. Mention is also made in them of a temple of Augustus or the Roman +emperor: these circumstances, Dr. Vincent justly observes, tend to prove +the continuance of the commerce by sea with India, from the time of +Claudius to Theodosius; a period of above 300 years. In these tables very +few of the countries are set down according to their real position, their +respective limits, or their actual size. + +The law of the emperor Theodosius, by which he prohibited his subjects, +under pain of death, from teaching the art of ship-building to the +barbarians, was ineffectual in the attainment of the object which he had in +view; nor did any real service to the empire result from a fleet of 1100 +large ships that he fitted out, to act in conjunction with the forces of +the western empire for the protection of Rome against Genseric, king of the +Vandals. This fleet arrived in Sicily, but performed nothing; and Genseric, +notwithstanding the law of Theodosius, obtained the means and the skill of +fitting out a formidable fleet. The Vandal empire in Africa was peculiarly +adapted to maritime enterprise, as it stretched along the coast of the +Mediterranean above ninety days' journey from Tangier to Tripoli: the woods +of mount Atlas supplied an inexhaustible quantity of ship timber; the +African nations whom he had subdued, especially the Carthaginians, were +skilled in ship-building and in maritime affairs; and they eagerly obeyed +the call of their new sovereign, when he held out to them the plunder of +Rome. Thus, as Gibbon observes, after an interval of six centuries, the +fleets that issued from the port of Carthage again claimed the empire of +the Mediterranean. A feeble and ineffectual resistance was opposed to the +Vandal sovereign, who succeeded in his grand enterprise, plundered Rome, +and landed safely in Carthage with his rich spoils. The emperor Leo, +alarmed at this success, fitted out a fleet of 1113 ships, at the expense, +it is calculated, of nearly five millions sterling. This fleet, with an +immense army on board, sailed from Constantinople to Carthage, but it +effected nothing. Genseric, taking advantage of a favourable wind, manned +his largest ships with his bravest and most skilful sailors; and they towed +after them vessels filled with combustible materials. During the night they +advanced against the imperial fleet, which was taken by surprise; confusion +ensued, many of the imperial ships were destroyed, and the remainder saved +themselves by flight. Genseric thus became master of the Mediterranean; and +the coasts of Asia, Greece, and Italy, were exposed to his depredations. + +Towards the end of the fifth century, the Romans under Theodoric exhibited +some slight and temporary symptoms of reviving commerce. His first object +was to fit out a fleet of 1000 small vessels, to protect the coast of Italy +from the incursions of the African Vandals and the inhabitants of the +Eastern empire. And as Rome could no longer draw her supplies of corn from +Egypt, he reclaimed and brought into cultivation the Pomptine marshes and +other neglected parts of Italy. The rich productions of Lucania, and the +adjacent provinces, were exchanged at the Marcilian fountain, in a populous +fair, annually dedicated to trade: the gradual descent of the hills was +covered with a triple plantation of divers vines and chestnut trees. The +iron mines of Dalmatia, and a gold mine in Bruttium, were carefully +explored and wrought. The abundance of the necessaries of life was so very +great, that a gallon of wine was sometimes sold in Italy for less than +three farthings, and a quarter of wheat at about five shillings and +sixpence. Towards a country thus wisely governed, and rich and fertile, +commerce was naturally attracted; and it was encouraged and protected by +Theodoric: he established a free intercourse among all the provinces by sea +and land: the city gates were never shut; and it was a common saying, "that +a purse of gold might safely be left in the field." About this period, many +rich Jews fixed their residence in the principal cities of Italy, for the +purposes of trade and commerce. + +The most particular information we possess respecting the geographical +knowledge, and the Indian commerce of the ancients at the beginning of the +sixth century, is derived from a work of Cosmas, surnamed Indico Pleustes, +or the Indian navigator. He was originally a merchant, and afterwards +became a monk; and Gibbon justly observes, that his work displays the +knowledge of a merchant, with the prejudices of a monk. It is entitled +_Christian Topography_, and was composed at Alexandria, in the middle +of the fifth century, about twenty years after he had performed his voyage. +The chief object of his work was to confute the opinions that the earth was +a globe, and that there was a temperate zone on the south of the torrid +zone. According to Cosmas, the earth is a vast plane surrounded by a wall: +its extent 400 days' journey from east to west, and half as much from north +to south. On the wall which bounded the earth, the firmament was supported. +The succession of day and night is occasioned by an immense mountain on the +north of the earth, intercepting the light of the sun. In order to account +for the course of the rivers, he supposed that the plane of the earth +declined from north to south: hence the Euphrates, Tigris, &c. running to +the south, were rapid streams; whereas the Nile, running in a contrary +direction, was slow and sluggish. The prejudices of a monk, are +sufficiently evident in these opinions; but, in justice to Cosmas, it must +be remarked, that he labours hard, and not unsuccessfully, to prove that +his notions were all the same as those of the most ancient Greek +philosophers; and, indeed, his system differs from that of Homer, +principally in his assigning a square instead of a round figure to the +plane surface, which they both supposed to belong to the earth. The +cosmography of Homer, thus adopted by Cosmas and most Christian writers, +modified in some respects by the cosmography they drew from the Scriptures, +is a strong proof, as Malte Brun observes, of the powerful influence which +the poetical geography of Homer possessed over the opinions even of very +distant ages. + +Having thus briefly detailed those parts of Cosmas's work, which are merely +curious as letting us into the prevalent cosmography of his time, we shall +now proceed to those parts which, as Gibbon remarks, display the knowledge +of a merchant. + +We have already noticed the inscription at Aduli for which we are indebted +to this author, and the light which it throws on the commercial enterprise +of the Egyptian sovereigns. According to Cosmas, the oriental commerce of +the Red Sea, in his time, had entirely left the Roman dominions, and +settled at Aduli: this place was regularly visited by merchants from +Alexandria and Aela, an Arabian port, at the head of the eastern branch of +the Red Sea. From Aduli, vessels regularly sailed to the East: here were +collected the aromatics, spices, ivory, emeralds, &c. of Ethiopia, and +shipped by the merchants of the place in their own vessels to India, +Persia, South Arabia, and through Egypt and the north of Arabia, for Rome. + +Cosmas was evidently personally acquainted with the west coast of the +Indian peninsula. He enumerates the principal ports, especially those from +which pepper was shipped. This article he describes as a source of great +traffic and wealth. The great island of Sielidiba, or Ceylon, was the mart +of the commerce of the Indian ocean. Its ports were visited by vessels from +Persia, India, Ethiopia, South Arabia, and Tzinitza. If the last country is +China, of which there can be little doubt, as he mentions that the +Tzinitzae brought to Ceylon silk, aloes, cloves, and sandal-wood, and +expressly adds that their country produced silk,--Cosmas is the first +author who fully asserts the intercourse by sea between India and China. +Besides the foreign vessels which frequented the ports of Ceylon, the +native merchants carried on an extensive trade in their own vessels, and on +their own account. In addition to pepper from Mali on the coast of Malabar, +and the articles already enumerated from China, &c., copper, a wood +resembling ebony, and a variety of stuffs, were imported from Calliena, a +port shut to the Egyptian Greeks at the time of the Periplus; and from +Sindu they imported musk, castoreum, and spikenard. Ceylon was a depôt for +all these articles, which were exported, together with spiceries, and the +precious stones for which this island was famous. + +Cosmas expressly states that he was not in Ceylon himself, but that he +derived his information respecting it and its trade from Sopatrus, a Greek, +who died about the beginning of the sixth century. This, as Dr. Vincent +observes, is a date of some importance: for it proves that the trade opened +by the Romans from Egypt to India direct, continued upon the same footing +from the reign of Claudius and the discovery of Hippalus, down to A.D. +500; by which means we came within 350 years of the Arabian voyage +published by Renaudot, and have but a small interval between the limit of +ancient geography and that of the moderns. + +From this author we first learn that the Persians having overcome the +aversion of their ancestors to maritime enterprise, had established a +flourishing and lucrative commerce with India. All its principal ports were +visited by Persian merchants; and in most of the cities there were churches +in which the service was performed by priests, ordained by a Persian +archbishop. + +We shall conclude our notice of Ceylon, as described by Cosmas, from the +account of Sopatrus, with mentioning a few miscellaneous particulars, +illustrative of the produce and commerce of the island. The sovereignty was +held by two kings; one called the king of the Hyacinth, or the district +above the Ghants, where the precious stones were found; the other possessed +the maritime districts. In Ceylon, elephants are sold by their height; and +he adds, that in India they are trained for war, whereas, in Africa, they +are taken only for their ivory. Various particulars respecting the natural +history of Ceylon and India, &c. are given, which are very accurate and +complete: the cocoa-nut with its properties is described: the pepper plant, +the buffalo, the camelopard, the musk animal, &c.: the rhinoceros, he says, +he saw only at a distance; he procured some teeth of the hippopotamus, but +never saw the animal itself. In the palace of the king of Abyssinia, the +unicorn was represented in brass, but he never saw it. It is extraordinary +that he makes no mention of cinnamon, as a production of Ceylon. + +The most important points respecting the state of Eastern commerce in the +age of Cosmas, as established by his information, are the following: that +Ceylon was the central mart between the commerce of Europe, Africa, and the +west of India, and the east of India and China; that none of the foreign +merchants who visited Ceylon were accustomed to proceed to the eastern +regions of Asia, but received their silks, spices, &c. as they were +imported into Ceylon; and that, as cloves are particularly specified as +having been imported into Ceylon from China, the Chinese at this period +must have traded with the Moluccas on the one hand, and with Ceylon on the +other. + +Cosmas notices the great abundance of silk in Persia, which he attributes +to the short land carriage between it and China. + +In our account of the very early trade of Carthage, a branch of it was +described from Herodotus, which the Carthaginians carried on, without the +use or intervention of words, with a remote African tribe. Of a trade +conducted in a similar manner, Cosmas gives us some information; according +to him, the king of the Axumites, on the east coast of Africa, exchanged +iron, salt, and cattle, for pieces of gold with an inland nation, whom he +describes as inhabiting Ethiopia. It may be remarked in confirmation of the +accuracy, both of Herodotus and of Cosmas, in what they relate on this +subject, and as an illustration and proof of the permanency and power of +custom among barbarous nations, that Dr. Shaw and Cadamosto (in Purchas's +Pilgrimage) describe the same mode of traffic as carried on in their times +by the Moors on the west coast of Africa, with the inhabitants of the banks +of the Niger. + +In the middle of the sixth century, an immense and expensive fleet, fitted +out by the Emperor Justinian for the purpose of invading the Vandals of +Africa, gives us, in the detail of its preparation and exploits, +considerable insight into the maritime state of the empire at this period. +Justinian assembled at Constantinople 500 transports of various sizes, +which it is not easy exactly to calculate; the presumption derived from the +accounts we have is, that the smallest were 30 tons, and the largest 500 +tons; and that the aggregate tonnage of the whole amounted to about 100,000 +tons: an immense fleet, even compared with the fleets of modern times. On +board of this fleet there were 35,000 seamen and soldiers, and 5000 horses, +besides arms, engines, stores, and an adequate supply of water and +provisions, for a period, probably, of two or three months. Such were the +transports: they were accompanied and protected by 92 light brigantines, +for gallies were no longer used in the Mediterranean; on board of these +vessels were 2000 rowers. The celebrated Belisarius was the +commander-in-chief, both of the land and sea forces. The course of this +numerous and formidable fleet was directed by the master-galley in which he +sailed; this was conspicuous by the redness of its sails during the day, +and by torches fixed on its mast head during night. A circumstance occurred +during the first part of the voyage, which instructs us respecting the mode +of manufacturing the bread used on long voyages. When the sacks which +contained it were opened, it was found to be soft and unfit for use; and on +enquiring into the cause, the blame was clearly traced to the person by +whose orders it had been prepared. In order to save the expense of fuel, he +had ordered it to be baked by the same fire which warmed the baths of +Constantinople, instead of baking it twice in an oven, as was the usual and +proper practice. In the latter mode, a loss of one-fourth was calculated on +and allowed; and the saving occasioned by the mode adopted was probably +another motive with the person under whose superintendence the bread was +prepared. + +During the voyage from Methone, where fresh bread was taken on board to the +southern coast of Sicily, from which, according to modern language, they +were to take their departure for Africa, they were becalmed, and 161 days +were spent in this navigation. An incident is mentioned relating to this +part of the voyage, which points out the method used by the ancients to +preserve their water when at sea. As the general himself was exposed to the +intolerable hardship of thirst, or the necessity of drinking bad water, +that which was meant for his use was put into glass bottles, which were +buried deep in the sand, in a part of the ship to which the rays of the sun +could not reach. Three months after the departure of the fleet from +Constantinople, the troops were landed near Carthage; Belisarius being +anxious to effect this as soon as possible, as his men did not hesitate to +express their belief, that they were not able to contend at once with the +winds, the waves, and the barbarians. The result of this expedition was the +conquest of the African provinces, Sardinia, and Corsica. + +The absurd and injudicious regulations of Justinian, respecting the corn +trade of the empire have been already noticed; nor did his other measures +indicate, either a better acquaintance with the principles of commerce, or +more regard to its interests. The masters of vessels who traded to +Constantinople were often obliged to carry cargoes for him to Africa or +Italy, without any remuneration; or, if they escaped this hardship, +enormous duties were levied on the merchandize they imported. A monopoly in +the sale of silk was granted to the imperial treasurer; and, indeed, no +species of trade seems to have been open and free, except that in cloth. +His addition of one-seventh to the ordinary price of copper, so that his +money-changers gave only 180 ounces of that metal, instead of 210, for +one-sixth of an ounce of gold, seems rather to have been the result of +ignorance than of fraud and avarice; since he did not alter the gold coin, +in which alone all public and private payments were made. At this time, the +geographical knowledge of the Romans, respecting what had formerly +constituted a portion of their empire, must have declined in a striking +manner, if we may judge from the absurd and fabulous account which +Procopius gives of Britain. And the commercial relations of the Britons +themselves had entirely disappeared, even with their nearest neighbours; +since, in the history of Gregory of Tours, there is not a single allusion +to any trade between Britain and France. + +At the beginning of the seventh century we glean our last notice of any +event connected with the commerce and maritime enterprise of the Romans; +and the same period introduces us to the rising power and commerce of the +Arabians. + +Alexandria, though its importance and wealth as a commercial city had long +been on the wane, principally by the removal of most of the oriental trade +to Persia, was still the commercial capital of the Mediterranean, and was +of the utmost importance to Constantinople, which continued to draw from it +an annual supply of about 250,000 quarters of corn; but in the beginning of +this century it was conquered by the Persians, and the emperor was obliged +to enter into a treaty with the conquerors, by which he agreed to pay a +heavy and disgraceful tribute for the corn which was absolutely necessary +for the support of his capital. But a sudden and most extraordinary change +took place in the character of Heraclius: he roused himself from his sloth, +indolence and despair; he fitted out a large fleet; exerted his skill, and +displayed his courage and coolness in a storm which it encountered; carried +his armies into Persia itself, and succeeded in recovering Egypt and the +other provinces which the Persians had wrested from the empire. + +The very early commerce of the Arabians, by means of caravans, with India, +and their settlements on the Red Sea and the coasts of Africa and India at +a later period, for the purposes of commerce, have been already noticed. +Soon after they became the disciples of Mahomet, their commercial and +enterprizing spirit revived, if indeed it had ever languished; and it +certainly displayed itself with augmented zeal, vigour, and success, under +the influence of their new religion, and the genius and ambition of their +caliphs. Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain, were successively +conquered by them; and one of their first and most favourite objects, after +they had conquered a country, was the amelioration or extension of its +commerce. When they conquered Persia, the trade between that country and +India was extensive and flourishing: the Persian merchants brought from +India its most precious commodities. The luxury of the kings of Persia +consumed a large quantity of camphire, mixed with wax, to illuminate their +palaces; and this must have been brought, indirectly, through India, from +Japan, Sumatra, or Borneo, the only places where the camphire-tree grows: a +curious and striking proof of the remote and extensive influence of the +commerce and luxury of Persia, at the time it was conquered by the +Arabians. The conquerors, aware of the importance of the Indian commerce, +and of the advantages which the Tigris and Euphrates afforded for this +purpose, very soon after their conquest, founded the city of Bassora: a +place, which, from its situation midway between the junction and the mouth +of these rivers, commands the trade and navigation of Persia. It soon rose +to be a great commercial city; and its inhabitants, directing their +principal attention and most vigorous enterprize to the East, soon pushed +their voyages beyond Ceylon, and brought, directly from the place of their +growth or manufacture, many of those articles which hitherto they had been +obliged or content to purchase in that island. Soon after the conquest of +Persia was completed, the Caliph Omar directed that a full and accurate +survey and description, of the kingdom should be made, which comprehended +the inhabitants, the cattle, and the fruits of the earth. + +The conquest of Syria added comparatively little to the commerce of the +Arabians; but in the account which is given of this enterprize, we are +informed of a large fair, which was annually held at Abyla, between +Damascus and Heliopolis, where the produce and manufactures of the country +were collected and sold. In the account given of the conquest of Jerusalem +by the Arabians, we have also an account of another fair held at Jerusalem, +at which it is probable the goods brought from India by Bassora, the +Euphrates, and the caravans, were sold. As soon as the conquest of the +western part of Syria was completed, the Arabians took advantage of the +timber of Libanus, and of the maritime skill of the Phoenicians, which even +yet survived: they fitted out a fleet of 1,700 barks, which soon rode +triumphant in the Mediterranean. Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Cyclades, were +subdued, and Constantinople itself was attacked, but without effect. + +The conquest of Egypt, however, was of the most importance to the Arabian +commerce, and therefore more especially demands our notice.--"In their +annals of conquest," as Gibbon remarks, "the siege of Alexandria is perhaps +the most arduous and important enterprize. The first trading city in the +world was abundantly replenished with the means of subsistence and +defence." But the Saracens were bold and skilful; the Greeks timid and +unwarlike; and Alexandria fell into the possession of the disciples of +Mahomet. As soon as the conquest of Egypt was completed, its administration +was settled, and conducted on the most wise and liberal principles. In the +management of the revenue, taxes were raised, not by the simple but +oppressive mode of capitation, but on every branch from the clear profits +of agriculture and commerce. A third part of these taxes was set apart, +with the most religious exactness, to the annual repairs of the dykes and +canals. At first, the corn which used to supply Constantinople was sent to +Medina from Memphis by camels; but Omrou, the conqueror of Egypt, soon +renewed the maritime communication "which had been attempted or achieved by +the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, or the Cæsars; and a canal, at least eighty +miles in length, was opened from the Nile to the Red Sea. This inland +navigation, which would have joined the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, +was soon, however, discontinued, as useless and dangerous;" and about the +year 775, A.D., it was stopped up at the end next the Red Sea. + +The conquest of Africa, though not nearly so advantageous to the commerce +of the Arabians, was yet of some importance to them in this point of view: +it gradually extended from the Nile to the Atlantic Ocean. Tripoly was the +first maritime and commercial city which their arms reduced: Bugia and +Tangier were next reduced. Cairoan was formed as a station for a caravan; a +city, which, in its present decay, still holds the second rank in the +kingdom of Tunis. Carthage was next attacked and reduced; but an attempt +was made by forces sent from Constantinople, joined by the ships and +soldiers of Sicily, and a powerful reinforcement of Goths from Spain, to +retake it. The Arabian conquerors had drawn a strong chain across the +harbour; this the confederate fleet broke: the Arabians for a time were +compelled to retreat; but they soon returned, defeated their enemies, burnt +Carthage, and soon afterwards completed the conquest of this part of +Africa. + +The beginning of the eighth century is remarkable for their invasion of +Spain, and for their second fruitless attack on Constantinople; during the +latter, their fleet, which is said to have consisted of 1800 vessels, was +totally destroyed by the Greek fire. With regard to their conquest of +Spain, it was so rapid, that in a few months the whole of that great +peninsula, which for two centuries withstood the power of the Roman +republic at its greatest height, was reduced, except the mountainous +districts of Asturia and Biscay, Here also the Arabians displayed the same +attention to science by which they were distinguished in Asia: ten years +after the conquest, a map of the province was made, exhibiting the seas, +rivers, harbours, and cities, accompanied with a description of them, and +of the inhabitants, the climate, soil, and mineral productions. "In the +space of two centuries, the gifts of nature were improved by the +agriculture, the manufactures, and the commerce of an industrious people." +The first of the Ommiades who reigned in Spain, levied on the Christians of +that country, 10,000 ounces of gold, 10,000 pounds of silver, 10,000 +houses, &c. "The most powerful of his successors derived from the same +kingdom the annual tribute of about six millions sterling. His royal seat +of Cordova contained 600 mosques, 900 baths, and 200,000 houses: he gave +laws to 80 cities of the first order, and to 300 of the second and third: +and 12,000 villages and hamlets were situated on the banks of the +Guadalquivir." + +The religious prejudices, as well as the interests of the Arabians, led +them to exclude the Christians from every channel through which they had +received the produce of India. That they were precluded from all commercial +intercourse with Egypt, is evident, from a fact noticed by Macpherson, in +his Annals of Commerce. Before Egypt was conquered by the Arabians, +writings of importance in Europe were executed on the Egyptian papyrus; but +after that period, at least till the beginning of the ninth century, they +are upon parchment.--This, as Macpherson observes, amounts almost to a +proof, that the trade with Egypt, the only country producing papyrus, was +interrupted. + +In consequence of the supply of silks, spices, and other oriental luxuries +which Constantinople derived from the fair at Jerusalem, (still allowed by +the Arabians to be annually held,) not being sufficient for the demand of +that dissipated capital, and their price in consequence having very much +increased, some merchants were tempted to travel across Asia, beyond the +northern boundary of the Arabian power, and to import, by means of +caravans, the goods of China and India. + +Towards the beginning of the ninth century, as we have already remarked, +the commercial relations of the Arabians and the Christians of Europe +commenced, and Alexandria was no longer closed to the latter. The merchants +of Lyons, Marseilles, and other maritime towns in the south of France, in +consequence of the friendship and treaties subsisting between Charlemagne +and the Caliph Haroun Al Rasched, traded with their ships twice a year to +Alexandria; from this city they brought the produce of Arabia and India to +the Rhone, and by means of it, and a land carriage to the Moselle and the +Rhine, France and Germany were supplied with the luxuries of the east. The +friendship between the emperor and the caliph seems in other cases to have +been employed by the former to the advancement of the commercial +intercourse between Asia and Europe; for we are expressly informed, that a +Jewish merchant, a favourite of Charlemagne, made frequent voyages to +Palestine, and returned with pictures,--merchandize before unknown in the +west. + +Hitherto we have viewed the Arabians chiefly as fostering and encouraging +commerce; but they also deserve our notice, for their attention to +geographical science and discoveries. From the period of their first +conquests, the caliphs had given orders to their generals to draw up +geographical descriptions of the countries conquered; and we have already +noticed some of these descriptions. In 833, A.D., the Caliph Almamon +employed three brothers of the name of Ben Schaker, to measure a degree of +latitude, first in the desert of Sangdaar, betweeen Racca and Palmyra, and +afterwards near Cufa, for the purpose of ascertaining the circumference of +the globe. + +We now arrive at the era of a most important document, illustrative of the +commerce of the eastern parts of India and of China, with which we are +furnished by the Arabians: we allude to the "ancient Accounts of India and +China, by two Mahomedan travellers, who went to those parts in the ninth +century, translated from the Arabic by Renaudot." The genuineness and +authenticity of these accounts were for a long time doubted; but De +Guignes, from the Chinese annals, has completely removed all doubt on the +subject. + +The most remarkable circumstance connected with this journey is, that in +the ninth century the Mahomedans should have been able to reach China; but +our surprise on this point will cease, when we consider the extent of the +Mahomedan dominions towards the east of Asia, the utmost limits of which, +in this direction, approached very nearly the frontiers of China. If, +therefore, they travelled by land, no serious difficulty would lie in their +way; but Renaudot thinks it more probable, that they proceeded thither by +sea. + +According to these travellers, the Arabian merchants, no longer confining +themselves to a traffic at Ceylon for the commodities of the east of Asia, +traded to every part of that quarter of the globe, even as far as the south +coast of China. The account they give of the traffic with this latter +country, is very minute: "When foreign vessels arrive at Canfu, which is +supposed to be Canton, the Chinese take possession of their cargoes, and +store them in warehouses, till the arrival of all the other ships which are +expected: it thus happens that the vessels which first arrive are detained +six months. They then take about a third part of all the merchandize, as +duty, and give the rest up to the merchants: of these the emperor is the +preferable purchaser, but only for ready money, and at the highest price of +the market." One circumstance is particularly noticed, which proves, that +at this period the Arabians were numerous and respected in China; for a +cadi, or judge, of their own religion, was appointed to preside over them, +under the emperor. The Chinese are described as sailing along the coast as +far as the Persian Gulf, where they loaded their vessels with merchandize +from Bassora. Other particulars are mentioned, respecting their trade, &c., +which agree wonderfully with what we know of them at present: they regarded +gold and silver merely as merchandize: dressed in silk, summer and winter: +had no wine, but drank a liquor made from rice. Tea is mentioned under the +name of _sak_--an infusion of this they drank, and a large revenue was +derived from the duty on it. Their porcelaine also is described and +praised, as equally fine and transparent as glass. Every male child was +registered as soon as born; at 18 he began to pay the capitation tax; and +at 80 was entitled to a pension. + +These Arabian travellers likewise supply us with some information +respecting the trade of the Red Sea. The west side of it was in their time +nearly deserted by merchant ships; those from the Persian Gulf sailed to +Judda on the Arabian coast of it: here were always found many small +coasting vessels, by means of which the goods from India, Persia, &c. were +conveyed to Cairo. If this particular is accurate, it would seem to prove +that at this period the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, which had +been rendered navigable by Omrou, was regularly used for the purposes of +commerce. + +In these accounts, the typhon, or whirlwind, so common in the Chinese seas, +is mentioned under that appellation: the flying fish and unicorn are +described; and we have notices of ambergrise, the musk, and the animal from +which it is produced: the last is mentioned as coming from Thibet. + +The next Arabian author, in point of time, from whom we derive information +respecting geography and commerce, is Massoudi. He died at Cairo in 957: he +was the author of a work describing the most celebrated kingdoms in Europe, +Africa, and Asia; but the details respecting Africa, India, and the lesser +Asia, are the most accurate and laboured. The account we shall afterwards +give of the geographical knowledge of the Arabians, renders it unnecessary +to present any abstract, in this place, of the geographical part of his +work; we shall therefore confine ourselves to the notices interspersed +respecting commerce. The Arabians traded to nearly every port of India, +from Cashmere to Cape Comorin; and seem to have been protected and +particularly favoured in their commercial pursuits. In the year 877 a great +rebellion occurred in China, and the Arabian merchants had been massacred +at Canfn. According to Massoudi, however, in his time this city had +recovered from its disasters; confidence had revived; the Arabian merchants +from Bassora, and other ports in Persia, resorted to it; and vessels from +India and the adjacent islands. He also describes a route to China by land +frequented by traders: this seems to have been through Korasin, Thibet, and +a country he calls Ilestan. With regard to the Arabian commerce with +Africa, the merchants settled at Omar traded to Sofala for gold, and to an +island, which is supposed to be Madagascar, where they had established +colonies. + +Of the geographical knowledge displayed by the next Arabian traveller in +point of date, [Ebor->Ebn] Haukal, we shall at present take no notice, for +the reason already assigned; but confine ourselves to his notices regarding +commerce. According to him, the most wealthy merchants resided at Siraf, +where they traded very extensively and successfully in the commodities of +India and China. Hormus was the principal trading place in Karmania; Daibul +in Sind: the merchants here traded to all parts. The countries near the +Caspian were celebrated for their manufactures of silk, wool, hair, and +gold stuffs. In Armenia, hangings and carpets, dyed with a worm or insect a +beautiful colour, called _kermez_, were made. Samarcand was celebrated for +the excellency of its paper. Trebezond was the principal trading place on +the Black Sea. Alexandria is celebrated for the grandeur of its buildings; +but its trade is not mentioned. + +About the beginning of the eleventh century we derive our earliest notice +of the commerce of Spain under its Arabian conquerors. The port of +Barcelona was at this period the principal station for commercial +intercourse with the eastern nations bordering on the Mediterranean; and as +a proof of the character which its merchants held, it may be noticed, that +their usages were collected into a code: by this code all vessels arriving +at, or sailing from, Barcelona, are assured of friendly treatment; and they +are declared to be under the protection of the prince, so long as they are +near the coast of Catalonia. How much Spain was indebted to the Arabians +for their early commerce may be judged of from the number of commercial and +maritime terms in the Spanish language, evidently derived from the Arabic. + +In the middle of the twelfth century, Al Edrissi composed at the court of +Roger King of Sicily, whose subject he was, his Geographical Amusements. In +this work we find little that relates to commerce: its geographical details +will assist us when we give our sketch of the geographical knowledge of the +Arabians. + +In the work of [Ebor->Ebn] Al Ouardi, which was drawn up in 1232, Africa, +Arabia, and Syria are minutely described; but comparatively little is said +on Europe, India, and the North of Asia. + +The next Arabian geographer in point of time is Abulfeda: he wrote a very +particular description of the earth, the countries being arranged according +to climates, with the latitude and longitude of each place. In the +introduction to this work he enters on the subject of mathematical +geography, and describes the most celebrated mountains, rivers, and seas of +the world. Abulfeda was a native of Syria; and this and the adjacent +countries are described with most fullness and accuracy: the same remark +applies to his description of Egypt and the north coast of Africa. The +information contained in his work, respecting Tartary, China, &c., is not +nearly so full and minute as might have been expected, considering the +intercourse of the Arabians with those countries. Of Europe, and all other +parts of Africa except Egypt and the north coast, he gives little or no +information. + +Within these very few years, some valuable notices have been received, +through M. Burckhardt, and Mr. Kosegarten of Jena, of Ibn Batouta, an +Arabian traveller of the fourteenth century. According to M. Burckhardt, he +is, perhaps, the greatest land traveller that ever wrote his travels. He +was a native of Tangier, and travelled for thirty years, from 1324 to 1354. +He traversed more than once Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, the coast of the +Red Sea, and the eastern coast of Africa. Bochara, Balk, Samarcand, Caubul, +India, and China, were visited by him: he even ventured to explore several +of the Indian islands; crossed the mountains of Thibet, traversed India, +and then, taking shipping, went to Java. He again visited China, and +returned thence by Calicut, Yeman, Bagdad, and Damascus, to Cairo. After +having visited Spain, he directed his travels to Africa; reached the +capital of Morocco, and thence as far as Sodjalmasa. From this place he +crossed the Desert with the slave merchants to Taghary--twenty-five days +journey: he represents the houses here as built of rock salt, and covered +with camel skins. For twenty days more he crossed a desert without water or +trees, and the sand of which was so loose, that it left no traces of +footsteps. He now arrived at the frontier town of Soudan. After travelling +for some time longer, he reached the banks of the Niger, which, according +to the information he received, flowed into the Nile at the second +cataract. He visited Tombuctoo and other places in this part of Africa, and +finished his travels at Fez. + +We shall now conclude our account of the Arabians, with a connected and +condensed view of their geographical knowledge. + +It is natural to suppose that they would be best acquainted with those +countries which had embraced the faith of Mahomet; and that the prejudices +and contempt with which his disciples have always regarded Christians, and, +indeed, all who were of a different religion, would stand in the way of +their seeking or acquiring information respecting those portions of the +globe, the inhabitants of which were not of their faith. The exceptions to +this are to be found principally in those countries, from which they +derived the principal articles of their commerce; or which, though not +proselytized, were conquered by them. + +Hence, Europe in general was scarcely known to them beyond their dominions +in Spain, and the adjacent parts of France. There are, however, exceptions +to this remark; for we find, scattered through their geographical works, +notices tolerably accurate and just respecting Ireland, Paris, Antharvat, +which seems to be England, the Duchy of Sleswig, the City of Kiov, and some +other places. + +The whole of the north of Africa having been subdued, was thoroughly known +by them; and they seem to have extended their arms, or at least their +knowledge, as far into the interior as the banks of the Niger. On the east +side, their arms had penetrated to Sofala; but on the west their knowledge +does not appear to have reached beyond Cape Blanco, in the Bay of Arguin. +The fortunate islands of the ancients were known to them, and the Pike of +Teneriffe seems obscurely represented. Of the other islands and ports +farther to the south on this side of Africa, it is impossible to ascertain +their identity; or whether, as represented by the Arabians, they may not be +regarded as among those fables in geography, in which all the ancient +nations indulged. We may, however, trace some resemblance, in name or +description, to the Canary Islands, the River Senegal, and the Rio d'Ouro. +Malte Brun is of opinion, that their knowledge extended beyond Cape +Boyador, for so long a time impassable by the Portugese. + +On the eastern side of Africa, the Ethiopia of the Arabians seems to have +terminated at Cape Corrientes: their power and religion were established +from the Cape to the Red Sea. In their geographical descriptions of this +part of Africa, we may trace many names of cities which they still retain. +But they adopted the error of Ptolemy in supposing that the southern parts +of Africa and Asia joined; for Edrisi describes an extensive country, +extending from the coast of Africa to that of India, beyond the Ganges. + +The island of Madagascar seems to be faintly pourtrayed by them; and it is +certain that Arabian colonies and the Mahometan religion were established +in it from a very early period. Massoudi mentions an island, two days' sail +from Zanguebar, which he calls Phanbalu, the inhabitants of which were +Mahometans; and it is worthy of remark, as Malte Brun observes, that in the +time of Aristotle a large island in this Ocean was known under a similar +name, that of Phebol. It is surprizing that the island of Ceylon, with +which the Arabians had such regular and constant intercourse, should be +placed by Edrisi near the coast of Africa. + +But it was in Asia that the conquest, and commerce, and religion of the +Arabians spread most extensively; and hence their geographical knowledge of +this part of the globe is more full, accurate, and minute, than what they +had acquired of the other portions. By their conquest of Persia, the +ancient Bactriana, Transoxiana, &c. fell into their power; and according to +their wise plan, they immediately made themselves acquainted with the +geography, productions, &c. of these countries. From their writers we can +glean many new and curious particulars, respecting the districts which lie +to the north and east of the Gihon: whether in all respects they are +accurate, cannot now be ascertained; for these districts, besides that they +are comparatively little known to the moderns, have suffered so much from +various causes, that their identity can hardly be determined. + +On the west of Asia, near the Black Sea and the borders of Europe, the +Arabian geographers throw much light; their information is minute and +exact, and it reaches to the passes of Caucasus. Red Russia, it is well +known, derives its appellation from the colour of the hair of its +inhabitants. Now the Arabian geographers describe a Sclavonic nation, +inhabiting a country near Caucasus, called _Seclab_, remarkable for +the redness of their hair. Hence, it is probable that the modern +inhabitants of Red Russia, who are Sclavonic, emigrated to it from this +district of Caucasus. + +Some notices appear of those parts, of Russia which border on Russia: +Maschput, which is represented as a city of consequence, probably is +Moscow. On the borders of the salt plains of Susith, a country is +described, called Boladal Rus, evidently Russia, the inhabitants of which +are represented as noted for their filth. + +With the figure and extent of the Caspian Sea, the Arabian geographers were +tolerably well acquainted: and they describe, so as to be recognized, +several tribes inhabiting the borders of this sea, as well as the vicinity +of the Wolga. One is particularly noticed and celebrated, being called the +People of the Throne of Gold, the khan of whom lived at Seray, near the +mouth of the Wolga. To the east of the Caspian, the Arabian conquests did +not extend farther than those of Alexander and his immediate successors. +Transoxiana was the limit of their dominions towards the north, in this +part of the world. + +Of many of the districts which the Arabians, conquered, in this part of +Asia, they have furnished us with such accurate and full information, that +modern discoveries have been able to add or correct very little. That they +were acquainted with Thibet and China, has already appeared, from the +account given of their commerce. Thibet they represent as divided into +three parts, Thibet upper, central, and lower. At the beginning of the +eighth century, Arabian ambassadors were sent to China: they passed through +Cashgar. After this period, journies to China by the route of Samarcand +were frequent. Besides Canfu, described by the Mahomedan travellers of +Renaudot, other cities in China were visited by the Arabian merchants, most +of which were in the interior; but the Arabian geographers seem to have +been puzzled by the Chinese names. We learn, however, that the provinces of +the north were distinguished from those of the south; the former were +called Cathay and Tehar Cathar, or Cathay, which produces tea: its capital +was Cambalu: the provinces in the south were called Tchin or Sin. The +appellation of Cathay was that under which alone China was long known to +the Europeans. Under the name of Sin, given to the southern districts, the +Arabian geographers frequently comprehended all the country to the Ganges. +The Arabians divided the present Hindostan into two parts; Sind and Hind: +the first seems to have comprised the countries lying on the Indus; Hind +lay to the east, and comprehended Delhi, Agra, Oude, Bengal, &c. The Decan, +at least the western part of it, belonged to Sind. The coast of Coromandel, +as well as the interior, was unknown to them. On the west or Malabar coast, +their information was full and accurate; but it terminated at Cape Comorin. + +While part of the forces of the Caliph Walid were employed in the conquest +of Spain, another part succeeded in reducing Multan and Lahore; and the +Arabian geographers, always ready to take advantage of the success of their +arms, to promote geographical knowledge, describe their new eastern +conquests, and the countries which bordered on them, in the most glowing +language. The valley of Cashmere, in particular, affords ample matter for +their panegyrics. The towns of Guzerat, Cambay, and Narwhorra are +described: in the last resided the most powerful king of India; his kingdom +extended from Guzerat and Concan to the Ganges. The city of Benares, +celebrated as a school of Indian philosophy, and the almost impregnable +fortress of Gevatior, are mentioned by them, as well as a colony of Jews in +Cochin, and the Maldive islands: these they frequented to obtain cowries, +which then, as now, were used as money. + +It is supposed that the isle of Sumatra is described by them under the name +of Lumery; for the peculiar productions are the same, and Sumatra was known +under the name of Lambry in the time of Marc Paul, and Mandeville. Java is +evidently meant by Al D'Javah: it is represented as rich in spices, but +subject to volcanic eruptions; circumstances by which it is yet +distinguished. A short period before the Portuguese reached these seas, +Arabian colonists established themselves at Ternate and some of the other +spice islands; and their language, religious opinions, and customs, may +clearly be traced in the Philippine islands. + +From the geographical discoveries, the travels by sea and land, and the +commercial enterprize of the Arabians, we pass to those of the +Scandinavians; under that appellation, including not only the +Scandinavians, properly so called, who inhabited the shores of the Baltic +and the coasts of Norway, but also those people who dwelt on the northern +shores of the German Ocean; for they were of the same origin as the Baltic +nations, and resembled them in manners and pursuits. + +By an inspection of the map it will appear, that all these tribes were +situated nearly as favorably for maritime enterprize as the nations which +inhabited the shores of the Mediterranean; and though their earliest +expeditions by sea were not stimulated by the same cause, commercial +pursuits, yet they arose from causes equally efficient. While the countries +bordering on the Mediterranean were blessed with a fertile soil and a mild +climate, those on the Baltic were comparatively barren and ungenial; their +inhabitants, therefore, induced by their situation to attend to maritime +affairs, were further led to employ their skill and power by sea, in +endeavouring to establish themselves in more favored countries, or, at +least, to draw from them by plunder, what they could not obtain in their +own. + +We have already mentioned the maritime expeditions of the Saxons, which +struck terror into the Romans, during the decline of their empire. The +other Scandinavian nations were acted on by the same causes and motives. +Neglecting the peaceful art of agriculture, inured to the sea from their +earliest years, and the profession and practice of piracy being regarded as +actually honourable by them, it is no wonder that their whole lives were +spent in planning or executing maritime expeditions. Their internal wars +also, by depriving many of their power or their property, compelled them to +seek abroad that which they had lost at home. No sooner had a prince +reached his eighteenth year, than he was entrusted by his father with a +fleet; and by means of it he was ordered and expected to add to his glory +and his wealth, by plunder and victory. Lands were divided into certain +portions, and from each portion a certain number of ships were to be fully +equipped for sea. Their vessels, as well as themselves, were admirably +adapted to the grand object of their lives; the former were well supplied +with stones, arrows, and strong ropes, with which they overset small +vessels, and with grappling irons to board them; and every individual was +skilful in swimming. Each band possessed its own ports, magazines, &c. +Their ships were at first small, being only a kind of twelve-oared barks; +they were afterwards so much enlarged, that they were capable of containing +100 or 120 men. + +It is not our intention to notice the piratical expeditions of +Scandinavians, except so far as they tended to discovery, or commerce, or +were productive of permanent effects. Among the first countries to which +they directed themselves, and where they settled permanently, were England +and Ireland; the result of their settlement in England was the +establishment of the Anglo-Saxon dominion power in that kingdom; the result +of their expeditions to Ireland was their settlement on its eastern coasts. +In the middle of the ninth century, the native Irish had been driven by +them into the central and western parts of the country, while the +Scandinavian conquerors, under the appellation of Ostmen, or Eastmen, +possessed of all the maritime cities, carried on an extensive and lucrative +commerce, not only with their native land, but also with other places in +the west of Europe. Their settlements on the Shetland, Orkney, and western +islands of Scotland, are only mentioned, because in these last the +Scandinavians seem to have established and encouraged manufactures, the +forerunner and support of commerce; for towards the end of the ninth +century, the drapery of the Suderyans, (for so the inhabitants were called, +as their country lay to the south of Shetland and Orkney,) was much +celebrated and sought after. + +About this period the Scandinavian nations began to mingle commerce and +discovery with their piratical expeditions. Alfred, king of England, +obliged to attend to maritime affairs, to defend his territories from the +Danes, turned his ardent and penetrating mind to every thing connected with +this important subject. He began by improving the structure of his vessels; +"the form of the Saxon ships (observes Mr. Strutt, who derives his +description from contemporary drawings) at the end of the eighth century, +or beginning of the ninth, is happily preserved in some of the ancient MSS. +of that date, they were scarcely more than a very large boat, and seem to +be built of stout planks, laid one over the other, in the manner as is done +in the present time; their heads and sterns are very erect, and rise high +out of the water, ornamented at top with some uncouth head of an animal, +rudely cut; they have but one mast, the top of which is also decorated with +a bird, or some such device; to this mast is made fast a large sail, which, +from its nature and construction, could only be useful when the vessel went +before the wind. The ship was steered with a large oar, with a flat end, +very broad, passing by the side of the stern; and this was managed by the +pilot, who sat in the stern, and thence issued his orders to the mariners." +The bird on the mast head, mentioned in this description, appears, from the +account of Canute's fleet, given in Du Cange, to have been for the purpose +of shewing the wind. + +The same energy and comprehension of mind which induced and enabled Alfred +to improve his navy so much, led him to favour geographical pursuits and +commere. In his Anglo-Saxon translation of Orosius, he has inserted the +information he had obtained from two Scandinavians, Ohter and Wulfstan. In +this we have the most ancient description, that is clear and precise, of +the countries in the north of Europe. Ohter sailed from Helgoland in +Norway, along the coast of Lapland, and doubling the North Cape, reached +the White Sea. This cape had not before been doubled; nor was it again, +till in the middle of the 16th century, by Chancellor, the English +navigator, who was supposed at that time to be the original discoverer. +Ohter also made a voyage up the Baltic, as far as Sleswig. Wulfstan, +however, penetrated further into this sea than Ohter; for he reached Truse, +a city in Prussia, which he represents as a place of considerable trade. + +Alfred even extended his views to India, whether stimulated by religious +views, or by the desire of obtaining its luxuries, is uncertain; perhaps +both motives operated on his mind. We know that the patriarch of Jerusalem +corresponded with him; and that the Christians of St. Thomas, in India, +would probably be mentioned in these letters: we also know, that about a +century before Alfred lived, the venerable Bede was possessed of pepper, +cinnamon, and frankincense. Whatever were Alfred's motives, the fact is +undoubted, that he sent one of his bishops to St. Thomas, who brought back +aromatic liquors, and splendid jewels. Alfred seems to have been rich in +the most precious commodities of the East; for he presented Asser, his +biographer, with a robe of silk, and as much incense as a strong man could +carry. After all, however, the commerce of England in his reign was +extremely limited: had it been of any importance, it would have been more +specially noticed and protected by his laws. It was otherwise, however, in +the reign of Athelstan; for there is a famous law made by him, by which the +rank and privileges of a thane are conferred on every merchant, who had +made three voyages across the sea, with a vessel and cargo of his own. By +another law passed in this reign, the exportation of horses was forbidden. + +From this period till the conquest, England was prevented from engaging in +commerce by the constant irruption of the Danes, and by the short duration +of their sovereignty after they had succeeded in obtaining it. There are, +however, even during this time, some notices on the subject; as appears +from the laws of Ethelred: by these, tolls were established on all boats +and vessels arriving at Billingsgate, according to their size. The men of +Rouen, who brought wine and large fish, and those from Flanders, Normandy, +and other parts of France, were obliged to shew their goods, and pay the +duties; but the emperor's men, who came with their ships, were more +favoured, though they were not exempt from duty. + +From what relates to the geographical knowledge and the commerce of the +Scandinavian inhabitants of England, we shall now pass on to the +geographical discoveries and commerce of the other Scandinavian nations. + +About the year 861, a Scandinavian vessel, probably on its voyage to +Shetland or Orkney, discovered the Feroe islands. This discovery, and the +flight of some birds, induced the Scandinavians to believe that there was +other land in the vicinity of these islands. About ten years afterwards, +Iceland was discovered by some Norwegian nobility and their dependants, who +were obliged to leave their native country, in consequence of the tyranny +of Harold Harfragre. According to some accounts, however, Iceland had been +visited by a Norwegian pirate a few years before this; and if the +circumstance mentioned in the Icelandic Chronicles be true, that wooden +crosses, and other little pieces of workmanship, after the manner of the +Irish and Britons, were found in it, it must have been visited before the +Scandinavians arrived. The new colonists soon acquired a thorough knowledge +of the size of the island; for they expressly state, that its circumference +is 168 leagues, 15 to a degree, which corresponds with the most accurate +modern measurement. + +Iceland soon became celebrated for its learning; the history of the North, +as well as its geography, is much indebted to its authors: nor were its +inhabitants, though confined to a cold and sterile land very remote from +the rest of Europe, inattentive to commerce; for they carried on a +considerable trade in the northern seas,--their ships visiting Britain, +Ireland, France, Germany, &c.; and there is even an instance of their +having made a commercial voyage as far as Constantinople. + +To them the discovery of Greenland and of America is due. The first took +place about the beginning of the tenth century: a colony was immediately +established, which continued till it was destroyed by a pestilence in the +14th century, and by the accumulation of ice, which prevented all +communication between Iceland and Greenland. + +The discovery of America took place in the year 1001: an Icelander, in +search of his father who was in Greenland, was carried to the south by a +violent wind. Land was discovered at a distance, flat, low, and woody. He +did not go on shore, but returned. His account induced a Norwegian nobleman +to fit out a ship to explore this new land; after sailing for some time, +they descried a flat shore, without verdure; and soon afterwards a low land +covered with wood. Two days' prosperous sailing brought them to a third +shore, on the north of which lay an island: they entered, and sailed up a +river, and landed. Pleased with the temperature of the climate, the +apparent fertility of the soil, and the abundance of fish in the rivers, +they resolved to pass the winter in this country; and they gave it the name +of Vinland, from the quantity of small grapes which they found growing. A +colony was soon afterwards formed, who traded with the natives; these are +represented as of diminutive stature, of the same race as the inhabitants +of the west part of Greenland, and as using leathern canoes. The +merchandize they brought consisted chiefly of furs, sables, the skins of +white rats, &c.; and they principally and most eagerly requested, in +exchange, hatchets and arms. It appears from the Icelandic Chronicles, that +a regular trade was established between this country and Norway, and that +dried grapes or raisins were among the exports. In the year 1121, a bishop +went from Greenland for the purpose of converting the colonists of Vinland +to the Christian religion: after this period, there is no information +regarding this country. This inattention to the new colony probably arose +from the intercourse between the west of Greenland and Iceland having +ceased, as we have already mentioned, and from the northern nations having +been, about this period, wasted by a pestilence, and weakened and +distracted by feuds. Of the certainty of the discovery there can be no +doubt: the Icelandic Chronicles are full and minute, not only respecting +it, but also respecting the transactions which took place among the +colonists, and between them and the natives. And Adam of Bremen, who lived +at this period, expressly states, that the king of Denmark informed him, +that another island had been discovered in the ocean which washes Norway, +called Vinland, from the vines which grew there; and he adds, we learn, not +by fabulous hearsay, but by the express report of certain Danes, that +fruits are produced without cultivation. Ordericus Vitalis, in his +Ecclesiastical History, under the year 1098, reckons Vinland along with +Greenland, Iceland, and the Orkneys, as under the dominion of the king of +Norway. + +Where then was Vinland?--it is generally believed it was part of America; +and the objections which may be urged against this opinion, do not appear +to us to be of much weight. It is said that no part of America could be +reached in four days, the space of time in which the first discoverer +reached this land, and in which the voyages from Greenland to it seem +generally to have been made. But the west part of Greenland is so near some +part of America, that a voyage might easily be effected in that time. In +answer to the objection, that vines do not grow in the northern parts of +America, where Vinland, if part of this continent, must be fixed, it may be +observed, that in Canada the vine bears a small fruit; and that still +further north, in Hudson's Bay, according to Mr. Ellis, vines grew +spontaneously, producing a fruit which he compares to the currants of the +Levant. The circumstances mentioned in the Icelandic Chronicles respecting +the natives, that their canoes are made of skins; that they are very expert +with their bows and arrows; that on their coasts they fish for whales, and +in the interior live by hunting; that their merchandize consists of +whalebone and furs; that they are fond of iron, and instruments made of it; +and that they were small in stature, all coincide with what we know to be +characterestic of the inhabitants of Labrador. It is probable, therefore, +that this part of America, or the island of Newfoundland, was the Vinland +discovered by the Icelanders. + +The beginning and middle of the tenth century witnessed an increasing +spirit of commerce, as well as considerable attention to geographical +pursuits in other Scandinavian nations, as well as the Icelanders. +Periodical public fairs were established in several towns of Germany, and +other parts of the North: one of the most considerable articles of traffic +at these fairs consisted of slaves taken in war. Sleswig is represented as +a port of considerable trade and consequence; from it sailed ships to +Slavonia, Semland, and Greece, or rather, perhaps, Russia. From a port on +the side of Jutland, opposite to Sleswig, vessels traded to Frisca, Saxony, +and England; and from another port in Jutland they sailed to Fionia, +Scania, and Norway. Sweden is represented as, at this time, carrying on an +extensive and lucrative trade. At the mouth of the Oder, on the south side +of the Baltic, there seems to have been one, if not two towns which were +enriched by commerce. + +For most of these particulars respecting the commerce of the Baltic and +adjacent seas, at this period, we are indebted to Adam of Bremen. He was +canon of Bremen in the eleventh century: and from the accounts of the +missionaries who went into Lapland, and other parts of the North, to +convert the inhabitants to Christianity, the information he received from +the king of Denmark, and his own observations, he drew up a detailed +account of the Scandinavian kingdoms. His description of Jutland is full, +and he mentions several islands in the Baltic, which are not noticed by +prior writers. He also treats of the interior parts of Sweden, the coasts +only of which had been previously made known by the voyages published by +king Alfred. Of Russia, he informs us that it was a very extensive kingdom, +the capital of which was Kiev; and that the inhabitants traded with the +Greeks in the Black Sea. So far his information seems to have been good; +but though his account of the south coasts of the Baltic is tolerably +correct, yet he betrays great ignorance in most of what he says respecting +the northern parts of the Baltic. In his work the name Baltic first Occurs. +His geographical descriptions extend to the British isles; but of them he +relates merely the fabulous stories of Solinus, &c. The figure of the +earth, and the cause of the inequality of the length of the day and night, +were known to Adam of Bremen. + +About the middle of the twelfth century, Lubeck was founded; and it soon +became a place of considerable trade, being the resort of merchants from +all the countries of the North, and having a mint, custom-house, &c. We +shall afterwards be called upon to notice it more particularly, when we +come to trace the origin and history of the Hanseatic League. At present we +shall only mention, that within thirty years after it was founded, and +before the establishment of the League, Lubeck was so celebrated for its +commerce, that the Genoese permitted its merchants to trade in the +Mediterranean on board their vessels, on the same footing with their own +citizens. The success of the Lubeckers stimulated the other inhabitants of +this part of the Baltic shores; and the bishop of Lunden founded a city in +Zealand, for the express purpose of being a place of trade, as its name, +Keopman's haven, Chapman's haven, (Copenhagen,) implies. Towards the close +of this century, Hamburgh is noticed as a place of trade. + +The two cities of Lubeck and Hamburgh are generally regarded as having laid +the foundation of the Hanseatic League. This League was first formed, +solely to protect the carriage by land of merchandize between these cities; +it is supposed to have been began about the middle of the thirteenth +century. Other cities soon joined the League, and its objects became more +multiplied and extensive; but still having the protection and encouragement +of their commerce principally in view. The total number of confederated +cities was between seventy and eighty. Lubeck was fixed upon as the head of +the League: in it the assemblies met, and the archives were preserved. +Inland commerce, the protection of which had given rise to the League, was +still attended to; but the maritime commerce of the Baltic, as affording +greater facilities and wealth, was that with which the League chiefly +occupied itself. The confederated cities were the medium of exchange +between the productions of Germany, Flanders, France, and Spain; and the +timber, metals, fish, furs, &c. of the countries on this sea. + +The conquest and conversion of the pagan countries between the Vistula and +the Gulf of Finland, by the Teutonic knights, was favourable to the +commercial views of the confederated cities; for the conquerors obliged the +natives to confine their attention and labour exclusively to agriculture, +permitting Germans alone to carry on commerce, and engage in trade. Hence +Germans emigrated to these countries; and the League, always quicksighted +to their own interests, soon connected themselves with the new settlers, +and formed commercial alliances, which were recognized and protected by the +Teutonic knights. Elbing, Dantzic, Revel, and Riga, were thus added to the +League--cities, which, from their situation, were admirably calculated to +obtain and forward the produce of the interior parts of Poland and Russia. + +The northern countries of the Baltic shore, in a great measure inattentive +to commerce, and distracted by wars, were supplied by the League with +money, on condition that they should assign to them the sources of wealth +which their mines supplied, and moreover grant them commercial privileges, +immunities, and establishments. Lubeck was chiefly benefited and enriched +by the treaties thus formed; for she obtained the working of the mines of +Sweden and Norway, which do not seem to have been known, and were certainly +not productively and effectively worked before this time. The League also +obtained, by various means, the exclusive herring fishery of the Sound, +which became a source of so much wealth, that the "fishermen were +superintended, during the season, with as much jealousy as if they had been +employed in a diamond mine." + +Towards the close of the thirteenth century, the king of Norway permitted +the League to establish a factory and the staple of their northern trade at +Bergen. A singular establishment seems soon to have been formed here: at +first the merchants of the League were permitted to trade to Bergen only in +the summer months; but they afterwards were allowed to reside here +permanently, and they formed twenty-one large factories, all the members of +which were unmarried, and lived together in messes within their factories. +Each factory was capable of accommodating about one hundred merchants, with +their servants. Their importations consisted of flax, corn, biscuit, flour, +malt, ale, cloth, wine, spirituous liquors, copper, silver, &c.; and they +exported ship-timber, masts, furs, butter, salmon, dried cod, fish-oil, &c. + +As the grand object of the League was to secure to themselves the profits +arising from the mutual supply of the north and south of Europe, with the +merchandize of each, they had agents in France, Spain, &c. as well as in +the countries on the Baltic. England, at this period, did not carry on much +commerce, nor afford much merchandize or produce for exportation; yet even +in it the Hanseatic League established themselves. Towards the end of the +thirteenth century they had a factory in London, and were allowed to export +wool, sheep's skins, and tin, on condition that they kept in repair the +gate of the city called Bishopsgate: they were also allowed the privilege +of electing an alderman. + +Bruges, which is said to have had regular weekly fairs for the sale of the +woollen manufactures of Flanders so early as the middle of the tenth +century, and to have been fixed upon by the Hanseatic League, in the middle +of the thirteenth, as an entrepôt for their trade, certainly became, soon +after this latter period, a city of great trade, probably from its +connection with the Hanseatic League, though it never was formally admitted +a member. We shall afterwards have occasion to notice it in our view of the +progress of the Hanseatic League. + +As the commerce of the League encreased and extended in the Baltic, it +became necessary to fix on some depôt. Wisby, a city in the island of +Gothland, was chosen for this purpose, as being most central. Most +exaggerated accounts are given of the wealth and splendour to which its +inhabitants rose, in consequence of their commercial prosperity. It is +certain that its trade was very considerable, and that it was the resort of +merchants and vessels from all the north of Europe: for, as the latter +could not, in the imperfect state of navigation, perform their voyage in +one season, their cargoes were wintered and lodged in magazines on shore. +At this city was compiled a code of maritime laws, from which the modern +naval codes of Denmark and Sweden are borrowed; as those of Wisby were +founded on the laws of Oleren, (which will be noticed when we treat of the +commerce of England during this period,) and on the laws of Barcelona, of +which we have already spoken; and as these again were, in a great measure, +borrowed from the maritime code of Rhodes. + +But to return to the more immediate history of the Hanseatic +League,--about the year 1369 their power in the Baltic was so great, that +they engaged in a successful war with the king of Denmark, and obliged him, +as the price of peace, to deliver to them several towns which were +favourably situated for their purpose. + +The Hanseatic League, though they were frequently involved in disputes, and +sometimes in wars, with France, Flanders, Holland, Denmark, England, and +other powers, and though they undoubtedly aimed at, not only the monopoly, +but also the sovereignty of the Baltic, and encroached where-ever they were +permitted to fix themselves, yet were of wonderful service to civilization +and commerce. "In order to accomplish the views of nature, by extending the +intercourse of nations, it was necessary to open the Baltic to commercial +relations; it was necessary to instruct men, still barbarous, in the +elements of industry, and to familiarize them in the principles of +civilization. These great foundations were laid by the confederation; and +at the close of the fifteenth century, the Baltic and the neighbouring seas +had, by its means, become frequented routes of communication between the +North and the South. The people of the former were enabled to follow the +progress of the latter in knowledge and industry." The forests of Sweden, +Poland, &c. gave place to corn, hemp, and flax; the mines were wrought; +and, in return, the produce and manufactures of the South were received. +Towns and villages were erected in Scandinavia, where huts only were before +seen: the skins of the bear and wolf were exchanged for woollens, linens, +and silks: learning was introduced; and printing was scarcely invented +before it was practised in Denmark, Sweden, &c. + +It was at this period that the Hanse towns were the most flourishing; and +that Bruges, largely partaking of their prosperity, and the sole staple for +all their goods, rose to its highest wealth and consequence, and, in fact, +was the grand entrepôt of the trade of Europe. The Hanse towns were at this +time divided into four classes: Lubeck was at the head of the whole League; +in it the meetings of the deputies from the other towns were held, and the +archives of the League were kept. Under it were Hamburgh, Rostok, Wismar, +and other nine towns situated in the north of Germany. Cologne was the +chief city of the second class, with twenty-nine towns under it, lying in +that part of Germany. Brunswick was the capital of the third class, having +under it twelve towns, farther to the south than those under Lubeck. +Dantzic was at the head of the fourth class, having under it eight towns in +its vicinity, besides some smaller ones more remote. The four chief +factories of the League were Novogorod in Russia, London, Bruges, and +Bergen. + +From this period till the middle of the sixteenth century, their power, +though sometimes formidable, and their commerce, though sometimes +flourishing, were both on the decline. Several causes contributed to this: +they were often engaged in disputes, and not unfrequently in wars, with the +northern powers. That civilization, knowledge, and wealth, to which, as we +have remarked, they contributed so essentially, though indirectly, and +without having these objects in view, disposed and enabled other powers to +participate in the commerce which they had hitherto exclusively carried on. +It was not indeed to be supposed, that either the monarchs or the subjects +would willingly and cheerfully submit to have all their own trade in the +very heart of their own country conducted, and the fruit of it reaped by +foreign merchants. They, therefore, first used their efforts to gain +possession of their own commerce, and then aspired to participate in the +trade of other countries; succeeding by degrees, and after a length of +time, in both these objects, the Hanseatic League was necessarily depressed +in the same proportion. + +The Dutch and the English first began to seek a participation in the +commerce of the North. The chief cities which formed the republic of +Holland had been among the earliest members or confederates of the League, +and when they threw off the yoke of Germany, and attached themselves to the +house of Bourbon, they ceased to form part of the League; and after much +dispute, and even hostility with the remaining members of it, they +succeeded in obtaining a part of the commerce of the Baltic, and commercial +treaties with the king of Denmark, and the knights of the Teutonic order. + +The commerce of the League was also curtailed in the Baltic, where it had +always been most formidable and flourishing, by the English, who, in the +beginning of the fifteenth century, gained admission for their vessels into +Dantzic and the ports of Sweden and Denmark. The only port of consequence +in the northern nations, to which the ships of the League were exclusively +admitted, was Bergen, which at this period was rather under their dominion +than under that of Norway. In the middle of the sixteenth century, however, +they abandoned it, in consequence of disputes with the king of Denmark. +About the same time they abandoned Novogorod, the czar having treated their +merchants there in a very arbitrary and tyrannical manner. These, and other +circumstances to which we have already adverted, made their commerce and +power decline; and, towards the beginning of the seventeenth century, they +had ceased to be of much consequence. Though, however, the League itself at +this period had lost its influence and commerce, yet some cities, which had +been from the first members of it, still retained a lucrative trade: this +remark applies chiefly to Lubeck and Hamburgh; the former of these cities +possessed, about the middle of the seventeenth century, 600 ships, some of +which were very large; and the commerce by which Hamburgh is still +distinguished, is in some measure the result of what it enjoyed as a member +of the Hanseatic League. + +We shall now turn our attention to the Italian states: Venice and Amalfi +were the first which directed their labours to the arts of domestic +industry, the forerunners and causes of commercial prosperity. New wants +and desires being created, and a taste for elegance and luxury formed, +foreign countries were visited. Muratori mentions several circumstances +which indicate a revival of a commercial spirit; and, as Dr. Robertson +remarks, from the close of the seventh century, an attentive observer may +discern faint traces of its progress. Indeed, towards the beginning of the +sixth century, the Venetians had become so expert at sea, that Cassiodorus +addressed a letter to the maritime tribunes of Venice, (which is still +extant,) in which he requests them to undertake the transporting of the +public stores of wine and oil from Istria to Ravenna. In this letter, a +curious but rather poetical account is given of the state of the city and +its inhabitants: all the houses were alike: all the citizens lived on the +same food, viz. fish: the manufacture to which they chiefly applied +themselves was salt; an article, he says, more indispensable to them than +gold. He adds, that they tie their boats to their walls, as people tie +their cows and horses in other places. + +In the middle of the eighth century, the Venetians no longer confined their +navigation to the Adriatic, but ventured to double the southern promontory +of Greece, and to trade to Constantinople itself. The principal merchandize +with which they freighted their ships, on their return-voyage, consisted of +silk, the rich produce of the East, the drapery of Tyre, and furs; about a +century afterwards, they ventured to trade to Alexandria. Amalfi, Genoa, +and Pisa followed their example; but their trade never became very +considerable till the period of the crusades, when the treasures of the +West were in fact placed in their hands, and thus fresh vigour was given to +their carrying trade, manufactures, and commerce. + +There are a few notices, however, respecting the commerce of Venice, and +the other states of Italy, prior to the crusades, which it may be necessary +very briefly to give. About the year 969, Venice and Amalfi are +represented, by contemporary authors, as possessing an equal share of +trade. The latter traded to Africa, Constantinople, and, it would appear, +to some ports in the east end of the Mediterranean; and Italy, as well as +the rest of Europe, entirely depended on these two states for their supply +of the produce of the East. At the beginning of the eleventh century, the +citizens of Amalfi seem to nave got the start of the Venetians in the favor +and commerce of the Mahomedan states of the East: they were permitted to +establish factories in the maritime towns, and even in Jerusalem; and those +privileges were granted them expressly because they imported many articles +of merchandize hitherto unknown in the East. + +In the middle of the same century, Pisa rose into eminence for its +commerce; it traded principally with the Saracen king of Sicily, and with +Africa. The Genoese also, at this period, are represented as possessing a +large portion of the trade of the Levant, particularly of Joppa. + +As the most lucrative branch of commerce of all the Italian states was that +in the productions of the East, and as these could only be obtained through +Constantinople or Egypt, each state was eager to gain the favor of rulers +of these places. The favor of the Greek emperor could be obtained +principally by affording him succours against his enemies; and these the +Venetians afforded in 1082 so effectually, that, in return, they were +allowed to build a number of warehouses at Constantinople, and were +favoured with exclusive commercial privileges. Dalmatia and Croatia were +also ceded to them. + +We now come to the period of the crusades, from which may be dated the +rapid increase of the commerce and power of the Italian states. As none of +the other European powers had ships numerous enough to convey the crusaders +to Dalmatia, whence they marched to Constantinople, the fleets of Venice, +Pisa, and Genoa were employed for this purpose. But before they agreed to +lend their fleets, they bargained, that on the reduction of any city +favorable to commerce, they should be permitted to trade there without duty +or molestation, and be favoured with every privilege and protection which +they might desire. In consequence of this bargain, they obtained, in some +places, the exclusive right over whole streets, and the appointment of +judges to try all who lived in them, or traded under their protection. + +A quarrel which took place between the Venetians and the Greek Emperor +Manuel, in 1171, is worthy of notice, as being connected with the origin of +the bank of Venice. The republic not being able to supply, from its own +sources, the means of carrying on the war, was obliged to raise money from +her citizens. To regulate this the chamber of loans was established: the +contributors to the loan were made creditors to the chamber, and an annual +interest of 4 per cent. was allotted to them. If this rate of interest was +not compulsive, it is a sure criterion of a most flourishing state of +trade, and of very great abundance of money; but there is every reason to +believe if was compulsive. + +At the beginning of the 13th century, Constantinople was conquered by the +Venetians, and the leaders of the fourth crusade: this event enabled them +to supply Europe more abundantly with all the productions of the East. In +the partition of the Greek empire which followed this success, the +Venetians obtained part of the Peloponnesus, where, at that period, silk +was manufactured to a great extent. By this accession, to which was added +several of the largest islands in the Archipelago, their sea coast extended +from Venice to Constantinople: they likewise purchased the isle of Crete. +The whole trade of the eastern Roman empire was thus at once transferred to +the Venetians; two branches of which particularly attracted their +attention,--the silk trade and that with India. The richest and most rare +kinds of silk were manufactured at Constantinople; and to carry on this +trade, many Venetians settled themselves in the city, and they soon +extended it very considerably, and introduced the manufacture itself into +Venice, with so much success, that the silks of Venice equalled those of +Greece and Sicily. The monopoly of the trade of the Black Sea was also +obtained by them, after the capture of Constantinople; and thus some of the +most valuable articles of India and China were obtained by them, either +exclusively, or in greater abundance, and at a cheaper rate than they could +be procured by any other route. In consequence of all these advantages, +Venice was almost the sole channel of commerce in this part of Europe, +during the period of the Latin empire in Constantinople. This empire, +however, was of very short continuance, not lasting more than 57 years. + +In the interval, the merchants of Florence became distinguished for their +commercial transactions, and particularly by becoming dealers in money by +exchange, and by borrowing and lending on interest. In order to carry on +this new branch of traffic, they had agents and correspondents in different +cities of Europe; and thus the remittance of money by bills of exchange was +chiefly conducted by them. Other Italian states followed their example; and +a new branch of commerce, and consequently a new source of wealth, was thus +struck out. + +In the year 1261, the Greek emperor regained Constantinople through the +assistance of the Genoese; and the latter, as usual, were amply repaid for +their services on this occasion. Pera, the chief suburb of Constantinople, +was allotted to them: here they had their own laws, administered by their +own magistrates; and they were exempted from the accustomed duties on goods +imported and exported. These privileges raised their commerce in this part +of the world above that of the Venetians and Pisans; who, however, were +still permitted to retain their factories. The Genoese soon began to aim at +more extensive power and trade; and under the pretext that the Venetians +were going to attack their new settlement, they obtained permission to +surround it, and their factories in the neighbouring coasts, with +fortifications. The trade of the Black Sea was under the dominion of the +Greek emperor, who, by the possession of Constantinople, commanded its +narrow entrance: even the sultan of Egypt solicited liberty to send a +vessel annually to purchase slaves in Circassia and Lesser Tartary. The +Genoese eagerly looked to participating in the valuable commerce of this +sea; and this object they soon obtained. In return they supplied the Greeks +with fish and corn. "The waters of the Don, the Oxus, the Caspian, and the +Wolga, opened a rare and laborious passage for the gems and spices of +India; and after three months march, the caravans of Carizme met the +Italian vessels in the harbours of the Crimea." These various branches of +trade were monopolized by the diligence and power of the Genoese; and their +rivals of Venice and Pisa were forcibly expelled. The Greek emperor, +alarmed at their power and encroachments, was at length engaged in a +maritime war with them; but though he was assisted by the Venetians, the +Genoese were victorious. + +The Venetians, who were thus driven from a most lucrative commerce, +endeavoured to compensate for their loss by extending their power and +commerce in other quarters: they claimed and received a toll on all vessels +navigating the Adriatic, especially from those sailing between the +south-point of Istria and Venice. But their commerce and power on the +Adriatic could be of little avail, unless they regained at least a portion +of that traffic in Indian merchandize, which at this period formed the +grand source of wealth. Constantinople, and consequently the Black Sea, was +shut up from them: on the latter the Genoese were extending their traffic; +they had seized on Caffa from the Tartars, and made it the principal +station of their commerce. The Venetians in this emergency looked towards +the ancient route to India, or rather the ancient depôt for Indian goods,-- +Alexandria: this city had been shut against Christians for six centuries; +but it was now in the possession of the sultan of the Mamalukes, and he was +more favourable to them. Under the sanction of the Pope, the Venetians +entered into a treaty of commerce with the sultans of Egypt; by which they +were permitted to have one consul in Alexandria, and another in Damascus. +Venetian merchants and manufacturers were settled in both these cities. If +we may believe Sir John de Mandeville, their merchants frequently went to +the island of Ormus and the Persian Gulf, and sometimes even to Cambalu. By +their enterprize the Indian trade was almost entirely in their possession; +and they distributed the merchandize of the East among the nations of the +north of Europe, through Bruges and the Hanseatic League, and traded even +directly in their own vessels to England. + +In the beginning of the fifteenth century, the annual value of the goods +exported from Venice amounted to ten millions of ducats; and the profits on +the home and outward voyages, were about four millions. Their shipping +consisted of 3000 vessels, of from 10 to 200 amphoras burden, carrying +17,000 sailors; 300 ships with 8000 seamen; and 45 gallies of various +sizes, manned by 11,000 seamen. In the dock-yard, 16,000 carpenters were +usually employed. Their trade to Syria and Egypt seems to have been +conducted entirely, or chiefly, by ready money; for 500,000 ducats were +sent into those countries annually: 100,000 ducats were sent to England. +From the Florentines they received annually 16,000 pieces of cloth: these +they exported to different ports of the Mediterranean; they also received +from the Florentines 7000 ducats weekly, which seems to have been the +balance between the cloth they sold to the Venetians, and the French and +Catalan wool, crimson grain, silk, gold and silver thread, wax, sugar, +violins, &c., which they bought at Venice. Their commerce, especially the +oriental branch of it, increased; and by the conquest of Constantinople by +the Turks, the consequence of which was the expulsion of the Genoese, they +were enabled, almost without a rival, to supply the encreasing demand of +Europe for the productions of the East. Their vessels visited every port of +the Mediterranean, and every coast of Europe; and their maritime commerce, +about the end of the fifteenth century, was probably greater than that of +all the rest of Europe. Their manufactures were also a great source of +wealth; the principal were silk, cloth of gold and silver, vessels of gold +and silver, and glass. The discovery of a passage to the East Indies by the +Cape of Good Hope, the powerful league of Cambray, and other circumstances, +weakened and gradually destroyed their commerce and power. + +We have said that they supplied almost, without a rival, the demand in +Europe for the produce of the East. That rival was Florence: the success of +her merchants in a new branch of commerce has been already noticed. The +profits they derived from lending money on interest, and from negociating +bills of exchange, aided by their profits on their manufactures, for which, +particularly those of silk and woollen, they were celebrated so early as +the beginning of the fourteenth century, had rendered Florence one of the +first cities of Europe, and many of its merchants extremely rich. In the +year 1425, having purchased the port of Leghorn, they resolved, if +possible, to partake in the commerce of Alexandria. A negociation was +accordingly opened with the sultan: the result of which was, that the +Florentines obtained some share in the Indian trade; and soon afterwards it +appears that they imported spices into England. It is supposed, that the +famous family of the Medici were extensively concerned in the Indian trade +of Florence. Cosmo de Medici was the greatest merchant of the age: he had +agents and money transactions in every part of Europe; and his immense +wealth not only enabled him to gratify his love for literature and the fine +arts, but also to influence the politics of Italy, and occasionally of the +more remote parts of Europe. In the time of Lorenzo de Medici, about the +close of the fifteenth century, the commercial intercourse between Florence +and Egypt was greatly extended. Florence, indeed, was now in the zenith of +her prosperity; after this period her commerce declined, principally from +the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. + +In these brief notices of the commerce of the principal Italian states, +Venice, Genoa, and Florence, in the days of their greatest glory, we have +purposely omitted any reference to the other states, except stating a fact +or two relating to Amalfi and Pisa, during that period, when they nearly +rivalled the three great states. It will be proper, however, to subjoin to +this account of Italian commerce, as it existed prior to the discovery of +the Cape of Good Hope, some important facts respecting Amalfi, Pisa, Milan, +Modena, &c., in order that our sketch, though necessarily brief, may not be +deficient. + +A great rivalship existed between Pisa and Amalfi in the twelfth century, +arising chiefly from commercial jealousy; and this rivalship leading to +war, Amalfi was twice taken and pillaged by the Pisans, who, indeed, during +the zenith of their power, had repeatedly triumphed over the Saracens of +Africa and Spain. Amalfi, however, soon recovered; but we possess no +memorials of her commerce after this period, which deserve insertion here. +Her maritime laws, the date of which is uncertain, seem to have been +generally adopted by the Italian states. + +Towards the end of the twelfth century, the power and commerce of Pisa were +at their height: it partook, with Genoa and Venice, of the advantages +derived from the trade of Constantinople. In the beginning of the next +century, however, we find it became a mere auxiliary of Venice. Its +subsequent wars with Genoa, and the factions which arose within its walls, +reduced its commerce so low, about the middle of the fourteenth century, +that nothing respecting it worthy of notice occurs after this period. + +The wealth derived by Florence from a traffic in money has been already +noticed. The example of this city was followed by Asti, an inland town of +Piedmont, Milan, Placentia, Sienna, Lucca, &c. Hence the name of Lombard, +or Tuscan merchant, was given to all who engaged in money transactions. The +silk manufacture was the principal one in Italy; it seems to have been +introduced by the Venetians, when they acquired part of the Greek empire. +In the beginning of the fourteenth century, Modena was the principal seat +of this manufacture; soon afterwards Florence, Lucca, Milan, and Bologna, +likewise engaged in it. + +Within the period to which the present chapter is confined, there are few +traces of commerce in any other parts of Europe besides the Italian states +and the Hanseatic League: the former monopolizing the commerce of the south +of Europe and of Asia, and the latter that of the north of Europe, +particularly of the Baltic, engrossed among them and the cities which were +advantageously situated for intermediate depôts, nearly all the trade that +then existed. There are, however, a few notices of commercial spirit and +enterprize in other parts of Europe, during this period, which must not be +omitted. + +In Domesday-book a few particulars are set down relating to the internal +and foreign trade of England. In Southwark the king had a duty on ships +coming into a dock, and also a toll on the Strand. Gloucester must have +enjoyed some manufactures of trade in iron, as it was obliged to supply +iron and iron rods for the king's ships. Martins' skins were imported into +Chester, either from Iceland or Germany. The navigation of the Trent and +the Fosse, and the road to York, were carefully attended to. + +If we may believe Fitz-Stephen, London, in the middle of the twelfth +century, possessed a considerable portion of trade: among the imports, he +mentions gold, spices, and frankincense from Arabia; precious stones from +Egypt; purple drapery from India, palm oil from Bagdad: but it is certain +that all these articles were obtained directly from Italian merchants. The +furs of Norway and Russia were brought by German merchants, who, according +to William of Malmsbury, were the principal foreign merchants who traded to +England. The same author mentions Exeter, as a city much resorted to by +foreign merchants; and that vessels from Norway, Iceland, and other +countries, frequented the port of Bristol. Chester at this period also +possessed much trade, particularly with Iceland, Aquitaine, Spain, and +Germany. Henry I. made a navigable canal from the Trent to the Witham at +Lincoln, which rendered this place one of the most flourishing seats of +home and foreign trade in England. The Icelandic Chronicles inform us that +Grimsby was a port much resorted by the merchants of Norway, Scotland, +Orkney, and the Western Islands. + +Previous to the reign of Henry II., the sovereigns and lords of manors in +England claimed, as their right, the property of all wrecked vessels; but +this monarch passed a law, enacting, that if any one human creature, or +even a beast, were found alive in the ship, or belonging to her, the +property should be kept for the owners, provided they claimed it in three +months. This law, as politic as it was humane and just, must have +encouraged foreign trade. In this reign the chief exports seem to have been +lead, tin, and wool, and small quantities of honey, wax, cheese, and +salmon. The chief imports were wine from the king's French dominions, woad +for dying, spiceries, jewels, silks, furs, &c. + +The laws of Oleron, an island near the coast of France belonging to +England, are generally supposed to have been passed by Richard I.; both +these, however, and their exact date, are uncertain: they were copied from +the Rhodian law, or rather from the maritime laws of Barcelona. + +Though it appears by official documents in the reign of king John, that the +south coast of England, and the east coast only, as far as Norfolk, were +esteemed the principal part of the country; yet, very shortly after the +date of these documents, Newcastle certainly had some foreign trade, +particularly with the northern nations of Europe for furs. In this reign +are the first records of English letters of credit. + +Some idea may be formed of the importation of wine at the beginning of the +fourteenth century, by the following facts: in the year ending 20th Nov. +1299, the number of vessels that arrived in London and the other ports, +(with the exception of the Cinque ports,) bringing cargoes of wine +amounting to more than nineteen tuns, was seventy-three; and the number in +the next year was seventy-one. It is probable, however, that we may double +these numbers, since the Cinque ports, being exempted from the duty on +wine, would import much more than any other equal number of ports. From a +charter granted to foreign merchants in 1302, it appears that they came +from the following countries to trade in England:--Germany, France, Spain, +Portugal, Navarre, Lombardy, Tuscany, Provence, Catalonia, Aquitaine, +Thoulouse, Quercy, Flanders, and Brabant. The very important privileges and +immunities granted to them sufficiently proves, that at this period the +commerce of England was mainly dependent on them. That there were, however, +native merchants of considerable wealth and importance, cannot be doubted. +In the year 1318, the king called a council of English merchants on staple +business: they formed a board of themselves; and one was appointed to +preside, under the title of mayor of the merchants, or mayor of the staple. + +About the middle of this century, Dover, London, Yarmouth, Boston, and +Hull, were appointed places for exchanging foreign money; and the entire +management was given to William de la Pole. His name deserves particular +notice, as one of the richest and most enlightened of the early merchants +of England. His son, Michael, was also a merchant, and was created earl of +Suffolk by Richard II. "His posterity flourished as earls, marquises, and +dukes of Suffolk, till a royal marriage, and a promise of the succession to +the crown, brought the family to ruin." + +When Edward III. went to the siege of Calais, the different ports of +England furnished him with ships. From the list of these it appears, that +the whole number supplied was 700, manned by 14,151 seamen, averaging under +twenty men for each vessel. Gosford is the only port whose vessels average +thirty-one men. Yarmouth sent forty-three vessels; Fowey, forty-seven; +Dartmouth, thirty-one; Bristol, twenty-four; Plymouth, twenty-six; London, +twenty-five; Margate, fifteen; Sandwich, twenty-two; Southampton, +twenty-one; Winchelsea, twenty-one; Newcastle, sixteen; Hull, seventeen. + +In the year 1354 we have a regular account of such exports and imports as +paid duty; from which it appears, that there were exported 31,651 sacks of +wool, 3036 cwt. of woad, sixty-five wool-fells, 4774 pieces of cloth, and +8061 pieces of worsted stuff; and there were imported 1831 pieces of fine +cloth, 397 cwt. of wax, and 1829 tuns of wine, besides linen, mercery, +groceries, &c. As tin, lead, and several other articles are not enumerated, +it may be inferred that they paid no duty. In the year 1372 there is the +earliest record of direct trade with Prussia. As the woollen manufactures +of England began to flourish, the importation of woollen cloths necessarily +diminished; so that, in the act of 1378, reviving the acts of 1335 and 1351 +for the encouragement of foreign merchants, though cloth of gold and +silver, stuffs of silk, napery, linen, canvas, &c. are enumerated as +imported by them, woollen cloth is not mentoned. The trade to the Baltic +gradually increased as the ports in the north of England, particularly +Newcastle, rose in wealth. In 1378 coals and grindstones were exported from +this place to Prussia, Norway, Schonen, and other ports of the Baltic. Soon +afterwards, in consequence of some disputes between the Prussians and +English, a commercial treaty was formed between the Grand Master of Prussia +and Edward III., by which it was agreed that the Prussian merchants in +London should be protected, and that English merchants should have free +access to every part of Prussia, to trade freely, as it used to be in +ancient times. In order to carry this treaty into full effect on the part +of the English, a citizen of London was chosen to be governor of the +English merchants in Prussia and the other countries on the Baltic. +Disputes, however, still arose, and piracies were committed on both sides. +Meetings were therefore held at the Hague, to hear and settle the +complaints of each party. From the statements then given in, it appears, +that woollen clothes now formed a considerable part of the exports of +England to the Baltic. That they were also exported in considerable +quantity to the south of Europe, appears from other documents. + +At the beginning of the fifteenth century the foreign commerce of England +had considerably increased; for we are informed, that some merchants of +London shipped wool and other goods, to the value of 24,000_l_., to the +Mediterranean; and nearly about the same time, the English merchants +possessed valuable warehouses and an extensive trade at Bergen in Norway, +and sent vessels of the size of 200 tons to Portugal. The freight of one of +these is stated to have been worth 6000 crowns in gold. The improvement of +the woollen manufactures may be inferred from the following circumstance: +alum is very useful to fullers and dyers. About the year 1422, the Genoese +obtained from the Greek emperor the lease of a hill in Asia Minor, +containing alum: England was one of the chief customers for this article; +but it undoubtedly was imported, not in English, but in Genoese vessels. In +the year 1450 the Genoese delivered alum to the value of 4000l. to Henry +VI. Bristol seems to have been one of the most commercial cities in +England. One merchant of it is mentioned as having been possessed of 2470 +tuns of shipping: he traded to Finmark and Iceland for fish, and to the +Baltic for timber and other bulky articles in very large ships, some of +which are said to have been of the burden of 400, 500, and even 900 tons. +Towards the latter end of the fifteenth century, the parliament, in order +to encourage English shipping, (as hitherto the greatest part of the +foreign trade of England had been carried on by foreign merchants in +foreign vessels,) enacted a species of navigation law, and prohibited the +king's subjects from shipping goods in England and Wales on board any +vessel owned by a foreigner, unless when sufficient freight could not be +found in English vessels. + +Such are the most instructive and important notices respecting the state +and progress of English commerce, which occur prior to the discovery of the +Cape of Good Hope and America. We shall now proceed to give similar notices +of the commerce of Scotland, Ireland, France, and the other countries of +Europe; these, however, shall be very brief and few. In the middle of the +twelfth century, Berwick, which then belonged to Scotland, is described as +having more foreign commerce than any other port in that kingdom, and as +possessing many ships. One of the merchants of this town was distinguished +by the appellation of _the opulent_. Inverluth, or Leith, is described +merely as possessing a harbour, but no mention is made of its trade. +Strivelen had some vessels and trade, and likewise Perth. There was some +trade between Aberdeen and Norway. There were no trading towns on the west +coast of Scotland at this period; but about twenty years afterwards, a +weekly market, and an annual fair were granted by charter to Glasgow. + +It is probable that the foreign commerce of Scotland, being confined to the +east coast, was principally carried on with Norway: with which country, +indeed, Scotland had intimate connection; for we do not find any notice of +foreign merchants from other countries trading to or settling in Scotland, +till towards the end of the thirteenth century, when some Flemish merchants +established a factory at Berwick. Wool, wool-fells, hides, &c. were the +chief articles of export; salmon also was exported. Of the importance and +value of the trade of this place we may form some idea, from the +circumstance, that the custom duties amounted to upwards of 2,000_l_. +sterling; and of 1,500 marks a year settled on the widow of Alexander +prince of Scotland, 1,300 were paid by Berwick. + +In the year 1428. foreign commerce attracted considerable attention in +Scotland; and in order to encourage the native merchants to carry it on +themselves, and by their own vessels, the parliament of Scotland seem, some +time previous to this date, to have passed a navigation act; for in an act +passed this year, the Scotch merchants were permitted for a year ensuing, +to ship their goods in foreign vessels, where Scotch ones were not to be +found, notwithstanding the statute to the contrary. Indeed, during the +civil wars in England, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when the +manufactures and commerce of that country necessarily declined, the +commerce of Scotland began to flourish, and was protected and encouraged by +its monarchs. The herring fishery was encouraged; duties were laid on the +exportation of wool, and a staple for Scotch commerce was fixed in the +Netherlands, In the year 1420 Glasgow began to acquire wealth by the +fisheries; but until the discovery of America and the West Indies, it had +little or no foreign trade. Towards the middle of the fifteenth century, +several acts of parliament were passed to encourage agriculture, the +fisheries, and commerce; the Scotch merchants had now acquired so much +wealth and general respectability, that they were frequently employed, +along with the clergy and nobles, in embassies. Even some of the Scotch +barons were engaged in trade. In 1467 several acts were passed: among the +most important enactments were those which related to the freight of ships, +the mode of stowing it, the mode of fixing the average in case goods were +thrown overboard, and the time of the year when vessels might sail to +foreign countries. + +The commerce of Ireland, when its ports were frequented by the Ostmen, has +been already noticed. In the middle of the twelfth century, we are +informed, that foreign merchants brought gold to Ireland, and that wheat +and wine were imported from Bretagne into Wexford; but the exports in +return are not particularized. About this period, some trade seems to have +been carried on between Bristol and Dublin; and on the conquest of Ireland +by Henry II., that monarch gave his city of Dublin to be inhabited by his +men of Bristol. A charter granted by the same monarch, gives to the +burgesses of that city free trade to England, Normandy, Wales, and the +other ports of Ireland. From this time the commerce of Dublin seems to have +flourished. It is certain, that at the middle of the fourteenth century the +Irish stuffs were in such request abroad, that imitations of them were +attempted by the Catalans, and they were worn as articles of luxury by the +ladies of Florence. But of the mode in which they were conveyed to foreign +countries, and the articles which were received in exchange for them, we +have no certain information. + +Though France possessed excellent ports in the Mediterranean, particularly +Marseilles, which, as we have seen, in very early times was celebrated for +its commerce, yet she, as well as less favoured ports of Europe, was +principally indebted for her trade to the Lombards and other Italian +merchants, during the middle ages. The political state of the country, +indeed, was very unfavourable to commerce during this period; there are, +consequently, few particulars of its commerce worth recording. About the +beginning of the fourteenth century, Montpelier seems to have had a +considerable trade; and they even sent ships with various articles of +merchandize to London. Mention of Bourdeaux occurs about the same time, as +having sent out, in one year, 1350 vessels, laden with 13,429 tuns of wine; +this gives nearly 100 tuns in each vessel on an average. But Bourdeaux was +in fact an English possession at this time. That commerce between France +and England would have flourished and extended considerably, had it not +been interrupted by the frequent and bitter wars between these countries, +is evident from the consequences which followed the truce which was +concluded between their monarchs in 1384. The French, and particularly the +Normans, taking immediate advantage of this truce, imported into England an +immense quantity of wine, fruits, spiceries, and fish; gold and silver +alone were given in exchange. The Normans appear to have traded very +extensively in spiceries; but it is uncertain, whether they brought them +directly from the Mediterranean: they likewise traded to the east country +or Baltic countries. About a century afterwards, that is in 1453, France +could boast of her wealthy merchant, as well as Florence and England. His +name was Jacques Coeur: he is said to have employed 300 factors, and to +have traded with the Turks and Persians; his exports were chiefly woollen +cloth, linen, and paper; and his imports consisted of silks, spiceries, +gold, silver, &c. + +In all our preceding accounts of the trade of Europe, the Italian and +Flemish merchants make a conspicuous figure. Flanders was celebrated for +its woollen manufactures, as well as for containing the central depôts of +the trade between the south and north of Europe. Holland, which afterwards +rose to such commercial importance, does not appear in the annals of +commerce till the beginning of the fifteenth century. At this period, many +of the manufacturers of Brabant and Flanders settled in Holland; and about +the same time the Hollanders engaged in maritime commerce; but there are no +particulars respecting it, that fall within the limits of the present +chapter. + +It remains to notice Spain. The commerce of Barcelona in its earliest stage +has been already noticed. The Catalans, in the thirteenth century, engaged +very extensively in the commerce of the Mediterranean, to almost every port +of which they traded. The earliest navigation act known was passed by the +count of Barcelona about this time; and laws were also framed, containing +rules for the owners and commanders of vessels, and the clerks employed to +keep their accounts; for loading and discharging the cargo; for the mutual +assistance to be given by vessels, &c. These laws, and others, to extend +and improve commerce, were passed during the reign of James I., king of +Arragon, who was also count of Barcelona. The manufactures and commerce of +this part of Spain continued to flourish from this time till the union of +the crowns of Castile and Arragon, which event depressed the latter +kingdom. In 1380, a Catalan ship was wrecked on the coast of Somersetshire, +on her voyage from Genoa to Sluys, the port of Bruges: her cargo consisted +of green ginger, cured ginger, raisins, sulphur, writing paper, white +sugar, prunes, cinnamon, &c. In 1401, a bank of exchange and deposit was +established at Barcelona: the accommodation it afforded was extended to +foreign as well as native merchants. The earliest bill of exchange of which +we have any notice, is one dated 28th April, 1404, which was sold by a +merchant of Lucca, residing in Bruges, to a merchant of Barcelona, also +residing there, to be paid by a Florence merchant residing in Barcelona. By +the book of duties on imports and exports, compiled in 1413, it appears, +that the Barcelonians were very liberal and enlightened in their commercial +policy; this document also gives us a high idea of the trade of the city of +Barcelona. A still further proof and illustration of the intelligence of +the Barcelona merchants, and of the advantages for which commerce is +indebted to them, occurs soon afterwards: for about the year 1432 they +framed regulations respecting maritime insurance, the principal of which +were, that no vessel should be insured for more than three quarters of her +real value,--that no merchandize belonging to foreigners should be insured +in Barcelona, unless freighted in a vessel belonging to the king of +Arrogan: the words, _more or less_, inserted frequently in policies, +were prohibited: if a ship should not be heard of in six months, she was to +be deemed lost. + +Little commerce seems to have been carried on from any other port of Spain +besides Barcelona at this period: the north of Spain, indeed, had a little +commercial intercourse with England, as appears by the complaints of the +Spanish merchants; complaints that several of their vessels bound to +England from this part of Spain had been plundered by the people of +Sandwich, Dartmouth, &c. Seven vessels are particularly mentioned: one of +which, laden with wine, wool, and iron, was bound for Flanders; the others, +laden with raisins, liquorice, spicery, incense, oranges, and cheese, were +bound for England. The largest of these vessels was 120 tons: one vessel, +with its cargo, was valued as high as 2500l. + +The following short abstract of the exports and imports of the principal +commercial places in Europe, about the middle of the fifteenth century, +taken from a contemporary work, will very properly conclude and sum up all +we have to say on this subject. + +Spain exported figs, raisins, wine of inferior quality, dates, liquorice, +Seville oil, grain, Castile soap, wax, iron, wool, goat skins, saffron, and +quicksilver; the most of these were exported to Bruges. The chief imports +of Spain were Flemish woollen cloth and linen. This account, however, of +the commerce of Spain, does not appear to include Barcelona. The exports of +Portugal were wine, wax, grain, figs, raisins, honey, Cordovan leather, +dates, salt, &c.; these were sent principally to England. The imports are +not mentioned. + +Bretagne exported salt, wine, cloth, and canvas. + +The exports of Scotland were wool, wool-fells, and hides to Flanders; from +which they brought mercery, haberdashery, cart-wheels, and barrows. The +exports of Ireland were hides, wool, salmon, and other fish; linen; the +skins of martins, otters, hares, &c. The trade of England is not described: +the author being an Englishman, and writing for his countrymen, we may +suppose, thought it unnecessary. + +The exports of Prussia were beer, bacon, copper, bow-staves, wax, putty, +pitch, tar, boards, flax, thread of Cologne, and canvas; these were sent +principally to Flanders, from which were brought woollen cloths. The +Prussians also imported salt from Biscay. + +The Genoese employed large vessels in their trade; their principal exports +were cloth of gold and silver, spiceries, woad, wool, oil, wood-ashes, +alum, and good: the chief staple of their trade was in Flanders, to which +they carried wool from England. + +The Venetians and Florentines exported nearly the same articles as the +Genoese; and their imports were nearly similar. + +Flanders exported madder, wood, garlick, salt-fish, woollen cloths, &c. The +English are represented as being the chief purchasers in the marts of +Brabant, Flanders, and Zealand; to these marts were brought the merchandize +of Hainault, France, Burgundy, Cologne, and Cambray, in carts. The +commodities of the East, and of the south of Europe, were brought by the +Italians: England sent her wool, and afterwards her woollen cloth. + +From this view of the trade of Europe in the middle of the fifteenth +century, it appears, that it was principally conducted by the Italians, the +Hanse merchants, and the Flemings; and that the great marts were in +Flanders. Towards the end of this century, indeed, the other nations of +Europe advancing in knowledge and enterprize, and having acquired some +little commercial capital, each began, in some degree, to conduct its own +trade. The people of Barcelona, at a very early period, form the only +exception to this remark; they not only conducted their own trade, but +partook largely in conducting the trade of other nations. + +From the remotest period to which we can trace the operations of commerce, +we have seen that they were chiefly directed to the luxuries of Asia; and +as the desire of obtaining them in greater abundance, and more cheaply and +easily, was the incitement which led to the discovery of the Cape of Good +Hope by the Portuguese, it will be proper, before we narrate that event, +briefly to give such particulars respecting Asiatic commerce as occur +within the period which this chapter embraces, and to which, in our account +of the Arabians, we have not already alluded. This will lead us to a notice +of some very instructive and important travels in the East; and the +information which they convey will point out the state of the geography of +Asia, as well as its commerce, during the middle ages. + +The dreadful revolutions which took place in Asia in the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries, and which threatened to extend to Europe, induced the +European powers, and particularly the Pope, to endeavour to avert the evil, +by sending embassies to the Mogul potentates. So frequent were these +missions, that, in the beginning of the fourteenth century, a work was +composed which described the various routes to Grand Tartary. What was at +first undertaken from policy and fear, was afterwards continued from +religious zeal, curiosity, a love of knowledge, and other motives. So that, +to the devastations of Genghis Khan we may justly deem ourselves indebted +for the full and important information we possess respecting the remote +parts of Asia during the middle ages. + +The accounts of India and China by the two Mahomedan travellers have been +already noticed: between the period of their journey, and the embassies and +missions to which we have just alluded, the only account of the East which +we possess is derived from the work of Benjamin, a Jew of Tudela in Spain. +It is doubted whether he visited all the places he describes: his object +was principally to describe those places where the Jews resided in