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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+
+Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1 (of 6)
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13610]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
+VOLUME 1 (OF 6)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland and the Project Gutenberg Online
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+
+STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME I
+
+   The Evolution of Modesty
+   The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity
+   Auto-Erotism
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+1927
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PREFACE.
+
+
+The origin of these _Studies_ dates from many years back. As a youth I was
+faced, as others are, by the problem of sex. Living partly in an
+Australian city where the ways of life were plainly seen, partly in the
+solitude of the bush, I was free both to contemplate and to meditate many
+things. A resolve slowly grew up within me: one main part of my life-work
+should be to make clear the problems of sex.
+
+That was more than twenty years ago. Since then I can honestly say that in
+all that I have done that resolve has never been very far from my
+thoughts. I have always been slowly working up to this central problem;
+and in a book published some three years ago--_Man and Woman: a Study of
+Human Secondary Sexual Characters_--I put forward what was, in my own
+eyes, an introduction to the study of the primary questions of sexual
+psychology.
+
+Now that I have at length reached the time for beginning to publish my
+results, these results scarcely seem to me large. As a youth, I had hoped
+to settle problems for those who came after; now I am quietly content if I
+do little more than state them. For even that, I now think, is much; it is
+at least the half of knowledge. In this particular field the evil of
+ignorance is magnified by our efforts to suppress that which never can be
+suppressed, though in the effort of suppression it may become perverted. I
+have at least tried to find out what are the facts, among normal people as
+well as among abnormal people; for, while it seems to me that the
+physician's training is necessary in order to ascertain the facts, the
+physician for the most part only obtains the abnormal facts, which alone
+bring little light. I have tried to get at the facts, and, having got at
+the facts, to look them simply and squarely in the face. If I cannot
+perhaps turn the lock myself, I bring the key which can alone in the end
+rightly open the door: the key of sincerity. That is my one panacea:
+sincerity.
+
+I know that many of my friends, people on whose side I, too, am to be
+found, retort with another word: reticence. It is a mistake, they say, to
+try to uncover these things; leave the sexual instincts alone, to grow up
+and develop in the shy solitude they love, and they will be sure to grow
+up and develop wholesomely. But, as a matter of fact, that is precisely
+what we can not and will not ever allow them to do. There are very few
+middle-aged men and women who can clearly recall the facts of their lives
+and tell you in all honesty that their sexual instincts have developed
+easily and wholesomely throughout. And it should not be difficult to see
+why this is so. Let my friends try to transfer their feelings and theories
+from the reproductive region to, let us say, the nutritive region, the
+only other which can be compared to it for importance. Suppose that eating
+and drinking was never spoken of openly, save in veiled or poetic
+language, and that no one ever ate food publicly, because it was
+considered immoral and immodest to reveal the mysteries of this natural
+function. We know what would occur. A considerable proportion of the
+community, more especially the more youthful members, possessed by an
+instinctive and legitimate curiosity, would concentrate their thoughts on
+the subject. They would have so many problems to puzzle over: How often
+ought I to eat? What ought I to eat? Is it wrong to eat fruit, which I
+like? Ought I to eat grass, which I don't like? Instinct notwithstanding,
+we may be quite sure that only a small minority would succeed in eating
+reasonably and wholesomely. The sexual secrecy of life is even more
+disastrous than such a nutritive secrecy would be; partly because we
+expend such a wealth of moral energy in directing or misdirecting it,
+partly because the sexual impulse normally develops at the same time as
+the intellectual impulse, not in the early years of life, when wholesome
+instinctive habits might be formed. And there is always some ignorant and
+foolish friend who is prepared still further to muddle things: Eat a meal
+every other day! Eat twelve meals a day! Never eat fruit! Always eat
+grass! The advice emphatically given in sexual matters is usually not less
+absurd than this. When, however, the matter is fully open, the problems of
+food are not indeed wholly solved, but everyone is enabled by the
+experience of his fellows to reach some sort of situation suited to his
+own case. And when the rigid secrecy is once swept away a sane and natural
+reticence becomes for the first time possible.