great +numbers. + +After describing Barcelona as a place of great trade, frequented by +merchants from Greece, Italy, and Alexandria, and a great resort of the +Jews, and giving a similar character of Montpelier and Genoa, he proceeds +to the East. The inhabitants of Constantinople being too lazy to carry on +commerce themselves, the whole trade of this city, which is represented as +surpassing all others, except Bagdad, in wealth, was conducted by foreign +merchants, who resorted to it from every part of the world by land and sea. +New Tyre was a place of considerable traffic, with a good harbour: glass +and sugar were its principal exports. The great depôt for the produce and +manufactures of India, Persia, Arabia, &c., was an island in the Persian +Gulf. He mentions Samarcand as a place of considerable importance, and +Thibet as the country where the musk animal was found. But all beyond the +Persian Gulf he describes in such vague terms, that little information can +be gleaned. It is worthy of remark, that nearly all the Jews, whom he +represents as very numerous in Thebes, Constantinople, Samarcand, &c., were +dyers of wool: in Thebes alone, there were 2000 workers in scarlet and +purple. After the conquest of the northern part of China by Genghis Khan, +the city of Campion in Tangut seems to have been fixed upon by him as the +seat of a great inland trade. Linens, stuffs made of cotton, gold, silver, +silks, and porcelain, were brought hither by the Chinese merchants, and +bought by merchants from Muscovy, Persia, Armenia, &c. + +In the years 1245, 1246, the pope sent ambassadors to the Tartar and Mogul +khans: of these Carpini has given us the most detailed account of his +embassy, and of the route which he followed. His journey occupied six +months: he first went through Bohemia, Silesia, and Poland, to Kiov, at +that time the capital of Russia. Thence he proceeded by the Dnieper to the +Black Sea, till he arrived at the head quarters of the Khan Batou. To him +we are indebted for the first information of the real names of the four +great rivers which water the south of Russia, the Dnieper, the Don, the +Volga, and the Jaik. He afterwards proceeded to the head quarters of +another khan, on the eastern shores of the Caspian. After passing a country +where the famous Prester John is said to have reigned, he reached the end +of his journey, the head quarters of the khan of the Moguls. Besides the +information derived from his own observations, he inserts in his narrative +all he had collected; so that he may be regarded as the first traveller who +brought to the knowledge of western Europe these parts of Asia; but though +his travels are important to geography, they throw little light on the +commerce of these countries. + +Rubruquis was sent, about this time, by the king of France to the Mogul +emperor: he passed through the Crimea, and along the shores of the Volga +and the Caspian Sea; visited the Khans Sartach and Batou; and at length +arrived at the great camp of the Moguls. Here he saw Chinese ambassadors; +from whom, and certain documents which he found among the Moguls, he learnt +many particulars respecting the north of China, the most curious of which +is his accurate description of the Chinese language and characters. He +returned by the same route by which he went. In his travels we meet with +some information respecting the trade of Asia. The Mogul khans derived a +considerable revenue from the salt of the Crimea. The alum of Caramonia was +a great object of traffic. He is the first author, after Ammianus +Marcellinus, who mentions rhubarb as an article of medicine and commerce. +Among the Moguls he found a great number of Europeans, who had been taken +prisoners: they were usually employed in working the mines, and in various +manufactures. He is the first traveller who mentions _koumis_ and +arrack; and he gives a very particular and accurate description of the +cattle of Thibet, and the wild and fleet asses of the plains of Asia. +Geography is indebted to him for correcting the error of the ancients, +which prevailed till his time, that the Caspian joined the Northern Ocean: +he expressly represents it as a great inland sea,--the description given of +it by Herodotus, but which was overlooked or disbelieved by all the other +ancient geographers. + +While the pope and the French monarch were thus endeavouring to conciliate +the Moguls by embassies, the Emperor Frederic of Germany, having recovered +Jerusalem, Tyre, and Sidon, formed an alliance with the princes of the +East; and this alliance he took advantage of for the purposes of oriental +commerce: for his merchants and factors travelled as far as India. In the +last year of his reign, twelve camels, laden with gold and silver, the +produce of his trade with the East, arrived in his dominions. The part of +India to which he traded, and the route which was pursued, are not +recorded. + +Among the most celebrated travellers of the middle ages, was Marco Polo: +he, his father, and uncle, after trading for some time in many of the +commercial and opulent cities of Lesser Asia, reached the more eastern +parts of that continent, as far as the court of the great khan, on the +borders of China. For 26 years they were either engaged in mercantile +transactions, or employed in negociations with the neighbouring states by +the khan; they were thus enabled to see much, and to collect much important +information, the result of which was drawn up by Marco Polo. He was the +first European who reached China, India beyond the Ganges, and the greater +number of the islands in the Indian Ocean. He describes Japan from the +accounts of others: notices great and little Java, supposed to be Borneo +and Sumatra; and is the first who mentions Bengal and Guzerat by their +present names, as great and opulent kingdoms. On the east coast of Africa, +his knowledge did not reach beyond Zanguebar, and the port of Madagascar +opposite to it: he first made known this island to Europe. Such is a sketch +of the countries described by Marco Polo; from which it will easily be +perceived, how much he added to the geographical knowledge of Asia +possessed at that period. + +The information he gives respecting the commerce of the countries he either +visited himself, or describes from the reports of others, is equally +important. Beginning with the more western parts of Asia, he mentions +Giazza, a city in the Levant, as possessed of a most excellent harbour, +which was much frequented by Genoese and Venetian vessels, for spices and +other merchandize. Rich silks were manufactured in Georgia, Bagdat, Tauris, +and Persia, which were the source of great wealth to the manufacturers and +merchants. All the pearls in Christendom are brought from Bagdat. The +merchants from India bring spices, pearls, precious stones, &c. to Ormus: +the vessels of this port are described as very stoutly built, with one +mast, one deck, and one sail. Among the most remarkable cities of China, he +particularly notices Cambalu, or Pekin, Nankin, and Quinsai. At the +distance of 2,500 Italian miles from this last city, was the port of Cauzu, +at which a considerable trade was carried on with India and the spice +islands. The length of the voyage, in consequence of the monsoons, was a +year. From the spice islands was brought, besides other articles, a +quantity of pepper, infinitely greater than what was imported at +Alexandria, though that place supplied all Europe. He represents the +commerce and wealth of China as very great; and adds, that at Cambalu, +where the merchants had their distinct warehouses, (in which they also +lived,) according to the nation to which they belonged, a large proportion +of them were Saracens. The money was made of the middle bark of the +mulberry, stamped with the khan's mark. Letters were conveyed at the rate +of 200 or 250 miles a day, by means of inns at short distances, where +relays of horses were always kept. The tenth of all wool, silk, and hemp, +and all other articles, the produce of the earth, was paid to the khan: +sugar, spices, and arrack, paid only 3-1/2 per cent. The inland trade is +immense, and is carried on principally by numerous vessels on the canals +and rivers. Marco Polo describes porcelain, which was principally made at a +place he calls Trigui; it was very low-priced, as eight porcelain dishes +might be bought for a Venetian groat: he takes no notice of tea. He +supposes the cowries of the Maldives to be a species of white porcelaine. +Silver then, as now, must have been in great demand, and extremely scarce; +it was much more valuable than gold, bearing the proportion to the latter, +as 1 to 6 or 8. Fine skins also bore a very high price: another proof of +the stability of almost every thing connected with China. He was +particularly struck with what he calls black stones, which were brought +from the mountains of Cathay, and burnt at Pekin, as wood, evidently +meaning some kind of coal. The collieries of China are still worked, +principally for the use of the porcelaine manufactures. + +Marco Polo seems to have regarded Bengal and Pegu as parts of China: he +mentions the gold of Pegu, and the rice, cotton, and sugar of Bengal, as +well as its ginger, spikenard, &c. The principal branch of the Bengal trade +consisted in cotton goods. In Guzerat also, there was abundance of cotton: +in Canhau, frankincense; and in Cambaia, indigo, cotton, &c. He describes +the cities on the east and west coasts of India; but he does not seem +either to have penetrated himself inland, or to have learnt any particulars +regarding the interior from other persons. Horses were a great article of +importation in all parts of India: they were brought from Persia and Arabia +by sea. In the countries to the north of India, particularly Thibet, corals +were in great demand, and brought a higher price than any other article: +this was the case in the time of Pliny, who informs us, that the men in +India were as fond of coral for an ornament, as the women of Rome were of +the Indian pearls. In Pliny's time, corals were brought from the +Mediterranean coast of France to Alexandria, and were thence exported by +the Arabians to India. Marco Polo does not inform us by what means, or from +what country they were imported into the north of India. The greater Java, +which he represents as the greatest island in the world, carried on an +extensive trade, particularly by means of the Chinese merchants, who +imported gold and spices from it. In the lesser Java, the tree producing +sago grows: he describes the process of making it. In this island there are +also nuts as large as a man's head, containing a liquor superior to +wine,--evidently the cocoa nut. He likewise mentions the rhinoceros. The +knowledge of camphire, the produce of Japan, Sumatra, and Borneo, was first +brought to Europe by him. The fishery of pearls between Ceylon and the main +land of India is described; and particular mention is made of the large +ruby possessed by the king of that island. Madagascar is particularly +mentioned, as supplying large exports of elephants' teeth. + +Marco Polo's description of the vessels of India is very full and minute: +as he sailed from China to the Indian islands in one of these vessels, we +may suppose it is perfectly accurate. according to him, they were fitted up +with many cabins, and each merchant had his own cabin. They had from two to +four masts, all or any of which could be lowered; the hold was divided not +merely for the purpose of keeping distinct each merchant's goods, but also +to prevent the water from a leak in one division extending to the rest of +the hold. The bottoms of the vessels were double planked at first, and each +year a new sheathing was added; the ships lasted only six years. They were +caulked, as modern ships are; the timbers and planks fixed with iron nails, +and a composition of lime, oil, and hemp, spread over the surface. They +were capable of holding 5000 or 6000 bags of pepper, and from 150 to 300 +seamen and passengers. They were supplied with oars as well as sails: four +men were allotted to each oar. Smaller vessels seem to have accompanied the +larger ones, which besides had boats on their decks. + +When the power of the Romans was extinguished in Egypt, and the Mahomedans +had gained possession of that country, Aden, which had been destroyed by +the former in the reign of Claudius, resumed its rank as the centre of the +trade between India and the Red Sea. In this situation it was found by +Marco Polo. The ships which came from the East, did not pass the straits, +but landed their cargoes at Aden; here the _trankies_ of the Arabs, +which brought the produce of Europe, Syria, and Egypt, received them, and +conveyed them to Assab, Cosir, or Jidda: ultimately they reached +Alexandria. Marco Polo gives a magnificent picture of the wealth, power, +and influence of Aden in the thirteenth century. + +When the Christians were expelled from Syria, in the beginning of the +fourteenth century, and, in order to procure the merchandize of the east, +were obliged to submit to the exactions of the sultan of Egypt; Sanuto, a +Venetian, addressed a work to the Pope, in which he proposed to suppress +the Egyptian trade by force. In this work are many curious particulars of +the Indian trade at this time; and it is highly interesting both on this +account, and from the clear-sighted speculations of the author. It appears +to have produced a strong sensation; and though his mode of suppressing the +Egyptian trade was not followed, yet, in consequence of it, much more +attention was paid to Oriental commerce. According to him, the productions +of the East came to the Venetians in two different ways. Cloves, nutmegs, +pearls, gems, and other articles of great value, and small bulk, were +conveyed up the Persian Gulf and the Tigris to Bassora, and thence to +Bagdat; from which they were carried to some port in the Mediterranean. The +more bulky and less valuable articles were conveyed by Arabian merchants to +the Red Sea, and thence across the desert and down the Nile to Alexandria. +He adds, that ginger and cinnamon, being apt to spoil on shipboard, were +from ten to twenty per cent. better in quality, when brought by land +carriage, though this conveyance was more expensive. + +From the works of Sanuto, it appears that sugar and silk were the two +articles from their trade in which the Saracens derived the greatest +portion of their wealth. Cyprus, Rhodes, Amorea, and Marta (probably +Malta), produced sugar; silk was the produce of Apulia, Romania, Crete, and +Cyprus. Egypt was celebrated, as in old times, for the fineness of its +flax; European flax was far inferior. The Egyptian manufactures of linen, +silk, and linen and silk mixed, and also the dates and cassia of that +country were exported to Turkey, Africa, the Black Sea, and the western +ports of Europe, either in Saracen or Christian vessels. In return for +these articles, the Egyptians received from Europe, gold, silver, brass, +tin, lead, quicksilver, coral, and amber: of these, several were again +exported from Egypt to Ethiopia and India, particularly brass and tin. +Sanuto further observes, that Egypt was dependent on Europe for timber, +iron, pitch, and other materials for ship building. + +As his plan was to cut off all trade with the Saracens, and for that +purpose to build a number of armed galleys, he gives many curious +particulars respecting the expence of fitting them out; he estimates that a +galley capable of holding 250 men, will cost 1500 florins, and that the +whole expence of one, including pay, provisions, &c. for nine months, would +be 7000 florins. The seamen he proposes to draw from the following places, +as affording the most expert: Italy, the north of Germany, Friesland, +Holland, Slavia, Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. + +In the year 1335, Pegoletti, an Italian, wrote a system of commercial +geography; in this, the route taken by the merchants who brought produce +and manufactures from China to Azof is particularly described. "In the +first place," he says, "from Azof to Astracan it is twenty-five days +journey with waggons drawn by oxen; but with waggons by horses, only ten or +twelve. From Astracan to Sara, by the river, one day; from Sara to +Saracanco, on the north-east coast of the Caspian Sea, eight days by water; +thence to Lake Aral, twenty days' journey with camels. At Organci on this +lake there was much traffic. To Oltrarra on the Sihon, thirty-five or forty +days, also with camels; to Almaley with asses, thirty-five days; to Camexu, +seventy days with asses; to a river, supposed to be the Hoangho, in China, +fifty days with horses; from this river the traveller may go to Cassai, to +dispose of his loading of silver there, and from this place he travels +through the whole of Cathay with the Chinese money he receives for his +silver; to Gambelecco, Cambalu, or Pekin, the capital of Cathay, is thirty +days' journey." So that the whole time occupied about 300 days. Each +merchant generally carried with him silver and goods to the value of 25,000 +gold ducats; the expence of the whole journey was from 300 to 350 ducats. +The other travellers of the fourteenth century, from whom we derive any +information respecting Eastern geography and commerce, are Haitho, Oderic, +and Sir John Mandeville; they add little, however, to the full and accurate +details of Marco Polo, on which we can depend. + +Haitho's work, comprehends the geography of the principal states of Asia; +his information was derived from Mogul writings, the relation of Haitho I. +king of Armenia, who had been at the head quarters of Mangu Khan, and from +his own personal knowledge. + +Oderic is the first missionary upon record in India; the date of his +journey is 1334; among much that is marvellous, his relations contain some +extraordinary truths. He went, in company with other monks, as far as +China. There is little new or valuable till he reaches the coast of +Malabar: of the pepper trade on this coast he gives a clear and rational +account. He next describes Sumatra and the adjacent islands, and mentions +the sago tree. Respecting China, he informs us, among other things which +are fabulous, that persons of high rank keep their nails extremely long, +and that the feet of the women are very small. He expresses great surprise +and admiration at the wealth of the cities through which he passed on his +return from Zartan to Pekin. Tartary and Thibet were visited by him, after +leaving China; he mentions the high price of the rhubarb of the former +country and the Dalai Lama of Thibet. In his voyages in India he sailed on +board a vessel which carried 700 people,--a confirmation, as Dr. Vincent +observes, of the account we have from the time of Agatharcides down to the +sixteenth century,--which sailed from Guzerat and traversed the Indian +Ocean. + +Sir John Mandeville, an Englishman, in order to gratify his desire of +seeing distant and foreign countries, served as a volunteer under the +Sultan of Egypt and the Grand Khan of Cathai. He travelled through Turkey, +Armenia, Egypt, Africa, Syria, Arabia, Persia, Chaldea, Ethiopia, Tartary, +India, and China. There is, however, little information in his travels on +our present subject. He represents the Venetians as not only trading +regularly to Ormus, but sometimes even penetrating as for as Cambalu. +Famagusta, in Cyprus, according to him, was one of the most commercial +places in the world, the resort of merchants of all nations, Christians and +Mahomedans. + +Some curious and interesting particulars on the subject of Oriental +commerce are scattered in the travels of Clavigo, who formed part of an +embassy sent by Henry III. of Castile to Tamerlane, in 1403. Clavigo +returned to Spain in 1406. He passed through Constantinople, which he +represents as not one-third inhabited, up the Black Sea to Trebizond. Hence +he traversed Armenia, the north of Persia, and Khorasan. Tauris, according +to him, enjoyed a lucrative commerce: in its warehouses were an abundance +of pearls, silk, cotton goods, and perfumed oils. Sultania also was a great +mart for Indian commodities. Every year, between June and August, caravans +arrived at this place. Cotton goods of all colours, and cotton yarn were +brought from Khorasan; pearls and precious stones from Ormus; but the +principal lading of the caravans consisted of spices of various kinds: at +Sultania these were always found in great abundance, and of the best +quality. From Tauris to Samarcand there were regular stations, at which +horses were always ready to convey the orders of the khan or travellers. We +are indebted to Clavigo for the first information of this new route of the +commerce between India and Europe, by Sultania: it is supposed to have been +adopted on the destruction of Bagdat by the Moguls; but we learn from other +travellers that, towards the end of the fifteenth century, Sultania was +remarkable for nothing besides the minarets of a mosque, which were made of +metal, and displayed great taste and delicacy of workmanship. + +Tamerlane lived in excessive magnificence and luxury at Samarcand; hither +he had brought all his captives, who were expert in any kind of +manufacture, especially in the silks of Damascus, and the sword cutlery of +Turkey. To this city the Russians and Tartars brought leather, hides, furs, +and cloth: silk goods, musk, pearls, precious stones, and rhubarb, were +brought from China, or Cathay. Six months were occupied in bringing +merchandize from Cambalu, the capital of Cathai, to Samarcand; two of these +were spent in the deserts. Samarcand had also a trade with India, from +which were received mace and other fine spices. Clavigo remarks, that such +spices were never brought to Alexandria. + +Schildeberger, a native of Munich, was taken prisoner by the Turks in 1394: +he afterwards accompanied Tamerlane in his campaigns till the year 1406. +During this period, and his subsequent connexion with other Tartar chiefs, +he visited various parts of central Asia. But as he had not an opportunity +of writing down at the time what he saw and learnt, his narrative is +neither full, nor altogether to be depended upon for its accuracy. He was, +besides, illiterate, And therefore it is often extremely difficult to +ascertain, from his orthography, what places he actually means to name or +describe. With all these drawbacks and imperfections, however, there are a +few points on which he gives credible and curious information. He +particularizes the silk of Strana, and of Schirevan; and adds, that from +the last the raw silk is sent to Damascus, and there manufactured into the +stuffs or damasks, for which it was already so celebrated. Fine silk was +produced at Bursa, and exported to Venice and Lucca, for the manufacture of +velvet. It ought to be mentioned, that he takes no notice of Saray and +Astrakan, the latter of which was taken and destroyed by Tamerlane, in +1395. The wild asses in the mountainous deserts, and the dogs which were +harnessed to sledges, are particularly mentioned by this traveller. + +The interior parts of the north of Asia were visited, in 1420, by the +ambassadors of the Emperor Tamerlane's son; and their journey is described +in the Book of the Wonders of the World, written by the Persian historian, +Emir Khond, from which it was translated into Dutch by Witsen, in his +Norden Oste Tartarye. Their route was through Samarcand to Cathay. On +entering this country, we are informed of a circumstance strikingly +characteristic of Chinese policy and suspicion. Cathayan secretaries took +down, in writing, the names of the ambassadors, and the number of their +suite. This was repeated at another place, the ambassadors being earnestly +requested to state the exact number of their servants; and the merchants, +who were with him, having been put down by him under the description of +servants, were, on that account, obliged to perform the particular duties +under which they were described. Among the presents made by the emperor to +the ambassadors, tin is mentioned. Paper-money seems, at this period, to +have given place to silver, which, however, from several circumstances +mentioned, must have been very scarce. + +From the travels of Josaphat Barbaro, an ambassador from Venice, first to +Tana (Azof), and then to Persia, some information may be drawn respecting +the commerce of these parts of Asia, about the middle of the fifteenth +century. He particularly describes the Wolga as being navigable to within +three days' journey of Moscow, the inhabitants of which sail down it every +year to Astrakan for salt. Astrakan was formerly a place of consequence and +trade, but had been laid waste by Tamerlane. Russia is a fertile country, +but extremely cold. Oxen and other beasts are carried to market in the +winter, slaughtered, with their entrails taken out, and frozen so hard, +that it is impossible to cut them up: they are very numerous and cheap. The +only fruits are apples, nuts, and walnuts. Bossa, a kind of beer, is made +in Russia. This liquor is still drank in Russia: it is made from millet, +and is very inebriating. The drunkenness of the Russians is expressly and +pointedly dwelt upon. Barbaro adds, that the grand duke, in order to check +this vice, ordered that no more beer should be brewed, nor mead made, nor +hops used. The Russians formerly paid tribute to Tartary; but they had +lately conquered a country called Casan; to the left of the Wolga, in its +descent. In this country a considerable trade is carried on, especially in +furs, which are sent by way of Moscow to Poland, Prussia, and Flanders. The +furs, however, are not the produce of Kasan, but of countries to the +north-east, at a great distance. + +Barbaro is very minute and circumstantial in his description of the +manners, dress, food, &c. of the Georgians. He visited the principal towns +of Persia. Schiraz contained 200,000 inhabitants. Yezd was distinguished +and enriched by its silk manufactures. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND COMMERCE, FROM THE +MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + +The improvement of mankind in knowledge and civilization evidently depends +on the union of three circumstances,--enlarged and increased desires, +obstacles in the way of obtaining the objects of these desires, and +practicable means of overcoming or removing these obstacles. The history of +mankind in all ages and countries justifies and illustrates the truth of +this remark; for though it is, especially in the early periods of it, very +imperfect and obscure, and even in the later periods almost entirely +confined to war and politics, still there are in it sufficient traces of +the operation of all those three causes towards their improvement in +knowledge and civilization. + +That they operated in extending the progress of discovery and commerce is +evident. We have already remarked that from the earliest periods, the +commodities of the east attracted the desires of the western nations: the +Arabians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans of the ancient world; the +Italian and Hanseatic states of the middle ages, all endeavoured to enrich +themselves by trading in commodities so eagerly and universally desired. As +industry and skill increased, and as the means as well as the desire of +purchase and enjoyment spread, by the rise of a middle class in Europe, the +demand for these commodities extended. The productions and manufactures of +the north, as well as of the south of Europe, having been increased and +improved, enabled the inhabitants of these countries to participate in +those articles from India, which, among the ancients, had been confined +exclusively to the rich and powerful. + +On the other hand, even at the very time that this enlarged demand for +Indian commodities was taking place in Europe, and was accompanied by +enlarged means as well as extended skill and expedience in discovery and +commerce,--at this very time obstacles arose which threatened the almost +entire exclusion of Europeans from the luxuries of Asia. It may well be +doubted, whether, if the enemies of the Christian faith had not gained +entire possession of all the routes to India, and moreover, if these routes +had been rendered more easy of access and passage, they could have long +supplied the increased demands of improving Europe. But that Europe should, +on the one hand, improve and feel enlarged desires as well as means of +purchasing the luxuries of the east, while on the other hand, the +practicability of acquiring these luxuries should diminish, formed a +coincidence of circumstances, which was sure to produce important results. + +As access to India by land, or even by the Arabian Gulf by sea, was +rendered extremely difficult and hazardous by the enmity of the Mahometans, +or productive of little commercial benefit by their exactions, the +attention and hopes of European navigators were directed to a passage to +India along the western coast of Africa. As, however, the length and +difficulties of such a voyage were extremely formidable, it would probably +have been either not attempted at all, or have required much longer time to +accomplish than it actually did, if, in addition and aid of increased +desires and an enlarged commercial spirit, the means of navigating distant, +extensive, and unknown seas, had not likewise been, about this period, +greatly improved. + +We allude, principally, to the discovery of the mariners' compass. The +first clear notice of it appears in a Provençal poet of the end of the +twelfth century. In the thirteenth century it was used by the Norwegians in +their voyages to and from Iceland, who made it the device of an order of +knighthood of the highest rank; and from a passage in Barber's Bruce, it +must have been known in Scotland, if not used there in 1375, the period +when he wrote. It is said to have been used in the Mediterranean voyages at +the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century. + +With respect to the nations of the east, it is doubted whether they derived +their knowledge of it from the Europeans, or the Europeans from them. When +we reflect on the long and perilous voyages of the Arabians, early in the +Christian era, we might be led to think that they could not be performed +without the assistance of the compass; but no mention of it, or allusion to +it, occurs in the account of any of their voyages; and we are expressly +informed by Nicolo di Conti, who sailed on board a native vessel in the +Indian seas, about the year 1420, that the Arabians had no compass, but +sailed by the stars of the southern pole; and that they knew how to measure +their elevation, as well as to keep their reckoning, by day and night, with +their distance from place to place. With respect to the Chinese, the point +in dispute is not so easily determined: it is generally imagined, that they +derived their knowledge of the compass from Europeans: but Lord Macartney, +certainly a competent judge, has assigned his reasons for believing that +the Chinese compass is original, and not borrowed, in a dissertation +annexed to Dr. Vincent's Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. At what period it +was first known among them, cannot be ascertained; they pretend that it was +known before the age of Confucius. That it was not brought from China to +Europe by Marco Polo, as some writers assert, is evident from the +circumstance that this traveller never mentions or alludes to it. The first +scientific account of the properties of the magnet, as applicable to the +mariner's compass, appears in a letter written by Peter Adsiger, in the +year 1269. This letter is preserved among the manuscripts of the university +of Leyden; extracts from it are given by Cavallo, in the second edition of +his Treatise on Magnetism. From these extracts it is evident that he was +acquainted with the attraction, repulsion, and polarity of the magnet, the +art of communicating those properties to iron, the variation of the +magnetic needle; and there are even some indications that he was acquainted +with the construction of the azimuth compass. + +Next in importance and utility to the mariners' compass, in preparing the +way for the great discoveries by which the fifteenth century is +distinguished, maps and charts may be placed. For though, in general, they +were constructed on very imperfect and erroneous notions of the form of the +world, and the relative size and situation of different countries, yet +occasionally there appeared maps which corrected some long established +error, or supplied some new information; and even the errors of the maps, +in some cases, not improbably held out inducements or hopes, which would +not otherwise have been entertained and realized, as we have already +remarked, after D'Anville, that the greatest of Ptolemy's errors proved +eventually the efficient cause which led to the greatest discovery of the +moderns. + +Malte Brun divides the maps of the middle ages into two classes: those in +which the notions of Ptolemy and other ancient geographers are implicitly +copied, and those in which new countries are inserted, which had been +either discovered, or were supposed to exist. + +In most of the maps of the first description, Europe, Asia, and Africa are +laid down as forming one immense island, and Africa is not carried so far +as the equator. One of the most celebrated of these maps was drawn up by +Marin Sanuto, and inserted in his memorial presented to the pope and the +principal sovereigns of Europe, for the purpose of persuading and shewing +them, that if they would oblige their merchants to trade only through the +dominions of the Caliphs of Bagdat, they would be better supplied and at a +cheaper rate, and would have no longer to fear the Soldans of Egypt. This +memorial with its maps was inserted in the Gesta Dei per Francos, as we are +assured by the editor, from one of the original copies presented by Sanuto +to some one of the princes. Hence, as Dr. Vincent remarks, it probably +contains the oldest map of the world at this day extant, except the +Peutingerian tables. Sanuto, as we have already noticed, in giving an +abstract of the commercial information contained in his memorial, lived in +1324. + +In the monastery of St. Michael di Murano, there is a planisphere, said to +be drawn up in 1459, by Fra Mauro, which contains a report of a ship from +India having passed the extreme point south, 2000 miles towards the west +and southwest in 1420. + +Ramusio describes a map, supposed to be this, which he states to have been +drawn up for the elucidation of Marco Polo's travels. + +On this map, so far as it relates to the circumnavigation of Africa, Dr. +Vincent has given a dissertation, having procured a _fac-simile_ copy +from Venice, which is deposited in the British Museum; the substance of +this dissertation we shall here compress. He divides his dissertation into +three parts. First, whether this was the map noticed by Ramusio, and by him +supposed to be drawn up to elucidate the travels of Marco Polo. On this +point he concludes that it was the map referred to by Ramusio, but that his +information respecting it is not correct. The second point to be determined +is, whether the map procured from Venice was really executed by Mauro, and +whether it existed previous to the Portuguese discoveries on the west coast +of Africa. Manro lived in the reign of Alphonso the Fifth, that is between +1438 and 1480; the whole of this map, therefore, is prior to Diaz and Gama, +two celebrated Portuguese navigators. Consequently, if it can be proved +that the map obtained by Dr. Vincent is genuine, it must have existed +previous to the Portuguese discoveries. The proof of the genuineness of the +map is derived from the date on the planisphere, 1459; the internal +evidence on the work itself; and the fact that Alphonso, or Prince Henry of +Portugal, who died in 1463, received a copy of this map from Venice, and +deposited it in the monastery of Alcobaca, where it is still kept. The sum +paid for this copy, and the account of expenditure, are detailed in a MS. +account in the monastery of St. Michael. + +The third, and by far the most important part of Dr. Vincent's +dissertation, examines what the map contains respecting the termination cf +Africa to the south. On the first inspection of the map it is evident, that +the author has not implicitly followed Ptolemy, as he professes to do. The +centre of the habitable world is fixed at Bagdat. Asia and Europe he +defines rationally, and Africa so far as regards its Mediterranean coast. +He assigns two sources to the Nile, both in Abyssinia. On the east coast of +Africa, he carries an arm of the sea between an island which he represents +as of immense size, and the continent, obliquely as far nearly as the +latitude and longitude of the Cape of Good Hope. This island he calls Diab, +and the termination on the south, which he makes the extreme point of +Africa, Cape Diab. + +The great object of Mauro, in drawing up this map, was to encourage the +Portuguese in the prosecution of their voyages to the south of Africa. This +is known to be the fact from other sources, and the construction of the +map, as well as some of the notices and remarks, which are inserted in its +margin, form additional evidence that this was the case. Two passages, as +Dr. Vincent observes, will set this in the clearest light. The first is +inserted at Cape Diab; "here," says the author, about the year 1420, "an +Indian vessel, on her passage across the Indian ocean was caught by a +storm, and carried 2000 miles beyond this Cape to the west and south-west; +she was seventy days in returning to the Cape." This the author regards as +a full proof that Africa was circumnavigable on the south. + +In the second passage, inserted on the margin, after observing that the +Portuguese had been round the continent of Africa, more than 2000 miles to +the south-west beyond the Straits of Gibraltar; that they found the +navigation easy and safe, and had made charts of their discoveries; he +adds, that he had talked with a person worthy of credit, who assured him he +had been carried by bad weather, in an Indian ship, out of the Indian +Ocean, for forty days, beyond Cape Sofala and the Green Islands, towards +the west and south-west, and that in the opinion of the astronomer on +board, (such as all Indian ships carry,) they had been hurried away 2000 +miles. He concludes by expressing his firm belief that the sea surrounding +the southern and south-eastern part of the world is navigable; and that the +Indian Sea is ocean, and not a lake. We may observe, by the bye, that in +another passage inserted in the margin, he expressly declares that the +Indian ships had no compass, but were directed by an astronomer on board, +who was continually making his observations. + +It is evident that the two accounts are at variance, as the first asserts +that the passage was round Cape Diab, at the termination of Africa, and the +second that it was round Cape Sofala, fifteen degrees to the north of the +extremity of this quarter of the world: but without attempting to reconcile +this contradiction, it is abundantly evident that Mauro, by noticing the +Portuguese navigators, as having reached 2000 miles to the south of +Gibraltar, and adding that 2000 miles more of the coast of Africa had been +explored by an Indian ship, meant to encourage the further enterprises of +the Portuguese, by the natural inference that a very small space of +unsailed sea must lie between the two lines, which were the limits of the +navigation of the Portuguese and Indian vessel. The unexplored space was +indeed much greater than Mauro estimated and represented it in his map to +be; but, as Dr. Vincent remarks, his error in this respect manifestly +contributed to the prosecution of the Portuguese designs, as the error of +the ancient geographers, in approximating China to Europe, produced the +discovery of America by Columbus. + +We have dwelt thus long on the map of Mauro, as being by far the most +important of the maps of the second description, or those in which were +inserted real or supposed discoveries. The rest of this description require +little notice. + +A map of the date of 1346, in Castilian, represents Cape Bojada in Africa +as known, and having been doubled at that period. A manuscript, preserved +at Genoa, mentions that a ship had sailed from Majorca to a river called +Vedamel, or Rui Jaura (probably Rio-do-Ouro,) but her fate was not known. +The Genoese historians relate that two of their countrymen in 1291, +attempted to reach India by the west; the fate of this enterprize is also +unknown. The Canary Islands, the first discovery of which is supposed to +have taken place before the Christian era, and which were never afterwards +completely lost sight of, being described by the Arabian geographers, +appear in a Castilian map of 1346. Teneriffe is called in this map Inferno, +in conformity with the popular notion of the ancients, that these islands +were the seat of the blessed. In a map of 1384, there is an island called +Isola-di-legname, or the Isle of Wood, which, from this appellation, and +its situation, is supposed by some geographers to be the island of Madeira. +It would seem that some notions respecting the Azores were obscurely +entertained towards the end of the fourteenth century, as islands nearly in +their position are laid down in the maps of 1380. + +In the library of St. Marc, at Venice, there is a map drawn by Bianco, in +1436. In it the ancient world is represented as forming one great +continent, divided into two unequal parts by the Mediterranean, and by the +Indian Ocean, which is carried from east to west, and comprises a great +number of islands. Africa stretches from west to east parallel to Europe +and Asia, but it terminates to the north of the equator. The peninsula of +India and the Gulf of Bengal scarcely appear. The eastern part of Asia +consists of two great peninsulas, divided by an immense gulf. Then appear +Cathai, Samarcand, and some other places, the names of which are +unintelligible. All the kingdoms of Europe are laid down except Poland and +Hungary. To the west of the Canaries, a large tract of country is laid down +under the appellation of Antitia; some geographers have maintained that by +this America was indicated, but there does not appear any ground for this +belief. + +Having offered these preliminary and preparatory observations, we shall now +proceed to the discoveries of the Portuguese. From the slight sketch which +has already been given of the progress of geography and commerce, between +the time of Ptolemy and the fifteenth century, it appears that the +Portuguese had distinguished themselves less, perhaps, than any other +European nation, in these pursuits; but, long before the beginning of the +fifteenth century, circumstances had occurred, connected with their +history, which were preparing the way for their maritime enterprizes. So +early as the year 1250, the Portuguese had succeeded in driving the Moors +out of their country; and, in order to prevent them from again disturbing +them, they in their turn invaded Fez and Morocco, and having conquered +Ceuta in 1415, fortified it, and several harbours near it, on the shores of +the Atlantic. So zealous were the Portuguese in their enterprizes against +the Moors, that the ladies of Lisbon partook in the general enthusiasm, and +refused to bestow their hand on any man who had not signalized his courage +on the coast of Africa, The spirit of the nation was largely participated +by Prince Henry, the fifth son of John I., king of Portugal, who took up +his residence near Cape St. Vincent, in the year 1406. The sole passion and +object of his mind was to further the advancement of his country in +navigation and discovery: his regard for religion led him to endeavour to +destroy or diminish the power of the Mahometans; and his patriotism to +acquire for Portugal that Indian commerce, which had enriched the maritime +states of Italy. He sought every means and opportunity by which he could +increase or render more accurate his information respecting the western +coast, and the interior of Africa: and it is probable that the relations of +certain Jews and Arabs, respecting the gold mines of Guinea, weighed +strongly with him in the enterprizes which he planned, encouraged, and +accomplished. + +It is not true, however, that he was the inventor of the astrolobe and the +compass, or the first that put these instruments into the hands of +navigators, though he undoubtedly was an excellent mathematician, and +procured the best charts and instruments of the age: the use and +application of these, he taught in the best manner to those he selected to +command his ships. + +With respect to the compass, we have already stated all that is certainly +known respecting its earliest application to the purposes of navigation. +The sea astrolobe, which is an instrument for taking the altitude of the +sun, stars, &c., is described by Chaucer, in 1391, in a treatise on it, +addressed to his little son, Louis; and Purchas informs us, that it was +formerly applied only to astronomical purposes, but was accommodated to the +use of seamen by Martin Behaim, at the command of John II., king of +Portugal, about the year 1487. + +About the year 1418, when Prince Henry first began his plan of discovery, +Cape Nun, in latitude 28° 40', was the limit of European knowledge on the +coast of Africa. With this part of the coast, the Portuguese had become +acquainted in consequence of their wars with the Moors of Barbary. In 1418, +two of Henry's commanders reached Cape Boyada in latitute 26° 30'; but the +Cape was not actually doubled till 1434. The Canary islands were visited +during the same voyage that the Cape was discovered: Madeira was likewise +visited or discovered; it was first called St. Laurence, after the saint of +the day on which it was seen, and afterwards Madeira, on account of its +woods. In 1420, the Portuguese set fire to these woods, and afterwards +planted the sugar cane, which they brought from Sicily, and the vines which +they brought from Cyprus. Saw mills were likewise erected on it. + +About the year 1432, Gonzalos was sent with two small vessels to the coast +of Africa on new discoveries. In 1434, Cape Boyada was doubled: in 1442, +the Portuguese had advanced as far as Rio-do-Ouro, under the tropic of +Cancer. On the return of the ships from this voyage, the inhabitants of +Lisbon first saw, with astonishment, negroes of a jet black complexion, and +woolly hair, quite different from the slaves which had been hitherto +brought from Africa; for, before this time, they had seized, and sold as +slaves, the tawny Moors, which they met with on the coast of Africa. In the +year 1442, however, some of these had been redeemed by their friends, in +exchange for negroes and gold dust. This last article stimulated the +avarice of the Portuguese to greater exertions, than Prince Henry had been +able to excite, and an African company was immediately formed to obtain it, +slaves, &c.; but their commerce was exclusively confined to the coast of +Africa, to the south of Sierra Leone. Dr. Vincent justly remarks, that +Henry had stood alone for almost forty years, and had he fallen before +these few ounces of gold reached his country, the spirit of discovery might +have perished with him, and his designs might have been condemned as the +dreams of a visionary. The importation of this gold, and the establishment +of the African company in Portugal, to continue the remark of the same +author, is the primary date, to which we may refer that turn for adventure +which sprung up in Europe, which pervaded all the ardent spirits in every +country for the two succeeding centuries, and which never ceased till it +had united the four quarters of the globe in commercial intercourse. + +In 1445, the Portuguese reached Senegal, where they first saw Pagan +negroes: in 1448 and 1449, their discoveries extended to Cape Verd. The +islands of that name were discovered in 1456. The exact extent of their +discoveries from this time till 1463, when Prince Henry died, is not +certainly known. According to some, Cape Verd, or Rio Grande, was the +limit; according to others, one navigator reached as far as the coast of +Guinea, and Cape Mesanado: some extend the limit even as far south as the +equator. Assuming, however, Rio Grande as the limit of the discoveries made +in Prince Henry's time, Rio Grande is in latitude 11 north, and the straits +of Gibraltar in latitude 36 north; the Portuguese had therefore advanced 25 +degrees to the south; that is 1500 geographical, or 1750 British miles, +which, with the circuit of the coast, may be estimated at 2000 miles. + +For nearly 20 years after the death of Prince Henry, little progress was +made by the Portuguese in advancing to the south. At the time of the death +of Alonzo, in 1481, they had passed the equator, and reached Cape St. +Catherine; in latitude S. 2° 30'. The island of St. Thomas under the line, +which was discovered in 1471, was immediately planted with sugar cane; and +a fort, which was built the same year on the gold coast, enabled them to +extend their knowledge of this part of Africa to a little distance inland. +Portugal now began to reap the fruits of her discoveries: bees' wax, +ostrich feathers, negro slaves, and particularly gold, were imported, on +all of which the profits were so great, that John II., who succeeded +Alonzo, immediately on his accession, sent out 12 ships to Guinea; and in +1483, two other vessels were sent, which in the following year reached +Congo, and penetrated to 22° south. The river Zaire in this part of Africa +was discovered, and many of the inhabitants of the country through which it +flows embarked voluntarily for Portugal. Benin was discovered about the +same time; here they found a species of spice, which was imported in great +quantities into Europe, and sold as pepper: it was, however, nothing else +but grains of paradise. The inhabitants of Benin must have had considerable +traffic far into the interior of Africa, for from them the Portuguese first +received accounts of Abyssinia. By the discovery and conquest of Benin and +Congo, the Portuguese traffic in slaves was much extended, but at the same +time it took another character for a short time; for the love of gold being +stronger than the hope of gain they might derive from the sale of negroes, +(for which, indeed, till the discovery of the West Indies there was little +demand,) the Portuguese used to exchange the natives they captured for gold +with the Moors, till John II. put an end to this traffic, under the +pretence that by means of it, the opportunity of converting the negroes was +lost, as they were thus delivered into the hands of Infidels. About eighty +years after Prince Henry began his discoveries, John I. sent out Diaz with +three ships: this was in 1486, and in the following year Covilham was sent +by the same monarch in search of India, by the route of Egypt and the Red +Sea. + +The king displayed great judgment in the selection of both these persons. +Diaz was of a family, several members of which had already signalized +themselves by the discoveries on the coast of Africa. His mode of +conducting the enterprize on which he was sent, proved at once his +confidence in himself, his courage, and his skill; after reaching 24° south +latitude, 120 leagues beyond any former navigator, he stood right out to +sea, and never came within sight of the coast again, till he had reached 40 +degrees to the eastward of the Cape, which, however, he was much too far +out at sea to discover. He persevered in stretching still farther east, +after he made land, till at length he reached the river Del Infante, six +degrees to the eastward of the most southern point of Africa, and almost a +degree beyond the Cape of Good Hope. He then resolved to return, for what +reason is not known; and on his return, he saw the Cape of Good Hope, to +which, on account of the storms he encountered on his passage round it, he +gave the appellation of Cabo Tormentoso. John II., however, augured so well +from the doubling of the extremity of Africa having been accomplished, that +he changed its name into that of the Cape of Good Hope. + +As soon as John II. ascended the throne, he sent two friars and a layman to +Jerusalem, with instructions to gain whatever information they could +respecting India and Prester John from the pilgrims who resorted to that +city, and, if necessary, to proceed further to the east. As, however, none +of this party understood Arabic, they were of little use, and in fact did +not go beyond Jerusalem. In 1487, the king sent Covilham and Paayva on the +same mission: the former had served in Africa as a soldier, and was +intimately acquainted with Arabic. In order to facilitate this enterprise, +Covilham was entrusted with a map, drawn up by two Jews, which most +probably was a copy of the map of Mauro, of which we have already spoken. +On this map, a passage round the south of Africa was laid down as having +been actually accomplished, and Covilham was directed to reach Abyssinia, +if possible; and ascertain there or elsewhere, whether such a passage did +really exist. Covilham went from Naples to Alexandria, and thence to Cairo. +At this city he formed an acquaintance with some merchants of Fez and +Barbary, and in their company went to Aden. Here he embarked and visited +Goa, Calicut, and other commercial cities of India, where he saw pepper and +ginger, and heard of cloves and cinnamon. From India he returned to the +east coast of Africa, down which he went as low as Sofala, "the last +residence of the Arabs, and the limit of their knowledge in that age, as it +had been in the age of the Periplus." He visited the gold mines in the +vicinity of this place: and here he also learnt all the Arabs knew +respecting the southern part of Africa, viz. that the sea was navigable to +the south-west (and this indeed their countrymen believed, when the author +of the Periplus visited them); but they knew not where the sea terminated. +At Sofala also Covilham gained some information respecting the island of +the Moon, or Madagascar. He returned to Cairo, by Zeila, Aden, and Tor. At +Cairo, he sent an account of the intelligence to the king, and in the +letter which contained it, he added, "that the ships which sailed down the +coast of Guinea, might be sure of reaching the termination of the +continent, by persisting in a course to the south, and that when they +should arrive in the eastern ocean, their best direction must be to enquire +for Sofala and the island of the Moon." + +"It is this letter," observes Dr. Vincent, "above all other information, +which, with equal justice and equal honour, assigns the theoretical +discovery to Covilham, as the practical to Diaz and Gama; for Diaz returned +without hearing any thing of India, though he had passed the Cape, and Gama +did not sail till after the intelligence of Covilham had ratified the +discovery of Diaz." One part of the instructions given to Covilham required +him to visit Abyssinia: in order to accomplish this object, he returned to +Aden, and there took the first opportunity of entering Abyssinia. The +sovereign of his country received and treated him with kindness, giving him +a wife and land. He entered Abyssinia in 1488, and in 1521, that is, 33 +years afterwards, the almoner to the embassy of John de Lima found him. +Covilham, notwithstanding he was as much beloved by the inhabitants as by +their sovereign, was anxious to return to Portugal, and John de Lima, at +his request, solicited the king to grant him permission to that effect, but +he did not succeed. "I dwell," observes Dr. Vincent, "with a melancholy +pleasure on the history of this man,--whom Alvarez, the almoner, describes +still as a brave soldier and a devout Christian;--when I reflect upon what +must have been his sentiments on hearing the success of his countrymen, in +consequence of the discovery to which he so essentially contributed. +_They_ were sovereigns of the ocean from the Cape of Good Hope to the +straits of Malacca: _he_ was still a prisoner in a country of +barbarians." + +It might have been supposed, that after it had been ascertained by Diaz +that the southern promontory of Africa could be doubled, and by Covilham, +that this was the only difficulty to a passage by sea to India, the court +of Portugal would have lost no time in prosecuting their discoveries, and +completing the grand object they had had in view for nearly a century: +this, however, was not the case. Ten years, and another reign, and great +debates in the council of Portugal were requisite before it was resolved +that the attempt to prosecute the discovery of Diaz to its completion was +expedient, or could be of any advantage to the nation at large. At last, +when Emanuel, who was their sovereign, had determined on prosecuting the +discovery of India, his choice of a person to conduct the enterprise fell +on Gama. As he had armorial bearings, we may justly suppose that he was of +a good family; and in all respects he appears to have been well qualified +for the grand enterprise to which he was called, and to have resolved, from +a sense of religion and loyalty, to have devoted himself to death, if he +should not succeed. Diaz was appointed to a command under him, but he had +not the satisfaction of witnessing the results of his own discovery; for he +returned when the fleet had reached St. Jago, was employed in a secondary +command under Cabral, in the expedition in which Brazil was discovered, and +in his passage from that country to the Cape, four ships, one of which he +commanded, perished with all on board. + +As soon as the fleet which Gama was to take with him was ready for sea, the +king, attended by all his court, and a great body of the people, formed a +solemn procession to the shore, where they were to embark, and Gama assumed +the command, under the auspices of the most imposing religious ceremonies. +Nearly all who witnessed his embarkation regarded him and those who +accompanied him "rather as devoted to destruction, than as sent to the +acquisition of renown." + +The fleet which was destined to accomplish one of the objects (the +discovery of America is the other)--which, as Dr. Robertson remarks, +"finally established those commercial ideas and arrangements which +constitute the chief distinction between the manners and policy of ancient +and modern times,"--consisted only of three small ships, and a victualler, +manned with no more than 160 souls: the principal officers were Vasco de +Gama, and Paul his brother: Diaz and Diego Diaz, his brother, who acted as +purser: and Pedro Alanquer, who had been pilot to Diaz. Diaz was to +accompany them only to a certain latitude. + +They sailed from Lisbon on the 18th of July, 1497: in the bay of St. +Helena, which they reached on the 4th of November, they found natives, who +were not understood by any of the negro interpreters they had on board. +From the description of the peculiarity in their mode of utterance, which +the journal of the voyage calls sighing, and from the circumstance that the +same people were found in the bay of St. Blas, 60 leagues beyond the Cape, +there can be no doubt that they were Hottentots. In consequence of the +ignorance or the obstinacy of the pilot, and of tempestuous weather, the +voyage to the Cape was long and dangerous: this promontory, however, was +doubled on the 20th of November. After this the wind and weather proving +favourable, the voyage was more prosperous and rapid. On the 11th of +January, 1498, they reached that part of the coast where the natives were +no longer Hottentots, but Caffres, who at that period displayed the same +marks of superior civilization by which they are distinguished from the +Hottentots at present. + +From the bay of St. Helena till they passed Cape Corrientes, there had been +no trace of navigation,--no symptom that the natives used the sea at all. +But after they passed this cape, they were visited by the natives in boats, +the sails of which seem to have been made of the fibres of the cocoa-palm. +A much more encouraging circumstance, however, occurred: some of the +natives that came off in these boats were clothed in cotton, silk, and +sattin,--evident proofs that intercourse, either direct or indirect, was +practicable, and had in fact been held between this country and India. The +language of these people was not understood; but from their signs it was +inferred that they had seen ships as large as the Portuguese, and that they +had come from the north. + +This part of Africa lies between latitudes 19° and 18° south; and as Gama +had the corrected chart of Covilham on board, in which Sofala was marked as +the limit of his progress, and Sofala was two degrees to the south of where +he then was, he must have known that he had now passed the barrier, and +that the discovery was ascertained, his circumnavigation being now +connected with the route of Covilham. This point of Gama's progress is also +interesting and important in another respect, for we are here approaching a +junction with the discoveries of the Arabians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, +and the Romans. + +At this place Gama remained till the 24th of February, repairing his ships +and recruiting his men. On the 1st of March, he arrived off Mozambique; +here evidences of a circumnavigation with India were strong and numerous. +The sovereign of Mozambique ruled over all the country from Sofala to +Melinda. The vessels, which were fitted out entirely for coasting voyages, +were large, undecked, the seams fastened with cords made of the cocoa +fibres, and the timbers in the same manner. Gama, in going on board some of +the largest of those, found that they were equipped with charts and +compasses, and what are called æst harlab, probably the sea astrolabe, +already discovered. At the town of Mozambique, the Moorish merchants from +the Red Sea and India, met and exchanged the gold of Sofala for their +commodities, and in its warehouses, which, though meanly built, were +numerous, pepper, ginger, cottons, silver, pearls, rubies, velvet, and +other Indian articles were exposed to sale. At Mombaça, the next place to +which Gama sailed, all the commodities of India were found, and likewise +the citron, lemon, and orange; the houses were built of stone, and the +inhabitants, chiefly Mahomedans, seemed to have acquired wealth by +commerce, as they lived in great splendour and luxury. + +On the 17th of March, 1498, Gama reached Melinda, and was consequently +completely within the boundary of the Greek and Roman discovery and +commerce in this part of the world. This city is represented as well built, +and displaying in almost every respect, proofs of the extensive trade the +inhabitants carried on with India, and of the wealth they derived from it. +Here Gama saw, for the first time, Banians, or Indian merchants: from them +he received much important information respecting the commercial cities of +the west coast of India: and at Melinda he took on board pilots, who +conducted his fleet across the Indian Ocean to Calicut on the coast of +Malabar, where he landed on the 22d of May, 1498, ten months and two days +after his departure from Lisbon. He returned to Lisbon in 1499, and again +received the command of a squadron in 1502; he died at Cochin in 1525, +after having lived to witness his country sovereign of the Indian seas from +Malacca to the Cape of Good Hope. "The consequence of his discovery was the +subversion of the Turkish power, which at that time kept all Europe in +alarm. The East no longer paid tribute for her precious commodities, which +passed through the Turkish provinces; the revenues of that empire were +diminished; the Othmans ceased to be a terror to the western world, and +Europe has risen to a power, which the three other continents may in vain +endeavour to oppose." + +The successful enterprize of Gama, and the return of his ships laden not +only with the commodities peculiar to the coast of Malabar, but with many +of the richer and rarer productions of the eastern parts of India, +stimulated the Portuguese to enter on this new career with avidity and +ardour, both military and commercial. It fortunately happened that Emanuel, +who was king of Portugal at this period, was a man of great intelligence +and grasp of mind, capable of forming plans with prudence and judgment, and +of executing them with method and perseverance; and it was equally +fortunate that such a monarch was enabled to select men to command in +India, who from their enterprize, military skill, sagacity, integrity, and +patriotism, were peculiarly qualified to carry into full and successful +execution all his views and plans. + +The consequences were such as must always result from the steady operation +of such causes: twenty-four years after the voyage of Gama, and before the +termination of Emanuel's reign, the Portuguese had reached, and made +themselves masters of Malacca. This place was the great staple of the +commerce carried on between the east of Asia, including China, and the +islands and the western parts of India. To it the merchants of China, +Japan, the Moluccas, &c. came from the east, and those of Malabar, Ceylon, +Coromandel and Bengal, from the west; and its situation, nearly at an equal +distance from the eastern and western parts of India, rendered it +peculiarly favorable for this trade, while by possessing the command of the +straits through which all ships must pass from the one extremity of Asia to +the other, it had the monopoly of the most extensive and lucrative commerce +completely within its power. + +From Malacca the Portuguese sailed for the conquest of the Moluccas; and by +achieving this, secured the monopoly of spices. Their attempt to open a +communication and trade with China, which was made about the same time, was +not then successful: but by perseverance they succeeded in their object, +and before the middle of the sixteenth century, exchanged, at the island of +Sancian, the spices of the Moluccas, and the precious stones and ivory of +Ceylon, for the silks, porcelain, drugs, and tea of China. Soon afterwards +the emperor of China allowed them to occupy the island of Macao. In 1542 +they succeeded in forming a commercial intercourse with Japan, trading with +it for gold, silver and copper; this trade, however, was never extensive, +and it ceased altogether in 1638, when they were driven from the Japanese +territories. + +As the commodities of India could not be purchased except with large +quantities of gold, the Portuguese, in order to obtain it, as well as for +other commercial advantages, prosecuted their discoveries on the east of +Africa, at the same time that they were extending their power and commerce +in India. On the east of Africa, between Sofala and the Red Sea, Arabian +colonies had been settled for many centuries: these the Portuguese +navigators visited, and gradually reduced to tribute; and the remains of +the empire they established at this period, may still be traced in the few +and feeble settlements they possess between Sofala and Melinda. In 1506 +they visited and explored the island of Madagascar; in 1513, by the +expulsion of the Arabs from Aden, the Red Sea was opened to their ships; +and they quickly examined its shores and harbours, and made themselves +acquainted with its tedious and dangerous navigation. In 1520 they visited +the ports of Abyssinia, but their ambition and the security of their +commerce were not yet completely attained; the Persian Gulf, as well as the +Red Sea, was explored; stations were formed on the coasts of both: and thus +they were enabled to obstruct the ancient commercial intercourse between +Egypt and India, and to command the entrance of those rivers, by which +Indian goods were conveyed not only through the interior of Asia, but also +to Constantinople. By the conquest of Ormus, the Portuguese monopolised +that extensive trade to the East, which had been in the hands of the +Persians for several centuries. "In the hands of the Portuguese this island +soon became the great mart from which the Persian empire, and all the +provinces of Asia to the west of it, were supplied with the productions of +India: and a city which they built on that barren island, destitute of +water, was rendered one of the chief seats of opulence, splendour, and +luxury in the eastern world." + +The Venetians, who foresaw the ruin of their oriental commerce in the +success of the Portuguese, in vain endeavoured to stop the progress of +their rivals in the middle of the sixteenth century: the latter, masters of +the east coast of Africa, of the coasts of Arabia and Persia, of the two +peninsulas of India, of the Molucca islands, and of the trade to China and +Japan, supplied every part of Europe with the productions of the east, by +the Cape of Good Hope; nor was their power and commerce subverted, till +Portugal became a province of Spain. + +We have purposely omitted, in this rapid sketch of the establishment and +progress of the Portuguese commerce in the East, any notice of the smaller +discoveries which they made at the same time. These, however, it will be +proper to advert to before we proceed to another subject. + +In the year 1512, a Portuguese navigator was shipwrecked on the Maldives: +he found them already in the occasional possession of the Arabians, who +came thither for the cocoa fibres, of which they formed their cordage, and +the cowries, which circulated as money from Bengal to Siam. The Portuguese +derived from them immense quantities of these cowries, with which they +traded to Guinea, Congo, and Benin. On their conquest, they obliged the +sovereigns of this island to pay them tribute in cinnamon, pearls, precious +stones, and elephants. The discovery and conquest of the Malaccas has +already been noticed, and its importance in rendering them masters of the +trade of both parts of India, which had been previously carried on +principally by the merchants of Arabia, Persia from the West, and of China +from the East. In Siam, gum lac, porcelain, and aromatics enriched the +Portuguese, who were the first Europeans who arrived in this and the +adjacent parts of this peninsula. + +In the year 1511 the Portuguese navigators began to explore the eastern +archipelago of India, and to make a more complete and accurate examination +of some islands, which they had previously barely discovered. Sumatra was +examined with great care, and from it they exported tin, pepper, sandal, +camphire, &c. In 1513, they arrived at Borneo: of it, however, they saw and +learned little, except that it also produced camphire. In the same year +they had made themselves well acquainted with Java: here they obtained +rice, pepper, and other valuable articles. It is worthy of remark, that +Barros, the Portuguese historian of their discoveries and conquests in the +East, who died towards the close of the sixteenth century, already foresaw +that the immense number of islands, some of them very large, which were +scattered in the south-east of Asia, would justly entitle this part, at +some future period, to the appellation of the fifth division of the world. +Couto, his continuator, comprehends all these islands under five different +groups. To the first belong the Moluccas. The second archipelago comprises +Gilolo, Moratai, Celebes, or Macassar, &c. The third group contains the +great isle of Mindinao, Soloo, and most of the southern Philippines. The +fourth archipelago was formed of the Banda isle, Amboyna, &c.; the largest +of these were discovered by the Portuguese in the year 1511: from Amboyna +they drew their supplies of cloves. + +The Portuguese knew little of the fifth archipelago, because the +inhabitants were ignorant of commerce, and totally savage and uncultivated. +From the description given of them by the early Portuguese writers, as +totally unacquainted with any metal, making use of the teeth of fish in its +stead, and as being as black as the Caffres of Africa, while among them +there were some of an unhealthy white colour, whose eyes were so weak that +they could not bear the light of the sun;--from these particulars there can +be no doubt that the Portuguese had discovered New Guinea, and the adjacent +isles, to whose inhabitants this description exactly applies. These islands +were the limit of the Portuguese discoveries to the East: they suspected, +however, that there were other islands beyond them, and that these ranged +along a great southern continent, which stretched as far as the straits of +Magellan. It is the opinion of some geographers, and particularly of Malte +Brun, that the Portuguese had visited the coasts of New Holland before the +year 1540; but that they regarded it as part of the great southern +continent, the existence of which Ptolemy had first imagined. + +We have already alluded to the obstacles which opposed and retarded the +commercial intercourse of the Portuguese with China. Notwithstanding these, +they prosecuted their discoveries in the Chinese seas. In the year 1518, +they arrived at the isles of Liqueou, where they found gold in abundance: +the inhabitants traded as far as the Moluccas. Their intercourse with Japan +has already been noticed. + +From these results of the grand project formed by Prince Henry, and carried +on by men animated by his spirit, (results so important to geography and +commerce, and which mainly contributed to raise Europe to its present high +rank in knowledge, civilization, wealth, and power,) we must now turn to +the discovery of America, the second grand cause in the production of the +same effects. + +For the discovery of the new world we are indebted to Columbus. This +celebrated person was extremely well qualified for enterprizes that +required a combination of foresight, comprehension, decision, perseverance, +and skill. From his earliest youth he had been accustomed to regard the sea +as his peculiar and hereditary element; for the family, from which he was +descended, had been navigators for many ages. And though, from all that is +known respecting them, this line of life had not been attended with much +success or emolument, yet Columbus's zeal was not thereby damped; and his +parents, still anxious that their son should pursue the same line which his +ancestors had done, strained every nerve to give him a suitable education. +He was accordingly taught geometry, astronomy, geography, and drawing. As +soon as his time of life and his education qualified him for the business +he had chosen, he went to sea; he was then fourteen years old. His first +voyages were from Genoa, of which city he was a native, to different ports +in the Mediterranean, with which this republic traded. His ambition, +however, was not long to be confined to seas so well known. Scarcely had he +attained the age of twenty, when he sailed into the Atlantic; and steering +to the north, ran along the coast of Iceland, and, according, to his own +journal, penetrated within the arctic circle. In another voyage he sailed +as far south as the Portuguese fort of St. George del Mina, under the +equator, on the coast of Africa. On his return from this voyage, he seems +to have engaged in a piratical warfare with the Venetians and Turks, who, +at this period, disputed with the Genoese the sovereignty and commerce of +the Mediterranean; and in this warfare he was greatly distinguished for +enterprize, as well as for cool and undaunted courage. + +At this period he was attracted to Lisbon by the fame which Prince Henry +had acquired, on account of the encouragement he afforded to maritime +discovery. In this city he married the daughter of a person who had been +employed in the earlier navigations of the prince; and from his +father-in-law he is said to have obtained possession of a number of +journals, sea charts, and other valuable papers. As he had ascertained that +the object of the Portuguese was to reach India by the southern part of +Africa, he concluded, that, unless he could devise or suggest some other +route, little attention would be paid to him. He, therefore, turned his +thoughts to the practicability of reaching India by sailing to the west. At +this time the rotundity of the earth was generally admitted. The ancients, +whose opinions on the extent and direction of the countries which formed +the terrestrial globe, still retained their hold on the minds even of +scientific men, had believed that the ocean encompassed the whole earth; +the natural and unavoidable conclusion was, that by sailing to the west, +India would be reached. An error of Ptolemy's, to which we have already +adverted, contributed to the belief that this voyage could not be very +long; for, according to that geographer, (and his authority was implicitly +acceded to,) the space to be sailed over was sixty degrees less than it +actually proved to be,--a space equal to three-fourths, of the Pacific +Ocean. From considering Marco Polo's account of his travels in the east of +Asia, Columbus also derived great encouragement; for, according to him, +Cathay and Zepango stretched out to a great extent in an easterly +direction; of course they must approach so much the more towards the west +of Europe. It is probable, also, that Columbus flattered himself, that if +he did not reach India by a western course, he would, perhaps, discover the +Atlantis, which was placed by Plato and Aristotle in the ocean, to the west +of Europe. + +Columbus, however, did not trust entirely to his own practical knowledge of +navigation, or to the arguments he drew from a scientific acquaintance with +cosmography: he heard the reports of skilful and experienced pilots, and +corresponded with several men of science. He is said, in a particular +manner to have been confirmed in his belief that India might be reached by +sailing to the west, by the communications which he had with Paul, a +physician of Florence, a man well known at this period for his acquaintance +with geometry and cosmography, and who had paid particular attention to the +discoveries of the Portuguese. He stated several facts, and offered several +ingenious conjectures, and moreover, sent a chart to Columbus, on which he +pointed out the course which he thought would lead to the desired object. + +As Columbus was at the court of Lisbon, when he had resolved to undertake +his great enterprise, and, in fact, regarded himself as in some degree a +Portuguese subject, he naturally applied in the first instance to John II., +requesting that monarch to let him have some ships to carry him to Marco +Polo's island of Zepango or Japan. The king referred him to the Bishop of +Ceuta and his two physicians; but they having no faith in the existence of +this island, rejected the services of Columbus. For seven years afterwards +he solicited the court of Spain to send him out, while, during the same +period, his brother, Bartholomew, was soliciting the court of England: the +latter was unsuccessful, but Columbus himself at length persuaded Isabella +to grant 40,000 crowns for the service of the expedition. He accordingly +sailed from Palos, in Andalusia, on the 3d of August, 1492; and in +thirty-three days landed on one of the Bahamas. He had already sailed nine +hundred and fifty leagues west from the Canaries: after touching at the +Bahamas, he continued his course to the west, and at length discovered the +island of Cuba. He went no farther on this voyage; but on his return home, +he discovered Hispaniola. The variation of the compass was first observed +in this voyage. In a second voyage, in 1492, Columbus discovered Jamaica, +and in a third, in 1494, he visited Trinidad and the continent of America, +near the mouth of the Orinoco. In 1502, he made a fourth and last voyage, +in which he explored some part of the shores of the Gulph of Mexico. The +ungrateful return he met with from his country is well known: worn out with +fatigue, disappointment, and sorrow, he died at Valladolid, on the 20th of +May, 1506, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. + +In the mean time, the completion of the discovery of America was rapidly +advancing. In 1499, Ogeda, one of Columbus's companions, sailed for the new +world: he was accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci: little was discovered on the +voyage, except some part of the coast of Guana and Terra Firma. But +Amerigo, having, on his return to Spain, published the first account of the +New World, the whole of this extensive quarter of the globe was called +after him. Some authors, however, contend that Amerigo visited the coasts +of Guiana and Terra Firma before Columbus; the more probable account is, +that he examined them more carefully two years after their discovery by +Columbus. Amerigo was treated by the court of Spain with as little +attention and gratitude as Columbus had been: he therefore offered his +services to Portugal, and in two voyages, between 1500 and 1504, he +examined the coasts of that part of South America which was afterwards +called Brazil. This country had been discovered by Cabral, who commanded +the second expedition of the Portuguese to India: on his voyage thither, a +tempest drove him so far to the west, that he reached the shores of +America. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross; but it was afterwards +called Brazil, from the quantity of red wood of that name found on it. + +For some time after the discovery of America it was supposed to be part of +India: and hence, the name of the West Indies, still retained by the +islands in the Gulph of Mexico, was given to all those countries. There +were, however, circumstances which soon led the discoverers to doubt of the +truth of the first conceived opinion. The Portuguese had visited no part of +Asia, either continent or island, from the coast of Malabar to China, on +which they had not found natives highly civilized, who had made +considerable progress in the elegant as well as the useful arts of life, +and who were evidently accustomed to intercourse with strangers, and +acquainted with commerce. In all these respects, the New World formed a +striking contrast: the islands were inhabited by savages, naked, +unacquainted with the rudest arts of life, and indebted for their +sustenance to the spontaneous productions of a fertile soil and a fine +climate. The continent, for the most part, presented immense forests, and +with the exception of Mexico and Peru, was thinly inhabited by savages as +ignorant and low in the scale of human nature as those who dwelt on the +islands. + +The natural productions and the animals differed also most essentially from +those, not only of India, but also of Europe. There were no lemons, +oranges, pomegranates, quinces, figs, olives, melons, vines, nor sugar +canes: neither apples, pears, plumbs, cherries, currants, gooseberries, +rice, nor any other corn but maize. There was no poultry (except turkeys), +oxen, sheep, goats, swine, horses, asses, camels, elephants, cats, nor +dogs, except an animal resembling a dog, but which did not bark. Even the +inhabitants of Mexico and Peru were unacquainted with iron and the other +useful metals, and destitute of the address requisite for acquiring such +command of the inferior animals, as to derive any considerable aid from +their labour. + +In addition to these most marked and decided points of difference between +India and the newly discovered quarter of the globe, it was naturally +inferred that a coast extending, as America was soon ascertained to do, +many hundred miles to the northward and to the southward of the equator, +could not possibly be that of the Indies. At last, in the year 1513, a view +of the Grand Ocean having been attained from the mountains of Darien, the +supposition that the New World formed part of India was abandoned. To this +ocean the name of the South Sea was given. + +In the mean time, the Portuguese had visited all the islands of the Malay +Archipelago, as far as the Moluccas. Portugal had received from the Pope a +grant of all the countries she might discover: the Spaniards, after the +third voyage of Columbus, obtained a similar grant. As, however, it was +necessary to draw a line between those grants, the Pope fixed on 27-1/2° +west of the meridian of the island of Ferro. The sovereigns, for their +mutual benefit, allowed it to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verd islands: +all the countries to the east of this line were to belong to Portugal, and +all those to the west of it to Spain. According to this line of +demarcation, supposing the globe to be equally divided between the two +powers, it is plain that the Moluccas were situated within the hemisphere +which belonged to Spain. Portugal, however, would not yield them up, +contending that she was entitled to the sovereignty of all the countries +she could discover by sailing eastward. This dispute gave rise to the first +circumnavigation of the globe, and the first practical proof that India +could be reached by sailing westward from Europe, as well as to other +results of the greatest importance to geography and commerce. + +During the discussions which this unexpected and embarrassing difficulty +produced, Francis Magellan came to the court of Spain, to offer his +services as a navigator, suggesting a mode by which he maintained that +court would be able to decide the question in its own favour. Magellan had +served under Albuquerque, and had visited the Moluccas: and he proposed, if +the Spanish monarch would give him ships, to sail to these islands by a +westerly course, which would, even according to the Portuguese, establish +the Spanish right to their possession. The emperor Charles, who was at this +period king of Spain, joyfully embraced the proposal, although a short time +previous, Solis, who had sailed in quest of a westerly passage to India, +had, after discovering the Rio de la Plata, perished in the attempt. + +It is maintained by some authors that Magellan's confidence in the success +of his own plan arose from the information he received from a chart drawn +up by Martin Behaim, in which the straits that were afterwards explored by +Magellan, and named after him, were laid down; and that he carried the +information he derived from it to Spain, and by means of it obtained the +protection of Cardinal Ximenes, and the command of the fleet, with which he +was the first to circumnavigate the world. + +As this is a point which has been a good deal discussed, and as it is of +importance, not only to the fame of Magellan, but to a right understanding +of the actual state of geographical knowledge, with respect to the New +World, at this era, it may be proper briefly to consider it. + +The claim of Behaim rests entirely on a passage in Pigafetta's journal of +the voyage of Magellan, in which it is stated that Magellan, as skilful as +he was courageous, knew that he was to seek for a passage through an +obscure strait: this strait he had seen laid down in a chart of Martin +Behaim, a most excellent cosmographer, which was in the possession of the +king of Portugal. In describing the nature of the maps and charts which, +during the whole of the middle ages, were drawn up, we observed that it was +very usual to insert countries, &c. which were merely supposed to exist. +The question, therefore, is--allowing that a strait was laid down in a +chart drawn up by Behaim, whether it was a conjectural strait or one laid +down from good authority? That Behaim himself did not discover such a +strait will be evident from the following circumstances: in the Nuremberg +globe, formed by Behaim, it does not appear: there is nothing between the +Azores and Japan, except the fabulous islands of Aulitia and St. Brandon; +no mention of it is made in the archives of that city or in his numerous +letters, which are still preserved. The date of the Nuremberg globe is +1492, the very year in which Columbus first reached the West Indies: Behaim +therefore cannot be supposed to have contributed to this discovery. It is +said, however, that he made a long voyage in 1483 and 1484: but this voyage +was in an easterly direction, for it is expressly stated to have been to +Ethiopia; probably to Congo, and the cargo he brought home, which consisted +of an inferior kind of pepper, proves that he had not visited America. +Besides, if he had visited any part of America in 1483 or 1484, he would +have laid it down in his globe in 1492, whereas, as we have remarked, no +country appears on it to the west of St. Brandon. We may, therefore, safely +conclude that he did not himself discover any passage round the south point +of America. + +But all the other great discoveries of the Portuguese and Spaniards (except +that of Diaz in 1486) were made between 1492, the date of the Nuremberg +Globe, and 1506, the date of the death of Behaim, and between these +periods, he constantly resided at Fayal. It is much more probable that he +inserted this strait in his chart on supposition, thinking it probable +that, as Africa terminated in a cape, so America would. That Magellan did +not himself believe the strait was laid down in Behaim's chart from any +authority is evident, from a circumstance mentioned by Pigafetta, who +expressly informs us, that Magellan was resolved to prosecute his search +after it to latitude 75°, had he not found it in latitude 52°. Now, as +Behaim undoubtedly was the greatest cosmographer of the age, and had been +employed to fit the astrolobe as a sea instrument, it is not to be supposed +that, if he had good authority for the existence of a passage round South +America, he would have left it in any chart he drew, with an uncertainty of +23 degrees. + +Magellan sailed from Spain in 1519, with five ships: he explored the river +Plate a considerable way, thinking at first it was the sea, and would lead +him to the west. He then continued his voyage to the south, and reached the +entrance of the straits which afterwards received his name, on the 21st +October, 1520, but, in consequence of storms, and the scarcity of +provisions, he did not clear them till the 28th of November. He now +directed his course to the north-west: for three months and twenty days he +saw no land. In 15 south, he discovered a small island; and another in 9 +south. Continuing his course still in the same direction, he arrived at the +Ladrones, and soon afterwards at the Phillippines, where he lost his life +in a skirmish. His companions continued their voyage; and, on the +twenty-seventh month after their departure from Spain, arrived at one of +the Molucca islands. Here the Spaniards found plenty of spices, which they +obtained in exchange for the cloth, glass, beads, &c., which they had +brought with them for that purpose. From the Moluccas they returned home +round the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Seville in September, 1552. Only +one ship returned, and she was drawn up in Seville, and long preserved as a +monument of the first circumnavigation of the globe. The Spaniards were +surprised, on their return to their native country, to find that they had +gained a day in their reckoning--a proof of the scanty knowledge at that +time possessed, respecting one of the plainest and most obvious results of +the diurnal motion of the earth. + +The voyage of Magellan occupied 1124 days: Sir Francis Drake, who sailed +round the world about half a century afterwards, accomplished the passage +in 1051 days: the next circumnavigator sailed round the globe in 769 days; +and the first navigators who passed to the south of Terra del Fuego, +accomplished the voyage in 749 days. In the middle of the eighteenth +century, a Scotch privateer sailed round the world in 240 days. + +In the meantime, several voyages had been performed to the east coast of +North America. The first voyages to this part of the new world were +undertaken by the English: there is some doubt and uncertainty respecting +the period when these were performed. The following seems the most probable +account. + +At the time when Columbus discovered America, there lived in London a +Venetian merchant, John Cabot, who had three sons. The father was a man of +science, and had paid particular attention to the doctrine of the spheres: +his studies, as well as his business as a merchant, induced him to feel +much interest in the discoveries which were at that period making. He seems +to have applied to Henry VII.; who accordingly empowered him to sail from +England under the royal flag, to make discoveries in the east, the west, +and the north, and to take possession of countries inhabited by Pagans, and +not previously discovered by other European nations. The king gave him two +ships, and the merchants of Bristol three or four small vessels, loaded +with coarse cloth, caps, and other small goods. The doubt respecting the +precise date of this voyage seems to receive the most satisfactory solution +from the following contemporary testimony of Alderman Fabian, who says, in +his _Chronicle of England and France_, that Cabot sailed in the +beginning of May, in the mayoralty of John Tate, that is, in 1497, and +returned in the subsequent mayoralty of William Purchase, bringing with him +three _sauvages_ from Newfoundland. This fixes the date of this +voyage: the course he steered, and the limits of his voyage, are however +liable to uncertainty. He himself informs us, that he reached only 56° +north latitude, and that the coast of America, at that part, winded to the +east: but there is no coast of North America that answers to this +description. According to other accounts, he reached 67-1/2° north +latitude; but this is the coast of Greenland, and not the coast of +Labrador, as these accounts call it. It is most probable that he did not +reach farther than Newfoundland, which he certainly discovered. To this +island he at first gave the names of Prima Vista and Baccaloas; and it is +worthy of notice, that a cape of Newfoundland still retains the name of +Bona Vista, and there is a small island still called Bacalao, not far from +hence. + +From this land he sailed to the south-west till he reached the latitude of +Gibraltar, and the longitude of Cuba; if these circumstances be correct, he +must have sailed nearly as far as Chesapeak Bay: want of provisions now +obliged him to return to England. + +Portugal, jealous of the discoveries which Spain had made in the new world, +resolved to undertake similar enterprizes, with the double hope of +discovering some new part of America, and a new route to India. Influenced +by these motives, Certireal, a man of birth and family, sailed from Lisbon +in 1500 or 1501: he arrived at Conception Bay, in Newfoundland, explored +the east coast of that island, and afterwards discovered the river St. +Lawrence. To the next country which he discovered, he gave the name of +Labrador, because, from its latitude and appearance, it seemed to him +better fitted for culture than his other discoveries in this part of +America. This country he coasted till he came to a strait, which he called +the Strait of Anian. Through this strait he imagined a passage would be +found to India, but not being able to explore it himself, he returned to +Portugal, to communicate the important and interesting information. He soon +afterwards went out on a second voyage, to prosecute his discoveries in +this strait; but in this he perished. The same voyage was undertaken by +another brother, but he also perished. As the situation of the Strait of +Anian was very imperfectly described, it was long sought for in vain on +both sides of America; it is now generally supposed to have been Hudson's +Strait, at the entrance of Hudson's Bay. + +The Spaniards were naturally most alarmed at the prospect of the Portuguese +finding a passage by this strait to India. Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, +undertook himself an expedition for this purpose; but he returned without +accomplishing any thing. After him the viceroy, Mendoza, sent people, both +by sea and land, to explore the coast as far as 53° north latitude; but +neither party reached farther than 36 degrees. The Spanish court itself now +undertook the enterprize; and in the year 1542, Cabrillo, a Portuguese in +the service of that court, sailed from Spain. He went no farther than to 44 +degrees north latitude, where he found it very cold. He coasted the +countries which at present are called New California, as far as Cape +Blanco: he discovered, likewise, Cape Mendocino; and ascertained, that from +this place to the harbour De la Nadividad, the land continued without the +intervention of any strait. In 1582, Gualle was directed by the king of +Spain to examine if there was a passage to the east and north-east of +Japan, that connected the sea of Asia with the South Sea. He accordingly +steered from Japan to the E.N.E. about 300 leagues: here he found the +current setting from the north and north-west, till he had sailed above 700 +leagues, when he reckoned he was only 200 leagues from the coast of +California. In this voyage he discovered those parts of the north-west +coast of America which are called New Georgia and New Cornwall. At the +beginning of the seventeenth century, the Spaniards, alarmed at the +achievements of Sir Francis Drake on this part of America, and still +anxious to discover, if possible, the Straits of Anian, sent out Sebastian +Viscaino from Acapulco: he examined the coasts as far as Cape Mendocino, +and discovered the harbour of Montery. One of his ships reached the +latitude of 43 degrees, where the mouth of a strait, or a large river, was +said to have been discovered. + +The expedition of Sir Francis Drake, though expressly undertaken for the +purpose of distressing the Spaniards in their new settlements, must be +noticed here, on account of its having contributed also, in some degree, to +the geographical knowledge of the north-west coast of America. He sailed +from Plymouth on the 15th November, 1577, with five vessels, (the largest +only 100 tons, and the smallest 15,) and 164 men. On the 20th of August, +1578, he entered the Strait of Magellan, which he cleared on the 6th of +September: "a most extraordinary short passage," observes Captain Tuckey, +"for no navigator since, though aided by the immense improvements in +navigation, has been able to accomplish it in less than 36 days." After +coasting the whole of South America to the extremity of Mexico, he resolved +to seek a northern passage into the Atlantic. With this intention, he +sailed along the coast, to which, from its white cliffs, he gave the name +of New Albion. When he arrived, however, at Cape Blanco, the cold was so +intense, that he abandoned his intention of searching for a passage into +the Atlantic, and crossed the Pacific to the Molucca islands. In this long +passage he discovered only a few islands in 20° north latitude: after an +absence of 1501 days, he arrived at Plymouth. The discoveries made by this +circumnavigator, will, however, be deemed much more important, if the +opinion of Fleurien, in his remarks on the austral lands of Drake, inserted +in the Voyage of Marchand, in which opinion he is followed by Malte Brun, +be correct; viz. that Drake discovered, under the name of the Isles of +Elizabeth, the western part of the archipelago of Terra del Fuego; and that +he reached even the southern extremity of America, which afterwards +received, from the Dutch navigators, the name of Cape Horn. These are all +the well authenticated discoveries made in the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, on the north-west coast of America. Cape Mendocino, in about +40-1/2 degrees north latitude, is the extreme limit of the certain +knowledge possessed at this period respecting this coast: the information +possessed respecting New Georgia and New Cornwall was very vague and +obscure. + +In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the coasts of the east side of +North America, particularly those of Florida, Virginia, Acadia and Canada, +were examined by navigators of different countries. Florida was discovered +in the year 1512, by the Spanish navigator, Ponce de Leon; but as it did +not present any appearance of containing the precious metals, the Spaniards +entirely neglected it. In 1524, the French seem to have engaged in their +first voyage of discovery to America. Francis I. sent out a Florentine with +four ships: three of these were left at Madeira; with the fourth he reached +Florida. From this country he is said to have coasted till he arrived in +fifty degrees of north latitude. To this part he gave the name of New +France; but he returned home without having formed any colony. Towards the +end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries, the +English began to form settlements in these parts of North America. Virginia +was examined by the famous Sir Walter Raleigh: this name was given to all +the coast on which the English formed settlements. That part of it now +called Carolina, seems to have been first discovered by Raleigh. + +The beginning of the seventeenth century was particularly distinguished by +the voyage of La Maire and Schouten. The States General of Holland, who had +formed an East India Company, in order to secure to it the monopoly of the +Indian trade, prohibited all individuals from navigating to the Indian +Ocean, either round the Cape of Good Hope or through the Straits of +Magellan. It was therefore an object of great importance to discover, if +practicable, any passage to India, which would enable the Dutch, without +incurring the penalties of the law, to reach India. This idea was first +suggested by La Maire, a merchant of Amsterdam, and William Schouten, a +merchant of Horn. They had also another object in view: in all the maps of +the world of the sixteenth century, a great southern continent is laid +down. In 1606, Quiros, a Spanish navigator, had searched in vain for this +continent; and La Maire and Schouten, in their voyage, resolved to look for +it, as well as for a new passage to India. In 1615 they sailed from Holland +with two ships: they coasted Patagonia, discovered the strait which bears +the name of La Maire, and Staten Island, which joins it on the east. On the +31st of January next year, they doubled the southern point of America, +having sailed almost into the sixtieth degree of south latitude; this point +they named Cape Horn, after the town of which Schouten was a native. From +this cape they steered right across the great southern ocean to the +northwest. In their course they discovered several small islands; but +finding no trace of a continent, they gave up the search for it, and +steering to the south, passed to the east of the Papua Archipelago. They +then changed their course to the west; discovered the east coast of the +island, afterwards called New Zealand, as well as the north side of New +Guinea. They afterwards reached Batavia, where they were seized by the +president of the Dutch East India Company. This voyage was important, as it +completed the navigation of the coast of South America from the Strait of +Magellan to Cape Horn, and ascertained that the two great oceans, the +Pacific and the Atlantic, joined each other to the south of America, by a +great austral sea. This voyage added also considerably to maritime +geography, "though many of the islands in the Pacific thus discovered have, +from the errors in their estimated longitudes, been claimed as new +discoveries by more recent navigators." In the year 1623, the Dutch found a +shorter passage into the Pacific, by the Straits of Nassau, north-west of +La Maire's Strait; and another still shorter, by Brewer's Straits, in the +year 1643. + +The success of the Portuguese and Spaniards in their discoveries of a +passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, and of America, induced, as we +have seen, the other maritime nations to turn their attention to navigation +and commerce. As, however, the riches derived from the East India commerce +were certain, and the commodities which supplied them had long been in +regular demand in Europe, the attempts to discover new routes to India +raised greater energies than those which were made to complete the +discovery of America. In fact, as we have seen, the east coast, both of +South and North America, in all probability would not have been visited so +frequently, or so soon and carefully examined, had it not been with the +hope of finding some passage to India in that direction. But it was also +supposed, that a passage to India might be made by sailing round the north +of Europe to the east. Hence arose the frequent attempts to find out what +are called the north-west and north-east passages; the most important of +which, that were made during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we +shall now proceed to notice. + +We have already mentioned the earliest attempts to find out the Straits of +Anian; the idea that they existed on the northwest coast of America seems +to have been abandoned for some time, unless we suppose, that a voyage +undertaken by the French in 1535 had for its object the discovery of these +straits: it is undoubted, that one of the objects of this voyage was to +find a passage to India. In this voyage, the river St. Lawrence was +examined as far as Montreal. In 1536, the English in vain endeavoured to +find a north-west passage to India. The result of this voyage was, however, +important in one respect; as it gave vise to the very beneficial fishery of +the English on the banks of Newfoundland. The French had already engaged in +this fishery. + +In 1576, the idea of a north-west passage having been revived in England, +Frobisher was sent in search of it, with two barks of twenty-five tons +each, and one pinnace of ten tons. He entered the strait, leading into what +was afterwards called Hudson's Bay: this strait he named after himself. He +discovered the southern coast of Greenland; and picking up there some stone +or ore which resembled gold, he returned to England. The London goldsmiths +having examined this, they reported that it contained a large proportion of +gold. This induced the Russian Company to send him out a second time, in +1577; but during this voyage, and a third in 1578, no discoveries of +consequence were made. In the years 1585, 86, and 87, Captain Davis, who +was in the service of an English company of adventurers, made three voyages +in search of a north-west passage. In the first he proceded as far north as +sixty-six degrees forty minutes, visited the southwest coast of Greenland, +and gave his own name to the straits that separate it from America. At this +time the use of a kind of harpoon was known, by which they were enabled to +kill porpoises; but though they saw many whales, they knew not the right +manner of killing them. In his second voyage an unsuccessful attempt was +made to penetrate between Iceland and Greenland, but the ships were unable +to penetrate beyond sixty-seven degrees north latitude. The west coast of +Greenland was examined; but not being able to sail along its north coast, +he stretched across to America, which he examined to latitude fifty-four. +In his last voyage, Davis reached the west coast of Greenland, as far as +latitude seventy-two. All his endeavours, however, to find a north-west +passage were ineffectual. + +In 1607, Hudson, an experienced seaman of great knowledge and intrepidity, +sailed in search of this passage. He directed his course straight north, +and reached the eighty-second degree of latitude, and the seventy-third +degree of west longitude. During this voyage more of the eastern coast of +Greenland was discovered than had been previously known. In his second +voyage, which was undertaken in 1608, he endeavoured to sail between Nova +Zembla and Spitzbergen, but unsuccessfully: of this and his first voyage we +have very imperfect accounts. His third voyage was undertaken for the +Dutch: in this he discovered the river in America which bears his name. His +fourth and last voyage, in which he perished, and to which he owes his +principal fame as a navigator, was in the service of the Russia Company of +England. In this voyage he reached the strait which bears his name: his +crew mutinied at this place, and setting him on shore, returned to England. +As soon as the Russia Company learned the fate of Hudson, they sent one +Captain Button in search of him, and also to explore the straits which he +had discovered: in this voyage Hudson's Bay was discovered. Button's +journal was never published: it is said, however, to have contained some +important observations on the tides, and other objects of natural +philosophy. + +The existence of such a bay as Hudson's was described to be, induced the +merchants of England to believe that they had at length found out the +entrance to a passage which would lead them to the East Indies: many +voyages were therefore undertaken, in a very short time after this bay had +been discovered. The most important was that of Bylot and Baffin: they +advanced through Davis's Straits into an extensive sea, which they called +Baffin's Bay: they proceeded, according to their account, as far north as +the latitude 78°. The nature and extent of this discovery was very much +doubted at the time, and subsequently, till the discoveries of Captains +Ross and Parry, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, proved that +Baffin was substantially accurate and faithful. + +Baffin's voyage took place in the year 1616: after this there was no voyage +undertaken with the same object, till the year 1631, when Captain Fox +sailed from Deptford. He had been used to the sea from his youth, and had +employed his leisure time in collecting all the information he could +possibly obtain, respecting voyages, to the north. He was besides well +acquainted with some celebrated mathematicians and cosmographers, +particularly Thomas Herne, who had carefully collected all the journals and +charts of the former voyages, with a view to his business, which was that +of a maker of globes. When Fox was presented to Charles I, his majesty gave +him a map, containing all the discoveries which had been made in the north +seas. He discovered several islands during the voyage, but not the passage +he sought for; though he is of opinion, that if a passage is to be found, +it must be in Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome,--a bay he discovered near an island +of that name, in north latitude 64° 10', not far from the main land, on the +west side of Hudson's Bay. He published a small treatise on the voyage, +called The North-west Fox, which contains many important facts and +judicious observations on the ice, the tides, compass, northern lights, &c. +Captain James sailed on the same enterprise nearly at the same time that +Fox did. His account was printed by King Charles's command, in 1633: it +contains some remarkable physical observations respecting the intenseness +of the cold, and the accumulation of ice, in northern latitudes; but no +discovery of moment. He was of opinion, that no north-west passage existed. + +The last voyage in the seventeenth century, in search of this passage, was +undertaken in consequence of the representations of a Frenchman to Charles +II. From the same cause proceeded the establishment of the Hudson's Bay +Company by that monarch. + +Canada was at this time colonized by the French; and a French settler +there, De Gronsseliers, an enterprising and speculative man, after +travelling in various directions, reached a country, where he received +information respecting Hudson's Bay: he therefore resolved to attempt to +reach this bay by sea. In the course of this undertaking he met with a few +English, who had settled themselves near Port Nelson River: these he +attacked, and by their defeat became master of the country. He afterwards +explored the whole district, and returned to Quebec with a large quantity +of valuable furs and English merchandize; but meeting with ill-treatment in +Quebec, and afterwards at the court of France, he came to England, where he +was introduced to the Count Palatine Rupert. The prince patronized all +laudable and useful enterprises; and persuaded the king to send out Captain +Gillam, and the Frenchman with him. The ship was loaded with goods to +traffic for furs. They passed through Hudson's Straits to Baffin's Bay, as +far as 75 degrees north latitude: they afterwards sailed as far to the +south as 51 degrees, where, near the banks of a river, called after Prince +Rupert, they built Charles Fort. This was the first attempt to carry on +commerce in this part of America. + +We must now return to the period of the first attempt to find out a +north-east passage to India. A society of merchants had been formed in +London for this purpose. Sebastian Cabot, either the son or the grandson of +John Cabot, and who held the situation of grand pilot of England under +Edward VI., was chosen governor of this society. Three vessels were fitted +out: one of them is particularly noticed in the contemporary accounts, as +having been sheathed with thin plates of lead. Sir Hew Willoughby had the +chief command: Captain Richard Chanceller and Captain Durfovill commanded +the other two vessels under him. Willoughby, having reached 72 degrees of +north latitude, was obliged by the severity of the season to run his ship +into a small harbour, where he and his crew were frozen to death. Captain +Durfovill returned to England. Chanceller was more fortunate; for he +reached the White Sea, and wintered in the Dwina, near the site of +Archangel. While his ship lay up frozen, Chanceller proceeded to Moscow, +where he obtained from the Czar privileges for the English merchants, and +letters to King Edward: as the Czar was at this period engaged in the +Livonian war, which greatly interrupted and embarrassed the trade of the +Baltic, he was the more disposed to encourage the English to trade to the +White Sea. We have already remarked, in giving an account of the voyage of +Ohter, in King Alfred's time, that he had penetrated as far as the White +Sea. This part of Europe, however, seems afterwards to have been entirely +lost sight of, till the voyage of Chanceller; for in a map of the most +northern parts of Europe, given in Munster's Geographia, which was printed +in 1540, Greenland is laid down as joined to the north part of Lapland; +and, consequently, the northern ocean appears merely as a great bay, +enclosed by these countries. Three years afterwards, the English reached +the coasts of Nova Zembla, and heard of, if they did not arrive at, the +Straits of Waygats. The next attempts were made by the Dutch, who were +desirous of reaching India by a route, in the course of which they would +not be liable to meet with the Spaniards or Portuguese. They accordingly +made four attempts between 1594 and 1596, but unsuccessfully. In the last +voyage they reached Spitzbergen; but after striving in vain to penetrate to +the north-east, they were obliged to winter on the north coast of Nova +Zembla, in 76° latitude. Here they built a smaller vessel out of the +remains of the one they had brought from Holland, and arrived the following +summer at Kola, in Lapland. + +In 1653, Frederic III, king of Denmark, sent three vessels to discover a +north-east passage: it is said that they actually passed through Waygats' +Straits; but that in the bay beyond these straits they found insurmountable +obstacles from the ice and cold, and consequently were obliged to return. + +The last attempt made in the seventeenth century, was by the English: it +was proposed and undertaken by John Wood, an experienced seaman, who had +paid particular attention to the voyages that had been made to the north. +His arguments in favour of a north-east passage were, that whales had been +found near Japan, with English and Dutch harpoons in them; and that the +Dutch had found temperate weather near the Pole, and had sailed 300 leagues +to the east of Nova Zembla. The first argument only proved, that there was +sea between Nova Zembla and Japan; but not that it was navigable, though +passable for whales: the other two positions were unfounded. Wood, however, +persuaded the Duke of York to send him out in 1676. He doubled the North +Cape, and reached 76 degrees of north latitude. One of the ships was +wrecked off the coast of Nova Zembla, and Wood returned in the other, with +an opinion that a north-east passage is impracticable, and that Nova Zembla +is a part of the continent of Greenland. + +But we must turn from these attempts to discover a northwest or north-east +passage to India, which, from the accounts given of them, it will be +evident, contributed very little to the progress of geographical knowledge, +though they necessarily increased the skill, confidence, and experience of +navigators. + +While these unprofitable voyages were undertaken in the north, discoveries +of consequence were making in the southern ocean. These may be divided into +two classes; viz., such as relate to what is now called Australasia; and +those which relate to the islands which are scattered in the southern +ocean. + +We have already stated that there is reason to believe some part of New +Holland was first discovered by the Portuguese: two ancient maps in the +British Museum are supposed to confirm this opinion; but the date of one is +uncertain; the other is dated 1542, and certainly contains a country, +which, in form and position, resembles New Holland, as it was laid down +prior to the voyage of Tasman. But allowing this to be New Holland, it only +proves, that at the date of this map it was known, not that it had been +discovered by the Portuguese. + +The Dutch, however, certainly made several voyages to it between 1616 and +1644: the western extremity was explored in 1616. The same year Van +Dieman's Land was discovered. In the course of the ten following years, the +western and northern coasts were visited. The southern coast was first +discovered in 1627, but we have no particulars respecting the voyage in +which it was discovered. In 1642, Tasman, a celebrated Dutch navigator, +sailed from Batavia, and discovered the southern part of Van Dieman's Land +and New Zealand. From this time to the beginning of the eighteenth century, +little progress was made in exploring the coast of New Holland. Dampier, +however, a man of wonderful talents, considering his education and mode of +life, collected, during his voyage, some important details respecting the +west coast. And among the numerous voyages undertaken by the Dutch East +India Company towards the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the +eighteenth century, to examine this vast country, which the Dutch regarded +as belonging to them, there was one by Van Vlaming deserving of notice: +this navigator examined with great care and attention many bays and +harbours on the west side; and he is the first who mentions the black swans +of this country. + +Papua, or New Guinea, another part of Australasia, was discovered by the +Portuguese in 1528. The passage that divides this country from New Britain +was discovered by Dampier, who was also the first that explored and named +the latter country in 1683. The discovery of Solomon Islands by the +Spaniards took place in 1575: Mendana, a Spanish captain, sailed from Lima, +to the westward, and in steering across the Pacific, he fell in with these +islands. On a second voyage he extended his discoveries, and he sailed a +third time to conquer and convert the natives. His death, which took place +in one of these islands, put an end to these projects. They are supposed to +be the easternmost of the Papua Archipelago, afterwards visited by +Carteret, Bougainville, and other navigators. Mendana, during his last +voyage, discovered a group of islands to which he gave the name of +Marquesas de Mendoza. + +This group properly belongs to Polynesia: of the other islands in this +quarter of the globe, which were discovered prior to the eighteenth +century, Otaheite is supposed to have been discovered by Quiros in 1606. +His object was to discover the imagined austral continent; but his +discoveries were confined to Otaheite, which he named Sagittaria, and an +island which he named Terra del Esperitu Sancto, which is supposed to be +the principal of the New Hebrides. The Ladrones were discovered by Magellan +in 1521. The New Philippines, or Carolinas, were first made known by the +accidental arrival of a family of their natives at the Philippines in 1686. +Easter island, a detached and remote country, which, however, is inhabited +by the Polynesian race, was discovered by Roggewein in 1686. + +Having thus exhibited a brief and general sketch of the progress of +discovery, from the period when the Portuguese first passed the Cape of +Good Hope to the beginning of the eighteenth century, we shall next, before +we give an account of the state and progress of commerce during the same +period, direct our attention to the state of geographical science in the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. + +We have already stated that the astrolobe, which had been previously +applied only to astronomical purposes, was accommodated to the use of +mariners by Martin Behaim, towards the end of the fifteenth century. He was +a scholar of Muller, of Koningsberg, better known under the name of +Regiomontanus, who published the Almagest of Ptolemy. The Germans were at +this time the best mathematicians of Europe. Walther, who was of that +nation, and the friend and disciple of Regiomontanus, was the first who +made use of clocks in his astronomical observations. He was succeeded by +Werner, of Nuremberg, who published a translation of Ptolemy's Geography, +with a commentary, in which he explains the method of finding the longitude +at sea by the distance of a fixed star from the moon. The astronomical +instruments hitherto used were, with the exception of the astrolobe, those +which had been employed by Ptolemy and the Arabians. The quadrant of +Ptolemy resembled the mural quadrant of later times; which, however, was +improved by the Arabians, who, at the end of the tenth century, employed a +quadrant twenty-one feet and eight inches radius, and a sextant fifty-seven +feet nine inches radius, and divided into seconds. The use of the sextant +seems to have been forgotten after this time; for Tycho Brahe is said to +have re-invented it, and to have employed it for measuring the distances of +the planets from the stars. The quadrant was about the same time improved +by a method of subdividing its limbs by the diagonal scale, and by the +Vernier. The telescope was invented in the year 1609, and telescopic sights +were added to the quadrant in the year 1668. Picard, who was one of the +first astronomers who applied telescopes to quadrants, determined the +earth's diameter in 1669, by measuring a degree of the meridian in France. +The observation made at Cayenne, that a pendulum which beat seconds there, +must be shorter than one which beat seconds at Paris, was explained by +Huygens, to arise from the diminution of gravity at the equator, and from +this fact he inferred the spheroidal form of the earth. The application of +the pendulum to clocks, one of the most beautiful and useful acquisitions +which astronomy, and consequently navigation and geography have made, was +owing to the ingenuity of Huygens. These are the principal discoveries and +inventions, relating to astronomy, which were made prior to the eighteenth +century, so far as they are connected with the advancement of the art of +navigation and the science of geography. + +The discoveries of Columbus and Gama necessarily overturned the systems of +Ptolemy, Strabo, and the other geographers of antiquity. The opinion that +the earth was a globe, which had been conjectured or inferred prior to the +voyage of Magellan, was placed beyond a doubt by that voyage. The heavenly +bodies were subjected to the calculations of man by the labours of +Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Galileo. Under these circumstances it was +necessary, and it was easy, to make great improvements in the construction +of maps, in laying down the real form of the earth, and the relative +situations of the countries of which it is formed, together with their +latitudes and longitudes. The first maps which displayed the new world were +those of the brothers Appian, and of Ribeiro: soon afterwards a more +complete and accurate one was published by Gemma Frisius. Among the +geographers of the sixteenth century, who are most distinguished for their +science, may be reckoned Sebastian Munster; for though, as we have already +mentioned, he joins Greenland to the north of Lapland in his map, yet his +research, labour, and accuracy were such, that he is compared by his +contemporaries to Strabo. Ortelius directed his studies and his learning to +the elucidation of ancient geography; and according to Malte Bran, no +incompetent judge, he may yet be consulted on this subject with advantage. + +But modern geography may most probably be dated from the time of Mercator: +he published an edition of Ptolemy, in which he pointed out the +imperfection of the system of the ancients. The great object at this time, +was to contrive such a chart in plano, with short lines, that all places +might be truly laid down according to their respective longitudes and +latitudes. A method of this kind had been obscurely pointed at by Ptolemy; +but the first map on this plan was made by Mercator, about the year 1550. +The principles, however, on which it was constructed, were not demonstrated +till the year 1559, when Wright, an Englishman, pointed them out, as well +as a ready and easy way of making such a map. This was a great help to +navigators; since by enlarging, the meridian line, as Wright suggested and +explained, so that all the degrees of longitude might be proportional to +those of latitude, a chart on Mercator's projection shews the course and +distance from place to place, in all cases of sailing; and is therefore in +several respects more convenient to navigators than the globe itself. +Mercator, in his maps and charts, chose Corvo, one of the Azores, for his +first meridian, because at that time it was the line of no variation of the +compass. + +We have already alluded to Regiomontanus, as a celebrated mathematician, +and as having published the Almagest of Ptolemy. He seems, likewise, to +have written notes on Ptolemy's Geography. In 1525, a later translation of +Ptolemy was published, which contained these annotations. To Ptolemy's +maps, tables, &c., are added a new set of maps on wooden plates, according +to the new discoveries: from these we find, that in consequence of the +voyages of the Portuguese, the charts of the coasts of Arabia, Africa, +Persia, and India, are laid down with tolerable accuracy. Nothing is +noticed regarding China, except that it may be reached by sea from India. +America is called Terra Nova inventa per Christ. Columbus: this seems to be +all the editor knew of it. That part of the work which relates to the north +of Europe, is most grossly erroneous: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the +Baltic, seem to have been little known. A great bay is laid down between +Greenland and Lapland, which bay is bounded on the north by a ridge of +mountains, thus retaining the error of Ptolemy with respect to this part of +Europe. There are two maps of England and Scotland: in one they are +represented as one island; in the other as different islands. These maps +and charts must have been the work of the editor or translator, as +Regiomontanus, whose annotations are subjoined, died before the discovery +of America. + +We have been thus particular in describing the principal maps of this work, +as they prove how imperfect geography was, prior to the time of Mercator, +and with how much justice it may be said that he is the father of modern +geography. There were, however, some maps of particular countries, drawn up +in the sixteenth century with tolerable accuracy, considering the +imperfection of those sciences and instruments, by which alone perfect +accuracy can be attained. George Lilly, son of William, the famous +grammarian, published, according to Nicholson, (English Historical +Library,) "the first exact map that ever was, till then, drawn of this +island." This praise must, however, be taken with great qualification; for +even so late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, the distance from +the South Foreland to the Lands-end was laid down, in all the maps of +England, half a degree more than it actually is. We may here remark, that +Nicholson represents Thomas Sulmo, a Guernsey man, who died in 1545, as our +oldest general geographer. + +In some of the MSS. of Harding's Chronicle, written in the reign of Edward +IV., there is a rude map of Scotland. In 1539, Alexander Lindsey, an +excellent navigator and hydrographer, published a chart of Scotland and its +isles, drawn up from his own observations, which were made when he +accompanied James V. in 1539, on his voyage to the highlands and islands. +This chart is very accurate for the age; and is much superior to that +published by Bishop Lesley, with his history, in 1578. + +The first map of Russia, known to the other nations of Europe, was +published in 1558 by Mr. Anthony Jenkinson, agent to the English Russia +Company, from the result of his enquiries and observations during his long +residence in that kingdom. + +These are the most important maps, either general or of particular +countries, with which the sixteenth century supplies us. + +The seventeenth century continued the impulse which was given to the +science of geography by Mercator. As new discoveries were constantly in +progress, errors in maps were corrected, vacant spaces filled up, more +accurate positions assigned, and greater attention paid to the actual and +relative sizes of different countries. Malte Brun justly reckons Cluverius, +Riccioli, and Varenius, as amongst the most celebrated geographers of this +century. Cluverius was a man of extensive and accurate erudition, which he +applied to the illustration of ancient geography. Riccioli, an Italian +Jesuit, devoted his abilities and leisure to the study of mathematics, and +the sciences dependent upon it, particularly astronomy; and was thus +enabled to render important service to the higher parts of geography. +Varenius is a still more celebrated name in geographical science: he +excelled in mathematical geography; and such was his fame and merit in the +higher branches of physics, and his ingenuity in applying them to +geography, that a system of universal geography, which he published in +Latin, was deemed worthy by Newton, to be republished and commented upon. +Cellarius bestowed much pains on ancient geography. That branch of the +science which pays more especial regard to the distances of places, was +much advanced by Sanson, in France; Blew, in Holland; and Buraeus, in +Sweden. + +We must now turn to the progress of commerce during the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries. + +The discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, gave +immediately a great impulse to commerce; whereas, it was a long time after +the discovery of America before commerce was benefited by that event. This +arose from the different state and circumstances of the two countries. The +Portuguese found in India, and the other parts of the East, a race of +people acquainted with commerce, and accustomed to it; fully aware of those +natural productions of their country which were in demand, and who had long +been in the habit of increasing the exportable commodities by various kinds +of manufactures. Most of these native productions and manufactures had been +in high estimation and value in Europe for centuries prior to the discovery +of the Cape. The monarchs of the East, as well as their subjects, were +desirous of extending their trade. There was, therefore, no difficulty, as +soon as the Portuguese arrived at any part of the East; they found spices, +precious stones, pearls, &c., or silk and cotton stuffs, porcelaine, &c., +and merchants willing to sell them. Their only business was to settle a few +skilful agents, to select and purchase proper cargoes for their ships. Even +before they reached the remote countries of the East, which they afterwards +did, they found depôts of the goods of those parts, in intermediate and +convenient situations, between them and the middle and western parts of +Asia and Europe. + +It was very different in America: the natives here, ignorant and savage, +had no commerce. "Even the natural productions of the soil, when not +cherished and multiplied by the fostering and active hand of man, were of +little account." Above half a century elapsed before the Spaniards reaped +any benefit from their conquests, except some small quantities of gold, +chiefly obtained from plundering the persons, the houses, and temples of +the Mexicans and Peruvians. In 1545, the mines of Potosi were discovered; +these, and the principal Mexican mine, discovered soon afterwards, first +brought a permanent and valuable revenue to Spain. But it was long after +this before the Spaniards, or the other nations of Europe, could be +convinced that America contained other treasures besides those of gold and +silver, or induced to apply that time, labour, and capital, which were +requisite to unfold all the additions to the comforts, the luxuries, and +the health of man, which the New World was capable of bestowing. When, +however, European skill and labour were expended on the soil of America, +the real and best wealth of this quarter of the world was displayed in all +its importance and extent. In addition to the native productions of +tobacco, indigo, cochineal, cotton, ginger, cocoa, pimento, drugs, woods +for dying, the Europeans cultivated the sugar cane, and several other +productions of the Old World. The only articles of commerce supplied by the +natives, were furs and skins; every thing else imported from the New World +consists at present, and has always consisted of the produce, of the +industry of Europeans settled there. + +But though it was long before Europe derived much direct benefit from the +discovery of America, yet in one important respect this discovery gave a +great stimulus to East India commerce. Gold and silver, especially the +latter, have always been in great demand in the East, and consequently the +most advantageous articles to export from Europe in exchange for Indian +commodities. It was therefore absolutely necessary for the continuance of a +commerce so much extended as this to India was, in consequence of the +Portuguese discoveries, that increased means of purchasing Indian +commodities should be given; and these were supplied by the gold and silver +mines of America. + +If these mines had not been discovered about the time when trade to India +was more easy, expeditious, and frequent, it could not long have been in +the power of Europe to have availed herself of the advantages of the +Portuguese discoveries; gold and silver would have become, from their +extreme scarcity, more valuable in Europe than in India, and consequently +would no longer have been exported. But the supply of the precious metals +and of Indian commodities increasing at the same time, Europe, by means of +America, was enabled to reap all possible advantage from the Portuguese +discoveries. The gold and silver of Mexico and Peru traversed the world, in +spite of all obstacles, and reached that part of it where it was most +wanted, and purchased the productions of China and Hindostan. + +Yet, notwithstanding the effectual demand for East India commodities was +necessarily increased by the increased supply of the precious metals, yet +the supply of these commodities being increased in a much greater +proportion, their price was much lowered. This lowering of price naturally +arose from two circumstances: after the passage to India by the Cape, the +productions and manufactures of the East were purchased immediately from +the natives; and they were brought to Europe directly, and all the way, by +sea. Whereas, before the discovery of the Cape, they were purchased and +repurchased frequently; consequently, repeated additions were made to their +original price; and these additions were made, in almost every instance, by +persons who had the monopoly of them. Their conveyance to Europe was long, +tedious, and mostly by land carriage, and consequently very expensive. +There are no data by which it can be ascertained in what proportion the +Portuguese lowered the price of Indian commodities; but Dr. Robertson's +supposition appears well founded,--that they might afford to reduce the +commodities of the East, in every part of Europe, one half. This +supposition is founded on a table of prices of goods in India, the same +sold at Aleppo, and what they might be sold for in England,--drawn up, +towards the end of the seventeenth century, by Mr. Munn: from this it +appears, that the price at Aleppo was three times that in India, and that +the goods might be sold in England at half the Aleppo price. But as the +expense of conveying goods to Aleppo from India, may, as Dr. Robertson +observes, be reckoned nearly the same as that which was incurred by +bringing them to Alexandria, he draws the inference already stated,--that +the discovery of the Cape reduced the price of Indian commodities one half. +The obvious and necessary result would follow, that they would be in +greater demand, and more common use. The principal eastern commodities used +by the Romans were spices and aromatics,--precious stones and pearls; and +in the later periods of their power, silk; these, however, were almost +exclusively confined to rare and solemn occasions, or to the use of the +most wealthy and magnificent of the conquerors of the world. On the +subversion of the Roman empire, the commodities of the East were for a +short time in little request among the barbarians who subverted it: as +soon, however, as they advanced from their ignorance and rudeness, these +commodities seem strongly to have attracted their notice, and they were +especially fond of spices and aromatics. These were used very profusely in +their cookery, and formed the principal ingredients in their medicines. As, +however, the price of all Indian commodities was necessarily high, so long +as they were obliged to be brought to Europe by a circuitous route, and +loaded with accumulated profits, it was impossible that they could be +purchased, except by the more wealthy classes. The Portuguese, enabled to +sell them in greater abundance, and at a much cheaper rate, introduced them +into much more general use; and, as they every year extended their +knowledge of the East, and their commerce with it, the number of ships +fitted out at Lisbon every year, for India, became necessarily more +numerous, in order to supply the increased demand. + +Commerce in this case, as in every other, while it is acted upon by an +extension of geographical knowledge, in its turn has an obvious tendency to +extend that knowledge; this was the case with respect to India. The +ancients had indeed made but small advances in their acquaintance with this +country, notwithstanding they were stimulated by the large profits they +derived from their eastern commerce; but this was owing to their +comparative ignorance of navigation and the sciences on which it depends. +As soon as the moderns had improved this art, especially by the use of the +compass, and the Cape of Good Hope was discovered, commerce gave the +stimulus, which in a very few years led the Portuguese from Calicut to the +furthest extremity of Asia. + +It is remarkable that the Portuguese were allowed to monopolize Indian +commerce for so long a time as they did; this, however, as Dr. Robertson +observes, may be accounted for, "from the political circumstances in the +state of all those nations in Europe, whose intrusion as rivals the +Portuguese had any reason to dread. From the accession of Charles V. to the +throne, Spain was either so much occupied in a multiplicity of operations +in which it was engaged by the ambition of that monarch, and of his son +Philip II., or so intent on prosecuting its own discoveries and conquests +in the New World, that although by the successful enterprize of Magellan, +its fleets were unexpectedly conducted by a new course to that remote +region of Asia, which was the seat of the most gainful and alluring branch +of trade carried on by the Portuguese, it could make no considerable effect +to avail itself of the commercial advantages which it might have derived +from that event. By the acquisition of the crown of Portugal, in the year +1580, the kings of Spain, instead of the rivals, became the protectors of +the Portuguese trade, and the guardians of all its exclusive rights. +Throughout the sixteenth century, the strength and resources of France were +so much wasted by the fruitless expeditions of their monarchs to Italy; by +their unequal contest with the power and policy of Charles V., and by the +calamities of the civil wars which desolated the kingdom upwards of forty +years, that it could neither bestow much attention on commerce, nor engage +in any scheme of distant enterprize. The Venetians, how sensibly soever +they might feel the mortifying reverse of being excluded almost entirely +from the Indian trade, of which their capital had been formerly the chief +seat, were so debilitated and humbled by the league of Cambray, that they +were no longer capable of engaging in any undertaking of magnitude. +England, weakened by the long contests between the houses of York and +Lancaster, and just beginning to recover its proper vigour, was restrained +from active exertions during one part of the sixteenth century, by the +cautious maxims of Henry VII., and wasted its strength, during another part +of it, by engaging inconsiderately in the wars between the princes on the +continent. The nation, though destined to acquire territories in India more +extensive and valuable than were ever possessed by any European power, had +no such presentiment of its future eminence there, as to take an early part +in the commerce or transactions of that country, and a great part of the +century elapsed before it began to turn its attention to the East. + +"While the most considerable nations in Europe found it necessary, from the +circumstances which I have mentioned, to remain inactive spectators of what +passed in the East, the seven United Provinces of the Low Countries, +recently formed into a small state, still struggling for political +existence, and yet in the infancy of its power, ventured to appear in the +Indian Ocean as the rivals of the Portuguese; and, despising their +pretensions to an exclusive right of commerce with the extensive countries +to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, invaded that monopoly which they +had hitherto guarded with such jealous attention. The English soon followed +the example of the Dutch, and both nations, at first by the enterprizing +industry of private adventurers, and afterwards by the more powerful +efforts of trading companies, under the protection of public authority, +advanced with astonishing ardour and success in this new career opened to +them. The vast fabric of power which the Portuguese had opened in the East, +(a superstructure much too large for the basis on which it had to rest) was +almost entirely overturned in as short time, and with as much facility, as +it had been raised. England and Holland, by driving them from their most +valuable settlements, and seizing the most lucrative branches of their +trade, have attained to that pre-eminence of naval power and commercial +opulence by which they are distinguished among the nations of Europe." +(Robertson's India, pp. 177-9. 8vo. edition.) + +Before, however, we advert to the commerce of the Dutch in India, it will +be proper to notice those circumstances which gave a commercial direction +to the people of the Netherlands, both before their struggle with Spain, +and while the result of that struggle was uncertain. The early celebrity of +Bruges as a commercial city has already been noticed; its regular fairs in +the middle of the tenth century; its being made the entrepôt of the Hanse +Association towards the end of the thirteenth. It naturally partook of the +wealth and commercial improvement which Flanders derived from her woollen +manufactures, and was in fact made the emporium of that country at the +beginning of the fourteenth century; and within 100 years afterwards, the +staple for English and Scotch goods. When the increased industry of the +north of Europe induced and enabled its inhabitants to exchange the produce +of their soil, fisheries, and manufactures, for the produce of the south of +Europe, and of India, Bruges was made the great entrepôt of the trade of +Europe. In the beginning of the sixteenth century its commercial importance +began to decline, but the trade which left it, did not pass beyond the +limits of the Netherlands; it settled in a great measure at Antwerp, which, +as being accessible by sea, was more convenient for commerce than Bruges. +This city, however, would not have fallen so easily or rapidly before its +rival, had it not been distracted by civil commotions. From it the commerce +of the Netherlands, and with it of the north of Europe, and the interchange +of its commodities with those of the south of Europe and of Asia, gradually +passed to Antwerp; and about the year 1516, most of the trade of Bruges was +fixed here, the Portuguese making it their entrepôt for the supply of the +northern kingdoms. + +Even before this time the ships of the Netherlands seem to have been the +carriers of the north of Europe; for in 1503, two Zealand ships arrived at +Campveer, laden with sugars, the produce of the Canary Islands. Antwerp, +however, continued till it was taken by the Spaniards, and its port +destroyed by the blocking up of the Scheldt, to be most distinguished for +its commerce, and its consequent wealth:--its situation, its easy access by +sea, joined to the circumstance of its being made the Portuguese entrepôt +for spices, drugs, and other rich productions of India, mainly contributed +to its commerce. Merchants from every part of the north of Europe settled +here, and even many of the merchants of Bruges removed to it, after the +decline of their own city. Its free fairs for commerce, two of which lasted +each time six weeks, attracted merchants from all parts, as they could +bring their merchandize into it duty free, and were here certain of finding +a market for it. In it also bills of exchange on all parts of Europe could +be easily and safely negotiated. We have already mentioned the most wealthy +merchants of England and France, in the fifteenth century: there existed at +Antwerp, in the sixteenth, a firm of the name of Fugger, whose wealth was +very great, and indicates the extent of their commercial dealings. From +this firm the Emperor Charles V. had borrowed a very large sum, in order to +carry on an expedition against Tunis. In the year 1534, Charles, being at +Antwerp, Fugger invited him to an entertainment at his house, made a fire +in his hall with cinnamon, and threw all the emperor's bonds into that +fire. About eleven years afterwards, the same merchant gave an acquittance +to Henry VIII. of England, for the sum of 152,180_l_. Flemish, which +the king had borrowed of him. The Fuggers had a licence from the king of +Portugal to trade to India; and they used to send their own factor in every +ship that sailed thither, and were the owners of part of every cargo of +pepper imported. + +In the year 1541, it contained 100,000 inhabitants: soon afterwards the +persecutions on account of religion in Germany, England, and France, drove +many people thither, and of course increased both its population and +wealth. If we may believe Huet, in his History of Dutch Commerce, it was, +at this time, not uncommon to see 2500 ships at once lying in the Scheldt. + +The picture, however, which Guicciardini draws of Antwerp in 1560, when it +had reached the zenith of its prosperity and wealth,--being that of a +contemporary author, and entering into detail,--is at once much more +curious and interesting, and may be depended on as authentic. It is also +valuable, as exhibiting the state of the manufactures, commerce, &c. of +most of the nations of Europe at this period. + +"Besides the natives and the French, who are here very numerous, there are +six principal foreign nations, who reside at Antwerp, both in war and +peace, making above 1000 merchants, including factors and servants, viz. +Germans, Danes, and Easterlings--that is, people from the ports in the +south shores of the Baltic, from Denmark to Livonia--Italians, Spaniards, +English, and Portuguese of these six nations; the Spaniards are the most +numerous. One of those foreign merchants, Fugger, of Augsburg, died worth +above six millions of crowns; there are many natives there with from +200,000 to 400,000 crowns." + +"They meet twice a day, in the mornings and evenings, one hour each time, +at the English bourse, where, by their interpreters and brokers, they buy +and sell all kinds of merchandize. Thence they go to the new bourse, or +principal exchange, where, for another hour each time, they transact all +matters relating to bills of exchange, with the above six nations, and with +France; and also to deposit at interest, which is usually twelve per cent. +per annum." + +"They send to Rome a great variety of woollen drapery, linen, tapestry, +&c.: the returns are in bills of exchange. To Ancona, English and Flemish +cloths, stuffs, linen, tapestry, cochineal; and bring in return such spices +and drugs as the merchants of Ancona procure in the Levant, and likewise +silks, cotton, Turkey carpets, and leather. To Bologne they export serges, +and other stuffs, tapestry, linen, merceries, &c. and bring in return for +it, wrought silks, cloth of gold and silver, crapes, caps, &c. To Venice +they send jewels and pearls, English cloth and wool, Flemish drapery, +cochineal, &c. and a little sugar and pepper: thus, with respect to these +two latter articles, sending to Venice what they formerly obtained from +her. For, prior to the Portuguese discovery of the Cape, the merchants of +Antwerp brought from Venice all sorts of India spices and drugs: and even +so late as the year 1518, there arrived in the Scheldt, five Venetian +ships, laden with spices and drugs, for the fair at Antwerp. In 1560, +however, the imports from Venice consisted of the finest and choicest +silks, carpets, cotton, &c. and colours for dyers and painters." + +"To Naples they export great quantities of Flemish and English cloths and +stuffs, tapestry, linens, small wares of metal, and other materials: and +bring back raw, thrown and wrought silk, fine furs and skins, saffron and +manna. The exports to Sicily are similar to those of the other parts of +Italy: the imports from it are galls in great quantity, cinnamon, oranges, +cotton, silk, and sometimes wine. To Milan, Antwerp exports pepper, sugar, +jewels, musk, and other perfumes, English and Flemish woollen manufactures, +English and Spanish woollinens, and cochineal. The imports are gold and +silver, thread, silks, gold stuffs, dimities, rich and curious draperies, +rice, muskets and other arms, high priced toys and small goods; and +Parmesian cheese. The exports to Florence are nearly the same as to the +other parts of Italy, but in addition, fans are specified. Besides the +usual imports of silks and gold stuffs, there are also fine furs. Household +furniture is exported to Genoa, besides the usual articles: velvets, which +were then the best in the world; satins, the best coral, mithridate, and +treacle, are the principal or the peculiar imports. Genoa, is the port +through which Antwerp trades with Mantua, Verona, Modena, Lucca, &c." + +"Besides all these articles, Antwerp imports from Italy by sea, alum, oil, +gums, leaf senna, sulphur, &c. and exported to it by sea, tin, lead, +madder, Brazil wood, wax, leather, flax, tallow, salt fish, timber, and +sometimes corn. The imports from Italy, including only silks, gold and +silver, stuffs, and thread camblets and other stuffs, amount to three +millions of crowns, or 600,000_l_. yearly. + +"Antwerp exports to Germany precious stones and pearls, spices, drugs, +saffron, sugars, English cloths, as a rare and curious article, bearing a +high price: Flemish cloth, more common and not so valuable as English, +serges, tapestry, a very large quantity of linen and mercery, or small +wares of all sorts: from Germany, Antwerp receives by land carriage, +silver, bullion, quicksilver, immense quantities of copper, Hessian wool, +very fine, glass, fustians of a high price, to the value of above 600,000 +crowns annually; woad, madder, and other dye stuffs; saltpetre, great +quantities of mercery, and household goods, very fine, and of excellent +quality: metals of all sorts, to a great amount; arms; Rhenish wine, of +which Guicciardini speaks in the highest terms, as good for the health, and +not affecting either the head or the stomach, though drunk in very large +quantities:--of this wine 40,000 tuns were brought to Antwerp annually, +which, at thirty-six crowns per tun, amounted to 1,444,000 crowns." + +"To Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Eastland, Livonia, and Poland, Antwerp exports +vast quantities of spices, drugs, saffron, sugar, salt, English and Flemish +cloths, fustians, linens, wrought silks, gold stuffs, tapestries, precious +stones, Spanish and other wines, alum, Brazil wood, merceries, and +household goods. From these countries, particularly from Eastland and +Poland, that is, the countries on the south shore of the Baltic, Antwerp +receives wheat and rye to a large amount; iron, copper, brass, saltpetre, +dye-woods, vitriol, flax, honey, wax, pitch, tar, sulphur, pot-ashes, skins +and furs, leather, timber for ship building, and other purposes; beer, in +high repute; salt meat; salted, dryed, and smoked fish; amber in great +quantities, &c." + +"To France, Antwerp sends precious stones, quicksilver, silver bullion, +copper and brass, wrought and unwrought, lead, tin, vermillion; azure, +blue, and crimson colours, sulphur; saltpetre, vitriol, camblets, and +Turkey grograms, English and Flemish cloths, great quantities of fine +linen, tapestry, leather, peltry, wax, madder, cotton, dried fish, salt +fish, &c. Antwerp receives her returns from France, partly by land and +partly by sea. By sea, salt to the annual value of 180,000 crowns; fine +woad of Thoulouse, to the value annually of 300,000 crowns; immense +quantities of canvass and strong linen, from Bretagne and Normandy; about +40,000 tuns of excellent red and white wines, at about twenty-five crowns +per tun; saffron; syrup, or sugar, or perhaps capillaire; turpentine, +pitch, paper of all kinds in great quantities, prunes, Brazil wood, &c. &c. +By land, Antwerp receives many curious and valuable gilt and gold articles, +and trinkets; very fine cloth, the manufacture of Rouen, Peris, Tours, +Champagne, &c.; the threads of Lyons, in high repute; excellent verdigrise +from Montpelier, merceries, &c." + +"To England, Antwerp exports jewels and precious stones, silver bullion, +quicksilver, wrought silks, cloth of gold and silver, gold and silver +thread, camblets, grograms, spices, drugs, sugar, cotton, cinnamon, galls, +linens, serges, tapestry, madder, hops in great quantities, glass, salt +fish, small wares made of metal and wood, arms, ammunition, and household +furniture. From England, Antwerp imports immense quantities of fine and +coarse woollen goods; the finest wool; excellent saffron, but in small +quantities; a great quantity of lead and tin; sheep and rabbit skins, and +other kinds of fine peltry and leather; beer, cheese, and other sorts of +provisions, in great quantities; also Malmsey wines, which the English +import from Candia." + +Guicciardini observes, that Antwerp exported but little to Scotland, as +that country was principally supplied from England and France: some +spiceries, sugars, madder, wrought silks, camblets, serges, linen, and +merceries, are exported. In return, Antwerp received from Scotland vast +quantities of peltry of various kinds, leather, wool, cloth of coarse +quality, fine large pearls, but not of quite so good a water as the +oriental pearls. + +The exports to Ireland were nearly the same as to Scotland: the returns +were skins and leather, some low-priced cloths, and other coarse and common +articles of little value. + +The exports to Spain consisted chiefly of copper, brass, and latten, +wrought and unwrought; tin, lead; much woollen cloth, both Flemish and +English; serges, tapestry, linens, flax-thread, wax, pitch, madder, tallow, +sulphur, wheat, rye, salted meat and fish, butter, cheese, merceries, +silver bullion and wrought, arms, ammunition, furniture, tools; and every +thing also, he adds, produced by human industry and labour, to which the +lower classes in Spain have an utter aversion. From Spain, Antwerp received +jewels, pearls, gold and silver in great quantities; cochineal, +sarsaparilla, guiacum, saffron; silk, raw and thrown; silk stuffs, velvets, +taffeties, salt, alum, orchil, fine wool, iron, cordovan leather, wines, +oils, vinegar, honey, molasses, Arabian gums, soap; fruits, both moist and +dried, in vast quantities, and sugar from the Canaries. + +The exports to Portugal were silver bullion, quicksilver, vermilion, +copper, brass, and latten; lead, tin, arms, artillery and ammunition; gold +and silver thread, and most of the other articles sent to Spain. From +Portugal, Antwerp received pearls and precious stones, gold, spices, to the +value of above a million of crowns annually; drugs, amber, musk, civet, +great quantities of ivory, aloes, rhubarb, cotton, China root, (then and +even lately much used in medicine,) and many other rare and valuable Indian +commodities, with which the greatest part of Europe is supplied from +Antwerp; also, sugars from St. Thomas, under the line, and the other +islands belonging to the Portuguese on the African coast; Brazil wood, +Guinea grains, and other drugs from the west coast of Africa; Madeira sugar +and wines. Of the produce of Portugal itself, Antwerp imported salt, wines, +oils, woad, seeds, orchil, fruits, &c. &c. + +To Barbary, Antwerp exported woollen goods, linen, merceries, metals, &c.; +and received from it sugar, azure or anil, gums, coloquintida, leather, +peltry, and fine feathers. + +From this sketch of the commerce of Antwerp, when it was at its height, we +see, that it embraced the whole commerce of the world: and that in it +centered all the commodities supplied by Asia, America, Africa, and the +south of Europe on the one hand, and England, the Baltic countries, +Germany, and France on the other. The account given by Guicciardini is +confirmed by Wheeler, who wrote in 1601. He observes, that a little before +the troubles in the Low Countries, the people of Antwerp were the greatest +traders to Italy in English and other foreign merchandize; and also to +Alexandria, Cyprus, and Tripoli in Syria; "beating the Italians, English, +and Germans, almost entirely out of that trade, as they also soon did the +Germans in the fairs of their own country." He adds, that the Antwerp +merchants, being men of immense wealth, and consequently able to supply +Spain for the Indies at long credit, set their own prices on their +merchandize. Antwerp also supplied Germany, Spain, Portugal, and Eastland +with the wares, which France was wont to supply them. He adds, "It is not +past eighty years ago, (that would be about 1520,) since there were not, in +London, above twelve or sixteen Low Country merchants, who imported only +stone pots, brushes, toys for children, and other pedlar's wares; but in +less than forty years after, there were, in London, at least one hundred +Netherland merchants, who brought thither all the commodities which the +merchants of Italy, Germany, Spain, France, and Eastland, (of all which +nations there were, before that time, divers famous and notable rich +merchants and companies,) used to bring into England out of their own +country directly, to the great damage of the said strangers, and of the +natural born English merchants." + +Guicciardini informs us, that in his time the port of Armuyden, in the +island of Walcheren, was the place of rendezvous for the shipping of +Antwerp: in it have often been seen 500 large ships lying at one time, +bound to, or returning from distant parts of the world. He adds, that it +was no uncommon thing for 500 ships to come and go in one day; that 10,000 +carts were constantly employed in carrying merchandize to and from the +neighbouring countries, besides hundreds of waggons daily coming and going +with passengers; and 500 coaches used by people of distinction. In his +enumeration of the principal trades, it is curious that there were +ninety-two fishmongers, and only seventy-eight butchers; there were 124 +goldsmiths, who, it must be recollected, at that time acted as bankers, or +rather exchangers of money. The number of houses was 13,500. With respect +to the shipping, which, according to this author, were so numerous at the +port of Antwerp, comparatively few of them belonged to this city, as most +of its commerce was carried on by ships of foreign nations. + +This circumstance, of its having but few ships of its own, may be regarded +as one cause why, when it was taken and plundered by the Spaniards in the +year 1585, it could not recover its former commerce, as the shipping +removed with the nations they belonged to. The forts which the Dutch built +in the Scheldt were, however, another and a very powerful cause. The trade +of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp, and settled principally at +Amsterdam; this city had indeed become considerable after the decline of +the Hanseatic confederacy; but was not renowned for its commerce till the +destruction of Antwerp. The commerce of Holland was extended and supported +by its fisheries, and the manufactures of Flanders and the adjoining +provinces, which in their turn received support from its commerce. +Guicciardini informs us, that there were in the Netherlands, in time of +peace, 700 busses and boats employed in the herring fishery: each made +three voyages in the season, and on an average during that period, caught +seventy lasts of herring, each last containing twelve barrels of 9OO or +1000 herrings each barrel; the price of a last was usually about 6£. +sterling: the total amount of one year's fishery, was about 294,000£. +sterling. About sixty years after this time, according to Sir Walter +Raleigh, the cod and ling fishery of Friesland, Holland, Zealand, and +Flanders, (the provinces included by Guicciardini in the maritime +Netherlands) brought in 100,000£. annually: and the salmon-fishing of +Holland and Zealand nearly half that sum. + +The woollen manufactures of the Netherlands had, about the time that +Guicciardini wrote, been rivalled by those of England: yet he says, that, +though their wool was very coarse, above 12,000 pieces of cloth were made +at each of the following places; Amsterdam, Bois-le-duc, Delft, Haarlem, +and Leyden. Woollen manufactures were carried on also at other places, +besides taffeties and tapestries. Lisle is particularised by him as next in +commercial importance to Antwerp and Amsterdam. Bois-le-duc seems to have +been the seat of a great variety of manufactures; for besides woollen +cloth, 20,000 pieces of linen, worth, on an average, ten crowns each, were +annually made; and likewise great quantities of knives, fine pins, mercery, +&c. By the taking of Antwerp, the Spanish or Catholic Netherlands lost +their trade and manufactures, great part of which, as we have already +observed, settled in the United Provinces, while the remainder passed into +England and other foreign countries. + +The destruction of the Hanseatic league, which benefited Amsterdam, seems +also to have been of service to the other northern provinces of the +Netherlands: for in 1510, we are informed by Meursius, in his History of +Denmark, there was at one time a fleet of 250 Dutch merchant ships in the +Baltic: if this be correct, the Dutch trade to the countries on this sea +must have been very great. The circumstance of the Dutch, even before their +revolt from Spain, carrying on a great trade, especially to the Baltic, is +confirmed by Guicciardini; according to him, about the year 1559, they +brought annually from Denmark, Eastland, Livonia, and Poland, 60,000 lasts +of grain, chiefly rye, worth 560,000_l_. Flemish. They had above 800 +ships from 200 to 700 tons burden: fleets of 300 ships arrived twice a year +from Dantzic and Livonia at Amsterdam, where there were often seeing lying +at the same time 500 vessels, most of them belonging to it. He mentions +Veer in Zealand (Campveer) as at that time being the staple port for all +the Scotch shipping, and owing its principal commerce to that circumstance. + +The destruction of Antwerp brought to Amsterdam, along with other branches +of commerce, the valuable trade which the former city had with Portugal for +the produce and manufactures of India; these the Dutch merchants resold to +all the nations of the north. As soon, however, as Philip II. had obtained +possession of the throne of Portugal in 1580, he put a stop to all further +commerce between Lisbon and the Dutch. The latter, having tasted the sweets +of this commerce, resolved to attempt a direct trade to India. We have +already mentioned the voyages of Barentz in search of a north-east passage; +these proving unsuccessful, the Dutch began to despair of reaching India, +except by the Cape of Good Hope; and this voyage they were afraid to +undertake, having, at this time, neither experienced seamen nor persons +acquainted with Indian commerce. A circumstance, however, occurred while +Barentz was in search of a north-west passage, which determined them to +sail to India by the Cape. One Houlman, a Dutchman, who had been in the +Portuguese Indian service, but was then confined in Lisbon for debt, +proposed to the merchants of Rotterdam, if they could liberate him, to put +them in possession of all he knew respecting Indian commerce; his offer was +accepted, and four ships were sent to India in 1594 under his command. The +adventurers met with much opposition from the Portuguese in India, so that +their voyage was not very successful or lucrative: they returned, however, +in twenty-nine months with a small quantity of pepper from Java, where they +had formed a friendly communication with the natives. The arrival of the +Dutch in India,--the subjugation of Portugal by Spain, which circumstance +dispirited and weakened the Portuguese, and the greater attention which the +Spaniards were disposed to pay to their American than their Indian +commerce, seem to have been the causes which produced the ruin of the +Portuguese in India, and the establishment of the Dutch. + +The Dutch pushed their new commerce with great vigour and zeal. In the year +1600 eight ships entered their ports laden with cinnamon, pepper, cloves, +nutmegs, and mace: the pepper they obtained at Java, the other spices at +the Moluccas, where they were permitted by the natives, who had driven out +the Portuguese, to establish factories. + +In consequence of a wild and ruinous spirit of speculation having seized +the Dutch merchants, the government, in 1602, formed all the separate +companies who traded to India, into one; and granted to this extensive +sovereignty over all the establishments that might be formed in that part +of the world. Their charter was for twenty-one years: their capital was +6,600,000 guilders (or about 600,000_l_.) Amsterdam subscribed one +half of the capital, and selected twenty directors out of sixty, to whom +the whole management of the trade was entrusted. + +From this period, the Dutch Indian commerce flourished extremely: and the +company, not content with having drawn away a large portion of the +Portuguese trade, resolved to expel them entirely from this part of the +world. Ships fitted, either to trade or to fight, and having on board a +great number of soldiers, were sent out within a very few years after the +establishment of the company. Amboyna and the Moluccas were first entirely +wrested from the Portuguese: factories and settlements were in process of +time established from Balsora, at the mouth of the Tigris in the Persian +Gulf; along the coasts and islands of India, as far as Japan. Alliances +were formed with many of the Indian princes: and in many parts, +particularly on the coasts of Ceylon, and at Pulicat, Masulipatam, +Negapatam, and other places along the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, +they were themselves, in fact, the sovereigns. The centre of all their +Indian commerce was fixed at Batavia in Java, the greatest part of this +island belonging to them. From this general sketch of the extent of +country, which was embraced, either by their power or their commerce, it is +evident that the Indian trade was almost monopolized by them; and as they +wisely employed part of the wealth which it produced, to establish and +defend their possessions, they soon became most formidable in this part of +the world, sending out a fleet of 40 or 50 large ships, and an army of +30,000 men. + +They were not, however, content, but aimed at wresting from the Portuguese +almost the only trade which remained to them; viz. their trade with China. +In this attempt they did not succeed; but in the year 1624, they +established themselves at Formosa. Soon after this, the conquest of China +by the Tartars, induced or compelled an immense number of Chinese to leave +their native country and settle in Formosa. Here they carried on a very +extensive and lucrative trade; and Formosa became the principal mart of +this part of Asia. Vessels from China, Japan, Siam, Java, and the +Philippines, filled its harbours. Of this commerce the Dutch availed +themselves, and derived great wealth from it, for about forty years, when +they were driven out of the island. In 1601, the Dutch received permission +to trade to Japan, but this privilege was granted under several very strict +conditions, which were, however, relaxed in 1637, when they discovered a +conspiracy of the Spaniards, the object of which was to dethrone the +emperor, and seize the government. The jealousy of the Japanese, however, +soon revived; so that by the end of the seventeenth century, the lucrative +commerce which the Dutch carried on with this island for fine tea, +porcelaine, lacquered or Japan ware, silk, cotton, drugs, coral, ivory, +diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, gold, silver, fine copper, +iron, lead, and tin; and in exchange for linen, and woollen cloths, +looking-glasses, and other glass ware; and the merchandize of India, +Persia, and Arabia, was almost annihilated. + +Before proceeding to narrate the events which arose from the arrival of the +English in the East Indies, and the effects produced on the Dutch power and +commerce there, by their arrival, it will be proper to take a short notice +of the commerce of the Dutch to the other parts of the world. As their +territories in Europe were small and extremely populous, they were in a +great measure dependent on foreign nations for the means of subsistence: in +exchange for these, they had few products of their manufactures to give. +The sources of their wealth, therefore, as well as of the means of their +existence, were derived from the exchange of their India commodities, and +from their acting as the great carriers of Europe. From these two +circumstances, their cities, and especially Amsterdam, became the great +mart of Europe: its merchants had commercial transactions to an immense +amount with all parts of the world. In consequence of the vastness and +extent of their commerce, they found great payments in specie very +inconvenient. Hence arose the bank of Amsterdam. It is foreign to our +purpose, either to describe the nature of this bank, or to give a history +of it; but its establishment, at once a proof, and the result of the +immense commerce of Amsterdam, and the cause of that commerce becoming +still more flourishing, and moreover, as the principal of those +establishments, which have changed the character of the commerce of Europe, +could not be passed over without notice. It was formed in the year 1609. + +In this year, the Dutch had extended their trade to the west coast of +Africa so much, that they had about 100 ships employed in the gold coast +trade. About the same time, they formed a colony in North America, in that +province now called New York. In 1611, having formed a truce with Spain, +they resolved to venture into the Mediterranean, and endeavour to partake +in the lucrative trade with the Levant: for this purpose, they sent an +ambassador to Constantinople, where he concluded a favourable treaty of +commerce. But by far the most extensive and lucrative commerce which the +Dutch possessed in Europe, was in the Baltic: there they had gradually +supplanted the Hanseatic League, and by the middle of the seventeenth +century, nearly all the commodities of the countries lying on, or +communicating with this sea, were supplied to the rest of Europe by the +Dutch. In the year 1612, they first engaged in the whale fishery at +Greenland. In 1648, taking advantage of the civil troubles in England, and +having by this time acquired a powerful influence at the Russian court, +they interfered with the trade of the English Russian Company at Archangel; +and this new branch of trade they pushed with their national industry and +perseverance, so that in 1689 they had 200 factors in this place. + +In the year 1621 the Dutch formed a West India Company: their first objects +were to reduce Brazil and Peru: in the latter they were utterly +unsuccessful. By the year 1636 they had conquered the greater part of the +coast of Brazil: they lost no time in reaping the fruits of this conquest: +for in the space of thirteen years, they had sent thither 800 ships of war +and commerce, which were valued at 4-1/2 millions sterling; and had in that +time taken from Spain, then sovereign of Portugal, 545 ships. In the year +1640 the Portuguese shook off the Spanish yoke, and from this event may be +dated the decline of the Dutch power in Brazil: in 1654 they were entirely +expelled from this country. + +In the year 1651, they colonized the Cape of Good Hope; and in the same +year, began the obstinate and bloody maritime, war between Holland and +England. This arose principally from the navigation act, which was passed +in England in 1650: its object and effect was to curtail the commerce +between England and Holland, which consisted principally of foreign +merchandize imported into, and English merchandize exported from, England +in Dutch vessels. In this war, the Dutch lost 700 merchant ships in the +years 1652 and 1653. In 1654, peace was made. The object of the navigation +act, at least so far as regarded the Dutch acting as the carriers of the +English trade, seems to have been completely answered, for in 1674, after a +great frost, when the ports were open, there sailed out of the harbour of +Rotterdam above 300 sail of English, Scotch, and Irish ships at one time. +The example of the English being followed by the nations of the north, the +Dutch carrying trade was very much reduced. Between the years 1651 and +1672, when Holland was overrun by the French, their commerce seems to have +reached the greatest extent, which it attained in the seventeenth century; +and perhaps, at no subsequent period, did it flourish so much. De Witt +estimates the increase of their commerce and navigation from the peace with +Spain in 1648 to the year 1669, to be fully one-half. He adds, that during +the war with Holland, Spain lost the greater part of her naval power: that +since the peace with Spain, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to +that country, which had been previously carried on by the Easterlings and +the English;--that all the coasts of Spain were chiefly navigated by Dutch +shipping: that Spain had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to +her American possessions; and that so great was the exportation of goods +from Holland to Spain, that all the merchandize brought from the Spanish +West Indies, was not sufficient to make returns for them. + +The same author informs us, that in the province of Holland alone, in 1669, +the herring and cod fisheries employed above one thousand busses, from +twenty-four to thirty lasts each; and above 170 smaller ones: that the +whale fishery was increased from one to ten; that the cod and herring, when +caught, were transported by the Hollanders in their own vessels throughout +the world; thus obtaining, by means of the sea alone, through their own +industry, above 300,000 lasts of salt fish. + +As the Dutch commerce was decidedly and undoubtedly more extensive than +that of all the rest of Europe, about the middle of the seventeenth +century, it may be proper, before we conclude our notice of it at this +time, to consider briefly the causes which cherished it into such full +growth and vigour. These causes are explained in a very judicious and +satisfactory manner by Sir William Temple, in his observations on the +Netherlands. He remarks, that though the territory of the Dutch was very +small, and though they laboured under many natural disadvantages, yet their +commerce was immense; and it was generally esteemed that they had more +shipping belonging to them than there did to all the rest of Europe. + +They had no native commodities towards the building or equipping their +ships; their flax, hemp, pitch, wood, and iron, coming all from abroad, as +wool does for clothing their men, and corn for feeding them. The only +productions or manufactures of their own, which they exported, were butter, +cheese, and earthern wares. They have no good harbours in all their coast; +even Amsterdam is difficult of approach, from the dangerous entrance of the +Texel, and the shallowness of the Zuider Zee. + +What then were the causes which, in spite of these disadvantages, rendered +Holland so commercial? In the first place, great multitudes in small +compass, who were forced to industry and labour, or else to want. In the +second place, the emigration of men of industry, skill, and capital, driven +into Holland from Germany, France, and England, by persecution and civil +wars. In the third place, the security to property established by the +government of the United States; and akin to this, general liberty of +conscience in religious matters. The great fairs in the Netherlands may be +regarded as another cause. These Sir W. Temple regards as the principal +causes of the foundation of their trade. He next enquires into the chief +advancers and encouragers of trade in that country. + +These he considers to have been low interest, which caused money to be +easily obtained, not only for the purposes of commerce, but also to make +canals, bridges, &c. and to drain marshes. The use of their banks, which +secures money, and makes all payments easy and trade quick,--the sale by +registry, which makes all purchases safe,--the severity of justice, +especially with regard to forging bills,--the convoys of merchant ships, +which gives trade security, the nation credit abroad, and breeds up +seamen,--the lowness of their custom duties and freedom of their ports, +which rendered their cities magazines as well as markets,--order and +exactness in managing their trade,--each town affecting some particular +commerce or staple, and so improving it to the greatest height; as +Flushing, the West India trade; Middleburgh, French wines; Terveer, the +Scotch staple; Dort, the English staple and Rhenish wines; Rotterdam, the +English and Scotch trade at large, and French wines; Leyden, the +manufacture of all sorts of stuffs, silk, hair, gold, and silver; Haerlem, +linen, mixed stuffs, and flowers; Delft, beer and earthen ware; Swaardam, +ship building; Sluys, herring fishery; Friezeland, the Greenland trade; and +Amsterdam, the East India, Spanish, and Mediterranean trade. Sir W. Temple +mentions other two causes, the great application of the whole province to +the fishing trade, and the mighty advance the Dutch made towards engrossing +the whole commerce of the East Indies. "The stock of this trade," he +observes, "besides what it turns to in France, Spain, Italy, the Straits, +and Germany, makes them so great masters in the trade of the northern parts +of Europe, as Muscovy, Poland, Pomerania, and all the Baltic, where the +spices, that are an Indian drug and European luxury, command all the +commodities of those countries which are so necessary to life, as their +corn; and to navigation, as hemp, pitch, masts, planks, and iron." + +The next question that Sir William Temple discusses is, what are the causes +which made the trade of Holland enrich it? for, as he remarks, "it is no +constant rule that trade makes riches. The only and certain scale of riches +arising from trade in a nation is, the proportion of what is exported for +the consumption of others, to what is imported for their own. The true +ground of this proportion lies in the general industry and parsimony of a +people, or in the contrary of both." But the Dutch being industrious, and +consequently producing much,--and parsimonious, and consequently consuming +little, have much left for exportation. Hence, never any country traded so +much and consumed so little. "They buy infinitely, but it is to sell again. +They are the great masters of the Indian spices, and of the Persian silks, +but wear plain woollen, and feed upon their own fish and roots. Nay, they +sell the finest of their own cloth to France, and buy coarse out of England +for their own wear. They send abroad the best of their own butter into all +parts, and buy the cheapest out of Ireland or the north of England for +their own use. In short, they furnish infinite luxury which they never +practise, and traffic in pleasures which they never taste." "The whole body +of the civil magistrates, the merchants, the rich traders, citizens, seamen +and boors in general, never change the fashion of their cloaths; so that +men leave off their cloaths only because they are worn out, and not because +they are out of fashion. Their great consumption is French wine and brandy; +but what they spend in wine they save in corn, to make other drinks, which +is brought from foreign parts. Thus it happens, that much going constantly +out, either in commodity or in the labour of seafaring men, and little +coming in to be consumed at home, the rest returns in coin, and fills the +country to that degree, that more silver is seen in Holland, among the +common hands and purses, than brass either in Spain or in France; though +one be so rich in the best native commodities, and the other drain all the +treasures of the West Indies." (Sir W. Temple's Observations on the +Netherlands, Chapter VI.) + +Having thus sketched the progress and nature of Dutch commerce, during that +period when it was at its greatest height, and brought our account of it +down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, we shall next proceed +to consider the English commerce from the time of the discovery of the Cape +and America, till the beginning of the same century. + +From the sketch we have already given of English commerce prior to the end +of the fifteenth century, it is evident that it was of very trifling extent +and amount, being confined chiefly to a few articles of raw produce, and to +some woollen goods. The improvement of the woollen manufacture, the +establishment of corporations, and the settlement of foreign merchants, as +well as the gradual advancement of the English in the civilization, skill, +and industry of the age,--in the wants which the first occasions, and in +the means to supply those wants afforded by the two latter,--these are the +obvious and natural causes which tended to improve English commerce. But +its progress was slow and gradual, and confined for a long time to +countries near at hand; it afterwards ventured to a greater distance. +Companies of merchant adventurers were formed, who could command a greater +capital than any individual merchant. Of the nature and extent of their +foreign commerce at the close of the fifteenth century we are informed by +an act of parliament, passed in the 12 Hen. VII. (1497.) + +From this act it appears, that England traded at this time with Spain, +Portugal, Bretagne, Ireland, Normandy, France, Seville, Venice, Dantzic, +Eastland, Friesland, and many other parts. The woollen cloth of England is +particularly specified as one of the greatest articles of commerce. In a +licence granted by Henry VII. to the Venetians, to buy and sell at London, +and elsewhere in England, Ireland, and Calais, woollen cloth, lead, tin, +and leather, are enumerated as the chief exports. From this document it +also appears, that there resided in or traded to England, the following +foreign merchants: Genoese, Florentines, Luccans, Spaniards, Portuguese, +Flemings, Hollanders, Brabanters, Burgundians, German, Hanseatic, Lombards, +and Easterlings. + +From these two documents, the nature and extent of English commerce at this +period may be inferred: its exports were sent as far north as the southern +countries of the Baltic, and to all the rest of Europe, as far south and +east as Venice; but this export trade, as well as the import, seems to have +been almost entirely carried on by foreign capital and ships; the merchant +adventurers having yet ventured very little from home. + +In 1511, English commerce, in English ships, extended into the Levant, +chiefly from London, Bristol, and Southampton. Chios, which was still in +the possession of the Genoese, was the port to which they traded. This +branch of trade flourished so much in a few years, that in 1513 a consul, +or protector of all the merchants and other English subjects in Chios, was +appointed. The voyages were gradually lengthened, and reached Cyprus, and +Tripoli, in Syria. The exports were woollen goods, calf-skins, &c.; and the +imports were silks, camblets, rhubarb, malmsey, muscadel, and other wines: +oils, cotton wool, Turkey carpets, galls, and Indian spices. The commerce +was in a small degree carried on by English ships, but chiefly by those of +Candia, Ragusa, Sicily, Genoa, Venice, Spain, and Portugal. The voyages to +and from England occupied a year, and were deemed very difficult and +dangerous. So long as Chios remained in the possession of the Genoese, and +Candia in that of the Venetians, England traded with these islands; but +ceased to trade when the Turks conquered them. From 1553, to 1575, the +Levant commerce was quite discontinued by England, though during that +period, the French, Genoese, Venetians, and Florentines, continued it, and +had consuls at Constantinople. + +The small and temporary trade with the Genoese and Venetian possessions in +the Levant, seems to have been attended with such profit, and to have +opened up such further prospects of advantage, as to have given rise to a +direct trade with Turkey, and the formation of the Turkey Company. The +enlightened ministers of Elizabeth effected these objects: they first sent +out an English merchant to the Sultan, who obtained for his countrymen all +the commercial advantages enjoyed by the Venetians, French, Germans, and +Poles. Two years afterwards, in 1581, the Turkey Company was established. +Sir William Monson, in his Naval Tracts, assigns the following as the +causes and reasons why England did not sooner embark in the Turkey trade +for Persian and Indian merchandize: 1. That there was not sufficient +shipping; 2. the hostility of the Turks; and, lastly, England was supplied +with Levant goods by the Venetian ships, which came annually to +Southampton. He adds, "the last argosser that came thus from Venice was +unfortunately lost near the isle of Wight, with a rich cargo, and many +passengers, in the year 1587." The Turkey Company carried on their concern +with so much spirit, that the queen publicly thanked them, with many +encouragements to go forward for the kingdom's sake: she particularly +commended them for the ships they then built of so great burden. The +commodities of Greece, Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India, were now brought +into England in greater abundance, and sold much cheaper than formerly, and +yet the returns of this trade are said to have been, at its commencement, +three to one. + +It is not our object, nor would it be compatible with our limits, to trace +the progress of commerce minutely, in any of its branches, but rather to +point out, as it were, its shootings in various directions; and any special +causes which may have given vigour to its growth, or have retarded it. In +conformity with this plan, we shall only notice some of the more marked and +important eras of our Levant trade, prior to the commencement of the +eighteenth century. The trade to the Levant, in its infancy, like all other +trades, at a time when there was little capital and commercial knowledge, +required the formation of a company which should possess exclusive +privileges. Charters were granted to such a company for a term of years, +and renewed by Elizabeth. In 1605 king James gave a perpetual charter to +the Levant Company: the trade was carried on with encreasing vigour and +success: our woollen manufactures found a more extensive market: the +Venetians, who had for many years supplied Constantinople and other ports +of the Levant, were driven from their markets by the English, who could +afford to sell them cloths cheaper; and English ships began to be preferred +to those of Venice and other nations, for the carrying trade in the +Mediterranean. According to Sir W. Monson, England exported broad cloth, +tin, &c. enough to purchase all the wares we wanted in Turkey; and, in +particular, 300 great bales of Persian raw silk yearly: "whereas a balance +of money is paid by the other nations trading thither. Marseilles sends +yearly to Aleppo and Alexandria at least 500,000_l_. sterling, and little +or no wares. Venice sends about 400,000_l_. in money, and a great value in +wares besides: the Low Countries send about 50,000_l_., and but little +wares; and Messina 25,000_l_. in ready money: besides great quantities of +gold and dollars from Germany, Poland, Hungary, &c.; and all these nations +take of the Turks in return great quantities of camblets, grograms, raw +silk, cotton wool and yarn, galls, flax, hemp, rice, hides, sheep's wool, +wax, corn, &c." + +The first check which the Levant trade received was given by the East India +Company: about the year 1670 the Levant Company complained that their trade +in raw silk was much diminished; they had formerly imported it solely from +Turkey, whereas then it was imported in great quantities direct from India. +In 1681, the complaints of the one company, and the defence of the other, +were heard before the Privy Council. The Levant Company alleged, that for +upwards of one hundred years they had exported to Turkey and other parts of +the Levant, great qualities of woollen manufactures, and other English +wares, and did then, more especially, carry out thither to the value of +500,000_l_; in return for which they imported raw silks, galls, grograms, +drugs, cotton, &c.; whereas the East India Company exported principally +gold and silver bullion, with an inconsiderable quantity of cloth; and +imported calicoes, pepper, wrought silks, and a deceitful sort of raw silk; +if the latter supplants Turkey raw silk, the Turkey demand for English +cloth must fail, as Turkey does not yield a sufficient quantity of other +merchandize to return for one fourth part of our manufactures carried +thither. + +The East India Company, on the other hand, alleged that the cloth they +exported was finer and more valuable than that exported by the Turkey +Company, and that, if they were rightly informed, the medium of cloths +exported by that company, for the last three years, was only 19,000 cloths +yearly: it is admitted, however, that before there was any trade to China +and Japan, the Turkey Company's exportation of cloth did much exceed that +of the East India Company. With respect to the charge of exporting bullion, +it was alleged that the Turkey Company also export it to purchase the raw +silk in Turkey. The East India Company further contended, that since their +importation of raw silk, the English silk manufacturers had much encreased, +and that the plain wrought silks from India were the strongest, most +durable, and cheapest of any, and were generally re-exported from England +to foreign parts. + +We have been thus particular in detailing this dispute between these +companies, partly because it points out the state of the Levant Company and +their commerce, at the close of the seventeenth century, but principally +because it unfolds one of the principal causes of their decline; for, +though some little notice of it will afterwards occur, yet its efforts were +feeble, and its success diminished, chiefly by the rivalry of the East +India Company. + +The Levant trade, as we have seen, was gradually obtained by the English +from the hands of the Venetians and other foreign powers. The trade we are +next to notice was purely of English origin and growth;--we allude to the +trade between England and Russia, which began about the middle of the +sixteenth century. The discovery of Archangel took place, as we have +already related, in 1553. Chanceller, who discovered it, obtained +considerable commercial privileges from the Czar for his countrymen. In +1554, a Russian Company was established; but before their charter, the +British merchants had engaged in the Russian trade. The first efforts of +the company seem to have been confined to attempts to discover a north-east +passage. Finding these unsuccessful, they turned their attention to +commerce: they fortunately possessed a very enterprising man, peculiarly +calculated to foster and strengthen an infant trade, who acted as their +agent. He first set on foot, in 1558, a new channel of trade through Russia +into Persia, for raw silk, &c. In the course of his commercial enquiries +and transactions, he sailed down the Volga to Nisi, Novogorod, Casan, and +Astracan, and thence across the Caspian Sea to Persia. He mentions that, at +Boghar, which he describes as a good city, he found merchants from India, +Persia, Russia, and Cathay,--from which last country it was a nine months +journey to Boghar. He performed his journey seven different times. It +appears, however, that this channel of trade was soon afterwards abandoned, +till 1741, when it was resumed for a very short time, during which +considerable quantities of raw silk were brought to England by the route +followed by the Russian agent in the sixteenth century. The cause of this +abandonment during the sixteenth century seems to have been the length and +danger of the route; for we are informed that one of the adventures would +have proved exceedingly profitable, had not their ships, on their return +across the Caspian, with Persian raw silk, wrought silks of many kinds, +galls, carpets, Indian spices, turquois stones, &c., been plundered by +Corsair pirates, to the value of about 40,000_l_. The final abandonment of +this route, in the eighteenth century, arose partly from the wars in +Persia, but principally from the extension of India commerce, which being +direct and by sea, would, of course supply England much more cheaply with +all eastern goods than any land trade. Beside the delay, difficulty, and +danger of the route from the Volga, already described, the route followed +in the sixteenth century, till the merchants reached the Volga, was +attended with great difficulty. The practice was to transport the English +goods, which were to be exchanged, in canoes, up the Dwina, from Archangel +to Vologda, thence over land, in seven days, to Jeroslau, and thence down +the Volga, in thirty days, to Astracan. + +The Russians having conquered Narva, in Livonia in 1558, the first place +they possessed in the Baltic, and having established it as a staple port, +the following year, according to Milton, in his brief history of Muscovia, +the English began to trade to it, "the Lubeckers and Dantzickers having +till then concealed that trade from other nations." The other branches of +the Baltic trade also encreased; for it appears by a charter granted by +Elizabeth, in 1579, to an Eastland Company, that trade was carried on +between England and Norway, Sweden, Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, Pomerania, +Dantzic, Elbing, Konigsberg, Copenhagen, Elsinore, and Finland. This +company was established in opposition to the Hanseatic merchants; and it +seems to have attained its object; for these merchants complained to the +Diet of the Empire against England, alleging, that of the 200,000 cloths +yearly exported thence, three-fourths went into Denmark, Sweden, Poland, +and Germany; the other fourth being sent to the Netherlands and France. + +It was not to be supposed that our commerce with Archangel and Narva would +long remain without a rival. The Dutch, aware of its importance, prevented +by their influence or presents, the Czar from renewing the Russian +Company's privileges. As this trade was become more extensive, and carried +off, besides woollen goods, silks, velvets, coarse linen cloth, old silver +plate, all kinds of mercery wares, serving for the apparel of both sexes, +purses, knives, &c. Elizabeth used her efforts to re-establish the company +on its former footing; and a new Czar mounting the throne, she was +successful. + +The frequent voyages of the English to the White Sea made them acquainted +with Cherry Island, of which they took possession, and where they carried +on for a short time the capture of morses: the teeth of these were regarded +as nearly equal in quality and value to ivory, and consequently afforded a +lucrative trade; oil was also obtained from these animals. Lead ore is said +to have been discovered in this island, of which thirty tons were brought +to England in 1606. The Russian Company, however, soon gave up the morse +fishery for that of whales. They also carried on a considerable trade with +Kola, a town in Russian Lapland, for fish oil and salmon: of the latter +they sometimes brought to England 10,000 at one time. But in this trade the +Dutch likewise interfered. + +The fishery for whales near Spitzbergen was first undertaken by the company +in 1597. In 1613, they obtained from King James an exclusive charter for +this fishery; and under this, fitting out armed ships, they expelled +fifteen sail of French, Dutch, and Biscayners, besides some private English +ships. But the Dutch persevered, so that next year, while the Russian +Company had only thirteen ships at the whale fishery, the former had +eighteen. The success of their whale fishery seems to have led to the +neglect of their Russian trade, for, in 1615, only two vessels were +employed in it, instead of seventeen great ships formerly employed. From +this period, the commerce carried on between Russia and England, by the +Russian Company, seems gradually to have declined. + +The commerce between England and the other parts of Europe, during the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, presents little that calls for notice; +as the manufactures and capital of England encreased, it gradually +encreased, and was transferred from foreign to English vessels. The exports +consisted principally of woollen goods, prepared skins, earthen-ware, and +metals. The imports of linens, silks, paper, wines, brandy, fruits, +dye-stuffs, and drugs. The woollen cloths of England were indeed the staple +export to all parts of England during the whole of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries: as our cotton, earthen-ware, and iron manufactures +sprung up and encreased, they supplied other articles of export;--our +imports, at first confined to a few articles, afterwards encreased in +number and value, in proportion as our encreased industry, capital, and +skill, enlarged our produce and manufactures, and thus enabled us to +purchase and consume more. A very remarkable instance of the effect of +skill, capital, and industry, is mentioned by Mr. Lewis, a merchant, who +published a work entitled, _The Merchant's Map of Commerce_, in 1641. "The +town of Manchester," he says, "buys the linen yarn of the Irish in great +quantity, and, weaving it, returns the same again, in linen, into Ireland +to sell. Neither doth her industry rest here, for they buy cotton wool in +London, that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and work the same into +fustians, vermilions, dimities, &c., which they return to London, where +they are sold, and from thence not seldom are sent into such foreign parts +where the first materials may be more easily had for that manufacture." How +similar are these two instances to that which has occurred in our own days, +when the cotton-wool, brought from the East Indies, has been returned +thither after having been manufactured, and sold there cheaper than the +native manufactures. + +But though there are no particulars relative to the commerce between +England and Europe, which call for our notice, as exhibiting any thing +beyond the gradual extension of commercial intercourse already established; +yet in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there were other commercial +intercourses into which England entered, that deserve attention. These may +be classed under three heads: the trade to Africa, to America, and India. + +I. The trade to Africa.--The first notice of any trade between England and +Africa occurs in the year 1526, when some merchants of Bristol, which, at +this period, was undoubtedly one of our most enterprising cities, traded by +means of Spanish ships to the Canaries. Their exports were cloth, soap, for +the manufacture of which, even at this early period, Bristol was +celebrated, and some other articles. They imported drugs for dyeing, sugar, +and kid skins. This branch of commerce answering, the Bristol merchants +sent their factors thither from Spain. The coast of Africa was, at this +period, monopolized by the Portuguese. In 1530, however, an English ship +made a voyage to Guinea for elephants' teeth: the voyage was repeated; and +in 1536, above one hundred pounds weight of gold dust, besides elephants' +teeth, was imported in one ship. A few years afterwards, a trade was opened +with the Mediterranean coast of Africa, three ships sailing from Bristol to +Barbary with linens, woollen cloth, coral, amber, and jet; and bringing +back sugar, dates, almonds, and molasses. The voyages to Guinea from the +ports of the south and southwest of England, particularly Portsmouth, +Plymouth, and Bristol, were frequently repeated: the returns were uniformly +gold dust and elephants' teeth. But it does not appear that other ports +followed the example of these, that these sent many ships, or that the +commerce became very regular and lucrative, till the west coast of Africa +was resorted to for slaves. + +This infamous trade was first entered upon by the English in the year 1562. +Mr. John Hawkins, with several other merchants, having learnt that negroes +were a good commodity in Hispaniola, fitted out three ships, the largest +120, the smallest forty tons, for the coast of Guinea. Here they bought +slaves, which they sold in Hispaniola for hides, sugar, ginger, and pearls. +The other branches of the African trade continued to flourish. In 1577, +English merchants were settled in Morocco; Spanish, Portuguese, and French +merchants had been settled there before. In this year, Elizabeth, always +attentive to whatever would benefit commerce, sent an ambassador to the +Emperor of Morocco, who obtained some commercial privileges for the +English. In 1588, the first voyage to Benin was made from London, by a ship +and a pinnace: in 1590, a second voyage was made from the same port with +the same vessels. Their exports were linen, woollen cloths, iron +manufactures, bracelets of copper, glass beads, coral, hawks' bells, +horses' tails, hats, &c. They imported Guinea pepper, elephants' teeth, +palm oil, cotton cloth, and cloth made of the bark of trees. + +An African Company had been formed in Elizabeth's reign; but neither this, +nor two others succeeded; their ruin was occasioned by war, misconduct, and +the interference of what were called interlopers. In 1672, a fourth company +was established, whose efforts at first seem to have been great and +successful. They bought the forts the former companies had erected on the +west coast: instead of making up their assortments of goods for export in +Holland, as the former companies had been obliged to do, they introduced +into England the making of sundry kinds of woollen goods not previously +manufactured. They imported large quantities of gold dust, out of which +50,000 guineas were first coined in one year, 1673. Their other imports +were red wood for dyes, elephants' teeth, wax, honey, &c. The value of the +English goods exported to them averaged annually 70,000_l_. This +company was broken up at the Revolution. + +II. Though the Portuguese and Spaniards were very jealous of the +interference of any nation with their East India commerce; yet they were +comparatively easy and relaxed with regard to their American possessions. +Accordingly, we find that, in 1530, there was some little trade between +England and Brazil: this is the first notice we can trace of any commercial +intercourse between this country and the New World. The first voyage was +from Plymouth: in 1540 and 1542 the merchants of Southampton and London +also traded to Brazil. We are not informed what were the goods imported; +but most probably they were Brazil wood, sugar, and cotton. The trade +continued till 1580, when Spain, getting possession of Portugal, put a stop +to it. + +The next notice of any trading voyage to America occurs in 1593, when some +English ships sailed to the entrance of the St. Lawrence for morse and +whale fishing. This is the first mention of the latter fishery, or of whale +fins, or whale bones by the English. They could not find any whales; but on +an island they met with 800 whale fins, the remains of a cargo of a Biscay +ship which had been wrecked here. + +In 1602, the English had suspended all intercourse with America for sixteen +years, in consequence of the unsuccessful attempts of Raleigh. But, at this +time, the intercourse was renewed: a ship sailed to Virginia, the name then +given to the greater part of the east coast of North America; and a traffic +was carried on with the Indians for peltry, sassafras, cedar wood, &c. +Captain Gosnol, who commanded this vessel, was a man of considerable skill +in his profession, and he is said to have been the first Englishman who +sailed directly to North America, and not, as before, by the circuitous +course of the West Indies and the Gulf of Florida. In the subsequent year +there was some traffic carried on with the Indians of the continent, and +some of the uncolonized West India islands. + +Prior to the year 1606 several attempts had been made to colonize different +parts of the new world by the English, but they all proved abortive. In +this year, however, a permanent settlement was established near James +River, within the Chesapeake. It is not our plan to detail all the +particular settlements, or their progress to maturity; but merely to point +out the beginnings of them, as evidence of our extending commerce, and to +state such proofs as most strikingly display their improvement and the +advantages the mother country derived from them. In conformity with this +plan, we may mention that sugar plantations were first formed in Barbadoes +in 1641: this, as Mr. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, justly +observes, "greatly hastened the improvement of our other islands, which +soon afterwards followed it in planting sugar to very great advantage. And, +as it was impossible to manage the planting of that commodity by white +people in so hot a climate, so neither could sufficient numbers of such be +had at any rate. Necessity, therefore, and the example of Portugal gave +birth to the negro slave trade to the coast of Guinea and it is almost +needless to add, that such great numbers of slaves, and also the increase +of white people in those islands, soon created a vast demand for all +necessaries from England, and also a new and considerable trade to Madeira +for wines to supply those islands." The immediate consequence of the spread +of the sugar culture in our West India islands was, that the ports of +London and Bristol became the great magazines for this commodity, and +supplied all the north and middle parts of Europe; and the price of the +Portuguese-Brazil sugars was reduced from 8_l_. to 2_l_. 10_s_. per cwt. + +The rapid growth of the English colonies on the continent and in the +islands of America, during the seventeenth century, is justly ascribed by +Sir Josiah Child, to the emigration thither, occasioned by the persecution +of the Puritans by James I. and Charles I.; to the defeat of the Royalists +and Scotch by Cromwell; and, lastly, to the Restoration, and the consequent +disbanding of the army, and fears of the partizans of Cromwell. It may be +added, that most of the men who were driven to America from these causes, +were admirably fitted to form new settlements, being of industrious habits, +and accustomed to plain fare and hard work. + +The American plantations, as they were called, increased so rapidly in +commerce that, according to the last author referred to, they did, even in +the year 1670, employ nearly two-thirds of all our English shipping, "and +therefore gave constant sustenance, it may be, to 200,000 persons here at +home." At this period New England seems to have directed its chief +attention and industry to the cod and mackerel fisheries, which had +increased their ships and seamen so much as to excite the jealousy of Sir +Josiah Child, who, however, admits that what that colony took from England +amounted to ten times more than what England took from it. The Newfoundland +fishery, he says, had declined from 250 ships in 1605, to eighty in 1670: +this he ascribes to the practice of eating fish alone on fast days, not +being so strictly kept by the Catholics as formerly. From Carolina, during +the seventeenth century, England obtained vast quantities of naval stores, +staves, lumber, hemp, flax, and Indian corn. About the end of this century, +or at the very commencement of the next, the culture of rice was introduced +by the accident of a vessel from Madagascar happening to put into Carolina, +which had a little rice left; this the captain gave to a gentleman, who +sowed it. + +The colony of Virginia seems to have flourished at an earlier period than +any of the other English colonies. In the year 1618, considerable +quantities of tobacco were raised there; and it appears, by proclamations +of James I. and Charles I., that no tobacco was allowed to be imported into +England, but what came from Virginia or the Bermudas. + +The colony of Pennsylvania was not settled by Pen till the year 1680: he +found there, however, many English families, and a considerable number of +Dutch and Swedes. The wise regulations of Pen soon drew to him industrious +settlers; but the commerce in which they engaged did not become so +considerable as to demand our notice. + +III. The commercial intercourse of England with India, which has now grown +to such extent and importance, and from which has sprung the anomaly of +merchant-sovereigns over one of the richest and most populous districts of +the globe, began in the reign of Elizabeth. The English Levant Company, in +their attempts to extend their trade with the East, seem first to have +reached Hindostan, in 1584, with English merchandize. About the same time +the queen granted introductory letters to some adventurers to the king of +Cambaya; these men travelled through Bengal to Pegu and Malacca, but do not +seem to have reached China. They, however, obtained much useful information +respecting the best mode of conducting the trade to the East. + +The first English ship sailed to the East Indies in the year 1591; but the +voyage was rather a warlike than a commercial one, the object being to +attack the Portuguese; and even in this respect it was very unfortunate. A +similar enterprize, undertaken in 1593, seems, by its success, to have +contributed very materially to the commercial intercourse between England +and India; for a fleet of the queen's ships and some merchant ships having +captured a very large East India carrack belonging to the Spaniards or +Portuguese, brought her into Dartmouth: if she excited astonishment at her +size, being of the burthen of 1600 tons, with 700 men, and 36 brass cannon, +she in an equal degree stimulated and enlarged the commercial desires and +hopes of the English by her cargo. This consisted of the richest spices, +calicoes, silks, gold, pearls, drugs, China ware, ebony wood, &c., and was +valued at 150,000_l_. + +The increasing commercial spirit of the nation, which led it to look +forward to a regular intercourse with India, was gratified in the first +year of the seventeenth century, when the queen granted the first charter +to an East India Company. She seems to have been directly led to grant this +in consequence of the complaints among her subjects of the scarcity and +high price of pepper; this was occasioned by the monopoly of it being in +the power of the Turkey merchants and the Dutch, and from the circumstance +that by our war with Portugal, we could not procure any from Lisbon. The +immediate and principal object of this Company, therefore, was to obtain +pepper and other spices; accordingly their ships, on their first voyage, +sailed to Bantam, where they took in pepper, to the Banda isles; where they +took in nutmeg and mace, and to Amboyna, where they took in cloves. On this +expedition the English established a factory at Bantam. In 1610, this +Company having obtained a new charter from James I., built the largest +merchant ship that had ever been built in England, of the burthen of 1100 +tons, which with three others they sent to India. In 1612 the English +factory of Surat was established with the permission of the Great Mogul; +this was soon regarded as their chief station on the west coast of India. +Their first factory on the coast of Coromandel, which they formed a few +years afterwards, was at Masulipatam: their great object in establishing +this was to obtain more readily the cloths of Coromandel, which they found +to be the most advantageous article to exchange for pepper and other +spices. For at this time their trade with the East seems to have been +almost entirely confined to these latter commodities. In 1613, the first +English ship reached a part of the Japan territories, and a factory was +established, through which trade was carried on with the Japanese, till the +Dutch persuaded the emperor to expel all Europeans but themselves. + +The year 1614 forms an important era in the history of our commercial +intercourse with India; for Sir Thomas Roe, whom James sent ambassador to +the Mogul, and who remained several years at his court, obtained from him +important privileges for the East India Company. At this time, the +following European commodities were chiefly in repute in India; knives of +all kinds, toys, especially those of the figures of beasts, rich velvets +and satins, fowling pieces, polished ambers and beads, saddles with rich +furniture, swords with fine hilts inlaid, hats, pictures, Spanish wines, +cloth of gold and silver, French shaggs, fine Norwich stuffs, light armour, +emeralds, and other precious stones set in enamel, fine arras hangings, +large looking glasses, bows and arrows, figures in brass and stone, fine +cabinets, embroidered purses, needlework, French tweezer cases, perfumed +gloves, belts, girdles, bone lace, dogs, plumes of feathers, comb cases +richly set, prints of kings, cases of strong waters, drinking and +perspective glasses, fine basons and ewers, &c. &c. In consequence of the +privileges granted the East India Company by the Mogul, and by the Zamorine +of Calicut, their factories were now numerous, and spread over a large +extent of coast. + +If we may trust the controversial pamphlets on the East India Company which +were published in 1615, it appears that up to this year they had employed +only twenty-four ships; four of which had been lost; the largest was 1293 +tons, and the smallest 150. Their principal imports were still pepper, +cloves, mace, and nutmegs, of which 615,000 lbs. were consumed in England, +and the value of 218,000_l_. exported: the saving in the home consumption +of these articles was estimated at 70,000_l_. The other imports were +indigo, calicoes, China silks, benzoin, aloes, &c. Porcelain was first +imported this year from Bantam. The exports consisted of bays, kersies, and +broad cloths, dyed and dressed, to the value of 14,000_l_.; lead, iron, and +foreign merchandize, to the value of 10,000_l_.; and coin and bullion, to +the value of 12,000_l_.; the outfit, provisions, &c. of their ships cost +64,000_l_. + +The Dutch, who were very jealous of the successful interference of the +English in their eastern trade, attacked them in every part of India; and +though a treaty was concluded between the English and the Dutch East India +Company, yet the treachery and cruelty of the Dutch, especially at Amboyna, +and the civil wars into which England was plunged, so injured the affairs +of the English East India Company, that at the death of Charles I. its +trade was almost annihilated. One beneficial consequence, however, resulted +from the hostility of the Dutch; the English, driven from their old +factories, established new ones at Madras and in Bengal. + +Before, however, this decline of the English trade to India, we have some +curious and interesting documents relating to it particularly, and to the +effects produced on the cost of East Indian commodities in Europe +generally, by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. These are supplied by +Mr. Munn, in a treatise he published in 1621; in favour of the East India +trade. We have already given the substance of his remarks so far as they +relate to the lowering the price of Indian commodities, but as his work is +more particularly applicable to, and illustrative of the state of English +commerce with India, at this time, we shall here enter into some of his +details. + +According to them, there were six million pounds of pepper annually +consumed in Europe, which used to cost, when purchased at Aleppo, brought +over land thither from India, at the rate of two shillings per lb.; whereas +it now cost, purchased in India, only two-pence halfpenny per lb.: the +consumption of cloves was 450,000 lbs.; cost at Aleppo four shillings and +nine-pence per lb., in India nine-pence: the consumption of mace was +150,000 lbs.; cost at Aleppo the same per lb. as the cloves; in India it +was bought at eight-pence per lb.: the consumption of nutmegs was 400,000 +lbs.; the price at Aleppo, two shillings and four-pence per lb.; in India +only four-pence; the consumption of indigo was 350,000 lbs.; the price at +Aleppo four shillings and four-pence per lb.; in India one and two-pence, +and the consumption of raw silk was one million lbs., the price of which at +Aleppo was twelve shillings per lb., and in India eight shillings. It will +be remarked that this last article was purchased in India, at a rate not +nearly so much below its Aleppo price as any of the other articles; pepper, +on the other hand, was more reduced in price than any of the other +articles. The total cost of all the articles, when purchased at Aleppo, was +1,465,000 _l._; when purchased in India, 511,458 _l._; the price in the +latter market, therefore, was little more than one-third of their Aleppo +price. As, however, the voyage from India is longer than that from Aleppo, +it added, according to Mr. Munn's calculation, one-sixth to the cost of the +articles beyond that of the Turkey voyage. Even after making this addition, +Mr. Munn comes to the conclusion we have formerly stated, "that the said +wares by the Cape of Good Hope cost us but about half the price which they +will cost from Turkey." + +Mr. Munn also gives the annual importation of the principal Indian goods +into England, by the East India Company, and the price each article sold +for in England; according to this table, the quantity of pepper was +250,000 lbs., which, bought in India for twopence halfpenny, sold in +England for one shilling and eightpence:--150,000 lbs. of cloves, which +bought in India for ninepence, sold in England for six shillings:--150,000 +lbs. of nutmegs, bought for four-pence, sold for two shillings and +sixpence:--50,000 lbs. of mace, bought for eightpence, sold for six +shillings:--200,000 lbs. of indigo, bought for one shilling and twopence, +sold for five shillings:--107,140 lbs. of China raw silk, bought for seven +shillings, sold for twenty shillings:--and 50,000 pieces of calico, bought +for seven shillings a piece, sold for twenty-six shillings. + +In a third table he gives the annual consumption of the following India +goods, and the lowest prices at which they used to be sold, when procured +from Turkey or Lisbon, before England traded directly to India. There was +consumed of pepper, 400,000 lbs., which used to be sold at three shillings +and sixpence per lb.; of cloves, 40,000, at eight shillings; of mace, +20,000, at nine shillings; of nutmegs, 160,000, at four shillings and +sixpence; and of indigo, 150,000, at seven shillings. The result is, that +when England paid the lowest ancient prices, it cost her 183,500_l_. for +these commodities; whereas, at the common modern prices, it costs her only +108,333_l_. The actual saving therefore to the people of England, was not +near so great as might have been expected, or as it ought to have been, +from a comparison of the prices at Aleppo and in India. + +There are some other particulars in Mr. Munn's Treatise relating to the +European Trade to the East at this period, which we shall select. Speaking +of the exportation of bullion to India, he says that the Turks sent +annually 500,000_l_. merely for Persian raw silk; and 600,000_l_. more for +calicoes, drugs, sugar, rice, &c.: their maritime commerce was carried on +from Mocha; their inland trade from Aleppo and Constantinople. They +exported very little merchandize to Persia or India. Marseilles supplied +Turkey with a considerable part of the bullion and money which the latter +used in her trade with the East,--sending annually to Aleppo and +Alexandria, at least 500,000_l_. and little or no merchandize. Venice sent +about 400,000_l_. and a great value in wares besides. Messina about +25,000_l_., and the low countries about 50,000_l_., besides great +quantities of gold and dollars from Germany, Poland, Hungary, &c. With +these sums were purchased either native Turkish produce and manufactures, +or such goods as Turkey obtained from Persia and other parts of the East: +the principal were camblets, grograms, raw silk, cotton wool and yarn, +galls, flax, hemp, rice, hides, sheeps' wool, wax, corn, &c. England, +according to Mr. Munn, did not employ much bullion, either in her Turkey or +her India trade; in the former she exported vast quantities of broad cloth, +tin, &c. enough to purchase nearly all the wares she wanted in Turkey, +besides three hundred great bales of Persian raw silk annually. In the +course of nineteen years, viz. from their establishment in 1601 to 1620, +the East India Company had exported, in woollen cloths, tin, lead, and +other English and foreign wares, at an average of 15,383_l_. per annum, and +in the whole, 292,286_l_. During the same period they had exported +548,090_l_. in Spanish silver. The East India Company employed in 1621, +according to this author, 10,000 tons of shipping, 2500 mariners, 500 ship +carpenters, and 120 factors. The principal places to which, at this period, +we re-exported Indian goods, were Turkey, Genoa, Marseilles, the +Netherlands, &c.; the re-exportations were calculated to employ 2000 more +tons of shipping, and 500 more mariners. + +From a proclamation issued in 1631, against clandestine trade to and from +India, we learn the different articles which might be legally exported and +imported: the first were the following: perpalicanos and drapery, pewter, +saffron, woollen stockings, silk stockings and garters, ribband, roses +edged with silver lace, beaver hats with gold and silver bands, felt hats, +strong waters, knives, Spanish leather shoes, iron, and looking glasses. +There might be imported, long pepper, white pepper, white powder sugar, +preserved nutmegs and ginger preserved, merabolans, bezoar stones, drugs of +all sorts, agate heads, blood stones, musk, aloes socratrina, ambergris, +rich carpets of Persia and of Cambaya, quilts of satin taffety, painted +calicoes, Benjamin, damasks, satins and taffeties of China, quilts of China +embroidered with silk, galls, sugar candy, China dishes, and porcelain of +all sorts. + +Though several articles of Chinese manufacture are specified in the +proclamation, yet we have no notice of any direct trade to China till +nearly fifty years after this time, viz. in the year 1680. In this year the +East India Company sent out eleven ships, including two to China and the +Moluccas; their general burden was between 500 and 600 tons: in these ships +there was a stock of nearly 500,000_l_. Besides the articles imported +from India enumerated in the proclamation of 1631, there now appear +cowries, saltpetre, muslins, diamonds, &c. + +In 1689 the East India Company published a state of their trade, from which +it appeared that in the last seven years they had built sixteen ships from +900 to 1300 tons each,--that they had coming from India eleven ships and +four permission ships, the value of their cargoes being above 360,000_l_.: +that they had on their outward voyage to Coast and Bay, seven ships and six +permission ships, their cargoes valued at 570,000_l_.: that they had seven +ships for China and the South Seas, whose cargoes amounted to 100,000_l_. +That they had goods in India unsold, to the amount of 700,000_l_. About +this period, Sir John Child, being what would now be called governor +general of India, and his brother, Sir Jonah, leading member of the Court +of Committees, the policy was introduced through their means, on which the +sovereign power, as well as the immense empire of the East India Company +was founded; this policy consisted of the enlargement of the authority of +the Company over British subjects in India, and in attaining political +strength and dominion, by retaliating by force of arms, on those Indian +princes who oppressed their settlements. + +In the year 1698, in consequence of complaints against the East India +Company, and their inability to make any dividend, they thought it +necessary to give in a statement of their property in India. In this they +asserted that they had acquired, solely at their own expence, revenues at +Fort St. George, Fort St. David, and Bombay, as well as in Persia, and +elsewhere, to the amount of 44,000_l_. per annum, arising from customs +and licenses, besides a large extent of land in these places; they had also +erected forts and settlements in Sumatra, and on the coast of Malabar, +which were absolutely necessary to carry on the pepper trade; they had a +strongfort in Bengal, and many factories, settlements, &c. in other places. +The result of the complaints against the Company was, that a new company +was established this year; the two companies, however, united in the +beginning of the eighteenth century. + +We shall conclude our account of the state of English commerce during the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with some more general and +miscellaneous topics. + +I. Exports. In the year 1534, the total value of our exports did not exceed +900,000_l_. of the present value of our money: the balance of trade was +estimated at 700,000_l_.: this arose principally from the very great +exportation of woollen goods, tin, leather, &c., on which an export duty +was laid, bringing in 246,000_l_.; whereas, the duty on imports did not +produce more than 1700_l_. In the year 1612, according to Missenden, in his +Circle of Commerce, the exports to all the world amounted to 2,090,640_l_., +and the imports to 2,141,151_l_.; on the latter, however, the custom duties +are charged; the custom duties on the exports were 86,794_l_.; the impost +paid outwards on woollen goods, tin, lead, pewter, &c. 10,000_l_.; and the +merchants' gains, freight, and other charges, to 300,000_l_.:--if these be +added to the value of the exports, the total amount will be 2,487,435_l_,-- +from which the imports, including custom duty on them, being deducted, +leaves 346,283_l_.,--which Missenden regards as the balance gained that +year by the nation. The principal articles of export have been enumerated: +the principal articles of import were silks, Venice gold and silver stuffs, +Spanish wines, linen, &c. At this time, London paid nearly three times as +much for custom duties as all the rest of England together. In the year +1662, according to D'Avenant, the inspector general of the customs, our +imports amounted to 4,016,019_l_., and our exports only to 2,022,812_l_.; +the balance against the nation being nearly two millions. In the last year +of the seventeenth century, according to the same official authority, there +was exported to England from all parts, 6,788,166_l_.: of this sum, our +woollen manufactures were to the value of 2,932,292_l_.; so that there was +an increase of our exports since 1662, of 4,765,534_l_. The yearly average +of all the merchandize imported from, and exported to the north of Europe, +from Michaelmas, 1697, to Christmas, 1701, is exhibited in the following +table: + +Annual Countries. Imported from. Exported to. Loss + +Denmark and Sweden 76,215_l_ 39,543_l. 36,672_l_. +East Country 181,296 149,893 31,403 +Russia 112,252 58,884 53,568 +Sweden 212,094 57,555 154,539 + --------- +Total annual average loss 275,982_l_. + +II. Ships. In the year 1530, the ship which first sailed on a trading +voyage to Guinea, and thence to the Brazils, was regarded as remarkably +large; her burden amounted to 250 tons. And in Wheeler's Treatise of +Commerce, published in 1601, we are informed, that about 60 years before he +wrote (which would be about 1541), there were not above four ships (besides +those of the royal navy) that were above 120 tons each, in the river +Thames; and we learn from Monson, in his Naval Tracts, that about 20 years +later, most of our ships of burden were purchased from the east countrymen, +or inhabitants of the south shores of the Baltic, who likewise carried on +the greatest trade of our merchants in their own vessels. He adds, to bid +adieu to that trade and those ships, the Jesus of Lubec. a vessel then +esteemed of great burden and strength, was the last ship bought by the +queen. In 1582, there were 135 merchant vessels in England, many of them of +500 tons each: and in the beginning of King James's reign, there were 400, +but these were not so large, not above four of these being of 400 tons. In +1615, it appears, that the East India Company, from the beginning of their +charter, had employed only 24 ships, four of which had been lost. The +largest was 1293 tons; one 1100, one 1060, one 900, one 800, and the +remainder from 600 to 150. In the same year, 20 ships sailed to Naples, +Genoa, Leghorn, and other parts of the Mediterranean, chiefly laden with +herrings; and 30 from Ireland, to the same ports, laden with pipe staves: +to Portugal and Amsterdam, 20 ships for wines, sugar, fruit, and West India +drugs: to Bourdeaux, 60 ships for wines: to Hamburgh and Middleburgh, 35 +ships: to Dantzic, Koningsberg, 30 ships: to Norway 5;--while the Dutch +sent above 40 large ships. The Newcastle coal trade employed 400 sail;--200 +for London, and 200 for the rest of England. It appears, that at this time +many foreign ships resorted to Newcastle for coals: whole fleets of 50 sail +together from France, besides many from Bremen, Holland, &c. The Greenland +fishery employed 14 ships. + +The following calculation of the shipping of Europe in 1690, is given by +Sir William Petty. England, 500,000 tons; the United Provinces, 900,000; +France, 100,000; Hamburgh, Denmark, Sweden, Dantzic, 250,000; Spain, +Portugal, Italy, 250,000: total 2,000,000. But that this calculation is +exceeding loose, so far as regards England at least, is evident from the +returns made to circular letters of the commissioners of customs: according +to these returns, there belonged to all the ports of England, in January +1701-2., 3281 vessels, measuring 261,222 tons, and carrying 27,196 men, and +5660 guns. As we wish to be minute and enter into detail, while our +commerce and shipping were yet in their infancy, in order to mark more +decidedly its progress, we shall subjoin the particulars of this return. + +Ports. Vessels. Tons. Men. + +London 560 84,882 10,065 +Bristol 165 17,338 2,359 +Yarmouth 143 9,914 668 +Exeter 121 7,107 978 +Hull 115 7,564 187 +Whitby 110 8,292 571 +Liverpool 102 8,619 1,101 +Scarborough 100 6,860 606 + +None of the other ports had 100 vessels: Newcastle had sixty-three, +measuring 11,000 tons; and Ipswich thirty-nine, measuring 11,170; but there +certainly is some mistake in these two instances, either in the number of +the ships, or the tonnage. The small number of men employed at Hull arose +from eighty of their ships being at that time laid up. + +III. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the great rivals of +the English in their commerce were the Dutch: they had preceded the English +to most countries; and, even where the latter had preceded them, they soon +insinuated themselves and became formidable rivals: this was the case +particularly with respect to the trade to Archangel. Some curious and +interesting particulars of this rivalry are given by Sir Walter Raleigh, in +his Observations concerning the Trade and Commerce of England with the +Dutch and other foreign Nations, which he had laid before King James. In +this work he maintains that the Dutch have the advantage over the English +by reason of the privileges they gave to foreigners, by making their +country the storehouse of all foreign commodities; by the lowness of their +customs; by the structure of their ships, which hold more, and require +fewer hands than the English; and by their fishery. He contends that +England is better situated for a general storehouse for the rest of Europe +than Holland: yet no sooner does a dearth of corn, wine, fish, &c. happen +in England, than forthwith the Hollanders, Embedners, or Humburghers, load +50 or 100 ships, and bring their articles to England. Amsterdam, he +observes, is never without 700,000 quarters of corn, none of it the growth +of Holland; and a dearth of only one year in any other part of Europe +enriches Holland for seven years. In the course of a year and a half, +during a scarcity in England, there was carried away from the ports of +Southampton, Bristol, and Exeter alone, nearly 200,000_l_.: and if London +and the rest of England were included, there must have been 2,000,000 more. +The Dutch, he adds, have a regular trade to England with 500 or 600 vessels +annually, whereas we trade, not with fifty to their country. After entering +into details respecting the Dutch fishery, by means of which, he says, they +sell herrings annually to the value of upwards of one million and a half +sterling, whereas England scarcely any, he reverts to the other branches of +Dutch commerce, as compared with ours. The great stores of wines and salt, +brought from France and Spain, are in the Low Countries: they send nearly +1,000 ships yearly with these commodities into the east countries alone; +whereas we send not one ship. The native country of timber for ships, &c. +is within the Baltic; but the storehouse for it is in Holland; they have +500 or 600 large ships employed in exporting it to England and other parts: +we not one. The Dutch even interfere with our own commodities; for our wool +and woollen cloth, which goes out rough, undressed, and undyed, they +manufacture and serve themselves and other nations with it. We send into +the east countries yearly but 100 ships, and our trade chiefly depends upon +three towns, Elbing, Koningsberg, and Dantzic; but the Low Countries send +thither about 3,000 ships: they send into France, Spain, Portugal, and +Italy, about 2,000 ships yearly with those east country commodities, and +we, none in that course. They trade into all cities and port towns of +France, and we chiefly to five or six. + +The Low Countries have as many ships and vessels as eleven kingdoms of +Christendom have; let England be one. For seventy years together, we had a +great trade to Russia (Narva), and even about fourteen years ago, we sent +stores of goodly ships thither; but three years past we sent out four +thither, and last year but two or three ships; whereas the Hollanders are +now increased to about thirty or forty ships, each as large as two of ours, +chiefly laden with English cloth, herrings, taken in our seas, English +lead, and pewter made of our tin. He adds, that a great loss is suffered by +the kingdom from the undressed and undyed cloths being sent out of the +kingdom, to the amount of 80,000 pieces annually; and that there had been +annually exported, during the last fifty-three years, in baizes, northern +and Devonshire kersies, all white, about 50,000 cloths, counting three +kersies to one cloth. + +Although there is undoubtedly much exaggeration in the comparative +statement of the Dutch and English commerce and shipping in the details, +yet it is a curious and interesting document, as exhibiting a general view +of them. Indeed, through the whole of the seventeenth century, the most +celebrated and best informed writers on the commerce of England dwell +strongly on the superior trade of the Dutch, and on their being able, by +the superior advantages they enjoyed from greater capital, industry, and +perseverance, aided by the greater encouragement they gave to foreigners as +well as their own people, to supply the greatest part of Europe with all +their wants, though their own country was small and unfertile. A similar +comparative statement to that of Raleigh is given by Child in 1655; he +asserts that in the preceding year the Dutch had twenty-two sail of great +ships in the Russia trade,--England but one: that in the Greenland whale +fishery, Holland and Hamburgh had annually 400 or 500 sail,--and England +but one last year: that the Dutch have a great trade for salt to France and +Portugal, with which they salt fish caught on our coasts; that in the +Baltic trade, the English have fallen off, and the Dutch increased tenfold. +England has no share in the trade to China and Japan: the Dutch a great +trade to both countries. A great part of the plate trade from Cadiz has +passed from England to Holland. They have even bereaved us of the trade to +Scotland and Ireland. He concludes with pointing out some advantages +England possesses over Holland: In the Turkey, Italian, Spanish, and +Portuguese trades, we have the natural advantage of our wool:--our +provisions and fuel, in country places, are cheaper than with the +Dutch;--our native commodities of lead and tin are great advantages:--of +these, he says, as well as of our manufactures, we ship off one-third more +than we did twenty years ago; and he adds, that we have now more than +double the number of merchants and shipping that we had twenty years ago. +He mentions a circumstance, which seems to indicate a retrograde motion of +commerce, viz., that when he wrote most payments were in ready money; +whereas, formerly, there were credit payments at three, six, nine, twelve, +and even eighteen months. From another part of his work, it appears that +the tax-money was brought up in waggons from the country. + +The gradual advancement of a nation in knowledge and civilization, which is +in part the result of commerce, is also in part the cause of it. But +besides this advancement, in which England participated with the rest of +Europe, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there were other +circumstances peculiar to this country, some of which were favourable, and +others unfavourable to the increase of its commerce. + +Among the favourable circumstances may be reckoned the taking away of the +exclusive privileges of the steelyard merchants by Edward VI., by which +native merchants were encouraged, private companies of them formed, and the +benefits of commerce more extensively diffused:--the encouragement given by +Elizabeth, particularly by her minister Cecil, to commerce; this was so +great and well directed, that the customs which had been farmed, at the +beginning of the reign, for 14,000_l_. a year, towards its close were +fanned for 50,000_l_.;--the pacific character of James I., and the +consequent tranquillity enjoyed by England during his reign;--the strong +and general stimulus which was given to individual industry, by the feeling +of their own importance, which the struggle between Charles I. and the +Parliament naturally infused into the great mass of the people;--the +increased skill in maritime affairs, which was produced by our naval +victories under Cromwell;--the great vigour of his government in his +relations with foreign powers; and the passing of the navigation act. The +Restoration, bringing a great fondness for luxury and expence, naturally +produced also exertions to gratify that fondness. If to these and other +causes of a similar nature, we add the introduction of East India +commodities direct to England, and the import trade to the West Indies and +America, the emigration of the industrious Flemings during the Spanish wars +in the Low Countries, and of the French after the revocation of the edict +of Nantz, we shall have specified most of the efficient circumstances, +which, in conjunction with the progress of mankind in industry and +civilization, were beneficial to our commerce. + +The causes and circumstances which were unfavourable to it during the same +period are much fewer in number; and though some of them were powerful, +yet, even these, for the most part, when they ceased to operate, gave birth +to a reaction favourable to commerce. The more general causes may be sought +for in the erroneous notions entertained respecting commerce, in +consequence of which monopolies were granted, especially in the reign of +James I.; and laws were made to regulate what would have gone on best, if +it had been left to itself. The civil wars, and the emigration occasioned +by them, and the religious persecutions in the time of Mary, Elizabeth, and +Charles, may be regarded as the most remarkable particular causes and +circumstances, which were injurious to commerce. + +We must again lay down the position, that in what respects the improvement +of a country in industry and wealth, whether agricultural manufacturing, or +commercial, the same circumstances may often be viewed in the light both of +effect and cause. This position will be clearly illustrated by a very +common and plain case. The trade in a certain district improves, and of +course requires more easy and expeditious communication among different +parts of this district: the roads are consequently made better, and the +waggons, &c. are built on a better construction; these are the effects of +an improved trade: but it is plain that as by the communication being thus +rendered quicker, the commodities interchanged can be sold cheaper, a +greater quantity of them will be sold; and thus better roads, which in the +first instance proceeded from an improvement in trade, will, when made, +improve the trade still more. + +We have introduced these observations as preparatory to our notice of the +establishment of the Bank of England. This undoubtedly was the effect of +our increased commercial habits, but it was as undoubtedly the cause of +those habits becoming stronger and more general: it supposed the +pre-existence of a certain degree of commercial confidence and credit, but +it increased these in a much greater ratio than they existed before: and if +England owes its very superior wealth to any other causes besides its free +government, its superior industry, and improvements in machinery, those +causes must be sought for in the very extensive diffusion of commercial +confidence and credit. The funding system, which took place about the same, +time that the Bank of England was established, may be regarded as another +powerful cause of the increase of our commerce: we do not mean to contend +that the national debt is a national blessing, but it is certain that the +necessity of paying the interest of that debt produced exertions of +industry, and improvements in manufactures, which would not otherwise, have +been called forth; while, on the other hand, the funds absorbed all the +superfluous capital, which, otherwise, as in Holland, must have had a bad +effect on commerce, either by reducing its profits very low, or by being +transferred to other countries; and the interest, which so many individuals +felt in the stability of the funds, induced them most steadily and strongly +to support government. + +The commerce of Scotland and Ireland during the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, supplies us with very few materials. In the year 1544, Scotland +must have had no inconsiderable foreign trade, as in the war which took +place at this time between that country and England, twenty-eight of the +principal ships of Scotland, laden with all kinds of rich merchandize, were +captured by the English, on their voyage from France, Flanders, Denmark, +&c.; and in the same year, when the English took Leith, they found more +riches in it than they had reason to expect. While Scotland and England +were at peace, however, the former was principally supplied through the +latter with the commodities which Antwerp, during the sixteenth century, +dispersed over all Europe. The exports of Scotland to Antwerp, &c. were +indeed direct, and consisted principally, as we have already remarked from +Guicciardini, of peltry, leather, wool, indifferent cloth, and pearls. + +The earliest account which occurs of the Scotch carrying on commerce to any +port out of Europe, is in the year 1589, when three or four Scotch ships +were found at the Azores by the earl of Cumberland. In the year 1598, it +appears, from a letter of king James to Queen Elizabeth, that some Scotch +merchants traded to the Canaries. There is evidence that the Scotch had +some commerce in the Mediterranean in the beginning of the seventeenth +century; for in the "Cabala," under the year 1624, the confiscation of +three Scotch ships at Malaga is noticed, for importing Dutch commodities. +The principal articles of export from Scotland to foreign countries +consisted of coarse woollen stuffs and stockings, linen goods, peltry, +leather, wool, pearls, &c. The principal imports were wine and fruits from +France, wine from Spain and Portugal, the finer woollen goods from England, +timber, iron, &c. from the Baltic, and sugars, spices, silks, &c. from +Antwerp, Portugal, &c. + +The following statement, with which we shall conclude our account of Scotch +commerce, is interesting, as exhibiting a view of the commercial +intercourse by sea between England and Scotland, from the commencement of +the inspector general's accounts in 1697, to the Union in 1707. + +England received from Scotland Scotland received from England +Merchandize to the value of merchandize to the value of + +1697. £91,302 £73,203 +1698. 124,835 58,043 +1699. 86,309 66,303 +1700. 130,087 85,194 +1701. 73,988 56,802 +1702. 71,428 58,688 +1703. 76,448 57,338 +1704. 54,379 87,536 +1705. 57,902 50,035 +1706. 50,309 60,313 +1707. 6,733 17,779 + +The earliest notices of Irish trade, to which we have already adverted, +particularly mention linen and woollen cloth, as two of the most +considerable articles of export from that country. Hides, wool, fish of +different kinds, particularly salmon, and the skins of martins, otters, +rabbits, sheep, kids, &c. are also specified, as forming part of her early +export. From Antwerp in the middle of the sixteenth century she received +spices, sugar, silks, madder, camblets, &c. Pipe staves were a considerable +article of export in the beginning of the seventeenth century; they were +principally sent to the Mediterranean. In 1627 Charles issued a +proclamation respecting Ireland, from which we learn that the principal +foreign trade of Ireland was to Spain and Portugal, and consisted in fish, +butter, skins, wool, rugs, blankets, wax, cattle, and horses; pipe staves, +and corn; timber fit for ship-building, as well as pipe staves, seem at +this period to have formed most extensive and valuable articles of export +from Ireland. In the middle of this century, Irish linen yarn was used in +considerable quantities in the Manchester manufactures, as we have already +noticed. The importation into England of fat cattle from Ireland seems to +have been considerable, and to have been regarded as so prejudicial to the +pasture farmers of the former country, that in 1666 a law was passed laying +a heavy duty on their importation. This statute proving ineffectual, +another was passed in 1663, enacting the forfeiture of all great cattle, +sheep, swine, and also beef, pork, or bacon, imported from Ireland. Sir W. +Petty remarks, that before this law was passed, three-fourths of the trade +of Ireland was with England, but not one-fourth of it since that time. Sir +Jonah Child, in his Discourse on Trade, describes the state of Ireland as +having been much improved by the soldiers of the Commonwealth settling +there; through their own industry, and that which they infused into the +natives, he adds, that Ireland was able to supply foreign markets, as well +as our plantations in America, with beef, pork, hides, tallow, bread, beer, +wood, and corn, at a cheaper rate than England could afford to do. Though +this country, as we have seen, exported linen goods at a very early period, +yet this manufacture cannot be regarded as the staple one of Ireland, or as +having contributed very much to her foreign commerce, till it flourished +among the Scotch colonists in Ulster towards the middle of the seventeenth +century. As soon as they entered on it with spirit, linen yarn was no +longer exported to Manchester and other parts of England, but manufactured +into cloth in Ireland, and in that state it formed the chief article of its +commerce. The woollen manufactures of Ireland, which were always viewed +with jealousy by England, and were checked in every possible manner, +gradually gave way to the restraints laid on them, and to the rising and +unchecked linen manufacture, and of course ceased to enter into the +exports. + +The commerce of Scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was +kept low, by ignorance and want of industry, by the disturbed state of the +country, by disputes between the king and nobility, and, till the union of +the crowns, by wars with England. The commerce of Ireland had still greater +difficulties to struggle with; among which may be mentioned the ignorant +oppression of the English government in every thing that related to its +manufactures or trade. + +The commerce of France, during the sixteenth century, presents few +particulars worthy of notice; that, which was carried on between it and +England, was principally confined to the exportation of wines, fruit, silk +and linen, from France; and woollen goods, and tin and lead, from England. +There seems to have been a great exchange between the woollens of England +and the linens of Bretagne. The French, however, like all the other nations +of Europe at this period, were ignorant of the principles, as well as +destitute of the enterprize and capital essential to steady and lucrative +commerce; and amply deserve the character given of them by Voltaire, that +in the reign of Francis I., though possessed of harbours both on the ocean +and Mediterranean, they were yet without a navy; and though immersed in +luxury, they had only a few coarse manufactures. The Jews, Genoese, +Venetians, Portuguese, Flemings, Dutch, and English, traded successively +for them. At the very close of this century we have a very summary account +of the commerce of France by Giovani Bolero. France, says he, possesses +four magnets, which attract the wealth of other countries;--corn, which is +exported to Spain and Portugal;--wine, which is sent to Flanders, England, +and the Baltic;--salt, made by the heat of the sun on the Mediterranean +coast, and also on that of the ocean, as far north as Saintoigne; and hemp +and cloth, of which and of cordage great quantities are exported to Lisbon +and Seville:--the exportation of the articles of this fourth class, he +adds, is incredibly great. + +In the middle of the seventeenth century, the finer manufactures of woollen +and silken goods having been carried to great perfection in France, her +exports in these articles were greatly increased. In the political +testament of Richelieu, we are informed that a considerable and lucrative +trade in these articles was carried on with Turkey, Spain, Italy, &c., and +that France had driven, in a great measure, out of those markets the serges +of Milan, the velvets of Genoa, and the cloth of gold of Italy. + +Early in the reign of Louis XIV., Colbert directed his attention to the +improvement of manufactures and commerce; and though many of his plans were +frustrated from the operation of causes over which he had no control, and +principally because he went before the age in which he lived, yet there can +be no doubt that to him France was indebted for the consolidation, +extension, and firm footing of her commerce. Immediately before the +revocation of the edict of Nantes, her commerce was at its greatest +heighth, as the following estimates of that she carried on with England and +Holland will prove. To the former country the exportation of manufactured +silks of all sorts is said to have been to the value of 600,000_l_.;--of +linen, sail-cloth, and canvass, about 700,000_l_.;--in beaver hats, +watches, clocks, and glass, about 220,000_l_.;--in paper, about +90,000_l_.;--in iron ware, the manufacture of Auvergne, chiefly, about +40,000_l_.;--in shalloons, tammies, &c. from Picardy and Champagne, about +150,000_l_.;--in wines, about 200,000_l_.; and brandies, about 80,000_l_. +The exports to Holland, shortly before the revocation of the edict of +Nantes, in silks, velvets, linen, and paper, are estimated at 600,000_l_.; +--in hats, about 200,000_l_.;--in glass, clocks, watches, and household +furniture, about 160,000_l_.;--in small articles, such as fringes, gloves, +&c., about 200,000_l_.;--in linen, canvass, and sail cloth, about +160,000_l_.; and in saffron, dye-wood, woollen yarn, &c., about 300,000_l_. + +In the year 1700 a council of commerce was constituted in France, +consisting of the principal ministers of state and finance, and of twelve +of the principal merchants of the kingdom, chosen annually from Paris, +Rouen, Bourdeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, Rochelle, Nantes, St. Maloe, Lisle, +Bayonne, and Dunkirk. + +From the first report of this board, we gain some information of the state +of French commerce at this time; according to it, the French employed in +their West India and Guinea trade only 100 vessels, whereas the English +employed 500. The principal articles they drew from these islands were +sugar, indigo, cotton, cocoa, ginger, &c. The exclusive trades formed in +1661, when France was little versed in commerce and navigation, are +deprecated: the chief of them were, that granted to Marseilles for the sole +trade to the Levant;--the East India Company;--the prohibiting foreign raw +silk to be carried to Paris, Nismes, Tours, &c., till it had passed through +Lyons;--the Canada and Guinea Companies, besides various farms or +monopolies of certain merchandize in trade: the principal of these last was +lead from England, with which, made into shot, the persons who had the +monopoly supplied not only France, but, through France, Spain, Portugal, +Switzerland, the Levant, and the French West Indies. + +The report contains some information respecting the comparative commerce of +France, and the other nations of Europe. The Spaniards, it is observed, +though they possess within their own country wool, silk, oil, wine, &c., +and are in no want of good ports, both on the ocean and Mediterranean, +nevertheless neglect all these advantages. Hence it happens that the raw +silk of Valencia, Murcia, and Grenada, is exported to France: the wool of +Castile, Arragon, Navarre, and Leon, to England, Holland, France, and +Italy; and these raw articles, when manufactured, are sent back to Spain, +and exchanged for the gold and silver of the American mines. France also +supplies Peru and Mexico, through Spain, receiving in return, cochineal, +indigo, hides, &c., besides a balance of eighteen or twenty million of +livres, and by the flotas, seven or eight million more. The report adds, on +this head, that latterly the English and Dutch have interfered with some +branches of this trade with Spain; and it also complains that the former +nation carry on the Levant trade to much more advantage than the French, +their woollen cloths being better and cheaper. The English also carry to +the Levant, lead, pewter, copperas, and logwood, together with a great deal +of pepper;--with these, and the money received on the coasts of Portugal, +Spain and Italy, for the dry fish and sugar they sell there on their +outward voyage, they purchase their homeward cargoes. This superiority of +England over France in the Levant trade, is ascribed in the report to the +monopoly enjoyed by Marseilles. + +The report, in relation to the commerce of France with the northern nations +of Europe, observes, that it appears from the custom books, that the Dutch +had possession of almost the whole of it. The Dutch also are accused of +having, in a great measure, made themselves masters of the inland trade of +France. In order to secure to this latter country the direct trade with the +north of Europe, certain plans are suggested in the report; all of which +were objected to by the deputies from Nantes, principally, it would seem, +on the ground, that the Dutch trade to the Baltic was so well settled, that +it governed the prices of all the exports and imports there, and that the +Dutch gave higher prices for French goods than could be obtained in the +Baltic for them, while, on the other hand, they sold at Amsterdam Baltic +produce cheaper than it could be bought in the Baltic. One objection to a +direct trade between France and the Baltic affords a curious and +instructive proof of the imperfect state of navigation at this time, that +is, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The deputy from Marseilles +urged that the voyage from Dantzic, or even from Copenhagen to Marseilles, +was too long for a ship to go and come with certainty in one season, +considering the ice and the long nights; and that therefore, there is no +avoiding the use of entrepots for the trade of Marseilles. Mr. Anderson, in +his History of Commerce, very justly observes, "that the dread of a long +voyage from the north to the south parts of Europe, contributed, in a great +measure, to make Antwerp, in former times, the general magazine of Europe." + +The decline of the commerce of the Italian states, in consequence of the +discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, has been already mentioned; their +efforts however to preserve it were vigorous, and we can trace, even in the +middle of the sixteenth century, some Indian commerce passing through +Venice. Indeed in the year 1518, Guicciardini informs us that there arrived +at Antwerp, five Venetian ships laden with the spices and drugs of the +East: and 1565, when the English Russia Company sent their agents into +Persia, they found that the Venetians carried on a considerable trade +there; they seem to have travelled from Aleppo, and to have brought with +them woollen cloths, &c. which they exchanged for raw silks, spices, drugs, +&c. The agents remarked, that much Venetian cloth was worn in Persia: in +1581, Sir William Monson complains that the Venetians engrossed the trade +between Turkey and Persia, for Persian and Indian merchandize. In 1591, +when the English Levant Company endeavoured to establish a trade over land +to India, and for that purpose carried some of their goods from Aleppo to +Bagdat, and thence down the Tigris to Ormus and to Goa, they found that the +Venetians had factories in all these places, and carried on an extensive +and lucrative trade. It is difficult to perceive how Indian commodities +brought by land to Europe, could compete with those which the Portuguese +brought by sea. The larger capital, more numerous connexions, greater +credit, and skill of the Venetians, must however have been much in their +favour in this competition. + +We have noticed that, even so late as the beginning of the eighteenth +century, a voyage from Marseilles to the Baltic and back again, was thought +by French navigators an impracticable undertaking in the course of one +year; and yet a century earlier, viz. in 1699, Venice sent at least one +ship annually for Archangel: the first instance we believe of a direct +commercial intercourse between the northern and southern extreme seas of +Europe. + +We must turn to the northern nations of Europe, Sweden, Denmark and Russia, +and glean what few important materials we can respecting their commerce +during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. We have already seen that +the commerce of the Scandinavian nations of the middle ages was by no means +despicable, though it was chiefly confined to Britain and Iceland, and +among themselves: the establishment of the Hanseatic League, some of the +cities composing which lay in the Baltic, gradually made the Scandinavian +nations better known, and by creating a demand for their produce, +stimulated them to industry and commerce. In a poor country, however, with +a sterile soil and ungenial climate; where winter prevented intercourse by +sea, for several months every year, capital must increase very slowly, and +commerce, reciprocally the cause and effect of capital, equally slow. +Besides the piratical habits of the early Scandinavians, were adverse to +trade; and these habits shed their influence even after they were +discontinued. But though the Scandinavian nations were long in entering +into any commercial transactions of importance, yet they contributed +indirectly to its advancement by the improvements they made in +ship-building, as well as by the ample materials for this purpose which +their country supplied. Their ships indeed were constructed for warfare, +but improvements in this description of ships naturally, and almost +unavoidably, led to improvements in vessels designed for trade. In 1449, a +considerable commerce was carried on between Bristol, and Iceland, and +Finmark, in vessels of 400, 500, and even 900 tons burden, all of which, +there is reason to believe, were built in the Baltic; and, about six years +afterwards, the king of Sweden was the owner of a ship of nearly 1000 tons +burden, which he sent to England, with a request that she might be +permitted to trade. + +Gustavus I. who reigned about the beginning of the sixteenth century, seems +to have been the first Swedish king who directed the attention and industry +of his subjects to manufactures and commerce; but, in the early part of his +reign, the inhabitants of Lubec had the monopoly of the foreign trade of +Stockholm. This sovereign, in 1540, entered into a commercial treaty with +Francis I., King of France; the principal article of which was, that the +Swedes should import their wine, salt, &c. directly from France, instead of +obtaining them indirectly from the Dutch. The conquest of Revel by Sweden, +and the consequent footing obtained in Livonia, in 1560, greatly increased +its commerce and wealth; while important improvements were introduced into +its manufactures of iron a few years afterwards by the Flemings, who fled +there on the destruction of Antwerp. Prior to their arrival, most of the +Swedish iron was forged in Dantzic and Prussia; but they not only taught +the Swedes how to forge it, but also how to make iron cannon, and other +iron, copper, and brass articles. The Swedes had from an early period, been +sensible of the real riches of their territory, and how much their timber, +iron, pitch, and tar, were converted for maritime and other purposes. The +pitch and tar manufacture especially had long constituted a very +considerable part of their commerce. In 1647, Queen Christiana very +unwisely granted a monopoly of these articles, which was productive of the +usual effects, injury to commerce, without a correspondent benefit to those +who held it. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the tar company in +Sweden not only put a very high price on their goods, but refused to sell +them, even for ready money, unless they were exported in Swedish vessels. +In consequence of this, England began at this period to encourage the +importation of tar, pitch, hemp, and naval timber, from her American +colonies. + +The commerce of Denmark, besides its common origin with that of the rest of +Scandinavia, seems, in the middle ages, to have been chiefly nourished by +two circumstances:--The trade which Iceland carried on, and the +establishment of Bergen, first as the staple of the German merchants, and +afterwards as the chief factory of the Hanse merchants. In 1429, it was +also established by the king of Denmark, as the sole staple for the fish +trade. In 1553, its trade began to decline, in consequence, it is said, of +its being deserted by the Hanseatics. The historian of the Hanseatic League +adds, that "whereas the ancient toll of the Sound had been only a golden +rose-noble on every sail, which was always understood to be meant on every +ship; the court of Denmark had for some time past put a new and arbitrary +construction on the word sail, by obliging all ships to pay a rose-noble +for every sail on, or belonging to each ship". In consequence of this, the +Vandalic-Hanse Towns, or those on the south shores of the Baltic, deserted +the Bergen trade. + +The same sovereign, however, who increased the tolls of the Sound, +counterpoised the bad effects of this measure, by the encouragement he gave +to manufactures and commerce; in this he was seconded by the Danish gentry, +who began to carry on merchandize and factorage themselves, and also +established manufactories. Copenhagen at this time was the staple for all +Danish merchandize, especially corn, butter, fish, &c. + +The commercial history of this country, towards the close of the sixteenth +century, is remarkable for having given rise to the earliest dispute, of +which we have any notice, respecting, the carrying of naval stores, of +contraband of war, in neutral bottoms, to any enemy. It seems that the +English merchants endeavoured to evade the custom duties in the Danish +ports, particularly on their skins, woollen goods, and tin; on which they +were siezed. On a remonstrance however from Elizabeth, they were restored, +when the king of Denmark, on his part, complained that the English +committed piracies on his subjects; for now, says Camden, there began to +grow controversies about such matters, that is, the carrying naval stores, +&c. to the Spaniards. + +The commercial history of Denmark, during the period to which we are at +present confined, presents no other circumstance sufficiently striking or +interesting to detain us; for the establishments of this country in the +East Indies are too trifling to deserve or require notice in a work whose +limits and objects equally confine it to those points which are of primary +importance. + +The locality of Russia, cut off from the sea till a comparatively late +period, except the almost inaccessible sea on which Archangel stands; the +ignorance and barbarism of its inhabitants, and its wars with the Tartars, +necessarily prevented and incapacitated this immense empire from engaging +in any commercial intercourse with the rest of Europe till the beginning of +the sixteenth century, when it became independent, and began to be +powerful. Novogorod, indeed, which was in fact a republic under the +jurisdiction of a nominal sovereign, enjoyed in the fifteenth century, a +great trade, being then the mart between Russia and the Hanseatic cities. +On its conquest by the Russians in the beginning of the next century, the +Hanseatic merchants deserted it, though it continued for a considerable +period afterward the largest and most commercial city in Russia. In 1509, +Basilicus IV. conquered the city and territory of Pleskow and Smolensko, +and consolidated the Russian empire, by reducing all the petty +principalities into which it had been previously divided. Pleskow, situated +near the head of the lake Czudskoc, soon became a celebrated emporium, and +before the end of this century was frequented by merchants from Persia, +Tartary, Sarmatia, Livonia, Germany, Britain, and other countries. + +The accidental discovery of the White Sea by the English, in 1553, has been +already narrated: this led to the first intercourse by sea between Russia +and the rest of Europe, for previously, whatever of their produce was +exported, was carried in Livonian ships. In the following year, the +facilities of Russia with Asia were encreased by the conquest of the city +and kingdom of Astracan: by this conquest the entire navigation of the +Wolga became theirs, and by crossing the Caspian, they carried their +commercial transactions into Persia. The spirit of conquest was now alive +among them, and exerting itself both to the east and west; for in 1558 they +conquered Narva, in Livonia, and by means of it formed a communication with +the rest of Europe by the Baltic sea. To this city the Hanseatic merchants +removed their mart from Revel. The conquest of Samoieda and Siberia near +the close of the sixteenth century, contributed to encrease the exportable +commodities of Russia by their furs, salmon, sturgeon, &c. + +In the mean time the Russian commerce in the Caspian was increasing: the +Persian vessels brought into Astracan dyed silks, calicoes, and Persian +stuffs, and returned with cloth, sables, martens, red leather, and old +Russia money. The trade from Archangel also increased in a still more rapid +manner, principally, as we have already seen, with the English and Dutch. +In the year 1655, the exports were valued at the 660,000 rubles, two rubles +at that period being equal to one pound sterling. The principal articles +were potash, caviare, tallow, hides, sables, and cable yarn; the other +articles of less importance, and in smaller quantities, were coarse linen, +feathers for beds, tar, linen yarn, beet, rhubarb, Persian silk, cork, +bacon, cordage, skins of squirrels, and cats; bees' wax, hogs' birstles, +mice and goats' skins, swan and geese down, candles, &c. + +Peter the Great became emperor in 1689; he soon unfolded and began to +execute his vast plans of conquest, naval power, and commerce. He gained +for his country a passage into the Black Sea, by reducing Asoph, at the +mouth of the Don, and he soon established a navy on this sea. His personal +exertions in Holland and England, to make himself acquainted with +ship-building, are well known. The event of his reign, however, which most +completely changed the relative situation of Russia, and established her as +a commercial nation, was the conquest from Sweden of Livonia, Ingria, and +Carelia. Scarcely were these provinces secured to him, when he built, first +Cronstadt, and then St. Petersburgh. The erection of this city, and the +canals he constructed in the interior for the purpose of facilitating the +transportation of merchandize from the more southerly and fertile districts +of his empire to the new capital, soon drew to it the greater portion of +Russian commerce. Archangel, to which there had previously resorted +annually upwards of one hundred ships from England, Holland, Hamburgh, &c. +declined; and early in the eighteenth century Petersburgh, then scarcely +ten years old, beheld itself a commercial city of great importance. + +Having now brought the historical sketch of the progress of discovery and +of commercial enterprise down to the commencement of the eighteenth +century, it will be necessary, as well as proper, to contract the scale on +which the remainder of this volume is to be constructed. For, during nearly +the whole of the period which intervenes between the commencement of the +eighteenth century and the present time, the materials are either so +abundant or so minute, that to insert them all without discrimination and +selection, would be to give bulk, without corresponding interest and value, +to the work. + +So far as discovery is concerned, it is evident, from the sketch of it +already given, that nearly the entire outline of the globe had been traced +before the period at which we are arrived: what remained was to fill up +this outline. In Asia, to gain a more complete knowledge of Hither and +Farther India, of China, of the countries to the north of Hindostan, of the +north and north-east of Asia, and of some of the Asiatic islands. In +Africa, little besides the shores were known; but the nature of the +interior, with its burning sands and climate, uninhabitable, or inhabited +by inhospitable and barbarous tribes, held out little expectation that +another century would add much to our knowledge of that quarter of the +world; and though the perseverance and enterprise of the eighteenth +century, and what has passed of the nineteenth, have done more than might +reasonably have been anticipated, yet, comparatively speaking, how little +do we yet know of Africa! America held out the most promising as well as +extensive views to future discovery; the form and direction of her +north-west coast was to be traced. In South America, the Spaniards had +already gained a considerable knowledge of the countries lying between the +Atlantic and the Pacific, but in North America, the British colonists had +penetrated to a very short distance from the shores on which they were +first settled; and from their most western habitations to the Pacific, the +country was almost entirely unknown. + +The immense extent of the Pacific Ocean, which presented to navigators at +the beginning of the eighteenth century but few islands, seemed to promise +a more abundant harvest to repeated and more minute examination, and this +promise has been fulfilled. New Holland, however, was the only portion of +the world of great extent which could be said to be almost entirely unknown +at the beginning of the eighteenth century; and the completion of our +knowledge of its form and extent may justly be regarded as one of the +greatest and most important occurrences to geography contributed by the +eighteenth century. + +The truth and justice of these observations will, we trust, convince our +readers, that, in determining to be more general and concise in what +remains of the geographical portion of our works, we shall not be +destroying its consistency or altering the nature of its plan, but in fact +preserving both; for its great object and design was to trace geographical +knowledge from its infancy till it had reached that maturity and vigour, by +which, in connection with the corresponding increased civilization, general +information and commerce of the world, it was able to advance with rapid +strides, and no longer confining itself to geography, strictly so called, +to embrace the natural history of those countries, the existence, extent, +and form of which it had first ascertained. + +The great object and design of the commercial part of this work was +similar; to trace the progress of commercial enterprises from the rudest +ages of mankind, the changes and transfers it had undergone from one +country to another, the causes and effects of these, as well as of its +general gradual increase, till, having the whole of Europe under its +influence, and aided by that knowledge and civilization with which it had +mainly contributed to bless Europe, it had gained its maturity and vigour, +and by its own expansive force pushed itself into every part of the globe, +in which there existed any thing to attract it. + +At the beginning of the eighteenth century, commerce had not indeed assumed +those features, or reached that form and dimensions by which it was +distinguished at the end of this century; but as its dimensions gradually +enlarge, it will be necessary to be less particular and more condensed. + +Our plan indeed of being more minute in the early history of geographical +science and commercial enterprise, is founded on an obvious as well as a +just and important principle. In the infancy of geography and commerce, +every fact is important, as reflecting light on the knowledge and state of +mankind at that period, and as bearing on and conducing to their future +progress; whereas when geography and commerce have been carried so far as +to proceed in their course as it were by their own internal impulse, +derived from the motion they have been acquiring for ages, their interest +and importance is much diminished from this cause, as well as from the +minuteness of the objects to which,--all the great ones having been +previously occupied by them,--they must necessarily be confined. + +Several circumstances co-operated to direct geographical discovery, during +the eighteenth century, principally towards the north and north-east of +Asia, and the north-west of America. The tendency and interest of the +Russian empire to stretch itself to the east, and the hope still cherished +by the more commercial and maritime nations of Europe, that a passage to +the East Indies might be discovered, either by the north-east round Asia, +or by the north-west, in the direction of Hudson's Bay, were among the most +powerful of the causes which directed discovery towards those parts of the +globe to which we have just alluded. + +The extent of the Russian discoveries and conquests in the north and +north-east of Asia, added much to geographical knowledge, though from the +nature of the countries discovered and conquered, the importance of this +knowledge is comparatively trifling. About the middle of the seventeenth +century, they ascertained that the Frozen Ocean washed and bounded the +north of Asia: the first Russian ship sailed down the river Lena to this +sea in the year 1636. Three years afterwards, by pushing their conquests +from one river to another, and from one rude and wandering tribe to +another, they reached the eastern shores of Asia, not far distant from the +present site of Ochotsk. Their conquests in this direction had occupied +them nearly sixty years; and in this time they had annexed to their empire +more than a fourth part of the globe, extending nearly eighty degrees in +length, and in the north reaching to the 160° of east longitude; in breadth +their conquests extended from the fiftieth to the seventy-fifth degree of +north latitude. This conquest was completed by a Cossack; another Cossack, +as Malte Brun observes, effected what the most skilful and enterprising of +subsequent navigators have in vain attempted. Guided by the winds, and +following the course of the tides, the current and the ice, he doubled the +extremity of Asia from Kowyma to the river Anadyn. Kamschatcka, however, +which is their principal settlement in the east of Asia, was not discovered +till the year 1690; five years afterwards they reached it by sea from +Ochotsk, but for a long time it was thought to be an island. The Kurile +Islands were not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth century. + +The direction of discovery to this part of the world, as well as the plan +by which it might be most advantageously and successfully executed, was +given by Peter the Great, and affords one proof, that his mind was +capacious, though his manners, morals, and conduct, might be those of a +half-civilized tyrant. Peter did not live to carry his plan into execution: +it was not, however, abandoned or neglected; for certainly the Russian +government, much more than any other European government, seems to pursue +with a most steady and almost hereditary predilection, all the objects +which have once occupied its attention and warmed its ambition. On his +death, his empress and her successors, particularly Anne and Elizabeth, +contributed every thing in their power to carry his plan into full and +complete execution. They went from Archangel to the Ob, from the Ob to the +Jenesei. From the Jenesei they reached the Lena, partly by water and partly +by land; from the Lena they went to the eastward as far as the Judigirka: +and from Ochotsk they went by the Kurile Islands to Japan. + +One of the most celebrated men engaged in the Russian discoveries in the +early part of the eighteenth century was Behring: he was a Dane by birth, +but in the service of Catherine, the widow of Peter the Great, who fixed +upon him to carry into execution one of the most favourite plans of her +husband. During Peter's residence in Holland, in the year 1717, the Dutch, +who were still disposed to believe that a passage might be discovered to +the East Indies in the northern parts of America, or Asia, urged the +Emperor to send out an expedition to determine this point. There was also +another point, less interesting indeed to commercial men, but on which +geographers had bestowed much labour, which it was stated to the Emperor +might be ascertained by the same expedition; this was, whether Asia and +America were united, or divided by a sea, towards their northern +extremities. + +When Peter the Great returned to Russia, he resolved to attempt the +solution of these problems; and with his own hand drew up a set of +instructions for the proposed voyage; according to these, the vessels to be +employed were to be built in Kamschatka; the unknown coasts of Asia and +America were to be explored, and an accurate journal was to be kept. + +It is not known whether the Emperor was induced to plan this expedition +solely on the representations which were made to him in Holland, or from a +belief that the close vicinity of the two continents of Asia and America +had already been ascertained, or at least rendered highly probable, by some +of his own subjects. It is certain that the Russians and the Cossacks in +their service had reached the great promontory of Asia opposite to America; +and it is said that the islands lying in Behring Straits, and even the +continent beyond them, were known to them by report. + +Peter, however, did not live to accomplish his design; and, as we have +already noticed, his widow Catherine fixed upon Behring to conduct the +expedition. After building a vessel in Kamschatka, he sailed in 1728: his +first object was to examine the coast of this part of Asia. He was the +first who ascertained Kamschatka to be a peninsula, and he framed an +accurate chart of it, which is still regarded as one of the best extant. +After reaching a Cape in north latitude 67° 18', and being informed by the +inhabitants that beyond it the coast bended to the west, he resolved to +alter his course to the south. This was accordingly done, but he did not +discover the opposite coast of America; several circumstances were noticed, +however, which indicated that there was land to the east, at no great +distance, such as floating pine branches and other species of plants, +unknown on the coast of Asia; these were always driven ashore when easterly +winds prevailed. The inhabitants also informed him, that, in very clear +weather, they were able, from the top of their highest mountains, to descry +land to the east. + +Encouraged by these circumstances, Behring resolved to undertake a second +voyage from Kamschatka: in this voyage he was accompanied by a Russian, +named Tchirikoff. They steered east, and first sought for land, which was +said to have been discovered between the latitude of 40° and 50°; but +finding none, they separated, and steering further north, the Russian +discovered the continent of America in about 56-1/2°, and Behring 2° +further north. On his return, the latter was wrecked in the island which +bears his name, where he died. + +About four years after the death of this navigator, which happened in 1741, +the sea between Asia and America was visited by some Russian merchants, who +obtained permission from the government to make discoveries, hunt and +trade; the vessels employed for this purpose were formed of a few boards +fastened together with leathern thongs; yet in these were discovered the +Aleutian Islands. Soon afterwards another group of islands were discovered; +and then a third group, the Black Fox Islands, which are near the American +continent. It was not, however, till the year 1760, that the Russians +learnt that Ochotsk was only separated from America by a narrow strait; and +it is said that in 1764, a Russian mercantile company sent out some +vessels, which passed through a strait to some inhabited islands in 64° +north latitude; these were supposed to belong to the continent of America; +but if a strait was discovered by these adventurers, there must be an error +in the latitude, as in 64° there is no opening known to exist. + +It was reserved for an English navigator to ascertain the truth of the +report which the Russians had received from the inhabitants of Ochotsk, +that their country was separated from America only by a narrow strait. + +This was done during the third and last voyage of Captain Cook; the +principal design of which was to ascertain the existence and practicability +of a passage between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, either to the +north-east or north-west. For this purpose he carefully examined the north- +west coast of America, beginning this examination in the latitude of 44° +33' north. Previously to this voyage an act of Parliament was passed, +granting a reward of 20,000_l_. to any person who should discover any +northern passage by sea between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in any +parallel to the northward of the 52° of northern latitude. This voyage +of Cook began in 1778; on the 9th of August, in that year, he ascertained +the position and latitude of the western extremity of America, and soon +afterwards he determined the width of that strait which divides the two +continents. He then steered to the north, and continuing up the strait till +he was in the latitude 70° 41', he found himself close to the edge of the +ice which "was as compact as a wall," and ten or twelve feet high. He was +of course obliged to return to the south, and in this part of his voyage he +observed, on the American side, a low point in latitude 70° 29', to which +he gave the name of Icy Cape. After the death of Cook, Captain Clarke +entered the strait on the Asiatic side, and reached the latitude of 70° +33'; he afterwards got sight of the land on the American side in latitude +69° 34'. Such were the results of the last voyage of Captain Cook, +respecting the proximity of Asia and America, and the nature of the strait +by which they were divided. + +Although the Spaniards seemed to be most interested in whatever concerned +the west coast of America, yet they made no attempt to explore it from the +commencement of the seventeenth century till the year 1774. In 1769, +indeed, being alarmed at the evident design of the Russians to settle in +the north-west coast, they formed establishments at St. Diego and Montory. +In 1774 they traced the American coast from latitude 53° 53' to latitude +55°, and it is said discovered Nootka Sound. In the following year an +expedition was sent from St. Blas, which proceeded along the north-west +coast, and reached to latitude 57° 58'. + +The voyage of Cook roused the Russian government to further exertions; and +they accordingly fitted out an expedition to explore the sea between Asia +and America: the command of it was given to an Englishman of the name of +Billings, who had served as a petty officer under Captain Cook. He was, +however, by no means qualified for his situation, and abandoned the +enterprise in the latter end of July, having proceeded only a few leagues +beyond Cape Barrenoi: the whole amount of the information procured during +this voyage being confined to a few of the Aleutian Islands, and some +points in the coast of America and Asia. + +A few years afterwards the Empress Catherine sent out a secret expedition; +the principal object of which was to ascertain the situation of the islands +between the two continents. Little is known respecting this expedition, +except that some observations were made on Behring's Straits, which, +however, were not passed. The distance between the continents was estimated +at forty-eight miles. + +About the same time, the great profits which it was expected would be +derived from the fur trade on the north-west coast of America, induced +several commercial vessels to visit it; and during their voyages, nearly +all the parts of it which had not been visited by Cook, were examined as +far as the inlet which was named after him, in latitude 61° 15'. This +extent of coast was found to consist of a vast chain of islands; and the +appearance and nature of it revived the hope which Cook's last voyage had +extinguished, that in this part of the coast there might be a practicable +passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. + +This hope was again extinguished in the opinion of most people, by the +result of two of the most celebrated voyages which have been performed +since the death of Captain Cook: we allude to the voyages of La Perouse, +and of Vancouver: the former sailed with two frigates from Brest on the 1st +of August, 1785: the object of this voyage was very comprehensive and +important, being no less than to fill up whatever had been left deficient +or obscure by former navigators, and to determine whatever was doubtful, so +as to render the geography of the globe as complete and minute as possible: +he was directed to supply the island in the South Seas with useful European +vegetables. At present we shall confine our notice of this voyage to what +relates to the more immediate object of this part of our work, the coast of +North-west America. + +The north-west coast of America was made by La Perouse, in latitude sixty +degrees north: from this latitude he carefully traced and examined it to +the Spanish settlement of Monterey.--an extent of coast of which Cook had +had only a transient and imperfect view. Of this he constructed a chart, +which at the time was justly regarded as extremely accurate and complete, +but was subsequently rendered much more so by the survey of particular +points and bays made by the vessels engaged in the fur trade, and +especially by that which was constructed by Vancouver, from a close and +careful examination of the numerous channels with which this coast abounds, +principally performed in boats, and therefore descending into very minute +details. + +The accessions made by him to geography in other parts of the globe, as +well as his unfortunate fate, will be afterwards related. + +In the year 1790, a dispute arose between Britain and Spain, respecting +Nootka Sound: on the adjustment of this dispute, the British government +determined to send out an officer to secure possession of the settlement, +and also to determine the question respecting the existence of a navigable +passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Captain Vancouver was +selected for these purposes: his instructions were, after accomplishing his +mission at Nootka Sound, to examine that part of the coast occupied by the +chain of islands, discovered by the vessels in the fur trade, "and to +ascertain, with the greatest exactitude, the nature and extent of every +communication by water which might seem to tend to facilitate commercial +relations between the north-west coast and the countries on the east of the +continent, inhabited by British subjects or claimed by Great Britain;" and +in particular to search for the strait of John de Fuca, and to examine if +Cook's River had not its source in some of the lakes frequented by the +Canadian traders, or by the servants of the Hudson's Bay Company. + +He sailed from England with a sloop and brig on the 1st of April, 1791. He +began his examination of the west coast of America, in latitude 39° 27' +north, and continued it as far as Nootka: finding that the Spaniards raised +difficulties to the restoration of this settlement, he proceeded to carry +into execution the other objects of this voyage. During three summers, he +surveyed the north-west coast of America as far as Cook's River, with a +diligence, attention, and accuracy which could not have been surpassed. +Every opening which presented itself was explored, and never left till its +termination was determined; so that on a very careful and minute inspection +of every creek and inlet of a coast consisting almost entirely of creeks +and channels, formed by an innumerable multitude of islands, he thought +himself justified in pronouncing, that there is no navigable passage +between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, unless there may be a possibility +of sailing through the strait between Asia and America, and navigating the +Frozen Ocean. The surveys which were made during this voyage, may justly be +said to have rendered perfect the geography of that part of the north-west +coast of America to which it extended, and indeed to have completed the +whole geography of this coast, which, from the multitude of its creeks, +inlets, islands, &c., presents formidable as well as petty and troublesome +difficulties in the way of its accurate and complete survey. Captain +Vancouver, however, was extremely fortunate in the weather which attended +him during the whole of the three summers which he spent on this coast. + +Upwards of twenty years elapsed after the voyage of Vancouver, before +another attempt was made to find out a passage from the north Pacific into +the Atlantic Ocean. This attempt proceeded from Russia: not however from +the government, but an individual. Count Romanzoff, a Russian nobleman, is +well known for his liberal and judicious encouragement of every thing which +can promote useful knowledge, especially in what relates to the improvement +and benefit of his country. His first design was to fit out an expedition +to explore the north-west passage by Hudson's Bay or Davis' Straits; but +learning that the British government were making preparations to attempt it +by that route, he changed his plan, and resolved to fit out an expedition +to attempt the discovery of a passage from the eastward. + +A ship was accordingly built and equipped, and the command given to +Lieutenant Kotzebue. He sailed from Russia in the autumn of 1815, and on +the 19th of June in the following year he reached Kamschatka. This he left +on the 15th of July and on the 20th of that month, Behring's Islands were +seen to the northward of Cape Prince of Wales. A tract of low land was +ascertained to be an island about seven miles long, and a mile across, in +the widest part: beyond it was a deep inlet running eastward into the +continent. Lieutenant Kotzebue, animated and encouraged by this appearance, +proceeded in a northerly direction, and found that the land continued low, +and tended more to the eastwards. On the 1st of August the entrance into a +broad inlet was discovered, into which the current ran very rapidly. The +opening of this inlet was known before, and is indeed laid down in the +charts attached to Marchand's Voyage round the World; but Kotzebue is +certainly the first person who explained it. As it was perfectly calm when +he reached this inlet, he resolved to go on shore, and examine from some +eminence the direction of the coast. "We landed," he observes, "without +difficulty, near a hill, which I immediately ascended; from the summit I +could no where perceive land in the strait: the high mountains to the north +either formed islands, or were a coast by themselves; for that the two +coasts could not be connected together was evident, even from the very +great difference between this very low and that remarkably high land. It +was my intention to continue the survey of the coast in the boats, but a +number of baydares coming to us along the coast from the east, withheld +me." He afterwards had an interview with the Americans who came in these +baydares: he found that they prized tobacco very highly, and that they +received this and other European goods from the natives of the opposite +coast of Asia. It was probably the first time in their lives that these +Americans had seen Europeans. They were of the middle size; robust and +healthy; ugly and dirty; with small eyes, and very high cheek bones: "they +bore holes on each side of their mouths, in which they wear morse bones, +ornamented with blue glass beads, which give them a most frightful +appearance. Their dresses, which are made of skins, are of the same cut as +the Parka, in Kamtschatka; only that there they reach to the feet, and here +hardly cover the knee: besides this, they wear pantaloons, and small half +boots of seal skins." + +The latitude of this place, or rather of the ship's anchorage, at the time +this survey was made, was 66° 42' 30", and the longitude 164° 12' 50". +There were several circumstances which induced Kotzebue to hope that he had +at length found the channel which led to the Atlantic: nothing was seen but +sea to the eastward, and a strong current ran to the north-east. Under +these circumstances, thirteen days were occupied in examining the shores of +this opening; but no outlet was discovered, except one to the south-east, +which seemed to communicate with Norton Sound, and a channel on the western +side, which of course could not be the one sought for. Kotzebue, however, +remarks, "I certainly hope that this sound may lead to important +discoveries next year; and though a north-east passage may not with +certainty be depended on, yet I believe I shall be able to penetrate much +farther to the east, as the land has very deep indentures." The name of +Kotzebue's Sound was given to this inlet. Next year he returned to +prosecute his discovery; but in consequence of an accident which happened +to the ship, and a very dangerous blow which he received at the same time, +he abandoned the attempt. + +That there is an opening, either by Kotzebue's Inlet or near to it, to the +Frozen Ocean, is probable, not only from the circumstances we have +mentioned of an opening and a strong current to the north-east having been +observed, but also from other circumstances noticed in the account of this +voyage. This current brings large quantities of drift wood into Kotzebue's +Sound: and in the breaking up of the ice in the sea of Kamschatka, the +icebergs and fields of ice do not drift, as in the Atlantic, to the south, +nor do they drive to the Atlantic islands, but into the strait to the +north. The direction of the current was always north-east in Behring's +Straits; and it was so strong and rapid, as to carry the ship fifty miles +in twenty-four hours; that is, above two miles an hour. On the Asiatic side +of the strait it ran at the rate of three miles an hour; and even with a +fresh north wind, it ran equally strong from the south. The inference drawn +by Kotzebue is as follows: "The constant north-east direction of the +current in Behring's Straits, proves that the water meets with no +opposition, and consequently a passage must exist, though perhaps not +adapted to navigation. Observations have long been made, that the current +in Baffin's Bay runs to the south; and thus no doubt can remain that the +mass of water which flows into Behring's Straits takes its course round +America, and returns through Baffin's Bay into the Ocean." + +In 1819 the Russian government sent out another expedition, whose object +was to trace the continent of America to the northward and eastward. In +July, 1820, they reached Behring's Straits, and were supposed to have +passed them in that year; in the winter they returned to some of the +Russian settlements on the coast of America: what they have since done or +discovered is not known. + +Such is the result of what has hitherto been discovered by sea, with +respect to the contiguity of Asia and America, the northern parts of these +continents, and the probability of a passage from the Pacific to the +Atlantic. + +Very lately some attempts have been made to reach the north-eastern +extremity of Asia by land. "In February, 1821, Baron Wrangel, an officer of +great merit and of considerable science, left his head-quarters in the +Nishney Kolyma, to settle by astronomical observations the position of +Shatatzkoi Noss, or the North-east Cape of Asia, which he found to lie in +latitude 70° 5' north, considerably lower than it is usually placed in the +maps. Having crossed this point, he undertook the hazardous enterprize of +crossing the ice of the Polar Sea, on sledges drawn by dogs, in search of +the land said to have been discovered in 1762 to the northward of the +Kolyma, He travelled directly north eighty miles, without perceiving any +thing but a field of interminable ice, the surface of which had now become +so broken and uneven, as to prevent a further prosecution of his journey. +He had gone far enough, however, to ascertain that no such land had ever +been discovered." (Quarterly Review, No. LII. p. 342.) + +Another attempt, still more extraordinary and hazardous, has lately been +made to explore the north-east of Asia, and particularly to determine +whether the two continents of Asia and America do not unite at the +North-east Cape, or in some other point. This enterprize was undertaken by +Henry Dundas Cochrane, a commander in the British navy; who received +assurances from the Russian government that he should not be molested on +his journey; that he should receive any assistance, protection, and +facilities he should require; and that he might join an expedition sent by +the Russian government toward the Pole, if he should meet it, and accompany +it as far as he might be inclined. He left Petersburgh in the beginning of +the summer of 1820, and in one hundred and twenty-three days reached the +Baikal, having traversed eight thousand versts of country, at the rate of +forty-three miles a day. He seems afterwards to have gone as far as the +Altai Mountains, on the frontiers of China. As, however, his principal +object was to explore the extreme north-east of Asia, he went down the +Lena, and reached Jakutzk on the 16th of October, 1820. On the Kolyma, +where he arrived on the 30th of December, in longitude 164°, he met the +Russian polar expedition. From Jakutzk to this place he travelled four +hundred miles, without meeting a single human being. At the fair held at +Tchutski, whither he next directed his steps, he received much information +respecting the northeast of Asia. He ascertained the existence of this +cape; all doubts, he says, being now solved, not by calculation, but by +ocular demonstration. Its latitude and longitude, are well ascertained: he +places this cape half a degree more to the northward than Baron Wrangel; +but it is doubtful whether he himself reached it, and if he did, whether he +had the means of fixing its latitude, or whether he depends entirely on the +information he received at the fair of Tchutski. His expressions, in a +letter to the President of the Royal Society, are, "No land is considered +to exist to the northward of it. The east side of the Noss is composed of +bold and perpendicular cliffs, while the west side exhibits gradual +declivities; the whole most sterile, but presenting an awfully magnificent +appearance." From the fair he seems to have returned to Kolyma, and thence +proceeded to Okotsk, a dangerous, difficult, and fatiguing journey of three +thousand versts, a great part performed on foot, in seventy days. From this +last place he proceeded to Kamschatka, where it is supposed he was obliged +to terminate his investigations, in consequence of an order or intimation +from the Russian government not to proceed further. + +We must next direct our attention to what has been done since the +commencement of the eighteenth century, toward discovering a passage in the +north-east of America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. + +One of the conditions on which the Hudson's Bay Company obtained their +charter, in the year 1670, from Charles II., was, that they should +prosecute their discoveries; but so far from doing this, they are accused, +and with great appearance of reason, of not only suffering their ardour for +discovery to cool, but also of endeavouring to conceal, as much as +possible, the true situation and nature of the coast about Hudson's Bay, +partly in order to secure more effectually their monopoly, and partly from +the dread they entertained, that if a passage to the Pacific were +discovered by this route, government would recal their charter, and grant +it to the East India Company. They were indeed roused, but very +ineffectively, from their torpor, by one of their captains intimating, that +if they refused to fulfill the terms of their charter, by making +discoveries, and extending their trade, he would himself apply to the +crown. In order to silence him, they sent him and another captain out in +two vessels, in 1719 or 1720; but they both perished, it is supposed, near +Marble Island, without effecting any thing. + +Two years afterwards they sent out another ship under the command of a +person, who, destitute of the requisite knowledge and enterprize, was +totally unfit for such an undertaking: the result was such as might have +been anticipated--nothing was effected. An interval of twenty years passed +over, and the company again sank into apathy on the subject of a north-west +passage, when the attention of government was directed to the subject by +the enthusiasm of an Irish gentleman of the name of Dobbs. Having well +considered what preceding navigators had ascertained, and especially the +remarkable circumstance particularly noticed by Fox, that the farther he +removed from Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome the smaller was the height to which +the tide rose, and who thence inferred, that if a passage were practicable, +it must be in this direction, this gentleman applied to the company to send +out a vessel. Accordingly, a vessel was sent; but all that is known of this +voyage, and probably all that was done, amounts merely to this, that the +vessel reached 62° 30' north latitude: here they saw a number of islands, +and of white whales, and ascertained that the tide rose ten or twelve feet, +and came from the north. + +Mr. Dobbs next applied to government, who at his request sent out two +vessels under Captain Middleton. But Middleton, who had been in the service +of the company for many voyages, returned after having sailed up the +Welcome to Wager's River, and looked into, or perhaps sailed round, a bay, +which he named Repulse Bay. Mr. Dobbs accused him of having misrepresented +or concealed his discoveries; and there seems good ground for such an +accusation, which indeed was confirmed by the evidence of his officers, and +not explicitly denied by himself. Government was undoubtedly of opinion +that the voyage of Middleton had not determined the non-existence or +impracticability of a passage; for the next year an act of parliament was +passed, granting a reward of 20,000_l_. to the person or persons who +should discover a northwest passage through Hudson's Straits to the western +and southern ocean of America. + +Stimulated by the hope of obtaining this large sum, a company was formed, +who raised 10,000_l_., in shares of 100l., with which they fitted out two +ships; the Dobbs, commanded by Captain More; and the California, by Captain +Smith. They sailed from London on the 20th of May, 1746. When they reached +the American coast near Marble Island, they made some observations on the +tides, which they found flowed from the north-east, and consequently +followed the direction of the coast; they likewise ascertained that the +tide rose to the height of ten feet. While they were in their winter +quarters at Port Jackson, they received little or no assistance from the +servants of the Hudson's Bay Company. On resuming their voyage, and +reaching the vicinity of Knight's Island, the needles of their compasses +lost their magnetic quality, which they did not recover till they were kept +warm. Proceeding northwards, they examined Wager's Strait; but in +consequence of a difference of opinion between the commanders, they +returned to England. The only points ascertained by this voyage were, that +Wager's Strait was a deep bay, or inlet, and that there existed another +inlet, which, however, they did not explore to the termination, named by +them Chesterfield's Inlet. The fresh buffalo's flesh, which was sold to +them by the Esquimaux, was probably the flesh of the musk ox. + +After this voyage nothing was done, either by the Hudson's Bay Company, +government, or individuals, towards the exploring of a passage in the +north, till the year 1762, when the company, coinciding with the opinion +that was then prevalent, that Chesterfield's Inlet ought to be examined, as +affording a fair prospect of a passage into the Pacific Ocean, sent a +vessel to determine this point. The report of the captain, on his return, +was, that he had sailed up the inlet in a westerly direction for more than +one hundred and fifty miles, till he found the water perfectly fresh; but +he acknowledged that he did not go farther, or reach the head of it. As the +result of this voyage was deemed unsatisfactory, still leaving the point +which it had been its object to determine doubtful, the same captain was +again sent out, in company with another ship, with express directions to +trace the inlet to its western limits, if practicable. They ascertained +that the fresh water, which had been discovered in the former voyage, was +that of a river, which was the outlet of a lake, and this lake they +explored; it was twenty-four miles long, and six or seven broad; they +likewise found a river flowing into the lake from the west, but they were +prevented from exploring it to any great distance by falls, that +intercepted the progress of their boats. These particulars are detailed in +Goldson's Observations on the Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific +Oceans; the voyages themselves were never published, do not seem to be +generally known, and have escaped the notice of Forster, the author of the +History of Voyages and Discoveries in the North. Forster is likewise silent +respecting an expedition that was equipped and sent out by some gentlemen +of Virginia in 1772, to attempt a north-west passage. The captain on his +return reported that he reached a large bay in latitude 69° 11', which he +supposed hitherto unknown; that from the course of the tides, he thought it +probable there might be a passage through it, but that as this bay was +seldom free from ice, the passage could seldom if ever be practicable. + +In the year 1770 the Hudson's Bay Company, more alive to the prospect of +gain than to the interests of discovery and geographical science, having +received some information from the Indians that copper might be obtained in +great quantity far to the west of Fort Prince of Wales, resolved to +dispatch Mr. Hearne, belonging to that fort, in search of it. This +gentleman made four different excursions for this purpose, but it was only +during the fourth that he reached to any great distance from the fort. In +this excursion he penetrated to what he conceived to be the mouth of the +Coppermine River, in the Frozen Ocean, about the latitude of 72° north. +According to his account, Chesterfield Inlet is not the north-west passage, +and the American continent stretches very considerably to the north-west of +Hudson's Bay. The whole extent of his journey was about thirteen hundred +miles. It was however doubted, whether what he deemed to be the mouth of +the Coppermine River was actually such. It is certainly singular, that +though he staid there for twenty-four hours, he did not actually ascertain +the height to which the tide rose, but judged at that circumstance from the +marks on the edge of the ice. There are other points in the printed +account, as well as discrepancies between that and his MS., which tended to +withhold implicit belief from his assertion, that he had reached the Frozen +Ocean. + +In the year 1789 the North-west Company having received information from an +Indian, that there was at no great distance from Montreal, to the +northward, a river which ran into the sea, Mr. M'Kenzie, one of the +partners of that company, resolved to ascertain the truth of this report, +by going himself on an expedition for that purpose. He set out, attended by +a few Indians; and after traversing the desert and inhospitable country in +which the posts of the company are established, he reached a river which +ran to the north. He followed the course of this river till he arrived at +what he conceived to be the Frozen Ocean, were he saw some small whales +among the ice, and determined the rise and fall of the tide. This river was +called after him, Mackenzie's River, and to the island he gave the name of +Whale Island. This island is in latitude 69° 14'. + +In 1793 Mr. M'Kenzie again set out on an inland voyage of geographical and +commercial discovery, taking with him the requisite astronomical +instruments and a chronometer. His course he directed to the west. After +travelling one hundred miles on foot, he and his companions embarked on a +river, running westward, which conveyed them to an inlet of the Pacific +Ocean. Here he observed the rise and fall of the tide, and saw porpoises +and sea otters. The claim of the discovery of the Frozen Ocean by a +north-west route, to which Mr. M'Kenzie lays claim, has been questioned, as +well as Mr. Hearne's claim. It has been remarked, that he might have +ascertained beyond a doubt whether he had actually reached the sea, by +simply dipping his finger into the water, and ascertaining whether it was +salt or not. The account he gives of the rise of the tides at the mouth of +Mackenzie River serves also to render it very doubtful whether he had +reached the ocean; this rise he does not estimate greater than sixteen or +eighteen inches. On the whole, we may conclude, that if Mr. Hearne actually +traced the Coppermine River to its entrance into the sea, or Mr. M'Kenzie +the river that bears his name, they have not been sufficiently explicit in +their proofs that such was really the case. + +At the time when the British government sent out Captain Cooke on his last +voyage of discovery, Lieutenant Pickersgill was also sent out by them, to +examine the western parts of Baffin's Bay, but he never entered the bay. +Government were equally unfortunate in their choice of Lieutenant Young, +who was sent with the same object the following year: he reached no farther +than the seventy-second degree of latitude; and instead of sailing along +the western side of the bay, which is generally free from ice, he clung to +the eastern side, to which the ice is always firmly attached. Indeed, if +Dr. Douglas's character of him was just, he was ill fitted for the +enterprize on which he was sent; for his talents, he observes, were more +adapted to contribute to the glory of a victory, as commander of a +line-of-battle ship, than to add to geographical discoveries by +encountering mountains of ice, and exploring unknown coasts. + +Notwithstanding the unsuccessful issue of all these attempts to discover a +north-west passage, the existence and practicability of it still were +cherished by many geographers, who had particularly studied the subject. +Indeed, nothing had resulted from any of the numerous voyages to the +Hudson's or Baffin's Bay, which in the smallest degree rendered the +existence of such a passage unlikely. Among those scientific men who +cherished the idea of such a passage with the most enthusiasm and +confidence, and who brought to the investigation the most extensive and +minute knowledge of all that had been done, was Mr. Dalrymple, hydrographer +to the Admiralty. "He had long been of opinion, that not only Greenland, +but all the land seen by Baffin on the northern and eastern sides of the +great bay bearing his name, was composed of clusters of islands, and that a +passage through the _Fretum Davis_, round the northern extremity of +Cumberland Island, led directly to the North Sea, from the seventy to the +seventy-first degree of latitude." This opinion of Mr. Dalrymple was +grounded, in part at least, on the authority of an old globe, one of the +first constructed in Britain, preserved in the library of the Inner Temple: +this globe contains all the discoveries of our early navigators. Davis +refers to it; and Hackluyt, in his edition of 1589, describes it "as a very +large and most exact terrestrial globe, collected and reformed according to +the newest, secretest, and latest discoveries, both Spanish, Portugal, and +English, composed by Mr. Emmeric Molyneaux, of Lambeth, a rare gentleman in +his profession, being therein for diverse years greatly supported by the +purse and liberality of the worshipful merchant Mr. William Sanderson." + +Mr. Dalrymple prevailed on the Hudson's Bay Company to send out Mr. Duncan, +a master in the navy, who had displayed considerable talent on a voyage to +Nootka Sound. This gentleman was very sanguine of success, and very zealous +in the cause in which he was employed. But this attempt also was +unsuccessful: Mr. Duncan, after a considerable lapse of time, reaching no +farther than Chesterfield Inlet. + +The attention of scientific men, and of the public at large, was called +again to this important problem in the geography of the northern seas, by +some elaborate and well informed articles in the Quarterly Review, which +are generally supposed to be written by Mr. Barrow, the under secretary of +the Admiralty, who also published an abstract of voyages to the Northern +Ocean. + +The British government, influenced by a very laudable love of science, and +perhaps regarding the discovery of a north-west passage as of the same +importance to commerce as the reviewer evidently did, resolved to send an +expedition for the purpose of attempting the discovery. Accordingly, on the +8th of April 1818, two ships, the Isabella and Alexander, well fitted by +their construction, as well as strengthened and prepared in every possible +manner for such a voyage, sailed from the Thames. Captain Ross had the +principal command. It is not our design here to follow them during their +voyage to their destination: suffice it to say, that on the 18th of August, +exactly four months after they sailed from the Thames, the ships passed +Cape Dudley Digges, the latitude of which they found to agree nearly with +that assigned to it by Baffin, thus affording another proof of the accuracy +of that old navigator, whose alleged discoveries have been latterly +attempted to be wrested from him, or rather been utterly denied. The same +day they passed an inlet, to which Baffin had given the name of +Wolstenholme Sound. Captain Ross, in his account of his voyage, says it was +completely blocked up with ice; but in the view taken of it, and published +by him, there is a deep and wide opening, completely free from ice. In +fact, on this occasion, as well as others of more consequence, to which we +shall presently advert, Captain Ross, unfortunately for the accomplishment +of the object on which he was sent, contented himself with conjecture where +proof was accessible; for all he remarks respecting this sound is, that it +seemed to be eighteen or twenty leagues in depth, and the land on the east +side appeared to be habitable. When it is considered that in these high and +foggy latitudes much deception of sight takes place, it ought to be the +absolute and undeviating rule of the navigator to explore so far, and to +examine so carefully and closely, that he may be certain, at least, that +his sight does not deceive him. The same negligence attended the +examination of Whale Sound: all the notice of it is, that they could not +approach it in a direct line, on account of ice; it was, in fact, never +approached nearer than twenty leagues. Captain Ross does not seem to have +been fully sensible of the nature of the object on which he was sent out. +If there existed a passage at all, it must be in a strait, sound, or some +other opening of the sea: it could exist no where else. Every such opening, +which exhibited the least appearance, or the smallest symptoms of +stretching far, especially if it stretched in the proper direction, ought +to have been practically and closely examined, not merely viewed at a +distance in a foggy atmosphere. As for the impediments, they were what were +to be expected, what the ships were sent out to meet and overcome; and till +persevering and even highly hazardous efforts had proved that they could +not be overcome, they ought not to have been suffered to weigh the least +with the captain or his men, and especially not with the former. + +But to proceed: about midnight on the 19th of August, the sound described +by Baffin to be the largest of all the sounds he discovered, and called by +him Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, was distinctly seen; and the two capes which +formed its entrance were called by Captain Ross after the two ships +Isabella and Alexander. "I considered," he informs us, "the bottom of this +sound to be about eighteen leagues distant, but its entrance was completely +blocked up by ice." Here again, a sound which seemed to promise fair to +lead them into the great Polar Sea was left undiscovered, and in fact +unapproached; for at the distance of eighteen leagues, in that deceptive +climate, nothing could be really known of its real state or practicability. +Had Captain Ross made the attempt; had he spent but a couple of days, and +actually encountered serious obstacles, even though he had not experienced +that those obstacles were insurmountable, he would have had some excuse; +but it is impossible not to censure him for approaching no nearer than +eighteen leagues to a sound such as this, and pronouncing at this distance +that the ice blocked it up completely. His reasoning to support his belief +that this sound afforded no passage, and to defend his not having explored +it, is weak and inconclusive; but we shall not examine it, because the +commander to whom such an expedition is entrusted, should never reason, +where he can prove by actual observation and experiment. It is unsafe in +him to reason, because he will most assuredly be tempted to make his line +of conduct bend to his hypothesis and reasoning. + +Captain Ross returned down the western side of Baffin's Bay. On the 21st an +opening was seen, which answered to the description of Alderman Jones +Sound, given by Baffin; but here again the ice and fog prevented them from +approaching near; as if the fog might not have cleared up in a day or two, +and the ice might not either have been drifted off in as short a space, or, +if it could not, have been passed by the crew, so far, at least, as to have +gained a nearer and better view of this sound. + +Baffin describes this sound as a large inlet, and adds, that the coast +tended to the southward, and had the appearance of a bay. This is confirmed +by Captain Ross; for he informs us that the land was observed to take a +southerly direction. On the 28th of August the sea became more clear of +ice, and no bottom was found with three hundred fathoms of line: in the +afternoon of that day they succeeded in getting completely clear of the +ice, and once more found themselves in the open sea. Baffin and Davis both +mention that the northern parts of Baffin's Bay were clear of ice when they +were there, so that it is probably generally the case. On the 29th a wide +opening was descried in the land; this they entered on the following day. +"On each side was a chain of high mountains; and in the space between, W. +S.W., there appeared a yellow sky, but no land was seen, nor was there any +ice on the water, except a few icebergs; the opening therefore took the +appearance of a channel, the entrance of which was judged to be forty-five +miles; the land on the north side lying in an E.N.E. and W.S.W. +direction, and the south side nearly east and west." "As the evening +closed, the wind died away, the weather became mild and warm, the water +much smoother, and the atmosphere clear and serene." + +Even those who are little acquainted with the symptoms which in this high +latitude indicate an open sea, must be struck with the wide difference +between these circumstances and those which had met the navigators in +almost every other part of their voyage, since they had approached the +place where a passage might possibly exist and be found. Yet, even at this +time and place, when expectation must have been high, and not without good +reason, and when we are expressly informed by Captain Ross that much +interest was excited by the appearance of the sound, the attempt to +ascertain, by close and accurate investigation, whether this sound was +really closed at its extremity, or led into another sea, was given up, +after having sailed into it during the night, and till three o'clock the +following day. It is unnecessary here to examine the reasons which induced +Captain Ross to leave this sound without putting the question of its nature +and termination beyond a doubt, by an accurate and close survey. He says, +that at three o'clock he distinctly saw the land round the bottom of the +bay, forming a connected chain of mountains with those which extended along +the north and south sides. No person seems to have been on deck when this +land was seen by the captain, and orders in consequence given to put the +ships about, except Mr. Lewis, the master, and another. So that in this +latitude, where the sight at all times is mocked with fogs and other +circumstances which mislead it, and where, therefore, it is absolutely +necessary that as many eyes as possible should be employed, that these +should get as near the object as possible, that it should be viewed for a +considerable length of time, and under as many aspects, and from as many +points as possible--not a subordinate or incidental design of the voyage, +but that for which it was expressly made, was abandoned, and on the sole +responsibility of the captain and two other persons. + +It is evident, too, that the entrance to many inland seas seems, when +viewed from a distance, to be blocked up by connected land. It is well +observed by the reviewer, whom we have already quoted, that there is not a +reach in the Thames that to the eye does not appear to terminate the river; +and in many of them (in the Hope, for instance) it is utterly impossible to +form a conjecture, at the distance of only two or three miles, what part of +the land is intersected by the stream. + +Although, however, this voyage was abandoned when it ought not to have +been, and consequently failed in its peculiar and important object, yet +some access to geographical knowledge was gained by it. The existence of +Baffin's Bay is confirmed, though its width and form are different from +those which were previously assigned it in the maps; and thus this +enterprising and deserving navigator has at length justice done to him. + +Other branches of science were benefited and extended by this voyage, +however unsuccessful it proved in its grand and leading object; and some of +the accessions were of a very interesting nature. We allude principally to +the observations made on the swinging of the pendulum,--the variation and +dip of the magnetic needle,--especially by the influence of the iron in and +about the ship,--and on the temperature of the sea at different depths. + +Soon after the return of this expedition, an order in council was issued, +which empowered and authorized the Board of Longitude to adopt a graduated +scale of rewards, proportioned to the progress of discovery made to the +westward in these high northern latitudes, from Hudson's or Baffin's Bay, +in the direction of the Pacific Ocean. The first point of this graduated +scale is the meridian of the Coppermine River of Hearne, and whatever ship +reaches this is entitled to a reward of 5000l. Government were so convinced +that Captain Ross's voyage had increased the probability of a north-west +passage, that they determined to lose no time in making another attempt to +discover it; and in order to afford every chance of success to this second +attempt, they also determined, not only to send out a maritime expedition, +to follow out the route which Captain Ross had so unaccountably and +provokingly abandoned, but also to send out a land expedition, to +co-operate in the same grand object. + +The latter, under the command and direction of Lieutenant Franklin, was +ordered to proceed from Fort York, on the shores of Hudson's Bay, to the +mouth of the Coppermine River; and from thence along the shores of the +Polar Sea, either to the east or to the north, as circumstances might +determine: they were expressly to have in view the determination of the +question regarding the position of the northeastern extremity of the +continent of America. As the route of this land expedition lay for a great +part of it through those districts within which the Hudson's Bay Company +were accustomed to travel and trade, their co-operation and assistance was +requested and obtained. The exact results of this land expedition are not +yet fully and clearly known; but it is generally understood, that after +having undergone infinite hardships and sufferings, they have been enabled +to confirm Hearne and Mackenzie's discoveries or conjectures respecting the +Coppermine River, and to ascertain other points connected with the +geography and natural history of these remote and almost inaccessible +regions, though the most important and leading points of the expedition +have not been settled. [6] + +In consequence of Captain Ross having penetrated into Baffin's Bay, an +object only accomplished once before by Baffin himself, and which for two +hundred years had been frequently again fruitlessly attempted, the +Greenland ships which left England during the season immediately following +Captain Ross's return, were induced, in order to reach a fresh and unfished +sea, to pursue the course that he had opened for them. The circumstance +that fourteen of them were wrecked, proves, unless the season had been +uncommonly tempestuous, that Captain Ross must have conducted his +expedition with considerable care and skill, notwithstanding he missed an +excellent opportunity of either discovering a north-west passage, or of +adding one more opening to those which were proved not to contain it. + +The second sea expedition, to which we have already alluded, was under the +direction of Captain Parry, who had sailed along with Captain Ross in the +first expedition; he was therefore possessed of much knowledge and +experience, which would prove essentially useful and directly applicable to +the object he was about to undertake. Two ships were fitted out with all +necessary preparations for such a voyage, the Hecla bomb, and Griper +gun-brig, and they sailed from the Thames early in the month of May 1819. +Of the high importance and value to navigators of the chronometer, Captain +Parry had a striking and undoubted proof in the early part of his voyage. +On the 24th of May he saw a small solitary crag, called Rockall, not far +from the Orkney Islands. "There is," he observes, in this part of his +journal, "no more striking proof of the infinite value of chronometers at +sea, than the certainty with which a ship may sail directly for a single +rock, like this, rising like a speck out of the ocean, and at the distance +of forty-seven leagues from any other land." + +About the middle of July he reached the latitude of 73°, after having made +many fruitless attempts to cross the ice that fills the central portion of +Davis's Strait and Baffin's Bay. the instructions of Captain Parry +particularly pointed out the sound which Captain Ross had left unexplored, +and which there could be no doubt was the Sir James Lancaster's Sound of +Baffin, to be most carefully and minutely examined, as the one by which it +was most probable a north-west passage might be effected, or which, at +least, even if not navigable, on account of the ice, would connect the +Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. On the seventh day after entering this sound, +he succeeded in reaching open water; but this was not reached without +infinite difficulty and labour, as the breadth of the barrier of ice was +found to be eighty miles; through this they penetrated by the aid of +sailing, tracking, heaving by the capstan, and sawing, being able to +advance, even with the assistance of all the methods, only at the rate of +half a mile an hour, or twelve miles a day. + +For some days after this, their patience was tried, and nearly exhausted, +by contrary winds, but on the 3d of August a favourable and fresh breeze +arose from the eastward. Advantage was immediately taken of it. "We all +felt," says Captain Parry, "it was that point of the voyage which was to +determine the success or failure of the expedition, according as one or +other of the opposite opinions respecting the termination of the sound +should be corroborated. It is more easy to imagine than to describe (he +continues) the almost breathless anxiety which was now visible in every +countenance, while, as the breeze increased to a fresh gale, we ran quickly +up the sound. The masts' heads were crowded by the officers and men during +the whole afternoon; and an unconcerned observer (if any could have been +unconcerned on such an occasion) would have been amused by the eagerness +with which the various reports from the crow's-nest were received, all, +however, hitherto favourable to our most sanguine hopes." + +The weather, most fortunately at this interesting and important period, +continued remarkably clear; and the ships having reached the longitude of +83° 12', the two shores of the sound were ascertained to be still at least +fifty miles asunder, and what was still more encouraging, no land was +discerned to the westward. In fact, there seemed no obstacle; none of those +mountains with which, according to Captain Ross, the passage of the sound +was eternally blocked up, nor even any ice, an object of a less serious and +permanent nature. Other circumstances were also encouraging; the whole +surface of the sea was completely free from ice, no land was seen in the +direction of their course, and no bottom could be reached with one hundred +and seventy fathoms of line, so that "we began," observes Captain Parry, +"to flatter ourselves that we had fairly entered the Polar Sea, and some of +the most sanguine among us had even calculated the bearing and distance of +Icy Cape, as a matter of no very difficult or improbable accomplishment. +This pleasing prospect was rendered the more flattering, by the sea having, +as we thought, regained the usual oceanic colour, and by a long swell which +was rolling in from the southward and eastward." The first circumstance +that threw a damp over their sanguine expectations, was the discovery of +land a-head; they were however renewed by ascertaining that this was only a +small island: but though the insurmountable obstacle of a land termination +of the sound was thus removed, another appeared in its place; as they +perceived that a floe of ice was stretched from the island to the northern +shore. On the southern shore, however, a large inlet was discovered, ten +leagues broad at its entrance, and as no land could be seen in the line of +its direction, hopes were excited that it might lead to a passage into the +Polar Sea, freer from ice than the one above described. At this period of +the voyage a singular circumstance was remarked: during their passage down +Sir James Lancaster's Sound, the compass would scarcely traverse, and the +ship's iron evidently had great influence over it: both these phaenomena +became more apparent and powerful, in proportion as their westerly course +encreased. When they were arrived in the latitude of 73°, the directive +power of the needle became so weak, that it was completely overcome by the +attraction of the iron in the ship, so that the needle might now be said +to point to the north pole of the ship. And by an experiment it was found, +that a needle suspended by a thread, the movements of which were of course +scarcely affected by any friction, always pointed to the head of the ship, +in whatever direction it might be. + +To this inlet, which Captain Parry was now sailing down, he gave the name +of the Prince Regent. The prospect was still very flattering: the width +increased as they proceeded, and the land inclined more and more to the +south-westward. But their expectations were again destroyed: a floe of ice +stretched to the southward, beyond which no sea was to be descried. Captain +Parry therefore resolved to return to the wide westerly passage which he +had quitted. On the 22d of August, being in longitude 92-1/4°, they opened +two fine channels, the one named after the Duke of Wellington; this was +eight leagues in width, and neither land nor ice could be seen from the +mast head though the weather was extremely clear; this channel tended to +the N.N.W. The other stretched nearly west: and though it was not so open, +yet as it was more directly in the course which it was their object to +pursue, it was preferred by Captain Parry. By the 25th they had reached 99° +west longitude, about 20 degrees beyond Lancaster Sound. On the 30th they +made the S.E. point of Melville Island. By the 4th of September they had +passed the meridian of 110° west longitude, in latitude 74° 44' 20": this +entitled them to the first sum in the scale of rewards granted by +parliament, namely 5000_l_; as at this part of their course they were +opposite a point of land lying in the S.E. of Melville Island; this point +was called Bounty Cape. On the 6th of September they anchored, for the +first time since they had left England, in a bay, called after the two +ships. + +During the remainder of the season of 1819, which however contained only +twenty more days, in which any thing could be done, Captain Parry +prosecuted with much perseverance, and in the midst of infinite +difficulties and obstacles, a plan which had suggested itself to him some +time before; this was to conduct the ships close to the shore, within the +main body of the ice; but their progress was so extremely slow, that, +during the remainder of the year they did not advance more than forty +miles. On the 21st Captain Parry abandoned the undertaking, and returned to +the bay which was called after the two ships. Here they lay ten months; and +the arrangements made by Captain Parry for the safety of the vessels, and +for the health, comfort, and even the amusement of the crew, were planned +and effected with such admirable good sense, that listlessness and fatigue +were strangers, even among sailors, a class of men who, above all others, +it would have been apprehended, would have soon wearied of such a +monotonous life. The commencement of winter was justly dated from the 14th +of September, when the thermometer suddenly fell to 9°. On the 4th of +November the sun descended below the horizon, and did not appear again till +the 8th of February. A little before and after what in other places is +called the shortest day, but which to them was the middle of their long +night, there was as much light as enabled them to read small print, when +held towards the south, and to walk comfortably for two hours. Excessive +cold, as indicated by the thermometer, took place in January: it then sunk +from 30° to 40° below Zero: on the 11th of this month it was at 49°; yet no +disease, or even pain or inconvenience was felt in consequence of this most +excessive cold, provided the proper precautions were used; nor did any +complaint arise from the extreme and rapid change of temperature to which +they were exposed, when, as was often the case, they passed from the +cabins, which were kept heated up to 60° or 70°, to the open air, though +the change in one minute was in several instances 120° of temperature. + +Cold, however, as January was, yet the following month, though, as we have +already observed, it again exhibited the sun to them, was much colder; on +the 15th of February the thermometer fell to 55° below Zero, and remained +for fifteen hours not higher than 54°. Within the next fifteen hours it +gradually rose to 34°. But though the sun re-appeared early in February, +they had still a long imprisonment to endure; and Captain Parry did not +consider it safe to leave their winter quarters till the 1st of August, +when they again sailed to the westward: their mode of proceeding was the +same as that which they had adopted the preceding year, viz. crawling along +the shore, within the fast ice; in this manner they got to the west end of +Melville Island. But all their efforts to proceed further were of no avail. +Captain Parry was now convinced, that somewhere to the south-west of this +there must be an immoveable obstacle, which prevented the ice dispersing in +that direction, as it had been found to do in every other part of the +voyage. + +At last, on the 16th of August, further attempts were given up, and Captain +Parry determined to return to the eastward, along the edge of the ice, in +order that he might push to the southward if he could find an opening. Such +an opening, however, could not be found; but by coasting southward, along +the west side of Baffin's Bay, Captain Parry convinced himself that there +are other passages into Prince Regent's Inlet, besides that by Lancaster +Sound. The farthest point in the Polar sea reached in this voyage was +latitude 71° 26' 23", and longitude 113° 46' 43:5". On the 26th of +September they took a final leave of the ice, and about the middle of +November they arrived in the Thames. + +In every point of view this voyage was extremely creditable to Captain +Parry; it is not surpassed by any for the admirable manner in which it was +conducted, for the presence of mind, perseverance, and skill of all the +arrangements and operations. It has also considerably benefited all those +branches of science to which the observations and experiments of Captain +Ross and his companions were directed, and to which we have already +adverted. Perhaps in no one point has it been of more use to mariners, than +in proving the minute accuracy of going to which chronometers have been +brought. + +As this expedition very naturally encouraged the hope that a north-west +passage existed, and might be discovered and effected, and as Captain Parry +was decidedly of this opinion, government very properly resolved to send +him out again; he accordingly sailed in the spring of the year following +that of his return. He recommended that the attempt should be made in a +more southern latitude, and close along the northern coast of America, as +in that direction a better climate might be expected, and a longer season +by at least six weeks; and this recommendation, it is supposed, had its +weight with the admiralty in the instructions and discretionary powers +which they gave him. + +We must now direct our attention to the southern polar regions. Geographers +and philosophers supposed that in this portion of the globe there must be +some continent or very large island, which would serve, as it were, to +counterbalance the immense tracts of land which, to the northward, +stretched not only as near the pole, as navigation had been able to +proceed, but also west and east, the whole breadth of Europe and Asia. + +The second voyage of Captain Cook was planned and undertaken for the +express purpose of solving the question respecting the Terra Australis +which occupied the older maps. He sailed on this voyage in July 1772, +having under his command two ships, particularly well adapted and fitted up +for such a service, the Resolution and Adventure; he was accompanied by a +select band of officers, most of whom were not only skilful and experienced +navigators, but also scientific astronomers and geographers; there were +also two professed astronomers, two gentlemen who were well skilled in +every branch of natural history, and a landscape painter. + +On the 12th of December, Captain Cook entered the loose and floating ice, +in latitude 62° 10'; on the 21st he met with icebergs in latitude 67°; and +by the end of the month he returned to latitude 58°. On the 26th of January +in the following year, he again penetrated within the Antarctic circle, and +on the 30th, had got as far as latitude 71° 16'. This was the utmost point +to which he was able to penetrate; and he was so fully persuaded, not only +of the impracticability of being able to sail further to the south, but +also of remaining in that latitude, that he returned to the northward the +very same day, deeming it, as he expresses it, a dangerous and rash +enterprize to struggle with fields of ice. "I," he continues, "who had +ambition not only to go farther than any one before, but as far as it was +possible for man to go, was not sorry to meet with this interruption." The +existence of a southern continent was thus considered by Captain Cook, and +all other geographers, as disproved to an almost absolute certainty. + +In this voyage Captain Cook also obtained a correct knowledge of the land +discovered by La Roche in 1675, and gave to it the name of New Georgia; he +discovered, too, Sandwich land, which was then supposed to be the nearest +land to the South Pole; he ascertained the extent of the Archipelago, of +the New Hebrides, which had been originally seen by Quiros, and +superficially examined by Bougainville. New Caledonia, and many of the +islands among the groupe to which he gave the name of the Friendly Islands, +were also among the fruits of this voyage. + +The French government had sent out an expedition, about the same time that +Captain Cook sailed in quest of a southern continent, on a similar pursuit. +A French navigator some time before had stated that he had discovered land, +having been driven far to the south, off the Cape of Good Hope. This +supposed land the expedition alluded to was also to look after. The person +selected to conduct it, M. De Kerguelen, does not seem to have been well +chosen or qualified for such an enterprize; for after having discovered +land, situated in 49° south latitude, and 69° east longitude from +Greenwich, he returned rather precipitately to France, without having +explored this land, concluding very rashly, and without any sufficient +grounds, that the Terra Australis was at length ascertained to exist, and +its exact situation determined. He was received and treated in France as a +second Columbus: but as the French court seems to have had some doubts on +the extent and merit of his alleged discoveries, notwithstanding the +reception which it gave him, he was sent out a second time, with two ships +of war of 64 and 32 guns each, and 700 men, to complete his discovery and +take possession of this new continent. But he soon ascertained, what indeed +he might and ought to have ascertained in his first voyage, that what he +deemed and represented to be the Terra Australis was only a dreary and +inhospitable island, of small size, so very barren and useless, that it +produces no tree or even shrub of any kind, and very little grass. On such +an island, in such a part of the globe, no inhabitants could be looked for; +but it is even almost entirely destitute of animals; and the surrounding +sea is represented as not more productive than the land. The French +navigator was unable to find safe anchorage in this island, though it +abounded in harbours; to this miserable spot he gave his own name. It was +afterwards visited by Captain Cook, in his third voyage, and also by +Peyrouse. + +As the southern ocean, in as high a latitude as the climate and the ice +rendered accessible and safe, had been as it were swept carefully, +extensively, and minutely, by Captain Cook, and some subsequent navigators, +without discovering land of any considerable extent, it was naturally +supposed that no southern continent or even large island existed. + +In the year 1819, however, this disbelief was partly destroyed by an +unexpected and singular discovery. Mr. Smith, who commanded a vessel +trading between Rio Plato and Chili, was naturally desirous to shorten, as +much as possible, his passage round Cape Horn. With this object in view, he +ran to a higher latitude than is usual in such voyages; and in latitude 62° +30' and in longitude 60° west, he discovered land. This was in his voyage +out to Chili; but as he could not then spare the time necessary to explore +this land, he resolved to follow the same course on his return voyage, and +ascertain its extent, nature, &c. This he accordingly did; and likewise on +a subsequent voyage. "He ran in a westward direction along the coasts, +either of a continent or numerous islands, for 200 or 300 miles, forming +large bays, and abounding with the spermaceti whale, seals, &c. He took +numerous soundings and bearings, draughts and charts of the coast." He also +landed and took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and +called his acquisition New South Shetland. He represents the climate as +temperate, the coast mountainous, apparently uninhabited, but not destitute +of vegetation, as he observed firs and pines in many places; and on the +whole, the country appeared to him very much like the coast of Norway. + +It may seem extraordinary that land of this extent should not have been +discovered by any former navigator; but the surprise will cease, when we +reflect that though Captain Cook penetrated much further to the south than +the latitude of New South Shetland, yet his meridian was 45 degrees farther +to the west, and that he thus left a large expanse of sea unexplored, on +the parallel of 62° between that and Sandwich land, the longitude of which +is 22° west. He indeed likewise reached 67° south latitude: but this was in +longitude from 137° to 147° west. Now the longitude of New South Shetland +being 60° west, it is evident that Captain Cook in his first attempt, left +unexplored the whole extent of longitude from 28°, the longitude of +Sandwich land, to 60°, the longitude of New South Shetland; and in his +second attempt, he was still further from the position of this new +discovered land. Peyrouse reached no higher than 60° 30' latitude, and +Vancouver only to 55°. Thus we clearly see that this land lay out of the +track, not only of those navigators, whose object being to get into the +Pacific by the course best known, pass through the Straits of Magellan and +Le Maire, or keep as near Cape Horn as possible, but also of those who were +sent out expressly to search for land in a high southern latitude. + +The intelligence of the discovery of New South Shetland, and that its +coasts abounded in Spermaceti whales, and in seals, quickly and powerfully +roused the commercial enterprise both of the British and the Americans. In +the course of a short time, numerous ships of both these nations sailed to +its coasts; but from their observations and experience, as well as from a +survey of it which was undertaken by the orders of one of His Majesty's +naval officers, commanding on the southwest coast of America, it was soon +ascertained that it was a most dangerous land to approach and to continue +near. Its sterility and bleak and forbidding appearance, from all the +accounts published respecting it, are scarcely equalled, certainly are not +surpassed, in the most inhospitable countries near the North Pole; while +ships are suddenly exposed to most violent storms, from which there is +little chance of escaping, and in which, during one of the seal-catching +seasons, a great number were lost. + +There are, however, counterbalancing advantages: the seals were, at least +during the first seasons, uncommonly numerous, and taken with very little +trouble or difficulty, so that a ship could obtain a full cargo in a very +short time; but, in consequence of a very great number of vessels which +frequented the coasts for the purpose of taking these animals, they became +soon less numerous, and were captured with less ease. The skins of these +seals fetched a very high price in the China market; the Chinese, +especially in the more northern parts of that vast and populous empire, use +these skins for various articles of their dress; and the seal skins of New +South Shetland being much finer and softer than those which were obtained +in any other part of the world, bore a proportionably higher price in the +China market. But the English could not compete with the Americans in this +lucrative trade; for in consequence of the charter of the East India +Company, the English ships were obliged to bring their cargoes of skins to +England; here they were sold, and as none but the East India Company could +export them to China, and consequently none except the Company would +purchase; they in fact had the monopoly of them, and obtained them at their +own price. The English indeed might take them directly from New South +Shetland to Calcutta, whence they might be exported in country ships to +China; but even in this case, which was not likely to happen, as few +vessels, after having been employed in catching seals off such a boisterous +coast, were prepared or able to undertake a voyage to Calcutta; much +unnecessary expence was incurred, additional risk undergone, and time +consumed. To these disadvantages in the sale of their seal skins, the +Americans were not exposed; they brought them into some of their own ports, +and thence shipped them directly and immediately to China. + +The last navigator whom we noticed as having added to our knowledge +respecting New Holland, was Dampier, who in this portion of the globe, not +only discovered the Strait that separates New Guinea from New Britain, but +also surveyed the north-west coast of New Holland; and, contrary to the +Dutch charts, laid down De Witt's land as a cluster of islands, and gave it +as his opinion that the northern part of New Holland was separated from the +lands to the southward by a strait. Scarcely any thing was added to the +geography of this portion of the globe, between the last voyage of Dampier, +and the first voyage of Cook. One of the principal objects of this voyage +of our celebrated navigator, was to examine the coast of New Holland; and +he performed this object most completely, so far as the east coast was +concerned, from the 38th degree of latitude to its northern extremity; he +also proved that it was separated from New Guinea, by passing through the +channel, which he called after his ship, Endeavour Strait. In the year +1791, Captain Vancouver explored 110 leagues of the south-west coast, where +he discovered King George's Sound, and some clusters of small islands. In +the same year two vessels were dispatched from France in search of La +Peyrouse; in April 1792, they made several observations on Van Dieman's +Land, the south cape of which they thought was separated from the main +land; they also discovered a great harbour. In the subsequent year 1793, +they again made the coast of New Holland, near Lewin's Land, and they +ascertained that the first discoveries had been extremely accurate in the +latitudes which they had assigned to this part of it. + +In consequence of the British forming a settlement at Botany Bay, much +additional information was gained, not only regarding the interior of New +Holland, in the vicinity of the settlement, but also regarding part of its +coast: the most interesting and important discovery relative to the latter +was made towards the end of the year 1797, by Mr. Bass, surgeon of His +Majesty's ship Reliance. He made an excursion in an open boat to the +southward of Port Jackson, as far as 40 degrees of south latitude, and +visited every opening in the coast in the course of his voyage: he observed +sufficient to induce him to believe that Van Dieman's Land was no part of +New Holland. Soon after the return of Mr. Bass, the governor of the English +colony sent out him and Captain Flinders, then employed as a lieutenant of +one of His Majesty's ships on the New South Wales station, with a view to +ascertain whether Mr. Bass's belief of the separation of Van Dieman's Land +was well founded. They embarked on board a small-decked boat of 25 tons, +built of the fir of Norfolk island. In three months they returned to Port +Jackson, after having circumnavigated Van Dieman's Land, and completed the +survey of its coasts. The strait that separates it from New Holland was +named by the governor, Bass's Strait. The importance of this discovery is +undoubted. In voyages from New Holland to the Cape of Good Hope, +considerable time is gained by passing through it, instead of following the +former course. In the year 1800, Captain Flinders was again sent out by the +governor, to examine the coast to the northward of Port Jackson; of this +nothing more was known but what the imperfect notices given of it by +Captain Cook supplied. In this voyage he completely examined all the creeks +and bays as far to the northward as the 25th degree of latitude, and more +particularly Glasshouse and Harvey's Bays. The English government at length +resolved that they would wipe off the reproach, which, as Captain Flinders +observes, was not without some reason attributed to them, "that an +imaginary line of more than 250 leagues of extent, in the vicinity of one +of their colonies, should have been so long suffered to remain traced upon +the charts, under the title of UNKNOWN COAST," and they accordingly +appointed him to the command of an expedition fitted out in England for +this purpose. + +Before giving an account of this voyage of Captain Flinders, we shall +abridge, from the Introduction prefixed to it, his clear and methodical +account of the progressive discoveries which have been made on the coast of +New Holland, and of what was still to be explored. He particularly dwelt on +the advantages that would result from a practicable passage through Torres' +Strait; if this could be discovered, it would shorten the usual route by +the north of New Guinea, or the Eastern Islands, in the voyage to India and +China. The immense gulf of Carpentaria was unknown, except a very small +portion of its eastern side. The lands called after Arnheim and Van Dieman +also required and deserved a minute investigation, especially the bays, +shoals, islands, and coasts of the former, and the northern part of the +latter. The north-west coast had not been examined since the time of +Dampier, who was of opinion that the northern portion of New Holland was +separated from the lands to the northward by a strait. The existence of +such a strait, Captain Flinders completely disproved. + +With respect to the south coast, at least 250 leagues were unexplored. +Captain Flinders had examined with considerable care and minuteness the +east coast and Van Dieman's Land; but there were still several openings +which required to be better explored. + +Such were the principal objects which Captain Flinders had in view in his +voyage; and no person could have been found better qualified to accomplish +these objects. On the 18th of July, 1801, he sailed from England in the +Investigator, of 334 tons: there were on board, beside the proper and +adequate complement of men, an astronomer, a naturalist, a natural history +painter, a landscape painter, a gardener, and a miner. As soon as he +approached the south coast of New Holland, he immediately began his +examination of the coasts, islands, and inlets of that large portion of it, +called Nuyts' Land; he particularly examined all that part of the coast, +which lies between the limit of the discoveries of Nuyts and Vancouver, and +the eastern extremity of Bass' Straits, where he met a French ship, +employed on the same object. In the month of July, 1802, he left Port +Jackson, whither he had gone to refit, and sailing through Torres' Straits +in 36 hours, he arrived in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the latter end of the +season. In the course of this part of his voyage, he examined +Northumberland and Cumberland islands, and the great barrier reefs of coral +rock; and every part of the eastern side of the Gulf of Carpentaria; not a +cape, creek, bay, or island on this coast of the gulf escaped his notice +and examination. It was his intention to have pursued the same mode of +close and minute examination: "following the land so closely, that the +washing of the surf upon it should be visible, and no opening nor any thing +of importance escape notice;" but he was prevented by ascertaining that the +vessel was in such a crazy state, that, though in fine weather she might +hold together for six months longer, yet she was by no means fit for such +an undertaking. After much deliberation what conduct he ought to pursue +under these circumstances, as it was impossible, with such a vessel, he +could at that season return to Port Jackson by the west route, in +consequence of the monsoon (and the stormy weather would render the east +passage equally improper) he resolved to finish the survey of the Gulf of +Carpentaria. This occupied him three months: at the end of this period he +was obliged, by the sickness of his crew, to sail for Timor, which he +reached on the 31st of March, 1803. + +As the Investigator was no longer fit for service, she was condemned. +Captain Flinders resolved, as he could not finish the survey, to return to +England, in order to lay his journals and charts before the Admiralty: he +accordingly embarked on board the Porpoise store ship, which, in company +with the Cato and Bridgwater, bound to Batavia, sailed in August, 1803. The +Porpoise and Cato were wrecked on a reef of rocks nearly 800 miles from +Botany Bay: most of the charts, logs, and astronomical observations were +saved; but the rare plants, as well as the dried specimens, were lost or +destroyed. On the 26th of August, Captain Flinders left the reef in the +cutter, and after a passage of considerable danger, reached Port Jackson on +the 8th of September. As he was extremely anxious to lodge his papers as +soon as possible with the Lords of the Admiralty, he embarked from Port +Jackson in a vessel, something less than a Gravesend passage boat, being +only 29 tons burden. Even in such a vessel, Captain Flinders did not lose +sight of the objects nearest his heart: he passed through Torres' Straits, +examined Pandora's entrance, explored new channels among the coral reefs, +examined Prince of Wales Island, crossed the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after +anchoring at some islands on the western side of the gulf, directed his +route to Timor: here he refitted his vessel, and then sailed for the Isle +of France, where it was absolutely necessary he should touch, in order that +she might undergo a repair, as she was very leaky. Though he possessed +passports from the French government, he was detained at the Isle of +France, under the absurd pretence that he was a spy. All his books, charts, +and papers were seized; and he himself was kept a prisoner in a miserable +room for nearly four months. He was afterwards removed to the garden +prison, a situation not so uncomfortable and prejudicial to his health as +that from which he was taken; at length, in consequence of an application +from the Royal Society to the National Institute, the French government +sent an order for his liberation; but it was not received, or, at least, it +was not acted upon till the year 1810; for it was not till that year that +Captain Flinders was permitted to leave the Isle of France: he arrived in +England on the 24th of October of that year. + +There are few voyages from which more important accessions to geographical +knowledge have been derived, than from this voyage of Captain Flinders, +especially when we reflect on the great probability that New Holland will +soon rank high in population and wealth. Before his voyage, it was +doubtful, whether New Holland was not divided into two great islands, by a +strait passing between Bass' Straits and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Captain +Flinders has put an end to all doubts on this point: he examined the coast +in the closest and most accurate manner: he found indeed two great +openings; these he sailed up to their termination; and, consequently, as +there were no other openings, and these were mere inlets, New Holland can +no longer be supposed to be divided into two great islands, but must be +regarded as forming one very large one; or, rather, from its immense size, +a species of continent. He made another important and singular discovery, +viz. that there are either no rivers of any magnitude in New Holland, or +that if there be such, they do not find their way to the sea coast. This +country seems also very deficient in good and safe ports: in his survey of +the south coast, he found only one. He completed the survey of the whole +eastern coast; of Bass's Straits and Van Dieman's Land, observing very +carefully every thing relative to the rocks, shoals, tides, winds, +currents, &c. Coral reefs, which are so common in most parts of the +Pacific, and which, owing their origin entirely to worms of the minutest +size, gradually become extensive islands, stretch along the eastern coast +of New Holland. These were examined with great care by Captain Flinders: he +found that they had nearly blocked up the passage through Torres' Straits, +so that it required great care and caution to pass it with safety. But one +of the most important results of this voyage respects the survey of the +Gulf of Carpentaria; previously the extent and bearings of this gulf were +not known; but from Captain Flinders's geography we have received an +accurate and full survey of it. Its extent was ascertained to be 5 1/2 +degrees of longitude, and 7 degrees of latitude; and its circuit nearly 400 +leagues. On the coast of this gulf he found a singular trade carried on. +Sixty proas, each about the burden of 25 tons, and carrying as many men, +were fitted out by the Rajah of Boni, and sent to catch a small animal +which lives at the bottom of the sea, called the sea slug, or _biche de +mer_. When caught, they are split, boiled, and dried in the sun, and +then carried to Timorlaot, when the Chinese purchase them: 100,000 of these +animals is the usual cargo of each proa, and they bring from 2000 to 4000 +Spanish dollars. + +Notwithstanding the English had had settlements in New Holland for upwards +of 26 years, little progress had been made in exploring the interior of the +country even in the immediate vicinity of Botany Bay. It was supposed that +a passage across the Blue Mountains, which are within sight of that +settlement, opposed insurmountable obstacles. At length, about the end of +the year 1813, the Blue Mountains were crossed for the first time, by Mr. +Evans, the deputy surveyor of the colony. He found a fertile and pleasant +district, and the streams which took their rise in the Blue Mountains, +running to the westward; to one of the most considerable of these he gave +the name of Macquarrie river; the course of this river he pursued for ten +days. On his return to the colony, the governor, Mr. Macquarrie ordered +that a road should be made across the mountains; this extended 100 miles, +and was completed in 1815. Mr. Evans soon afterwards discovered another +river, which he called the Lachlan. + +As it was of great consequence to trace these rivers, and likewise to +examine the country to the west of the Blue Mountains more accurately, and +to a greater distance than it had been done, the governor ordered two +expeditions to be undertaken. Lieutenant Oxley, the surveyor-general of the +colony had the command of both. It does not fall within our plan or limits +to follow him in these journeys; we shall therefore confine ourselves to an +outline of the result of his discoveries. He ascertained that the country +in general is very unfertile: the Lachlan he traced, till it seemed to +loose itself in a multitude of branches among marshy flats. "Perhaps," +observes Lieutenant Oxley, "there is no river, the history of which is +known, that presents so remarkable a termination as the present: its +course, in a strait line from its source to its termination, exceeds 500 +miles, and including its windings, it may fairly be calculated to run at +least 1200 miles; during all which passage, through such a vast extent of +country, it does not receive a single stream in addition to what it derives +from its sources in the Eastern mountains."