+
+This secrecy has not always been maintained. When the Catholic Church was
+at the summit of its power and influence it fully realized the magnitude
+of sexual problems and took an active and inquiring interest in all the
+details of normal and abnormal sexuality. Even to the present time there
+are certain phenomena of the sexual life which have scarcely been
+accurately described except in ancient theological treatises. As the type
+of such treatises I will mention the great tome of Sanchez, _De
+Matrimonio_. Here you will find the whole sexual life of men and women
+analyzed in its relationships to sin. Everything is set forth, as clearly
+and as concisely as it can be--without morbid prudery on the one hand, or
+morbid sentimentality on the other--in the coldest scientific language;
+the right course of action is pointed out for all the cases that may
+occur, and we are told what is lawful, what a venial sin, what a mortal
+sin. Now I do not consider that sexual matters concern the theologian
+alone, and I deny altogether that he is competent to deal with them. In
+his hands, also, undoubtedly, they sometimes become prurient, as they can
+scarcely fail to become on the non-natural and unwholesome basis of
+asceticism, and as they with difficulty become in the open-air light of
+science. But we are bound to recognize the thoroughness with which the
+Catholic theologians dealt with these matters, and, from their own point
+of view, indeed, the entire reasonableness; we are bound to recognize the
+admirable spirit in which, successfully or not, they sought to approach
+them. We need to-day the same spirit and temper applied from a different
+standpoint. These things concern everyone; the study of these things
+concerns the physiologist, the psychologist, the moralist. We want to get
+into possession of the actual facts, and from the investigation of the
+facts we want to ascertain what is normal and what is abnormal, from the
+point of view of physiology and of psychology. We want to know what is
+naturally lawful under the various sexual chances that may befall man, not
+as the born child of sin, but as a naturally social animal. What is a
+venial sin against nature, what a mortal sin against nature? The answers
+are less easy to reach than the theologians' answers generally were, but
+we can at least put ourselves in the right attitude; we may succeed in
+asking that question which is sometimes even more than the half of
+knowledge.
+
+It is perhaps a mistake to show so plainly at the outset that I approach
+what may seem only a psychological question not without moral fervour. But
+I do not wish any mistake to be made. I regard sex as the central problem
+of life. And now that the problem of religion has practically been
+settled, and that the problem of labor has at least been placed on a
+practical foundation, the question of sex--with the racial questions that
+rest on it--stands before the coming generations as the chief problem for
+solution. Sex lies at the root of life, and we can never learn to
+reverence life until we know how to understand sex.--So, at least, it
+seems to me.
+
+Having said so much, I will try to present such results as I have to
+record in that cold and dry light through which alone the goal of
+knowledge may truly be seen.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+July, 1897.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
+
+
+The first edition of this volume was published in 1899, following "Sexual
+Inversion," which now forms Volume II. The second edition, issued by the
+present publishers and substantially identical with the first edition,
+appeared in the following year. Ten years have elapsed since then and this
+new edition will be found to reflect the course of that long interval. Not
+only is the volume greatly enlarged, but nearly every page has been partly
+rewritten. This is mainly due to three causes: Much new literature
+required to be taken into account; my own knowledge of the historical and
+ethnographic aspects of the sexual impulse has increased; many fresh
+illustrative cases of a valuable and instructive character have
+accumulated in my hands. It is to these three sources of improvement that
+the book owes its greatly revised and enlarged condition, and not to the
+need for modifying any of its essential conclusions. These, far from
+undergoing any change, have by the new material been greatly strengthened.