--"One tree, one soil, one +water, and one description of bird, fish, or animal, prevails alike for ten +miles, and for 100." There were, however, tracks, especially where the +limestone formation prevailed, of great beauty and fertility; but these +were comparatively rare and of small extent. Level, bare, sandy wastes, +destitute of water, or morasses and swamps, which would not support them, +formed by far the greatest part of the country through which they +travelled. + +The second object Lieutenant Oxley had in view was the survey of the course +of the Macquarrie river; this he knew to be to the north-west of the +Lachlan. In crossing from the banks of the latter in search of the former, +they reached a beautiful valley; in the centre of which flowed a clear and +strong rivulet. This they traced till it joined a large river, which they +ascertained to be the Macquarrie. From this point to Bathurst Plains, the +country was rich and beautiful. + +As from the size of the Macquarrie where they fell in with it, it seemed +probable that it either communicated with the sea itself or flowed into a +river which did, the governor sent Lieutenant Oxley on another expedition +to trace its course, and thus settle this point. For twelve days the +country was rich and beautiful: the river was wide, deep, and navigable. +The country then changed its character: no hill was to be seen; on all +sides it was as level and uninteresting as that through which thay had +traced the Lachlan in their former journey. Soon afterwards it overflowed +its banks; and as the country was very flat, it spread over a vast extent. +Under these circumstances, Lieutenant Oxley proceeded down it in a boat for +thirty miles, till he lost sight of land and trees. About four miles +farther it lost all appearance of a river; but he was not able to continue +his route, and was obliged to return, without having ascertained whether +this great inland lake, into which the Macquarrie fell, was a salt or fresh +water lake. + +On his return he crossed the highest point of the mountains which divides +the waters running west from those which run into the east; the most +elevated peak he calculates to be from 6000 to 7000 feet. Here he found a +river rising, which flowed to the east; and following it, he arrived at the +place where it fell into the ocean. + +It is pretty certain from these expeditions, that no river of any size +empties itself into the sea, on the northern, western, or southern coasts +of New Holland. Captain Flinders and the French navigators had examined all +the line of coast on the western side, except from latitude 22° to 11° +south; it might therefore be supposed that the Macquarrie, after freeing +itself from the inland lake to which Lieutenant Oxley had traced it, might +fall into the sea, within these limits. This, however, is now proved not to +be the case. In the year 1818, Lieutenant King was sent by the Board of +Admiralty, to survey the unexplored coast, from the southern extremity of +Terre de Witt. He began his examination at the north-west cape, in latitude +21° 45', from this to latitude 20° 30', and from longitude 114° to 118°, he +found an archipelago, which he named after Dampier, as it was originally +discovered by this navigator. Dampier had inferred, from a remarkable +current running from the coast beyond these islands, that a great strait, +or river, opened out behind them. Lieutenant King found the tide running +strong in all the passages of the archipelago, but there was no appearance +of a river; the coast was in general low, and beyond it he descried an +extensive tract of inundated marshy country, similar to that described by +Lieutenant Oxley. Cape Van Diemen, Lieutenant King ascertained to be the +northern extremity of an island, near which was a deep gulf. Although we +have not learnt that Lieutenant King has completed his survey, 8 or 9 +degrees of latitude on the north-west coast still remaining to be explored, +yet we think it may safely be inferred that no great river has its exit +into the ocean from the interior of New Holland. This circumstance, added +to the singular nature of the country through which Lieutenant Oxley +journeyed, and the peculiar and unique character of many of its animals, +seems to stamp on this portion of the globe marks which strongly and widely +separate it from every other portion. + +It is remarked in the Quarterly Review, that, before Captain Flinder's +voyage, "the great Gulf of Carpentaria had as yet no definite outline on +our nautical charts. It was the imaginary tracing of an undulating line, +intended to denote the limits between land and water, without a promontory, +or an island, a bay, harbour, or inlet, that was defined by shape or +designated by name. This blank line was drawn and copied by one chart maker +from another, without the least authority, and without the least reason to +believe that any European had ever visited this wide and deeply-indented +gulf; and yet, when visited, this imaginary line was found to approximate +so nearly to its true form, as ascertained by survey, as to leave little +doubt that some European navigator must at one time or other have examined +it, though his labours have been buried, as the labours of many thousands +have been before and since his time, in the mouldy archives of a jealous +and selfish government." + +This remark may be extended and applied to other parts of the globe beside +Australasia; but it is particularly applicable to this portion of it. There +can be no doubt that many islands and points of land were discovered, which +were never traced in maps, even in the vague and indistinct manner in which +the Gulf of Carpentaria was traced; that many discoveries were claimed to +which no credit was given; and that owing to the imperfect mode formerly +used to determine the longitude, some, from being laid down wrong, were +afterwards claimed as entirely new discoveries. + +We have stated that this remark is particularly applicable to Australasia: +to the progress of geography in this division of the globe (including under +that appellation, besides New Holland, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, +New Ireland, Solomon's Isles, New Caledonia, New Zealand, &c.) we are now +to direct our attention; and the truth of the remark will soon appear to be +confirmed in more than one instance. + +One of the objects of Rogewein, a Dutch navigator, who, sailed from +Amsterdam in 1721, was to re-discover Solomon's Islands, and the lands +described by Quitos. In this voyage he visited New Britain, of which he has +enlarged our information; and be discovered Aurora Island, and a very +numerous archipelago, to which he gave the name of the Thousand Islands. +Captain Carteret, who sailed from England in 1767, along with Captain +Wallis, but who was separated from him in the Straits of Magellan, +discovered several isles in the South Pacific, the largest of which there +is little doubt is that which was visited by Mandana in 1595, and called by +him Santa Cruz. In prosecuting his voyage in the track pursued by Dampier, +Captain Carteret arrived on the east coast of the land named New Britain, +by that celebrated navigator. This he found to consist of two islands, +separated by a wide channel; to the northern island he gave the name of New +Ireland. + +At this period the French were prosecuting voyages of discovery in the same +portion of the globe. An expedition sailed from France in 1766, commanded +by M. Bougainville: he arrived within the limits of Australasia in May, +1768. Besides visiting a group of islands, named by him Navigators' +Islands, but which are supposed to have been discovered by Rogewein, and a +large cluster, which is also supposed to be the archipelago of the same +navigator, M. Bougainville discovered a beautiful country, to which he gave +the name of Louisiade: he was not able to examine this country, and as it +has not been visited by subsequent navigators, it is generally believed to +be an extension of the coast of Papua. After discovering some islands not +far from this land, M. Bougainville directed his course to the coast of New +Ireland; he afterwards examined the north coast of New Guinea. + +About the same time, M. Surville, another Frenchman, in a voyage from the +East Indies into the Pacific, landed on the north coast of a country east +of New Guinea; he had not an opportunity of examining this land, but it +seems probable that it was one of Solomon's Islands. + +We have already had occasion to notice the first voyage of Captain Cook, +during which he traced the eastern coast of New Holland, and ascertained +that it was separated from New Guinea. In this voyage he made further +additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia; for he visited New +Zealand, which Tasman had discovered in 1642, but on which he did not even +land. Captain Cook examined it with great care; and ascertained not only +its extent, but that it was divided into two large islands, by a strait, +which is called after him. During his second voyage he explored the New +Hebrides, the most northern of which is supposed to be described by Quitos: +Bougainville had undoubtedly sailed among them. The whole lie between the +latitude of 14° 29' and 24° 4' south, and between 166° 41' and 170° 21' +east longitude. After having completed his examination of these islands, he +discovered an extensive country, which he called New Caledonia. In his +passage from this to New Zealand he discovered several islands, and among +the rest Norfolk Island. The great object of his third voyage, which was +the examination of the north-west coast of America, did not afford him an +opportunity of visiting for any length of time Australasia; yet he did +visit it, and examined New Zealand attentively, obtaining much original and +important information respecting it, and the manners, &c. of its +inhabitants. + +The voyages which we have hitherto noticed, were principally directed to +the southern parts of Australasia. Between the years 1774 and 1776, some +discoveries were made in the northern parts of it by Captain Forrest: he +sailed from India in a vessel of only ten tons, with the intention of +ascertaining whether a settlement could not be formed on an island near the +northern promontory of Borneo. In the course of this voyage he examined the +north coast of Waygiou; and after visiting several small islands, he +arrived on the north coast of Papua. + +The next accessions that were made to our geographical knowledge of +Australasia, are derived from the voyage in search of La Peyrouse. The +object of La Peyrouse's voyage was to complete the discoveries made by +former navigators in the southern hemisphere: in the course of this voyage +he navigated some portion of Australasia; but where he and his crew +perished is not known. As the French government were naturally and very +laudably anxious to ascertain his real fate, two vessels were despatched +from France in the year 1791, for that purpose. In April, 1792, they +arrived within the limits of Australasia: after having examined Van +Diemen's Land, they sailed along an immense chain of reefs, extending +upwards of 3OO miles on the east coast of New Caledonia. As Captain Cook +had confined his survey to the north, they directed their attention to the +south-west coast. After visiting some islands in this sea, they arrived at +New Ireland, part of which they carefully explored. In 1793, after having +visited New Holland, they sailed for New Zealand; and near it they +discovered an island which lies near the eastern limit of Australasia: to +this they gave the name of Recherche. The New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and +New Britain, were also visited and examined; near the coast of the last +they discovered several mountainous islands. Beside the accessions to our +geographical knowledge of Australasia which we derived from this voyage, it +is particularly valuable "on account of the illustrations of the natural +history of the different countries, and the accuracy with which the +astronomical observations were made." It is worthy of remark that the two +ships lost nearly half their men; whereas, British navigators have been out +as long, in a climate and circumstances as unfavourable to health, and have +scarcely lost a single man. + +At the beginning of this century, the French government planned a voyage of +discovery, the chief object of which was to explore the seas of +Australasia. Those parts of New Holland which were entirely unknown, or but +imperfectly ascertained, were to be examined; the coast of New Guinea to be +surveyed, principally in the search of a strait which was supposed to +divide it into two parts; a passage by Endeavour Straits to the eastern +point of the Gulf of Carpentaria was to be attempted; and then the +expedition was to sail to Cape Northwest. Besides these objects in +Australasia, the Indian Ocean was to be navigated. + +Two vessels, the Geographe and Naturaliste, sailed on this expedition in +October, 1800; but they did not by their discoveries add much that was +important to the geography of Australasia. They indeed have made known to +future navigators, reefs and shoals on the coast of New Holland; have fixed +more accurately, or for the first time, some latitudes and longitudes +belonging to this and other parts of Australasia, and have traced some +small rivers in New Holland. They also confirmed the accuracy and justice +of preceding observations in several points; particularly relative to the +singular fineness of the weather, and serenity of the heavens in these +seas. + +Their greatest discovery undoubtedly consisted in a great archipelago, +which they named after Bonaparte: the islands that composed it were in +general small; some volcanic or basaltic; others sandy. After examining +these, they were obliged to return to Timor, in consequence of the sickness +of their crews. After they were recovered, they returned to the grand +object of their expedition, which, though interesting and important to the +navigator, or to the minute researches of the geographer, presents nothing +that requires to be noticed in this place. + +Such is the sum of the additions to our geographical knowledge of +Australasia which has resulted from the voyages of discovery during the +last one hundred years. The great outline, and most of the subordinate +parts, are filled up; and little remains to be discovered or ascertained +which can greatly alter our maps, as they are at present drawn. Additions, +however, will gradually be made; errors will be corrected; a stronger and +clearer light will be thrown on obscure points. Much of this will be done +by the accidental discoveries and observations of the many ships which are +constantly sailing from England to New Holland; or which trade from the +latter country to New Zealand or other parts of Australasia, to India, or +to China. By means of these voyages, additions have already been made to +our knowledge, especially of New Zealand; and its inhabitants are beginning +to feel and acknowledge the benefits which must always be derived from the +intercourse of civilized people with savages. + +Polynesia, extending from the Pelew Isles on the west, to the Isle of All +Saints on the north-east, and the Sandwich Isles in the east, and having +for its other boundaries the latitude of 20° north, and of 50° south, near +the latter of which it joins Australasia, is the only remaining division of +the globe which remains to come under our cognizance, as having been +explored by maritime expeditions; and as it consists entirely of groups of +small islands, we shall not be detained long in tracing the discoveries +which have been made in these seas. + +The Pelew Islands, one of the divisions of Polynesia, though they probably +had been seen, and perhaps visited by Europeans before 1783, were certainly +first made completely known to them at this period, in consequence of the +shipwreck of Captain Wilson on them. The Sandwich Isles, the next group, +have been discovered within the last century by Captain Cook, on his last +voyage. The Marquesas, discovered by Mandana, were visited by Captain Cook +in 1774, by the French in 1789, and particularly and carefully examined +during the missionary voyage of Captain Wilson in 1797. Captain Wallis, who +sailed with Captain Carteret in 1766, but was afterwards separated from him +in his course across the South Pacific, discovered several islands, +particularly Otaheite; to this and the neighbouring islands the name of +Society Isles was given. Such are the most important discoveries that have +been made in Polynesia during the last century; but besides these, other +discoveries of less importance have been made, either by navigators who +have sailed expressly for the purpose, as Kotzebue, &c., or by accident, +while crossing this immense ocean. In consequence of the advances which the +Sandwich Islands have made in civilization, commerce, and the arts, there +is considerable intercourse with them, especially by the Americans; and +their voyages to them, and from thence to China, whither they carry the +sandal wood, &c. which they obtain there, as well as their voyages from the +north-west coast of America with furs to China, must soon detect any isles +that may still be unknown in this part of the Pacific Ocean. + +Although, therefore, much remains yet to be accomplished by maritime +expeditions, towards the extension and correction of our geographical +knowledge, so far as the bearings of the coast, and the latitudes and +longitudes of various places are concerned, there seems no room for what +may properly and strictly be called discovery, at least of any thing but +small and scattered islands. + +It is otherwise with the accessions which land expeditions may still make +to geographical knowledge; for though within these one hundred years the +European foot has trodden where it never trod before, and though our +geographical knowledge of the interior of Africa, Asia, and America, has +been, rendered within that period not only more extensive, but also more +accurate and minute than it previously was, yet much remains to be done and +known. + +In giving a short and rapid sketch of the progress of discovery, so far as +it has been accomplished by land expeditions during the period alluded to, +we are naturally led to divide what we have to say according to the three +great portions of the globe which have been the objects of these +expeditions, viz. Africa, Asia, and America. + +1. Africa. This country has always presented most formidable obstacles to +the progress of discovery: its immense and trackless deserts, its burning +and fatal climate, its barbarous and treacherous inhabitants, have united +to keep a very large portion of it from the intercourse, and even the +approach of European travellers. Even its northern parts, which are most +accessible to Europe, and which for 2000 years have been occasionally +visited by Europeans, are guarded by the cruel jealousy of its inhabitants; +or, if that is overcome, advances to any very great distance from the coast +are effectively impeded by natives still more savage, or by waterless and +foodless deserts. + +The west coast of Africa, ever since it was ascertained that slaves, ivory, +gold dust, gums, &c. could be obtained there, has been eagerly colonized by +Europeans; and though these colonies have now existed for upwards of three +hundred years, and though the same love of gain which founded them must +have directed a powerful wish on those interior countries from which these +precious articles of traffic were brought, yet such have been the +difficulties, and dangers, and dread, that the most enthusiastic traveller, +and the most determined lover of gain, have scarcely penetrated beyond the +very frontier of the coast. If we turn to the east coast, still less has +been done to explore the interior from that side; the nature, bearings, &c. +of the coast itself are not accurately known; and accessions to our +knowledge respecting it have been the result rather of accident than of a +settled plan, or of any expedition with that view. The Cape of Good Hope +has now been an European settlement nearly two hundred years: the +inhabitants in that part of Africa, though of course barbarians, are +neither so formidable for their craft and cruelty, and strength, nor so +implacable in their hatred of strangers, as the inhabitants of the north +and of the interior of Africa; and yet to what a short distance from the +Cape has even a solitary European traveller ever reached! + +But though a very great deal remains to be accomplished before Africa will +cease to present an immense void in its interior, in our maps, and still +more remains to be accomplished before we can become acquainted with the +manners, &c. of its inhabitants, and its produce and manufactures, yet the +last century, and what has passed of the present, have witnessed many bold +and successful enterprizes to extend our geographical knowledge of this +quarter of the globe. + +As the sovereigns of the northern shores of Africa were, from various +causes and circumstances, always in implacable hostility with one another, +and as, besides this obstacle to advances into Africa from this side, it +was well known that the Great Desert spread itself an almost impassable +barrier to any very great progress by the north into the interior, it was +not to be expected that any attempts to penetrate this quarter of the globe +by this route would be made. On the other hand, the Europeans had various +settlements on the western coast: on this coast there were many large +rivers, which apparently ran far into the interior; these rivers, +therefore, naturally seemed the most expeditious, safe, and easy routes, by +which the interior might, at least to a short distance from the shore, be +penetrated. + +But it was very long before the Senegal, one of the chief of these rivers, +was traced higher than the falls of Felu; or the Gambia, another river of +note and magnitude, than those of Baraconda. In the year 1723, Captain +Stebbs, who was employed by the Royal African Company, succeeded in going +up this river as far as the flats of Tenda. Soon afterwards, some +information respecting the interior of Africa, especially respecting Bonda, +(which is supposed to be the Bondou of Park, in the upper Senegal,) was +received through an African prince, who was taken prisoner, and carried as +a slave to America. + +All the information which had been drawn from these, and other sources, +respecting the interior, was collected and published by Moore, the +superintendent of the African Company's settlements on the Gambia; but +though the particulars regarding the manners, &c. of the inhabitants are +curious, yet this work adds not much to our geographical knowledge of the +interior of this part of the world. + +In the year 1788, the African Institution was formed: its object was to +send persons properly qualified to make discoveries in the interior of +Africa. The first person engaged by them was Mr. Ledyard; and, from all +accounts of him, no person could have been better qualified for such an +arduous enterprise: he was strong, healthy, active, intelligent, +inquisitive, observant, and undaunted; full of zeal, and sanguine of +success; and, at the same time, open, kind, and insinuating in his looks +and manners. At Cairo he prepared himself for his undertaking, by visiting +the slave market, in order to converse with the merchants of the various +caravans, and learn all the particulars connected with his proposed +journey, and the countries from which they came. But be proceeded no +farther than Cairo: here he was seized with an illness, occasioned or +aggravated by the delay in the caravans setting out for Sennaar, which +proved fatal. + +Mr Lucas was the next person employed by the African Institution. In +October, 1788, he arrived at Tripoli, from whence he set out with two +shereefs for Fezzan, by the way of Mescerata. On the fourth day after his +departure, he reached Lebida, on the sea coast, the Leptis Magna of the +Romans. He found, on his arrival at Mescerata, that he should not be able +to procure the number of camels necessary to convey his goods to Fezzan; +and was obliged to abandon his enterprize. From the information which he +derived, at Mescerata, confirmed as it was by what the Association had +learnt from the narrative of a native of Morocco, the geography of Africa +was extended from Fezzan, across the eastern division of the Desert, to +Bornou, Cashna, and the Niger. + +In a year or two after the return of Mr. Lucas, the African Association, +who were indefatigable in endeavouring to obtain information from all +sources, learnt some interesting and original circumstances from an Arab. +This person described a large empire on the banks of the Niger, in the +capital of which, Housa, he had resided two years: this city he rather +vaguely and inconsistently described as equalling London and Cairo in +extent and population. As it was necessary to scrutinize the truth and +consistency of his narrative, what he related was at first received with +caution and doubt, but an incidental circumstance seemed to prove him +worthy of credit; for in describing the manner in which pottery was +manufactured at Housa, which he did by imitating the actions of those who +made it, it was remarked that he actually described the ancient Grecian +wheel. + +In order to learn whether the accounts of this man were true and accurate, +the African Institution sent out Major Houghton: he was instructed to +ascertain the course, and, if possible, the rise and termination of the +Niger; to visit Tombuctoo and Housa, and to return by the Desert. +Accordingly he sailed up the Gambia to Pisania, and thence he proceeded to +Medina, the capital of the Mandingo kingdom. His course from this city was +north-east, which led him beyond the limit of European discovery, to the +uninhabited frontier which separates Bondou and Mandingo. After some time +spent in endeavouring to ingratiate himself with the king of the latter +country, but in vain, he resolved to proceed into Bambouk. On arriving at +Firbanna, the capital, he was hospitably treated by the king. Here be +formed a plan to go with a merchant to Tombuctoo; but on his way he was +robbed, and either perished of hunger, or was murdered: the exact +particulars are not known. To Major Houghton we are indebted for our first +knowledge of the kingdom of Bondou; and for the names of several cities on +the Niger, as well as the course of that river. + +Mr. Park was next employed by the African Association; and what he learnt, +observed, did, and suffered, fully justified them in the choice of such a +man. "His first journey was unquestionably the most important which any +European had ever performed in the interior of Africa. He established a +number of geographical positions, in a direct line of eleven hundred miles +from Cape de Verde: by pointing out the positions of the sources of the +Senegal, Gambia, and Niger, he has given a new aspect to the physical +geography of this continent; he has fixed the boundaries of the Moors and +Negroes; unfolded to us the empire of Ludamar; and described, from personal +observation, some important towns on the banks of the Niger, or Joliba. The +information which he has communicated concerning this part of Africa, and +their manners, is equally new and interesting. He has traced with accuracy +the distinction betwixt the Mahometans and Pagans." This journey was +accomplished between the 2d of December, 1795, when he left Pisania, a +British factory two hundred miles up the Gambia, and the 10th of June, +1797, when he returned to the same place, an interval of eighteen months. + +Notwithstanding the dangers and fatigues which he had undergone; +notwithstanding that, on his return to his native country, he had married, +and entered on a life which promised him competence and domestic happiness; +yet his mind yearned for a repetition of those scenes and adventures to +which he had lately been accustomed. No sooner, therefore, did he learn +that another mission to Africa was in contemplation, than he set his +inclination on undertaking it, if it were offered to him. This it was: he +accepted the offer; and on the 30th of January, 1805, he left Portsmouth. + +It is surprising and lamentable, that notwithstanding his knowledge and +experience of the climate of the country to which he was going, he should +have begun his expedition at a time when her was sure to encounter the +rainy season long before he could reach the Niger. + +The expedition was most unfortunate: Mr. Park perished in it, after having +undergone dreadful hardships, and witnessed the death of several of his +companions; and of one of them who was his most intimate friend. The exact +place and circumstances of his own fate are not known: it is known, +however, from his own journal, which he transmitted to England, that he had +reached Sansandang, which is considerably short of Silla, which he had +reached in his first journey; and from other sources, it is known, that +from the former place he went to Yaour in Haoussa, where he is supposed to +have been killed by the natives. + +The African Association were still indefatigable in their endeavours to +explore the interior of Africa; and they found little difficulty in meeting +with persons zealously disposed, as well as qualified, to second their +designs. Mr. Horneman, a German, who possessed considerable knowledge, such +as might be of service to him on such an enterprise, and who was besides +strong, active, vigorous, undaunted, endowed with passive courage, (a most +indispensable qualification,) temperate, and in perfect health, was next +selected. He prepared himself by learning such of the Oriental languages as +might be useful to him; and on the 10th of September, 1797, arrived at +Alexandria. Circumstances prevented him from pursuing his route for nearly +two years, when he left Cairo, along with a caravan for Fezzan. His +subsequent fate is unknown; but there is reason to believe that he died +soon after his departure from Fezzan. + +It is not necessary to mention any of the subsequent expeditions which were +sent by the Association into the interior of Africa; since none of them +have added to our knowledge of this portion of the globe. There have, +indeed, been communications received from some of the merchants trading +from the north of Africa to the Niger, which confirm the accounts of large +and powerful kingdoms on its banks, and the inhabitants of these kingdoms +are comparatively far advanced in manufactures and commerce; but, besides +these particulars, little respecting the geography of the interior has been +ascertained. The course of the Niger is proved beyond a doubt to be, as +Herodotus described it, upwards of 2000 years ago, from west to east; but +the termination of this large river is utterly unknown. Some think it +unites with the Nile, and forms the great western branch of that river, +called the Bahr el Abiad, or White River; others think that it loses itself +in the lakes or swamps of Wangara, or Ghana, and is there wasted by +evaporation; while another opinion is, that its course takes a bend to the +west, and that it falls into the Atlantic, or that it discharges itself +into the Indian Ocean. + +The British government, anxious to determine, if possible, this curious and +important question, sent out two expeditions, about seven years since, to +explore in every possible way the course and termination of the Niger. The +first, under the conduct of Captain Tuckey, proceeded up the Zaire; the +other ascended the Nunez in north Africa, in order, if possible, to reach +the navigable part of the Niger by a shorter course than that followed by +Park, and with the design of proceeding down the river till it reached its +termination. The issue of both these expeditions, particularly of the +former, was singularly melancholy and unfortunate: Captain Tuckey, and +fifteen persons out of the thirty who composed it, perished in consequence +of the excessive fatigue which they underwent after they had reached above +the cataracts of the river, the want of sufficient and proper food, and a +fever brought on, or aggravated, by these causes. Captain Tuckey was the +last who fell a victim, after having traced the Zaire, till it became from +four to five miles in breadth. The mountains were no longer seen, and the +course of the river inclined to the north; these circumstances, joined to +that of its becoming broader, render the opinion that it is the same with +the Niger more probable than it previously was: the accounts given to +Captain Tuckey were also to the same effect. The second expedition, under +the direction of Major Peddir, reached Kauendy on the Nunez, where he died: +his successor in the command, Captain Campbell, penetrated about 150 miles +beyond this place, but not being able to procure the means of proceeding, +he was obliged to return to it, where he also died. + +Within 150 miles of the British settlement at Cape Coast Castle, there is a +powerful and rich nation, called the Aahantees: they seem first to have +been heard of by Europeans about the year 1700; but they were not seen near +the coast, nor had they any intercourse with our factories till the year +1807: they visited the coast again in 1811, and a third time in 1816. These +invasions produced great distress among the Fantees, and even were highly +prejudicial to our factory; in consequence of which, the governor resolved +to send a mission to them. Of this journey an account has been published by +Mr. Bowdich, one of those engaged in it. The travellers passed through the +Fantee and Assen territories. The first Ashantee village was Quesha; the +capital is Coomastee, which the mission reached on the 19th of May, 1817. +Mr. Bowdich paints the splendour, magnificence, and richness of the +sovereign of the Ashantees in the most gorgeous manner; and even his +manners as dignified and polished. But though his work is very full of what +almost seems romantic pictures and statements of the civilization and +richness of the Ashantees, and gives accurate accounts of their kingdom, +yet, in other respects, it is not interesting or important, in a +geographical point of view. There are, indeed, some notices which were +collected from the natives or the travelling Moors, regarding the countries +beyond Ashantee, and some of their opinions respecting the Niger. The most +important point which he ascertained was, that the route from the capital +to Tombuctoo is much travelled; and it is now supposed that this is the +shortest and best road for Europeans to take, who wish to reach the Niger +near that city. Indeed, we understand that merchants frequently come to the +British settlement at Sierra Leone, who represent the route into the +interior of Africa and the neighbourhood of the Niger from thence, as by no +means arduous or dangerous. + +We shall next direct our attention to the north of Africa. + +The hostility of the Mahometans, who possessed the north of Africa, to +Christians, presented as serious an obstacle to travels in that quarter as +the barbarism and ferocity of the native tribes on the west coast did to +discoveries into the interior in that direction. In the sixteenth century, +Leo Africanus gave an ample description of the northern parts; and in the +same century, Alvarez, who visited Abyssinia, published an account of that +country. In the subsequent century, this part of Africa was illustrated by +Lobo, Tellea, and Poncet; the latter was a chemist and apothecary, sent by +Louis XIV to the reigning monarch of Abyssinia; the former were +missionaries. From their accounts, and those of the Portuguese, all our +information respecting this country was derived, previously to the travels +of Mr. Bruce. + +Pocock and Norden are the most celebrated travellers in Egypt in the +beginning of the seventeenth century; but as their object was rather the +discovery and description of the antiquities of this country, what they +published did not much extend our geographical knowledge: the former spent +five years in his travels. The latter is the first writer who published a +picturesque description of Egypt; every subsequent traveller has borne +evidence to the accuracy and fidelity of his researches and descriptions. +He was the first European who ventured above the cataracts. + +The great ambition and object of Mr. Bruce was to discover the source of +the Nile; for this purpose he left Britain in 1762, and after visiting +Algiers, Balbec, and Palmyra, he prepared for his journey into Abyssinia. +He sailed up the Nile a considerable way, and afterwards joined a caravan +to Cosseir on the Red Sea. After visiting part of the sea coast of Arabia, +he sailed for Massoucut, by which route alone an entrance into Abyssinia +was practicable. In this country he encountered many obstacles, and +difficulties, and after all, in consequence of wrong information he +received from the inhabitants, visited only the Blue River, one of the +inferior streams of the Nile, instead of the White River, its real source. +This, however, is of trifling moment, when contrasted with the accessions +to our geographical knowledge of Abyssinia, the coast of the Red Sea, &c., +for which we are indebted to this most zealous and persevering traveller. +Since Mr. Bruce's time, Abyssinia has been visited by Mr. Salt, who has +likewise added considerably to our knowledge of this country, though on +many points he differs from Mr. Bruce. + +The most important and interesting accession to our knowledge of the north +of Africa was made between the years 1792 and 1795, by Mr. Browne. This +gentleman seems to have equalled Mr. Bruce in his zeal and ardour, but to +have surpassed him in the soundness and utility of his views; for while the +former was principally ambitious of discovering the sources of the Nile,--a +point of little real moment in any point of view,--the latter wished to +penetrate into those parts of the north of Africa which were unknown to +Europeans, but which, from all accounts of them, promised to interest and +benefit, not only commerce, but science. His precise and immediate object +was Darfur, some of the natives of which resided in Egypt: from their +manners and account of their country, Mr. Browne concluded the inhabitants +were not so hostile to Christians and Europeans as Mahometans are in +general. He therefore resolved to go thither; as from it he could either +proceed into Abyssinia by Kordofan, or traverse Africa from east to west. +He therefore left Assiou in Egypt with the Soudan caravan in 1793, passed +through the greater Oasis, and arrived at Sircini in Darfur: here he +resided a considerable time, but he found insurmountable obstacles opposed +to his grand and ulterior plan. He ascertained, however, the source and +progress of the real Nile or White River. The geography of Darfur and +Kordofan is illustrated by him in a very superior and satisfactory manner. +The geography of Africa to the west of these countries is likewise +elucidated by him: he mentions and describes a large river which takes its +rise among the mountains of Kumri, and flows in a north-west course. This +river is supposed to be that described by Ptolemy under the name of Gir, +and by Edrisi as the Nile of the Negroes. The fate of Mr. Browne, who from +all the accounts of him seems to have been admirably fitted by nature and +habits for a traveller, was very melancholy. After his return to England +from Darfur he resolved to visit the central countries of Asia: he +accordingly set out, but on his way thither he was murdered in Persia. + +At the commencement of this century, circumstances occurred Which rendered +Egypt and the countries adjacent more accessible to Europeans than they had +ever been before. In the first place, the French, who most unjustly invaded +it, took with their invading army a number of literary and scientific men, +by whom were published several splendid works, principally on the +antiquities of this ancient country. In the second place, the English, by +driving out the French, and by their whole conduct towards the ruling men +and the natives in general, not only weakened in a very considerable degree +the dislike to Europeans and Christians which the Mahomedans here, as +elsewhere, had ever entertained, but also created a grateful sense of +obligation and of favour towards themselves. Lastly, the pacha, who +obtained the power in Egypt, was a man of liberal and enlightened views, +far above those who had preceded him, and disposed to second and assist the +researches and journies of travellers. + +In consequence of these favourable circumstances, and the additional +circumstance, that by the conquests and influence of Bonaparte English +travellers were shut out from a great part of Europe, they directed their +course towards Egypt. Their object was chiefly to investigate the numerous, +stupendous, and interesting antiquities. + +In the year 1813, Mr. Legh, a member of the House of Commons, performed a +journey in this country, and beyond the cataracts. Above the cataracts he +entered Nubia, and proceeded to Dehr, its capital. These travels are, +however, chiefly interesting and instructive for that which indeed must +give the chief interest to all travels in Egypt and Nubia--the description +of antiquities. + +The second cataract continued the limit of the attempts of European +travellers, till it was reached and passed, first by Mr. Burckhardt, and +afterwards by Mr. Banks. No modern traveller has excelled Mr. Burckhardt in +the importance of his travels; and-few, in any age, have equalled him in +zeal, perseverance, fortitude, and success. + +He was employed by the African Association to explore the interior of +Africa. Having perfected himself in the knowledge of the religion, manners, +and language of the Mahomedan Arabs, by frequent and long residences among +the Bedouins, he proceeded to Cairo. Here, finding that the opportunity of +a caravan to Fezzan or Darfur was not soon likely to occur, he resolved to +explore Egypt and the country above the cataracts. He accordingly +"performed two very arduous and interesting journies into the ancient +Ethiopia; one of them along the banks of the Nile from Assouan to Dar al +Mahas on the frontiers of Dongola, in the months of February and March, +1813, during which he discovered many remains of ancient Egyptian and +Nubian architecture, with Greek inscriptions; the other between March and +July in the following year, through Nubia to Souakun. The details of this +journey contain the best notices ever received in Europe of the actual +state of society, trade, manufactures, and government, in what was once the +cradle of all the knowledge of the Egyptians." + +Although it will carry us a little out of our regular and stated course, to +notice the other travels of this enterprising man in the place, yet we +prefer doing it, in order that our readers, by having at once before them a +brief abstract of all he performed for geography, may the better be enabled +to appreciate his merits. + +Soon after his second return to Cairo, he resolved to penetrate into +Arabia, and to visit Mecca and Medina. In order to secure his own safety, +and at the same time gain such information as could alone be obtained in +the character of a Mahomedan, he assumed the dress, and he was enabled to +personate the religion, manners, and language of the native Hadje, or +pilgrims. Thus secure and privileged, he resided between four and five +months in Mecca. Here he gained some authentic and curious information +respecting the rise, history, and tenets of the Wahabees, a Mahomedan sect. +These travels have not yet been published. + +The last excursion of Mr. Burckhardt was from Cairo to Mount Sinai and the +eastern head of the Red Sea. This journey was published in 1822, along with +the travels in Syria and the Holy Land; the latter of which he accomplished +while he was preparing himself at Aleppo for his proposed journey into the +interior of Africa. These travels, therefore, are prior in date to those in +Nubia, though they were published afterwards. + +He spent nearly three, years in Syria: his most important geographical +discoveries in this country relate to the nature of the district between +the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Elana; the extent, conformation, and detailed +topography of the Haouran; the situation of Apanea on the river Orontes, +which was one of the most important cities of Syria under the Macedonian +Greeks; the site of Petreea; and the general structure of the peninsula of +Mount Sinai. Perhaps the most original and important of these illustrations +of ancient geography is that which relates to the Elanitic Gulph: its +extent and form were previously so little known, that it was either +entirely omitted, or very erroneously laid down in maps. From what he +observed here, there is good reason to believe that the Jordan once +discharged itself into the Red Sea; thus confirming the truth of that +convulsion mentioned and described in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis, +which interrupted the coarse of this river; converted the plain in which +Sodom and Gomorrah stood into a lake, and changed the valley to the +southward of this district into a sandy desert. + +But Mr. Burckhardt, considering all these excursions, and their consequent +numerous and important accessions to geographical knowledge, as only +preludes to the grand expedition for which he had expressly come to the +East, still looked forward to the interior of Africa. This, however, he was +not destined to reach; for while at Cairo, waiting for a caravan, which was +to proceed by Mourzouck,--a. route which he had long decided on as the most +likely to answer his purpose,--he was suddenly seized with a dysentery, on +the 5th of October, 1817, and died on the 15th. + +Travellers in. Egypt and Nubia have been numerous since the time of Mr. +Burckhardt; but as they chiefly directed their investigations and inquiries +to the antiquities of the country, they do not come within our proper +notice; we shall therefore merely mention the names of Belzoni, (whose +antiquarian discoveries have been so numerous and splendid,) Mr. Salt, Mr. +Bankes, &c. To this latter gentleman, however, geography is also indebted +for important additions to its limits; or, rather, for having illustrated +ancient geography. He penetrated, as we have already mentioned, as far as +the second cataract: he visited some of the most celebrated scenes in +Arabia, and made an excursion to Waadi Mooza, or the Valley of Moses. He +also visited Carrac; but the most important discovery of this gentleman +relates to the site of the ancient Petraea, which was also visited by +Burckhardt. Onr readers will recollect that this city has been particularly +noticed in our digression on the early commerce of the Arabians, as the +common centre for the caravans in all ages; and that we traced its ancient +history as far down as there were any notices of it. Its ruins Mr. Bankes +discovered in those of Waadi Mooza, a village in the valley of the same +name. + +Since Mr. Burckhardt travelled, geographical discoveries have been made in +this part of the world by Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon, Lord Belmore and Dr. +Richardson, Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury, Messrs. Caillaud and Drovetti, +Sir Archibald Edmonstone, Sir Frederick Henniker, and by an American of the +name of English. The travels of Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon were confined to +Fezzan, and are chiefly curious for the notices they give, derived from +native merchants, of the course of the Niger, By means of the travels of +Lord Belmore and Dr. Richardson, the latitudes and longitudes on the Nile +have been corrected from Assouan to the confines of Dongola. Mr. Waddington +and Mr. Hanbury, taking advantage of an expedition sent into Ethiopia by +the pacha of Egypt, examined this river four hundred miles beyond the place +to which Burckhardt advanced. The travels of the two French gentlemen +extended to the Oasis of Thebes and Dakel, and the deserts situated to the +east and west of the Thebaid. In the Thebaic Oasis some very interesting +remains of antiquity were discovered: the great Oasis was well known to the +ancients; but the Thebaic Oasis has seldom been visited in modern times. +Brown and Poncet passed through its longest extent, but did not see the +ruins observed by Mr. Caillaud. + +This gentleman, who was employed by the pacha to search for gold, silver, +and precious stones, after a residence of five months at Sennaar, traversed +the province of Fazocle, and followed the Arrek, till it entered the +kingdom of Bertot. At a place called Singue, in the kingdom of Dar-foke, +which is the southern boundary of Bertot, situated on the tenth parallel of +latitude, and five days' journey to the westward of the confines of +Abyssinia, the conquests of Ishmaei Pacha terminated. Only short notices of +these travels of Mr. Caillaud have as yet been published. + +Sir A. Edmonstone's first intention was to visit the Thebaic Oasis; but +understanding from Mr. Belzoni that Mr. Caillaud had already been there, +but that there was another Oasis to the westward, which had never been +visited by any European, he resolved to proceed thither. This Oasis was +also visited by Drovetti much about I he same time: he calls it the Oasis +of Dakel. It seems to have escaped the notice of all the ancient authors +examined by Sir Archibald, except Olympiodorus. Speaking of the Thebaic +Oasis, he mentions an interior and extensive one, lying opposite to the +other, one hundred miles apart, which corresponds with the actual distance +between them. + +The American traveller accompanied the expedition of the pacha of Egypt as +far as Sennaar. He commences the account of his voyage up the Nile at the +second cataract; and as far as the pyramids of Meroe, where the voyage of +Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury terminated, his accounts correspond with +what they give. He did not, however, follow the great bend of the river +above Dongola: this he describes as 250 miles long, and full of rocks and +rapid. He again reached the Nile, having crossed the peninsula in a direct +line, at Shendi. Near this place he discovered the remains of a city, +temples, and fifty-four pyramids, which are supposed, by a writer in the +Quarterly Review, to be the ruins of the celebrated Meroc, as their +position agrees with that assigned them by a draughtsman employed by Mr. +Bankes. The army halted on the western bank of the Nile, opposite Halfaia: +about five hours' march above this place the Bahr el Abiad, or White River, +flows into the Bahr el Azreck, or Nile of Bruce. In thirteen days from the +junction of these two rivers, the army, marching along the left, or western +branch of the Azreck, reached Sennaar. + +In the year 1817, Delia Cella, an Italian physician, accompanied the army +of the bashaw of Tripoli as far as Bomba, on the route towards Egypt, and +near the frontiers of that country. He had thus an opportunity "of visiting +one of the oldest and most celebrated of the Greek colonies, established +upwards of seven hundred years before the birth of Christ; and in being the +first European to follow the footsteps of Cato round the shores of the +Syrtis, and to explore a region untrodden by Christian foot since the +expulsion of the Romans, the Huns, and the Vandals, by the enterprising +disciples of Mahomet." In this journey he necessarily passed the present +boundary between Tripoli and Bengaze, the same which was anciently the +boundary between Carthage and Cyrene; and our author confirms the account +of Sallust, that neither river nor mountain marks the confines. He also +confirms the description given by Herodotus of the dreadful storms of sand +that frequently arise and overwhelm the caravans in this part of the +Syrtis. At the head of the Syrtis the ground is depressed, and this +depression, our author supposes, continues to the Great Desert. Soon after +he left this barren country, he entered Cyrenaica, the site of Cyrene: that +most ancient and celebrated colony of the Greeks was easily ascertained by +its magnificent ruins. From Cyrene the army marched to Derna, and from this +to the gulf of Bomba, an extensive arm of the sea, where the expedition +terminated. + +Such are the most recent discoveries in this portion of Africa. + +The settlement of the Cape of Good Hope, originally established by the +Dutch, and at present in possession of the English, was naturally the point +from which European travellers set out to explore the southern parts of +Africa. Their progress hitherto has not been great, though, as far as they +have advanced, the information they have acquired of the face of the +country, its productions, the tribes which inhabit it, and their habits, +manners, &c. may be regarded as full and accurate. The principal travellers +who have visited this part of Africa, and from whose travels the best +information may be obtained of the settlement of the Cape, and of the +country to the north of it for about 900 miles, are Kolbein, Sparman, Le +Vaillant, Barrow, Lichtenstein, La Trobe, Campbell, and Burcheli. To the +geography of the east coast of Africa, and of the adjacent districts, +little or no addition has been made for a very considerable length of time. + +II. The discoveries in Asia may in general be divided into those which the +vast possessions of the Russians in this quarter of the globe, and the +corresponding interest which they felt to become better acquainted with +them, induced them to make, and into those to which the English were +stimulated, and which they were enabled to perform, from the circumstance +of their vast, important, and increasing possessions in Hindostan. + +The most important and instructive travels which spring from the first +source, are those of Bell of Antermony, Pallas, Grnelin, Guldenstedt, +Lepechin, &c. Bell was a Scotchman, attached to the Russian service: his +work, which was published about the middle of the last century, contains an +account of the embassy sent by Peter the Great to the emperor of China, and +of another embassy into Persia; of an expedition to Derbent by the Russian +army, and of a journey to Constantinople. Of the route in all these +directions he gives an interesting and accurate account, as well as of the +manners, &c. of the people. Indeed, it is a valuable work, especially that +portion of it which conducts us through the central parts of Asia,--an +immense district, which, as we have already remarked, is not much better +known at present, (at least considerable portions of it,) than it was three +or four centuries ago. The travels of Pallas, &c. were undertaken by order +of the Russian government, for the purpose of gaining a fuller and more +accurate account of the provinces of that immense empire, especially those +to the south, which, from climate, soil, and productions were most +valuable, and most capable of improvement. + +The English possessions in Hindostan have led the way to two sets of +discoveries, or rather advancements in geographical knowledge: one which +was derived from the journies frequently made overland from India to +Europe; and the other, which was derived from embassies, &c. from Calcutta +to the neighbouring kingdoms. In general, however, the journies overland +from India, having been undertaken expressly for the purpose of expedition, +and moreover being through countries which required the utmost caution on +the part of the travellers to preserve them from danger, did not admit of +much observation being made, or much information being acquired, respecting +the districts that were passed through. The travels of Jackson, Forster, +and Fitzclarence, are perhaps as valuable as any which have been given to +the public respecting the route from India to Europe, and the countries, +and their inhabitants, passed through in this route. + +From the embassies and the wars of the British East India Company in +Hindostan, we have derived much valuable information respecting Persia, +Thibet, Ava, Caubul, &c.; and from their wars, as well as from the +institution of the Asiatic Society, and the facilities which their +conquests afforded to travellers, the whole of the peninsula of Hindostan, +as well as the country to the north of it, as far as Cashmere and the +Himaleh mountains, may be regarded as fully explored. Perhaps the most +valuable accession to geographical knowledge through the English conquests, +relates to these mountains. They seem to have been known to Pliny under the +name of Imaus: they are described by Plotemy; and they were crossed by some +of the Jesuit missionaries about the beginning of the seventeenth century; +but they were not thoroughly explored till the beginning of the nineteenth. +Mr. Moorcroft was the first European, after the missionaries, who +penetrated into the plains of Tartary through these mountains. The fullest +account, however, of the singular countries which lie among them, is given +by Mr. Frazer, who in 1814 passed in a straight line, in a direction of +this chain, between 60 and 70 miles, and also visited the sources of the +Ganges. + +Our commerce with China for tea, and the hope of extending that commerce to +other articles, produced, towards the end of the last century and the +beginning of this, two embassies to China, from both of which, but +especially from the first, much additional information has been gained +respecting this extensive country, and its singular inhabitants; so that, +regarding it and them, from these embassies, and the works of the Jesuit +missionaries, we possess all the knowledge which we can well expect to +derive, so long as the Chinese are so extremely jealous of strangers. + +The British embassies to China, besides making us better acquainted with +this country, added no little to our information respecting those places +which were visited in going to and returning from China. Perhaps the most +important correction of geography is that which was made by Captains +Maxwell and Hall, who took out the second embassy: we allude to what they +ascertained respecting the kingdom of Corea. They found a bay, which, +according to the charts of this country, would be situated 120 miles in the +interior; and at the same time they ascertained, that along the southern +coast of Corea there was an archipelago of more than 1000 islands. These +discoveries; the valuable additions which were made during the voyage of +Captain Maxwell to the geography and hydrography of the Yellow Sea; the +correction of the vague and incorrect notions which were long entertained +respecting the isles of Jesso and the Kuriles, by the labours of La +Perouse, Broughton, Krusentein, &c., and the full and minute information +given to the public respecting Java, and other parts of the southern Indian +archipelago, by Raffles, Craufurd, &c. seem to leave little to be added to +our geographical knowledge of the eastern and southeastern portions of +Asia. + +III. We come now to America;--and though Africa is one of the most ancient +seats of the human race, and of civilization and science, and America has +been discovered only about 350 years, yet we know much more respecting the +coasts and interior of the latter than of the former portion of the globe. + +Although the Spaniards and Portuguese, who, till very lately, possessed +nearly the whole of South America, guarded their possessions strictly from +the curious intrusion of foreigners, and were themselves very sparing in +giving to the world the information respecting them which they must have +acquired,--yet, even during their power there, the geography of this part +of America was gradually developed and extended; the face of the country; +the great outline of those immense mountains, which, under the torrid zone, +are visited by the cold of the Pole; the nature of the vast plains which +lie between the offsets of these mountains; and the general direction of +the rivers, not less remarkable for their size than the mountains and +plains, were generally known. The geography of South America, however, +taking the term in the most philosophical and comprehensive sense, has been +principally enriched within these few years, by the labours of Humboldt and +his fellow-traveller Bompland, of Depons, Koster, Prince Maximilian, +Luccock, Henderson, and by those Englishmen who joined the Spanish +Americans during their struggle with the mother country. From the +observations, enquiries, and researches of these travellers, our +information respecting all those parts of South America which constituted +the Spanish and Portuguese dominions there, especially of Mexico, Terra +Firma, Brazil, and Buenos Ayres, and generally the eastern and middle +portions, has been much extended, as well as rendered more accurate and +particular. Humboldt, especially, has left little to be gleaned by any +future traveller, from any of those countries which he has visited and +described. + +The rapid and wonderful increase in the territories and inhabitants of the +United States, has necessarily laid open the greater part of North America +to our acquaintance. The United States, limited in their wish and +endeavours to extend themselves on the north by the British possessions +there, and on the south by the Spanish territories, and moreover drawn +towards the interior and the shores of the Pacific by the grand natural +navigation which the Mississippi and its numerous streams afford for inland +commerce, and by the commercial access to the wealth of the East which the +possession of the shores of the Pacific would open to them, have pushed +their territories towards the west. First, the Alleghany Mountains, a +feeble barrier to an encreasing population, and a most enterprising as well +as unsettled people, were passed; then the Mississippi was reached and +crossed; and at present the government of the United States are preparing +the way for extending their territories gradually to the Western Ocean +itself, and for spreading their population, as they go westwards, to the +north and the south, as far as their limits, will admit. + +All those countries, over which they have spread themselves, are of course +now well known, principally from the accounts published by Europeans, and +especially Englishmen, who have been tempted to explore them, or to settle +there. The government of the United States itself has not been backward in +setting on foot exploratory travels into the immense districts to the west +of the Mississippi: to these enterprizes they seem to have been +particularly directed and stimulated by the acquisition of Louisiana from +France, a country "rich and varied in its soil, almost inexhaustible in +natural resources, and almost indefinite in extent." + +This acquisition was made in the year 1803, and within four years of this +period, three exploratory expeditions were sent out by the United States. +The principal object of the first, which was under the direction of Major +Pike, was to trace the Mississippi to its source, and to ascertain the +direction of the Arkansa and Red Rivers, further to the west. In the course +of this journey, an immense chain of mountains, called the Rocky Mountains, +was approached, which appeared to be a continuation of the Andes. The +ulterior grand object, however, of this expedition was not obtained, in +consequence of the Spaniards compelling Major Pike to desist and return. A +second attempt was made, by another party, but the Spaniards stopped them +likewise. In the years 1804, 5, and 6, Captains Lewis and Clarke explored +the Missouri to its source, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and proceeding +towards the North Pacific Ocean, ascertained, the origin and course of the +River Columbia. + +In the years 1819 and 1820, several persons, well qualified for the +undertaking by their science, spirit, and enterprize, accompanied by +riflemen, hunters, and assistants, were sent out by the government of the +United States, for the purpose of gaining a more full and accurate +knowledge of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, and of the rivers, winch, +rising there, flowed into the Mississippi. After passing through a great +extent and variety of country, and gaining some curious information +respecting various Indian tribes, especially of those who inhabit the upper +course of the Missouri, they reached the Mountains: these and the adjacent +districts they carefully examined. They next separated, one party going +towards the Red River, and the other descending the Arkansa. The former +party were misled and misinformed by the Indians, so that they mistook and +followed the Canadian River, instead of the Red River, till it joined the +Arkansa. They were, however, too exhausted to remedy their error. The +latter party were more successful. + +The great outline of the coast, as well as of the greater portion of the +vast continent of America, is now filled up. In the northernmost parts of +North America, the efforts of the British government to find a north-west +passage, the spreading of the population of Canada, and the increasing +importance of the fur trade, bid fair to add the details of this portion; +the spread of the population of the United States towards the west, will as +necessarily give the details of the middle portion; while, with respect to +the most southern portions of North America, and the whole of South +America, with the exception of the cold, bleak, and barren territory of +Patagonia, the changes which have taken place, and are still in operation, +in the political state of the Spanish and Portuguese provinces, must soon +fill up the little that has been left unaccomplished by Humboldt, &c. + +What portions, then, of Asia, America, and Africa, are still +_unknown?_--and what comparison, in point of extent and importance, do +they bear to what was _known_ to the ancients? In Asia, the interior +of the vast kingdom of China is very imperfectly known, as well as Daouria +and other districts on the confines of the Chinese and Russian empires; +central Asia in general, and all that extensive, populous, and fertile +region which extends from the southern part of Malaya, nearly under the +equator, in a northerly direction, to the fortieth degree of latitude, are +still not explored, or but very partially so, by European travellers. This +region comprehends Aracan, Ava, Pegu, Siam, Tsiompa, and Cambodia. The +south and east coasts of Arabia still require to be more minutely and +accurately surveyed. In the eastern archipelago, Borneo, Celebes, and +Papua, are scarcely known. Though all these bear but a small proportion to +the vast extent of Asia, yet some of them, especially the country to the +north of the Malay peninsula, and the islands in the eastern archipelago, +may justly be regarded as not inferior, in that importance which natural +riches bestows, to any part of this quarter of the globe. + +Still, however, we possess some general notice, and some vague reports of +all these countries; but it is otherwise with respect to the unknown +portions of Africa. The whole of this quarter of the world, from the Niger +to the confines of the British settlement at the Cape of Good Hope, may, +with little limitation, be considered as unknown. Travellers have indeed +penetrated a short distance from the western coast into the interior, in +some parts between the latitude of the Niger and the latitude of the +extreme northern boundary of the Cape settlement: and a very little is +known respecting some small portions of the districts closely adjoining to +the eastern coast; but the whole of central Africa is still unexplored, and +presents difficulties and dangers which it is apprehended will not be +speedily or easily overcome. To the north of the Niger lies the Sahara, or +Great Desert; of this, probably, sufficient is known to convince us that +its extent is such, that no country that would repay a traveller for his +fatigue and risk, is situated to the north of it. To the east of the Niger, +however, or rather along its course, and to the north of its course, as it +flows to the east, much remains to be explored; many geographical details +have been indeed gathered from the Mahomedan merchants of this part of +Africa, but these cannot entirely be trusted. The course and termination of +the Niger itself is still an unsolved problem. + +Captain Scoresby, a most intelligent and active captain in the whale +fishery trade, has very lately succeeded in reaching the eastern coasts of +Greenland, and is disposed to think that the descendants of the Danish +colonists, of whose existence nothing is known since this coast was +blocked, up by ice at the beginning of the fifteenth century, still inhabit +it. The northern shores of Greenland, and its extent in this direction are +still unknown. + +Notwithstanding the zeal and success with which the government of the +United States prosecute their discoveries to the west of the Mississippi, +there is still much unexplored country between that river and the Pacific +Ocean. It is possible that lands may lie within the antartic circle, of +which we have hitherto as little notion as we had of South Shetland ten +years ago; but if there are such, they must be most barren and +inhospitable. It is possible also, that, notwithstanding the care and +attention with which the great Pacific has been so repeatedly swept, there +may yet be islands in it undiscovered; but these, however fertile from soil +and climate, must be mere specks in the ocean. + +But though comparatively little of the surface of the globe is now utterly +unknown, yet even of those countries with which we are best acquainted, +much remains to be ascertained, before the geography of them can justly be +regarded as complete. Perhaps we are much less deficient and inaccurate in +our knowledge of the natural history of the globe, than in its geography, +strictly so called; that is, in the extent, direction, latitudes and +longitudes, direction and elevation of mountains, rise, course, and +termination of rivers, &c. How grossly erroneous geography was till very +lately, in some even of its most elementary parts, and those, too, in +relation to what ought to have been the most accurately known portion of +Europe, may be judged from these two facts,--that till near the close of +the last century, the distance from the South Foreland, in Kent, to the +Land's End, was laid down in all the maps of England nearly half a degree +greater than it actually is; and that, as we have formerly noticed, "the +length of the Mediterranean was estimated by the longitudes of Ptolemy till +the eighteenth century, and that it was curtailed of nearly twenty-five +degrees by observation, no farther back than the reign of Louis XIV." + +To speak in a loose and general manner, the Romans, at the height of their +conquests, power, and geographical knowledge, were probably acquainted with +a part of the globe about equal in extent to that of which we are still +ignorant; but their empire embraced a fairer and more valuable portion than +we can expect to find in those countries which remain to reward the +enterprise of European travellers. The fertile regions and the beautiful +climate of the south of Europe, of the north of Africa, and above all of +Asia Minor, present a picture which we can hardly expect will be +approached, certainly will not be surpassed, under the burning heats of +central Africa, or even the more mitigated heats of the farther peninsula +of India. The short and easy access of all portions of the Roman Empire to +the ocean, gave them advantages which must be denied to the hitherto +unexplored districts in the interior of Asia and Africa. The farther +peninsula of India is infinitely better situated in this respect. + +At that very remote period, when sacred and profane history first displays +the situation, and narrates the transactions of the human race, the +countries, few in number, and comparatively of small extent, that were +washed by the waters of the Mediterranean, comprised the whole of the earth +which was then known. Asia Minor, which possessed the advantage of lying +not only on this sea, but also on the Euxine, and which is moreover level +in its surface, and fertile in its soil, seems to have been the first +additional portion of the earth that became thoroughly known. The +commercial enterprize of the Phoenicians, and their colonists the +Carthaginians,--the conquests of Alexander the Great, and of the Romans, +gradually extended the knowledge of the earth in all directions, but +principally in the middle regions of Europe, in the north of Africa, and in +Asia towards the Indus. At the period when the Roman empire was destroyed, +little more was known; and during the middle ages, geography was feebly +assisted and extended by a desire to possess the luxuries of the East, +(which seems to have been as powerful and general with the conquerors of +the Romans as with the Romans themselves,) by the religious zeal of a few +priests, and by the zeal for knowledge which actuated a still smaller +number of travellers. + +The desire of obtaining the luxuries of the East, however, was the +predominating principle, and the efficient cause of the extension of +geography. Actuated by it, the passage of the Cape of Good Hope was +accomplished; the eastern limits of Asia were reached; America was +discovered, and even the Frozen Seas were braved and carefully examined, in +the hope that by them a speedier passage might be found to the countries +which produced these luxuries. At length the love of conquest, of wealth, +and of luxury, which alone are sufficiently gross and stimulating in their +nature to act on men in their rudest and least intellectual state, and +which do not loose their hold on the most civilized, enlightened, and +virtuous people, was assisted by the love of science; and though when this +union took place, little of the globe was unknown, as respected its grand +outline, and the general extent and relative situation of the seas and +lands which compose its surface, yet much remained to be accomplished in +determining the details of geography; in fixing accurately and +scientifically the situation of places; in exhibiting the surface of the +land, as it was distinguished by mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, &c.; in +gaining a full and accurate knowledge of the natural history of each +country, and of the manners, customs, institutions, religion, manufactures +and commerce of its inhabitants. + +Before we give a sketch of the progress of commercial enterprize during the +last hundred years, it will be proper to notice the advancement of +geographical science during the same period, and the assistance which was +thus afforded, as well as from other sources, to those who travelled both +by sea and land, for the purpose of discovering or exploring foreign and +distant countries. This part of our subject seems naturally to divide +itself into three parts; viz. the improvement of maps, which was equally +advantageous to sea and land travellers; those particulars which rendered +navigation more safe, easy, and expeditious; and those particulars which +bestowed the same benefit on land travellers. + +The science of geography dates its origin, as we have already mentioned, +from Mercator, though he was unable to point out and explain the law, +according to which the projection which bears his name might be laid down +on fixed principles: this was effected by an Englishman of the name of +Wright. Mathematical geography, strictly so called, seems to have owed its +origin to the discussion respecting the flattening of the Poles, which took +place, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, among Newton, Huygens, +and Cassini, and which was afterwards continued by some of the most +distinguished mathematicians and natural philosophers of France and +England. Still, however, the construction of maps derived little advantage +from the application of strict science to geography, till Delisle, in +France, and Haase, in Germany, directed their attention and talents to this +particular subject: their efforts were indeed great, but in some measure +unavailing, in consequence of the want of sufficient materials. The same +impediment lay in the way of Busching, notwithstanding he brought to the +task the characteristic patience and research of a German. To him, however, +and the more illustrious D'Anville, accurate delineations and descriptions +of the countries of the globe may first justly be ascribed. + +D'Anville possessed excellent and ample materials, in authentic relations, +and plans and delineations made on the spot: with these he advanced to the +task, calling to his aid mathematical principles. He first exhibited in his +maps the interior of Asia free from that confusion and error by which all +former maps had obscured it; and struck out from his map of Africa many +imaginary kingdoms. Ancient geography, and the still more involved and dark +geography of the middle ages, received from him the first illumination; and +if subsequent geographers have been able to add to and correct his labours, +it has been chiefly owing to their possessing materials which did not exist +in his time. + +Busching confined himself entirely to modern geography; and though his +minuteness is generally tiresome and superfluous, yet we can pardon it, for +the accuracy of his details: he was patronized and assisted in his labours +by all the governments, of the north, who gave him access to every document +which could further his object. + +Since the time of D'Anville and Busching, the description of countries, and +the construction of maps, have proceeded with a rapidly encreasing decree +of accuracy. In ancient geography, Gosselin, Rennell, Vincent, and Malte +Brun, are among the most celebrated names. Two Germans, Voss and Munnert, +have directed their labours to illustrate and explain the geographical +details and hints of the Greek poets. It would be almost endless to +enumerate those to whom modern geography, and the construction of modern +maps are principally indebted. Gaspari and Zimmerman, among the Germans, +have thrown into a philosophical and interesting form the labours and heavy +details which were supplied them by less original but more plodding men. +The English, though, as Malte Brun observes, they are still without a +system of geography which deserves the name, are rich in excellent +materials, which have been supplied by the extent of their dominions and +their commerce in various parts of the globe; by their laudable and happy +union of conquest, commerce, and science; and by the advantage which +Dalrymple, Arrowsmith, and other geographers have derived from these +circumstances. The French, Russians, Spaniards, Danes, and indeed most +nations of Europe, sensible of the vast importance of accurate maps, +especially such as relate to their respective territories, have contributed +to render them much more accurate than they formerly were; so that at +present there is scarcely any part of the globe, which has been visited by +sea or land, of-which we do not possess accurate maps; and no sooner has +the labour of any traveller filled up a void, or corrected an error, than +the map of the country which he has visited becomes more full and accurate. + +The most direct and perfect application of mathematical and astronomical +science to the delineation of the surface of the globe, so as to ascertain +its exact form, and the exact extent of degrees of latitude in different +parts of it, has been made by the English and French; and much to their +honour, by them in conjunction. The first modern measurement of degrees of +latitude was made by an Englishman of the name of Norwood: he ascertained +the difference of latitude between London and York in 1635, and then +measured their distance: from these premises he calculated, that the length +of a degree was 122,399 English yards. At this time there was no reason to +suppose that the earth was flattened at the Poles. Shortly afterwards, it +having been discovered that the weights of bodies were less at the equator +than at Paris, Huygens and Cassini directed their attention, as we have +already stated, to the subject of the figure of the earth. In 1670 Picard +measured an arc of the meridian in France; and in 1718, the whole area +extending through France was measured by Cassini and other philosophers. +The results of this measurement seemed to disprove Newton's theory, that +the curvature of the earth diminished as we recede from the equator. To +remove all doubts, an arc near the equator was measured in Peru, by some +French and Spanish astronomers; and an arc near the arctic circle by some +French and Swedish astronomers; the result was a confirmation of Newton's +theory, and that the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar by about 1/204 +part of the whole. + +Since this period, arcs of the meridian have been measured in several +countries. In 1787 it was determined by the British and French governments +to connect the observatories of Greenwich and Paris by a series of +triangles, and to compare the differences of latitudes and longitudes, +ascertained by astronomical observations, with those ascertained by actual +measurement. The measurement in England was extended to a survey of the +whole kingdom; and the accurate maps thus obtained have been since +published. Arcs of the meridian have also been measured lately from Dunkirk +to Barcelona,--in Lapland, by which an error in the former measurement +there was corrected;--and in India. + +We have been thus particular in our notice of this subject, because it is +evident that such measurements must lie at the foundation of all real +improvements in the construction of maps. + +Let us next turn our attention to the improvements in navigation which have +taken place during the last and present centuries; these seem to consist, +principally, in those which are derived from physical science, and those +which are derived from other sources. + +The grand objects of a navigator are the accurate knowledge of where he +exactly is, in any part of his course, and how he ought to steer, in order +to reach his destination in the shortest time. The means of ascertaining +his latitude and longitude, of calculating how far he has sailed, and at +what rate he is sailing, and the direction of his course with reference to +the port to which he is desirous to proceed, are what he principally +requires. We do not intend, by any means, to enter at any length, or +systematically, on these subjects; but a brief and popular notice of them +seems proper and necessary in such a work as this. + +Astronomy here comes essentially to the aid of navigation: we have already +seen how, even in the rudest state of the latter, it derived its chief +assistance from this sublime science, confined as it then was to a +knowledge of the position of a few stars. Astronomy enables the navigator +to ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to find the variation of the +compass. The principal difficulty in ascertaining the latitude at sea, +arose from the unsteady motion of the ship: to remedy this, several +instruments were invented. We have already alluded to the astrolobe; but +this, as well as the others, were imperfect and objectionable, till such +time as Hadley's quadrant was invented, the principle and uses of which +were first suggested by Newton. + +To ascertain the longitude was a much more difficult task: there are +evidently two methods of doing this,--by time-keepers or chronometers, and +by making the motions of the celestial bodies serve instead of +time-keepers. About the middle of the seventeenth century, Huygens proposed +the pendulum clock for finding the longitude at sea; but it was unfit for +the purpose, for many and obvious reasons. Watches, even made with the +utmost care, were found to be too irregular in their rate of going, to be +depended upon for this purpose. In the reign of Queen Anne the celebrated +act was passed, appropriating certain sums for encouraging attempts to +ascertain the longitude. Stimulated by this, Mr. Harrison invented his +time-keeper, which on trial was found to answer the purpose with such +tolerable accuracy, that he was deemed worthy to receive the sum awarded by +parliament: it went within the limit of an error of thirty miles of +longitude, or two minutes of time, in a voyage to the West Indies. Since +this period, chronometers have been much improved, and excellent ones are +very generally used: perhaps the most trying circumstances in which any +were ever placed, existed during the voyage for the discovery of a +northwest passage by Captain Parry; and then most of those he had with him +were found to be extremely accurate. + +It is evident, however, that chronometers are liable to a variety of +accidents, and that in very long voyages the means of verifying their rate +of going seldom occur. Hence the lunar method, or the method of +ascertaining the longitude by means of the motions of the moon, is more +useful and valuable. Here again, the profoundest researches of Clairaut, +Euler, D'Alembert, and La Place, were brought practically to bear on +navigation. Guided and aided by these, Tobias Mayer, of Gottingen, compiled +a set of solar and lunar tables, which were sent to the lords of the +admiralty, in the year 1755; they gave the longitude of the moon within +thirty seconds. They were afterwards improved by Dr. Maskelyne and Mr. +Mason, and still more lately by Burg and Burckhardt; the error of these +last tables will seldom exceed fifteen seconds, or seven miles and a half. +The computations, however, necessary in making use of these tables, were +found to be very laborious and inconvenient; to obviate this difficulty, +the nautical almanack, suggested by Dr. Maskelyne, was published, which is +now annually continued. The longitude is thus ascertained to such a nicety, +as to secure the navigator from any danger arising from the former +imperfect modes of finding it; "he is now enabled to make for his port +without sailing into the parallel of latitude, and then, in the seaman's +phrase, running down the port, on the parallel, as was done before this +method was practised. Fifty years ago, navigators did not attempt to find +their longitude at sea, unless by their reckoning, which was hardly ever to +be depended on." + +Not long after the mariner's compass was employed, its variation was +noticed; as it is obvious that, unless the degree and direction of this +variation are accurately known, the compass would be of little service in +navigation, the attention of navigators and philosophers was carefully +directed to this point; and it was ascertained that the quantity of this +variation is subject to regular periodical changes. By means, therefore, of +a table indicating those changes, under different latitudes and longitudes, +and of what are called variation charts, the uncertainty arising from them +is in a great measure done away. Another source of error however existed, +which does not seem to have been noticed till the period of Captain Cook's +voyages: it was then found, "that the variation of the needle differed very +sensibly on the same spot, with the different directions of the ship's +head." Captain Flinders attributed this to the iron in the ship, and made a +number of observations on the subject; these have been subsequently added +to and corrected, so that at present the quantity of variation from this +cause can be ascertained, and of course a proper allowance made for it. It +does not appear that any material improvement has been made in the +construction and use of the log,--that useful and necessary appendage to +the compass,--since it was invented about the end of the sixteenth century. + +These are the most important improvements in nautical knowledge and +science, which renders navigation at present so much more safe and +expeditious than it formerly was; there are, however, other circumstances +which tend to the same object; the more full, accurate, and minute +knowledge of the prevalent winds at different times of the year, and in +various parts of the ocean; the means of foretelling changes of weather; +and, principally, a knowledge of the direction and force of the currents +must be regarded as of essential advantage to the seaman. When to these we +add, the coppering of ships, which was first practised about the year 1761, +and other improvements in their built and rigging, we have enumerated the +chief causes which enable a vessel to reach the East Indies in two-thirds +of the time which was occupied in such a voyage half a century ago. + +Nor must we forget that the health of the seamen has, during the same +period, been rendered infinitely more secure; so that mortality and +sickness, in the longest voyages, and under great and frequent changes of +climate, and other circumstances usually affecting health, will not exceed +what would have occurred on land during the same time. + +The great advantages which the very improved state of all branches of +physical science, and of natural history, bestow on travellers in modern +times, are enjoyed, though not in an equal degree, by navigators and by +those who journey on land. To the latter they are indeed most important, +and will principally account for the superiority of modern travels over +those which were published a century ago, or even fifty years since. It is +plain that our knowledge of foreign countries relates either to animate or +inanimate nature: to the soil and geology, the face of the surface, and +what lies below it; the rivers, lakes, mountains, climate, and the plants; +or to the natural history, strictly so called:--and to the manners, +institutions, government, religion, and statistics of the inhabitants. +Consequently, as the appropriate branches of knowledge relating to these +objects are extended, travellers must be better able, as well as more +disposed, to investigate them; and the public at large require that some or +all of them should at least be noticed in books of travels. The same +science, and many of the same instruments, which enable the seaman to +ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to lay down full and accurate +charts of the shores which he visits, are also useful to the +land-traveller; they both draw assistance from the knowledge of meteorology +which they may possess, to make observations on the climate, and from their +acquaintance with botany and natural history, to give an account of the +plants and animals. But it is evident that so far as the latter are +concerned, as well as so far as relates to the inhabitants, the land +traveller has more opportunities than he who goes on a voyage. + +But there are other advantages enjoyed by modern travellers besides those +derived from superior science: foreign languages are at present better and +more generally understood; and it is unnecessary to point out how important +such an acquisition is, or rather how indispensible it is to accurate +information. The knowledge of the languages of the East which many of the +gentlemen in the service of the East India Company, and the missionaries, +possess, has been of infinite service in making us much better acquainted +with the antiquities, history, and present state of those countries, than +we could possibly have otherwise been. There is at present greater +intercourse among even remote nations; and prejudices, which formerly +operated as an almost insurmountable barrier, are now either entirely +destroyed, or greatly weakened: in proof of this, we need only refer to the +numerous travellers who have lately visited Egypt,--a country which it +would have been extremely dangerous to visit half a century ago. At the +same distance of time, natives of Asia or Africa, especially in their +appropriate costume, were seldom or never seen in the streets of London, +or, if seen, would have been insulted, or greatly incommoded by the +troublesome curiosity of its inhabitants; now there are many such, who walk +the streets unmolested, and scarcely noticed. + +Commerce, which has derived such advantages from the progress of +geographical knowledge, has in some measure repaid the obligation, by +creating a much greater, more intimate, and more frequent mutual +intercourse among nations; and by doing away with those prejudices and +antipathies which formerly closed many countries effectually against +Christian and European travellers: and to the zeal and perseverance of +modern travellers, assisted as they are by commercial intercourse, we may +reasonably hope that we shall, before long, be indebted for a knowledge of +the interior of Africa. Those countries still imperfectly known in the +south-east of Asia will, probably, from their vicinity to our possessions +in Hindostan, be explored from that quarter. The encreasing population of +the United States, and the independence of South America, will necessarily +bring us acquainted with such parts of the new world as are still unknown. +But it is difficult to conjecture from what sources, and under what +circumstances, the empires of China and Japan will be rendered more +accessible to European travellers: these countries, and some parts of the +interior of Asia, are cut off from our communication by causes which +probably will not speedily cease to operate. The barriers which still +enclose all other countries are gradually yielding to the causes we have +mentioned; and as, along with greater facilities for penetrating into and +travelling within such countries, travellers now possess greater +capabilities of making use of the opportunities thus enjoyed, we may hope +that nearly the whole world will soon be visited and known, and known, too, +in every thing that relates to inanimate and animate nature. + +The progress of commerce during the last hundred years, the period of time +to which we are at present to direct our attention, has been so rapid, its +ramifications are so complicated, and the objects it embraces so various +and numerous, that it will not be possible, within the limits to which we +must confine ourselves, to enter on minute and full details respecting it; +nor would these be consonant to the nature of our work, or generally +interesting and instructive. + +During the infancy of commerce, as well as of geographical science, we +deemed it proper to be particular in every thing that indicated their +growth; but the reasons which proved the necessity, or the advantage, of +such a mode of treating these subjects in the former parts of this volume, +no longer exist, but in fact give way to reasons of an opposite +nature--reasons for exhibiting merely a general view of them. Actuated by +these considerations, we have been less minute and particular in what +relates to modern geography, than In what relates to ancient; and we shall +follow the same plan in relation to what remains to be said on the subject +of commerce. So long as any of the causes which tended to advance geography +and commerce acted obscurely and imperfectly--so long as they were in such +a weak state that the continuance of their progress was doubtful, we +entered pretty fully into their history; but after a forward motion was +communicated to them, such as must carry them towards perfection without +the possibility of any great or permanent check, we have thought it proper +to abstain from details, and to confine ourselves to more general views. +Guided by this principle which derives additional weight from the vastness +to which commerce has reached within the last hundred years, we shall now +proceed to a rapid and general sketch of its progress during that period, +and of its present state. + +From the first and feeble revival of commerce in the middle ages, till the +discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the Italian republics, and the +Hanseatic League, nearly monopolized all the trade of Europe; the former, +from their situation, naturally confining themselves to the importation and +circulation of the commodities supplied by the East, and by the European +countries in the south of Europe, and the districts of Africa then known +and accessible; while the latter directed their attention and industry to +those articles which the middle and north of Europe produced or +manufactured. + +The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope gave a different direction to the +commerce of the East, while at the same time it very greatly extended it; +but as it is obvious that a greater quantity of the commodities supplied by +this part of the world could not be purchased, except by an increase in the +produce and manufactures of the purchasing nations, they also pushed +forward in industry, experience, skill, and capital. The Portuguese and +Spaniards first reaped the fruits of the discovery of the Cape of Good +Hope; subsequently the Dutch; and at the period at which this part of our +sketch of commerce commences, the English were beginning to assume that +hold and superiority in the East, by which they are now so greatly +distinguished. The industry of Europe, especially of the middle and +northern states, was further stimulated by the discovery of America, and, +indirectly, by all those causes which in the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries tended to increase information, and to secure the liberty of the +mass of the people. The invention of printing; the reformation; the +destruction of the feudal system, at least in its most objectionable, +degrading, and paralizing features; the contentions between the nobility +and the sovereigns, and between the latter and the people; gave a stimulus +to the human mind, and thus enlarged its capacities, desires, and views, in +such a manner, that the character of the human race assumed a loftier port. + +From all these causes commerce benefited, and, as was natural to expect, it +benefited most in those countries where most of these causes operated, and +where they operated most powerfully. In Holland we see a memorable and +gratifying instance of this: a comparatively small population, inhabiting a +narrow district, won and kept from the overwhelming of the ocean, by most +arduous, incessant, and expensive labour,--and the territory thus acquired +and preserved not naturally fertile, and where fertile only calculated to +produce few articles,--a people thus disadvantageously situated, in respect +to territory and soil, and moreover engaged in a most perilous, doubtful, +and protracted contest for their religion and liberty, with by far the most +potent monarch of Europe,--this people, blessed with knowledge and freedom, +forced to become industrious and enterprizing by the very adverse +circumstances in which they were placed, gradually wrested from their +opponents--the discoverers of the treasures of the East and of the new +world, and who were moreover blessed with a fertile soil and a luxurious +climate at home,--their possessions in Asia, and part of their possessions +in America. Nor did the enterprising spirit of the Dutch confine itself to +the obtaining of these sources of wealth: they became, as we have already +seen, the carriers for nearly the whole of Europe; by their means the +productions of the East were distributed among the European nations, and +the bulky and mostly raw produce of the shores of the Baltic was exchanged +for the productions and manufactures of France, England, Germany, and the +Italian states. + +From the middle of the eighteenth century, the commerce of the Dutch began +to decline; partly in consequence of political disputes among themselves, +but principally because other nations of Europe now put forth their +industry with effect and perseverance. The English and the French, +especially, became their great rivals; first, by conducting themselves each +their own trade, which had been previously carried on by the Dutch, and, +subsequently, by the possessions they acquired in the East. The American +war, and soon afterwards the possession of Holland by the French during the +revolutionary war, gave a fatal blow to the remnant of their commerce, from +which it has not recovered, nor is likely at any time to recover, at least +nearly to its former flourishing state. For, as we have remarked, the Dutch +were flourishing and rich, principally because other nations were ignorant, +enslaved, and destitute of industry, skill, and capital. + +England took the place of the Dutch in the scale of commercial enterprise +and success: the contest between them was long and arduous; but at length +England attained a decided and permanent superiority. She gradually +extended her possessions in the East; and after expelling the French from +this part of the world, became in reality the only European sovereign power +there. + +The manufactures of England, those real and abundant causes and sources of +her immense commerce, did not begin to assume that importance and extent to +which they have at present reached, till the middle, or rather the latter +part of the eighteenth century; then her potteries, her hardware, her +woollens, and above all her cotton goods, began to improve. Certainly the +steam engine is the grand cause to which England's wealth and commerce may +be attributed in a great degree; but the perfection to which it has been +brought, the multifarious uses to which it is applied, both presuppose +skill, capital, and industry, without which the mere possession of such an +engine would have been of little avail. + +At the termination of the American war, England seemed completely +exhausted: she had come out of a long and expensive contest, deprived of +what many regarded as her most valuable possessions, and having contracted +an enormous debt. Yet in a very few years, she not only revived, but +flourished more than ever; it is in vain to attribute this to any other +causes but those alone which can produce either individual or national +wealth, viz. industry, enterprize, knowledge, and economy, and capital +acquired by means of them. But what has rendered Britain more industrious, +intelligent, and skilful than other nations?--for if we can answer this +question, we can satisfactorily account for her acquisition of capital; and +capital, industry, and skill existing, commerce and wealth must necessarily +follow. + +Britain enjoys greater political freedom, and greater security of property +than any other European nation; and without political freedom, the mass of +the people never can be intelligent, or possess either comprehensive views +or desires; and where views and desires are limited, there can be no +regular, general, and zealous industry. Unless, however, security of +property is enjoyed, as well as political liberty, industry, even if it +could spring up under such circumstances, must soon droop and decay. It is +a contradiction in terms to suppose that comprehensive views and desires +can exist and lead to action, when at the same time it is extremely +doubtful whether the objects of them could be realized, or, if realized, +whether they would not immediately be destroyed, or torn from those whose +labour, and skill, and anxious thought had acquired them. + +But there are other causes to which we must ascribe the extension of +British manufactures and commerce; of these we shall only enumerate what we +regard as the principal and the most powerful: the stimulus which any +particular improvement in manufactures gives to future and additional +improvements, or rather, perhaps, the necessity which it creates for such +additional improvements; the natural operation of enlarged capital; the +equally natural operation of encreased wealth among the various classes of +the community; the peculiar circumstances in which Britain has been placed +since the termination of the war which deprived her of her American +colonies; and, lastly, her national debt. A short view of each of these +particulars will, we believe, sufficiently account for the present +unparalleled state of British manufactures and commerce. + +The direct effect of improvement in the mode of manufacturing any article, +by the introduction of a more powerful machinery, is to encrease the +quantity, and to lower the price of that article. Hence it follows, that +those who manufacture it on the old plan must be undersold, unless they +also adopt such machinery; and as knowledge, both speculative and +practical, has greater chance to improve in proportion as it is spread, +from this cause, as well as from the more powerful cause of rival +interests, wherever improvements in manufactures have begun and been +extended, they are sure to advance. + +That this is not theoretical doctrine requires only an appeal to what has +been effected, and is yet effecting in Britain, to prove. A very curious, +interesting, and instructive work might be written on the improvements in +the cotton machinery alone, which have been made in this country during the +last forty years: we mean interesting and instructive, not merely on +account of the tacts relative to mechanical ingenuity which it would +unfold, but on account of the much higher history which it would give of +the mechanism of the human mind, and of the connections and ramifications +of the various branches of human knowledge. In what state would the +commerce of Great Britain have been at this time, if the vast improvements +in the machinery for spinning cotton had not been made and universally +adopted?--and how slowly and imperfectly would these improvements have +taken place, had the sciences been unconnected, or greater improvements, +which at first were unseen or deemed impracticable, not been gradually +developed, as lesser improvements were made. The stimulus of interest, the +mutual connection of various branches of science, and above all the +unceasing onward movement of the human mind in knowledge, speculative as +well as practical, must be regarded as the most powerful causes of the +present wonderful state of our manufactures, and, consequently, of our +commerce. + +2. The natural operation of enlarged capital is another cause of our great +commerce. There is nothing more difficult in the history of mankind--not +the history of their wars and politics, but the history of their character, +manners, sentiments, and progress in civilization and wealth--[as->than] to +distinguish and separate those facts which ought to be classed as causes, +and those which ought to be classed as effects. There can be no doubt that +trade produces capital; and, in this point of view, capital must be +regarded as an effect: there can be as little doubt, that an increase of +capital is favourable to an increase of commerce, and actually produces it; +in this point of view, therefore, capital must be regarded as a cause. As +in the physical world action and reaction are equal, so are they, in many +respects, and under many circumstances, in the moral and intellectual +world; but, whereas in the physical world the action and reaction are not +only equal but simultaneous, in the moral and intellectual world the +reaction does not take place till after the immediate and particular action +from which it springs has ceased. + +To apply these remarks to our present subject, it is unnecessary to point +out in what manner trade must increase capital; that capital, on the other +hand, increases trade, is not, perhaps, at first sight, quite so obvious; +but that it must act in this manner will be perceptible, when, we reflect +on the advantages which a large capital gives to its possessor. It enables +him to buy cheaper, because he can buy larger quantities, and give ready +money; buying cheaper, he can sell cheaper, or give longer credit, or both; +and this must ensure an increase of trade. It enables him immediately to +take advantage of any improvement in the mode of manufacturing any article; +and to push the sale of any article into countries where it was before +unknown. Such are some of the more important effects on commerce of large +capital; and these effects have been most obviously and strikingly shewn in +the commercial history of Britain for the last thirty years, and thus give +a practical confirmation to the doctrine, that capital, originally the +creature of trade, in its turn gives nourishment, rigour, and enlarged +growth to it. + +3. Encreased wealth among the various classes of the community, may be +viewed In the same light as capital; it flows from increased trade, and it +produces a still further increase of trade. The views, and desires, and +habits of mankind, are like their knowledge, they are and must be +progressive: and if accompanied, as they generally are, by increased means, +they must give birth to increased industry and skill, and their necessary +consequences, increased trade and wealth. + +Had the views, desires, and habits of mankind, and especially of the +inhabitants of Europe and the United States, continued as they were fifty +years ago, it is absolutely impossible that one half of the goods +manufactured in Great Britain could have been disposed of; and unless these +additional and enlarged views, desires, and habits, had been accompanied +with commensurate means of gratifying them, our manufactures and commerce +could not have advanced as they have done. Minutely and universally divided +as human labour is, no one country can render its industry and skill +additionally productive, without, at the same time, the industry and skill +of other countries also advance. No one nation can acquire additional +wealth, unless additional wealth is also acquired in other nations. Before +an additional quantity of commodities can be sold, additional means to +purchase them must be obtained; or, in other words, increased commerce, +supposes increased wealth, not only in that country in which commerce is +increased, but also in that where the buyers and consumers live. + +4. Since the termination of the American war, Britain has been placed in +circumstances favourable to her commerce: the human mind cannot long be +depressed; there is an elasticity about it which prevents this. Perhaps it +is rather disposed to rebound, in proportion to the degree and time of its +restraint. It is certain, however, that the exhaustion produced by the +American war speedily gave place to wonderful activity in our manufactures +and commerce; and that, at the commencement of the first French +revolutionary war, they had both taken wonderful and rapid strides. The +circumstances, indeed, of such a country as Britain, and such a people as +the British, must be essentially changed,--changed to a degree, and in a +manner, which we can hardly suppose to be brought about by any natural +causes,--before its real wealth can be annihilated, or even greatly or +permanently diminished. The climate and the soil, and all the improvements +and ameliorations which agriculture has produced on the soil, must remain: +the knowledge and skill, and real capital of the inhabitants, are beyond +the reach of any destroying cause: interest must always operate and apply +this knowledge and skill, unless we can suppose, what seems as unlikely to +happen as the change of our climate and soil, the annihilation of our +knowledge and skill, or that interest should cease to be the stimulating +cause of industry; unless we can suppose that political and civil freedom +should be rooted out, and individual property no longer secure. + +Circumstances, however, though they cannot destroy, must influence, +beneficially or otherwise, the wealth and commerce of a country; and it may +happen that circumstances apparently unfavourable may become beneficial. +This was the case with Britain: during the American war, her manufactures +and commerce languished; during the French wars they increased and throve +most wonderfully. The cause of this difference must be sought for +principally in the very artificial and extraordinary circumstances in which +she was placed during the French war: and of these circumstances, the most +powerfully operative were her foreign loans; her paper circulation; the +conquests and subsequent measures of Bonaparte on the continent; and her +superiority at sea. Foreign loans necessarily rendered the exchange +unfavourable to Britain; an unfavourable exchange, or, in other words, a +premium on bills, in any particular country, enabled the merchant to sell +his goods there at a cheaper rate than formerly, and consequently to extend +his commerce there. The paper circulation of Britain,--though a bold and +hazardous step, and which in a less healthy and vigorous state of public +credit and wealth than Britain enjoyed could not have been taken, or, if +taken, would not have produced nearly the beneficial effects it did, and +would have left much more fatal consequences than we are at present +experiencing,--undoubtedly tended to increase her commerce; and the very +stimulus which it gave to all kinds of speculation has been favourable to +it. The ruinous consequences of such speculation, though dreadful, are +comparatively of short duration; whereas it is impossible that speculation +should be active and vigorous, with commensurate means, without improving +manufactures, and opening new channels for commerce; and these effects must +remain. In what manner the measures of Bonaparte on the continent, and our +superiority at sea, were favourable to our commerce, it is unnecessary to +explain. + +Lastly. It only remains to explain how our national debt has been +beneficial to our commerce. Necessity, if it is not absolutely +overpowering, must act as a stimulus to industry as well as interest: the +desire to avoid evil, and the desire to obtain good, are equally powerful +motives to the human mind. In the same manner as an increase of family, by +creating additional expense, spurs a man to additional industry; so the +certainty that he must pay additional taxes produces the same effect. +Individuals may contrive to shift the burden from themselves, and pay their +taxes by spending less; but there can be no doubt that the only general, +sure, and permanent fund, out of which additional taxes can be paid, must +arise from the fruits of additional industry. We wish to guard against +being taken for the advocates for taxation, as in any shape a blessing: we +are merely stating what we conceive to be its effect. But we should no more +regard taxation as a blessing, because it increased commerce, than we +should regard it as a blessing to a man, that, from any cause, he was +obliged to work fourteen hours a day instead of twelve. In both cases, +increased labour might be necessary, but it would not the less be an evil. + +The only other nation, the commerce of which has increased very materially +and rapidly, is the United States of America; and if we trace the chief and +most powerful causes of their commercial prosperity, we-shall still further +be confirmed in the opinion, that at least some of the causes which we have +assigned for the extension of British commerce are the true ones; and that, +in fact, commerce cannot generally or permanently increase where these +causes do not exist, and that where they do they must encourage and extend +it + +It is not our intention to enter into a detail of the causes of American +prosperity, except so far as they are connected with its commerce. They +may, however, be summed up in a few words. An inexhaustible quantity of +land, in a good climate, obtained without difficulty, and at little +expence; with the produce of it, when obtained and cultivated, entirely at +the disposal and for the exclusive advantage of the proprietor. The same +with regard to all other labour; or, in other words, scarcely any taxes: +and with respect to labour in general, great demand for it, and extremely +high wages. These are causes of increased population and of prosperity, and +indirectly of commerce, peculiar to America. It requires no illustration or +proof to comprehend how the increased produce of a new soil must supply +increased articles for commerce. While Britain, therefore, finds increased +articles for her commerce, from her improvements in the machinery +applicable to manufactures, by means of which the same quantity of human +labour is rendered infinitely more productive,--the United States finds +materials for her increased commerce, in the increasing stock of the +produce of the soil. + +Political and civil liberty, and the consequent security of property, are +causes of commercial prosperity, common to the United States and Britain. + +It may also be remarked, that the circumstances of Europe, almost ever +since the United States have had a separate and independent existence, have +been favourable to its commerce. The long war between Britain and France +afforded them opportunities for increasing their commerce, which they most +sedulously and successfully embraced and improved. They became, in fact, +the carriers for France, and in many cases the introducers of British +produce into the continent. + +There is only another circumstance connected with the United States to +which we deem it necessary to advert in this brief and general developement +of the causes of their commercial prosperity: we allude to the wonderful +facilities for internal commerce afforded them by their rivers, and +especially by the Mississippi and its branches. There can be no doubt that +easy, speedy, cheap, and general inter-communication to internal +trade,--whether by means of roads and canals, as in England, or by means of +rivers as in America, is advantageous to foreign commerce, both directly +and indirectly. It is advantageous directly, in so far as it enables the +manufacturer with great facility, and at little expence, to transmit his +goods to the places of exportation; and to ascertain very quickly the state +of the markets by which he regulates his purchases, sales, and even the +quantity and direction of his labour. It is advantageous indirectly, in so +far as by stimulating and encouraging internal trade, it increases wealth, +and with increased wealth comes the increased desire of obtaining foreign +produce, and the increased means to gratify that desire. + +We deemed it proper to preface the details we shall now give on the subject +of the present state of commerce with these general remarks on the +principal causes which have enlarged it, in those two countries in which +alone it flourishes to a very great extent. But, as we have already +remarked, commerce cannot extend in one country, without receiving an +impulse in other countries. While, therefore, British and American commerce +have been increasing, the general commerce of the whole civilized world, +and even of parts hardly civilized, have been increasing; but in no country +nearly to the extent to which it has reached in Britain and the United +States, because none are blessed with the political advantages they enjoy, +or have the improved machinery and capital of the one, or the almost +inexhaustible land of the other. + +In the details which we are now about to give, we shall confine ourselves +to the statement of any particular circumstance which may have been +favourable or otherwise to the commerce of any country during the last +hundred years, and to an enumeration of the principal ports and articles of +import and export of each country. We shall not attempt to fix the value of +the imports and exports in toto, or of any particular description of them, +because there are in fact no grounds on which it can be accurately fixed. +We shall, however, in the arrangement of the order of the goods exported, +place ihose first which constitute the most numerous and important +articles. + +1. The countries in the north of Europe, including Russia, Sweden, Norway, +Denmark, and the countries generally on the south shores of the Baltic. +From the geographical situation of these countries, and their consequent +climate, the chief articles of the export commerce must consist in the +coarsest produce of the soil. These, and the produce of their mines, are +the sources of their wealth, and consequently of their commerce. + +The principal exports of Norway consist of timber, masts, tar, potash, +hides, (chiefly those of the goat,) iron, copper, cobalt, tallow, salted +provisions, and fish. Corn, principally from the southern shores of the +Baltic, is the most considerable article of import. The only event in the +modern history of this country, which can affect its commerce, is its +annexation to Sweden; and whether it will be prejudicial or otherwise, is +not yet ascertained. + +Denmark consists of the islands in the Baltic, and the peninsula lying in +the north-west of Germany, comprizing Jutland, Sleswig, and Holstein. The +face of the country, both insular and continental, presents a striking +contrast to that of Norway, being flat, and fertile in corn and cattle. +Denmark possesses a large extent of sea coast, but the havens do not admit +large vessels. The communication between the insular and continental +possessions, the German ocean and the Baltic, and consequently the commerce +of Denmark, was much facilitated by the canal of Keil, which was finished +in 1785. Prior to the year 1797, the commerce was much injured by numerous +restraints on importation. During the short wars between this country and +Britain, it suffered considerably. At present it cannot rank high as a +commercial kingdom. Denmark and the Duchies, as they are called, export +wheat, rye, oats, barley, rape seed, horses, cattle, fish, wooden domestic +articles, &c.; and import chiefly woollen goods, silks, cottons, hardware, +cutlery, paper, salt, coals, iron, hemp, flax, wines, tobacco, sugar, and +other colonial produce. + +Sweden in general is a country, the wealth, and consequently the objects of +commerce of which, are principally derived from its mines and woods. Its +principal ports are Stockholm and Gothenburgh. The political event in the +history of this country which gave the most favourable impulse to its +commerce in modern times, is the alteration in its constitution after the +death of Charles XII.; by this the liberties of the people were encreased, +and a general stimulus towards national industry was given: agriculture was +improved, the produce of the mines doubled, and the fishery protected. More +lately, the revolution in 1772, and the loss of Finland, have been +prejudicial to Sweden. The principal exports are, iron, copper, +pine-timber, pitch, tar, potash, fish, &c.; the principal imports are, +corn, tobacco, salt, wines, oils, wool, hemp, soap, cotton, silk and +woollen goods, hardware, sugar, and other colonial produce. + +The most important commercial port on the southern shore of the Baltic is +Dantzic, which belongs to Prussia. This town retained a large portion of +the commerce of the Baltic after the fall of the Hanseatic League, and with +Lubec, Hamburgh, and Bremen, preserved a commercial ascendency in the +Baltic. It suffered, however, considerably by the Prussians acquiring +possession of the banks of the Vistula, until it was incorporated with the +kingdom in 1793. Dantzic exports nearly the whole of the produce of the +fertile country of Poland, consisting of corn, hides, horse-hair, honey, +wax, oak, and other timber; the imports consist principally of manufactured +goods and colonial produce. Swedish Pomerania, and Mecklenburgh, neither of +which possess any ports of consequence, draw the greater part of their +exports from the soil, as salted and smoked meat, hides, wool, butter, +cheese, corn, and fruit; the imports, like those of Dantzic, are +principally manufactured goods and colonial produce. + +The immense extent of Russia does not afford such a variety, or large +supply of articles of commerce, as might be expected: this is owing to the +ungenial and unproductive nature of a very large portion of its soil, to +the barbarous and enslaved state of its inhabitants, and to the +comparatively few ports, which it possesses, and the extreme distance from +the ocean or navigable rivers of its central parts. We have already +mentioned the rise of Petersburgh, and its rapid increase in population and +commerce. The subsequent sovereigns of Russia have, in this as in all other +respects, followed the objects and plans of its founder; though they have +been more enlightened and successful in their plans of conquest than in +those of commerce. The most important advantage which they have bestowed on +commerce, arises from the canals and inland navigation which connects the +southern and the northern provinces of this vast empire. The principal +commerce of Russia is by the Baltic. Petersburgh and Riga are the only +ports of consequence here; from them are exported corn, hemp, flax, fir +timber, pitch, tar, potash, iron and copper, hides, tallow, bristles, +honey, wax, isinglass, caviar, furs, &c. The principal imports consist of +English manufactures and colonial produce, especially coffee and sugar, +wines, silks, &c. The commerce of the Black Sea has lately increased much, +especially at Odessa. The principal exports are, corn, furs, provisions, +&c.; its imports, wine, fruit, coffee, silks, &c. Russia carries on a +considerable internal trade with Prussia, Persia, and China, especially, +with the latter. Nearly the whole of her maritime commerce is in the hands +of foreigners, the Russians seeming rather averse to the sea; and the state +of vassalage in the peasants, which binds them to the soil, preventing the +formation of seamen. Latterly, however, she has displayed considerable zeal +in posecuting maritime discoveries; and as she seems disposed to extend her +possessions in the north-west coast of America, this will necessarily +produce a commercial marine. + +2. The next portion of Europe to which we shall direct our attention +consists of Germany, the Netherlands, and France. + +Germany, though an extensive and fertile country, and inhabited by an +intelligent and industrious race of people, possesses few commercial +advantages from its want of ports: those on the Baltic have been already +mentioned; those on the German Ocean are Hamburgh and Embden, of which +Hamburgh is by far the most important, while, to the south, the only port +it possesses is Trieste. It is, however, favoured in respect to rivers: the +Elbe, Weser, Rhine, and Danube, with their tributary streams affording +great facilities, not only for inland commerce, but also for the export and +import of commodities. The chief political disadvantage under which Germany +labours, affecting its commerce, arises from the number of independent +states into which it is divided, and the despotic nature of most of its +governments. As might be expected from such a large tract of country, the +productions of Germany are various. Saxony supplies for exportation, wool +of the finest quality, corn, copper, cobalt, and other metals, thread, +linen-lace, porcelain, &c. Hanover is principally distinguished for its +mines, which supply metals for exportation. The chief riches of Bavaria +arise from its corn and cattle: these, with pottery, glass, linen, and +silk, are the exports of Wurtemburgh. Prussia Proper affords few things for +exportation: the corn of her Polish provinces has been already mentioned, +as affording the principal export from Dantzic. Silesia supplies linen to +foreign countries. Austria, and its dependant states, export quicksilver, +and other metals, besides cattle, corn, and wine. + +The commerce of the Netherlands, including Holland, though far inferior in +extent and importance to what it formerly was, is still not inconsiderable. +Indeed, the situation of Holland, nearly all the towns and villages of +which have a communication with the sea, either by rivers or canals, and +through some part of the territory of which the great rivers Rhine, Meuse, +and Scheld empty themselves into the sea, must always render it commercial. +The principal ports of the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and +Antwerp. The exports of the Netherlands consist either of its own produce +and manufactures, or of those which are brought to it from the interior of +Germany: of the former, butter, cheese, madder, clover-seed, toys, &c. +constitute the most important; from Germany, by means of the Rhine, vast +floats of timber are brought. The principal imports of the Netherlands, +both for her own use and for the supply of Germany, consist of Baltic +produce, English goods, colonial produce, wines, fruits, oil, &c. + +There is perhaps no country in Europe which possesses greater advantages +for commerce than France: a large extent of sea coast, both on the Atlantic +and the Mediterranean; excellent harbours; a rich soil and genial climate, +adapted to a great variety of valuable productions; and some manufactures +very superior in their workmanship,--all these present advantages seldom +found united. Add to these her colonial possessions, and we shall certainly +be surprized that her commerce should ever have been second, to that of any +other country in Europe. Prior to the revolution it was certainly great; +but during and since that period it was and is vastly inferior to the +commerce of Great Britain, and even to that of the United States. + +The extent of sea coast on the Atlantic is 283 leagues, and on the +Mediterranean eighty leagues: the rivers are numerous, but none of the +first class. The canal of Languedoc, though from its connecting the +Atlantic and the Mediterranean it would naturally be supposed highly +advantageous to commerce, is not so; or rather, it is not turned to the +advantage to which it might be applied. In England such a canal would be +constantly filled with vessels transporting the produce of one part to +another. It is not, however, so; and this points to a feature in the French +character which, in all probability, will always render them indisposed, as +well as unable, to rival Britain, either in manufactures or commerce. +Besides the want of capital, which might be supplied, and would indeed be +actually supplied by industry and invention, the French are destitute of +the stimulus to industry and invention. As a nation, they are much more +disposed to be content with a little, and to enjoy what they possess +without risk, anxiety, or further labour, than to increase their wealth at +such a price. + +The principal commercial ports of France on the Atlantic are Havre, St. +Maloes, Nantes, Bourdeaux, and Bayonne: Marseilles is the only commercial +port of consequence in the Mediterranean. The principal exports of France +are wines, brandy, vinegar, fruit, oil, woollen cloth of a very fine +quality, silk, perfumery, &c.: the imports are Baltic produce, the +manufactures of England; fruits, drugs, raw wool, leather, &c. from Spain, +Italy, and the Mediterranean states. + +3. The next division of Europe comprehends Spain, Portugal, Italy, and +Greece. + +Spain, a country highly favoured by nature, and at one period surpassed by +no other kingdom in Europe in civilization, knowledge, industry, and power, +exhibits an instructive and striking instance of the melancholy effects of +political degradation. Under the power of the Arabians, she flourished +exceedingly; and even for a short period after their expulsion, she +retained a high rank in the scale of European kingdoms. The acquisition of +her East Indian and American territories, and the high eminence to which +she was raised during the dominion of Charles V. and his immediate +successors,--events that to a superficial view of things would have +appeared of the greatest advantage to her,--proved, in fact, in their real +and permanent operation, prejudicial to her industry, knowledge, and power. +It would seem that the acquisition of the more precious metals, which may +be likened to the power of converting every thing that is touched into +gold, is to nations what it was to Midas,--a source of evil instead of +good. Spain, having substituted the artificial stimulus of her American +mines in the place of the natural and nutritive food of real industry, on +which she fed during the dominion of the Moors, gradually fell off in +commercial importance, as well as in political consequence and power. The +decline in her commerce, and in her home industry, was further accelerated +and increased by the absurd restrictions which she imposed on the +intercourse with her colonies. All these circumstances concurring, about +the period when she fell into the power of the house of Bourbon,--that is, +about the beginning of the eighteenth century,--she sunk very low in +industry and commerce, and she has, since that period, continued to fall. + +And yet, as we have observed, she possesses great natural advantages: a sea +coast on the Atlantic and Mediterranean of considerable extent; a great +variety of climate and soil, and consequently of productions,--she might +become, under a wise and free government, distinguished for her political +power and her commerce. + +On the Atlantic, the first port towards the north is Saint Sebastian; then +succeeds Bilboa, St. Andero, Gijon, Ferrol, and Corunna; but though some of +these, especially Ferrol and Corunna, possess excellent harbours, yet the +poverty of the adjacent country prevents them from having much trade. To +the south of Portugal is Seville, on the Guadalquiver, sixteen leagues from +the sea; large vessels can ascend to this city, but its commerce was nearly +destroyed by the transfer of the colonial trade to Cadiz. This last town, +one of the most ancient commercial places in the world, is highly favoured +both by nature and art as a port; and before the French revolutionary war, +and the separation of the American colonies from the mother state, was +undoubtedly the first commercial city in Spain. The exports of the northern +provinces consist principally in iron, wool, chesnuts and filberts, &c.; +the imports, which chiefly come from England, Holland, and France, are +woollen, linen, and cotton goods, hardware, and salted fish. + +On the Mediterranean, Malaga may be regarded as the third commercial city +in Spain, though its harbour is not good; the other ports in this sea, at +which trade is carried on to any considerable extent, are Carthagena, +Alicant, and Barcelona, which ranks after Cadiz in commercial importance, +and now that the colonial trade is destroyed, may be placed above it. The +principal exports from these Mediterranean towns are wines, dried fruits, +oils, anchovies, wool, barilla, soap, kermes, antimony, vermilion, brandy, +cork, silk, &c. Barcelona formerly exported an immense number of shoes to +the colonies. The imports consist chiefly of Baltic produce, the articles +enumerated as forming the imports of the north of Spain, and some articles +from Italy and Turkey. + +Portugal, not nearly so extensive as Spain, nor blessed with such a fertile +territory, is before her in commerce: she possesses two sea-ports of the +first consideration, Lisbon and Oporto; and five of the second class. There +are few cities that surpass Lisbon in commerce. The principal trade of +Portugal is with England; from this country she receives woollens and other +manufactures; coals, tin, salted cod, Irish linen, salt provisions, and +butter: her other imports are iron from the north of Spain; from France, +linens, silks, cambrics, fine woollens, jewellery; from Holland, corn, +cheese, and drugs for dying; from Germany, linens, corn, &c.; and from +Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, Baltic produce. The principal exports of +Portugal are wine, oil, fruits, cork, &c. + +The Italian States, the origin of the commerce of the middle ages, are no +longer remarkable for their trade; the principal ports for commerce are +Leghorn, Naples, Venice, Genoa, Messina, and Palermo. The exports of +Leghorn are silk, raw and manufactured; straw hats, olive oil, fruits, +marble, &c.: its chief trade, however, consists in the importation of +English merchandize, which it distributes to all parts of the +Mediterranean, receiving in return their produce to load the British ships +on their home voyage. The greatest import to Naples consists in European +manufactured goods, and salt fish; its exports are those of Leghorn, with +capers, wool, dye stuffs, manna, wax, sulphur, potash, macaroni, &c. Venice +has declined very much, from the influence of political circumstances: her +exports are olives, looking-glasses, rice, coral, Venice treacle, scarlet +cloth, and gold and silver stuffs; the imports are similar to those of +Leghorn and Naples. The exports and imports of Genoa, consisting +principally of those already enumerated, do not require particular notice. +Sicily, a very rich country by nature, and formerly the granary of Rome, +has fallen very low from bad government: her exports are very various, +including, beside those already mentioned, barilla, a great variety of +dying drugs and medicines, goat, kid, and rabbit skins, anchovies, tunny +fish, wheat, &c.: its chief imports are British goods, salted fish, and +colonial produce. + +The principal trade of Greece is carried on by the inhabitants of Hydra, a +barren island. The commerce of the Hydriots, as well as of the rest of +Greece, was very much benefited by the scarcity of corn which prevailed in +France in 1796, and subsequently by the attempts of Bonaparte to shut +British manufactures from the continent. These two causes threw the +greatest part of the coasting trade of the Mediterranean into their hands. +The chief articles of export from Greece are oil, fruits, skins, drugs, +volonia, and gall nuts, cotton and wool. The imports are principally +English goods, and colonial produce, tin, lead, &c. + +We have already dwelt on the causes which produced the immense commercial +superiority of England; and we shall, therefore, now confine ourselves to +an enumeration of its principal ports, and the principal articles of its +export and import. London possesses considerably above one-half of the +commerce of Great Britain; the next town is undoubtedly Liverpool; then may +be reckoned, in England, Bristol, Hull, Newcastle, Sunderland, Yarmouth, +&c.; in Scotland, Greenock, Leith, Aberdeen, Dundee, &c.; in Ireland, Cork, +Dublin, Limerick, Belfast, Waterford, &c. From the last return of the +foreign trade of Great Britain it appears, that by far the most important +article of export is cotton manufactures and yarn, amounting in real or +declared value to nearly one-half of the whole amount of goods exported; +the next articles, arranged according to their value, are woollen +manufactures, refined sugar, linen manufactures, iron, steel and hardware, +brass and copper manufactures, glass, lead, and shot, &c. &c.; of colonial +produce exported, the principal articles are coffee, piece goods of India, +rum, raw sugar, indigo, &c. &c. The principal imports of Great Britain are +cotton wool, raw sugar, tea, flax, coffee, raw silk, train oil and blubber, +madder, indigo, wines, &c. &c. The principal imports into Ireland consist +of old drapery, entirely from Great Britain; coals, also entirely from +Great Britain; iron wrought and unwrought, nearly the whole from Great +Britain; grocery, mostly direct from the West Indies; tea, from Britain, +&c. &c. In fact, of the total imports of Ireland, five-sixths of them are +from Great Britain; and of her exports, nine-tenths are to Great Britain. +The principal articles of export are linen, butter, wheat, meal, oats, +bacon, pork, &c. &c. + +On the 30th September, 1822, there belonged to the United Kingdom 24,642 +vessels, making a total of 2,519,044 tons, and navigated by 166,333 men; of +the vessels employed in the foreign trade, including their repeated +voyages, in the year ending the 5th of January 1823, there were about +12,000, of which upwards of 9,000 were British and Irish, and the rest +foreign vessels. The coasting trade of England is calculated to employ 3000 +vessels. We have already stated the proportion which the trade of Ireland +to Britain bore to her trade with the rest of the world; this point may be +still further elucidated by the following fact: that the number of vessels, +(including their repeated voyages,) which entered the ports of Ireland, +from all parts of the world, in the year ending the 5th of January, 1823, +was 11,561, and that all these, except 943, came from Great Britain. + +From this rapid view of the commerce of the European states, it appears +that, with the exception of Great Britain, by far the largest portion and +greatest value of the exports of each country consist in the produce of the +soil, either in its raw and natural state, or after having undergone a +change that requires little industry, manual labour, or mechanical agency. +Britain, on the contrary, derives her exports almost entirely from the +produce of her wonderful mechanical skill, which effects, in many cases, +what could alone be accomplished by an immense population, and in a few +cases, what no manual labour could perform. + +In reviewing the commerce of the remaining parts of the world, we shall +find the articles that constitute it almost exclusively the produce of the +soil, or, where manufactured, owing the change in their form and value to +the simplest contrivances and skill. We shall begin with Asia. + +Turkey possesses some of the finest portions of this quarter of the globe; +countries in which man first emerged into civilization, literature, and +knowledge; rich in climate and soil, but dreadfully degraded, oppressed, +and impoverished by despotism. The exports from the European part of Turkey +are carpets, fruit, saffron, silk, drugs, &c.: the principal port is +Constantinople. From Asiatic Turkey there are exported rhubarb and other +drugs, leather, silk, dye stuffs, wax, sponge, barilla, and hides: nearly +the whole foreign trade is centered in Smyrna, and is in the hands of the +English and French, and Italians. The imports are coffee, sugar, liqueurs, +woollen and cotton goods, lead, tin, jewellery, watches, &c. + +China, from the immense number of its population, and their habits, +possesses great internal commerce; but, with the exception of her tea, +which is taken away by the English and Americans, her export trade is not +great. She also carries on a traffic overland with Russia, to which We have +already alluded, and some maritime commerce with Japan. Besides tea, the +exports from China are porcelain, silk, nankeens, &c.; the imports are the +woollen goods, and tin and copper of England; cotton, tin, pepper, &c. from +the British settlements in India; edible birds' nests, furs, &c. + +The trade of Japan is principally with China: the exports are copper, +lackered ware, &c.; the imports are raw silk, sugar, turpentine, drugs, &c. +The trade of the Birman empire is also principally with China, importing +into it cotton, amber, ivory, precious stones, betel nuts, &c., and +receiving in return raw and wrought silk, gold leaf, preserves, paper, &c. +European broad cloth and hardware, Bengal muslins, glass, &c. are also +imported into this country. + +But by far the most important commerce that is carried on in the eastern +parts of Asia, consists in that which flows from and to Calcutta, Bombay, +and Madras. In fact, the English country trade there, as it is called, is +of great value, and embraces a very great variety of articles. Bombay is +the grand emporium of the west of India, Persia, and Arabia; here the +productions of those countries are exchanged against each other, and for +the manufactures, &c. of England. The principal articles of export from +Bombay to these places, as well as to England, are cotton piece goods, +sugar, and saltpetre, received from Bengal; pepper from Sumatra; coffee +from the Red Sea. The imports from Europe are woollens, tin, lead, &c. A +very lucrative trade is carried on from Bombay to China, to which it +exports cotton in very great quantity, sandal wood, &c., and receives in +return sugar, sugar-candy, camphire, nankeens, &c. There is also +considerable traffic between Bombay and Bengal, Ceylon, Pegu, and the Malay +archipelago. The exports of Ceylon are cinnamon, arrack, coir, cocoa nuts: +the imports are grain, piece goods, and European merchandize. The commerce +of the eastern coast of Hindostan centers in Madras: the exports from this +place are principally piece goods, grain, cotton, &c.; the imports, woollen +manufactures, copper, spirits, pepper, and other spices. The trade of +Bengal may be divided into four branches: to Coromandel and Ceylon, the +Malabar coast, Gulph of Persia and Arabia, the Malay archipelago and China +and Europe. The principal exports by the port of Calcutta are piece goods, +opium, raw silk, indigo, rice, sugar, cotton, grain, saltpetre, &c.: the +principal imports are woollen goods, copper, wine, pepper, spices, tea, +nankeen, camphire, &c. + +A considerable trade is carried on in the Malay archipelago from Prince of +Wales Island, which, since it was settled by the English, has become the +emporium of this trade.--Batavia, Bencoolen, and Achen; the principal +articles of export from these islands are cloves, nutmegs, camphire, +pepper, sago, drugs, bichedemer, birds' nests, gold dust, ivory, areca +nuts, benzoin, tin, &c.: the imports are tea, alum, nankeens, silks, opium, +piece goods, cotton, rice, and European manufactures. Manilla is the depôt +of all the productions of the Philippines, intended to be exported to +China, America, and Europe. The exports of these islands are birds' nests, +ebony, tobacco, sugar, cotton, cocoa, &c. The commerce of New Holland is +still in its infancy, but it promises to rise rapidly, and to be of great +value: a soil very fertile, and a climate adapted to the growth of +excellent grain, together with the uncommon fineness of its wool, have +already been very beneficial to its commerce. + +The external commerce of Persia is principally carried on by the foreign +merchants who reside at Muscat, on the Persian Gulph: into this place are +imported from India, long cloths, muslins, silks, sugar, spices, rice, +indigo, drugs, and European manufactures; the returns are copper, sulphur, +tobacco, fruits, gum-arabic, myrrh, frankincense, and all the drugs which +India does not produce. + +The Red Sea, washed on one side by Asia, and on the other by Africa, seems +the natural transit, from this consideration, of the commerce of the former +quarter of the globe to that of the latter. Its commerce is carried on by +the Arabians, and by vessels from Hindostan: Mocha and Judda are its +principal ports. The articles sent from it are coffee, gums and drugs, +ivory, and fruit: the imports are the piece goods, cotton, and other +produce of India; and the manufactures, iron, lead, copper, &c. of Europe. + +Egypt, in which anciently centered all the commerce of the world, retains +at present a very small portion of trade: the principal exports from +Alexandria consist in the gums and drugs of the east coast of Africa, +Arabia, Persia, and India; rice, wheat, dates, oil, soap, leather, ebony, +elephants' teeth, coffee, &c. The imports are received chiefly from France +and the Italian States, and England; and consist in woollen and cotton +goods, hardware, copper, iron, glass, and colonial produce. The commerce of +the Barbary States is trifling: the exports are drugs, grain, oil, wax, +honey, hides and skins, live bullocks, ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.; the +imports, colonial produce, (which indeed finds its way every where,) +cutlery, tin, woollen and linen goods, &c. The exports of the rest of +Africa are nearly similar to those enumerated, viz. gums, drugs, ivory, +ostrich feathers, skins, gold dust, &c. From the British settlement at the +Cape are exported wine, wheat, wool, hides, &c. + +The United States claim our first notice in giving a rapid sketch of the +commerce of America: we have already pointed out the causes of their +extraordinary progress in population and wealth. American ships, like +English ones, are found in every part of the world: in the South Sea +Islands, among people just emerging into civilization and industry; among +the savages of New Zealand; on the north-west coast of America; and on the +dreadful shores of New South Shetland. Not content with exporting the +various productions of their own country, they carry on the trade of +various parts of the globe, which, but for their instrumentality, could not +have obtained, or ever have become acquainted with each other's produce. + +The exports from America, the produce of their own soil, are corn, flour, +timber, potash, provisions, and salt fish from the northern States; corn, +timber, and tobacco from the middle States; and indigo, rice, cotton, tar, +pitch, turpentine, timber, and provisions, to the West Indies, from the +southern States. The imports are woollen, cotton goods, silks, hardware, +earthen-ware, wines, brandy, tea, drugs, fruit, dye-stuffs, and India and +colonial produce. By far the greatest portion of the trade of the United +States is with Great Britain. The principal ports are Boston, New York, +Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans. + +The British settlements in America export, chiefly from Quebec and Halifax, +corn, potash, wheel timber, masts, lumber, beaver and other furs, tar, +turpentine, and salted fish from Newfoundland. The imports are woollen and +cotton goods, hardware, tea, wine, India goods, groceries, &c. + +The exports of the West India Islands are sugar, coffee, rum, ginger, +indigo, drugs, and dye stuffs. The imports are lumber, woollen and cotton +goods, fish, hardware, wine, groceries, hats, and other articles of dress, +provisions, &c. + +Brazil, and the late Spanish settlements in America, countries of great +extent, and extremely fertile, promise to supply very valuable articles for +commerce; even at present their exports are various, and chiefly of great +importance. Some of the most useful drugs, and finest dye stuffs, are the +produce of South America. Mahogany and other woods, sugar, coffee, +chocolate, cochineal, Peruvian bark, cotton of the finest quality, gold, +silver, copper, diamonds, hides, tallow, rice, indigo, &c. Carthagena, +Porto Cabello, Pernambucco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Ayres, are +the principal ports on the east coast of South America; and Valparaiso, +Calloa (the port of Lima), Guayaquil, Panama, and Acapulco, on the west +coast. + +Our sketch of commerce would be incomplete, did it not comprehend a short +notice of the manner in which the trade of great part of Asia and Africa is +conducted, by means of caravans. This is, perhaps, the most ancient mode of +communication between nations; and, from the descriptions we possess, the +caravans of the remotest antiquity were, in almost every particular, very +similar to what they are at present. The human race was first civilized in +the East. This district of the globe, though fertile in various articles +which are well calculated to excite the desires of mankind, is intersected +by extensive deserts; these must have cut off all communication, had not +the camel,--which can bear a heavy burden, endure great famine, is very +docile, and, above all, seems made to bid defiance to the parched and +waterless desert, by its internal formation, and its habits and +instinct,--been civilized by the inhabitants. By means of it they have, +from the remotest antiquity, carried on a regular and extensive commerce. + +The caravans may be divided into those of Asia and those of Africa: the +great centre of the former is Mecca: the pilgrimage to this place, enjoined +by Mahomet, has tended decidedly to facilitate and extend commercial +intercourse. Two caravans annually visit Mecca; one from Cairo, and the +other from Damascus. The merchants and pilgrims who compose the former come +from Abyssinia; from which they bring elephants' teeth, ostrich feathers, +gum, gold dust, parrots, monkies, &c. Merchants also come from the Senegal, +and collect on their way those of Algiers, Tunis, &c. This division +sometimes consists of three thousand camels, laden with oils, red caps, +fine flannels, &c. The journey of the united caravans, which have been +known to consist of 100,000 persons, in going and returning, occupies one +hundred days: they bring back from Mecca all the most valuable productions +of the East, coffee, gum arabic, perfumes, drugs, spices, pearls, precious +stones, shawls, muslins, &c. The caravan of Damascus is scarcely inferior +to that of Cairo, in the variety and value of the produce which it conveys +to Mecca, and brings back from it, or in the number of camels and men which +compose it. Almost every province of the Turkish empire sends forth +pilgrims, merchants, and commodities to this caravan. Of the Asiatic +caravans, purely commercial, we know less than of those which unite +religion and commerce; as the former do not travel at stated seasons, nor +follow a marked and constant route. The great object of those caravans is +to distribute the productions of China and Hindustan among the central +parts of Asia. In order to supply them, caravans set out from Baghar, +Samarcand, Thibet, and several other places. The most extensive commerce, +however, carried on in this part of Asia, is that between Russia and China. +We have already alluded to this commerce, and shall only add, that the +distance between the capitals of those kingdoms is 6378 miles, upwards of +four hundred miles of which is an uninhabited desert; yet caravans go +regularly this immense distance. The Russians and Chinese meet on the +frontiers; where the furs, linen and woollen cloth, leather, glass, &c. of +Russia, are exchanged for the tea, porcelain, cotton, rice, &c. of China. +This intercourse is very ancient. There are also caravans of independent +Tartars, which arrive on the Jaik and Oui, and bring Chinese and Indian +commodities, which they interchange for those of Russia. + +Tombuctoo is the great depot of central Africa: with it the maritime states +of Egypt, Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco carry on a very extensive +and lucrative trade by means of caravans. They take 129 days in travelling +to Tombuctoo from the borders of the desert, but only fifty-four are spent +in actual travelling. There is also another caravan which sets off from +Wedinou, and after collecting salt at West Tagossa, proceeds to Tombuctoo. +This goes as far as the White Mountains, near Cape Blanco, and is occupied +five or six months in its journey. The merchandize carried by these +caravans is German linens, Irish linens, muslins, woollen cloth, coral +beads, pearls, silk, coffee, tea, sugar, shawls, brass nails, &c. &c. In +exchange they bring back chiefly the produce of Soudan, viz. gold dust, +gold rings, bars of gold, elephants' teeth, gum, grains of paradise, and +slaves. There are also several caravans that trade between Cairo and the +interior of Africa, which are solely employed in the traffic of slaves. +There can be no doubt that caravans arrive at Tombuctoo from parts of +Africa very distant from it, and not only inaccessible, but totally +unknown, even by report, to Europeans, and even to the inhabitants of North +Africa. + +What a picture does modern commerce present of the boundless desires of +man, and of the advancement he makes in intellect, knowledge, and power, +when stimulated by these desires! Things familiar to use cease to attract +our surprise and investigation; otherwise we should be struck with the +fact, that the lowest and poorest peasant's breakfast-table is supplied +from countries lying in the remotest parts of the world, of which Greece +and Rome, in the plenitude of their power and knowledge, were totally +ignorant. But the benefits which mankind derives from commerce are not +confined to the acquisition of a greater share and variety of the comforts, +luxuries, or even the necessaries of life. Commerce has repaid the benefits +it has received from geography: it has opened new sources of industry; of +this the cotton manufactures of Britain are a signal illustration and +proof:--it has contributed to preserve the health of the human race, by the +introduction of the most valuable drugs employed in medicine. It has +removed ignorance and national prejudices, and tended most materially to +the diffusion of political and religious knowledge. The natural philosopher +knows, that whatever affects, in the smallest degree, the remotest body in +the universe, acts, though to us in an imperceptible manner, on every other +body. So commerce acts; but its action is not momentary; its impulses, once +begun, continue with augmented force. And it appears to us no absurd or +extravagant expectation, that through its means, either directly, or by +enlarging the views and desires of man, the civilization, knowledge, +freedom and happiness of Europe will ultimately be spread over the whole +globe. + + +[6] Since this part of our work was written, the narrative of Lieutenant + Franklin has been published: from this it appears, that he was engaged + in this arduous undertaking during the years 1819, 1820, 1821, and + 1822; that the route he followed to the Coppermine River was to the + east o the routes of M'Kenzie and Hearne; that he reached the river + three hundred and thirty-four miles north of Fort Enterprize; and the + Polar Sea in lat. 67° 47' 50"; and in longitude 115° 36' 49" west; + that he sailed five hundred and fifty miles along its shores to the + eastward, and then returned to Port Enterprize. + + + + + + +CATALOGUE OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. + + +_Preliminary Observations on the Plan and Arrangement pursued +in drawing up this Catalogue_. + +It is obvious, that whoever undertakes to draw up a catalogue of books on +any particular subject, must proceed on one or other of these two +plans,--either to give a complete catalogue of all the works published on +that subject, or a select catalogue of what seems to him the best works. It +is scarcely necessary to point out the objection to the first plan, arising +from the impracticability of making any catalogue absolutely complete; but +it may be said, though not absolutely complete, it may, by sufficient +information and diligence, be rendered nearly so. Let us suppose, then, +that by unwearied assiduity and research, aided and guided by the requisite +knowledge, a catalogue is rendered as perfect as it practically can be +made,--is the utility of such a catalogue enhanced in a proportion any +thing approaching to the labour, research, and time expended upon it; or, +rather, would not such a catalogue be much less useful than one within +smaller compass, drawn up on the plan of selection? + +On all subjects there are more bad or indifferent works published than good +ones. This remark applies with peculiar justice and force to modern works +of voyages and travels. A very extensive catalogue, therefore, must contain +a large portion of bad or indifferent books, which are not worth the +purchasing, the consulting, nor the perusing; consequently, if such works +appear in a catalogue drawn up for the purpose of guiding those who purpose +to travel in particular countries, to write on the subject of them, or +merely to read respecting them for the sake of information, it is plain +that such a catalogue cannot be trusted as a safe and judicious guide; as +if the persons consulting it select for themselves, there is an equal +chance of selecting useless books as good ones; and if they attempt to +peruse all, they must waste a great deal of time. + +It may be said, however, that this objection can easily be obviated, by +distinguishing such works as are bad or indifferent from such as are good, +either by a short notice, or by a particular mark. The first plan +necessarily must increase the size of the catalogue; and it really appears +a piece of superfluous labour to introduce works not worthy to be perused, +and then, either by a notice or mark, to warn the reader from the perusal +of them. Is it not much more direct to omit such works altogether? + +As the object in view in the present catalogue is to render it useful to +the generality of readers, and not valuable to the bibliographer, those +works are omitted which have no other recommendation but their extreme +scarcity. For such works are of course accessible only to very few, and +when obtained, convey little interest or information. + +A select catalogue then appears to be the most useful, and of course must +occupy less room. But to this objections start up, which it will be proper +to consider. + +In the first place, What is the criterion of good works of voyages and +travels? The antiquarian will not allow merit to such as pass over, or do +not enter, _con amore_, and at great length, into the details of the +antiquities of a country: the natural historian is decidedly of opinion, +that no man ought to travel who is not minutely and accurately acquainted +with every branch of his favourite science, and complains that scarcely a +single work of travels is worthy of purchase or perusal, because natural +history is altogether omitted in them, or treated in a popular and +superficial manner. Even those who regard man as the object to which +travellers ought especially to direct their attention, differ in opinion +regarding the points of view in which he ought to be studied in foreign +countries. To many the travels of Johnson and Moore seem of the highest +merit and interest, because these authors place before their readers an +animated, philosophical, and vivid picture of the human character; whereas +other readers consider such works as trifling, and contend that those +travels alone, which enter into the statistics of a country, convey +substantial information, and are worthy of perusal. + +Whoever draws up a catalogue, therefore, must, in some measure, consult the +judgment, taste, and peculiar studies of all these classes of readers, and +endeavour to select the best works of travels in all these branches. + +But there is a second objection to a select catalogue to be considered. The +information and research of the person who draws it up may be inadequate to +the task, or his judgment may be erroneous. This observation, however, +applies to a complete catalogue--indeed the first part of it,--the +information and research requisite, in a greater degree to a complete than +to a select catalogue; and with respect to the judgment required, it will +be equally required in a complete catalogue, if the bad and indifferent +works are distinguished from the good ones; and if they are not, such a +catalogue, we have already shewn, can only lead astray into unnecessary or +prejudicial reading. + +Whoever draws up a catalogue, or gives to the public a work on any +particular subject, is bound to make it as good as he can; but, after all, +he must not expect that there will be no difference of opinion about his +labours. Some will think (to confine ourselves to the catalogue) that he +has admitted books that ought not to have found a place in it; whereas +others will impeach his diligence, his information, or his judgment, +because he has omitted books which they think ought to have entered into +it. All, therefore, that a person who engages to draw up a catalogue can +do, is to exercise and apply as much research and judgment as possible, and +to request his readers, if they find general proofs of such research and +judgment, to attribute the omission of what they think ought to have been +inserted, or the insertion of what they think ought to have been omitted, +to difference of opinion, rather than to a deficiency in research or +judgment. + +It may be proper to remark, with regard to the principle of selection +pursued, that many works are admitted which do not bear the title of +travels; this has been done, wherever, though not under that title, they +are the result of the actual travels and observations, or enquiries of the +authors. The form into which information respecting the agriculture, +manufactures, commerce, antiquities, natural history, manners, &c. of +foreign countries is cast, or the title under which it is communicated to +the world, is obviously of little consequence, provided the information is +not merely compiled by a stranger to the country, and is accurate and +valuable. Such works, however, as are avowedly written for scientific +purposes, and for the exclusive use of scientific men, and are consequently +confined to scientific researches and information conveyed in the peculiar +language of the science, are omitted. + +So much for the plan on which this catalogue has been drawn up. Before we +proceed to explain the arrangement pursued, it may be proper to make a few +remarks on some intermediate points. One advantage of a select catalogue +over a complete one is, that it occupies less room. With the same object in +view, only the title in the original language is given where there is no +translation of the work into the English or French; only translations into +English or French are noticed, where such exist, and not the original work; +and all the articles are numbered, so that a short and easy reference may +be made from one article to another. + +Room is thus evidently saved, and not, in our opinion, by any sacrifice of +utility. For German or Spanish scholars it is unnecessary to translate the +titles of German or Spanish books, and for the mere English scholar it is +useless. Translations into the French are noticed in preference to the +original, because this language is at present familiar to every literary +man in Britain, and French works can easily be obtained; and the German or +Spanish scholar, who wishes to obtain and peruse the original, can be at no +loss to procure it from the translated title. The advantage of numbering +the articles will be immediately explained in treating of the arrangement. + +The catalogue is arranged in the following manner: + +After noticing a few of the most useful works which contain instructions to +travellers, in the first place, Collections and Histories of Voyages and +Travels are placed: next follow Voyages round the World;--Voyages and +Travels which embrace more than one quarter of the World;--Travels in +Europe generally;--Travels in more than one Country of Europe;--Travels in +each particular Country of Europe. It is in this particular department of +the Catalogue that the plan of reference by numbers is more especially +necessary and useful; for the Index to the Catalogue being drawn up with +reference to the numbers, not only those travels which are confined to one +country,--France, for instance,--may easily be found, but also all those +travels which comprehend France along with other countries. + +The same arrangement is pursued in the other parts of the world,--Asia, +Africa, America, Australasia, and Polynesia. The articles are arranged as +nearly as possible in the chronological order in which the voyages and +travels were performed in each particular country, and the countries are +placed according to their geographical relation to one another. + + + + +I. + + +INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELERS. + +1. L'Utilité des Voyages qui concernent la Connoissance des Inscriptions, +Sentences, Dieux, Larés, Peintures anciennes, Bas Reliefs, &c. Langues, +&c.; avec un Memoire de quelques Observations générales qu'on peut faire +pour ne pas voyager inutilement. Par Ch. C. Baudelot Dairval. 2 vol. 12mo. +Paris 1656.--The Rouen edition is much inferior. This is an excellent +work. + +2. C. Linnæus on the Benefit of Travelling in one's own Country. (In +Stillingfleet's Tracts.) This was published in Latin, separately, and in +the Amoenitates Academicæ, in the Select, ex Amoenit.; and in the +Fundamenta Botanices of Gilibert. + +3. Instructio Peregrinatoris, Dissertatio. Præside C. Linnæo. 1759, 4to. + +4. Mémoire Instructif sur la Manière de rassembler, de préparer, de +conserver, et d'envoyer les diverses Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par +Turgot. 1758. 8vo.--This work is also appended to "Avis pour le Transport +par Mer des Arbres, des Plantes vivaces, des Semences, et de diverses +autres Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par L.H. Duhamel." Published at +Paris, 1753. 12mo. + +5. Directions in what Manner Specimens of all Kinds may be collected, +preserved, &c. By J.R. Forster. London, 1771.--This tract, worthy of its +well-informed and able author, was published along with his Catalogue of +North American Animals. + +6. The Naturalist's and Traveller's Companion. By J.C. Lettsom, M.D. +London, 1799 8vo. + +7. Analysis of the Natural Classification of Mammalia, for the Use of +Travellers. + +Introduction to the Ornithology of Cuvier, for the Use of Travellers. + +Introduction to Conchology, for the Use of Travellers. By T.E. Bowdich. +Paris, 1821-2. 8vo. + +8. Instructions for Travellers. By Dean Tucker. 1757. 4to. + +9. Essay to direct and extend the Enquiries of patriotic Travellers. By +Count Berchtold.--The second volume contains a Catalogue of Travels in +Europe; the first alone relates to the subject of the title. 2 vols. 8vo. +1789. + +10. Essay on the Study of Statistics; intended to assist the Enquiries of +inexperienced Travellers. By D. Boileau. 12mo. 1807. + +11. Fried. J. Freyherr von Gunderode Gedanken uber Reisen. Frankfort, 1781. +8vo. + +12. Apodenick, oder die kunst zu Reisen von Posselt. Leipsic, 1795. +8vo.--This is an excellent work. + +13. Uber den Worth und Nutzen der Fussreisen. Hanover, 1805. 8vo.--We +notice this work, because it points out the superior advantages possessed +by foot travellers, in exploring the natural beauties and natural history +of a country. + + + + +II. + + +COLLECTIONS AND HISTORIES OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. + +14. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the +English Nation, made by Sea or Over-land, to the remote and farthest +distant Quarters of the Earth. By Richard Hakluyt, 3 vols. fol. 1598, 1599, +1600.--This work is often incomplete; the completeness of it may be +ascertained by its containing the voyage to Cadiz, which was suppressed by +order of Queen Elizabeth, after the disgrace of the Earl of Essex. The +first volume of this collection contains Voyages to the North and +North-east: The True State of Iceland; The Defeat of the Spanish Armada: +The Victory at Cadiz, &c. The second volume contains Voyages to the South +and South-east Parts of the World: and the third to North America, the West +Indies, and round the World. It has lately been republished. + +15. S. Purchas, his Pilgrims and Pilgrimages, 5 vols. folio, 1625-26.--The +first volume contains Voyages by the Ancient Circumnavigators of the Globe: +Voyages along the Coasts of Africa to the East-Indies, Japan, China, +Philippines, and the Persian and Arabian Gulphs. Vol. 2. contains Voyages +and Relations of Africa, Ethiopia, Palestina, Arabia, Persia, Asia. Vol. 3. +Tartary, China, Russia, North-west America, and the Polar Regions. Vol. 4. +America and the West Indies. Vol. 5. Early History of the World; of the +East Indies; Egypt; Barbary, &c. &c. + +16. A General Collection of Voyages and Travels. Published by Astley. 4 +vols. 4to. 1745. + +17. A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now first printed from +original MSS.; others now first published in English. By Churchill. 6 vols. +folio. 1732. + +18. Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca. Harris's Collection of +Voyages and Travels, from Hakluyt, Purchas, Ramusio, &c. The whole work +revised and continued, by Dr. John Campbell. 2 vols. fol. 1744. + +19. A General Collection of the best and most interesting Voyages and +Travels, in all Parts of the World. By John Pinkerton. 1808-1814. 17 vols. +4to. + +20. A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, arranged in +systematic Order. By Robert Kerr. Edin. 1811-22. 18 vols. 8vo. + +21. Relation de divers Voyages curieux, qui n'ont point encore été publiés, +et qu'on a traduits ou tirés des Originaux des Voyageurs Français, +Espagnols, Allemands, &c. &c. Par M. Thevenot. Paris, 1696. 2 vol. +fol.--This work is seldom found complete: the marks of the complete and +genuine edition are given in the Bibliothèque des Voyages, vol. i. pp. 82, +83. To this work the following is a proper supplement: + +22. Recueil des Voyages de M. Thevenot. Paris, 1681. 8vo. + +23. Recueil des Voyages qui ont servi a l'Etablissement et au Progrès de la +Campagne des Indes Orientates Hollandaises. Par Constantin.--The best +editions are those of Amsterdam, 1730, and of Paris and Rouen, 1705; each +in 10 vol. 12mo. + +24. Recueil des Voyages au Nord, &c. Amsterdam, 1717. 8 vol. 12mo. + +25. Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses. Paris, 1780, 1781. 24 vols. 12mo. + +26. Mémoires Orientales. Paris, 1789. 12mo. + +27. Collection Portative de Voyages, traduit de différentes Langues +Orientales et Europiennes. Par Langles. Paris, 3 vols. 18mo. + +28. Histoire Générale des Voyages. Par Prevot. Paris, 20 vols. 4to.--This +work is valuable for its excellent engravings, maps, plans, &c., but in +other respects its value has fallen, in consequence of the following +abridgment of it: + +29. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générate des Voyages de Prevot. Par La Harpe. +Paris, 1780-1786. 23 vols. 8vo.--The last five volumes contain voyages and +travels not given by Prevot. This work also has been continued by Comeyras +in 1798-1801, in 9 vols. 8vo. + +30. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages. Par La Harpe. 2 vols. 12mo. +Paris, 1820.--This abridgment is executed with considerable judgment; it is +necessarily confined to the most novel and curious parts of the narratives +and descriptions. + +31. Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun. 25 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1814-1817. + +32. Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun et Eyries.--Twelve +volumes are already published: four volumes are published annually. Perhaps +the very high character of Malte Brun would lead us to expect a more severe +and judicious selection than some parts of this work exhibit; but, on the +whole, it is valuable. + +33. Journal des Voyages, Découvertes et Navigations Modernes, ou Archives +Géographiques du 19me Siècle.--This work began in Nov. 1818, and is +published monthly. Like all collections of this kind, the value of it would +have been encreased, and the bulk much diminished, if the selection had +been more scrupulous. + +34. Delle Navigationi e Viaggi raccolti da M.G.B. Ramusio. Venet.--The most +complete and accurate edition of this book consists of vol. 1. of the +edition of 1588; vol. 2. of 1583; the third of 1565; and the Supplement of +1606. + +35. J.R. Forster und M.C. Sprengel, Beytrage zur Volker-und Landerkunde. +Leipsic, 1781--94. 13 vols. 8vo. + +36. Magazin von merkerurdigen Reisebeschreibungen, aus fremden Sprachen +ubersizt. Von J.R. Forster. Berlin, 1790--1802. 24 vols. 8vo. + +37. Bibliothek der neuesten und wichtigstien Reisebeschreibungen. Von M.C. +Sprengel. Weimar, 1801. &c. 22 vols. 8vo.--There are many other +collections in German; the best of which are noticed by Ersch, in his +Literatur der Geschichte und deren Hulfswissenschaften. Leipsic, 1813. + +38. Samling af de beste og nyeste Reise-beskriveler. Copen. 1790--5. 12 +vols. 8vo. + +39. Danskes Reise-iagttagelser. Copen. 1798--1800. 4 vols. 8vo. + +40. Versamnelling der gedenkwaardegsten Reisen nae oost en West Indien door +de Bry. Leyden, 1707--10. 30 vols. 8vo. + +41. El Viagero Universal. Madrid, 1800.--This work was published originally +in small parts, which form a great many volumes in 8vo. + +42. Novus Orbis Regionum et Institutorum Veteribus incognitarum. Basle, +1532. fol. Paris, 1582. fol. + +43. Collectiones Peregrinationum in Indiam Orientalem et Occidentalem. +Francfort, 1590--1634. 7 vols. fol., or 9 vols. fol.--The first edition, +when complete, is by far the most valuable. Several dissertations have been +published on this work, which is generally called Les Grands et Petits +Voyages. In 1742 the Abbé de Rothelin published Observationes sur des +Grands et Petits Voyages. In 1802 Camus published Mémoire sur la Collection +des Grands et Petits Voyages; and Debure, in his Bibliographe, has devoted +upwards of one hundred pages to this work. Whoever wishes to ascertain +exactly the best edition, should consult these authors, and the +Bibliotheque des Voyages, vol. 1. 57. + + + + +III. + + +VOYAGES AND TRAVELS ROUND THE WORLD. + + Boucher de la Richarderie, the author of the Bibliothèque Universelle + des Voyages, makes some just remarks on the nature and extent of those + voyages to which this appellation is usually applied. He observes that + for the most part, by a Voyage round the World, is understood a voyage + either by the Atlantic Ocean or the Indian Sea to the Pacific or Great + Southern Ocean, the visiting the isles in the last, exploring the + Antarctic Seas, and returning by the route opposite to that by which the + ship went out. This certainly is a voyage round the world, though + probably scarcely any part of Asia, Africa, or America has been explored + or visited, except for the purposes of refitting or provisioning the + ship. But when these quarters of the globe, and especially the unknown + parts of them, have been visited, the application of the term, though + not perhaps so correct verbally, is more justly made. There is a third + class of voyages thus denominated, which, though they embrace the four + quarters of the globe, do not extend to the South Sea, or the + Australasian Lands. All these three classes are comprehended in the + following catalogue, and we have deemed it right also to follow the + author of the Bibliothèque in dividing them into two parts, ancient + voyages round the world, and modern voyages: the first comprehend + voyages of the first class, and were performed from the middle of the + sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century. + +44. Il Viaggio fatto dagli Spanuoli attorno il Mondo, 1536. 4to.--This is +the first edition of the Voyages of Pigafetta, who sailed with Magellan in +his celebrated Voyage round the World, but it is incomplete. The genuine +and complete work was published for the first time from a MS. in the +Ambrosian Library of Milan, with notes, by Amoretti, under the following +title: + +45. Primo Viaggio, intorno al Globo terraqueo fatto dal Casaglieri Ant. +Pigafetta. Milan, 1800. 4to.--The same editor published a French +translation, with a description of the Globe of Behaim. Magellan's Voyage +is published in the first volume of Harris's Collection. + +46. C. Ortoga resumen del primero Viage hecho ad rededor del Mundo. Per H. +Magellanes. Madrid, 1769. 4to. + +47. The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, to which is added the +Prosperous Voyage of Mr. Thomas Candish. London, 1741. 8vo. also in Harris, +vol. 1. The second voyage of Candish is in Purchas. + +48. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffique and Discoveries of the +English Nation. London, 1599. 2 vols. folio. + +49. The Discoveries of the World, from their original to 1555, translated +from the Portuguese, by R. Hackluyt. London, 1610. 4to. + +50. Funnell's Voyage round the World. London, 1607. 8vo. In Harris, vol. 1. + +51. Description du penible Voyage fait autour de l'Univers. Par O. du Nord. +Amsterdam, 1602, in folio.--This is translated from the Dutch. An English +translation is given in Harris, vol.1. + +52. Voyage de Jacques l'Hermite autour du Monde. Amsterdam, 1705-12.--This +also is translated from the Dutch. + +53. Dampier's New Voyage round the World. London, 1711. 3 vols. 8vo.--The +French translation in 5 vols. 12mo. contains also the voyages of Wafer, +Wood, Cowley, Robert, and Sharp. Dampier's and Cowley's are in Harris, vol. +1. + +54. A Voyage round the World. By Captain G. Shelvocke. London, 1757. 8vo. +This is also in Harris, vol. 1. + +55. Voyage round the World, by Wood Rogers. London, 1728, 8vo. In Harris, +vol. 1. + +56. Voyage round the World, by Lord Anson. By Walter, corrected by Robins. +London, 1749. 4to. + +57. Hawksworth's Account of the Voyages for making Discoveries in the +Southern Hemisphere, performed by Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook, 1773. +3 vols. 4to. + +58. Captain Cook's Voyage towards the South Pole, and round the World, +1777. 2 vols. 4to. + +59. Captains Cook, Clarke, and Gore's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. By Cook +and King, with an introduction by Bishop Douglas, 1784. 3 vols. 4to. + +60. G. Forster's Voyage round the World, with Captain Cook, during +1772-75-77. 2 vols. 4to. + +61. Bougainville's Voyage round the World, translated from the French. By +J.R. Forster, 1772. 4to. + +62. Voyage round the World, more particularly to the North-west Coast of +America, in 1785-88. By Captain Dixon, 1789. 4to. + +63. Captain Portlock's Account of the same Voyage; 1789. 4to. + +64 A Voyage round the World in 1785-88. By De la Perouse, translated from +the French. 2 vols. 4to. and Atlas of Prints, 1799. + +65. Account of a Voyage in search of La Peyrouse, translated from the +French of Labellaidiere. 2 vols. 8vo. and Atlas in 4to. 1800. + +66. Marchand's Voyage round the World, 1790-92. 2 vols. 4to. Translated +from the French. + +67. A Voyage of Discovery into the North Pacific Ocean, and round the World +in 1790-5. By G. Vancouver, 3 vols. 4to. and an Atlas. 1798. + +68. A Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific Ocean in 1796-8. 4to. 1799. + +69. Flinder's Voyage to Terra Australis in 1801-3. 2 vols. 4to. with an +Atlas, 1814. + +70. Liansky's Voyage round the World, 1803-5, performed by order of +Alexander the First. 4to. + +71. Langsdorffe's Voyages and Travels in various Parts of the World, +1803-7. 2 vols. 4to. Translated from the German. + +72. Krusenstern's Voyage round the World, 1803-6. 2 vols. 4to. Translated +from the German. + +73. A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea, and Behring's Straits, in +1815-18. By Kotzebue. 3 vols. 8vo. 1821. Translated from the German, but +badly. + +74. Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde. Par Choris. Livraison, 1-9. Paris, +1821.--This splendid work illustrates Kotzebue's Voyage, by engravings of +the savages of the different parts he visited; their arms, dresses, +diversions, &c. On this account alone, however, we should not have given it +a place here; but it is recommended to the natural historian, by the +descriptions which Cuvier has added to the engravings of animals; and to +the craniologist, by the observations of Gall, on the engravings of human +skulls. + +75. Peregrinacion que ha hecho de la mayor partè del Mundo. Par D.P.S. +Cubero. Sarragoss. 1688. folio. + +76. Giro del Mondo del G.F. Gemelli Carreri. Naples, 1699. 7 vols. 8vo. + + + + +IV. + + +TRAVELS COMPRISING DIFFERENT QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. + +77. Letters from Barbary, France, Spain, and Portugal. By an English +Officer (Jardine), 1794. 2 vols. 8vo. + +78. Cor. de Jong Reisen naer de Cap de Goede Hop, Ierland en Norwégen. +Haarlem, 1802. 8vo. + +79. Friedrich, Briefe au einen freund, eine reise von Gibraltar nach Tanger +und von da durch Spanien, und Frankreich, Zurich, nach Deutschland, +betreffend. (In the Historical Magazine of Gottingen, 4th year. 1st +cahier.) + +80. Voyage to the Levant in 1700, by Tournefort. Translated from the +French, 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels bear too high a character to be +particularly pointed out. They comprise the Archipelago, Constantinople, +the Black Sea, Armenia, Georgia, the Frontiers of Persia and Asia Minor; +and are rich and valuable in the rare junction of antiquarian and botanical +knowledge. + +81. Le Bruyn's Voyage to the Levant, and Travels into Muscovy, Persia, and +the East Indies. Translated from the French. 1720. 8 vols. fol. + +82. Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia. +Translated from the German of Baron Strahlenberg. 1738, 4to. + +83. Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a +Journey of Travels from London, through Russia, Germany, and Holland. By +James Hanway. 1754. 2 vols. 4to. + +84. Bell of Antermony's Travels from St. Petersburgh in Russia to several +Parts of Asia. Glasgow, 1763. 2 vols. 4to. + +85. Memoirs of B.H. Bruce, containing an Account of his Travels in Germany, +Russia, Tartary, and the Indies. 1782. 4to. + +86. A Journey from India to England, in the year 1797. By John Jackson. +1799. 8vo. + +87. Histoire des Découvertes faites par divers Voyageurs. Pallas, Gmelin, +Guldenstedt, et Lepechin, dans plusieurs Contrées de la Russe et de la +Perse. La Haye, 1779. 2 vol. 4to. & 6 8vo. + +88. Nouvelles Relations du Levant. Par Poullet. Paris, 1688. 2 vols. +12mo.--This is a scarce and valuable work, especially that part of it which +relates to Asiatic Turkey, Georgia, and Persia: there is likewise in it a +particular account of the commerce of the English and Dutch in the Levant +at this period. + +89. Le Voyage du Sieur Duloir. Paris, 1654. 4to.--This work, beside much +historical information respecting Turkey, and the Siege of Babylon in 1639, +contains many particulars regarding the Religion, &c. of the Turks. It +comprises the Archipelago, Greece, European Turkey and Asia Minor. It is +likewise particular in the description of antiquities. + +90. Les Voyages de Jean Struys en Moscovie, en Tartarie, en Perse, aux +Indes. Traduits du Hollandais. Amsterdam. 4to. 1681. Rouen, 3 vols. 12mo. +1730.--The Travels of Struys, who was actuated from his earliest youth with +an insatiable desire to visit foreign countries, are especially interesting +from the account he gives of Muscovy and Tartary at this period. + +91. Voyages très Curieux et très Renommés, faits en Moscovie, Tartarie et +Perse. Par Adam Olearius. Traduits d'Allemagne. Amsterdam, fol. + +92. Voyages en différent Endroits d'Europe et d'Asie. Par le P. Avril. +Paris, 1692. 4to.--The object of this voyage, which was commenced in 1635, +principally consisted in the discovery of a new route to China. Turkey, +Armenia, European and Asiatic Russia. Tartary, &c. are comprised in these +Travels. + +93. Voyage en Turquie et en Perse. Par M. Otter. Paris, 1748. 2 vols. +12mo.--The chief merit of this work consists in the exactitude of its +descriptions of places, and in the determination of their distances and +true positions, which are further illustrated by maps. + +94. Beschreibung der Reise eines Polnishchen Herrn Bothschafters gen +Constantinople und in die Tartary. Nuremberg, 1574. 4to. + +95. Sal. Schweiger Reise-beschriebung aus Deutschland nach Constantinopel +und Jerusalem. Nuremberg, 1608. 4to. + +96. Reise van Erfurt nach dem gelobten land, auch Spanien, Franckreich, +Holland und England. Erfurt, 1605. 4to. + +97. Muntzer von Babenbergh, Reise von Venedig nach Jerusalem, Damascus und +Constantinopel, 1556. Nurembergh. 4to. + +98. Brand, Reisen durch Brandenburgh, Preussen, Curland, Liefland, +Plescovien und Muscovien. Nebst, A. Dobbins Beschriebung von Siberien, &c. +Wesel, 1702. 8vo. + +99. Itinera Sex a diversis Saxoniæ; Ducibus et Authoribus, diversis +Temporibus, in Italiam, Palæstinam et Terram Sanctum. Studio Balt. Mincii. +Wirtemberg, 1612. 12mo. + +100. Edwin Sandy's Travels into Turkey, Palestine, Egypt, and Italy, begun +in 1610. fol. 1658. + +101. Travels through Europe, Asia, and into several parts of Africa, +containing Observations especially on Italy, Turkey, Greece, Tartary, +Circassia, Sweden and Lapland. By De la Mottraye. 1723. 2 vols. fol. +Veracity and exactness, particularly so far as regards the copying of +inscriptions, characterise these travels. They are also valuable for +information respecting the mines of the North of Europe. + +102. Travels of Thevenot into Turkey, Persia, and India. Translated from +the French, 1687. fol. The 4th edition of the original in 3 vols. is very +rare; the more common one is that of Amsterdam in 5 vols. 12mo. These +travels comprise Egypt, Arabia, and other places in Africa and Asia, +besides those places indicated in the title page. The chief value of them +consists in his account of the manners, government, &c. of the Turks. This +author must not be confounded with the Mel. Thevenot, the author of a +Collection of Voyages. + +103. A View of the Levant, particularly of Constantinople, Syria, Egypt and +Greece. By Ch. Parry. 1743. fol. 1770. 3 vols. 4to. This work is much less +known than it deserves to be: the author of the bibliotheque des Voyages +justly remarks, that the circumstance of its having been twice translated +into German is a pretty certain indication that it is full of good matter. + +104. Description of the East, and some other Countries: Egypt, Palestine, +Arabia, Syria, Greece, Thrace, France, Italy, Germany. Poland, &c. by Dr. +Richard Pococke. 3 vols. fol. 1743-8. The merits of this work in pointing +out and describing the antiquities of Egypt and the East are well known. + +105. Travels through Europe, Asia, and Africa. By Lithgow. Edinburgh, 1770. +8vo.--This is one of the best editions of a book, the chief interest of +which consists in the personal narrative of the author. + +106. Travels in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Persia. By Olivier. +Translated from the French, 1802. 4to. + +107. Dr. Ed. Dan. Clarke's Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia, +and Africa. 6 vols. 4to. Vol. 1. Russia, Turkey, Tartary. Vol. 2. & 3. +Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. Vol. 4. The same Countries, and a Journey +from Constantinople to Vienna, and an Account of the Gold Mines of +Transylvania and Hungary. Vols. 5. & 6. Scandinavia.--There is no +department of enquiry or observation to which Dr. C. did not direct his +attention during his travels: in all he gives much information in a +pleasant style; and to all he evidently brought much judgment, talent, and +preparatory knowledge. + +108. Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, +1806-7. 2 vols. 8vo.--Those who admire this author's manner and style +will be gratified with these travels: and those who dislike them, may still +glean much information on antiquities, manners, customs, religion, &c. + +109. Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa, and Europe. +Translated by Charles Stewart. 1814. 3 vols. 12mo.--These travels, of the +genuineness of which there can be no doubt, derive their chief interest, as +depicting the character and feelings of the author, and the impressions +made on his mind by what he saw and heard. + +110. Les Observations de plusieurs Singularités et Choses mémorables +trouvées en Greece, en Asie, Inde, Arabie, Egypte, &c. Par Pierre +Belon.--Various editions from 1550 to 1585. 4to. Belon is supposed to +have travelled between 1547 and 1550. His work is rich in botany and +natural history, especially considering the period in which he lived; and +the accompanying plates are very accurate. + +111. Voyage à Constantinople, en Perse, en Egypte, dans l'année 1546, et +les années suivantes. Par G. Lues d'Aramon, Ambassadeur de France à +Constantinople. Paris, 1739. 3 vols. 4to.--This relates chiefly to the +manners and customs; other pieces are contained in these volumes, which +relate, in a manner more minute than important and edifying, the various +journies in France, of the Kings of France, from Louis the Young to Louis +XIV. inclusive. + +112. Les Navigations, Pérégrinations, et Voyages, faits en Turquie. Par +Nicholas Nicholai, Antwerp, fol. 1576.--This also is instructive, +relative to the manners, &c. of many parts of Europe, Africa, and Upper +Asia: the plates are engraved on wood, after the designs of Titian. + +113. Relations des Voyages de M. de Breves, tant en Grèce, Terre Sainte. +Egypte, qu'aux Royaumes de Tunis et Alger. Paris, 1628. 4to. De Breves was +ambassador from Henry IV. to the Porte, and sent afterwards on a special +mission to Tunis and Algiers. What he relates regarding these states is the +most curious and valuable part of his work. + +114. Les Voyages et Observations du Sieur Laboulaye-le-Goux, où sont +décrits les Religion, Gouvernment, et Situation, des Etats et Royaumes +d'Italie, Grèce, Natolie, Syrie, Perse, Palestine, &c; Grand Mogul, Indes +Orientales des Portugais, Arabie, Afrique, Hollande, Grande Bretagne, &c. +Paris, 1657. 4to.--This work bears a high character for veracity and +exactness; and is very minute in its account of the casts and religions of +India. Prefixed to it is a short critical notice of travellers who preceded +him, written with great judgment and candour. + +115. Voyage de Paul Lucas au Levant. Paris, 1704. 2 vols. 12mo. + +116. Voyage de Paul Lucas, dans la Grèce, l'Asie Mineure, la Macedoine, et +l' Afrique. Paris, 1712. 2 vols. 12mo.--The credit and veracity of this +author, which was long suspected, has, in many of his most suspicious +parts, been confirmed by modern travellers. + +117. Mèmoire du Chevalier D'Arvieux: contenant ses Voyages à +Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, la Barbarie, &c. +Paris, 1735. 6 vols. 12mo.--This author was well qualified from his +knowledge of the oriental languages, and from the official situations he +filled, to gain an accurate and minute knowledge of the people among whom +he resided. His account of his sojourn among the Bedouin Arabs is +particularly curious. + +118. Viaggi di P. della Valle dall Anno 1614, fin al' 1626. Venice, 1671. 4 +vols. 4to.--These travels comprehend Turkey, Egypt, Palestine, Persia, +and the East Indies. They are written in a pleasant, lively manner; what +relates to Persia is most valuable. They have been translated into French, +English, and German. + +119. Schultz, Reisen durch Europa, Asien, und Africa. Halle, 1771-75. 5 +vols. 8vo. + +120. Læflingii Petri iter Hispanicum. Stockholm, 1758. 8vo.--This work, +originally published in Swedish, was translated by C. Linnæus into German, +under the following title: Reise nach den Spanischen Landern in Europa und +Amerika, 1751--56. Berlin, 1776. 8vo. It is chiefly valuable for its +natural history information. + +121. Voyage en Amérique, en Italie, en Sicile, et en Egypte, 1816--19. 2 +vols. 8vo. + +122. The true Travels of Captain J. Smith in Europe, Asia, Africa, and +America, from 1593 to 1629. London, 1664. fol.--This work, like most of +the old travels, derives its principal value from enabling us to compare +the countries visited, and their inhabitants, with their present state; and +its principal interest from the personal adventures of the author. To such +works, as well as to minute biography, time gives a value and utility, +which they do not intrinsically possess. + +123. Itinerarium Portugalensium e Lusitania in Indiam et inde in Occidentem +et demum ad Aquilonem, ab. Arch. Madrignan. 1508. fol.--Originally +published in Portuguese. + +124. Josten, Reisebeschreibung durch die Turkey, Ungern, Polen, Reussen, +Bohemen, &c. neue Jerusalem, Ost und West Indien. Lubec, 1652. 4to. + +125. Graaf, Reisen naer Asia, Africa, America, en Europa. Amsterdam, 1686. +8vo. + +126. Historia y Viage del Mundo en los cincos Partes; de la Europa, Africa, +Asia, America y Magellanica. Par Levallos. Madrid, 1691. 4to. + +127. John Ovington's Voyage to Surat, with a Description of the Islands of +Madeira and St. Helena. London, 1698. 8vo. + +128. Le Bruyn's Voyage to the Levant. Translated from the French. London, +1702. fol.--This work bears a similar character as the preceding travels +of the author already noticed. The plates are excellent. + +129. Irwin's Adventures in a Voyage up the Red Sea; and a Route through the +Thebaid hitherto unknown, in the year 1779. London, 4to. and 8vo.--Chiefly +valuable for the information which his personal adventures necessarily +gives of the manners, &c. of the Arabians. + +130. Memoirs and Travels of Count Beniousky. London, 1790. 2 vols. +4to.--Amidst much that is trifling, and more that is doubtful, this work +contains some curious and authentic information, especially relating to +Kamschatka and Madagascar: what he states on the subject of his +communications with Japan, is very suspicious. + +131. Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria. By W.G. Browne. London, 1799. +4to.--A most valuable work, and except in some few peculiarities of the +author, a model for travellers: it is particularly instructive in what +relates to Darfour. + +132. Travels in Asia and Africa. By A. Parsons. 4to. 1809.--These travels +were performed in 1772--78: they indicate good sense, and are evidently the +result of attentive and careful observation and enquiry. From Scanderoon to +Aleppo; over the desert to Bagdat: a voyage from Bussora to Bombay, and +along the west coast of India; from Bombay to Mocha; and a journey from +Suez to Cairo, are the principal contents. + +133. Travels. By John Lewis Burckhardt. Vol.1. Nubia; vol. 2. Syria and the +Holy Land; vol.3, in the Hedjaz. 1823. 4to.--Few travellers have done +more for geography than this author: antiquities, manners, customs, &c., +were examined and investigated by him, with a success which could only have +been ensured by such zeal, perseverance, and judgment as he evidently +possessed. + +134. Lord Valentia's Travels in India. Ceylon, the Red Sea, Abyssinia, and +Egypt. 1802-6. 3 vols. 4to.--It is not possible for a person to travel so +long, in such countries, without collecting information of a novel and +important kind: such there is in this work on antiquities, geography, +manners, &c.; but it might all have been comprised in one third of the +size. + +135. Travels along the Mediterranean and Parts adjacent, 1816-17-18, +extending as far as the second Cataract of the Nile, Jerusalem, Damascus, +Balbec, &c. By Robert Richardson, M.D. 1822. 2 vols. 8vo.--Much +information may be gleaned from these volumes; but there is a want of +judgment, taste, and life in the narrative. + +136. Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Turkey. +1803-7. By Ali Bey. 3 vols. 4to.--This traveller procured access to many +places, in his assumed character, to which Christians were not permitted to +go: from this cause the travels are instructive and curious; but they +certainly disappointed the expectations of the public. + +137. Ludovici Patricii Romani Itinerarium Novum Ethiopiæ, Egypti, utriusque +Arabiæ, Persidis, Syriæ, ac Indiæ ultra citraque Gangem. Milan, 1511. +fol.--This work is supposed to have been written originally in Italian. +In the Spanish translation, published in Lisbon, 1576, the author's name is +given, Barthema. This a very curious and rare work. It has been translated +into German and Dutch. + +138. Baumgarten, Peregrinatio in Egyptum, Arabiam, Palestinam, et Syriam. +Nuremberg, 1621. 4to. + +139. Voyages au Levant, 1749-52. Par Fréd. Hasselquist. Paris, 1769. 1 vol. +12mo.--This, originally published in Swedish by Linnæus, and translated +into German and Dutch, is uncommonly valuable to the natural historian. + +140. Itinéraire de Paris a Jérusalem, et de Jérusalem à Paris, en allant +par la Grèce. Par Chateaubriand. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810. + +141. Le Nouveau Monde, et Navigations faites par Améric. Vespuce, dans les +Pays nouvellement trouvés, tant en Ethiopie qu'en Arabie. Paris, +4to.--Translated from the Italian: both are rare. The claims and merits of +Vespucius may be judged of from the following works: Canovai Elogio di +Amerigo Vespucci. Florence, 1798.; Tiraboschi Storia dell Litt. vol. 1. p. +1. lib. 1. c. 6.; the Letters of Americo in Ramusio, 1. 138.; Bandini Vita +del Amerigo, and an article in the North American Review, for 1822. + +142. Voyage d'un Philosophe (M. Poivre). Paris, 1797. 18mo.--This little +work, which embraces remarks on the arts and people of Asia, Africa, and +America, deserves the title it bears better than most French works which +claim it. + +143. Langstadt, Reisen nach Sud-America, Asien, und Africa. Hildesheim, +1789. 8vo. + +144. Recueil de divers Voyages faites en Afrique et Amérique. Paris, 1674. +4to. + +145. Voyages du Cheval. Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne. +Par Labat. Paris, 1780. 4 vols. 12mo. + +146. Voyage en Guinée et dans les Isles Caraïbes. Par Isert. 1793. 8vo. +Translated from the German. + +147. Voyage on the Coast of Africa, in the Straits of Magellan, Brazil, &c. +in 1695-97. Translated from the French of Froger. London, 1698. 8vo. + +148. Hans Sloane's Voyage to Madeira, Barbadoes, St. Christophers, &c. +London, 2 vols. folio. 1707.--This work, generally known under the title of +Sir Hans Sloane's History of Jamaica, is a rich mine of natural history, +aad contains upwards of 1200 engravings of plants, &c. + +149. The Four Years' Voyage of Captain G. Roberts to the Islands Canaries, +Cape Verde, and the Coast of Guinea, and Barbadoes. 1725. 8vo. + +150. Voyage to Guinea, Brazil, the West Indies, Madagascar, &c. By John +Atkins. 1737. 8vo. + +151. Voyage aux Indes Orientales, Maldives, Moluccas, et Brésil. Par Fr. +Pyrard. Paris, 1619-8vo.--These voyages, which occupied the author from +1600 to 1611, are uncommonly well written, accurate, faithful, and +circumstantial, especially regarding the Maldives, Cochin, Travancore, and +Calicut. There is appended a particular and methodical description of the +animals and plants of the East Indies. + +152. Curiosités de la Nature et de l'Art, apportés dans deux Voyages dans +Indes: Indes Occ. 1698-9; Ind. Orient. 1701-2. Par C. Biron, Chirurgeon +Major. Paris, 1703. 12mo.--Valuable for its natural history, and its +account of the implements and arts of the inhabitants. + +153. The History of Travels in the West and East Indies. By Eden and +Willis. 1577. 4to. + +154. Reise nach Ost und West Indien. Von R.C. Zimmerman. Hamburgh, 1771. +8vo. + +155. Variorum in Europa Itinerum deliciae. Collectae ab. A. Clytaeo. +Bremen, 1605. 8vo. + +156. Ponz Viage fuera de España in Europa. Madrid, 1785. 2 vols. 12mo. + +157. Moryson's Travels through Europe. 1617. fol.--A very curious work. + +158. Itinera through the twelve Dominions of Germany, Bohemia, Prussia, +Sweden, Turkey, France, Britain, &c. 1617. fol. + +159. Ray's Observations, made in a Journey through Part of the Low +Countries, Germany, Italy, and France. 1738. 2 vols. 8vo.--Valuable for its +botanical researches. + +160. Travels in Hungary, Macedonia, Austria, Germany, the Low Countries, +and Lombardy. By E. Browne, M.D. 1685. fol.--Natural history, the mines, +mineral waters, as well as manners and customs, are described in this work, +which bears a good character. The author was physician to Charles II., to +Bartholomew Hospital, and afterwards President of the College of +Physicians. + +161. Bishop Burnet's Letters on Switzerland and Italy. 1686. 8vo. + +162. Travels through Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. By De +Blainville. 1749. 3 vols. 4to. + +163. Smollet's Travels through France and Italy. 1766. 2 vols. 8vo. + +164. Barretti's Journey from London to Genoa, through Portugal, Spain, and +France. 1770. 2 vols. 8vo. + +165. Dr. Moore's View of the Customs and Manners of France, Germany, and +Switzerland. 2 vols. 8vo. + +166. Stolberg's (Count) Travels in Germany, Italy, and Sicily. 1794. 2 +vols. 4to. + +167. Dr. C.J. Smith's Sketch of a Tour on the Continent in 1786-7. 3 vols. +8vo. 1807.--The travels of this celebrated botanist are not by any means +confined to his favourite science, but comprehend well-drawn and +interesting sketches of manners, as well as notices of the antiquities, +fine arts, &c. Holland, the Netherlands, France, and Italy, were the scene +of his travels. + +168. Beaumont's Travels from France to Italy, through the Lepantine Alps. +1800. fol. + +169. Travels in Sicily, Greece, and Albania. By the Rev. T.S. Hughes. 1820. +2 vols. 4to.--Classical, antiquarian, and descriptive of the state of +society, political, civil, religious, and domestic; bearing marks of much +information and enquiry, a sound judgment and good education. + +170. Letters from the Mediterranean. By Ed. Blaquiere. 1814. 2 vols. +8vo.--The information in these volumes chiefly relates to the civil and +political state of Sicily, Malta, Tunis, and Tripoli. + +171. The Diary of an Invalid, 1817--1819. By H. Matthews. 8vo. 1820.--Light +and pleasant sketches of manners, and other popular information, on +Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, and France. + +172. Travels through Holland, Germany, and Part of France, in 1819. By W. +Jacob, Esq. 4to. 1820.--Agriculture, Statistics, and Manufactures. + +173. Journal du Voyage de Montaigne en Italie, par la Suisse et +l'Allemagne, en 1580-81. Paris, 1774. 4to.--Italy and the Tyrol are +particularly the objects of those travels, which are interesting, much more +on account of the name of the author, and of the insight they afford into +his temper and feelings, than from the information they convey. + +174. Lettres du Baron de Busbec. Paris, 1748. 3 vols. 12mo.--These are +written from Turkey, whither the author was sent as ambassador by Ferdinand +King of Hungary, and from France, where he resided in an official +character. The original is in Latin. There is a translation in English; but +this comprises only the embassy to Turkey. They are rich in political +information, and in depicting the manners, &c. of the people he visited, +especially those inhabiting the neighbourhood of the Don, &c. + +175. Relations Historiques des Voyages en Allemagne, Angleterre, Holland, +Boheme, et Suisse. Par C. Patin. Lyon, 1674. 16mo.--This author was son of +the celebrated physician, Guy Patin, and distinguished for his knowledge of +medals: his travels principally relate to antiquities. + +176. Relation d'un Voyage de Paris, en Espagne, en Portugal, et en Italie, +1769, 1770. Par M. Silhouette. Paris, 1770. 4 vols. 12mo.--This is the +minister of finance, whose measures of economy were so much ridiculed by +the Parisians, and from whom the portraits, called Silhouettes, took their +name: his travels indicate considerable acquaintance with the arts and +political affairs. + +177. Lettres sur différens Sujets, écrites pendant le Cours d'un Voyage en +Allemagne, en Suisse, dans la France Meridionelle, et en Italie. Par +Bernouilli. Basle and Berlin, 1777. 3 vols. 8vo.--The author of these +letters, one of the celebrated family of mathematicians of that name, has +borrowed the greater part of his work that relates to natural history from +a Spanish work, entitled, "Cartas familiares del Abbatè Juan Andres," of +which there is an edition published in Madrid, in 6 vols. small 4to. +Bernouilli has, however, added much information and interest to his +letters, by his description and account of collections of paintings. + +178. Tableau de l'Angleterre et de l'Italie. Par Archenholz. Strasburgh, +1788. 3 vols. 12mo.--This work is translated from the German. + +179. Voyage de Deux Français en Allemagne, en Danemarck, en Suède, en +Russe, et en Pologne, 1790-1. Par Portia de Piles. Paris, 1796. 5 vols. +12mo.--This is a valuable work for all kinds of statistical information. + +180. Voyage Philosophique et Pittoresque sur les Rives du Rhin, à Leige, +dans la Flandre, le Brabant, la Hollande, augmentée d'une Voyage en +Angleterre, et en France. Par G. Forster. Paris, 5 vols. 8vo.--The author +(whose acquirements in natural history, and in general science and +philosophical research, as well as whose peculiar temper, are well known +from his connection with Captain Cook during his second voyage, and his +works on this voyage) has here produced an interesting and instructive +work; particularly so far as relates to his favourite study: it is also +interesting as depicting the political state of the countries he visited, +and his strong, ardent, and sanguine views at the commencement of the +French Revolution. + +181. Voyages en Sicile dans la Grande Grèce et au Levant. Par le Baron de +Riedesel. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--This edition comprises all his travels, which +were previously published separately. The travels in Sicily are the most +valuable. + +182. Voyages de Guibert dans diverses Parties de la France et de la Suisse, +1775. 1785. Paris, 1805. 8vo.--The celebrated author of the "Essai sur la +Tactique" was employed to visit the different military hospitals in France; +his journeys with this object, as well as when he went to join his +regiment, were the occasion of these travels, in which there is much +animated description of nature, and several well-drawn portraits of public +men. + +183. Voyage en Allemagne, dans le Tyrol et en Italie. 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, +1818.--This work is translated from the German of Mad. de la Recke, by +Madame de Montelieu, and possesses much of that pleasing narrative and +description which characterize female writers of talent. + +184. Pauli Hertneri Itinera Germaniæ, Galliæ, Italitæ. Basle, 1611. 4to. + +185. Joh. Bernouilli Reisen durch Brandenburgh, Pommern, Preussen, Curland, +Russland, und Pohlen, 1777-8. Leips. 1779-80. 6 vols. 8vo. + +186. Sulzer Reisen nach Schweitz, und Hieris, und Nice. 1775. 8vo.--This +author is well known for his "Universal Theory of the Fine Arts;" and these +travels, as well as those in the middle states of Europe, and among the +Alps, which he also published, are worthy of him. + +187. Bauman, Reise durch Deutschland und Walschland. Augsb. 1782. +8vo.--These travels in Germany and Italy contain observations on a +subject little attended to by travellers; but one which they might much +benefit: we mean domestic economy, or the different modes, plans, &c. +pursued by different nations in domestic life, as regards food, houses, +clothing, &c. + +188. Fred. Nicholai, Beschriebung einer Reise durch Deutschland und de +Schweitz, 1781. Berlin, 1783. 12 vols. 8vo.--This work is swelled beyond +all due proportion with political disquisitions; but though bold and +severe, it is a just picture. + +189. Italien und Deutschland. Von C.P. Moritz. Berlin, 1790.--Manners, +literature, and arts are the topics of this work. The same author published +"Travels of a German in England." + +190. Reisen durch Deutschland, Danemarck, Schweden, Italien, 1797--99. Von +Kuttner. Leip. 4 vols. 8vo.--Statistical and political information, +derived from authentic and official sources, especially as relates to +Austria and Saxony, distinguishes this work. + +191. Streifzuge durch Inner Oestreich, &c. Vien. 1800. 4to.--The +quicksilver mines of Idria, the manners, &c. of the people of Trieste and +Venice, and the principal objects of arts and industry in all the countries +described, give to this work a merit greater than its brevity would seem to +deserve. + +192. Briefe woehrend meinis Aufenhalts en England und Portugal. Hamb. 1802. +8vo.--This work, by Mad. Barnard, is written with that peculiar charm and +vivacity of style, which it would seem females only can attain. There are +in it curious notices of Berlin, Hanover, and Cuxhaven, besides those on +England and Portugal. + +193. Bemerkungen gesammelt auf einer Reise durch Holland, und einin Theil +Franchreichs, 1801. Von J.F. Droysen. Goetting. 1803. 8vo.--Literary +establishments and societies, especially those of Paris, and the state of +mathematical, physical, and chemical science, are particularly attended to +by this author. + +194. Arndt, Reisen durch einer Theil Deutschlands, Ungaren, Italien, und +Franckreichs, 1798, 1799. 4 vols. 8vo. Leip. 1804. + +195. Reisen durch das Osterreich, Illyrien, Dalmatien, und Albanien, 1818. +2 vols. 8vo. Meissen, 1822. + +196. Reisen durch einen Theil Deutschlands, die Schweitz, Italien, und +Griechenland. 8vo. Gotha, 1822. + +197. Bemerkungen auf einer Reise aus Nord Deutschland, uber Francfort, nach +dem sudlichen Franckreich. 1819. 8vo. Leips. 1822. + +198. Lettere Scritte della Sicilia e della Turkia. Dall. Abbote D. Sestini, +1774-78. Florence, 1780. 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels, which have been +translated into French, are very full on the agriculture of Sicily, and on +its internal and external commerce. + +199. Fred. Snedorfs Samlede Skrivter. Copenh. 1794. 4 vols. 8vo.--Of this +work only the first volume relates to our present subject, containing +letters from Germany, Switzerland, France and England. The author, who +travelled at two different times into these countries, pays particular +attention to political and literary persons, whose character he draws with +great spirit, candour, and acuteness. As he travelled at the commencement +of the French Revolution, his sketches of political characters and events +are especially interesting and valuable. The universities of England and +Germany also attract a deal of his attention, and on these he offers some +judicious remarks. + + + + +V. + + +VOYAGES AND TRAVELS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS AND COUNTRIES. + +200. Chronological History of Voyages into the Polar Regions. By John +Barrow, 1819. 8vo. + +201. History of North-Eastern Voyages of Discovery. By Captain Jos. Burney, +1819. 8vo.--These two works nearly exhaust the subject on which they treat: +the character of their authors sufficiently warrants their accuracy and +completeness. + +202. J.R. Forster's History of Voyages and Discoveries made in the North, +1786. 4to.--This work is not confined to voyages and discoveries in the +Arctic regions; but comprises those made in the central regions of Asia in +the middle ages, as well as those in the northern parts of America. Its +character is like that of all Forster's productions, to some of which we +have already had occasion to advert. + +203. Russian Voyages of Discovery for a North-west Passage. By Muller. +London. 4to. 1800.--The following work, though relating rather to +discoveries in the sea between Asia and America, than to attempts for a +north-east or north-west passage, may be placed here, as a continuation of +the work of Muller, which comes no farther down than the expedition of +Behring, in 1741. + +204. Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America. By +William Coxe, 1780. 8vo.--This work is interesting, not merely from the +particular subject which the title indicates, but also on account of the +sketch it contains of the conquest of Siberia, and of the Russian commerce +with China. + +205. Historia Navigationis Mar. Frobisberi, 1577. Nuremburg, 1580. 8vo. + +206. Descriptio novi Freti, recens inventi, ab Hen. Hudson. Amsterdam, +1613. 4to. + +207. Captain James's Voyage for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage, in +1632. London, 1633. 4to.--This narrative contains some remarkable physical +observations on the cold and ice; but no hint of any discovery of +importance. + +208. Henry Ellis's Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Passage, in +1746-7. London, 1748. 2 vols. 8vo.--Some important facts and remarks +relating to Hudson's Bay are given in this voyage. + +209. Account of a Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Passage, by +Hudson's Straits, in 1746-7, in the California. By the Clerk of that Ship. +2 vols. 8vo. 1748.--This relates to the same voyage as the work of Ellis. + +210. Hearne's Journey from Prince of Wales' Fort, in Hudson's Bay, to the +Northern Ocean. 1795. 4to. + +211. Mackenzie's Voyage from Montreal, through the Continent of North +America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in the Years 1789 and 1793. +4to.--Besides the interesting details in these voyages, respecting the +countries travelled over, and the manners of the inhabitants, they are +important, particularly Mackenzie's, as having effected the discovery of +the Polar Sea by land, and as introductory to the following work: + +212. Voyage of Discovery for a North-west Passage. By Captain Ross, 1819. +4to.--Although the end was not accomplished, nor that done which might have +been, yet this volume is valuable for its scientific details on natural +history and meteorology. + +213. Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Passage from the Atlantic to +the Pacific. By Captain Parry, 1821. 4to.--Geography, natural history, and +especially the sciences connected with, and contributing to the improvement +of navigation and geographical knowledge, together with a most interesting +narrative of sound judgment, presence of mind, perseverance and passive +courage, characterize this volume. + +214. Narrative of a Journey from the Shores of Hudson's Bay to the Mouth of +the Copper Mine River, &c. By Captain. J. Franklin, 1823. 4to.--A work of +intense and indeed painful interest, from the sufferings of those who +performed this journey; of value to geography by no means proportional to +those sufferings; but instructive in meteorology and natural history. + +215. Geschicte der Schiffahrten zur endeckung des Nordeest-lichen Wegs nach +Japan und China. Von J.C. Adelung. Halle, 1768. 4to.--Some of the above +works, as well as others relating to attempts to discover a north-west and +north-east passage, are inserted in Harris and Churchill's Collections. + +216. Les Trois Navigations faites par les Hollandois au Septentrion. Par +Gerard de Ver. Paris, 1610. 8vo.--This contains Barentz's Voyages. + +217. Histoire des Peches, des Découvertes, &c. des Hollandois, dans la Mer +du Nord. Paris, 1801. 3 vols. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Dutch, +is full of curious matter, not only respecting the fish and fisheries of +the North Sea, but also respecting Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and +on subjects of natural history. + +218. Beschriebung des Alten und Neuen Grenland, nebist einem begrift der +Reisen die Frobisher, &c. Nuremberg, 1679. 4to. + +219. A Voyage towards the North Pole. By Lord Mulgrave, in 1773. 4to. + +220. An Account of the Arctic Regions. By W. Scoresby, 1820. 2 vols. +8vo.--This, together with a voyage to Greenland, published subsequently +by the same author, is full of most valuable information on the meteorology +and natural history of this part of the World, besides containing +interesting particulars on the Whale Fishery. + +221. Déscription et Histoire Générale du Gröenland. Par Egede, traduite du +Danois. Genève, 1763. 8vo.--In 1788-9, Egede published two other works on +Greenland in Danish, which complete his description of this country. + +222. Crantz's History of Greenland, translated from the High Dutch, 1767. 2 +vols. 8vo.--A continuation of this history was published by Crantz, in +German, 1770, which has not been translated. + + + + +VI. EUROPE. + + +LAPLAND AND THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. + +223. Canuti Leemii de Lapponibus. Copenhagen, 1767. 2 vols. 4to.--This +work, containing a rich mine from which travellers in Lapland, particularly +Acerbi, have drawn valuable materials, is seldom met with complete and with +all the plates: there should be 100 of them. + +224. Histoire de la Lapponie, traduite du Latin de M. Schaeffer. Paris, +1678. 4to. + +225. Journal d'un Voyage au Nord, 1736-7. Amsterdam, 1746. 12mo.--This +work, though principally and professedly an account of the labours of +Maupertuis, to ascertain the figure of the earth, is interesting to the +general reader, from the descriptions it gives of the manners, &c. of the +natives of Lapland, &c. + +226. Mémoires sur les Samoyedes et les Lappous. Copenhagen, 1766. 8vo. + +227. Voyage dans le Nord de l'Europe, 1807. Par La Motte. 4to. +Paris.--Norway and part of Sweden were visited by this traveller on foot, +and he gives details of scenery, &c. which only a foot traveller could +procure. + +228. The natural History of Iceland. By Horrebow, 1758. folio. + +229. Von Troil's Letters from Iceland. 1780. 8vo.--This translation is not +nearly so accurate as that into French, published in Paris, 1781. 8vo. + +230. Travels in Iceland during the Summer of 1810. By Sir G. Mackenzie, +1811. 4to.--Almost every topic on which a traveller is expected to give +information is here treated of: the history, religion, natural history, +agriculture, manners, &c.; and all evidently the result of much previous +knowledge, good sense, and information collected on the spot. + +231. Hooker's Journal of a Tour in Iceland in 1809. 2 vols. 8vo.--Natural +History, especially Botany; the travels of this author, Mackenzie, and +Henderson, would seem to leave nothing to be desired on the subject of this +extraordinary island and its inhabitants. + +232. Journal of a Residence in Iceland, 1814-15. By Henderson. 2 vols. +8vo.--The state of society, manners, domestic habits, and religion, are +here treated of; but there is too much minuteness, and a tediousness and +dryness of style and manner. + +233. Voyage en Islande. Par Olafsen et Povelsen. Paris, 1801. 5 vols. +8vo.--This work, translated from the Danish, though tedious and prolix, +supplies many curious particulars respecting the natural history of the +country and the manners of the people. + +234. OEconomische Reise durch Island. Von Olavius. Leip. 4to. + +235. Landt's Description of the Feroe Islands. Translated from the Danish. +8vo.--This work, which was published at Copenhagen in 1800, is the only +accurate account of these islands since the Feroe Reserata of Debes in +1673; but it is too minute and long for the subjects it describes. + +236. Coxes's Travels in Poland, Russia, Sweden and Denmark. 5 vols. +8vo.--The substantial merits of this work are well known. + +237. Acerbi's Travels through Sweden, Finland, and Lapland, to the North +Cape, in 1798-9. 2 vols. 4to. 1801.--These travels are interesting and +attractive; but they bear evident marks of having been made up by an +editor. The author has been attacked by Rihs, a Swede, for misrepresenting +the Swedes, and for having borrowed largely without acknowledgment from +Leemius; and by his fellow-traveller, Skieldebrand, with having +appropriated the views and designs which he made. The latter published in +French a Picturesque Tour to the North Cape. + +238. Lachesis Lapponica, or a Tour in Lapland. By Linnæus, 1811. 2 vols. +8vo.--These travels were performed in 1732, when Linnæus was very young. +Botany of course forms the principal subject; but the work is also +instructive and interesting from the picture it exhibits of the character +of the author, and of the manners of the Laplanders. + +239. Travels through Norway and Lapland. By Baron Von Buch; with Notes by +Professor Jameson, 1818. 4to.--This work, translated from the German, +contains much new and valuable information, chiefly on mineralogy and +geology. + +240. Thomson's Travels in Sweden, during the Autumn of 1812. +4to.--Mineralogy, geology, satistics, and politics form the chief topics: +the work is carelessly written. + +241. Travels through Sweden, Norway, and Finmark, to the North Cape, 1820. +By A. de Capell Brocke. 4to. 1823. Picturesque. + +242. Nouveau Voyage vers le Septentrion. Amsterdam, 1708. 12mo.--The +customs, religion, character, domestic life, &c. of the Norwegians and +Laplanders are here sketched in an interesting and pleasant manner. + +243. Lettres sur le Danemark. Par Mallet. Genève, 1767. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work is worthy of the author, whose introduction to the History +of Denmark is so advantageously known to English readers, by Bishop Percy's +excellent translation of it. It gives an excellent and faithful picture of +this country in the middle of the eighteenth century, and comprises also +the southern provinces of Norway. + +244. Voyage en Allemagne et en Suède. Par J.P. Catteau. Paris, 1810. 3 +vols. 8vo.--Sensible and judicious on arts, manners, literature, literary +men, statistics and economics; but more full and valuable on Sweden than on +Germany. Indeed few authors have collected more information on the North of +Europe than M. Catteau; his Tableau des Etats Danois, and his Tableau +Général de la Suède, are excellent works, drawn up with great accuracy and +judgment. The same may be said of his Tableau de la Mer Baltique; in which +every kind of information relative to the Baltic, its shores, islands, +rivers, ports, produce, ancient and modern commerce, is given. + +245. Voyage en Norwège, traduit de l'Allemand de J. Fabricius. Paris, 1803. +8vo.--This too is an excellent work, especially in what regards the natural +history and economics of the country. + +246. Reise en die Marschlander au der Nordsee. Von J.N. Tetens. Leip. 1788. +8vo.--Holstein, Jutland, and Sleswick, countries in which we possess few +travels, are accurately described in this work. + +247. Reise durch einige Schwedische Provinzen. Von J.W. Schmidt. Hamburgh, +1801.--These travels contain curious particulars respecting the Nomadic +Laplanders. + +248. Arndt, Reise durch Schweden, 1804. 4 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1806. + + There are several travels by Linnæus (besides the one published by Sir + J. Smith, already noticed) and his pupils into different provinces of + Sweden, relating to their natural history, which botanists will value + highly; but we omit them, as interesting only to them. They are written + in Swedish, but German translations have appeared of most of them. There + are also valuable travels by Germans, especially Huelfer and Gilberg, + which give full and accurate details of the copper mines, and the + processes pursued in them; but these also we omit for a similar reason. + + +RUSSIA AND POLAND. + + Whatever object has once been pursued by a Russian sovereign, seems to + descend as a hereditary pursuit to his successors. This is true, not + only of their plans of conquest, but also of their means of improving + their country; but it is evident of all countries, and especially of + such a vast extent of country as Russia exhibits, where new districts + are from time to time added, the very limits of which are scarcely + known, that no sure and regular means of improvement can be adopted, + until the actual state and the capabilities of each district are fully + known. The Empress Catherine gave great attention and encouragement to + these enquiries: a number of men, well qualified for the undertaking, + were sent to investigate the state of each district, especially its + natural history, and the addition to the national strength and wealth + which might be drawn from it. When the name of Pallas is mentioned as + one of the scientific men employed for this purpose, and empowered to + direct the enquiries of his associates, and to revise them, in it a + sufficient pledge is given of the accuracy and value of their labours. + +249. Michalonis Lithuani de Moribus Tartarorum, Lithuanorum et Moschorum +Fragmenta. Basle, 1615. 4to.--We notice this work as exhibiting a lively +picture of the manners of these nations at this period. The same reason +induces us to notice the following. Indeed, the chief interest of these old +works, and it is no languid one, is derived from being introduced into the +midst of ancient manners and people. + +250. Ulfedii Legatio Moscovitica. Franck. 1617. 4to.--This work, which +particularly notices the Tartar tribes at that time subject to Russia, +proves, by a comparison with what Pallas relates of them, that their +manners, customs, and acquirements had been quite stationary for nearly 150 +years. + +251. State of Russia. By Captain Perry. London, 1716. 8vo.--Captain Perry, +who visited Russia in 1706-12, at the request of Peter the Great, to assist +in the formation of a fleet, navigable canals, &c., has in this work given +an accurate account of this vast empire; the first indeed that may be said +to have introduced a knowledge of it into England. + +252. View of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. By the +Rev. W. Tooke. 3 vols. 8vo.--As this work is drawn up from a personal +knowledge of the country, and aided by access to the best authorities, we +have admitted it into the Catalogue, though not exactly falling within the +description of travels. It is full of matter, physical, statistical, +political, commercial, &c.; but heavily written, and displaying rather +extent and accuracy of research, than a perspicuous and profound mind. + + The following are the principal works by Pallas and his associates, or + works undertaken with similar objects. They require no particular + criticism, after the general notice we have given of them. + +253. Reisen durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs, 1768. 1773. +Peters. 3 vols. 4to. + +254. Bemerkungen auf einer Reise in die Sudlichen Statthalterschaften des +Russischen Reichs, 1793, 1794.--Of these travels by Pallas, the last is +more particularly devoted to science, and therefore is interesting to +general readers. Both have been translated into French, and the travels in +1793-4, into English. + +255. Georgi Bemerkungen auf einer Reise im Russischen Reichs, 1772--1774. +Peters. 1755. 2 vols. 4to. + +256. Georgi Beschriebung alter Nation des Russischen Reichs. Leipsic. 2 +vols. 4to. + +257. Georgi Geographische, Physicalische und Naturhistorische, Beschriebung +des Russischen Reichs. Koning. 3 vols. 4to.--This work of uncommon labour +and research, treats of the geography, physical, and natural history of +Russia, divided into zones, each of which will be separately described, +when the work is completed. + +258. Gmelin, Reisen durch Russland. Peters. 1770-4. 3 vols. 4to.--Of the +Travels of Lepechin, the other associate of Pallas, which were performed +1768-1771, and published in Russian, there is a German translation. +Altenburgh, 1774. 3 vols. 4to., of which we have not been able to procure +the exact title. + +259. Reise von Volhynien nach Cherson en Russland, 1787. Von J.C. Mæller. +Hamb. 8vo. + +260. Bemerkungen uber Russland en rucksicht auf wissen-schaften Kunst, +Religion. Von J.J. Bollerman. Erfurt. 1788. 8vo. + +261. Mineralogische, Geographische, und andere vermischte, Nachrechten von +der Altaischen Gebirgen. Von H.M. Renovanz. Freyberg. 1789. 4to. + +262. Tableau Historique et Statistique de l'Empire Russie à la fin du 18me +siècle. Par H. Storch. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work, by the author +of the Picture of Petersburgh, well known to the English reader, is +admitted here for the same reason which gave insertion to Tooke's Russia. +It is, however, we believe, not yet complete according to the original plan +of the author; and the French translation only comprises what relates to +the physical and civil state of the inhabitants. Storch's Work, in +conjunction with that of Georgi, on the geography and natural history of +Russia, will comprise all that is interesting respecting this vast country. + +263. Polonia, sive de Situ, Populis Moribus, &c. Poloniæ a Mart. Cromero. +Cologne. 1578. 4to. + +264. Sarmatiæ Europeæ Descriptio. ab Alex. Gaguin. Spire, 1581. fol. + +265. Reise durch Pohlnische Provinzen. Von J.H. Carosi. Leip. 8vo.--These +travels are chiefly mineralogical. + +266. Nachrichten uber Pohlen. Von J.J. Kausch. Saltz. 1793. 8vo. + +267 Letters, Literary and Political, on Poland. 1823. 8vo.