+
+It may be added that the General Preface to the whole work, which was
+originally published in 1898 at the beginning of "Sexual Inversion," now
+finds its proper place at the outset of the present volume.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+Carbis Bay,
+
+Cornwall, Eng.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+
+The present volume contains three studies which seem to me to be necessary
+_prolegomena_ to that analysis of the sexual instinct which must form the
+chief part of an investigation into the psychology of sex. The first
+sketches the main outlines of a complex emotional state which is of
+fundamental importance in sexual psychology; the second, by bringing
+together evidence from widely different regions, suggests a tentative
+explanation of facts that are still imperfectly known; the third attempts
+to show that even in fields where we assume our knowledge to be adequate a
+broader view of the phenomena teaches us to suspend judgment and to adopt
+a more cautious attitude. So far as they go, these studies are complete in
+themselves; their special use, as an introduction to a more comprehensive
+analysis of sexual phenomena, is that they bring before us, under varying
+aspects, a characteristic which, though often ignored, is of the first
+importance in obtaining a clear understanding of the facts: the tendency
+of the sexual impulse to appear in a spontaneous and to some extent
+periodic manner, affecting women differently from men. This is a tendency
+which, later, I hope to make still more apparent, for it has practical and
+social, as well as psychological, implications. Here--and more especially
+in the study of those spontaneous solitary manifestations which I call
+auto-erotic--I have attempted to clear the ground, and to indicate the
+main lines along which the progress of our knowledge in these fields may
+best be attained.
+
+It may surprise many medical readers that in the third and longest study I
+have said little, save incidentally, either of treatment or prevention.
+The omission of such considerations at this stage is intentional. It may
+safely be said that in no other field of human activity is so vast an
+amount of strenuous didactic morality founded on so slender a basis of
+facts. In most other departments of life we at least make a pretence of
+learning before we presume to teach; in the field of sex we content
+ourselves with the smallest and vaguest minimum of information, often
+ostentatiously second-hand, usually unreliable. I wish to emphasize the
+fact that before we can safely talk either of curing or preventing these
+manifestations we must know a great deal more than we know at present
+regarding their distribution, etiology, and symptomatology; and we must
+exercise the same coolness and caution as--if our work is to be
+fruitful--we require in any other field of serious study. We must approach
+these facts as physicians, it is true, but also as psychologists,
+primarily concerned to find out the workings of such manifestations in
+fairly healthy and normal people. If we found a divorce-court judge
+writing a treatise on marriage we should smile. But it is equally absurd
+for the physician, so long as his knowledge is confined to disease, to
+write regarding sex at large; valuable as the facts he brings forward may
+be, he can never be in a position to generalize concerning them. And to
+me, at all events, it seems that we have had more than enough pictures of
+gross sexual perversity, whether furnished by the asylum or the brothel.
+They are only really instructive when they are seen in their proper
+perspective as the rare and ultimate extremes of a chain of phenomena
+which we may more profitably study nearer home.
+
+Yet, although we are, on every hand, surrounded by the normal
+manifestations of sex, conscious or unconscious, these manifestations are
+extremely difficult to observe, and, in those cases in which we are best
+able to observe them, it frequently happens that we are unable to make any
+use of our knowledge. Moreover, even when we have obtained our data, the
+difficulties--at all events, for an English investigator--are by no means
+overcome. He may take for granted that any serious and precise study of
+the sexual instinct will not meet with general approval; his work will be
+misunderstood; his motives will be called in question; among those for
+whom he is chiefly working he will find indifference. Indeed, the pioneer
+in this field may well count himself happy if he meets with nothing worse
+than indifference. Hence it is that the present volume will not be
+published in England, but that, availing myself of the generous sympathy
+with which my work has been received in America, I have sought the wider
+medical and scientific audience of the United States. In matters of faith,
+"liberty of prophesying" was centuries since eloquently vindicated for
+Englishmen; the liberty of investigating facts is still called in
+question, under one pretence or another, and to seek out the most vital
+facts of life is still in England a perilous task.
+
+I desire most heartily to thank the numerous friends and correspondents,
+some living in remote parts of the world, who have freely assisted me in
+my work with valuable information and personal histories. To Mr. F.H.
+Perry-Coste I owe an appendix which is by far the most elaborate attempt
+yet made to find evidence of periodicity in the spontaneous sexual
+manifestations of sleep; my debts to various medical and other
+correspondents are duly stated in the text. To many women friends and
+correspondents I may here express my gratitude for the manner in which
+they have furnished me with intimate personal records, and for the
+cross-examination to which they have allowed me to subject them. I may
+already say here, what I shall have occasion to say more emphatically in
+subsequent volumes, that without the assistance I have received from women
+of fine intelligence and high character my work would be impossible. I
+regret that I cannot make my thanks more specific.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.
+
+I.
+
+The Definition of Modesty--The Significance of Modesty--Difficulties in
+the Way of Its Analysis--The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among Different
+Peoples and in Different Ages.
+
+II.
+
+Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears--Children in Relation to
+Modesty--Modesty in Animals--The Attitude of the Medicean Venus--The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship--The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse--The Meaning of Coquetry--The Sexual Charm of Modesty--Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse--The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty--The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others--The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust--The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness--The Custom of Veiling the Face--Ornaments and
+Clothing--Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment--The Economic Factor
+in Modesty--The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty--The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.
+
+III.
+
+The Blush the Sanction of Modesty--The Phenomena of Blushing--Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush--Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.
+
+IV.
+
+Summary of the Factors of Modesty--The Future of Modesty--Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.
+
+
+THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.
+
+I.
+
+The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms--Menstruation--The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon--Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races--Mittelschmerz--Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle--Menstruation among Animals--Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes--What is Menstruation--Its Primary Cause Still Obscure--The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation--The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health--The Relation of Menstruation to "Heat"--The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation--The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period--Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.
+
+II.
+
+The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men--The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men--Periodicity in Disease--Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.--The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle--The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep--Original
+Observations--Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms.
+
+III.
+
+The Annual Sexual Rhythm--In Animals--In Man--Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn--The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals--The Feast of Fools--The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires--The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate--The Causes of those
+Variations--The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe--The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep--Original
+Observations--Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement--The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes--Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners--The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide--The Growth of
+Children According to Season--The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons--Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever--The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena.
+
+
+AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL
+IMPULSE.
+
+I.
+
+Definition of Auto-erotism--Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field--The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day--Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals--Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races--The Japanese _rin-no-tama_ and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification--Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life--The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder--The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling--The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle--Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement--_Delectatio
+Morosa_--Day-dreaming--_Pollutio_--Sexual Excitement During Sleep--Erotic
+Dreams--The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis--Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women--The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical--Their Frequently Painful Character.
+
+II.
+
+Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions--The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation--The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views--Charcot--The Revolt Against Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions--Fallacies Involved--Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament--Breuer and Freud--Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's--At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria--But They Must Not be Regarded as Final--The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons--The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria--True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.
+
+III.
+
+The Prevalence of Masturbation--Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood--Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?--After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women--Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation--The Alleged Evils of Masturbation--Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point--The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation--Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders--Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders--The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System--Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation--Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus--Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation--Masturbation in Men of Genius--Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative--Typical Cases--The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation--Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians--The Mohammedan Attitude--The Modern
+Scientific Attitude--In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?--The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+The Influence of Menstruation on the Position of Women.
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+Sexual Periodicity in Men.
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+The Auto-erotic Factor in Religion.
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+DIAGRAMS.
+
+
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.
+
+I.
+
+The Definition of Modesty--The Significance of Modesty--Difficulties in
+the Way of Its Analysis--The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among Different
+Peoples and in Different Ages.
+
+
+Modesty, which may be provisionally defined as an almost instinctive fear
+prompting to concealment and usually centering around the sexual
+processes, while common to both sexes is more peculiarly feminine, so that
+it may almost be regarded as the chief secondary sexual character of women
+on the psychical side. The woman who is lacking in this kind of fear is
+lacking, also, in sexual attractiveness to the normal and average man. The
+apparent exceptions seem to prove the rule, for it will generally be found
+that the women who are, not immodest (for immodesty is more closely
+related to modesty than mere negative absence of the sense of modesty),
+but without that fear which implies the presence of a complex emotional
+feminine organization to defend, only make a strong sexual appeal to men
+who are themselves lacking in the complementary masculine qualities. As a
+psychical secondary sexual character of the first rank, it is necessary,
+before any psychology of sex can be arranged in order, to obtain a clear
+view of modesty.
+
+    The immense importance of feminine modesty in creating masculine
+    passion must be fairly obvious. I may, however, quote the
+    observations of two writers who have shown evidence of insight
+    and knowledge regarding this matter.