--Rather feebly +written, and too minute on uninteresting points; in other respects +valuable, as relating to a country of which we know comparatively little. + + +TURKEY, GREECE, DALMATIA, &C. + + The countries of Europe, the travels into which we have hitherto + enumerated, do not present very various and numerous objects of + research. In Scandinavia the natural historian, especially the + mineralogist, will be chiefly interested. The vast extent of the Russian + empire also affords objects of curious and novel research to the + botanist and zoologist, few to the mineralogist. The Salt Mines of + Poland afford the principal objects of investigation to scientific + travellers in this country. Manners, habits, political institutions, and + religion, of course, are interesting in all; and to those whose studies + and enquiries lead them to investigate the differences in the different + families of the human race, the opportunities afforded them by the + Gothic Nations of Scandinavia; the Slavonic nations of Russia and + Poland; and the totally distinct and singular races which inhabit + Lapland and Finland, must be valuable and useful. + + When we enter Turkey, the scene changes, or rather expands. Within its + European, as well as its Asiatic empire, travellers of all descriptions, + however various their objects, will find rich and ample materials. + Situated in a mild climate, with great variety of soil, in it are found + plants remarkable for their uses in medicine and the arts, or for their + beauty: its mountainous districts contain treasures for the + mineralogist; and to the politician and student of human nature, it + exhibits the decided effects of the Mahometan religion, and of Asiatic + despotism. But what principally distinguishes it from the other + countries which have hitherto occupied us, must be sought in its ruins + of Grecian magnificence and taste: in the traces and evidences it + affords of ancient times, manners, and acquirements: in the hold it + possesses over our feelings, and even over our judgment, as being + classic ground--the soil which nourished the heroes of Marathon and the + bard of Troy.--The language, the manners, the customs, the human form + and countenance of ancient Greece, are forcibly recalled to our + recollection. + + The travels in this part of the world have been so numerous, that we + must be strict and limited in our selection, having regard principally + to those which exhibit it under its various aspects with the greatest + fidelity, at various periods. + +268. Nicholai Clenard Epistola de Rebus Mahomediis, in Itinere scriptis. +Louvain, 1551. 8vo. + +269. Petrus Gyllius de Bosphoro Thracio. Elzerer, 1561. 4to.--This is one +of the first travellers who describes the antiquities of this part of +Turkey: manners and natural history, such as it was in his time, also come +under his notice. Dallaway praises him. + +270. Sandy's (Geo.) Travels, containing the State of the Turkish Empire, of +Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. 1673. fol.--Sandys was an accomplished +gentleman, well prepared by previous study for his Travels, which are +distinguished by erudition, sagacity, and a love of truth, and are written +in a pleasant style. + +271. Ricault's History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire. 1689. +8vo.--Ricault was secretary to the English Embassy at the Porte in 1661. +The Mahometan religion, the seraglio, the maritime and land forces of +Turkey are particularly noticed by him. An excellent translation into +French, with most valuable notes, by Bespier, was published at Rouen, in +1677. 2 vols. 12mo. + +272. Lady Mary Wortley Montague's Letters.--A great number of editions of +these Letters have been published. In 1805, her Works were published in 5 +vols. 12mo., containing Letters which had not previously appeared. The +character of her work, which principally relates to Turkey, is well known. + +273. Porter's Observations on the Religion, Laws, Government, and Manners +of the Turks. 1768. 2 vols. 12mo.--Sir James Porter was British ambassador +at the Porte; his work is faithful and accurate, and is chiefly +illustrative of the political state, manners, and habits of the Turks. + +274. Eton's Survey of the Turkish Empire. 1801. 8vo.--This work is divided +into four parts: government, finances, religion, arts, manners, commerce, +and population; state of the provinces, especially Greece; causes of the +decline of Turkey; and British commerce with Turkey. As it is the result of +personal observation, and of excellent opportunities, it falls within our +notice. Many of the opinions, however, and some of the statements of the +author, have been controverted, particularly by Thornton in his Present +State of Turkey. 2 vols. 8vo. 1809. In a note to the preface, Mr. Eton +enumerates the best authors who have written on Turkey. + +275. History of the Russian Embassy to Constantinople. By M. Reimers, +Secretary to the Embassy, 1804. 3 vols. 4to.--This work is translated from +the German. Though the title in its original language would lead the reader +to suppose that it principally related to the Russian provinces traversed +by the embassy on its going and return, this is not the case: the Turkish +empire, and chiefly Constantinople, form the most extensive and important +division of these volumes; in all that relates to the Turks there is much +curious information; the work is also interesting from the picture it +exhibits of the manner in which the embassy, consisting of a caravan of 650 +persons, travelled. They were six months in going from one capital to the +other. + +276. Tour in 1795-6 through the Crimea. By Maria Guthrie. 1800. 2 vols. +4to.--This work contains a lively description of the various tribes that +inhabit the Crimea; their manners, institutions, and political state; the +antiquities, monuments, and natural history, and remarks on the migrations +of the Asiatic tribes. That part of the work which relates to antiquities +was written by her husband, Dr. Guthrie. + +277. Walpole's Memoirs relative to European and Asiatic Turkey. Edited from +MS. journals. + +278. Travels in various Countries of the East, being a Continuation of the +Memoirs. 2 vols. 4to. 1817 and 1820.--The information in these volumes is +very various, classical, antiquarian, and statistical: on natural history, +manners, religion, politics; and most of it valuable. + +279. Wheeler and Spon's Travels into Greece, 1681. fol--This work relates +chiefly to the antiquities of Greece and Asia Minor, and is valuable for +its plates of them, and of medals, inscriptions, &c. + +280. A Journey into Greece, &c. By Wheeler, 1688. fol.--This work (which +embraces, in some degree, the same countries as the former, but which takes +in also Dalmatia) is also devoted to antiquities, descriptions, and medals, +and bears a good character in these respects. + +281. Travels in Asia Minor, &c. By Richard Chandler, 1775-6. 2 vols. +4to.--These are valuable travels to the antiquarian. The author, guided by +Pausanias, as respects Greece, Strabo for that country and Asia Minor, and +Pliny, has described with wonderful accuracy and perspicuity the ruins of +the cities of Asia Minor, its temples, theatres, &c. + +282. Savary's Letters on Greece. Translated from the French, 8vo.--Rhodes +and Candia are most particularly described in this volume,--islands of +which we previously had meagre accounts. + +283. Fortis' Travels in Dalmatia. 4to.--The geology, natural history, and +antiquities of this country, with curious and instructive notices on the +singular races which inhabit it, form the subject of this volume, which is +translated from the Italian. + +284. Travels in Hungary. By Rob. Townson, M.D. 1796. 4to.--This is a +valuable work to the natural historian, particularly the mineralogist: it +also contains a very particular account of the Tokay wines. + +285. Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, and Greece, 1812-13. +By Dr. Holland. 4to. 1815.--Classical, antiquarian, and statistical +information is here intermixed with valuable remarks on the natural +history, manners, political state, &c. of the countries visited, especially +Albania. + +286. Dodwell's Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece, 1801. 1805 +and 6. 2 vols. 4to. 1819.--This work displays great research, aided and +directed by much preparatory knowledge, and a sound judgment and good +taste. + +287. Hobhouse's Journey through Albania and other Provinces of Turkey, to +Constantinople, in 1809-10. 4to. 1813.--Classical, antiquarian, and +statistical, with sketches of manners, national character, &c. + +288. Tableau Général de l'Empire Ottoman.--Of this splendid and celebrated +work 2 volumes folio were published in 1787, which comprised the religious +code of Turkey. The 3d volume was published in 1821, divided into two +parts: the first part on the political, military, civil, and judicial code; +the second part on the state of the Ottoman empire. This completes the plan +of the author D'Ohsson. Under all the heads, into which he has divided his +work, he has introduced authentic and curious notices of the agriculture, +arts, manners, domestic life, &c. of the Turks. The third volume was +published under the superintendence of his son. + +289. Voyage dans la Grèce Asiatique. Par Sestini. Paris, 1789, 8vo.--This +work, translated from the Italian, comprises an account of the environs of +Constantinople, the peninsula of Cyzicum, formerly an island in the +Propontis, to which it was united by Alexander the Great; and the districts +of Brusa and Nice. The antiquities of the peninsula, but especially the +botany of the countries he visited, are treated of in a masterly manner. + +290. Voyage de Vienne à Belgrade. Par N.E. Kleeman, 1768--1770. +Neufchâtel, 1780. 8vo.--This work, translated from the German, comprehends +an account of the Crimea, and of the Tartar tribes who inhabit it, full, +minute, and accurate. + +291. Traité sur le Commerce de la Mer Noire. Par M. de Peysonnel. Paris, +1783. 2 vols. 8vo.--Besides the commerce of the Crimea, its soil, +agriculture, and productions, and its political state before it was annexed +to Russia, are treated of in these volumes. + +292. Description Physique de la Tauride. La Haye. 8vo.--This work, +translated from the Russian, is intended to complete the survey of the +Russian empire: it relates chiefly to natural history in all its three +branches. + +293. Voyage en Crimea, 1803. Par J. Reuilly. Paris, 1806. 8vo.--The author +was assisted by the celebrated Pallas, who, at this time, lived in the +Crimea. The physical as well as political state of this country are +comprised in this work. + +294. Les Ruins des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce, considérés du côté de +l'Histoire et du côté de l'Architecture. Par M. Le Roi. Paris, 1770. fol. + +295. Voyage Littéraire de la Grèce, ou Lettres sur les Grecs Anciens et +Modernes, avec un parallèle de leurs Moeurs. Par M. Guys. Paris, 1783. 4 +vols. 8vo. + + The peculiar nature of these two works is sufficiently indicated by + their respective title: they are both interesting. + +296. Voyage en Grèce et en Turquie. Par Sonnini. Paris, 1801. 4to.--This +work, which is translated into English, is rich in natural history, +commerce, and manners, particularly regarding some of the islands of the +Archipelago, Rhodes, Macedonia, the Morea, and Asia Minor. + +297. Voyage en Morea, à Constantinople, en Albania, &c. 1799--1801. Par +Pouqueville. + +298. Voyage dans la Grèce. Par Pouqueville. vol. 1. 4to. Paris, 1820.--The +first work has been translated into English: they are both full of +information, especially respecting Albania, though more accurate +investigations, or perhaps different views and opinions, have induced +subsequent travellers to differ from him in some respects. + +299. Bartholdy, Voyage en Grèce, 1803-4. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1807. + +300. Moeurs, Usages, Costumes des Ottomans. Par Castellan. Paris, 1812. 6 +vols.12mo.--The value of this work is enhanced by the illustrations +supplied by Langles from oriental authors. + +301. Lettres sur la Grèce. Par Castellan. Paris, 1810. 8vo.--The Hellespont +and Constantinople are the principal subjects of these letters, which are +lively and amusing in their pictures of manners and life. The same +character applies to his "Lettres sur l'Italie." Paris, 1819. 3 vols. 8vo. + +302. Voyage à l'Embouchure de la Mer Noire. Par Andreossy. Paris, 1818. +8vo.--A valuable work on physical geography, and to the engineer and +architect, and such as might have been expected from the professional +pursuits and favourable opportunities of the author. + +303. Lettres sur le Bosphore, 1816--19. 8vo. 1821. + +304. Voyage Pittoresque et Historique de l'Istrie et de la Dalmatie, rédigé +d'après l'Itineraire de L.F. Cassas, peintre. Par J. Lavallée. Paris, 1802. +fol.--This splendid work, as its title indicates, principally relates to +antiquities: there are, however, interspersed notices on manners, commerce, +&c. Zara, celebrated for its marasquin, is particularly described. + +305. Scrofani, Reise en Griechenland, 1794-5. Leip. 1801. 8vo.--The German +translation of this work, originally published in Italian, is superior to +the original, and to the French translation, by the addition of valuable +notes by the translator, and the omission of irrelevant matter. Scrofani +pays particular attention to commercial details respecting the Ionian +Isles, Dalmatia, the Morea, &c. + + The Germans were celebrated for their skill in metallurgy, and their + knowledge of mineralogy, at a period when the rest of Europe paid little + attention to these subjects; and German travels in countries celebrated + for their mines are, therefore, valuable. Of the German travels in + Hungary and Transylvania, the greater part are mineralogical. We shall + select a few. + +306. Born, Briefe uber Mineralogische gegenstande auf einer Reise durch den +Temeswarer Bannat, &c. Leip. 1774. 8vo.--This mineralogical tour in Hungary +and Transylvania by Born, and published by Ferber, possesess a sufficient +guarantee of its accuracy and value from the names of the author and +editor. It is, however, not confined to mineralogy, but contains curious +notices on some tribes inhabiting Transylvania and the adjacent districts, +very little known: it is translated into French. + +307. Ferber, Physikalisch-metallurgische Abhandlunger uber die Gebirge and +Bergewecke in Ungarn. Berlin, 1780. 8vo. + +308. Balthazar Hacquet, Reise von dem Berge Terglou in Krain, au den Berg +Glokner in Tyrol, 1779--1781. Vienne, 1784. 8vo. + +309. Neueste Reisen, 1788--1795, durch die Daceschen und Sarmateschen +Carpathen. Von B. Hacquet. Nuremb. 1796. 4 vols. 8vo. + +310. Briefe uber Triestes, Krain, Kærnthen, Steyermark, und Saltzburgh. +Franck. 1793. 8vo. + +311. Briefe uber das Bannet. Von Steube, 1793. 8vo. + +312. F. Grisselini, Lettere di Venetea, Trieste, Carinthia, Carnioli e +Temeswar. Milan, 1780. 4to.--Natural history and manners are here +described. + + +GERMANY. + + This large district of Europe offers, not only from its extent, but also + from numerous causes of diversity among its parts,--some established by + nature, and others introduced by man--various numerous and important + objects to the research and observation of the traveller. Its mines,-- + the productions of its soil and its manufactures,--the shades of its + expressive, copious, and most philosophical language,--from the + classical idiom of Saxony, to the comparatively rude and uncultivated + dialect of Austria,--the effects on manners, habits, feeling, and + intellectual and moral acquirements, produced by the different species + of the Christian religion professed,--and the different forms of + government prevailing in its different parts;--all these circumstances, + and others of a more evanescent and subtle, though still an influential + nature, render Germany a vast field for enquiry and observation. + + The travels in this country, especially by its native inhabitants, are + so numerous, that we must content ourselves with a scrupulous and + limited selection;--referring such of our readers as wish to consult a + more copious catalogue, to "Ersch's Literatur der Geschichte und deren + Hulfswissenschaften." We shall follow our usual plan, selecting those + travels which give the best idea of the country, at remote, intervening, + and late periods. + +313. Martini Zeilleri, Itinerarium Germaniæ nov-antiquæ. Strasb. 1632. 4to. + +314. Christ. Dorrington's Reflections on a Journey through some Provinces +of Germany in 1698. Lond. 1699. 8vo. + +315. The German Spy. By Thomas Ledyart. 1740. 8vo. + +316. Keysler's Travels through Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Switzerland, +Italy, and Lorrain. Translated from the German, 1756. 2 vols. +4to.--Keysler, though a German, was educated at St. Edmund's Hall: he +travelled with the Count of Gleich and other noblemen. His favourite study +was antiquities; but his judgment, in those parts of his travels which +relate to them, has been questioned. His work, though heavy, is interesting +from the picture it exhibits of Germany, &c. in the middle of the 18th +century. + +317. Adams's Letters on Silesia, during a Tour in 1800-2. Philadelphia, 3 +vols. 8vo.--Mr. Adams was ambassador from the United States to Berlin: his +work contains some interesting information, especially on the manufactures +of Silesia. + +318. Cogan's Journey up the Rhine, from Utrecht to Frankfort. 2 vols. 8vo. +1794.--The style of this work is lively and interesting: its pictures of +manners and scenery good; and it contains a learned disquisition on the +origin of printing. Dr. Cogan resided the greater part of his life in +Holland. + +319. Travels in the North of Germany. By Thomas Hodgskin, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. +1820.--That part, of Germany between the Elbe and the frontiers of Holland +is here described: the topic is rather new; and Mr. H. has given us much +information on the agriculture, state of society, political institutions, +manners, &c.; interspersed with remarks, not in the best taste, or +indicating the soundest judgment or principles. + +320. Letters from Mecklenberg and Holstein, 1820. By G. Downes. 8vo.--This +being a part of Germany seldom visited, every thing relating to it is +acceptable. Mr. Downes's work is, however, not so full and various as might +have been expected: on manners and German literature it is most +instructive. + +321. An Autumn near the Rhine, or Sketches of Courts, Scenery, and Society, +in Germany, near the Rhine, 1821. 8vo.--The title indicates the objects of +this volume, which bespeaks an observant and intelligent mind. + +322. Travels from Vienna, through Lower Hungary. By Dr. Bright. 1817. +4to.--Agriculture and statistics form the principal topics of this volume, +which would have been equally valuable and much more interesting if the +matter had been more compressed. + +323. Historical and Statistical Account of Wallachia and Moldavia. By W. +Wilkinson. 1820. 8vo.--Mr. Wilkinson, from his situation as British Consul, +has been enabled to collect much information on these portions of Europe, +chiefly such as the title indicates, and also of a political nature. + +324. Voyages de Reisbeck en Allemagne. Paris, 1793. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work +was originally published in German, under the title of Briefe eines +reisenden Franzosen durch Deutschland: there is also an English +translation. The travels took place in 1782: and the character of a French +traveller, in the German original, was assumed, to secure the author from +the probable effects of his severe remarks on the government, manners, and +customs of Germany. To these subjects, and others connected with man, his +agriculture, commerce, and other pursuits, Baron Reisbeck has chiefly +confined his attention: perhaps the truth and impartiality of his +strictures would be more readily acknowledged, if they were not so strongly +impregnated with a satirical feeling. + +325. Journal d'un Voyage en Allemagne, 1773. Par M. Guibert. Paris, 1802. +2 vols. 8vo.--The celebrated author of the "Essai General sur la Tactique," +naturally directed his attention during his travels to military affairs, +and to an examination and description of the sites of famous battles. But +this work by no means is confined to such topics; and the remarks with +which it abounds on more interesting subjects, are so evidently the fruit +of an acute and original mind, that they equally command our attention, and +instruct us. + +326. Voyage en Hanovre, 1803-4. Par M.A.B. Mangourit. Paris, 1805. +8vo.--Politics, religion, agriculture, commerce, mineralogy, manners, and +customs, are discussed in this volume; and in general with good sense and +information. Hamburgh, Hanover, its government, universities, and +especially its mines, are particularly described. + +327. Voyage dans quelques Parties de la Basse-Saxe, pour la Recherche des +Antiquités Slaves ou Wendes, 1794. Par J. Potocky. Hambro. 1795. 4to. + +328. Journal d'un Voyage dans les Cercles du Rhin. Par Collini. Paris, +1777. 8vo.--Chiefly mineralogical. + +329. Voyage sur le Rhin, depuis Mayence jusqu'à Dusseldorf. Newied, 1791. +8vo.--This tour contains some curious details on the subject of the wines +of the Rhingau. + +330. Voyage en Autriche, &c. Par De Serres. Paris, 1814. 4 vols. 8vo.--An +immense mass of geographical and statistical information, in a great +measure drawn from German authors, on Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. + +331. Viaggio sul Reno e ne suoi contorni di P. Bertolo. 1795. 8vo.--These +travels, performed in the autumn of 1787, are elegantly written, rather +than very instructive. They contain, however, some valuable notices +respecting the volcanic appearances in the district of Andernach. + +332. Briefe auf einer reise durch Deutschland, 1791. Leignitz, 1793. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Arts, manufactures, and economy, are the principal topics of +these letters. + +333. Die Donnau reise. Ratesbonne. 1760. 8vo.--These travels describe the +banks of the Danube, and the streams which flow into it. + +334. Donnau Reise von Regensburgh bis Wein. Montag. 1802. 8vo.--The same +remark applies to this work, only, as the title indicates, it is confined +to the river and its streams, from Ratisbon to Vienna. + +335. Reise durch Ober-Deutschland, OEsterreich, Nieder Bayern, Ober +Schwaben, Wirtemberg, Baden, &c. Saltz. 1778. 8vo. + +336. Litterarische reisen durch einen theil von Bayern, Franken und die +Schweitz, 1780-2.; Von Zapf. Aug. 1782. 8vo.--The same author published +another literary tour among the convents of Swabia, and Switzerland, and +Bavaria; and in other parts of Franconia, Bavaria, and Swabia, in 1782. +These tours are strictly literary; that is, have regard to MSS. and scarce +editions, and are not scientific. + +337. Reise durch einige Deutsche Provinzen, von Hollenberg. Stendal, 1782. +8vo.--Architecture and mechanics are the topics of these travels. + + The following travels relate to the Hartz: + +338. Geographische und Historische, Merkwurdigkeften des Ober Hartz. Leip. +1741. 8vo. + +339. Reise nach dem Oberhartz. Von J.C. Sulzer.--Inserted in a collection +of travels published by J. Bernouilli. + +340. Reise nach dern Unterhartz. 1783. Von Burgsdorf.--In the natural +history collection of Berlin. + +341. Reise durch Ober Saxen und Hessen, von J. Apelbad. Berlin, 1785. +8vo.--Apelbad, a learned Swede, published a Collection of Voyages in +different Parts of Europe, in Swedish, Stockholm, 1762, 8vo; and Travels in +Saxony, in the same language, Stockholm, 1757, 8vo. There seems to have +been another of the same surname, Jonas Apelbad, who published in Swedish, +Travels in Pomerania and Brandenberg, Stockholm, 1757, 8vo. The work, of +which we have given the title in German, was translated by Bernouilli, who +has greatly enhanced the merits and utility of the original by his remarks. +Bernoulli's Collection of Travels,--Samlung kleiner reise beschriebungen, +Leips. 1781-7, 18 vols. 8vo., contains many interesting short narratives +and descriptions, particularly relating to Germany. + +342. Reise durch die Norischen Alpen. Von Hacquet. Leips. 8vo. 1791.--These +travels, like the former by the same author, which we have mentioned, are +chiefly botanical and mineralogical. + +343. Ausfluge nach dern Schnee-Berg in Unter-OEsterreich. Vienna, 1800. +8vo.--Botany, mineralogy, and what the Germans call economy, and +technology, are principally attended to in this work. + +344. Wanderrungen und Spazierfahrten in die gegenden um Wien. Vienna, +1802-4. 5 vols. 8vo.--The title of this work would not lead the reader to +expect what he will find; valuable notices on mineralogy, agriculture, +arts, and manufactures, in the midst of light and lively sketches of +manners, places of amusement, &c. + +345. Reise durch Sacksen. Von N.G. Leske. Leips. 1785. 4to.--Natural +history and economy. + +346. Beobachtungen uber Natur und Menschen. Von F.E. Lieberoth. Frankfort, +1791. 8vo. + +347. Economische und Statische reisen durch Chur-Sacksen, &c. Von H. Engel. +Leips. 1803. 8vo. + +348. Bemerkungen einer Reisenden durch die Prussischen Staaten. Von J.H. +Ulrich. Altenb. 1781. 8vo. + +349. Briefe uber Schlesien Krakau, und die Glatz. 1791. Von J.L. Zoellner. +Berlin, 1793. 2 vols. 8vo. + +350. Reise durch einer Theil Preussen, Hambro, 1801. 2 vols. 8vo.--This +work was drawn up by two travellers: one of whom supplied the statistical +remarks, and the other, who traversed Prussia on foot, the remarks on +entomology, amber, the sturgeon fishery, and other branches of natural +history and economics. + +351. Wanderrungen durch Rugen. Von Carl. Nernst. Dusseld. 1801. 8vo.--This +island affords interesting notices on manners, ancient superstitions, +particularly the worship of Ertha, besides statistical and geographical +remarks. + +352. Rhein-Reise. Von A.J. Von Wakerbert. Halberstadt, 1794. 8vo. + +353. Ansichten des Rheins. Von Jno. Vogt. Bremen, 1805. 8vo.--This is a +strange mixture of the picturesque, the romantic, and the instructive: the +instructive parts contain historical and topographical notices of the +cities on the Rhine, and curious details on its most famous wines. + +354. Historische Jaarbocken, von oud nieven Friesland door Foeke Siverd. +Leowarden, 1769. 8vo.--We insert the title of this work, though not +strictly within our plan, because it gives an accurate account of a part of +Germany, the dialect of which more resembles old English than any other +German dialect; and in which there still lurk many very curious traditions, +customs, and superstitions, which throw much light on our Saxon ancestors. + + +SWITZERLAND. + + Perhaps no country in the world, certainly no district within such a + small circuit, presents so many interesting objects to a traveller as + Switzerland. Be he natural historian, and geologist, drawn by habit, + feeling, and taste, to the contemplation of all that is grand, romantic, + and picturesque in natural scenery, or attached to the study of man in + that state, in which civilization and knowledge have brought with them + the least intermixture of artifice, luxury, and dissoluteness--in + Switzerland, he will find an ample and rich feast. It does not often + happen that one and the same country attracts to it the abstract and + cold man of science, the ardent imagination of the poet, and the strong, + enthusiastic, and sanguine sympathies of the philanthropist. + +355. Descriptio Helvetiæ, a Marso, 1555-9. 4to.--Marsus was ambassador from +the Emperor and King of Spain, Charles V., to the Swiss, and gives a +curious picture of their manners at this period. + +356. Helvetia Profana et Sacra. 1642. 4to.--This work by Scotti, which is +written in English, depicts the manners of the Swiss a century after +Marsus. + +357. Travels through the Rhætian Alps. By Beaumont, 1782, fol.--Travels +through the Pennine Alps, by the same, 1788. small folio, both translated +from the French. + +358. Travels in Switzerland, and in the country of the Grisons, by the Rev. +W. Coxe, 1791. 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels were performed in 1776, and +again in 1785 and 1787, and bear and deserve the same character as the +author's travels in Russia, &c., of which we have already spoken. Mr. Coxe +gives a list of books on Switzerland at the end of his 3d volume, which may +be consulted with advantage. There is a similar list at the end of his +travels in Russia, &c. + +359. A Walk through Switzerland, in Sept. 1816. 12mo.--The scenery and +manners sketched with much feeling, taste, and judgment, in an animated +style. + +360. Journal of a Tour and Residence in Switzerland. By L. Simond. 1822. +2 vols. 8vo.--A description of Switzerland and the Swiss, which brings them +in a clearer and stronger point of view, to the presence and comprehension +of the reader than most travels in this country: though the range of +observation and remark is not so extensive in this work, as in the author's +work on Great Britain; in every other respect it is equal to it. The second +volume is entirely historical. + + The following French works particularly and accurately describe the + natural history and the meteorology of the Swiss mountains and glaciers; + the names of at least two of their authors must be familiar to our + readers, as men of distinguished science. + +361. Histoire Naturelle des Glaciers de Suisse. Paris, 1770. 4to. +Translated from the German of Gruner. + +362. Nouvelle Description des Glaciers. Par M. Bourrit. Geneva, 1785. +3 vols. 8vo.--This work of Bourrit is chiefly confined to the Valais and +Savoy, and its most important contents are given in the following work by +the same author. + +363. Nouvelle Description des Glaciers de la Savoie, particulièrement de la +Vallèe de Chamouny et du Mont Blanc. 1785, 8vo.--This work contains an +account of the author's successful attempt to ascend the summit of Mont +Blanc. There are several other works of Bourrit on the Glaciers and +Mountains of Savoy: the latest and most complete is the following: + +364. Descriptions des Cols ou Passages des Alpes. Geneva, 1803. 2 vols. +8vo. + +365. Voyage dans les Alpes, précédé d'un Essai sur l'Histoire Naturelle des +Environs de Geneva. Par Saussure. Geneva, 1787--1796. 8 vols. 8vo. + +366. Relation abrégée d'un Voyage à la Cime du Mont Blanc, en Aout, 1787. +Par Saussure, Geneva. 8vo. + +367. Voyage Minéralogique en Suisse. Lausanne, 1783-4. 8vo. + +368. Voyage Minéralogique dans le Gouvernement de l'Argh, et ne partie du +Valais. Lausanne, 1783. 8vo.--The first of these works by Razoumousky, and +the other by Behoumwesky, are valuable, as noticing those parts which +Saussure has not noticed. + +369. Lettres sur quelques Parties de la Suisse, &c. Par J.A. de Luc. Paris, +1785. 8vo. Geological. + +370. Voyage de J.M. Roland en Suisse, 1787: incribed in the 3d vol. of her +works. Paris, 1800.--This celebrated, but mistaken and unfortunate woman, +has thrown into her narrative much information on the manners of the Swiss, +anecdotes of Lavater, &c. besides giving a most lively account of her visit +to the glaciers. + +371. Descriptions des Alpes Grecques et Cottiennes. Par Beaumont. 2 vols. +4to.--Part of this work is historical; the remainder embraces natural +history, mineralogy, statistics, and manners.--The same character applies +to No. 357. + +372. Histoire Naturelle du Jurat et de ses Environs. Par le Comte de +Razoumousky. Lausanne, 1789. 2 vols. 8vo.--The lakes of Neufchàtel, Morat, +and Bienne, and part of the Pays de Vaud, are described in this work, which +contains valuable information in meteorology, commerce, &c. besides natural +history. + +373. Journal du dernier Voyage de Dolomieu dans les Alpes. Par J.C. +Bruien-Neergard. Paris, 1803. 8vo.--The French government directed Dolomieu +to examine the Simplon; he was accompanied by the author, a young Dane, his +pupil. Dolomieu died soon after his return: this work, therefore, is not +nearly so full as it would have been, had he lived to give his observations +to the public. + +374. Lettre sur le Valais. Par M. Eschasseraux. Paris, 1806. 8vo.--This +work, written in a pleasing style, gives important information on the +manners and natural history of this most interesting part of Switzerland. + +375. Voyage dans l'Oberland Bernois. Par J.R. Wyss. Leipsic, 1818. +8vo.--This work, translated from the German, is chiefly picturesque. + +376. Fodere, Voyage aux Alpes Maritimes. Paris, 1820. 2 vols. +8vo.--Agriculture, natural history, and the state of medicine, are the +principal topics. + +377. Briefe aus der Schweitz, &c. Von Andreæ. Zurich, 1776. 4to.--Natural +history, and a particular description of the celebrated bridge of +Schaffhausen, and its mechanism, are what recommend this volume. +Bernouilli, in his travels in Switzerland, has copied Andreæ in what +relates to mineralogy and cabinets of natural history; but he has added +some interesting descriptions of paintings. + +378. Kleine reisen durch einige Schweizer-Cantons. Bâle, 1780. 8vo. + +379. Letters on a Pastoral District, (the Valley of Samen in Fribourg). By +Bonstellen (in German). Zurich, 1792. 8vo. + +380. Physikalesch-Politische Reisen, aus der Dinarischen durch die +Julischen, &c. in die Norischen. Alpen, 1781-83. Von B. Hacquet. Leipsic, +1784. 8vo. + +381. Malerische Reise in die Italianische Schweitz. Von J.H. Mayer. Zurich, +1793. 8vo.--Mayer, in this work, as well as in travels in Italy, has been +very happy in picturesque description. + +382. Meine Wanderungen durch die Romanische Schweitz, Unterwaller und +Savoyen. 1791. Tubingen, 1793. 8vo. + +383. Kleine Fuss-reisen durch die Schweitz. Zurich, 1804. 2 vols. +8vo.--Parts of Switzerland are here described, which are seldom visited, +and can be thoroughly known only by foot travellers. + +384. Anleitung auf die nuzlichste und genussvollste art die Schweitz zu +Bereisen. Von J.C. Ebel. Zurich, 1804-5. 4 vols. 8vo.--This most excellent +work affords every kind of information which a person proposing to travel, +or reside in Switzerland, would wish to acquire. It has been translated +into French under the title of Manuel du Voyageur en Suisse. Zurich, 1818. +3 vols. 8vo. This contains all the additions of the 3d German edition. + + +ITALY. + + As the traveller descends the Alps, the first regions of Italy into + which he passes present him with mountains subdued in size, and + gradually passing from magnificence to grandeur and beauty; then the + rich and luxuriant plains of Lombardy meet him with their improved + agriculture, and in some places curious geology. He next advances to + those parts of Italy which are rich in the finest monuments of art, and + associated with all that is interesting in the period of the revival of + literature; with Dante, Boccacio, Petrarch, Ariosto, Tasso, and the + Medici. The proofs of commercial wealth, united with magnificence and + taste, present themselves to him in the palaces of Genoa, Venice, and + Florence; and he hears, on every side, the most classical tongue of + modern Europe. + + Rome, with which, in conjunction with Greece, the associations of his + frank and enthusiastic youth have been deeply formed, next rises to + view: to the classical scholar, the antiquarian, the man of taste and + virtue, the admirer of all that is most perfect in human conception, as + brought into existence by the genius of Michael Angelo, and Raphael, + this city affords rich and ample materials for study and description, + though it is unable to excite that grandest feeling of the human breast, + which is raised by the land of Leonidas and of Socrates. Greece fought + for liberty! Rome for conquest! The philosophy of Rome is less original, + less pure and disinterested, less practical than that of Greece. + + Through all this part of Italy the geologist finds materials for + examination and conjecture, in the ridge of the Appennines: and these, + rendered still more interesting, accompany him into the Neapolitan + territory, both continental and insular. + + Such are the principal subjects to which travellers have directed their + attention in Italy; and the travels which chiefly relate to these + subjects, and treat of them in the best manner, we shall select. + +385. Les Observations Antiques du Seigneur Symion, Florentin, en son +dernier Voyage d'Italie, 1557. Lyons, 1558. 4to--The principal merit of +this work consists in the description and engravings of several remains of +antiquity, which no longer exist. + +386. An Itinerary of a Voyage through Italy, 1646, 1647. By John Raymond. +1648. 12mo. + +387. Misson's New Voyage to Italy, 1704. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work is +translated from the French; and contains the first general account of this +country which appeared, but in many places incorrect and prejudiced. +Addison's remarks on Italy are published with this edition of Misson; they +are classical; and in fact a commentary made on the spot, on the +descriptions of Virgil. Subsequent travellers, however, in some places +differ from him in opinion, and in others question his accuracy and +judgment. + +388. Grosley's Observations on Italy. 2 vols. 8vo.--Chiefly political and +anecdotal; in some parts of doubtful authority: translated from the French. + +389. Sharp's Letters on Italy. 1769. 4 vols. 8vo.--Barretti's Account of +the Manners and Customs of Italy. 1770. 2 vols. 8vo.--These works are +noticed principally because they afford a curious and instructive proof of +the very different views which may be taken of the same objects, according +to the extent and accuracy of the knowledge, and the preconceived opinions +and feelings of the observer. Barretti's work is certainly more accurate +than that of Sharp, but in opposing him, he has sometimes gone into the +opposite extreme: from comparing both, perhaps the reality may often be +extracted. Manners and national character are their chief topics. + +390. View of Society and Manners in Italy. By Dr. Moore, 1781. 2 vols. +8vo.--The peculiar felicity of description and style with which this author +paints manners, render these travels, as well as his others, extremely +interesting. + +391. Observations on Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna, and other Volcanoes. By +Sir W. Hamilton. Naples, 1776. 2 vols. folio.--London, 1772. 8vo. + +392. Travels in the Two Sicilies. By H. Swinburne, 1790. 4 vols. 8vo. + +393. Denon's Travels in Sicily and Malta, translated from the French. +8vo.--Denon, an artist, accompanied Swinburne in his excursions to the +vicinity of Naples, and into Sicily. These works are historical, +geographical, and antiquarian, but heavily written. + +394. Spallanzani's Travels in the Two Sicilies, and some parts of the +Apennines, 1798. 4 vols. 8vo.--Translated from the Italian. Natural history +forms the principal subject of these volumes, which are worthy of the +author, who was esteemed one of the first natural historians of His age. + +395. Boisgelin's Ancient and Modern Malta. 3 vols. 4to. translated from the +French.--Only the first part of this work is descriptive, and it certainly +contains an interesting account of Malta and the Maltese; the rest of the +work is historical. + +396. Brydon's Tour through Sicily and Malta. 2 vols. 8vo. 1776.--Liveliness +of description of scenery and manners, couched in an easy and elegant +style, has rendered these volumes extremely popular, notwithstanding they +do +not display much learning or knowledge, and are even sometimes superficial +and inaccurate. + +397. Boswell's Account of Corsica. 1768. 8vo.--Interesting details +respecting Paoli, as well as on the island and its inhabitants. + +398. Eustace's Classical Tour through Italy. 4 vols. 8vo. + +399. Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily. By Sir R.C.Hoare, Bart. 1819. +4to.--Mr. Eustace's work is very full and minute in the subject which the +title indicates; it is written in good taste, but in rather a prolix style; +his statements, however, are not always to be depended on, especially where +his political or religious opinions interfere. Sir R. Hoare's work is meant +as a supplement to Mr. Eustace's. + +400. Remarks on Antiquities, Arts and Letters, during an excursion in +Italy, in 1802-3. By Joseph Forsyth. 1816. 8vo.--This is an admirable work, +giving in a short compass much information, and indicating strong powers of +mind, and a correct taste. + +401. Sketches Descriptive of Italy, 1816-17. 4 vols. 12mo. 1820. + +402. Letters from the North of Italy. By W.S. Rose, 1819. 2 vols. +8vo.--Free and judicious remarks on the political degradation of this fair +portion of Italy, with notes on manners, the state of society, &c. + +403. Three Months passed in the Mountains East of Rome, in 1819. By Maria +Graham, 8vo.--An interesting and well-written picture of manners and +character, together with notices on the productions of the soil, &c. + +404. Voyage to the Isle of Elba. By A.T. de Berneaud, 1814. 8vo.--This +work, translated from the French, contains a very accurate survey of this +island. + +405. Tour through Elba. By Sir R.C. Hoare, bart. 1814. 4to.--Only seventeen +pages are devoted to the journal, the remainder of the books consists of 8 +views and a map: and a sketch of the character of Buonaparte. + +406. Le Voyage et Observations de plusieurs Choses qui se peuvent remarquer +en Italie. Par le Sieur Adelier. Paris, 1656. 8vo.--Interesting, from +exhibiting a well-drawn picture of the manners of Italy at this period: +with greater attention to natural history than was usual when Adelier +wrote. + +407. Voyage en Italie. Par M. de Lalande. Geneve, 1790. 7 vols. 8vo.--This +large work embraces a vast variety of subjects, and in general they are +treated in a masterly manner; manners, government, commerce, literature, +the arts, natural history, antiquities, sculpture, paintings, &c. His +narration of the building of St. Peters is very full, curious, and +interesting. + +408. Voyage en Italie. Par. M. Duclos. Paris, 1791. 8vo.--Chiefly remarks +on the government and political situation of the various states of Italy, +with anecdotes and facts relating to these topics; expressed with an open +and unshrinking boldness, not to have been expected from one who was the +historiographer of France at the period when Duclos travelled, 1766-7. + +409. Lettres Historiques et Antiques de Charles de Brosses. Paris, 1799. 3 +vols. 8vo.--These letters by the celebrated De Brosses, author of +L'Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes, and other works, hardly +are equal to the literary reputation of the author; they paint with +considerable force, though sometimes in too strong colours, the +imperfections, follies, and vices of the Italians; and display good taste +and judgment respecting the fine arts. + +410. Voyage en Italie. De M. L'Abbé Barthelemi. Paris, 1802. 8vp.--The +author of the travels of Anacharsis has here exhibited himself in the midst +of his favourite pursuits; the precious remains of antiquity are described +with an accuracy seldom equalled, and in a style which renders the +description attractive, even to those who are not particularly conversant +or interested in these topics. The work is grounded on letters written to +Count Caylus; and contains, in an Appendix, some remarks of Winkelman, +Jacquier, &c. This work has been translated into English. The travels of De +Brosses and Barthelemi were performed in the middle of the eighteenth +century. + +411. Voyage dans le Montaniata et le Siennois. Par G. Santi. Lyons, 1802. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Italian, relates to mineralogy, +botany, agriculture, and statistics. + +412. Voyage sur la Scène des six derniers livres de L'Eneide. Par C.V. de +Bonstetten. Geneva, 1805. 8vo.--The first part of this work, the nature of +which is expressed by the title, is much superior to the travels of +Addison, in extent of classical research, in originality of views, and in +clearness of description: in this part there are also interesting +particulars respecting Latium. In the second part, the author principally +dwells on the Campagna, the causes of its depopulation, and its +agriculture; this introduces some excellent observations on the agriculture +of the ancient Romans, and the connection between it and their manners and +religion; other topics are introduced, and treated in an able manner. + +413. Voyages Physiques et Lithologiques dans la Campagna. Par Scipion +Brieslack. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo.--Facts and conjectures on the +formation of the Campagna, and on the soil of the territory and +neighbourhood of Rome; on the extinct craters betwixt Naples and Canna, and +on that of Vesuvius, render this work instructive and interesting to the +geologist, while the picture of the Lazaroni must render this portion of +his work attractive to the general reader. + +414. Voyage en Sicile et dans la Grande-Grèce. Par le Baron de Riedesel, +Paris, 1773. 12mo.--This work, translated from the German, is formed of +letters addressed to Winkelman, describing minutely, and with great taste, +learning, and accuracy, the magnificent views with which the scene of his +travels abounds, and contrasting them in ruins with their original +perfection, as delineated in ancient authors. Interspersed are remarks on +the manners and character of the inhabitants. + +415. Lettres sur la Sicile et sur Malta, de M. le Comte de Borch, 1777. +Turin, 1782. 2 vols. 8vo.--The object of the author is to supply the +omissions and correct the mistakes of Brydon. + +416. Voyage aux Isles Lipari, 1781. Par D. Dolomieu. Paris, 1788, +8vo..--The character of Dolomieu sufficiently points out the nature and +value of this work. A Supplement was published the same year, under the +title of Mémoire sur les Isles Ponces. Par Dolomieu. Paris. 8vo. + +417. Voyage Historique Littéraire et Pittoresque dans les Isles et +Possessions ci-devant Venétiennes du Levant. Par A. Grasset-Saint-Sauveur, +jun. Paris, 1800. 3 vols. 8vo.--The author was French Consul at the Ionian +Islands for many years; and hence he had opportunities which he seems to +have employed with diligence and judgment, of gathering materials for this +work, which, besides what its title indicates, enters fully into the +agriculture, navigation, commerce, manners, &c. + +418. Histoire Géographique, Politique, et Naturelle, de la Sardignie. Par +D.A. Azami. Paris, 1801. 2 vols. 8vo.--Of this island we know less than of +any other part of Europe; it has been seldom explored, and still seldomer +described. There is certainly no work we are acquainted with, that gives +such a complete and accurate account of this island and its inhabitants as +Azami's. + +419. Moeurs' et Coutumes des Corses. Par G. Faydel. Paris, 1798. +8vo.--Agriculture and natural history, rather popular than scientific; +commerce and other similar topics are treated of in this work, though the +title would lead us to expect only description of manners and customs. + +420. Voyage Antique à l'Etna, en 1819. Par Gourbillon. 1820.--Chiefly +relating to the natural history, and meteorology of the mountain. + +421. Historisch Kritische Nachrichten von Italien. Von J.J. Volkman. +Leipsic, 1770--1778. 3 vols. 8vo.--Manners, customs, politics, commerce, +the state of the arts and sciences are treated of in these volumes. + +422. Zusætze zu der Neusten Reise Beschriebung von Italien. Von J. +Bernouilli. Leip. 1777--1782. 3 vols. 8vo. + +423. Darstellungen aus Italien. Von F.J.L. Meyer. Berlin, 1792. 8vo.--This +is a romantic work for a German; the author actually luxuriates in the +recollections called up by the country of Michael Angelo, Raphael, +Palladio, &c., and in his contemplation of the scenes of the convulsions of +nature, and of the most striking incidents in the classical and middle +ages. Independently of this extravagance of style, this work is valuable, +especially in what relates to the Tyrol, where indeed his style is more +simple. It is translated into French. + +424. Briefe uber Calabrien und Sicilien. Von J.H. Bartels. Gottingen, +1789-1792. 3 vols. 8vo.--This is an excellent work on a part of the +continent of Italy little known; the physical constitution of the country, +natural productions, agriculture, manners, &c. are treated of in a sensible +and pleasant manner. + +425. Brieven over Italien. Door W.R. Jansen. Lugden, 1793. 8vo.--We notice +this work, principally because it relates to the state of medicine, as well +as the natural history of Italy. + +426. Eichholz, neue Briefe uber italien. 4 vols. 8vo. Zurich, 1806. + +427. Reise nach Dalmatien und Ragusa. Von. E.F. Germar, 8vo. Leip. 1817. + +428. Viaggio Geologico sur diversi Parti Meriodinali dell Italia. Milan, +1804. 8vo.--This work, by Pini, a naturalist of reputation, is instructive +in the geology of the country between Modena and Florence, of the Campagna, +and of part of Naples; there are also remarks on the antiquity and extent +of the Italian Volcanoes. + +429. Viaggio da Milano ai tre Laghi Maggiore, di Lugano, e di Como. Del C. +Amoretti. Milan, 1803. 4to.--Mineralogy, and especially the various species +of marble, zoology, and manners and customs, are here described, as well as +the celebrated lakes mentioned in the title. + +430. Spallanzani Lettere al Sig. Marchese Luchesini, Sopre le Coste dell +Adriatico. Paris, 1789. 4 vols. 4to. + + +FRANCE + + The author of the Bibliothèque des Voyages remarks, that no country in + Europe has been so imperfectly described by travellers as France: + certainly, if we compare the descriptions they give of it with the + descriptions given by travellers of other countries, there appears good + ground for this observation. And yet France offers a rich harvest for + travellers of almost all kinds: the customs and usages of the people; + the general character so strongly stamped on the whole nation, and the + various shades of it in different provinces; the effects that have been + produced by the different events of their history, and especially by + their revolution; all these things present to the traveller, who studies + human nature, rich and ample materials. To the geologist, the + mineralogist, and botanist, especially to the former, France also is an + interesting country, especially since Cuvier and other learned men in + this department of science, have displayed the stores of important facts + which France offers on this subject: her agriculture, and especially her + vine districts, present a source of interest of a different kind; while, + in the southern provinces, her antiquities, though not numerous, attract + by their beauty the man of taste. + +431. Matthæi Quadt Delicicæ Gallicæ, seu Itinerarium per Universam Galliam. +Frankfort, 1603. fol. + +432. Deliciæ Galliae, seu Itinerarium in Universam Galliam, a Gasp. Ens. +Cologne, 1609. 8vo. + +433. A Tour through the Western, Southern, and Interior Provinces of +France. By N.W. Wraxall. London, 1772. 8vo.--This work bears all the +characters of Mr. Wraxall's other productions: slight and superficial so +far as manners are concerned: offering no information on agriculture, +statistics, or natural history; with, however, some interesting historical +details. It is noticed here, because the travels in France are so few, that +even those of moderate merit must be admitted. + +434. Travels through France: to which is added, a Register of a Tour into +Spain in 1787-89. By Arthur Young. 2 vols. 4to. 1792.--This is a most +valuable and useful work; for though the professed object of Mr. Young was +agriculture, yet it abounds in well-drawn pictures of manners and national +character, and it derives additional interest from having been performed at +the commencement of the revolution. + +435. Journal during a Residence in France, from the beginning of August to +the middle of December 1792. By Dr. John Moore. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work may +be regarded in some measure as historical; yet it may also properly be +placed here as exhibiting a strong picture of manners and feelings, as well +as of events, at this interesting period. + +436. Tour through several of the Midland and Western Departments of France, +in the Summer of 1802. By the Rev. H. Hughes. London, 1802. 8vo. + +437. Bugge's Travels in France. 1798-99. 12mo.--This work was written +originally in Danish, and was afterwards translated into French. The +author, a celebrated astronomer and professor of mathematics at Copenhagen, +was sent to Paris to attend a committee on weights and measures. His +travels are particularly interesting from the account they give of the +different scientific and literary establishments in France. + +438. Anglo-Norman Antiquities considered, in a Tour through Normandy. By +A.C. Ducarel. Fol. 1767.--A valuable work on this particular subject. + +439. Narrative of a Three Years' Residence in France, principally in the +Southern Departments. 1802-5. By Anne Plumptree. 3 vols. 8vo.--Some useful +information on the productions, scenery, and manners of this part of +France, may be collected from these volumes. + +440. Travels through the South of France, 1807-8. By Lieut.-Col. Pinckney. +4to.--These travels were performed in a part of France not often visited. +They give light and amusing sketches of the manners, customs, and state of +society there; but there is a manifest tendency to exaggeration in them. + +441. Account of a Tour in Normandy. By Dawson Turner. 1821. 2 vols. +8vo.--Architectural antiquities form the chief topic; historical notices +and manners are also given: all indicating a well-informed and intelligent +mind. + +442. Letters written during a Tour through Normandy, Brittany, and other +Parts of France, in 1818. By Mrs. C. Stothard. 4to. 1821.--Much information +on the manners, habits, &c. of the inhabitants of Brittany, a part of +France not much visited by travellers; besides local and historical +descriptions. + +443. Itinerary of Provence and the Rhine. 1819. By J. Hughes. 8vo.--A +useful book, and some parts of it very interesting. + +444. Voyage Littéraire de la France. Par Deux Bénédictins. (D.D. Martine et +Durand.) Paris, 1730. 2 vols. 4to.--This work relates to monuments and +inscriptions, of which it gives an accurate account. + +445. Voyage Géographique et Pittoresque des Départements de la France. +Paris, 1794-97, 11 vols. fol. + +446. Voyage dans les Départements de la France. Par La Vallée, pour le +Texte; Brun père, pour la Partie Géographique; Brun fils, pour celle de +Dessein. Paris, 1790--1800. 100 cahiers, 8vo. + +447. Voyage en France, enrichi de belles Gravures. Paris, 1798. 4 vols. +18mo.--These works, in conjunction with the following, though not strictly +within our plan, as being not the result of the observations of the authors +themselves, are noticed here, because they give the most full and +satisfactory information respecting France, geographical, descriptive, +statistical, &c. Statistique Générale et Particulière de la France. Par une +Société des Gens de Lettres. Paris, 1805. 7 vols. 8vo. + +448. Collection des Statistiques de chaque Département, imprimée par Ordre +du Ministère du l'Intérieure, au nombre de trente-quatre. + +449. Recherches Economiques et Statistiques sur le Departement de la Loire +Inférieure. Par J.R. Heuet. Nantes, 1804. 8vo. + +450. Statistique Elémentaire de la France. Par J. Peuchet. Paris, 1805. +8vo. + +451. Essai sur les Volcans éteints du Vivarais. Par Faujas de Saint Fond. +Paris, 1778. fol. + +452. Histoire Naturelle du Dauphiné. Par le Méme. Grenoble, 1781. +4to.--These works, the result of travels in the district to which they +allude, are valuable to the mineralogist and geologist. + +453. Voyage en Provence. Par M. l'Abbé Papou. Paris, 1787. 2 vols. +12mo.--The objects of these travels are historical, literary, and +picturesque. + +454. Observations faites dans les Pyrenées. Par Ramond. Paris, 1789. 8vo. + +455. Voyage au Mont Perdu, et dans les Partes adjacentes des Hautes +Pyrennées. Par Raymond. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--Although these works principally +relate to the formation, natural history, and meteorology of the Pyrennees, +yet the dryness of scientific observation and research is most agreeably +relieved by a lively picture of manners, as well as by the interesting +personal adventures of the author in his attempts to reach the summit of +the mountains. There is an English translation of the former of these +works. + +456. Voyage en 1787-88, dans la ci-devant Haute et Basse Auvergne. Par Le +Grand D'Aussy. Paris, 1795. 3 vols. 8vo. + +457. Tableau de la ci-devant Provence D'Auvergne. Par Rabine Beauregard, et +P.M. Gault. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--No district in France presents such a +variety of interesting objects as Auvergne; its inhabitants, in their +language, dress, manners, and mode of life; its agriculture, its natural +history, and its antiquities of the classical and middle ages. Le Grand +D'Aussy treats well of all but the last, and this is supplied by the other +work; its agriculture is more fully considered in the following: + +458. Voyage Agronomique en Auvergne. Paris, 8vo. 1803. + +459. Description du Département de l'Oise. Par Cambri. Paris, 1803. 2 vols. +8vo.--Agriculture, roads, canals, manufactures, commerce, antiquities, are +treated of in this work in such a satisfactory manner, that the author of +the Bibiothèque expresses a wish that all the departments were described as +well as this, and the department of Finisterre by the same author, and +Auvergne by Le Grand D'Aussy. + +460. Voyage Agronomique dans la Senatorerie de Dijon. Par N. Francais de +Neufchâteau. Paris, 1806. 8vo. + +461. Voyage dans le Jura. Par Lequinio. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--Much information +in agriculture, natural history, &c. is given by this author, in an +unpleasant style, and with little regard to method. + +462. Voyage de Paris à Strasbourg. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--Relates to the +agriculture and statistics of the departments through which the author +travelled, and particularly the Lower Rhine. + +463. Voyage dans la ci-devant Belgique, et sur la Rive Gauche du Rhin. Par +Briton, et Brun père et fils. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--Commerce, +manufactures, arts, manners, and mineralogy, enter into these volumes. +Sometimes, however, rather in a desultory and superficial style. + +464. Voyage dans les Départements nouvellement réunis, et dans le +Départements du Bas Rhin, du Nord, du Pas de Calais, et de la Somme. 1802. +Par A.G. Camus. Paris, 2 vols. 8vo.--Camus was sent by the French +government to examine the archives and titles of the new departments: the +Institute at the same time deputed him to examine into the state of +science, literature, and manufactures: on the latter topics, and on the +state of the hospitals, the work is full of details. The information he +collected respecting the archives, he does not give. + +465. Briefe eines Sudlanders, von Fischer. Leipsic, 1805. 8vo.--Besides +descriptions of the principal cities in France, this work contains an +account of the fisheries of the Mediterranean; the arsenal of Toulon; the +department of Vaucluse; the Provencal language, &c. The same author has +published Travels in the Pyrennees, drawn up from the works of most +scientific travellers among these mountains. + +466. Reise durch eine theil des Westlichen Franckreichs. Leipsic, 1803. +8vo.--This is also by the same author, and contains an excellent +statistical description of Britanny, a full account of Brest and its +maritime establishments, and of the famous lead mines of Poulavoine, and of +Huelgeat. The first part of this word, _huel_, is exactly the prefix +to the names of many of the mines in Cornwall. + +467. Reise door Frankryk. Door Van der Willigen. Haarlem, 8vo. + +468. Reisen durch die Sudlichen, Westlichen und Nordlichen, Provinzen. Von +Frankreich. 1807-9. und 1815. Frank. 2 vols. 8vo. 1816.--French literature, +the Spanish revolution in 1808, and the Basque language, are chiefly +treated of. + +469. Remarques faites dans un Voyage de Paris jusqu'à Munich. Par Depping. +Paris, 1814. 8vo.--A most judicious and instructive book, noticing all that +is really interesting in this route, and nothing else, and thus conveying +much information in a small compass. + + +THE NETHERLANDS. + + This portion of Europe presents to the traveller fewer varieties for his + research and observation than any other part of Europe: in almost every + other part the mineralogist and geologist find rich materials for the + increase of their knowledge or the formation of their theories; and the + admirer of the beautiful, the picturesque, or the sublime, is gratified. + The Netherlands are barren to both these travellers; yet in some + respects it is a highly interesting country: and the interest it + excites, chiefly arises from circumstances peculiar to it. The northern + division discovers a district won from the sea by most laborious, + persevering, and unremitted industry, and kept from it by the same + means. The middle division recalls those ages, when it formed the link + between the feeble commerce of the south of Europe, and of Asia and of + the Baltic districts. Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges then were populous and + rich above most cities in Europe. The whole of the Netherlands, + especially Flanders, may be regarded as the birth-place of modern + agriculture, which spread from it to England, where alone it flourishes + in a vigorous and advanced state, but still in some points not to be + compared to that of the country from which it came. Such, with the + admirable paintings of the Dutch School, are the chief objects that + attract the traveller to the Netherlands, independently of the desire to + study human nature, which here also will find ample materials. + +470. Descrizione di Ludovico Guicciardini di tutti Paesi Bassi. Antwerp, +1501. fol.--This work, which was translated into Latin, French, and Dutch, +was written by the nephew of the historian; it is the result of his own +travels in the Netherlands, and contains a full description of them, +particularly of their principal towns, and their commerce. + +471. Observations on the United Provinces. By Sir W. Temple. 8vo. & +12mo.--Sir W. Temple was embassador at the Hague in 1668: his little work +contains much information on the history, government, manners, religion, +commerce, &c. of the United Provinces. + +472. Travels in Flanders and Holland in 1781. By Sir Joshua Reynolds. +Confined to pictures. + +473. Tour through the Batavian Republic during the last part of the year +1800. By R. Fell. 1801. 8vo.--This work gives an interesting picture of +Holland and the Dutch at this period, besides historical and political +details and observations on its connexion with France. + +474. Neue Beschriebung des Burgundischen und Neiderlan dischen Kreises. Von +Mart. Leiller. Ulm, 1649. 8vo. + +475. Statische-Geographische, Beschriebung der Semtlichen Esterreichischen +Niederlande. Von Crome. Dessau, 1785. 8vo. + +476. Neueste Reisen durch die Sieben Vereinigten-Provinzen. Von Volkman. +Leip. 1783. 8vo.--This is a valuable work, comprising the arts, +manufactures, agriculture, economy, manners, &c. of the United Provinces. + +477. Briefe uber die Vereinigten Niederlande. Von Grabner. Gothen, 1792. +8vo. + +478. Lettres sur la Hollande Ancienne et Moderne. Par Beaumarchais. +Frankfort, 1738. 8vo.--A good description of Holland and the Dutch, by a +sensible and observant author: principally relating to manners and +politics. + +479. Lettres sur la Hollande, 1777-79. La Haye, 1780. 2 vols. 12mo.--This +is +by far the fullest, most minute, and, we believe, the most accurate picture +of the Dutch national character, as exhibited in their manners, customs, +cities, villages, houses, gardens, canals, domestic economy, pursuits, +amusements, religion, &c. + +480. Histoire Géographique, Physique, Nationelle et Civile de la Hollande. +Par M. Le Francq de Berkhey, 1782. 4 vols. 12mo.--This work was written in +Dutch by the professor of Natural History in the University of Leyden, and +on this topic and manners it is particularly instructive and interesting. + +481. Statistique de la Batavie. Par M. Estienne. Paris, 1803. 8vo.--In a +short compass, this work contains, not only statistical information, +strictly so called, but also much information in natural history, the state +of the arts and sciences, manners and politics. + +482. Voyage Historique et Pittoresque dans les Pays Bas, 1811-13. Par +Syphorien. Paris, 1813. 2 vols. 8vo. + + +GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. + + When we reflect on the political institutions of our own country; the + circumstances in our history to which their origin, improvement, and + modifications may be traced; the influence they have had on our habits + of thought, our feelings, our domestic and public life, and the other + elements of our national character, as well as on agriculture, + manufactures, commerce, and influence and power;--we shall not be + accused of vanity or presumption, if, so far as man is concerned, we + deem our native country rich in materials for the philosophical + traveller. But besides the study of our national character and + institutions, and our agriculture, manufactures, commerce and arts, + Britain is deserving of the careful and repeated observation of the + natural historian, especially of the mineralogist and geologist; whilst + her Roman remains and her Gothic edifices render her interesting to the + antiquarian and the man of taste. + + We must confess, however, that hitherto there are few books of travels + in our country that are worthy of it: till very lately, its mineralogy + and geology have been much neglected; and even at present, they must be + studied rather in professed works on these subjects, or in the + transactions of societies, instituted for their express and peculiar + investigation, than in books of travels. With respect to our national + character, it is obvious, that will be found more carefully studied, and + more frequently attended to, in the travels of foreigners in Britain, + than in native travels, though necessarily in the former there must be + much mistake and misapprehension, and there is often much prejudice and + misrepresentation. + + In one department of travels Britain is, we believe, original and + peculiar; we allude to picturesque travels, of which those of Gilpin are + an interesting and most favourable specimen. These differ essentially + from the picturesque travels of foreigners, which are confined to the + description of antiquities, buildings, and works of art; whereas our + picturesque travels are devoted to the description of the sublimities + and beauties of nature. To these beauties, the British seem particularly + sensible, and Britain, perhaps, if we regard both what nature has done + for her, and the assistance which tasteful art has bestowed on nature, + is as favourable a country for the picturesque traveller as most in + Europe. + +483. Paul Hentzer's Journey into England in 1598. London, 1600. 8vo. In +Dodsley's Fugitive Pieces, vol. 2. Also published at the Strawberry Hill +Press. By Horace Walpole.--Interesting from the description of our manners, +&c. in the reign of Elizabeth. + +484. Travels of Cosmo, Grand Duke of Tuscany, through England, 1669. 4to. +1822.--Amidst much that is very tedious and stupid, relative to the +ceremonies observed in receiving this prince, and all his most minute +movements and actions, there are curious notices of the state of England, +the mode of life, manners, and agriculture at this period. + +485. Letters on the English Nation. By Baptista Angeloni, translated from +the Italian. 1756. 2 vols. 8vo. + +486. Grosley's Tour to London, translated by Nugent, 1772. 2 vols. +8vo.--These two works exhibit much misrepresentation of our character; at +the same time they are instructive in so far as they, in several respects, +paint accurately our national and domestic manners, in the middle of the +last century, and exhibit them as viewed by foreigners. + +487. Historical Account of Three Years' Travels over England and Wales. By +Rogers. 1694. 12mo. + +488. Gilpin's Tour in South Wales: his Tour in North Wales: Observations on +the Western Parts of England: Observations on the Lakes of Cumberland and +Westmoreland: Observations on the River Wye: Tour in Norfolk and South +Wales.--All these works display a deep and sincere feeling of the beauties +of nature; a pure taste and sound judgment; and are written in a style +appropriate to the subject, and worthy of the matter. + +489. Warner's Tour through Wales--Warner's Second Tour through +Wales--Topographical Remarks on the South Western Parts of Hampshire. 2 +vols.--History of the Isle of Wight--Tour through the Northern Parts of +England and the Borders of Scotland. 2 vols.--Excursions from Bath--Walk +through some of the Western Counties of England--Tour through Cornwall.-- +These travels, generally performed on foot, contain good accounts of the +antiquities, and some notices of the natural history, manners, &c. of those +parts of England and Wales to which they respectively relate. + +490. Pennant's Tours from Downing to Alston Moor--from Alston Moor to +Harrowgate and Brimham Cross--Journey from London to the Isle of Wight. 2 +vols.--Journey from Chester to London--Tour in Wales. 3 vols.--These +travels are written in a dry style; but they abound in accurate +descriptions of antiquities. + +491. Bingley's Tour round North Wales in 1798. 2 vols. 8vo.--The language, +manners, customs, antiquities, and botany, are particularly attended to and +well described. + +492. Rev. J. Evans's Tour through Part of North Wales in 1798; Tour through +South Wales in 1803.--These works likewise are valuable for botanical +information, as well as for descriptions of scenery, manners, agriculture, +manufactures, antiquities, &c. and for mineralogy. + +493. Barber's Tour in South Wales, 1802. 8vo.--This work is chiefly +picturesque, and descriptive of manners. + +494. The Scenery, Antiquities, and Biography of South Wales. By B.H. +Malkin. 1805, 4to.--This work is hardly valuable in proportion to its size; +but from it may be gleaned interesting notices on the history and +antiquities of this part of Wales, as well as manners, &c. + +495. Arthur Aikin's Journal of a Tour through North Wales, and part of +Shropshire. 12mo.--An admirable specimen of a mineralogical and geological +tour, in which the purely scientific information is intermixed with notices +of manufactures, and pictures of manners, &c. + + From the above list of Tours in Wales which comprehends, we believe, the + best, it will be seen that this part of the united kingdom has not been + neglected by travellers. Indeed, its natural scenery, mineralogy, + geology, botany, antiquities, manners, &c. have been more frequently and + better described by travellers, than those of any other portion of the + British empire. + +496. The History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of Southampton. +By the Rev. Gil. White. 1789, 4to.--This most delightful work has lately +been republished in 2 vols. 8vo. It is an admirable specimen of topography, +both as to matter and style; and proves in how laudable and useful a manner +a parish priest may employ his leisure time, and how serviceable he may be +to the natural history and antiquities of his country. + +497. Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties of England and Wales. By +Arthur Young.--Six Months' Tour through the North of England. 4 +vols.--Farmer's Tour through the East of England.--Though these works are +almost entirely directed to agriculture, yet they contain much information +on the subject of manufactures, population, &c. as they were about the +middle of the last century. + +498. Hassel's Tour in the Isle of Wight, 1790. 2 vols. 4to.--1798. 2 vols. +8vo.--Picturesque. + +499. A Picture of the Isle of Wight. By Penruddocke Wyndham, 1794.--This +author also wrote a Tour in Monmouthshire and Wales; they are both +principally picturesque. + +500. Observations relative chiefly to the Natural History, Picturesque +Scenery, and Antiquities of the Western Counties of England, 1794-96. By W. +George Maton. 1796, 2 vols. 8vo.--The title sufficiently indicates the +nature of the work, which is valuable, especially in what relates to +natural history. + +501. Journal of Tour and Residence in Great Britain, 1810-11. By a +Frenchman. M. Simond. 2 vols. 8vo.--There are few Travels superior to +these: literature, politics, political economy, statistics, scenery, +manners, &c. are treated of in a manner that displays much talent and +knowledge, and less prejudice than foreigners usually exhibit. The only +branch of natural history, on which the author descants, is mineralogy and +geology. + +502. Itinerarium Magnæ Brittaniæ, oder Reise Beschrievbung durch Engel. +Schott. und Irland. Strasburg, 1672. 8vo. + +503. Reise durch England. Von Volkman. Leipsic, 1781-2. 4 vols. 8vo.--Arts, +manufactures, economy, and natural history. + +504. Der Lustand der Staats, der Religion, &c. in Gros Britanien. Von +Wendeborn. Berlin. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work, which exhibits a pretty +accurate picture of the statistics, religion, literature, &c. of Britain, +at the close of the eighteenth century, has been translated into English. + +505. Beschriebung einer Reise, von Hamburgh nach England. Von P. A Nemnich. +Tubingen, 1801. 8vo.--The state of our principal manufactures is the almost +exclusive object of this work. + +506. Mineralogische und Technologische Bemerkungen auf einer Reise durch +verschiedene Provinzen in England und Schottland. Von J.C. Fabricius. +Leipsic, 1784. 8vo.--This work, the nature of which is indicated in the +title, is enriched by the notes of that distinguished mineralogist Ferber. + +507. Reise nach Paris, London, &c. Von. Franck. Vienna, 1804. 2 vols. +8vo--This work of Dr. Franks, which is chiefly confined to England and +Scotland, is principally interesting to medical men, as it contains an +account of hospitals, prisons, poor-houses, infirmaries, &c. + +508. Gedenkwaardije a antkeningen gedaan door en reisiger, van geghel +England, Schottland, ent Irland. Utrecht, 1699. fol. + +509. Kort Journel eller Reise beskrievelse til England, ved Christ Gram. +Christiana, 1760. 4to. + +510. Reise durch einen Theil von England und Schottland, 1802-3. 8vo. +Marburg, 1811.--These travels,--which, like all travels in our own country +by foreigners, are interesting, independently of any intrinsic merit, +because they exhibit the impressions made on them by what to us is either +common or proper,--are translated from the Swedish: the author's name is +Svedensgerna. + +511. Erinnerungen von einer Reise durch England, 1803-5. Von Johanna +Schopenhauser. 2 vols. 8vo. Rudolst, 1813.--Light and lively sketches. + +512. P. Coronelli Viaggio nell' Enghilterra. Venice, 1697. 8vo.--These +three works, Nos. 509, 510, and 512, by a Dutchman, a Dane, and Italian, +are interesting from the picture they exhibit of Britain at the close of +the seventeenth, and in the middle of the eighteenth century. + +513. Journée faite en 1788 dans la Grande Bretagne. Paris, 1790. 8vo.--The +author, who recommends himself by stating that he could speak English, +principally directs his enquiries to agriculture and manufactures. + +514. Voyages dans les Trois Royaumes d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, et d'Irlande, +1788-89. Par Chantreau. Paris, 1792. 3 vols. 8vo.--The political +constitution, religious opinions, manners, prejudices, state of arts and +sciences, &c. of Britain, are treated of here with considerable talent for +observation, and on the whole not unfairly. + +515. Tableau de la Grande Bretagne et de l'Irlande. Par A. Baert. Paris, +1800. 4 vols. 8vo.--This author frequently visited England, and resided +here for some time: his work relates to our commerce, finances, naval and +military force, religious opinions, literature, arts and manufactures, and +physical and moral character. + +516. Voyage de trois Mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande. Par M.A. +Pictet. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--The state of the arts and sciences principally, +and the state of agriculture, and the natural history, especially geology, +are the objects of this work. The literary character of the author is well +known; this work, perhaps, hardly is worthy of it. + +517. Londres et les Anglais. Par Saint Constant. Paris, 1804. 4 vols. +8vo.--Manners, government, religion, domestic life, and the state of +agriculture, the arts, sciences, manufactures, and of literature in +general,--all fall within the observation of our author, and are treated of +fully, and with fewer mistakes and prejudices than Frenchmen generally +discover when writing on England. + +518. Voyage en Ecosse, &c. Par L.A. Necker-Saussure. Paris, 1821. 3 vols. +8vo.--These travels, by the honorary professor of mineralogy and geology at +Geneva, were performed in 1806--8. They relate chiefly to the geology of +the country, and the character and usages of the Highlanders, and will be +found interesting to the general reader, as well as instructive to the +scientific. + +519. Faujas St. Fond's Travels in England, Scotland, and the Hebrides, +1797. 2 vols. 8vo.--Amidst much mineralogical and geological information +(the latter, perhaps, led sometimes astray by theory), there are some +interesting notices of the arts and sciences, and of literary men. + +520. Monroe's Description of the Western Isles of Scotland, in 1549. Edin. +1774. 12mo. + +521. Account of the Orkney Islands. By James Wallace. Edin. 1693. 8vo. + +522. Martin's Voyage to St. Kilda. Lond. 1698. 2 vols. 8vo. + +523. Martin's Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, and of the +Orkney and Shetland Isles. 1716. 8vo. + +524. Edmonstone's View of the Ancient and Present State of the Shetland +Islands. 2 vols. 8vo. 1809.--Dr. E. is a native of these Islands, and has +long resided there: perhaps, if these favourable circumstances had been +aided by a sounder judgment, a better taste, and more knowledge, this work +would have been improved. As it is, it may advantageously be consulted for +what relates to the civil, political, and natural history; agriculture, +fisheries, and commerce; antiquities, manners, &c. of these islands. + +525. Description of the Shetland Islands, comprising an Account of their +Geology, Scenery, Antiquities, and Superstitions. By Dr. Hibbert. 4to.--The +title indicates the objects of the work: the information is valuable: some +of it new; but not sufficiently select or condensed. + +526. The Rev. Dr. Barry's History of the Orkney Islands. 4to.--Besides +historical information, Dr. B. gives full notices on the inhabitants and +natural history: in the latter respect, however, this work is improved in +the Second Edition, published by Mr. Headrich. + +527. Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle of +Man. By Dr. J. Macculloch. 2 vols. 8vo. and 1 vol. of plates, 4to. +1819.--Although, as might be expected from the pursuits of the author, +mineralogy and geology are particularly attended to, yet this work is +valuable and instructive also on the subjects of the agriculture, scenery, +antiquities, and economy of these islands, and is indeed a work of great +merit. + +528. Sibbald's History and Description of Fife. 1720. fol. + +529. Sibbald's History and Description of Lithgow and Stirlingshires. 1710. +fol. + + These works are curious from the description they give of these parts of + Scotland, at a period when manners, customs, sentiments, feelings, and + superstitions, had not been acted upon by much civilization, knowledge, + or intercourse with England. Sir Robert Sibbald's works also are + valuable, even yet, for their natural history. + +530. Letters from the North of Scotland. Written by a Gentleman to his +Friend in London. 2 vols. 8vo.--These letters, which describe the +Highlanders a century ago, are extremely curious and interesting. They seem +to have been little known, till the author of Waverley introduced them to +public approbation. Since that they have been twice republished; once with +dissertations and notes. + +531. Pennant's Tour to Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides. 3 vols. 4to. +1774. + +532. Dr. Johnson's Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. 1775. 8vo. + +533. Account of the present State of the Hebrides and Western Coast of +Scotland. By John Anderson. Edin. 1785.--Written expressly to point out +means of improvement. The two following works had the same object in view: + +534. Knox's Tour in the Highlands of Scotland and the Hebrides. 1786. 2 +vols. 8vo. + +535. Buchanan's Travels in the Western Hebrides, 1782-90. Lond. 1793. 8vo. + +536. Cardonnel's Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of the North of +Scotland. 1798. 4to. + +537. Stoddart's Remarks on the Local Scenery and Manners of Scotland, +1799-1800. Lond. 1801. 2 vols.8vo.--The principal design of these two works +is sufficiently indicated in their titles. + +538. Dr. Garnett's Tour through the Highlands and Part of the Western +Islands of Scotland. 1800. 2 vols. 4to.--Agriculture, manufactures, +commerce, antiquities, botany, and manners, are treated of, though not in a +masterly manner. + +539. Travels in Scotland and Ireland, 1769-72. Chester, 1774. 2 vols. 4to. + +540. Tour in Scotland and Ireland, 1775, 8vo. + +541. Ed. Spencer's View of the State of Ireland, 1633. folio.--Also in his +works, and in a collection of old tracts lately published on this kingdom. + +542. A Natural History of Ireland, in Three Parts. By several hands. Boate +and Molyneaux. Dublin, 1726.--This work contains much curious information, +sound and accurate, considering when it was written. + +543. Tour in Ireland, in 1715. London, 1716. 8vo. + +544. Bush's Hiberna Curiosa. Dublin. 4to.--The materials of this work, +which chiefly is occupied with a view of manners, agriculture, trade, +natural curiosities, &c. were collected during a tour in 1764-69. + +545. Hamilton's Letters on the Northern Coast of Ireland, 1764. 8vo.--This +is a valuable work respecting the mineralogy and geology, and especially +the Giant's Causeway. + +546. Campbell's Philosophical Survey of the South of Ireland, 1777. 8vo. + +547. Arthur Young's Tour in Ireland, 1776-79. 2 vols. 8vo.--An admirable +picture of the agriculture and general state of Ireland at this period. + +548. Cooper's Letters on the Irish Nation, 1800. 8vo.--Manners, national +character, government, religion principally; with notices on agriculture, +commerce, &c. + +549. Account of Ireland, Statistical and Political. By Edward Wakefield, +1812. 4to.--An immense mass of information, chiefly relating to the +agriculture, statistics, political and religious state of Ireland, not well +arranged; and the bulk much increased by irrelevant matter. + +550. Robertson's Tour through the Isle of Man, 1794. 8vo. + +551. Wood's Account of the Past and Present State of the Isle of Man, 1811. +8vo. + +552. Falle's Account of Jersey, 1734, 8vo. + +553. Berry's History of Guernsey, with particulars of Alderney, Sark, and +Jersey, 1815. 4to. + +554. Dicey's Account of Guernsey, 1751. 12mo. + +555. Neueste reisen durch Schottland and Ireland. Von Volkman. Leip. 1784. +8vo.--Economy, manufactures, and natural history. + +556. Briefe uber Ireland. Von Kuttner, Leip. 1785, 8vo.--This author +published Travels in Holland and England, which, as well as the present, +indicate an attentive, careful, and well-informed observer of manners, +national character, and statistics. + + +PORTUGAL AND SPAIN. + + Good travels in the Peninsula, especially in the English language, are + by no means numerous, yet there are portions of it highly interesting in + a physical point of view; and the Spanish national character, and + manners, as well as the Roman and Arabian antiquities in Spain and + Portugal, furnish ample and rich materials to the traveller. + +557. Memoirs of Lord Carrington, containing a Description of the Government +and Manners of the present Portuguese, 1782. 8vo. + +558. Murphy's Travels in Portugal, 1789-90. 4to.--Monuments, public +edifices, antiquities principally; the physical state of the country, its +agriculture, commerce, arts, literature, &c. sensibly but not extensively. + +559. Link's Travels in Portugal, 1797-99. 8vo.--This work, originally +published in German, consists in that language of 2 vols. 8vo. There was +likewise published in French, Paris, 1805. 1 vol. 8vo., Voyage en Portugal, +par M. le Comte de Hoffmansegg,--as a continuation of Link's Travels, the +Count having travelled in this country with Mr. Link, and continued in it +after the latter left it. Mr. Link being a distinguished natural historian, +directed his attention chiefly to geology, mineralogy and botany; but he +does not neglect other topics, and he has added a dissertation on the +literature of Portugal, and on the Spanish and Portuguese languages. The +supplemental volume is also rich in natural history, and extends to an +account of the manufactures, political institutions, &c. of Portugal. + +560. Twiss's Travels through Portugal and Spain, 1772-73. 4to.--Literary, +antiquarian, and descriptive of manners, customs, and national characters. + +561. Dalrymple's Travels through Spain and Portugal, 1774. Dublin, 1777. +12mo. + +562. Southey's Letters on Spain and Portugal, 1797. 8vo.--Literature and +manners; but in a manner not worthy of the author's talents and reputation. + +563. Ed. Clarke's Letters on the Spanish Nation, 1765. 4to.--The author was +chaplain to Lord Bristol, in his Spanish Embassy. Antiquities and Spanish +literature; in the Appendix there is a catalogue of MSS. in the library of +the Escurial. + +564. Swinburne's Travels through Spain, 1775-76. 2 vols. 8vo. Roman and +Moorish architecture are particularly attended to; this work is also +valuable and instructive for its full details in every thing relating to +Catalonia and Grenada, two of the most interesting provinces in Spain. + +565. Dillon's Travels through Spain, 1782. 4to.--Natural history and +physical geography. + +566. Bourgoing's Travels in Spain, with Extracts from the Essays on Spain. +By M. Peyren, 1789. 3 vols. 8vo.--This is an excellent work, translated +from the French. The author, however, did not visit Catalonia or Grenada. +Natural history is not attended to; but all that relates to manufactures, +the civil, political, and religious state of Spain, manners, literature and +similar topics, is treated of fully and well. The work of M. Peyren, from +which extracts are given, is entitled Nouveau Voyage en Espagne, Paris, +1782. 2 vols. 8vo. and treats of antiquities, manners, commerce, public +tribunals, &c.; it notices some cities and parts of Spain omitted, or but +partially noticed by Swinburne and Bourgoing. The work of the latter has +also been added to by the following work, Voyage en Espagne, 1797-8. Par C. +A. Fischer. Paris, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo. Fischer also published in 1804. 8vo., +Description de Valence, to complete his Travels in Spain. Both these were +originally published in German, and translated into French, by Cramer; and +they both are most valuable additions to Bourgoing's works. + +567. Townshend's Journey through Spain, in 1786. 3 vols. 8vo.--An excellent +work, particularly on the economy, agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and +general statistics of Spain. + +568. Voyage du ci-devant duc du Chatelet en Portugal, 1777. Paris, 1798. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This work, which has been translated into English, was in +reality written by M. Cormartin, one of the Vendean chiefs; it is very full +and various, as well as excellent in its contents, embracing physical +geography, agriculture, arts, sciences and manufactures, government, +manners, religion, literature, &c., in short, every thing but antiquities +and public buildings. + +569. Observations du Physique et de Médecine, faites en différens lieux de +l'Espagne. Par M. Thiery. Paris, 1791. 2 vols. 8vo.--This medical Tour +contains much information on the climate, soils, geology of Spain; and on +the food, domestic life of its inhabitants, particularly relating to +Castile, Arragon, Navarre, Biscay, Gallicia and Asturia. There is also a +particular description of the quicksilver mine at Almaden, in La Mancha. + +570. Voyage Pittoresque et Historique de l'Espagne. Par La Borde. Paris, 4 +vols. fol. + +571. Itinéraire Descriptif de l'Espagne. Par La Borde. Paris, 1809. 5 vols. +8vo. + +572. Lettres sur l'Espagne, ou Essais sur les Moeurs, les Usages, et la +Litérature de ce Royaume. Par Beauharnois. Paris, 1810. 2 vols. 8vo. + +573. A Visit to Spain in the latter part of 1822, and the first four Months +of 1823. By Michael Quin. 8vo. 1823.--A sensible and impartial view of the +state of Spain at this interesting period; giving much insight into the +character of the Spaniards. + +574. Reise beschriebung durch Spanien und Portugal. Von M. Zeiller. Ulm, +1631. 8vo. + +575. Reise beschrieburg nach Spanien. Franchfort, 1676. 8vo.--These two +works are chiefly valuable for that which gives interest and value to all +old travels; as describing manners, &c. at a distant period. + +576. Neueste reise durch Spanien. Von Volkman. Leipsic, 1785. 2 vols. +8vo.--Arts, manufactures, commerce and economy. + +577. Nieuve Historikal en Geographische Reise beschryving van Spanien en +Portugal. Don W. Van den Burge. Hague, 1705. 2 vols. 4to. + +578. Descripcion de España de Harif Alcides Coneido. Madrid, 1799. +4to.--This work, by the geographer of Nubia, as he is generally called, is +extremely interesting from the picture it gives of Spain under the Moors. +It was translated by D.J.A. Condé, who has added notes, comparing its state +at that remote period, and in 1799. + +579. Ponz Viage de España. Madrid, 1776, &c. 18 vols. 12mo.--Full of matter +of various kinds, but tedious and dry. + +580. Introduccion a la Historia natural y geographia-fisico del Reyno de +España. Par D. Guill. Bowles.--The Italian translation of this work, Parma, +1783. 8vo. (the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by the title) +contains a commentary and notes by the translator, A. Zara, which adds to +its value, in itself not small. + +581. Descrizione della Spagna di Don A. Conca. Parma, 1793-7. 4 vols. +8vo.--This work is chiefly devoted to the fine arts, of which it enters +into a full and minute description. There are also notices of antiquities, +and natural history. It is admirably printed by Bodoni. + + + + +VII. AFRICA. + + +AFRICA IN GENERAL. + +582. Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Africa. By the late +John Leyden, M.D., enlarged and completed to the present time by Hugh +Murray, Esq., 2 vols. 8vo. 1817.--A useful, correct, and, in general, +accurate and complete compilation, which satisfies the purpose and promise +held out in the title. + +583. Leoni Africani totius Africæ Descriptionis. Lib. VIII. Leyd. 1682. +8vo.--This work was originally written in Arabic, then translated into +Italian by the author, and from Italian into Latin, French, Dutch, and +English. The Italian translation is the only correct one: to the French, +which is expanded into 2 vols. folio, and was published at Lyons in 1566, +there are appended several accounts of Voyages and Travels in Africa. Leo +was a Spanish Moor, who left Spain at the reduction of Grenada, and +travelled a long time in Europe, Asia, and Africa: his description of the +northern parts of Africa is the most full and accurate. + +584. L'Afrique de Marmol. Paris, 1669. 3 vols. 4to.--This translation, by +D'Ablancourt, of a very scarce Portuguese writer, is not made with +fidelity. The subsequent discoveries in Africa have detailed several +inaccuracies in Marmol; but it is nevertheless a valuable work: the +original was published in the middle of the sixteenth century. + +585. Geschichte der neuestin Portugeiesischen Entdeckungen en Africa, von +1410, bis 1460. Von M.C. Sprengel. Halle, 1783. 8vo.--This account of the +discoveries of Prince Henry is drawn up with much judgment and learning. + +586. Neue Beitrage zur Keuntniss von Africa. Von J.R. Forster. Berlin, +1794. 2 vols. 8vo. + +587. Neue Systematescke Erd-beschriebung von Africa. Von Bruns. Nurem. +1793-99. 6 vols. 8vo.--A most valuable work on Africa in general. + + +THE NORTH OF AFRICA. + + Those portions of Africa which are washed by the Mediterranean sea, + possess strong and peculiar attractions for the traveller. It is only + necessary to name Egypt, to call up associations with the most remote + antiquity,--knowledge, civilization, and arts, at a period when the rest + of the world had scarcely, as it were, burst into existence. From the + earliest records to the present day, Egypt has never ceased to be an + interesting country, and to afford rich materials for the labours, + learning, and researches of travellers. The rest of the Mediterranean + coast of Africa, where Carthage first exhibited to the world the + wonderful resources of Commerce, and Rome established some of her most + valuable and rich possessions, are clothed with an interest and + importance scarcely inferior to that which Egypt claims and enjoys. + While the countries on the north-east, washed by the Red Sea, in + addition to sources of interest and importance common to them, and to + Egypt and Barbary, are celebrated on account of their having witnessed + and assisted the first maritime commercial intercourse between Asia, and + Africa, and Europe. + +588. Relation d'un Voyage de Barbarie, fait à Alger, pour la Redemption des +Captifs. Paris, 1616. 8vo. + +589. Relation de la Captivité à Alger d'Emmanuel d'Arande. Paris, 1665. +16mo.--This work, originally published in Spanish, contains, as well as the +preceding one, some curious particulars regarding the manners of Algiers, +especially the court, in the middle of the seventeenth century. + +590. Voyage en Barbarie, 1785-88, par Poiret. Paris, 1789. 2 vols. +8vo.--This work, which was translated into English in 1791, is chiefly +confined to that part of Barbary which constituted the ancient Numidia, and +is interesting from the picture it exhibits of the Bedouin Arabs, and from +the details into which it enters regarding the natural history of the +country, especially the botany. + +591. Relations des Royaumes de Fez et de Maroc, traduites de Castellan de +Diego Torrez. Paris, 1636. 4to. + +592. Histoire de la Mission des Pères Capuchins, au royaume de Maroc. 1644. +12mo. + +593. Relation des Etats du Roi de Fez et de Maroc, par Frejus. Paris, 1682. +12mo.--Frejus was sent by the French King to Fez in 1666, for the purpose +of establishing a commercial intercourse: his work is full and particular +on the manners, customs, &c., of the country and people of this part of +Africa; there is, besides, much curious information drawn from the +observations of M. Charant, who lived 25 years in Fez and Morocco, +respecting the trade to Tombuctoo. The coasts, currents, harbours, &c., are +also minutely described. The French edition of 1682, and the English +translation of 1771, contain the letters of M. Charant, giving the results +of his information on these points. + +594. Recherches Historiques sur les Maures, et Histoire de l'Empereur de +Maroc, par Chenier. Paris, 1788. 3 vols. 8vo. M. Chenier was Charge des +Affaires from the King of France to the Emperor of Morocco. The two first +volumes are historical; in the third volume there is much valuable +information on the physical, moral, intellectual, commercial, and political +state of this kingdom. + +595. Histoire du Naufrage, et de la Captivité de M. de Brisson. Paris, +1789. 8vo. This work, together with the travels of Saugnier, is translated +into English; it contains a description of the great desert. This singular +portion of Africa is also particularly described in the following works. + +596. Voyage dans les Deserts de Sahara, par M. Follies Paris, 1792. 8vo. + +597. Travels or Observations relating to several parts of Barbary and the +Levant, by T. Shaw. 1757. 4to.--The character of this work, for the +information it contains in antiquities and natural history, is too well +known and firmly established to require any particular notice or +commendation. Algiers, Tunis, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia Petrea, were the +scene of these travels and researches. + +598. A Journey to Mequinez, by J. Windhus. 1723. 8vo. In 1721, Captain +Stewart was sent by the English government to Fez and Morocco to redeem +some captives; this work, drawn up from the observations made during this +journey, is curious: the same remark applies generally to the other works, +which are drawn from similar sources, and of which there are several in +French and English. + +599. History of the Revolution in the Empire of Morocco in 1727-8, by +Captain Braithwaite. 1729. 8vo. Besides the historical details, the +accuracy of which is undoubted, as Braithwaite was an eye-witness of the +events he describes, this work gives us some valuable information on the +physical and moral state of the people. + +600. Lemprieres Tour from Gibraltar to Tangier, Sals, Mogador, &c., and +over Mount Atlas, Morocco, &c. 1791.--The author of this work, (who was a +medical man, sent by the Governor of Gibraltar at the request of the +Emperor of Morocco, whose son was dangerously ill,) possessed, from the +peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, excellent opportunities of +procuring information; the most interesting and novel parts of his work +relate to the haram of the Emperor, to which, in his medical character, he +had access; the details into which he enters, respecting its internal +arrangements and the manners of its inhabitants, are very full and curious. + +601. Tully's Letters from Tripoly. 3 vols. 8vo.--Much curious information +on the domestic life and manners of the inhabitants, and more insight into +female manners and character, than is generally gained respecting the +females of this part of Africa. + +602. Captain Lyons' Travels in Northern Africa, from Tripoly to Mouzzook. +1821. 4to.--Though the object of these travels was not accomplished, they +contain much information on the geography of central Africa collected +during them. On this important point, the Quarterly Review should be +consulted. + +603. Schousboe Betrachtungen uber das Gewæsrich, en Marokko. Copenhag. +1802. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Danish, relates chiefly to the +botany, metereology, soil and productions of Morocco; and on other topics +it gives accurate and valuable information. + +604. Viaggio da Tripoli alto Frontiere dell' Egitto. 1817. P. Della +Cella.--The scene of these travels must give them an interest and value, +since they embrace "one of the oldest and most celebrated of the Greek +colonies," and a country "untrodden by Christian feet since the expulsion +of the Romans, the Huns, and the Vandals, by the enterprising disciples of +Mahomet," The work, however, proves that its author was not qualified to +avail himself of such a new and interesting field of enquiry, remark, and +research, to the extent which might have been expected. + + +EGYPT + + Whoever wishes to be informed respecting the state of Egypt and its + inhabitants during the remotest ages to which they can be traced, must + have recourse to the accounts given of them in the Scriptures, and by + Herodotus and other ancient writers. During the dark and middle ages, as + they are called, information may be drawn from the following sources. + +605. Abdollatiphi Historiæ Egypti Compendium, Arabice et Latine. Oxford, +1800. 4to.--There are several editions of this work: the one, the title of +which we have just given, was edited by Professor White. He also published +a preceding one without the Latin version; which was republished at +Tubingen, with a preface by Paulus. An interesting and instructive "Notice +de cet ouvrage," was published by Sacy, the celebrated orientalist, at +Paris, in 1803. The Arabian author relates what he himself saw and learnt +in Egypt, and is particularly full on the plants of the country; the +historical part occupies only the two last chapters; he lived towards the +end of the twelfth century. + +606. Abulfedæ Descriptio Egypti, Arabice et Latine, notas adjecit J. +Michaelis. Gottingen, 1776. 4to.--This author lived in the fourteenth +century, and was celebrated for his geographical knowledge, of which this +work is a valuable proof. + +607. L'Egypti de Murtadi. Paris, 1666. 12mo.--This work of the middle ages, +translated from an Arabic manuscript belonging to Cardinal Mazarin, is +curious, but extremely rare. + +608. Nouvelle Relation d'un Voyage en Egypte. Par Wansleb. 1672-73. Paris, +1678. 12mo.--Wansleb was a German, sent into Egypt and Ethiopia by the Duke +of Saxe Gotha, to examine the religious rites and ceremonies of the +Christians there. He was afterwards sent again into Egypt by Colbert; the +fruit of this journey was a great number of curious and valuable +manuscripts, which were deposited in the Royal Library at Paris. Besides +the work just stated, he published in Italian "Relatione dello Stato +presente dell' Egypto". Pans, 1671. 12mo.--Both these works are +particularly useful and instructive on the subject of antiquities, and for +the accuracy of the descriptions and names he gives to the different places +and ruins. + +609. Description de l'Egypte, composée sur les Mémoires de M. Maillet. +Paris, 1741. 2 vols. 12mo.--Maillet was French Consul at Cairo for sixteen +years: his work is valuable on antiquities, and the religion of the ancient +and modern Egyptians. It may also be consulted with advantage for +information on the manners and customs; but in what he relates regarding +the Nile and natural history, he is not so accurate and judicious. + +610. Lettres sur l'Egypte. Par M. Savary. Paris, 1786. 3 vols. 8vo.--This +work, very celebrated and much read for some time after it appeared, and +translated into English, German, Dutch, and Swedish, gradually lost the +character it had acquired; partly because his descriptions were found to be +overcharged and too favourable, and partly because he describes Upper Egypt +as if he had visited it, whereas he never did. Nevertheless, the learning +and judgment which this author displays in drawing from scarce and little +known Arabic authors, curious notices respecting ancient and modern Egypt, +give to the work an intrinsic and real value, which is not affected by the +observations we have made. + +611. Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte. Par Sonnini. Paris, 1799. 3 +vols. 8vo.--This work deservedly bears a high character for the accuracy +and fulness of its natural history; especially its ornithology: +antiquities, manners and customs, are by no means overlooked: there are two +translations into English,--the one published by Debrett, 1800, 4to. is the +best; it was afterwards published in 3 vols. 8vo. + +612. Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte. Par Denon. Paris, 1802. 2 vols. +folio. + +613. Description de l'Egypte, ou Recueil des Observations, &c. faites +pendant l'Expédition de l'Armie Française, en 3 livraisons. Paris, 1809, +&c. + + These magnificent works, the result of the observations and researches + of the savans who accompanied Bonaparte, undoubtedly add much to our + knowledge of Egypt; but they are more decidedly specimens of French + vanity and philosophism, than of sober and real science. Denon's work is + translated into English and German: the best English translation is by + Aikin. + +614. Norden's Travels in Egypt and Nubia, with Templeman's notes, published +and translated under the inspection of the Royal Society of London, 1757, 2 +vols. folio.--Norden was a Danish physician; his work was originally +published in that language. A French translation was published at +Copenhagen, in 1755; and a subsequent one at Paris in 1795-98, in 3 vols. +4to. with very valuable notes and illustrations from ancient and modern +authors, and Arabian geographers, by Langles. The merits of Norden's work, +are of the most enduring and substantial kind, so far as relates to the +Antiquities of Egypt, and the Cataracts: it is high and unequivocal +commendation of this author, that subsequent travellers have found him a +judicious and sure guide. + +615. Legh's Journey in Egypt, and the Country beyond the Cataract, 1816, +4to.--In a small compass, there is much new information in these Travels, +though not so much respecting the ancient country of the Ethiopians, in +which Mr. Legh went beyond most former travellers, as could have been +wished. Some parts of the personal narrative are uncommonly interesting. + +616. Belzoni's Operations and Discoveries in Egypt, 4to. 1820.--Whoever has +read this book, (and who has not?) will agree with us in opinion, that its +interest is derived, not less from the manner in which it is written, the +personal adventures, and the picture it exhibits of the author's character, +than from its splendid and popular antiquarian discoveries. + +617. Edmonston's Journey to two of the Oases of Upper Egypt, 1823. 8vo. + +618. Notes during a Visit to Egypt, Nubia, &c. By Sir F. Henniker, 8vo. +1823. + +619. Waddington's Journal of a Visit to some parts of Ethiopia, 1823. 4to. + +620. Narrative of the Expedition to Dangda and Sennaar. By An American. +1823. 8vo.--These works, and especially the last, make us acquainted with +parts of Africa inaccessible to Europeans till very lately, and add +considerably to our stock of physical and moral geography. Sir F. +Henniker's work brings us in contact, in a very lively and pleasing manner, +with many points in the character and habits of the natives of the country +he visited. + + +WESTERN AFRICA, AND THE ADJACENT ISLES. + +622. Voyages de Aloysio Cadamosto aux Isles Madère, et des Canaries au Cap +Blanc, au Sénégal, &c. en 1455. 4to. Paris, 1508.--This work was originally +published in Italian; its author was employed by Don Henry of Portugal, to +prosecute discovery on the Western Coast of Africa. Besides an interesting +detail of the voyage, it makes us acquainted with the manners and habits of +the people, before they had been accustomed to European intercourse. + +622. Voyage de Lybie, ou du Royaume de Sénégal, fait et composé par C. +Jannequin, de retour en France, in 1659. Paris, 1645. 8vo.--This also is an +interesting work, as depicting with great naïveté and force the manners of +the inhabitants, and affording some curious particulars respecting their +diseases. + +623. Nouvelle Relation de l'Afrique occidentale. Par Labat. Paris, 1728. 5 +vols. 12mo.--Though Labat never visited the countries he describes, which +are, Senegal, and those that lie behind Cape Blanc and Sierra Leone; yet as +he derived his information from the Director General of the French African +Company, it may be depended upon. This work enters into full particulars on +the subject of African commerce, especially that carried on by the Moors in +the interior. The plants, animals, soil, &c. as well as the religion, +government, customs, manufactures are also described. + +624. Histoire Naturelle du Sénégal. Par M. Adanson. Paris. 1757. 4to.--M. +Adanson was in this part of Africa, from 1749 to 1753; his chief study and +investigation seems to have been directed to conchology; and the +descriptions and admirable plates in his book, certainly leave little to be +desired on this subject. There are besides remarks on the temperature, +productions, economy, and manufactures of the country. + +625. Nouvelle Histoire de l'Afrique Française. Par M. l'Abbé Dumanet. +Paris, 1767. 2 vols. 12mo.--Dumanet was a missionary in Africa, and seems +to have united to religious zeal, much information, and an ardent desire to +gain all the knowledge, which his residence and character placed within his +reach. His notices regarding Senegal in particular, are very valuable, but +his work is not distinguished for order or method. + +626. Relations de plusieurs Voyages entrepris à la Côte d'Afrique, au +Sénégal, à Goree, &c. tirées des Journeaux de M. Saugnier. Paris, 1799. +8vo.--M. Saugnier was shipwrecked on the Coast of Africa, along with M. +Follies, and was a long time a slave to the Moors, and the Emperor of +Morocco: he afterwards, on his liberation, made a voyage to Galam. The +first part of his work relates to the great desert, and has been already +noticed; the second part describes the manners, &c. of several tribes near +Galam; and the third relates to the commerce of Galam and Senegal. + +627. Voyage au Sénégal, 1784-5. Paris, 1802. 8vo.--The materials of this +work were drawn from the Memoirs of La Jaille, who was sent by the French +Government to examine the coasts from Cape Blanc, to Sierra Leone. The +editor, La Barthe, had access to the MS. in the bureau of the minister of +marine and colonies, and was thus enabled to add to the accuracy and value +of the work. It chiefly relates to geography, navigation, and commerce, and +on all these topics gives full and accurate information. + +628. Fragmens d'un Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale, 1785-87. Par Golbery. +Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--The French commercial establishments in Senegal, +the tribes in their vicinity, and the diseases to which Europeans are +liable in this part of Africa, and more particularly the topics of this +work, which has been translated into English. + +629. Account of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. +By T. Winterbottom, 1803. 2 vols. 8vo.--A very instructive work, entering +into many details on subjects not generally noticed by travellers, but to +which, the thoughts and enquiries of the author, as a medical man, were +naturally drawn. + +630. Description of the Coast of Guinea. By W. Bosman, translated from the +Dutch, 1703. 8vo.--This work is very full on most topics relating to +Guinea, not only in its physical, but also its economical and commercial +state; and deservedly bears the character of one of the best old accounts +of this part of Africa. + +631. New Accounts of some parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade. By Wm. +Snelgrave, 1727. 8vo.--Works that describe the Slave Trade, before it +roused the notice and indignation of England, are valuable and useful, +because in them no exaggeration can be suspected in the detail, either of +its extent or its horrors: on this account, as well as for its other +commercial information, this work deserves to be read. + +632. New Voyage to Guinea. By W. Smith, 1750. 8vo.--The author embraces +almost every thing relating to Guinea, and has succeeded, in a short +compass, to give much information. + +633. Observations on the Coast of Guinea. By John Atkin, 1758. +8vo.--Personal adventures, which however let the reader into the manners +and habits of the people, and are told in an interesting manner, nearly +fill this volume. + +634. Historical Account of Guinea. By An. Benezet, Philadelphia, 1771, +12mo.--This is one of the first works, which exposed the horrid iniquity of +the Slave Trade. + +635. History of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa. By And. Dalzell, 1789. +4to.--The official situation which the author held, gave him opportunities +of gaining much valuable information in this kingdom and its inhabitants, +the accuracy of which may be depended on. + +636. Bowditch's Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, 1819. +4to.--This work is full and minute, but we suspect exaggerated respecting +the Court of Ashantee; on the mass of the people it gives little +information. The part that relates to the geography of middle Africa, is +confused and unsatisfactory. + +637. Tuckey's Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire, in +1816. 4to. The Quarterly Review very justly remarks, that this volume +"contains an important and valuable addition to the records of African +discovery." Natural history was especially advanced by this unfortunate +expedition. + +638. Relatio et Descriptio Congo et Cham. Amsterdam, 1659. 4to.--The +materials of this work, are drawn from that of Lopez, which was originally +published in Italian, and forms part of the Grands Voyages. It it very full +on the different races of people, their manners, government, religion, +traffic, &c. as well as on the productions of the soil. + +640. Histoire de Loango, Kakougo, et autres Royaumes d'Afrique. Paris, +1776. 12mo.--This work, which is drawn up from the Memoirs of the French +Missionaries, describes the physical state of the country, the manners, +language, government, laws, commerce, &c. of the inhabitants, with great +care; a large portion of it, however, is devoted to an account of the +labours of the missionaries. + +641. Voyage à la Côte Méridionale d'Afrique, 1786-7. Par L. de Grandpiè. +Paris, 1802. 2 vols. 8vo.--Much information on the Slave Trade, and a plan +for abolishing it, by introducing civilization and a love of commerce into +this part of Africa, occupy the greater part of the first volume; the +second volume, which comprises the Cape of Good Hope, gives details which +will be found useful to those who navigate and trade in these parts. The +manners, &c. of the people are by no means overlooked. + + +INTERIOR OF AFRICA. + +642. Travels in the inland parts of Africa, to which is added, Captain +Stubbs's Voyage up the Gambia, in 1723. By Francis Moore, 1758. 4to.--1742. +8vo.--This is a valuable work, and introduces the reader to many parts and +tribes of Africa, which even yet are little known, partly drawn from the +accounts of an African prince who came to England. Of this information, and +that collected by Captain Stubbs, Moore, who was superintendant of the +African Company's establishments in the Gambia, availed himself in drawing +up this work. + + Little additional information respecting the interior of Africa was + obtained, till the establishment of the African Association in 1788. It + is unnecessary to give an individual and particular character of the + works which were drawn up under their auspices; the persons they + employed, were, in many respects, in general admirably calculated for + the ardous enterprize, and certainly by their labours have added not a + little to our knowledge of the geography, manners, trade, &c. of this + part of Africa. But it is to be regretted, that they were not qualified + to investigate the natural history of the countries they visited, + especially as these must be extremely rich in all the departments of + this branch of science. To these preliminary observations and general + character, we add the titles of the principal travels undertaken under + the auspices of the African Association. + +643. African Association, their Proceedings for prosecuting the discovery +of the interior parts of Africa, containing the Journals of Ledyard, Lucas, +Houghton, Horneman, Nicholls, &c. 1810. 2 vols. 8vo. + +644. Park's Travels in the interior districts of Africa, 1795-97, with +geographical illustrations, by Major Rennell, 1799. 4to. + +645. The Journal of a Mission to the interior of Africa, in 1805. By Park, +1815. 4to. + + In 1803, there was published at Paris, a French translation of + Horneman's Travels, with notes, and a memoir on the Oases, by Langles. + Those notes and memoirs were principally drawn from Arabian authors; + and, together with the rectification of the names of places, render the + translation valuable. + +646. Jackson's account of Tombuctoo and Housa, with Travels through West +and South Barbary, and across the Mountains of Atlas, 8vo. 1820.--So long +as it is so extremely dangerous and difficult for Europeans to penetrate +into the interior of Africa, we must be content to derive our information +regarding it, from Africans who have travelled thither; and it is evident +that those will be best calculated to collect accurate information from +them, who are acquainted with their language and character, and who have +resided among them. On these accounts, Mr. Jackson's work is valuable and +important; the same remarks apply to his Account of Morocco, 1809. 4to. + +647. Riley's Loss of the Brig Commerce, on the west Coast of Africa, 1815. +With an account of Tombuctoo and Wassanah, 4to. + +648. Adam's Narrative of a Residence in Tombuctoo. 4to. If these Narratives +can be perfectly depended upon, they add considerably to our information +respecting the Great Desert and the interior of Africa. + +649. Sammlung Merkwurdiger Reisen in das innere von Africa, heraus gegeben. +Von E.W. Kuher. Leips. 1790. 8vo. + +650. Descrizione dell' Isola della Madera, scritta nella Lingua Latina dal +Conte Julio Laedi, tradotta in volgare da Alemano Fini. Plaisance, 1574. +4to. + +651. Histoire de la première Découverte et Conquête des Canaries, 1412. Par +J. Bethancourt: écrite du temps même. Par P. Bouthier, et J. Leverier. +Paris, 1630. 12mo.--This curious and rare work, depicts with great fidelity +and naïveté, the manners, opinions, government, religion, &c. that +prevailed in the Canaries, when they were first conquered. + +652. Essai sur les Isles Fortunées, et l'Antique Atlantide. Par Borry de +Saint Vincent. Paris, 1803. 4to. The author of this work resided for some +time in these Islands; and his work, besides historical information, bears +testimony to his having employed his residence in gaining minute +information respecting their soil, climate, natural history, and +productions; and likewise respecting the manners, &c. of the inhabitants. +There is much learned discussion respecting the origin of the Guanches, and +interesting information regarding their civilization and knowledge. + +653. Noticias de la Historia general de las Islas de Canaria. Par D.J. +Dariera y Clavigo. Madrid, 1771. 3 vols. 8vo. Borry de Saint Vincent, who +derived much of his information from this work, justly characterizes it as +a valuable and accurate performance. + + The Islands of Madeira, Teneriffe, St. Jago, &c. are described in many + Voyages to the East Indies, particularly in Barrow's Voyage to Cochin + China. In the first volume of Sir Hans Sloane's Jamaica, there is also a + good account of Madeira. + + +THE SOUTH OF AFRICA. + + The Cape of Good Hope being generally visited by ships going to the East + Indies and China, there are many accounts of it and the adjacent + country, in the relation of voyages to those parts. Since it came into + the possession of the British, this part of Africa has frequently become + the ultimate and special object of travellers. The oldest accounts were + published in the Dutch and German languages. + +654. Reise Beschriebung, 1660-1667 unter die Africanisken Vælker besonders +die Hottentiten. Von. J. Breyer. Leips. 1681. 8vo. + +655. Reise nach dem Vorgeberg der Guten Hopnung. Von Peter Kolb. Nuremberg, +3 vol. fol.--This voluminous work, originally published in Dutch, was +abridged and published in French, in 3 vols. 12mo. From this abridgment, an +English translation was published in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1738. Both the entire +and abridged work have been frequently published. The reason for this +popularity and general sale, must be sought in Kolben's work, being, for a +long time, the only detailed account of this part of Africa, and from its +enjoying a reputation for accuracy, which subsequent travellers have +destroyed, especially De la Caille, the celebrated astronomer, in the +following work. + +656. Journal du Voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance. Paris, 1673. +12mo.--This work is well known to astronomers; but it also deserves to be +perused by those who wish to detect the errors of Kolben, and by the light +which it throws on the manners of the Hottentots. + +657. Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance. Amsterdam, 1778. 8vo.