+
+    Casanova describes how, when at Berne, he went to the baths, and
+    was, according to custom, attended by a young girl, whom he
+    selected from a group of bath attendants. She undressed him,
+    proceeded to undress herself, and then entered the bath with him,
+    and rubbed him thoroughly all over, the operation being performed
+    in the most serious manner and without a word being spoken. When
+    all was over, however, he perceived that the girl had expected
+    him to make advances, and he proceeds to describe and discuss his
+    own feelings of indifference under such circumstances. "Though
+    without gazing on the girl's figure, I had seen enough to
+    recognize that she had all that a man can desire to find in a
+    woman: a beautiful face, lively and well-formed eyes, a beautiful
+    mouth, with good teeth, a healthy complexion, well-developed
+    breasts, and everything in harmony. It is true that I had felt
+    that her hands could have been smoother, but I could only
+    attribute this to hard work; moreover, my Swiss girl was only
+    eighteen, and yet I remained entirely cold. What was the cause of
+    this? That was the question that I asked myself."
+
+    "It is clear," wrote Stendhal, "that three parts of modesty are
+    taught. This is, perhaps, the only law born of civilization which
+    produces nothing but happiness. It has been observed that birds
+    of prey hide themselves to drink, because, being obliged to
+    plunge their heads in the water, they are at that moment
+    defenceless. After having considered what passes at Otaheite, I
+    can see no other natural foundation for modesty. Love is the
+    miracle of civilization. Among savage and very barbarous races we
+    find nothing but physical love of a gross character. It is
+    modesty that gives to love the aid of imagination, and in so
+    doing imparts life to it. Modesty is very early taught to little
+    girls by their mothers, and with extreme jealousy, one might say,
+    by _esprit de corps_. They are watching in advance over the
+    happiness of the future lover. To a timid and tender woman there
+    ought to be no greater torture than to allow herself in the
+    presence of a man something which she thinks she ought to blush
+    at. I am convinced that a proud woman would prefer a thousand
+    deaths. A slight liberty taken on the tender side by the man she
+    loves gives a woman a moment of keen pleasure, but if he has the
+    air of blaming her for it, or only of not enjoying it with
+    transport, an awful doubt must be left in her mind. For a woman
+    above the vulgar level there is, then, everything to gain by very
+    reserved manners. The play is not equal. She hazards against a
+    slight pleasure, or against the advantage of appearing a little
+    amiable, the danger of biting remorse, and a feeling of shame
+    which must render even the lover less dear. An evening passed
+    gaily and thoughtlessly, without thinking of what comes after, is
+    dearly paid at this price. The sight of a lover with whom one
+    fears that one has had this kind of wrong must become odious for
+    several days. Can one be surprised at the force of a habit, the
+    slightest infractions of which are punished with such atrocious
+    shame? As to the utility of modesty, it is the mother of love. As
+    to the mechanism of the feeling, nothing is simpler. The mind is
+    absorbed in feeling shame instead of being occupied with desire.
+    Desires are forbidden, and desires lead to actions. It is evident
+    that every tender and proud woman--and these two things, being
+    cause and effect, naturally go together--must contract habits of
+    coldness which the people whom she disconcerts call prudery. The
+    power of modesty is so great that a tender woman betrays herself
+    with her lover rather by deeds than by words. The evil of
+    modesty is that it constantly leads to falsehood." (Stendhal, _De
+    l'Amour_, Chapter XXIV.)
+
+    It thus happens that, as Adler remarks (_Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 133), the sexual impulse in
+    women is fettered by an inhibition which has to be conquered. A
+    thin veil of reticence, shyness, and anxiety is constantly cast
+    anew over a woman's love, and her wooer, in every act of
+    courtship, has the enjoyment of conquering afresh an oft-won
+    woman.