--This +work, translated from the Dutch, contains a Journal of Travels into the +interior, undertaken by order of the Dutch Governor. The first part gives a +short description of the Cape, and the adjacent districts, which seems +drawn from the authority of Kolben, in too many particulars; the second +part contains the Journal of the Travels: and it is more full and +instructive on objects of natural history, than on the customs and manners +of the people. The plates of these are very valuable. + +658. Voyage de M. Levaillant, dans l'Intérieur de l'Afrique, 1780-85. +Paris, 2 vols. 8vo. + +659. Second Voyage, 1783-1785. Paris, 3 vols. 8vo.--These Travels, which +have been translated into English, possess a wonderful charm in the +narrative, attained, however, too often by the sacrifice of plain and +unadorned truth, to the love of romance and effect. Notwithstanding this +drawback, Levaillant's Travels are valuable for the light they throw on the +natural history of the South of Africa. + +660. Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, 1772-1776. By Sparman, 1785. 2 vols. +4to.--This work was originally published in Swedish; it is interesting, not +only on account of the valuable information it conveys on natural history, +especially botany, and on the manners, &c. of the people, but likewise for +the perseverance and zeal with which Sparman, without friends, assistance, +and almost without pecuniary assistance, forced his way into remote and +barbarous districts. + +661. Barrows Travels into the interior of Southern Africa, 1797-1798. 4to. +2 vols. Very few writers of travels have possessed such a variety and +extent of information, both political and scientific, as Mr. Barrow; hence +these volumes are acceptable and instructive to all classes of readers, and +have attained a celebrity not greater than they deserve. In Mr. Barrow's +voyage to Cochin China, there is some information respecting the Cape, +especially an account of a journey to the Booshuana nation. In Thunberg's +voyage to Japan, there is also much information on the geography, natural +history, manners, &c. of the South of Africa. + +662. La Trobe's Journal of a Visit to South Africa, in 1815. 4to. + +663. Lichtenstein's Travels in Southern Africa, 1803-06. 2 vols. 4to. + +664. Campbell's Travels in Africa, by order of the Missionary Society. 2 +vols. 8vo. + + Additional information may be gleaned from these travels, respecting + South Africa; Campbell penetrated farthest, and discovered some populous + tribes and large towns. La Trobe's is the most interesting narrative. + +665. Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar. Par du Flacourt. Paris, +1661. 4to. + +666. Relation des Premiers Voyages de la Compagnée des Indes, faits en +l'Isle de Madagascar. Par de Rennefort. Paris, 1668. 16mo. + +667. Voyage à l'Isle de France, à l'Isle de Bourbon, &c. Par Bernardin de +St. Pierre. Paris, 1773. 8vo.--This work is full. of accurate and detailed +information on the soil, climate, productions, &c. of the Isle of France, +and on the manners and morals of its inhabitants: on the other Island it is +less instructive. + +668. Voyage à l'Isle de Madagascar, et aux Indes Orientates. Par Rochon. +Paris, 1791. 8vo.--This work enters into every subject relating to this +isle and its inhabitants, which can be interesting and instructive to the +naturalist, the political economist, and the moralist; and the information +bears all the marks of accuracy and completeness. + +669. Voyages dans les quatre principales Isles des Mers d'A Afrique, +1801-2. Par Borry de Saint Vincent. Paris, 1804. 3 vols. 8vo.--The author +was chief naturalist in the voyage of discovery, under the command of +Captain Baudin. The isles of France and Bourbon are most minutely described +in this work; and the isles of Teneriffe and St. Helena in a less detailed +manner. The information, as might be imagined, relates principally to +natural history, on all the branches of which the author is very full and +instructive; he also extends his remarks to the soil, climate, agriculture, +topography, commerce, manners, &c. + +670. Grant's History of Mauritius, or the Isle of France. 1801. 4to.--This +work is drawn principally from the memoirs of Baron Grant, by his son. The +Baron resided nearly twenty years in the island: hence, and from his +acquaintance with most of the scientific and nautical men who visited the +island, he has been enabled to collect much information connected with its +physical state, its harbours, climate, soil, productions, and the manners +of its inhabitants. + + +ABYSSINIA, NUBIA, &C. + + The most ancient descriptions of these countries are to be found in the + collections of M. Thevenot, and Ramusio, already noticed. + +671. Lobos's Voyage to Abyssinia, with fifteen Dissertations relating to +Abyssinia. By Le Grand. 8vo. 1789.--This account of Abyssinia during the +middle of the seventeenth century, though principally relating to church +affairs, is yet valuable for its information on the government and manners +of the people, and curious, as giving indications or descriptions of +several animals and birds, the existence of which had been previously +doubted. + +672. Travels in Abyssinia. By James Barretti. 1670. 8vo. + +673. A new History of Ethiopia. By Joseph Ludolphus. fol. 1684.--Though +Ludolphus did not visit this country, yet his work, originally published in +Latin, with a commentary and appendix by himself, is well worthy of +perusal, as it is full of recondite and important information on the origin +of the Abyssinians, the climate, soil, productions, and the natural +history, physical and moral state of the inhabitants, &c. + +674. Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile. 5 vols. 4to. +1790.--Account of his Life and Writings, and additions to his Travels. By +Alex. Murray. 4to. 1808. + +675. Observations on Bruce's Travels. By Warton. 1799, 4to. + +676. Observations on the authenticity of Bruce's Travels. Newcastle. 1800. +4to. We have added to the title of Bruce's work, those of two works which +remarked on its authenticity; there were also some acute papers on the +subject in the Monthly Magazine: the result of these, and of the researches +of subsequent travellers, seems to have established the credit of Bruce +generally, though it is now known he did not reach the source of the real +Nile, and that in some descriptions he coloured too highly. After all these +drawbacks, however, his Travels are very valuable, and, with the exception +of the tedious annals of Abyssinia, may be perused with interest and +profit. + +677. Salt's Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels into the interior of that +country. 1809-10: with an account of the Portuguese Settlements on the east +coast of Africa. 4to. 1814. + +678. Pearce's true account of the ways and manners of the Abyssinians. (In +the Transactions of the Bombay Society, vol. 2.) + + These two works have extended our knowledge of Abyssinia, especially of + the moral state of the people, much beyond what it might have been + expected we should have acquired regarding a country formerly so + inaccessible. Mr. Salt's zeal, and opportunities of information and + observation, have left little to be desired: and from Mr. Pearce, who + resided fourteen years in the country, many particulars may be gathered, + which only a long residence, and that intimacy and amalgamation with the + natives which Mr. Pearce accomplished, can furnish accurately, minutely, + and fully. + + + + +VIII. ASIA. + + Several circumstances concurred to direct the travels of the dark and + middle ages to Asia. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land;--the wish to + ingratiate the Tartar chiefs, which was naturally felt by the European + powers, when the former were advancing towards the western limits of + Asia; and subsequently, and perhaps consequently, the spirit of + commercial enterprise, were amongst the most obvious and influential + circumstances which led to travels into this quarter of the world, from + the ninth to the fifteenth centuries. Although the travellers during + this period were by no means, in general, qualified to investigate the + physical peculiarities of the countries they visited, and are even + meagre, and often inaccurate in detailing what was level to their + information and capacities, yet, as has been justly observed, "there is + a simplicity in the old writers, which delights us more than the studied + compositions of modern travellers;" to say nothing of the interest which + the first glimpses of a newly discovered country never fail to impart. + + We shall therefore annex the titles of the most interesting and + instructive of these travels, which were performed between the ninth and + fifteenth centuries, referring such of our readers who wish for a more + complete list or fuller information on the subject, to the Bibliothèque + des Voyages, Vol. I. p. 32., &c.; Murray's Asiatic Discoveries; the + Review of Murray's work in the 48th number of the Quarterly Review; + Forster's Voyages and Discoveries in the North; and Collection portative + de Voyages. Par C. Langles. + +679. Ancient accounts of India and China. By Two Mahomedan Travellers in +the ninth century; translated from the Arabic by E. Renaudot. 8vo. +1733.--The authenticity of this work is established by M. de Guignes, +having found the original in the Royal Library at Paris: and the +information it contains, though mixed with much that is fabulous, is very +curious and valuable, especially in what relates to China. + +680. Voyages faites principalement dans les 12, 13, 14, and 15 siècles, par +Benjamin de Tudela, Carpin, Ancilin, Rubruquis, Marco Polo, Haiton, +Mandeville, et Contarini; publiés par P. Bergerin, avec des Cartes +Géographiques. La Haye, 1735. 2 vols. 4to. + + This is a valuable collection, except so far as regards Marco Polos' + Travels, the translation of which is neither elegant nor faithful. The + most elaborate and instructive edition of this excellent traveller is + the following: + +681. Marco Polos' Travels, translated from the Italian, with notes. By W. +Marsden. 4to. 1818.--"The reproach of dealing too much in the marvellous, +which had been attached to the name of Marco Polo, was gradually wearing +away, as later experience continued to elucidate his veracity; but Mr. +Marsden (who has rendered a special service to literature by his elegant +and faithful translation of these remarkable travels,) has completely +rescued his memory from all stain on that score, and proved him to be not +only an accurate observer, but a faithful reporter of what he saw, and what +he learned from others."--(_Quarterly Review, No. 48. page 325._) + +682. Marco Polo Reisen en der Orient, 1272-1295. 8vo. Ronneburgh, +1802.--This translation is accompanied by a learned commentary by the +Editor, F.B. Peregrin. + +683. Sauveboeuf, Mémoires des ses Voyages en Turque, en Perse, et en +Arabic. 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1807. + + +VOYAGES AND TRAVELS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ASIA. + +684. Voyages célèbres et remarquables, faits de Perse aux Indes Orientates. +Par J.A. De Mandeso. Amsterdam, folio, 1727.--This work, originally +published in German, exhibits a curious picture of Indostan, the Mogul +empire, Siam, Japan, China, &c., as they existed in the seventeenth +century. + +685. Les Voyages et Missions de P. Alex. de Rhodes. Paris, 1682. 4to.--This +is one of the most valuable of the missionary travels in Asia, comprising +Goa, Malacca, Macao, Cochin China, Tonkin, &c. + +686. Amenitatum exoticarum fasciculi. Autore E. Koempfer. Lemgo, 1712. +4to.--This work relates principally to Persia, and the easternmost parts of +Asia: M. Langles justly characterizes it as a rich mine of information of +all kinds respecting this portion of the world. + +687. Samlung der murkwurdigsten Reisen in den Orient. Von E. Panlus. Jena, +1792-1798. 10 vols. 8vo.--This collection contains many scarce and curious +articles, and is illustrated by learned and judicious notes. + +688. Asiatic Researches. 12 vols. 8vo. 1801. 1818.--Though many of the +articles in this valuable work do not strictly and immediately come under +the description of travels, yet even these are so essentially necessary to +a full acquaintance with the most interesting parts of Asia, that we have +deemed it proper to insert the title of this work. A valuable translation +of most of the volumes has been published in Paris, enriched by the +oriental literature of M. Langles; the astronomical and physical knowledge +of M. Delambre; and the natural history knowledge of Cuvier, Lamark, and +Olivier. + +689. De la Roque, Voyage de Syrie et du Mont Liban. 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, +1722. + +690. Voyage de l'Arabie heureuse par l'Océan Oriental. 12mo. Paris, 1716. + +691. Voyage de M. d'Arvieux dans la Palestine, avec Description de +l'Arabie, par Abulfeda. Mémoires du Chevalier d'Arvieux, contenant ses +Voyages à Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, la +Barbarie, &c. Paris, 6 vols. 12mo. 1735.--These are all valuable works, +containing much and accurate information on almost every topic of physical, +statistical, commercial, political and moral geography; the result of long +personal observation, enquiry, and experience. The travels of la Roque into +Arabia are particularly full respecting the history of coffee in Asia and +Europe. The Voyage de M. d'Arvieux was published separately from his +Mémoires, and previously to it, by la Roque, and is very interesting not +only from the simplicity of its style and manner, but also from the vivid +picture which it exhibits of the Bedouins. + +692. Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, 1783-1785. Par Volney. Paris, 1800. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The character of this work, of which there is an English +translation, is too well known to be insisted upon here. What relates to +Syria is the most detailed and important, and has been less superseded by +subsequent travellers. + +693. A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, in 1697. By H. Maundrel. + +694. The Natural History of Aleppo, and parts adjacent. By Alex. Rumel. 2 +vols. 4to. 1794.--This excellent work was translated into German by Gmelin, +with valuable annotations. + +695. Mariti's Travels through Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine. 3 vols. +8vo.--The original work in Italian consists of 5 volumes. On all that +relates to Cyprus, this work is particularly interesting and full; there is +also much information regarding it in Sonnini's Travels. + +696. Kinnear's Journey though Asia Minor, Armenia, and Koordestan, 1812-14. +8vo.--This work will be particularly interesting to those who wish to trace +the marches of Alexander, and the retreat of the ten thousand, on which +points of history Mr. Kinnear has made some judicious remarks. + +697. Beaufort's Karamania. 1818. 8vo.--A valuable addition to the maritime +geography and antiquities of a part of Asia Minor not often described. + +698. Reisebescriebung von Arabien. Von C. Niebuhr. Copenhagen, 1772. 4to. + +699. Reisebescriebung nach Arabien. Von C. Niebuhr. Copenhagen 1774-1778. 2 +vols. 4to. + +700. Recueil des Questions proposées à une société des Savans, qui, par +ordre de S.M. Danoise, font le Voyage de l'Arabie. Par M. Michaelis. +Frankfort, 1753. 4to. + +701. Pet. Forskal Descriptiones Animalium, Avium, &c. &c. in Itinere +Orientale observatorum. Hafnioe, 1775. 4to. + +702. Pet. Forskal Icones rerum naturalium, quas in Itinere Orient, depingi +curavit. Hafnioe, 1776. 4to.--Every thing preparatory to, and connected +with the travels of Niebuhr and his associate, was judiciously and well +planned and executed: the selection of Michaelis to draw up the enquiries +and observations to be made; those he actually proposed: and the learned +men sent out, who were respectively conversant in physics, natural history, +geography, and the connected and auxiliary branches of science. Hence +resulted most admirable works on Arabia: those of Niebuhr, together with +Michaelis, have been translated into French, in 4 vols. 4to. The English +translation, besides omitting the most valuable and scientific parts, is, +in other respects, totally unworthy of the original. + +703. Il Viaggio dell Ambrosio Contarini, Ambasciatore della Signiora di +Venetia, al Uxam Cassan, Re de Persia. Ven. 1543, 12mo. + +704. Relacion de Don Juan de Persia, en III Libros. Vallad. 1604. 4to. + +705. Chardin, Voyages en Persie, et autres lieux de l'Orient. Amsterd. 3 +vols. 4to. 1711.--It may justly be said of these travels, that by means of +them, Persia was made better known in every thing relating to its civil, +military, religious, intellectual, moral, scientific, and statistical +condition, than any other part of Asia, at the period when they were +published. Very few travellers are more to be depended upon than Chardin. + +706. Tavernier, Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes. 6 Vols. 12mo. +Rouen, 1713.--The credit of this traveller, which had been for some time +suspected, is recovering itself since it has been ascertained that many +points in which he was supposed to have been inaccurate or credulous, are +well founded. As his object was commercial, especially for the purchase of +diamonds, his travels may be consulted with advantage on the subject of the +diamond mines, the traffic in these precious stones, and the various monies +of Asia, and other topics not to be found in other travellers. + +707. Observations made on a Tour from Bengal to Persia. By W. Franklin. +1790. 8vo.--The most original and valuable portion of this work relates to +Persia, especially the province of Farsistan; it contains also much +information respecting Goa, Bombay, &c, M. Langles translated it into +French, and added a learned memoir on Persepolis. + + The same orientalist, M. Langles, has added to the value and interest of + his translation of G. Forster's Journey from Bengal to England, by his + judicious and instructive notes. + +708. Waring's Tour to Sheeraz. 1807. 4to.--This work is chiefly confined to +the manners, laws, religion, language, and literature of the Persians; on +all of which it is instructive and interesting. + +709. Morier's Two Journeys through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. +1808-1816. 2 vols. 4to.--The opportunities which M. Morier possessed from +his residence in Persia being much superior to those of a mere traveller, +his work is justly regarded as one of authority on the civil, political, +domestic, and commercial circumstances of the Persians. + +710. Sir W. Ousely's Travels in Persia. 1810-12. 4to.--The connexion +between England and Persia, formed, or rather strengthened, in consequence +of the vicinity of our East India possessions to that country, has much +extended our knowledge of it, and this work has contributed not a little to +that knowledge. + +711. Kotzebue's Narrative of a Journey into Persia, in the Suite of the +Imperial Embassy, in 1817. 8vo.--It is always desirable to have travels +performed in the same country, especially if it be one remote and little +known, by persons of different nations: thus, different views of the same +circumstances are given, and the truth is elicited. These travels are +interesting in this and other points of view. + +712. Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, +&c. 2. vols. 4to.--A severer judgment, by suppressing much that is minute +and uninteresting, and dwelling more on important matters, and a knowledge +of natural history, would have enhanced the value of these travels, which, +however, are much more creditable to the author than his Travels in Russia. + +713. Reise in den Kaukasies und nach Georgien, 1807-8. 2 vols. 8vo. Halle, +1812.--These travels were undertaken by command of the Russian government, +and are similar in design to those of Pallas; there is an English +translation, but it is indifferently executed. + +714. Reisen nach Georgien und Imerethi. Von J.A. Guldenstadt. 8vo. Berlin, +1813.--This work is edited by Klaproth, and is chiefly mineralogical. + +715. Lettres sur la Caucase et la Georgie, et un Voyage en Perse en 1812. +8vo. + + +THE EAST INDIES. + + The histories of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the + East Indies are interspersed with various and numerous particulars + regarding the political state of that country, and the manners, customs, + religion, &c. of the inhabitants. The following French work is valuable + in this respect. + +716. Histoire de Portugal; contenant les Entreprises, &c. des Portugais, +tant en la Conquête des Indes Orientales par eux découvertes, qu'en Guerres +d'Afrique et autres Exploits: nouvellement mise en Français. Par S. +Goullard. Paris, 1581. 4to. + +717. Navigatio et Itinerarium in Orientalem Indiam, &c. Autore Joanne +Linschot. Amsterd. 1614. folio. + +718. Premier Livre de l'Histoire de la Navigation aux Indes Orientales, par +les Hollandois. Amsterd, folio, 1558. + +719. Le Second Livre. Amsterd. 1609, folio. + +720. Relatio de Rebus in India Orientale, a Patribus. Soc. Jesu. 1598-1599, +peractis, Mayence, 1601. 8vo.--The preceding works give an interesting +picture of the East Indies during the 16th century. + +721. Beschrievyng van oude niewe Ostinden. Von. F. Valyntyn. Amster. +1724-1726. 8 vol. fol.--This work appears to be little known, except in +Holland; the author resided upwards of twenty years in India, and has most +industriously, though not always with a good taste, or scrupulous judgment, +collected much minute information on its natural, civil, and religious +state. + +722. Alex. Hamilton's Account of the East Indies, 2 vols. 8vo. 1744. + +723. Grose's Travels to the East Indies, 1772. 2 vols. 8vo. + +724. Zend Avesta. Par Anquetil du Perrin. Paris, 1771. 3 vols. 4to.--M. +Anquetil has prefixed to his translation of this supposed work of +Zoroaster, an account of his travels in the East Indies, in which there is +much valuable information, especially on antiquarian subjects. The Germans +have translated and published separately, this part of M. Anquetil's work. + +725. Voyages dans les Mers de l'Inde. Par M. Legentil, 1781. 5 vols. +8vo.--M. Legentil's object was to observe the transit of Venus, in 1761 and +1769. His work, besides entering into the subject of Indian astronomy, +gives many important details on antiquities and natural history. + +726. Description Historique et Geographique de l'Inde. Par J. +Tieffenthaler. Recherches Historiques et Geographiques sur l'Inde. Par +Anquetil du Perrin. Publiées par J. Bernouilli. Berlin, 1785. 3 vols. +4to.--The most curious and original portion of this work is that which +relates to the Seiks, by the missionary Tieffenthaler. + +727. Forrest's Voyage from Calcutta to the Menguy Archipelago, 1792. 2 +vols. 4to.--This work is justly of great authority, for its details in +maritime geography, + +728. Stavorinus's Voyages to the East Indies, comprising an account of all +the possessions of the Dutch in India, and at the Cape of Good Hope, 3 +vols. 8vo. 1798. + +729. Fra. Paolino's Voyage to the East Indies. With notes by J. Reinold +Forster. 8vo. 1800.--A translation of this valuable work, which originally +appeared in Italian, was published in Paris, in 1805, by Anquetil du +Perrin, in 3 Vols. 8vo. There are few works which throw more light than +this does, on the religious antiquities of India. + +730. Rennel's Memoir of a Map of Indostan. 2 Vols. 4to. 1793.--For +geographical research, this work justly bears the highest character. + + Particular parts of the East Indies are specially described in the + following works: + +731. Nouvelle Relation d'un Voyage fait aux Indes Orientales. Par M. +Dellen. Amsterd. 1699. 12mo.---Malabar, Calecut, and Goa, are particularly +noticed by this author, who, being a medical man, is full and instructive +on the poisonous animals, and the diseases. + +732. Voyage de Francois Bernier, contenant la Description des Etats du +Grand Mogul. Amsterd. 1725. 2 Vols. 12mo.--This author was also a medical +man, and from that circumstance obtained favour from the Mogul, and an +opportunity of visiting parts of Asia, at that time little known, +particularly Cachemere, of which he gives a full and interesting +description. + +733. Voyage aux Indes Orientales, 1802-6, revu et augmenté de notes. Par +Sonnini. 2 Vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.--The notes by Sonnini sufficiently point +out the nature and character of this work. + +734. Voyage dans la Peninsule Occidentale de l'Inde, et dans l'Isle de +Ceylon. 2 Vols. 8vo. Paris, 1811.--This work is translated from the Dutch +of Haafner; and as latterly few, except the English, have published +accounts of India, it is for this reason interesting. + +735. A Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. By F. +Buchanan. 1811, 4to.--Much information, not well arranged or agreeably +communicated, on the most valuable productions of these districts, on their +climate, manufactures, and the manners, religion, &c. of their inhabitants. + +736. Heyne's Tracts, historical and statistical, on India; with Journals of +several Tours: and an account of Sumatra. 1814, 4to. A work not so well +known, as from its information, particularly statistical, it deserves to +be. + +737. Forbes's Oriental Memoirs. 1813, 4 Vols. 4to.--It is to be regretted +that this very splendid and expensive work was not published in a cheaper +form, as it abounds in most striking pictures of the manners, customs, &c. +of India. + +738. Major Symes's Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, in 1795. +4to 1800--Little was known in Europe respecting Pegu and Ava before the +travels of Hunter, and Loset and Erkelskrom were published; these travels, +translated respectively from the English and German, were published +together in Paris, in 1793. From these, and Major Symes's works, much may +be gathered respecting the manners, religion, and government of the +inhabitants of this part of Asia; but unfortunately, these travellers do +not instruct us on the topics of natural history. We are indebted for most +that we know respecting Siam, to a notion that was put into Louis XIV.'s +mind, that the King of Siam was desirous of becoming a convert to +Christianity. Under this idea, Louis sent an embassy and missionaries, from +whom proceeded the following works: in which, allowing for a little +exaggeration, in order to flatter the vanity of the French monarch, there +is a deal of curious and valuable information of all kinds. + +739. Premier Voyage de Siam des P.P. Jésuites. Redigé par Tachard.--Second +Voyage du P. Tachard, Paris, 1686-89. 2 Vols. 12mo. + +740. Histoire Naturelle et Civile de Siam. Par Gervaise. Paris, 1688, 4to. + +741. Description du Royaume de Siam. Par M. de la Loubere, Envoyé +Extraordinaire du Roi auprès du Roi de Siam. Amsterd. 1714. 2 Vols. 12mo. + +742. Barrow's Voyage to Cochin China, 1792-93. 4to. 1806. This is perhaps +the most valuable of Mr. Barrow's works, as it relates to a country not +previously known, except by the accounts of the missionaries, and which has +been scarcely visited since Mr. Barrow's time. + +743. Relation Nouvelle et Curieuse du Royaume de Tonquin, et de Laos. +Traduite de l'Italien du P. de Marini. Paris, 1666, 4to. This work is full +of a variety of topics connected with the civil, political, military, +agricultural, and commercial state of Tonquin; nor is it deficient in what +relates to the natural history, and the manners, religion, &c. of the +inhabitants, + +744. Histoire Naturelle et Civile du Tonquin. Par l'Abbé Richard. Paris, +1788. 2 Vols. 12mo.--The first volume of this work, which describes Tonquin +and its inhabitants, is drawn from the accounts of the missionary St. +Phalte, and from other sources, with considerable neatness and judgment; +the second volume is confined to a history of the missions thither. + +745. Exposé Statistique du Tunkin. London, 2 Vols. 8vo. 1811. This work is +drawn up from the papers of M. de la Bessachere, who resided 18 years in +Tunkin; and it is rich in new and curious information on the physical +properties of the country, and the national character. + +746. Letters on the Nicobar Islands. By the Rev C.G. Haensel, Missionary of +the United Brethren. 1812. 8vo.--This short account is written with great +simplicity and appearance of truth, and conveys much information on the +inhabitants, as well as the soil, climate, &c. of these islands. + +747. A Description of Prince of Wales Island. By Sir Home Popham. 1806, +8vo. + +748. Sir George Leith's Account of the Settlement, Produce, and Commerce of +Prince of Wales Island. 8vo. 1805. + + +INDIAN ISLANDS. + +749. Historical Relation of Ceylon. By Robert Knox. 1681. folio.--This +work, though published so long ago, and by one who was a prisoner, still +retains its character, as the fullest and most interesting account of the +inhabitants of Ceylon in the English language. The voluminous work of +Valyntyn, in Dutch, which we have already noticed, may be advantageously +consulted on this island, as well as on all parts of India formerly +possessed by the Dutch. + +750. John C. Wolfe's Life and Adventures in Ceylon. 1785. 8vo.--This work, +translated from the Dutch, amidst much that is merely personal, contains +some curious notices on Ceylon and its inhabitants. To the English +translation is appended an account by Erkelskrom, which is valuable, as +describing the island at the period when it passed from the Dutch to the +English. + +751. Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon. 1821, 4to.--This is an +excellent work, though like many other works of excellence, too bulky; its +chief and peculiar merit and recommendation consist in its details on the +natural history of Ceylon. + +752. Marsden's History of Sumatra. 1783. 4to.--This is a most excellent +work in the plan and execution, embracing almost every topic connected with +the island and its inhabitants. + +753. Voyage to the Isle of Borneo. By Capt. Beckman. 1718, 8vo.--Of this +large island, so little known, this volume, and an article inserted in the +Transactions of the Batavian Society of Java, gives us many interesting +particulars; there are also some notices of it in Forrest's Voyage. + +754. The Narrative of Captain Woodward, with a Description of the Island of +Celebes. 1804, 8vo.--Woodward was an American captain who was taken +prisoner by the Malays of Celebes: this work is the result of his +observations and experience during his captivity; but it is confined to the +western division of the isle: of this, however, it gives many particulars, +respecting the produce, animals, inhabitants, &c. Stavorinus's works may +also be consulted regarding Celebes. + +755. Crawfurd's History of the Indian Archipelago. 1820. 3 vols. 8vo.--This +is a valuable work, particularly in what relates to the actual commerce and +commercial capabilities of these islands: it also treats of the manners, +religion, language, &c. of the inhabitants; but on some of these points not +with the soundest judgment, or the most accurate information. + +756. Raffles's History of Java. 1817. 2 vols. 4to.--Had this work been +compressed into a smaller compass, by a judicious abridgment of the +historical part, its value as well as interest would have been enhanced; +these, however, are not small, as it gives by far the fullest and most +accurate account of Java, and its inhabitants, that has appeared; and as +the author, from his residence and high official situation, possessed every +advantage, its accuracy may be depended on. When the natural history +illustrations of Java, by Mr. Horsfield, are completed, they will, in +conjunction with this work, and the Transactions of the Batavian Society, +leave nothing to be desired on the subject of this part of Asia. + +757. E. Koempfer's Geschichte und Beschriebung von Japan. Lemgo, 1777-79. 2 +vols. 4to.--This edition of Koempfer's celebrated work on Japan contains +several things which are not to be found in the English translation. + +758. Histoire du Japan. Par Charlevoix. Paris, 1754, 6 vols. 12mo.--This +is the best edition of Charlevoix's work, many parts of which, especially +what relates to natural history, are drawn from Koempfer. Charlevoix has +added important details on the administration of justice in Japan, and on +the moral character of the Japanese; but the bulk of the work is swelled by +tiresome ecclesiastical details. + +759. Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa. By Thunberg. 1794, 4 vols. +8vo.--This work relates principally to Japan; and it may justly be +remarked, that few parts of the world have met with sucn admirable +describers as Japan has done, in Koempfer and Thunberg. Certainly the +natural history of no part, so rich in this respect, has been so fully and +scientifically investigated. A French translation of this work was +published in Paris in 1796, in 2 vols. 4to. enriched by the notes of +Langles and La Marck. + +760. Golownin's Narrative of his Captivity in Japan, 1811-13. 2 vols. +8vo.--Japan is a country so little accessible, that every work on it is +acceptable. This work does not add very much to what Koempfer and Thunberg +have told, but perhaps quite as much as the author, under his +circumstances, could collect or observe. The same remarks apply to his +Recollections of Japan. 1 vol. 8vo. + + The history of the missions in the East Indies, Japan, and China, which + were published in the Italian, Spanish, German, and French languages, + towards the end of the sixteenth, and the beginning of the seventeenth + century, is interspersed with some curious and valuable information + regarding these countries; the titles and character of the principal of + these may be found in the Bibliothèque, vol. 5. p. 264, 272, &c. + +761. Voyage to China and the East Indies, by Rel. Osbeck; with a Voyage to +Surat, by Torreens; and an Account of the Chinese Husbandry, by Ekelberg. +Translated from the German by J.R. Forster. To which is added a Fauna et +Flora Sinensis. 1777, 2 vols. 8vo.--Travels, embracing scientific natural +history, by competent persons, are so rare and valuable, that the titles of +such should not be omitted: the nature of this work is sufficiently +indicated by the title, and its merit by its having been translated by +Forster. + +762. Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes Orientals et à la Chiné, 1774. 1781. Paris, +1806. 4 vols. 8vo.--This work is particularly full and minute on the +theography of the Hindoos: besides the East Indies and China, it embraces +Pegu, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Malacca, &c. A translation of part of +it into English was printed at Calcutta. + +763. Nouvelles Mémoires sur l'État present de la Chine. Par Le Comte. +Paris, 1701, 3 vols. 12mo--The best account of China previous to Duhalde's +work, though in many particulars extremely partial to the Chinese. + +764. Mémoires concernant l'Histoire, les Sciences, et les Arts des Chinois. +Par les Missionaires de Pekin. Paris, 1775, &c. 15 vols. 4to.--In this +voluminous work is contained a wonderful deal of information on China; the +continuation of the work was put a stop to by the French Revolution: it is +by far the best the Jesuits have produced on China; and if there are +materials for perfecting it, they ought to be given to the public. + +765. Description Geographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique, et +Physique de la Chiné et de Tartarie Chinoise. Par Duhalde. Le Hague, 1736, +4 vols. 4to.--Of this work there is an English translation. Duhalde has +drawn his materials from a variety of sources, especially from the printed +and manuscript accounts of the missionaries; but he has failed to exercise +a sound judgment, and a scrupulous examination into the truth of many facts +and opinions which he has admitted into his work. + + But though the public are certainly much indebted to the missionaries + for the information they have given respecting this singular country, + yet there are obvious circumstances which rendered their accounts + suspicious in some points, and defective in others, so that the + publication of the accounts of the Dutch and British Embassies added + much to our stock of accurate knowledge regarding China. The following + is the title of the French translation of part of the Dutch Embassy: + +766. Voyage de la Campagne des Indes Orientales vers l'Empire de la Chiné, +1794-5. Tiré du Journal de Van Braam. Philadelphe. 1797, 4to.--There is +also an English translation. + +767. Sir George Staunton's Account of the Embassy of the Earl of Macartney +to China. 2 vols. 4to. 1797. + +768. John Barrow's Travels to China. 4to. 1804. + + These works, especially the latter, together with Lord Macartney's own + journal in the second volume of his life, contain a deal of information, + considering the jealousy of the Chinese; some additions, corrections, + and different views of the same circumstances, as well as a further + insight into the manners of the Chinese, as indicated by their conduct, + will be found in the two following works which relate to the Embassy of + Lord Amherst. The first is by the naturalist to the Embassy. + +769. Abel's Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China. 1816-17. 4to. + +770. Ellis's Journal of the Proceedings of the late Embassy to China. 4to. + +771. Relation du Naufrage sur la Côte de l'Isle de Quælpeart, avec la +Description de Coree. Paris, 1670, 12mo.--This work, translated from the +Dutch, besides the interest which personal adventures in a foreign country, +and under unusual circumstances, always inspires, gives much information +regarding the manners of the inhabitants, and the ceremonies, &c. of the +court of Corea,--a part of Asia very little known. + +772. Captain Hall's Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of Corea, and the +Great Loo-choo Island. 4to.--A work not less valuable for its maritime +geography and science, than for the pleasing interest which it excites on +behalf of the natives of Loo-choo, and the favourable impression it leaves +of Captain Hall, his officers and seamen. + + +TARTARY, &C. + +773. Noord-Oost Tartarie. Par Nic. Witsen. Amsterd. 1705, 2 vols. +folio.--Forster, an excellent and seldom too favourable a judge, speaks +highly of this work. + +774. Nomadische Streifereisen unter den Kalmuken. Von B. Borgman. Riga, +1805-6, 4 vols. 8vo.--The author of this work resided some time with the +Kalmucks, at the command of the Emperor of Russia; and he seems to have +employed his time well, in gaining information respecting the past and +present state of their country, and their manners, intellectual, moral, and +religious state. + + +THIBET, &C. + +775. Antonio de Andrada novo Descubrimento de Grao Catayo ou dos Regnos de +Tibet. Lisbon, 1626, 4to.--This work has been translated into French, +Italian, Flemish, and Spanish; it contains the narrative of the first +passage of the Himalaya Mountains. (_See Quarterly Review, No. 48. page +337, &c._) + +776. Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teesho Lama, in +Thibet. 1800, 4to.--This work is full of information and interest: it +relates to the soil, climate, and produce of Thibet; the moral character, +and especially the singular religion of the inhabitants, and their +institutions, manufactures, disorders, &c. + +777. Kirkpatrick's Account of Nepaul in 1793. 4to.--This is one of the best +accessions to our information respecting this part of Asia which has been +produced by our establishments in India. + +778. Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul. By Francis Hamilton, (formerly +Buchanan). 1819, 4to.--The same character applies to this as to the other +work by the same author. + +779. Fraser's Journal of a Tour through part of the Snowy Ridge of the +Himalaya Mountains. 1820. 4to.--Notwithstanding Mr. Fraser's ignorance of +natural history, in a country quite new, and full of most interesting +objects in this science, and that he had no means of measuring heights, or +ascertaining the temperature or pressure of the air; and notwithstanding a +want of method, and a heaviness and prolixity in the style, this book +possesses great interest, from the scenes of nature and pictures of manners +which it exhibits. + +780. Elphinstone's Account of Caubul and its Dependencies. 1815. 4to.--The +interest and value of this work arises more from the subject of it, than +from the manner in which it is executed; respecting such countries, +however, as Caubul, and others as little known and remote, we are glad of +all accessions of information. + + +ASIATIC RUSSIA. + +781. Reisen durch Siberien, 1733-1743. Von J.G. Gmelin. Gott. 4 vols. +8vo.--This work is worthy of the name which it bears: it is full and +particular on the physical and moral geography of Siberia, but especially +on its mines and iron foundries. + +782. Voyage en Siberie, 1761. Par Chappe d'Auteroche. Paris, 1768. 3 vols. +4-to.--This work gave rise to a severe attack on it, under the title of +Antidote. D'Auteroche's object on his travels was principally scientific, +but he has entered fully into the character of the inhabitants, and +especially those of the capital, and into the character, and intellectual +and moral state of the Russians in general. + +783. Relation d'un Voyage aux Monts d'Altai en Siberie, 1781. Par Patrin. +Peters. 1785, 8vo.--Mineralogical. + +784. Recherches Historiques sur les Principales Nations Établies en +Siberie. Paris, 1801. 8vo.--This work, translated from the Russian of +Fischer, displays a great deal of research, and is not unworthy of an +author who imitated Pallas, Gmelin, Müller, &c. + +785. Recherches sur les Principales Nations en Siberie. Traduit du Russe de +Stollenweck. 8vo. + +786. Description de Kamschatcha. Par Krascheninnikof. Amsterd. 1770. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The soil, climate, productions, minerals, furs, habitations, +manners, employments, religious ceremonies and opinions, &c., and even the +dialect spoken in different parts, are here treated of. + +787. Journal Historique du Voyage de M. Lesseps. Paris, 1790. 2 vols. +8vo.--Lesseps sailed with Le Peyrouse, but left him in Kamschatcha, and +travelled by land to France with despatches from him; his narrative gives a +lively picture of the inhabitants of the northern parts of Asiatic and +European Russia. The work has been translated into English; there is also a +German translation by Forster. + +788. Sauer's Account of Billing's Geographical and Astronomical Expedition +to the Northern Parts of Russia, 1785-94. 4to.--An account of this +expedition was also published in Russian by Captain Saretschewya, one of +the officers engaged in it. Parts of the continent, and islands and seas +little known, are described in these two works, but they are deficient in +natural history. + +789. Holderness's Notes relating to the Manners and Customs of the Crim +Tartars. 1823. 8vo.--Mrs. Holderness resided four years in the Crimea, and +she seems to have employed her time well, having produced an instructive +book on the manners, domestic life, &c., not only of the Crim Tartars, but +likewise of the various colonists of the Crimea. + + + + +IX. AMERICA. + + Those works which relate to the discovery of America, derive their + interest rather from their historical nature than from the insight they + give into the physical and moral state of this portion of the globe. In + one important particular; America differs from all the other quarters of + the world, very early travels in Asia or Africa unfold to us particulars + respecting races of people that still exist, and thus enable us to + compare their former with their present state, whereas nearly all the + original inhabitants of America have disappeared. + + Referring therefore our readers to the historians of the discovery and + conquest of America, and to the Bibliothèque des Voyages, for the titles + and nature of those works which detail the voyages of Columbus, + Vespucius, &c., we shall confine ourselves chiefly to such works as + enter more fully into a description of the country and its colonized + inhabitants. + +790. Journal des Observations Physiques, Mathematiques, et Botaniques, +faites par le P. Feuillée, sur les Côtes de l'Amerique Méridionale et dans +les Indes Occidentales. Paris, 1714. 2 vols. 4to. + +791. Suite du Journal. Paris, 1715. 4to.--Excellent works on the subjects +indicated in the title. + +792. Notizias Americanas sobre las America Meridionel y la Septentrionel- +Oriental. Par Don Ant. de Ulloa. Madrid, 1772. 4to.--This work, which must +not be confounded with the conjoint work of Ulloa and Juan, is rich in +valuable matter, physical, political, and moral; it was translated into +German by M. Diez, Professor of Natural History at Gottingen, who has added +learned and judicious observations. + +793 Voyages intéressans dans differentes Colonies Françaises, Espagnoles, +Anglaise. Paris, 1788. 8vo.--The most original and interesting portions of +this work relate to Porto Rico, Curaçoa, Granada, the Bermudas, &c.; there +are also valuable remarks on the climate and diseases of St. Domingo. + +794. Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama +Islands. 1734-43. 2 vols. folio. + +795. Appendix to ditto. 1748. folio.--The celebrated naturalist, George +Edwards, published an edition of this splendid work, with the appendix, in +Latin and French, in 2 vols. folio. 1764-71. + +796. Peter Kalm's Travels in North America, translated by R. Forster. 1772. +2 vols. 8vo.--Chiefly geological and mineralogical; in other respects not +interesting. + +797. Adair's History of the American Indians. 1775. 4to.--The speculations +of this writer are abundantly absurd; but there are interspersed some +curious notices of the Indians, collected by the author, while he resided +and traded with them. + +798. Travels through Carolina, Georgia, Florida, &c. By W. Bertram. 1792. 2 +vols. 8vo.--A most interesting work to lovers of natural history, +especially botany, a study to which Bertram was enthusiastically attached. +There is an account of Mr. Bertram in the American Farmer's Letters. + +799. An Account of the Countries adjoining to Hudson's Bay. By Ar. Dobbs. +1744. 12mo. + +800. The State of Hudson's Bay. By Ed. Humphraville. 1790. 8vo. + +801. Account of Prince of Wales Island, in the Gulph of St. Lawrence. By J. +Stewart. 1808. 8vo.--A good deal of information on the soil, agriculture, +productions, climate, &c.: the zoology imperfect. + +802. Hall's Travels in Canada and the United States, 1816-17. 8vo. + +802. Howison's Sketches of Upper Canada. 8vo. 1821. + + Hall's is a pleasant and lively work, unfolding many of the + peculiarities of the manners, customs, &c., of Canada and the adjacent + parts of the United States. Howison's is the work of an abler man: it is + rich in valuable information to emigrants; and is, moreover, highly + descriptive of scenery and manners. The part relative to the United + States is superficial. + +804. Collection des Plusieures Relations du Canada, 1632-1672. 43 vols. +12mo. + +805. Charlevoix's Travels in North America, translated from the French. +1772. 2 Vols. 4to.--The physical and moral state of the inhabitants are the +principal objects of this work. + +806. Carver's Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, 1766-68. +8vo.--There is much information in this work respecting that part of +America, which has lately attracted so much attention from its vicinity to +the supposed north-west passage; it is in all other respects, except +natural history, an interesting and instructive work. + +807. Long's Voyage and Travels of an Indian Interpreter. 1774. 3 vols. 4to. +Volney characterizes this work as exhibiting a most faithful picture of the +life and manners of the Indians and Canadian traders. + +808. Weld's Travels through North America, 1795-7. 2 vols. 8vo.--Travels in +the United States derive their interest and value from a variety of +sources: the inhabitants of these states under their government, and the +peculiar circumstances in which they are placed, must be a subject of deep +attention and study to the moralist, the philosopher, the politician, and +the political economist, while the country itself presents to the +naturalist many and various sources of information and acquisitions to his +knowledge. The travels of Mr. Weld, and most of those which we shall have +to enumerate, were undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining what +advantages and disadvantages an emigrant would derive from exchanging +Europe for America. Thus led to travel from the principal motive of +self-interest, it might be imagined that these travellers would examine +every thing carefully, fully, most minutely, and impartially: in all modes +except the last, it has certainly been done by several travellers; but +great caution must be used in reading all travels in the United States, +because the picture drawn of them is too often overcharged, either with +good or evil. Mr, Weld's is a respectable work; and like all travels, even +a few years back, in a country so rapidly changing and improving, from this +cause as well as its information on statistics, toil, climate, morals, +manners, &c. may be consulted with advantage. It is to be regretted that +he, as well as most other travellers in America, was not better prepared +with a scientific knowledge of natural history. Canada, as well as the +United States, is comprized in Mr. Weld's travels. + +809. Mellish's Travels through the United States of America, 1816-17. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This is perhaps as impartial and judicious an account of the +United States as any that has lately appeared. + +810. Lettres d'un Cultivateur Americain, 1770-86. Par M. St. John de +Crevecoeur. Paris, 1787. 3 vols. 8vo.--We give the French edition of this +work in preference to the English, because it is much fuller. This work of +a Frenchman, long settled in the Anglo-American colonies, gives, in an +animated and pleasing manner, much information on the manners of America at +this period, the habits and occupations of the new settlers, and on the +subject of natural history. + +811. Voyages dans les États Unis, 1784. Par J.F.D. Smith. Paris, 1791. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Virginia, Maryland, the two Carolinas, and Louisiana, parts +of North America, not so often visited by travellers as the northern +states, are here described with considerable talent, and in a pleasing +style. We are not acquainted with the English work, of which this professes +to be a translation. + +812. Nouveau Voyage dans les États Unis, 1788. Par Brissot. Paris, 3 vols. +8vo.--Statistics, religion, manners, political economy, agriculture, +commerce, manufactures, the arts and sciences, are here treated of in a +sensible, but rather an uninteresting manner. + +813. La Rochefoucault's Travels to the United States of America, 1799. 2 +vols. 4to.--Agriculture, statistics, manufactures, commerce, national and +domestic habits, form the chief topic of these volumes, which, allowing for +some prejudices, present a fair picture of America at this period. + +814. Tableau du Climat et du Sol des États Unis. Par C.F. Volney. 1803. 2 +vols. 8vo.--Though physical geography and statistics form the principal +portion of this valuable work, yet it is by no means uninstructive on the +subject of national and domestic character; and it enters fully into the +condition of savage life. + + Particular histories and descriptions have been published of several of + the United States; we shall merely notice such as are the result of + personal observation, and as give interesting and instructive + information respecting their past or present state. + + +815. Belknap's History of New Hampshire, 1792. Boston, 3 vols. 8vo.--The +two first volumes are historical, but many things in them are instructive +to those who wish to trace the formation of character: the third volume +relates to climate, soil, produce,&c. + +816. The History of Virginia, by a Native and Inhabitant of the place. R.B. +Beverley. 1722. 8vo.--The first part is purely historical; in the second, +the author gives an account of the productions of the country; the third +relates to the manners, &c. of the Indians; the fourth is political. There +are, besides, many pertinent remarks on the physical geography of Virginia, +and on its climate and diseases. + +817. Notes on Virginia. By Thos. Jefferson. 1788. 8vo.--Politics, commerce, +manufactures, and navigation, are here treated of in a satisfactory and +instructive manner, but with rather too much the air of philosophy. + +818. Michaux's Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains. 1805. +8vo.--These travels are instructive regarding the manners, commerce, soil, +climate, and especially botany. + +819. Lewis and Clarke's Travels up the Missouri to the Pacific Ocean, +1804-6. 4to. + +820. Pike's Exploratory Travels through the Western Territory of North +America. 4to. + +821. James's Account of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 1819-20. 3 +vols. 8vo. + +822. Schoolcraft's Travels to the Sources of the Mississippi. 1820. 8vo. + +823. Nuttall's Travels into the Arkansa Territory. 1819. 8vo.--These +travels describe a vast portion of America to the west of the Alleghany +Mountains, especially the valley of the Mississippi, and its tributary +streams. They are rather prolix and heavily written. Mr. James's work is +richest in natural history. + +824. A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida. By Bernard Romans. +New York, 1766. 12mo.--The climate, productions, and diseases of Florida +are here treated of by this author, who was a medical man, and had good +opportunities of observation and experience. + +825. Description de la Louisiane. Par L.P. Hennepin, Paris, 1688. +12mo.--This author first made Europe acquainted with Louisiana; but his +work is meagre on every topic, except the manners, &c. of the natives. + +826. Histoire de la Louisiane. Par M. Le Page du Prats. Paris, 1758. 3 +vols. 12mo.--During a residence of 15 years, this author seems to have paid +particular attention to geology, mineralogy, and other branches of natural +history, and has given the results of his observations in these volumes. + +827. Travels through that part of North America called Louisiana. +Translated and illustrated with notes by R.B. Forster. 1771-2. 2 vols. +8vo.--The author of this work was a M. Bossu; who also published, a few +years afterwards, Nouveaux Voyages dans l'Amerique Septentrionale. +Amsterdam. 8vo.--The first of these works is chiefly interesting from the +minute details into which it enters respecting the Illinois territory. Mr. +Forster's translation contains a catalogue of American plants. + +828. Voyage en Californie. Par l'Abbé Chappe D'Auteroche. Paris, 1778. +4to.--The city of Mexico, as well as California, is here described in an +interesting manner. As concerns the latter, this work may be regarded as a +standard one. + +829. The History of Mexico; to which are added, Dissertations on the Land, +Animals, &c. Translated from the Italian of Clavigero, by C. Cullen. 1787. +2 vols. 4to.--Besides natural history, there is in this work much learned +research on the ancient history of Mexico. + + +THE WEST INDIES. + +830. Histoire Generale des Antilles. Par le P. Dututie. 1667-1671. 4 vols. +4to.--This work is very full in all the branches of natural history, and +is by no means uninstructive on intellectual and moral geography. + +831. Voyages aux Antilles, &c., 1767-1802. Par J.B. Le Blond. Paris, 1813. +8vo.--Statistics, climate, geology, mineralogy, diseases, and manners, +are the principal topics of this work, and are treated of with ability and +interest. + +832. Voyages aux Isles de Trinidad, &c. Par J.J.D. Laraysee. Paris, 1813. 2 +vols. 8vo.--The first volume relates to Trinidad: the second to Tobago, +Cumana, Guiana, and Margarita. The soil, climate, productions, and +occasionally the natural history and geology of these parts are here +treated of. + +833. Baudin Voyage aux Isles Teneriffe la Trinite, Porto Rico, &c. 2 vols. +8vo. Paris, 1810.--To these travels Sonnini has added some valuable +notes. + +834. Voyage d'un Suisse dans differentes Colonies de l'Amerique. 1783. +8vo.--Martinique and St. Domingo are particularly described, and the +mineralogy of the latter fully entered into. + +835. Bryan Edwards' History of the British Colonies in the West Indies, and +the French Colony in St. Domingo. 1801. 3 vols. 8vo.--This work justly +bears an excellent character, and is very full and minute on almost every +topic connected with these islands. + +836. Histoire de St. Domingue. Par le P. Charlevoix. Paris, 1722. 2 vols. +4to.--This work, drawn up chiefly from the memoirs of the missionaries, +treats of the political, military, and moral state of the island, and more +briefly of its produce, animals, &c.--This briefness is compensated in the +following work: + +837. Essai sur I'Histoire Naturelle de St. Domingue. Par le P. Nicolson. +Paris, 1766. 8vo. + +838. Ed. Long's History of Jamaica. 3 vols. 4to. 1774.--A work of +sterling merit, and if read in conjunction with the following to supply the +natural history of the island, will leave little to be known respecting +this important island. + +839. Pat. Brown's Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. 1756. folio. + +840. Ligon's History of Barbadoes. 1695. 8vo. + +841. Labat Voyage aux Isles de l'Amerique. La Haye, 1724. 6 vols. +12mo.--This is esteemed the best work of Labat, and it certainly is very +instructive in all that relates to Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, St. +Thomas, St. Lucia, St. Eustatius, &c. + +842. Voyage à la Martinique. Par Chauvalson. Paris, 1763. 4to.--Natural +history, meteorology, agriculture, and manners. + +843. Account of St. Michael, one of the Azores. By Dr. Webster.--This work, +which is published in America, contains an interesting description of St. +Michael, particularly in what relates to its natural history and geology. + + +SOUTH AMERICA. + +844. Preliminar al Tomo primero de las Memorias Historico-Physicas, +Critico-Apologeticas, de la America Meridional. Par D.J.E. Lamo Zaputa. +Cadiz, 1759. 8vo. + +845. Reise eineger Missionarien in Sud America. Von C. Gott. Von Murr. +Nurem. 1785. 8vo. + +846. Depon's Travels in South America, 1801-4. 2 vols. 8vo.--The Caraccas, +Venezuela, Guyana, Cumana, are the principal objects of this work; the +rural economy, the political and commercial situation of these parts at +this period, and the manners of the Spanish Americans are here treated of +in a superior manner. + +847. Nouvelle Description de la France Equinoctiale. Par Pierre Barrere. +Paris, 1743. 12mo. + +848. Essai sur l'Histoire Naturelle de la France Equinoctiale. Par P. +Barrere. Paris, 1749. 2 vols. 8vo.--The former of these works is chiefly +confined to a description of the natives, their weapons, manners, mode of +life, &c.: the latter work is full on the natural history of Guyana. + +849. Bancroft's Essay on the Natural History of Guyana. 1769. 8vo.--Besides +natural history, this work may be consulted with advantage on the manners, +&c. of the natives. + +850. Stedman's Narrative of a Five-Years' Expedition against the Revolted +Negroes of Surinam, 1772-7. 2 vols. 4to.--There is an air of romance in +several parts of this work, which, though it adds to its interest, raises +suspicions of its accuracy and faithfulness, and that it has been in the +hands of a trading editor; still it is a work from which a lively picture +may be obtained of Surinam and its inhabitants. + +851. Tableau de Cayenne. Paris, 1793. 8vo.--Climate, produce, mode of +culture, manners and nautical observations form the principal topics of +this work. + +852. Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil. By Th. Lindley. 1804. 8vo.--This work +contains much information regarding the political, commercial, and domestic +state of the Brazilians, with some notices on natural history. As Brazil +used to be visited by our ships before we obtained the Cape, on their +voyage to the East Indies and China, much information may be gained from +several voyages to the latter, especially from the accounts of Lord +Macartney's Embassy by Staunton and Barrow. + +853. Luccock's Notes on Rio Janeiro, and the Southern Parts of Brazil. +1820. 4to.--Mr. Luccock resided eleven years in Brazil, and he seems to +have been a careful observer; his work gives much new and important +information on agriculture, statistics, commerce, mines, manners, &c., but +it is heavily written. + +854. Koster's Travels in the Brazils. 1816. 4to.--This work, together with +Luccock's, Henderson's, and Mawe's, comprize a body of information on +Brazil, nearly complete on all points except natural history, and that must +be sought in Prince Maximilian's Travels. + +855. History of Paraguay. By Charlevoix. 1760. 2 vols. 8vo.--This work is +full on the plants, animals, fruits, &c., of this country; and is +particularly interesting from the account it gives of the celebrated and +singular Jesuit establishment in Paraguay. + +856. Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale, 1781-1801. Par Don F. de Azara. 4 +vols. 8vo. Paris, 1809.--The author, who was commissioner of the lines of +the Spanish frontier in Paraguay, gives in this work much information on +the climate, soil, &c. of countries little known; and the value of it is +enhanced by the notes of Cuvier and Sonnini on natural history. + +857. Relation de la Voyage dans les Provinces de la Plata. 8vo. Paris, +1819. + +858. Historia de Abifponibus. Autore Dobutzhoffen. Vienna, 1784. 8vo.--This +work has lately been translated into English: had it been carefully and +judiciously abridged it would have been acceptable, but it is tiresome from +its extreme minuteness on uninteresting points. + +859. Historia del Descubriniento y Conquesta del Peru. Par August de +Zarate. Anvers, 1555. 8vo.--This work is not merely historical, but it also +embraces many interesting particulars on physical geography, and the +manners, religion, &c., of the Peruvians. + +860. Histoire des Incas, traduit de l'Espagnole de Garcilasso de la Vega. +Amsterdam, 1737. 2 vols. 4to.--The interest of this work arises from its +accuracy and fullness on the laws, government, religion, &c., of the +ancient Peruvians. To this French translation is added a history of the +conquest of Florida. + +861. A Voyage to the South Sea along the Coasts of Chili and Peru, 1712-14. +By Mr. Frezier. 1717. 4to.--The object for which Mr. Frezier was sent +related to the defence of Peru and Chili; but he also enters fully into an +account of the mines and the mode of working them, and into a description +of manners, domestic life, &c. + +862. Journal du Voyage fait à l'Equateur. Par M. de la Condamine. Paris, +1751. 4to.--Besides the detail of astronomical observations, this work is +interesting from the personal narrative of the labours of the academician, +and instructive on several points of physical and moral geography. + +863. Humboldt, Voyage aux Régions Equinoctiales du Nouveau Continent, +1799-1804. 6 vols. 8vo. + +864. Humboldt, Relation Historique de son Voyage aux Régions Equinoctiales +du Nouveau Continent. 2 vols. 4to. + +865. Humboldt, Essai Politique sur le Royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne, +Paris, 5 vols. 8vo. 1811.--Perhaps no traveller ever equalled Humboldt in +the possession and exercise of such an union of qualifications requisite to +render travels instructive and interesting; nor would it be easy to name +any travels which have so completely exhausted the subject of them, as +those, the titles of which we have given, if taken in connexion with the +more purely scientific appendages to them. + +866. A Voyage to South America. By Don George Juan and Don Ant. de Ulloa. +1758. 2 vols. 8vo.--Peru, Chili, Carthagena, Porto Bello, and Panama, are +described in these volumes with great talent and science with regard to +their natural history, climate, and productions; and together with the +civil, political, and domestic life of the inhabitants, and various other +topics. + +867. Helm's Travels from Buenos Ayres by Potosi to Lima, 1806. +12mo.--Natural history, and chiefly geology and mineralogy, with a very +particular account of the mines of Potosi. + +868. Compendio della Istoria Geografica, Naturale e Civile de Chili. +Bologna, 1776. 8vo. + +869. Chiliduga sive res Chilenses. Opera Bern. Havestad. Munster, 1777-79. +8vo.--Natural history, the character of the inhabitants, their music and +language are here treated of in a superior manner. + +870. Molina's Geographical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili, 1809. 2 +vols. 8vo.--An excellent work, which fulfils what the title promises. + + +POLYNESIA. + +871. An Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the +South Pacific Ocean. By Alex. Dalrymple. 1770. 2 vols. 4to. + +872. Captain James Burney's Chronological History of the Voyages and +Discoveries in the South Seas. 5 vols. 4to. 1803-16.--Both these works are +by men well qualified by science, learning, research, and devotedness to +their object, to perform well what they undertook on any subject connected +with geography and discovery. + +873. Keate's Account of the Pelew Islands. 1788. 4to. + +874. A Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific Ocean. By Captain Wilson. +1799. 4to.--Otaheite is the principal subject of this work. + +875. Mariner's Account of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific. 1817. 2 +vols. 8vo.--This is a very full, accurate, and interesting picture of the +manners and character of a singular people, drawn from long and attentive +observation on the spot. + + +AUSTRALASIA. + +876. Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes. Par le President de +Brosses. Paris, 1756. 2 vols. 4to--This work is more highly prized on the +continent than with us: it certainly is not equal to some of our histories +of voyages either in judgment, accuracy of information, or extensive views. + +877. Relation de deux Voyages dans les Mers Australes et des Indes. +1771-73. Par M. de Kerguelen. Paris, 1781. 8vo. + +878. Voyage à la Nouvelle Guinée. Par Sonnerat. Paris, 1776. +4to.--Natural history, and especially zoology and ornithology. + +879. Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Australes. 1800-4. Par Peron. 2 vols. +4to. Paris, 1811. + +880. Captain Th. Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas, 1774-6. +Dublin, 1779. 4to.--This work supplies what is wanting in Sonneret's, as +it is full on the physical and moral character of the inhabitants, and on +their language, mode of life, and trade. + +881. Governor Phillips's Voyage to Botany Bay. 1789. 4to. + +882. Collins' Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. 1801. 2 +vols. 4to. + +883. Wentworth's Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of New +South Wales, and Van Dieman's Land. 1819. 8vo. + +884. Oxley's Journey of Two Expeditions into the Interior of New South +Wales. 1820. 4to.--These British colonies are improving so rapidly that +no description can long be full and accurate. Mr. Wentworth's work is, we +believe, as good an account as we have; and Mr. Oxley's is interesting from +giving an authentic description of the interior of this singular country. A +perusal and comparison of the best works that have been published regarding +it from the date of that of Collins to the present time, would exhibit a +rapidity of improvement, of which there are few examples. + +885. Some Account of New Zealand. By John Savage. 1808. 8vo.--A judicious +and instructive work on the manners, religion, and character of the +natives. Further information on these points, and likewise on the +productions of New Zealand, may be gathered from Captain Cruise's Ten +Months' Residence there, just published. + + + + + + +GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO THE CATALOGUE, WITH REFERENCE TO THE NUMBERS PREFIXED +TO THE TITLE OF EACH WORK. + +A + +Abyssinia, 134. 671-678. +Adriatic, Shores of, 430. +Africa, 112. 116. 147. 582-587. +---- West Coast, 622-641. +---- South, 654-664. +---- Interior, 642-649. +Algiers, 113. 588, 589. +Alps, 168. 186. 342. 357. 364-366. +371-373. 376. 380. +Albania, 169. 195. 285. 287. 297, 298. +Aleppo, 693, 694. +Apennines, 394. +Arctic Seas and Countries, 200-222. +Archipelago, 80. 89. 296. +Armenia, 80. 92. 696. 708. 712. +Arabia, 102. 104. 110. 117. 129. 132. +136, 137, 138. 683. 690, 691. +698-702. +Asia Minor, 80. 89. 114. 116. 132. +281. 296. +----, Eastern parts, 82-84. +----, Upper, 112. +Ashantee, 636. +Austria, 191. 195. 330. 343, 344. +Auvergne, 456-458. +Ava, 738. +Australasia, 876-885. + +B + +Barbary, 77. 108. 117. 590. 597. +Balbec, 135. +Basque Language, 468. +Bahamas, 794. +Barbadoes, 840. +Bedouin Arabs, 590. +Bermudas, 793. +Black Sea, 80, 291, 302. +Bohemia, 124. 158. 175. 316. 330. +Bosphorus, 303. +Bornea, 753. +Brazil, 147. 150, 151. 852-854. +Britain, 158. 483-538. + +C + +Collections of Voyages and Travels, 14-43. +Cape of Good Hope, 78. 641. 654-664. +---- Verde, 149. +Caspian Sea, 83. +Carraib Islands, 146. +Canaries, 149. 622. 651-653. +Candia, 282. +Campagna, the, 412, 413. 428. +Cachemere, 732. +Caubul, 780. +Carolina, 794. 798. +Canada, 802-807. +California, 828. +Carpathian Mountains, 309. +Caraccas, 846. +Cayenne, 851. +Ceylon, 134. 734. 749-751. +Celibes, 754. +China, 92. 679-682. 684, 685. 761-770. +Chili, 868-870. +Circassia, 101. +Constantinople, 80. 94, 95. 97. 108. 111. 287. 289. 297. 301. +Corsica, 397. 419. +Congo, 638. +Cochin-China, 742. +Corea, 771, 772. +Crimea, 290-293. 789. +Cumana, 846. +Cyprus, 136. 695. + +D + +Damascus, 97. 135. +Darfour, 131. +Dalmatia, 195. 283. 304, 305. 427. +Danube, 333, 334. +Dauphiny, 452. +Dahomy, 635. +Denmark, 179. 190. 236. 243. +Desert, Great, of Africa, 595, 596. + +E + +East Indies, 81. 85. 90. 102. 110. 118. 123. 132. 134. 137. 151-154. 679. +690. 706, 707. 716-748. +Egypt, 100. 102-104. 106-108. 110, 111. 113. 117, 118. 121. 131. 135-138. +605--620. +Elba, 404, 405. +England, 96. 175. 178. 180. 192. 199. 483-520. +----, Western Counties, 488. 500. +----, Northern, 489, 490. 497. +----, Southern, 497. +----, Eastern, 488. 497. +Ethiopia, 137. 608. 615. 619, 620. 673. +Etna, 391. 420. + +F + +Feroe Isles, 235. +Fez, 591. 593. 598-600. +Finland, 237. +Florida, 794. 798. 824. +France, 77. 79. 96. 104. 158, 159. 163-165. 167. 171, 172. 177. 180. 182. +184. 193, 194. 197. 199. 431-469. +Friesland, 354. + +G + +Georgia, 80. 88. 712-715. +---- in America, 798. +Germany, 79. 83. 85. 104. 158-160. 162. 165, 166. 172. 175. 177. 179. +183, 184. 187-190. 194. 196, 197. 199. 244. 313-354. +Glaciers, the, 361-363. +Greece, 89. 101. 103, 104. 107, 108. 113, 114. 116. 160. 169. 181. 196. +279-282. 285-287. 294-299. 301-305. +Guadaloupe, 841. +Guayana, 846-849. +Guernsey, 553, 554. +Guinea, 145. 149, 150. 630-634. + +H + +Histories of Voyages and Travels, 14-43. +Hanover, 326. +Hartz Mountains, 338-340. +Hesse, 341. +Hebrides, 519, 520. 522, 523. 527. 531-535. 538. +Holland, 83. 96. 162. 167. 172. 175. 193.--See Netherlands. +Holstein, 246. 320. +Hungary, 107. 124. 160. 194. 284. 306, 307. 316. 322. 330. +Hudson's Bay, 799. + +I and J + +Japan, 681. 684. 757-760. +Java, 756. +Jamaica, 148. +Jerusalem, 95. 97. 135. 140. +Jersey, 552. +Jura, 461. +Jutland, 246. +_Instructions_ for Travellers, 1-13. +Iceland, 228-234. +Indian Archipelago, 755. +Ionian Islands, 285. 305. 417. +Ireland, 78. 508. 514-516. 539-549. +Italy, 99, 100, 101. 104. 114. 121. 159-163. 167. 171. 173. 176-178. 183, +184. 187. 189, 190. 194. 196. 316. 385-430. + +K + +Kamstchatcha, 130. 786-788. +Karamania, 697. + +L + +Lapland, 104, 223-226. 237-239. 242. 247. +Lakes of Cumberland, &c., 488. +Levant, 81. 88. 115. 128. 139. 181. 597. +Lithuania, 249. +Lipari Isles, 416. +Loo Choo, 772. +Louisiania, 825-827. + +M + +Madeira, 127. 148. 622. 650. +Madagascar, 130. 150. 665, 666. 668. +Magellan Straits, 147. +Maldives, 151. +Malta, 170. 393. 395, 396. 415. +Man, Isle of, 527. 550, 551. +Malacca, 685. +Martinique, 841, 842. +Mauritius, 667. 669, 670. +Mecklenbergh, 320. +Mexico, 828, 829. 863-865. +Morocco, 156. 591-594. 598. 603. +Moluccas, 151. +Moldavia, 323. +Mogul Empire, 684.--See E. Indies. + +N + +Naples, 392-394. 414. 424. 428. +Netherlands, 159, 160. 167. 180. 470-482.--See Holland. +Nepaul, 777-779. +New Hampshire, 815. +--- Guinea, 878. 880. +--- Holland, 881-884. +--- Zealand, 885. +Norway, 78. 227. 239. 241-245. +Normandy, 438. 441, 442. +Nubia, 133. 614. 618. 620. + +O + +Orkney Islands, 521. 523. 526. +Otaheite, 57-61. 874. + +P + +Palestine, 99, 100. 104. 107, 108. 113, 114. 117, 118. 133. 138. +Paraguay, 855, 856. +Persia, 81. 87, 88. 90, 91. 95. 102. 106. 111. 114. 118. 137. 683. +703-712. 715. +Peru, 859-867. +Pelew Islands, 873. +Portugal, 77. 164. 171. 176. 192. 557-562. 568. 574. 577. +Poland, 104. 124. 179. 185. 236. 263-267. +Polynesia, 871-875. +Prussia, 98. 158. 185. 348. 350. +Provence, 443. 453. +Prince of Wales Island, 747, 748. +Pyrenees, 454, 455. + +R + +Ragusa, 427. +Red Sea, 129. 132. 134. +Rhine, the, 180. 318. 321. 328, 329. 331. 352, 353. 443. 462, 463. +Rhodes, 282. 296. +Rugen, Isle of, 351. +Russia, 81. 85. 87, 88. 90, 91, 92. 98. 107. 124. 179. 185. 236. 249-262. + +S + +Saxony, 327. 341. 345. 347. +Sardinia, 418. +Sahara, Desert of, Africa, 595, 596. +St. Eustatius, 841. +St. Lucea, 841. +St. Michael, 843. +St. Thomas, 841. +St. Vincent, 841. +St. Helena, 127. +Scandinavia, 107. +Scotland, 501, 502. 506, 507, 508. 510. 513-516. 518-540. +Selborne, 496. +Senegal, 622-628. +Shetland, 524, 525. +Sicily, 121. 166. 169, 170. 181. 198. 392-394. 396. 399. 414, 415. 424. +Silesia, 316, 349. +Sierra Leone, 629. +Siam, 739-741. +Siberia, 781-785. +Sleswick, 246. +Spain, 77, 78. 96. 164. 176. 434. 560-567. 569-581. +Spanish possessions in Europe and America, 120. +Surat, 127. +Surinam in South America, 850. +Sumatra, 752. +Sweden, 101. 158. 179. 190. 227. 236, 237. 240, 241. 244. 248. +Switzerland, 161, 162. 165. 171. 175. 177. 182. 186. 188. 199. 316. +355-384. +Syria, 103, 104. 131. 133. 136-138. 689. 692. + +T + +Tangier, 79. +Tartary, 85. 90, 91, 92. 94. 101 107. 249. 773, 774. +Thibet, 775, 776. +Thessaly, 285. +Thrace, 104. +Tonquin, 685. 743-745. +Tonga Isles, 875. +Transylvania, 107. 306. 311, 312. +Tripoli in Africa, 601, 602. 604. +----in Asia, 136. 170. +Turkey, 88, 89. 92-95. 100-102. 106, 107. 112. 118. 124. 136. 158. 174. +198. 268-278. 288, 289. 296. 683. +Tunis, 113. 170. +Tyrol, 173. 183. 308. 310. 512. 423. + +U and V + +United States, 794,795-798. 802, +803. 808-814. 818-823. +Valais, the, 368. 374. +Venezuela, 846. +Vesuvius, 391. +Virginia, 816, 817. +Volcanoes, 391. 428. 451. + +W + +Wallachia, 323. +Wales, 488-495. +Wendes, the, 327. +West Indies, 148. 150. 152-154. 793. 830-842. + +Z + +Zurich, 79. +Zaire River, in Africa, 637. + + + + + + +INDEX TO THE HISTORICAL SKETCH. + +A + +Abyssinia, ancient trade, 93. +Adam of Bremen, 293. +Africa, East of, trade to in time of Nero, 241. +----, Discoveries in by Portuguese, 333. +----, Travels and Discoveries in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 472. +----, in the west and interior, 473. +----, in the N. 478. +----, in the S. 485. +Agatharcides, geographical knowledge, 93. +Alexander the Great encourages geography and commerce, 57. 77. + Knowledge of India, 60. +Alexandria built, 83. + Its advantages for commerce, 83. + Library and librarians, 87. +Alfred's attention to geography and commerce, 288. +America discovered by the Icelanders, 291. + By Columbus, 348. + Productions when discovered, 349. +----, travels in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 488. +Antwerp commerce in 16th century, 375. +Argonautic expedition, 24. +Aristotle's knowledge of geography, 50. +Arabians carrying trade with India at a very early period, 229. + In time of Nero, 240. + Commerce in middle ages, 275. + Geography in ditto, 279. +Arrian's knowledge of geography, 251. +Athens, ancient commerce, 144. + Commercial laws and taxes, 146. + Corn trade, 148. + Slave trade, 150. +Asia, commerce of, in middle ages, 316. +----, N.E. discoveries in, 428. +----, travels in, in 18th and 19th centuries, 486. +Augustus's attention to maritime affairs and commerce, 197. +Australasia, discoveries in, 467. + +B + +Baltic commerce in 11th century, 293. +Barcelona, early commerce of, 313. +Baffin's voyages and discoveries, 360. +Benjamin of Tudela, his notices of Asiatic commerce, 316. +Behaim's Chart, 351. +Behring's discoveries, 360. +Black Sea, ancient commerce in, 159. +Britain invaded by Cæsar, 192. +Britons, their ships, 193. +---- ---- ---- commerce, 195. +Bruce's Travels, 479. +Burckhardt, 481. + +C + +Carthage, ancient, 34. + Commerce, 37. + Destroyed, 176. + Naval wars, 121. 124. +Cæsar, Julius, survey of the Empire, 223. +Carpini, 317. +Cape of Good Hope discovered, 357. +---- ---- ----, travels in, 485. +Cabot, 353. +Caravan trade, 525. +Ceylon, ancient notices of, 226. +Cilicia, ancient commerce, 177. +China, in middle ages, 279. +----, route from, in 14th century, 322. +Corvus, the, described, 120. +Corinth, ancient commerce, 152. +Cosmas, 269. +Cook's, Captain, discoveries, 431. 454. 468. +Commerce in 18th century, 502. 512. +Crete, ancient commerce, 177. +Crusades, effect of, on commerce, 300. + +D + +Denmark, commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 422. +Dutch commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 383. 410. + +E + +Egyptian ancient commerce, 13. 82. 106. + Ships, 17. +English commerce in 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, 314. 390. 397, 398. +401. 4O4. 407. 410. 412. +---- shipping, 409. +England, commerce and shipping in 1822. 520. +English and Dutch commerce in 16th and 17th centuries compared, 410. +Eratosthenes, 88. +Etruscans, commerce, 112. +Ethiopia explored by Romans, 825. +Euxine, ancient commerce, 251. +Europe, general view of its trade in 15th century, 314. + At present, 512. + +F + +Fairs, ancient, 150. +France, commerce in middle ages, 304. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 417. + At present, 516. +Florence, commerce in middle ages, 304. + +G + +Gaul, commerce of, 186. +Genoa, commerce in middle ages, 302. +Gama's Voyages, 339. +Germany, ancient commerce, 195. + At present, 515. +Greenland discovered, 291. +Grecian ancient commerce, geography, and ships, 20. 30. 144. +---- Colonies, 157. + +H + +Hamilcar's Voyage, 41. +Hannos, 41. +Hanseatic League, 294. +Henry, Prince of Portugal, 334. +Herodotus, 45. +Hipparchus, 101. +Hudson's Voyages, 359. + +I and J + +Iceland discovered, 290. +Jews, commerce of, 18. +India, as known to Alexander, 60. + Direct ancient trade with, 105. + Ancient routes to, 210. + Trade in time of Nero, 243. + And China, ancient trade between, 271. + In middle ages, 279. +Indian commodities, price of, + affected by discovery of the Cape, 370. + Trade at present, 522. +Inland trade in middle ages, 311. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 416. +Itineraries, Roman, 253. +Italian commerce in middle ages, 299. +Justinian's Fleets, 273. + +K + +Kotzebue's discoveries, 434. + +L + +Liburnians, 115. +Laconia, ancient commerce, 154. +La Maire, 356. +La Perouse, 433. +Lyons, ancient commerce, 189. + +M + +Macedonia, ancient commerce, 161. +Marseilles, ditto, 187. +Marinus, the Geographer, 254. +Marco Polo, 318. +Mariners' Compass, earliest notice of, 328. +Maps and Charts of middle ages, 329. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 367. +Magellan, 352. +Mauro's Map, 330. +Mercator, 366. +Monsoon discovered, 227. + +N + +Navigation, improvements in, in 18th century, 497. +Nearchus, 61. +New South Shetland discovered, 456. +New Holland, 363. 468. +Netherland commerce in 16th century, 374. +North-west passage, 358. 438. +North-east passage, 361. + +P + +Park's Travels, 475. +Petrea, ancient trade of, 232. +Periplus, geography of the, 235. + Commerce of, 236. +Persia, ancient trade, 243. +Penteugarian Tables, 267. +Peter the Great's attention to geography and commerce, 425. 429. +Phoenician commerce and ships, 3. 5. 10. +Pharos described, 84. +Pliny, 248. +Polynesia, 470. +Posidonius, 104. +Ptolemy, 255. +Ptolemies of Egypt, their attention to commerce, 84. +Polybius, 223. +Portuguese discoveries, 333. 342. +Pythias of Marseilles, 51. + +R + +Red Sea, 95. 225. 236. +Rhodes, ancient commerce, 166. + Maritime history, 39. 116. 167. + Conquered by Romans, 172. +Rome, ancient naval wars, 118. 123. + Commerce, 197. 200. 219. 221. 264. +Romans, ancient geography of, 223. 261. + Survey of empire, 223. +Rubruquis, 317. +Russian commerce in 16th and 17th centuries, 424. + At present, 514. + +S + +Sabea, commerce of, 97. +Sanuto, his notices of commerce, 321. +Scandinavian maritime affairs, 287. +Scotland, commerce of, in middle ages, 310. + In 16th and 17th centuries, 414. +Scylax's Voyage, 43. +Sicily, ancient trade, 134. +Silk, history of, 212. +Spain, ancient commerce, 129. + At present, 517. +Sugar, history of, 208. +Sweden, commerce in 16th and 17th century, 482. + At present, 513. +Strabo, 326. +Syene, Well of, 88. + +T + +Troy, Siege of, ships at, 39. +Travellers, modern, advantages of, 500. + +V + +Vancouver, 433. +Venetian commerce in middle ages, 299. 3O3. +United States, commerce, 524. + +W + +World, what still unknown of, 491. + + + + + + +INDEX TO THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES OF A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF +VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. + +_The Roman Numerals refer to the Volumes: the Arabic Numerals to +the Pages._ + +A + +Abyssinia, vi. 176. +---- Customs of, 306. +Acapulco described, x. 264. +Adams, W. Voyage to, and Residence in Japan, viii. 64. +Aden, in Arabia, vi. 265. 298. vii. 68. +Africa in general, vii. 220. + West Coast .ii. 210. 270. xi. 73. + Manners, dress, &c. ii. 223. 227. 242. 251. + Animals, 231. + Produce, 230. + Ships, 250. + East Coast, ii. 319. vi. 448. 470. viii. 406. 468. +Alfred's Geography of the World, i. 21. +Albuquerque's Voyage, ii. 456. + Conquests, vi. 402. + Death, 161. +Almago, iv. 415. + Defeated by F. Pizarro, 4.37. + Put to death by him, 440. + Character, 459. + Expedition against Chili, v. 262. +Aleppo, viii. 3. +Aloes, vi. 114. viii. 181. 267. +Alligator, x. 302. +Albicore, x. 309. +Ambergriss, i. 92. +Ambassadors, Voyage of three, from England to Constantinople, i. 56. +America discovered by Icelanders, i. 43. + Discovered by Columbus, ii. 52. 59. iii. 43. 255. +----, North West Coast, Cook's discoveries on, xvi. 260. +Americus Vespasius, iii. 342. + His first Voyage, 352. + Second Voyage, 366. + Third Voyage, 373. + Fourth Voyage, 379. +Amboina, Massacre at, ix. 537. + Described, x. 319. xv. 143. +Amsterdam, Isle of, and Inhabitants, xiv. 190. 204. xv. 385. + Dances, 395. + Wrestling and Boxing, 401. + Kava, mode of preparing, 412. + Natural History, 421. + Grand solemnity, 427. + See also Friendly Isles. +Anson's Voyage round the World, xi. 200. + Controversy respecting the account of, 527. +Armenia, i. 281. +Arabia in general, vi. 336. +---- Felix, interior of, described, viii. 380. +Arabian Settlements, on East Coast of Africa, vi. 73. + Arabian Manners, vii. 50. +Armada, the Spanish, vii. 365. +Assassins, History of the, i. 291. +Ascension Island, xii. 346. xv. 66. +ASIA, North East Cape of, xvi. 356. + Remarks on the Geography of the North East of, xvii. 122. +Atlantic South, discoveries in, xv., 118. +Atooi, Isle, xvi. 148. 173. + Produce, 176. + Inhabitants, 150. 177. + Morai, 156. + Feather cloaks, 159. + Dress, 179. + Houses, 181. + Amusements, 182. + Manufactures, 184. + Canoes, 188. + Agriculture, 189. + Government, 190. + Weapons, 191. + Religion, 192. + Language, 193. +Auracanians, Manners, &c. v. 233. x. 122. + Religion, v. 256. + Orators, Poets, &c. 260. +----, War with the Spaniards, v. 276. +Azores discovered, ii. 196. + Described, xi. 195. +---- Fayal, vii. 381. xv. 73. + +B + +Babylon, vii. 145. +Bagdat, vii. 473. viii. 5. +Bahamas, iii. 410. +Baker's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 299. +Banda Isles, vii. 117. 187. xi. 147. + Trade of, ix. 449. + Wrongs done the English at, 432. +Bantam, xi. 183. +Barbaro's Travels to Azof, i. 501. +Bassora, vii. 146. 474. viii. 6. +Bashee Islands, x. 284. +Batavia.x. 330. 395. xi. 123. xii. 113. xiii. 425. + Fruit, 435. + Flowers, 441. + Inhabitants, 447. +Bear hunting, xvii. 154. +Benjamin of Tudela's, Travels to China, i. 95. +Bengal, vi. 242. See India and Mogul. +Benzoin, viii. 181. +Best's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 96. +Betel Nut, vii. 163. ix. 390. +Betagh's Appendix to Shelvock's Voyage, xi. 20. +Bezoar, viii. 182. +Birmah Empire, vi. 255. See Pegu. +Bolabola, xvi. 101. +Borneo, x. 21. xi. 174. +Bourgainville, abstract of his Voyage, xiii. 477. +Brazil discovered, ii. 57. 398. + Described, 105. xi. 79. 259. + Gold, 259. + Diamonds, 261. xii. 388. + St. Sebastian, xi. 79. + Rio Janeiro, xii. 382.391. + Manners, 382. + Produce, 386. +Burrough's Voyage to the Azores, vii. 444. +Butkeley's Narrative of Byron's shipwreck, xvii. 419. +Byron's own Narrative, xvii. 315. + Shipwrecked, 324. + Occurrences during his Voyage in the boats, 343. + Lands in Chiloe, 381. + Arrival at St. Jago, 399. + In England, 414. + +C + +Cabral's Voyage, ii. 395. +Cabot, iii. 346. vi. 3. +Cabbage-tree, x. 246. +Caffres, xi. 187. +Calicut, vii. 90. See India. +California, xi. 4. +Camboya, vi. 227. + Island, x. 390. +Camoens, v. 421. +Canary Islands discovered, ii. 19. iii. 352. + Described, ii. 207. x.402 +Canada, + Natives, vi.50. + Language, 67. +Candish's Voyage round the World, x. 66. +Cannibalism, xiv. 237. +Cape Verd Islands discovered, ii. 246. + Described, 269. x. 194. 404. +Cape of Good Hope discovered, ii. 286. + Described, viii. 16. 88. 115. + ix. 117. 122. 221. x. 234, xi. + 154. 182. xii. 117. + Animals, 188. + Sheep, xv. 209. note. + Remarkable stone, 212. +Cape Horn discovered, x. 171. + Remarks on the navigation round, xi. 288. + Real position of, xv. 3. note. +Carpini's Travels into Tartary, i. 123. +Carvagal, Francis de, character, v. 26. + Death, 167. +Cartier's Voyage to Newfoundland and Canada, vi. 15. +Carlet's Voyage to Guinea, vii, 306. +Caravans, vii. 52. viii. 7. +Carteret's Voyage round the World, xii. 243. +Cassowary, x. 325. +Caspian Sea, ii. 151. +Cattle, mode of slaughtering in South America, xi. 272. +Celebes, x. 328. xi. 149. xii. 334. +Ceylon, early notices of, i. 49. 382. 412. + Described, vi. 167. vii. 104. 169. 501. xi. 141-165. +Charts of the Sea between Asia and + America, account of, xvi. 380. +Chili, geographical view of, v. 219. x. 121. + Produce, v. 250. + Agriculture, 253. + Food, Houses, &c. 254. + Religion, 256. + Origin, Manners, Language, 239. + Natives of the Mountains, 256. + Trade, xi. 47. + State of in the 18th century, v. 380. + Proper, v.221. + St. Jago, v. 223. xvii. 399. + Climate, 401. + Inhabitants, 401. + Houses, 403. + Bull Feasts, 404. + Amusements, 405. + Cujo Province, v. 229. + Productions, 230. + Mines, 231. xi. 52. + Inhabitants, 231. +Chiloe Archipelago discovered, v. 314. + Described, 228. 392. x. 447. +China, early notices of, i. 51. 68. + Manners, Dress, Food, &c. 53. 60. 72. 364. xi. 127. + Laws, i. 62. 66. 71. 81. + Paper-money, 233. + Kublai Khan, 318. 420. 429. + Court, 326. 330. 368. 475. + Ships, 374. + Junks, x. 283. + Notices of early trade to, ix. 549. + Commodities, viii. 190. + Ware, early notice of, i. 59. +Cambalu (Pekin, i. 323. 419. 472.) + Macao, xi. 471. + Manners there, 522. + Canton, xvii. 237. + Sampanes there, 238. + Price of provisions at, 264. +Christmass Harbour, productions and animals, xv. 241. +Christmas Island, xvi. 141. +Chronometer, Table of its going, xvii. 165. 169. +Cinnamon, early notice of, ii. 108. +Civet, viii. 181. +Clerke's, Capt., Death, xvii. 136. 158. +Clipperton's Voyage round the World, x. 400. +Cloves, xi. 144. x.22. 322. +Cocoa Nut Tree, vii. 98. x. 304. xi. 112. +Coffee, ix. 390. +Columbus, ii. 52. + His Life, iii. 8. 245. + Death, 241. + First Voyage, 43. 255. + Second, 90. 307. + Third, 147. 339. + Fourth, 191. 339. +Cold, effects of excessive, xii. 398. +Comora Isles, ix. 224. +Compass, variation of, xii. 239. 307. 352. xiii. 73. 473. xiv. 58. 438. +488. xv. 215. 286. 489. xvi. 108. 196. 249. 330. 368. 401. xvii. 18. 264. +282. 289. 292. 298. +Contarini's Journey to Persia, ii. 117. +Cook, Capt. _John_, Voyage round the World, x. 66. +----, Capt. _James_, First Voyage, xii. 359. + Second Voyage, xiv. 1. + Third Voyage, xv. 114. + Circumstances of his Death, xvi. 446. 469, note. + Character, xv. 177. xvi. 455. + Orders from France and United States respecting, xvii. 268. +Cook's river, xvi. 299. +Coral Islands, formation of, xiv. 141. + note. xv. 344. +Corea, ix. 77. +Cortes, Hermando, iii. 454. 468. iv. 314. +Coryat's Journey to India, ix. 419. +Covilhaim's Journey to Æthiopia, ii. 300. +Cotton-tree, x. 245. +Cuba, iii. 271. 320. 404. +Cumana, iii. 361. +Cumberland's, Earl of, Voyage to the Azores, vii. 375. + +D + +Damascus described, vii. 47. +Dampier's Voyage round the World, x. 236. +Darien described, iii. 397. +Dates, viii. 267. +Davis's, Capt. John, Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 43. +Dangerous Archipelago discovered and described, xii. 167. +Derbent described, ii. 150. +Diamond Mines in Brazil, xi. 261. +---- ---- ---- in India, i. 387. +Downton's Voyages to India, viii. 406. ix. 167. +Drake's, Sir F., Voyage to the West Indies, vii. 356. 360. + Round the World, x. 27. +Drugs, account of various, viii. 181. +Dutch factories in the East, at the beginning of the 18th century, xi. 131. + +E + +Easter Island, and its Inhabitants, described, xi. 91. xiv. 270. 278. +East India Company, English, established, viii. 102. + First Voyage to the East Indies, 507. +Egypt, Cairo, i. 109. vii. 45. +----Alexandria, i. 111. + Trade of, 112. +Eimeo Isle described, xvi. 62. 70. +Eldred's Voyages and Travels to Bagdat, Bassora, &c. viii. 1. +Elephants, ii. 252. vii. 87. 189. 236. ix 394. +Eooa Isle, xv. 441. +Erigena's Voyage to Athens, i. 20. +Euphrates, Navigation of, viii. 3. + +F + +Falkland Islands described, xii. 47. +Fayal described, vii.381. See Azores. +Fenner's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 310. +Fernando de Noranha, Isle, described, xv. 69. +Fitch's Journey overland to India, vii, 470. viii. 254. +Flamingo, iii. 406. +Flick's Voyage to the Azores, vii. 417. +Flowers, great variety of, at Batavia, xiii. 435. +Florida, iii. 410. v. 410. 419. 440. 488. +Frederic, Caesar, Travels in India, vii. 142. +Friendly Islands, xiv. 204. 369. + General description of, and of the Inhabitants, xv. 447. + Number and names, 449. + Inhabitants, stature, 459. + Character, 462. 474. + Dress, 465. + Domestic life, 467. + Agriculture, 468. + Houses, 469. + Manufactures, 467. 470. + Food, 472. + Burials, 475. + Religion, 477. + Government, 479. + Language, 485. 491. + See Amsterdam Isle. +Fruit, great variety of, at Batavia, xiii. 435. +Funnell's Voyage round the World, x. 291. +Furs, collection of, at Oonalashka, xvi. 386. + At Kamtschatka, xvii. 184. + +G + +Galvana's Summary of Discoveries to the Year 1555. ii. 23. +Gama's Voyages, ii. 302. 432. +----Stephano de, Voyage to Suez, vi. 287. +----Vasco de, vi. 200. +Gasca, Pedro de la, v. 101. 107. l61. 170. +Gambia River, ii. 251. +Gambroon described, xi. 158. +Georgia, Isle of, described, xv. 25. +Gold Trade in Africa, early notice of, ii. 218. +Goa conquered by the Portuguese, vi. 131. + Described, 477. +Goitres in India, ix. 236. +Gothic Language, i. 165. 507. +Greenlanders described, i. 41. +Guadaloupe described, iii. 98. 142. 308. +Guam Island described, x. 230. +Guana, The, described, x. 306. +Guava fruit, x. 261. +Guayaquil described, x. 365. +Guinea, Voyages to, in the 16th Century, vii. 211. +----, Natives of, described, vii. 245. + See Africa, West Coast. +Guinea pepper described, x. 461. + +H + +Haicho's Travels into Tartary. i. 262. +Hawkin's residence in the Mogul Empire, viii. 220. +Hawkesworth's, Dr., vindication of himself, as editor of the Voyages, +xiii. 272 note. +Hearne's Journey in the North-west parts of America, Abstract of, xv. 148. +Hepaei Isles described, xv. 358. + Music and Dancing, 583. + Lefoogan, one of them described, 369. +Hervey's Isle discovered and described, xv. 334. +Helix Janthina and Violacea described, xii. 370. +Hippopotamus described, ii. 253. +Hispaniola described, iii. 133. 159. 277. 329. 387. +Hippon's Voyage to India, viii. 436. +----Account of, by Floris, viii. 440. +Hogan's Embassy to Morocco, vii. 320. +Holythura Physalis described, xii. 370. +Honduras described, iv. 267. +Horn Island, x. 179. +----, Cape. See CAPE Horn. +Hottentot's described, x. 234. xi. 185. +Huahcine Island described, xiii. 78. +----, religious ceremonies in, xvi. 73. + See Society Islands. +Hudson's Bay, Abstract of Discoveries in, xv. 144. +Hurricanes in American Seas, xi. 83. + +I and J + +Iceland discovered, i. 4. +Ice Islands, xiv. 48. 243. note. +----, on the formation of, xv. 43. +Icy Cape, xvi. 344. +Incas of Peru, iv. 362. +India described, ix. 373. + Produce, Animals, vi. 269. ix. 387. 392. 394. + Pepper, i. 404. + Diamond Mines, 387. + Houses, ix. 391. + Castles, viii. 280. 284. + Climate, ix. 393. + Manners, Customs, i. 85. 94. 384. 408. vi. 269. vii. 157. 482. + Mahometans in, ix. 404. + Hindoos, 409. + Brahmins, i. 387. + Idols, 407. + Pagodas, ii. 362. + Laws, 253. + Court Ceremonies in the 16th Century, 364. 407. See Mogul. + Bengal described, i. 251. vi. 242. vii. 109. 478. + Calicut described, ii. 345. 522. vii. 90. + Cambay, vii. 80. 475. viii. 302. + Candahar, ix. 212. + Cochin, ii. 419. vii. 164. xi. 162. + Coromandel Coast, xi. 155. + Deccan, vii. 84. + Delhi, viii. 292. See Mogul. + Goa, Diu, vii. 149. + Guzerat, vi. 227. + Lahore, viii. 295. ix. 208. + Malabar Coast, ii. 347. 467. vi. 481. xi. 160. + Surat, viii. 275. ix. 119. 230. 391. xi. 157. + Sinde, ix. 131. + Trade before discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, vi. 73. + State of, at the beginning of the 16th century, vi. 81. + English Factories in, in 1616, ix. 258. +Indians of America, food, iii. 215. + Dress, Canoes, &c. 266. 270. 277. 322. 369. + At south extremity of South America, v. 40l. xii. 152. 155. 405. See +Patagonians. +Indigo, viii. 289. +Irish, account of, in 16th century, vii. 394. +Isabella, first colony in the West Indies, iii. 313. +Jaloffs, ii. 221. 227. +Jamaica described, iii. 115. +Japan described, i. 375. vi. 382. viii. 78. xi. 178. + Commodities vendible in, ix. 71. 75. +Japanese manners, ix. 10. + Court, 25. + Festival, 51. +Java described, i. 378. 408. vi. 153. vii. 119. viii. 142. 183. x. 46. +86. 331. xi. 118. 166. + Court Ceremonies, viii. 166. + Bantam, viii. 183. + First English Factory in, viii. 141. +Jesso, ix. 70. xvii. 227. note. + +Juan Fernandez described, x. 201. + 219. 296. 353. 481. xi. 88. 311. + +K + +Kamtschatka, description of, xvii. 66. 171. + Climate, 175. + Produce, 173. 178. + Curious Plants in, 180. + Animals, 184. 194. note. + Furs, 184. + Fish, 191. + Salmon, 192. + Volcanoes, 177. + Inhabitants, 197. + Dress, 216. + Houses, 87. 213. + Towns, 215. + Sledge, 77. + Trade, 307. + Discovery and History of, 198. +Kava drink, xv. 412. +Keeling's Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 199. +King George's Island discovered and described by Byron, xii. 83. +Kossir, part of, described, vi. 330. +Kublai Khan, Account of, i. 318. +Kurile Isles described, xvii. 217. + +L + +Lancaster's Voyages to India, viii. 13. 107. +Ladrones, the, described, x. 13. 206. +Le Maire's Voyage round the World, x. 162. + Straits discovered, 170. + On the Navigation of, xii. 412. +Le Hermite's Voyage, x. 192. +Lediard, Mr., account of, xvi. 375. note. +Lima, account of, in 1550, iv. 350. + See Peru. +Llama, the, described, x. 462. +Locusts described, ii. 219. +Lok's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 229. + +M + +Mahommedans, Travels of two, to + India and China in the 9th century, i. 47. +Macassar, Straits of, described, xii. 318. +Madagascar described, vii. 2. viii. 261. +Madeira discovered, ii. 19. 177. + Described, 206. xi. 234. xii. 362. + Vines of, 363. +Malacca described, vii. 113. xi. 152. +Mandeville's Travels, i. 432. +Maro Polo's Travels, i. 266. +Mauritius described, viii. 218. +Marlow's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 91. +Magellan's, F., Voyage round the World, x. 4. +---- Straits discovered, x. 11. +----, remarks on the Navigation of, xii. 74. + Anchoring places and distances in, 157. +Manilla, x. 83. 281. +Mallicolo Island described, xiv. 379, 425. +Mangea Isle described, xv. 306. +Marquesas Islands and Inhabitants + described, xiv. 295. +Melinda described, ii. 336. +Mecca, Port of, vi. 262. City, vii. 58. +Medina described, vii. 54. +Mexico, iii. 421. 432. +----City described, iv. 37. 167. + taken by the Spaniards, 165. +Mexican Painters, iii. 477. + Manufactures, 478. + Idols, 495. +Michelburne's Voyage to India, viii. 86. +Middleton's, Capt. Henry, Voyage to + India, viii. 191. 361. +---- Capt. David, Voyage to Bantam and the Moluccas, viii. 3O7. 343. +Mindanao Islands described, xii. 309. +Middleburg Islands described, xiv. 204. +Moscow described, ii. 162. +Mosquito Shore described, iii. 189. +Montezuma, iii. 21. 35. 39. 55. 67. 70. + His court, 43. + Treasures, 71. + Death, 109. +Moluccas described, vi. 183. vii. 117. viii. 188. + Trade and State of, ix. 3. x. 22. +Mogul, meaning of the word, and Empire, of in the 16th Century, + vi. 233., in 1616. ix. 378. + Court of, viii. 229. ix. 302. 311. 320. + His birth-day, ix. 343. + Tomb, viii. 306. + Power, customs, &c. viii. 245. 291. ix. 260. 413. 421. +Mogul Empire, climate of, ix. 389. + Animals, 387. + Trees, 389. + Rivers, 390. + See India. +Mocha described, viii. 328. xi. 172. + Trade, viii. 483. 489. + Governor of, his feast, viii. 479. +Monomotapa, vi. 449. + See Africa, East Coast. +Monsoons, account of, viii. 9. +Musk, i. 313. viii. 181. + +N + +Navy, English, in Queen Elizabeth's time, vii. 460. +Nautical Instruments, account of, taken by Capt. Cooke in his Second + Voyage, xiv. 20. note. +Natural History, notices on, xv. 335. xvi. 266. 312. + Shells, xii. 370. 372. + Botany, xii. 395. xiv. 507. note. xvii. 180. + Green Ants, xiii. 253. 341. + Their Nests, 260. 342. + Caterpillars, ibid. + Crabs, xiii. 257. + Two new species of Birds, xv. 17. + Of Van Dieman's Land, xv. 259. + Of Amsterdam Isle, xv. 421. + Blatta, the, xvi. 77. + Medusa, &c. xvi. 98. + Arctic Walrus, xvi. 345. + Arctic Gull, xvii. 104. + White Bear, xvii. 114. +New Holland, general description, x. 288. xiii. 338. + Produce, 339. + Animals, 302. 341. + Inhabitants, 345. + Personal appearance, 346. + Houses, 349. + Food, 351. + Weapons, 355. + Canoes, 357. + Language, 359. + Botany Bay, xiii. 230. 240. + Port Jackson, xiii. 243. + Endeavour River, xiii. 311. + Straits, xiii. 335. +Newfoundland discovered and described, iii. 346, vi, 3. + Language of, iii. 32. +Newport's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 137. +New Guinea described, x. 188. +New Britain, xi. 107. xii. 296. +New Zealand, xiii. 101. + Face of the country, 118. 148. 155. 161. 218. xv. 267. + Plants, Animals, xiv. 99. xv. 287. + Inhabitants, xiii. 125. 147. 164. 187. 192. xiv. 103. 119. xv. 281. 293. + Language, xv. 301. + Villages, xiii. 150. + Queen Charlotte's Sound, xiii. 199. xiv. 119. 226. + Dusky Bay, xiv. 97. +New Caledonia, xiv. 139. 451. 473. + Contrast between its Inhabitants and those of the New Hebrides, + xiv. 451. note. +New Hebrides, xiv. 423. +Norfolk Isle, xiv. 476. +Norway, i. 493. Food, Manners, 494. +Nootka Sound, xvi. 221. + Produce, 223. + Animals, 225. + Inhabitants, 208. 214. 217. 230. + Houses, 239. + Villages, 216. + Furniture, 241. + Food, 244. + Employment, 245. + Weapons, 247. + Manufactures, 248. + Languages, 255. + Vocabulary of, 301. +Nutmegs, vii. 117. x. 323. xi. 147. + +O + +Oderic's Travels into China and the East, i. 392. +Omai, notices of, xiv. 165. xv. 183. 327. + His reception among his Countrymen, xvi. 7. + Established on his Island, xvi. 73. 81. +Oonalashka described, xvi. 321. 373. + Vegetables, 395. + Animals, 394. + Furs at, 386. + Inhabitants, 387. 398. +Ormus described, vi. 105. vii. 78. 148. 475. + Ships of, viii. 6. +Ostrich, xi. 189. +Otaheite discovered and described by Wallis, xii. 175. 204. + Extent, xiv. 131. + Surface, xiii. 2. + Produce, 3. xvi. 112. 119. + Winds, 111. + Animals, xiii. 4. + Inhabitants' stature, xiii. 4. + Personal customs, 6. xiv. 155. note. + Tattooing, xiii. 7. + Clothing, 10. + Houses, 12. + Food, 15. xiv. 176. xvi. 119. + Bread-fruit, xiii. 16. + Drink, 18. xiv. 179. + Meals, xiii. 19. + Musical instruments, xiii. 23. + Dances, 25. + Theatre, xiv. 153. xvi. 39. + Female morals, xiii. 26. xiv. 180. xvi. 122. + Arreoy, xiii. 27. + Manufactures, xiii. 294. xvi. 118. + Cloth, 29. + Dyes, 32. + Matting, &c. 34. + Fish-hooks, 36. + Tools, 37. + Canoes, xii. 214. xiii. 38. xiv. 315. + Naval review, xiv. 307. 326. xvi. 46. + Extent of their navigation, xvi. 138. + Swimming, xii. 467. + Wrestling match, 454. + Division of time, xiii. 44. + Numeration, 45. + Language, 46. xvi. 117. + Diseases, xiii. 47. xvi. 115. + Mourning and Funerals, xii. 478. 491. xiii. 54. xvi. 41. 51. + Religion, xiii. 59. xvi. 125. + Human Sacrifices, xv. 24. + Priests, xiii. 61. + Government, 66. xvi. 132. + Inhabitants contrasted with those of the Friendly Isles, xvi. 114. + Customs of, similar to those of distant Islands, xvi. 122. note. + Circumnavigation, xii. 482.--See Society Islands. +Owhyhee discovered and described, xvi. 321. 373. + Ceremonies used to Captain Cook, 424. + Inhabitants, 431. + Games, 436. + Taboo, 427.--See Sandwich Islands. + +P + +Pagodas, ii. 362. +Palm-tree in Chili described, v. 230. +Palmito described, viii. 260. +Patagonians, account of, x. 8. xi. 272. xii. 29. 127. 133. +Panama described, x. 250. Produce, 255. +Paradise, bird of, described, x. 325. xi. 114. +Palliser Islands described, xi. 99. +Pacific Ocean, discoveries in, xv. 120. +Payta described, xi. 372. +Pearl Fishery, account of, i. 93. iii. 392. vii. 167. x. 506. +Pearl Oysters, account of, x. 248. 3O6. +Pear, prickly, v. 261. +Pegu described, vi. 173. 255. vii. 110. 184. 490. viii. 448. +Pelican described, x. 305. +Peruvian Spaniards, their character, v. 182. +Peru, houses, &c. x. 240. + Pedlars, xi. 25. + Lima, xi. 30. + Climate, 32. + Manners, food, &c. 32. + Mines near, 37. +Persia described, vii. 77. +Persian Gulf, account of, vi. 189. +Pepper, viii. 183. +Penguins described, x. 145. Penguin fruit, 269. +Peyton's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 45l. +Philippine Islands described, x. 274. + See Manilla. +Pizarro, v. 75. 129. 151. 161. Death of, 167. +Plaintain Tree, viii. 259. x. 204. +Portuguese transactions in India, vi. 88. + Empire in the East, in the 17th century, vii. 36. + Settlements in the East in 1616, ix. 239. +Potosi Mines discovered, v. 94. +Prince William's Sound described, xvi. 279. + Animals, xvi. 286. + Inhabitants, 279. + Language, 285. +Pring's Voyage to India, ix. 451. +Proa, flying, described, xi.464. +Pulo Timooan described, xii. 1O9. +Pulo Condore described, x. 281. xvii. 280. + +Q + +Queen Charlotte's Island (o' Wales) discovered and described, xii. 168. + Islands of Carteret, xii. 275. +Quito, Island of, described, xi. 393. +Quirinis's Voyage into Norway, i. 485. + +R + +Rainold's and Dassel's Voyage to the Senegal and Gambia, vii. 342. +Red Sea, vi. 149. 262. 285. 291. 299, 315. 334. 349. 352. +Rhinoceros, account of, i. 379. viii. 25. +Robart's Embassy to Morocco, vii. 327. +Roe's, Sir Thomas, Embassy to the Mogul, ix. 247. +Roger's, Wood, Voyage round the World, x. 327. +Roggewin's Voyage round the World, xi. 65. +Rowle's Voyage to the East-Indies, viii. 335. +Rubruquis' Travels into Tartary, i. 161. +Russia, early account of, i. 509. ii. 162. +Rutter's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 293. + +S + +Salt Trade in Africa, account of, ii. 215. +Solomon's Voyage to the East Indies, ix. 110. +Sago described, x. 175. +Samarkand described, i. 298. +Saris' Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 465. +Savage Island described, x. 359. +Sandwich Island, of Carteret, xii. 298. +Sandwich Land, xv. 34. +Sandwich Islands of Cook discovered and described, xvi. 172. 195. xvii. 1. + Number, xvii. 2. + Owhyhee, 3.--See Owhyhee. + Mowee, 11. + Atooi, 13.--See Atooi. + Climate, 14. + Animals, 15. + Inhabitants, 19. + Stature, 20. + Numbers, 22. + Character, 23. + Dress, 27. + Villages, 32. + Food, 33. + Dances and other amusements, 34. + Arts, 38. + Government, 41. + Religion, 45. + Taboo, 48. + Marriages and Funerals, 49. 51. +Savu Island and Inhabitants described, xiii. 387. 407. +Schouten and Le Maires' Voyage round the World, x. 162. +Senegal River described, ii. 220. +Sea Fights in the 16th century, vii. 396. +Selkirk, Alexander, account of, x. 349. +Sea Lion described, xi. 318. xv. 6. 15. +---- Bear, xv. 15. +Sea, warmth at different depths, xiv. 33. note. +Shelvock's Voyage round the World, x. 434. xi. 20. +Sharpey's Voyage to India, viii. 314. +Shah Rokh's, the Embassador, Travels to Cathay, i. 461. +Siam described, vi. 169. vii. 177. viii. 188. 448. ix. 110. xi. 171. +Silver Fish, early notice of, x. 295. +Small Pox, Ravages of, among the Auracanians, v. 297. +Soto's Expedition into Florida, v. 440. +Solyman Pacha's Expedition to India, vi. 257. +Sofala kingdom described, vi. 89. +Socotra described, vi. 96. 227. viii. 264. 412. ix. 226. +Solomon's Islands described, xi. 103. +Society Islands, general description of, xiii. 92. + Vocabulary, xv. 81.--See Otaheite. +South Hemisphere, short account of Voyages to, xiv. 2. +Spanish Commere between Manilla and Acapulco, in the middle of the 18th +century, xi. 405. +Spilbergen's Voyage round the World, x. 149. +Steven's Voyage to Goa, vii. 462. +Steele and Crowther's Voyage from India to Persia, ix. 206. +Staten Island described, xv. 5. 11. +St. Laurence River described, vi. 44. 55. +St. Helena described, ix. 116. x. 88. xi. 193. xv. 64. +St. Catherine off Brazil, x. 437. xi. 254. +St. Jago, Port Praga Bay, xiv, 29. +Sugar, early notice of, i. 373. +Sumatra, Account of, i. 381. iv. 180. vii. 113. 174. viii. 50. 55. 121. + xi. 167. +Surat described, viii. 275. + +T + +Tanna Island described, xiv. 393. 415. + Volcano and hot springs in, 403. 411. +Tartary described, i. 115. + Soil and climate, i. 127. + Dress, manners, 128. + Superstitions, 131. + Military habits, 140. 311. + Court, 152. 180. 188. 197. 217. 224. + Khan of, 154. + Houses, 166. + Food, &c. 188. + Laws, 177. + Burial, &c. 177. 184. 501. + Religion, 209. + Samarcand, i. 298. +Tea, early notice of, i. 61. + Manner of cultivating, ix. 554. +Terry's Voyage to India, ix, 368. +Terra del Fuego described, x. 196. xii. 404. 410. xiv. 497. 505. +Ternate described, xi. 151. +Teneriffe, Peak of, account of, xii. 368. +----Island described, xv. 191. 194. +Thibet, early notice of, i, 342. 425. vii. 34. +Timor Isle described, viii. 187. +Tinian Isle described, xii. 102. note. +Timoan Isle described, xii. 109. +Tobacco, early notices of, in. 213. 369. vi, 54. +Towerson's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 273. +Torpedo Fish, account of, xi. 423. +Tongataboo Isle described, xv. 385. + Natural history of, 421. + Inhabitants, dancing, 395. + Wrestling and boxing, 401. + Grand solemnity at, 427. + Kava, mode of preparing, + 412.--See Amsterdam Isle and Friendly Isles. +Tortoises' Land, x. 122. +Toobouai Isle described, xvi. 3. + Inhabitants, 5. +Trade Winds, xiv. 139. note. +Trinidad, iii. 340. +Tripoli in Asia, viii. 2. +Tschutski described, xvi. 338. 362. 387. +Turkey, Account of, i. 96. Constantinople, 96. +Turtles described, x. 223. 306. 376. xi. 396. xv. 67. + +U and V + +Ulietea Island and Inhabitants described, xvi. 97.--See Society Island. +Unicorn, early notice of, i. 57. +Verthema's Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, vii. 41. +Van Noort's Voyage round the World, x. 112. +Vanilla described, x. 261. +Van Dieman's Land, notices of, xv. 256. + Natural history and animals of, 259. + Inhabitants, 262. +Vicuma, the, described, x. 462. +Voyages of Discovery, advantages of, xv. 154. + To nautical science, 160. + To the history of the Human Species, and its migrations, 167. + To the inhabitants discovered, 170. + +W + +Wallis's, Capt., Voyage round the World, xii. 120. +Wallis's Island described, xii. 221. +Water Spouts described, x. 287. xix. 105. xiv. 106. note. +Wateeoo Isle described, xv. 312. +Weenooa-ette Isle described, xv. 332. +Weert Sibbald's Voyage round the World, x. 130. +Welsh's Voyage to Benin, vii. 331. +Whales, notices respecting, xv. 4. note. +Whiddon's Voyage to the Azores. vii. 358. +Windham's Voyage to Guinea, vii. 216. +Wood, Benj., Voyage to the East Indies, viii. 40. +Wulfstan's Voyage to the Baltic, i. 15. + +Z + +Zenos' Voyage, i. 438. + + + + + + +GENERAL PLAN OF KERR'S COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. + + +PART I. + +Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of Alfred +King of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry of Portugal, at +the commencement of the fifteenth century. + +PART II. + +General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of Don +Henry in 1412, to that of George III. in 1760. + +PART III. + +General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III., +which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geography +of the globe has been nearly perfected. + +PART IV. + +Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and +Commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present period. + + + + +TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES. + + + * * * * * + + +VOLUME I. + + +Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians. + +Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic. + +Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J.R. Forster. + +Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic. + +---- of Sighelm to India. + +Travels of John Erigena to Athens. + +Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred. + +Travels of Andrew Leucander. + +Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem. + +---- of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople. + +Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem. + +---- of Ingulphus. + +Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth century. + +Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001. + +Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth century. + +---- of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth century. + +---- of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243. + +Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary. + +Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. in 1246. + +---- of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253. + +---- of Haitho, in 1254. + +---- of Marco Polo into China, &c. from 1260 to 1295. + +---- of Oderic, in 1318. + +---- of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322. + +Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355. + +Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380. + +Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394. + +---- of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419. + +Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431. + +Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in 1436. + + +VOLUME II. + + +Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between 1097 and +1107. + +Discovery of Madeira. + +Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands. + +Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, from 1412 to +1505. + +Summary of the discoveries of the world, from their commencement to 1555, +by Antonio Galvano. + +Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6. + +Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of Africa, +during the life of Don Henry. + +Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de Cintra, to the +coast of Africa, from 1455. + +Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, from the +death of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in +1486. + +History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, between +1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla. + +Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, respecting the +discovery of the route by sea to India, &c. + + +VOLUME III. + + +History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early conquests in +the New World. + +Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don Ferdinand +Columbus. + +---- written by Antonio de Herrera. + +An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, written +by himself. + +Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, from the +death of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes against Mexico. + +History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, by +Captain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors. + + +VOLUME IV. + + +History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus Zarate. + + +VOLUME V. + + +Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the Commentaries of +Garcilosso de la Vega. + +History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various sources. + +Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that country by +the Spaniards,--from the General History of America, by Herrera. + + +VOLUME VI. + + +Early English Voyages of discovery to America. + +Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and Canada, in +1534-5. + +Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the +East; with some account of the early Voyages of other European nations to +India. + +Discoveries, &c. &c. from 1505 to 1539. + +A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from Suez to +India, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer in the Turkish +service on that occasion. + +Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in 1540; +written by Don Juan de Castro. + +Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in India, from +1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's Asia. + + +VOLUME VII. + + +Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by Ludovico +Verthema, in 1503-8. + +---- in India, &c. by Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81. + +Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham. + +Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and Antonio Anes +Pinteado. + +---- in 1554, by Captain John Lok. + +---- in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. + +Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, of London. + +Third, in 1558. + +Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561. + +Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter. + +Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage. + +Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker. + +---- in 1564, by Captain David Carlet. + +---- and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George Fenner. + +Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by himself. + +Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth to +Morocco, in 1585; by himself. + +Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh. + +Supplement to the foregoing. + +Second Voyage of ditto in 1590. + +Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and Gambia, in +1591. + +Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English. + +Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas Stevens. + +Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch. + +Supplement to ditto. + + +VOLUME VIII. + + +Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river to +Bagdat and Basorah, in 1583. + +Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret. + +First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. Raymond and +James Lancaster. + +Supplement to ditto, by John May. + +Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596. + +---- of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598. + +---- of William Adams to Japan, in 1598. + +---- of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604. + +First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under Captain James +Lancaster. + +Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to 1605. + +Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry Middleton. + +Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William Keeling. + +Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions of the +Great Mogul. + +Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins. + +Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the Moluccas. + +Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander Sharpey. + +Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles. + +Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David Middleton. + +Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry Middleton. + +Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton. + +Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony Hippou. + +Notices of the same, by Peter Floris. + +Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John Saris. + + +VOLUME IX. + + +Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward Marlow. + +Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best. + +Observations made on the foregoing by different persons. + +Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon. + +Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher Newport. + +Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614. + +Supplement to ditto. + +Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to Ispahan, in +1615-16. + +Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615. + +Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes. + +Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. to the Emperor of +Hindoostan. + +Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry. + +Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great Mogul. + +Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18. + +Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under Captain +Pring. + +Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618. + +Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620. + +War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and Persians, in +1622. + +Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623. + +Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, by Dr. +James Cunningham. + + +VOLUME X. + + +Historical account of early circumnavigations; + of Magellan, in 1519-22. + of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80. + of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8. + of Van Noort, in 1598-1601. + of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17. + of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17. + of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6. + of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, in + 1683-91. + in 1703-6, by William Funnell. + in 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney. + in 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton. + in 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke. + + +VOLUME XI. + + +Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein. + +---- in 1740-4, by Lord Anson. + + +VOLUME XII. + + +Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6. + +Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8. + +Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9. + +Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70. + + +VOLUME XIII. + + +Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded.. + +Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9. + + +VOLUME XIV. + + +Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5. + + + +VOLUME XV. + + +Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded. + +Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80. + + +VOLUME XVI. + + +Captain Cook's third Voyage continued. + + +VOLUME XVII. + + +Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded. + +Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c.; written by himself. + +Bulkeley's narrative of the same. + + +THE END. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Robert Kerr's General History and +Collection of Voyages and Travels, Volume 18, by William Stevenson + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13606 *** |