+
+    An interesting testimony to the part played by modesty in
+    effecting the union of the sexes is furnished by the fact--to
+    which attention has often been called--that the special modesty
+    of women usually tends to diminish, though not to disappear, with
+    the complete gratification of the sexual impulses. This may be
+    noted among savage as well as among civilized women. The
+    comparatively evanescent character of modesty has led to the
+    argument (Venturi, _Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali_, pp. 92-93)
+    that modesty (_pudore_) is possessed by women alone, men
+    exhibiting, instead, a sense of decency which remains at about
+    the same level of persistency throughout life. Viazzi ("Pudore
+    nell 'uomo e nella donna," _Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria
+    Forense_, 1898), on the contrary, following Sergi, argues that
+    men are, throughout, more modest than women; but the points he
+    brings forward, though often just, scarcely justify his
+    conclusion. While the young virgin, however, is more modest and
+    shy than the young man of the same age, the experienced married
+    woman is usually less so than her husband, and in a woman who is
+    a mother the shy reticences of virginal modesty would be rightly
+    felt to be ridiculous. ("Les petites pudeurs n'existent pas pour
+    les mères," remarks Goncourt, _Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii,
+    p. 5.) She has put off a sexual livery that has no longer any
+    important part to play in life, and would, indeed, be
+    inconvenient and harmful, just as a bird loses its sexual plumage
+    when the pairing season is over.
+
+    Madame Céline Renooz, in an elaborate study of the psychological
+    sexual differences between men and women (_Psychologie Comparée
+    de l'Homme et de la Femme_, 1898, pp. 85-87), also believes that
+    modesty is not really a feminine characteristic. "Modesty," she
+    argues, "is masculine shame attributed to women for two reasons:
+    first, because man believes that woman is subject to the same
+    laws as himself; secondly, because the course of human evolution
+    has reversed the psychology of the sexes, attributing to women
+    the psychological results of masculine sexuality. This is the
+    origin of the conventional lies which by a sort of social
+    suggestion have intimidated women. They have, in appearance at
+    least, accepted the rule of shame imposed on them by men, but
+    only custom inspires the modesty for which they are praised; it
+    is really an outrage to their sex. This reversal of psychological
+    laws has, however, only been accepted by women with a struggle.
+    Primitive woman, proud of her womanhood, for a long time
+    defended her nakedness which ancient art has always represented.
+    And in the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a moment
+    when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex, the
+    intuition of her moral superiority, and cannot understand why she
+    must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the laws of
+    Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if nakedness
+    should or should not affright her. A sort of confused atavistic
+    memory recalls to her a period before clothing was known, and
+    reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of that human
+    epoch."
+
+    In support of this view the authoress proceeds to point out that
+    the _décolleté_ constantly reappears in feminine clothing, never
+    in male; that missionaries experience great difficulty in
+    persuading women to cover themselves; that, while women accept
+    with facility an examination by male doctors, men cannot force
+    themselves to accept examination by a woman doctor, etc. (These
+    and similar points had already been independently brought forward
+    by Sergi, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xiii, 1892.)
+
+    It cannot be said that Madame Renooz's arguments will all bear
+    examination, if only on the ground that nakedness by no means
+    involves absence of modesty, but the point of view which she
+    expresses is one which usually fails to gain recognition, though
+    it probably contains an important element of truth. It is quite
+    true, as Stendhal said, that modesty is very largely taught; from
+    the earliest years, a girl child is trained to show a modesty
+    which she quickly begins really to feel. This fact cannot fail to
+    strike any one who reads the histories of pseudo-hermaphroditic
+    persons, really males, who have from infancy been brought up in
+    the belief that they are girls, and who show, and feel, all the
+    shrinking reticence and blushing modesty of their supposed sex.
+    But when the error is discovered, and they are restored to their
+    proper sex, this is quickly changed, and they exhibit all the
+    boldness of masculinity. (See e.g., Neugebauer, "Beobachtungen
+    aus dem Gebiete des Scheinzwittertumes," _Jahrbuch für Sexuelle
+    Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang iv, 1902, esp. p. 92.) At the same time
+    this is only one thread in the tangled skein with which we are
+    here concerned. The mass of facts which meets us when we turn to
+    the study of modesty in women cannot be dismissed as a group of
+    artificially-imposed customs. They gain rather than lose in
+    importance if we have to realize that the organic sexual demands
+    of women, calling for coyness in courtship, lead to the temporary
+    suppression of another feminine instinct of opposite, though
+    doubtless allied, nature.
+
+    But these somewhat conflicting, though not really contradictory,
+    statements serve to bring out the fact that a woman's modesty is
+    often an incalculable element. The woman who, under some
+    circumstances and at some times, is extreme in her reticences,
+    under other circumstances or at other times, may be extreme in
+    her abandonment. Not that her modesty is an artificial garment,
+    which she throws off or on at will. It is organic, but like the
+    snail's shell, it sometimes forms an impenetrable covering, and
+    sometimes glides off almost altogether. A man's modesty is more
+    rigid, with little tendency to deviate toward either extreme.
+    Thus it is, that, when uninstructed, a man is apt to be impatient
+    with a woman's reticences, and yet shocked at her abandonments.
+
+The significance of our inquiry becomes greater when we reflect that to
+the reticences of sexual modesty, in their progression, expansion, and
+complication, we largely owe, not only the refinement and development of
+the sexual emotions,--"_la pudeur_" as Guyau remarked, "_a civilisé
+l'amour_"--but the subtle and pervading part which the sexual instinct has
+played in the evolution of all human culture.
+
+    "It is certain that very much of what is best in religion, art,
+    and life," remark Stanley Hall and Allin, "owes its charm to the
+    progressively-widening irradiation of sexual feeling. Perhaps the
+    reluctance of the female first long-circuited the exquisite
+    sensations connected with sexual organs and acts to the antics of
+    animal and human courtship, while restraint had the physiological
+    function of developing the colors, plumes, excessive activity,
+    and exuberant life of the pairing season. To keep certain parts
+    of the body covered, irradiated the sense of beauty to eyes,
+    hair, face, complexion, dress, form, etc., while many savage
+    dances, costumes and postures are irradiations of the sexual act.
+    Thus reticence, concealment, and restraint are among the prime
+    conditions of religion and human culture." (Stanley Hall and
+    Allin, "The Psychology of Tickling," _American Journal of
+    Psychology_, 1897, p. 31.)
+
+    Groos attributes the deepening of the conjugal relation among
+    birds to the circumstance that the male seeks to overcome the
+    reticence of the female by the display of his charms and
+    abilities. "And in the human world," he continues, "it is the
+    same; without the modest reserve of the woman that must, in most
+    cases, be overcome by lovable qualities, the sexual relationship
+    would with difficulty find a singer who would extol in love the
+    highest movements of the human soul." (Groos, _Spiele der
+    Menschen_, p. 341.)
+
+I have not, however, been, able to find that the subject of modesty has
+been treated in any comprehensive way by psychologists. Though valuable
+facts and suggestions bearing on the sexual emotions, on disgust, the
+origins of tatooing, on ornament and clothing, have been, brought forward
+by physiologists, psychologists, and ethnographists, few or no attempts
+appear to have been made to reach a general synthetic statement of these
+facts and suggestions. It is true that a great many unreliable, slight, or
+fragmentary efforts have been made to ascertain the constitution or basis
+of this emotion.[1] Many psychologists have regarded modesty simply as the
+result of clothing. This view is overturned by the well-ascertained fact
+that many races which go absolutely naked possess a highly-developed sense
+of modesty. These writers have not realized that physiological modesty is
+earlier in appearance, and more fundamental, than anatomical modesty. A
+partial contribution to the analysis of modesty has been made by Professor
+James, who, with his usual insight and lucidity, has set forth certain of
+its characteristics, especially the element due to "the application to
+ourselves of judgments primarily passed upon our mates." Guyau, in a very
+brief discussion of modesty, realized its great significance and touched
+on most of its chief elements.[2] Westermarck, again, followed by Grosse,
+has very ably and convincingly set forth certain factors in the origin of
+ornament and clothing, a subject which many writers imagine to cover the
+whole field of modesty. More recently Ribot, in his work on the emotions,
+has vaguely outlined most of the factors of modesty, but has not developed
+a coherent view of their origins and relationships.
+
+    Since the present _Study_ first appeared, Hohenemser, who
+    considers that my analysis of modesty is unsatisfactory, has made
+    a notable attempt to define the psychological mechanism of shame.
+    ("Versuch einer Analyse der Scham," _Archiv für die Gesamte
+    Psychologie_, Bd. II, Heft 2-3, 1903.) He regards shame as a
+    general psycho-physical phenomenon, "a definite tension of the
+    whole soul," with an emotion superadded. "The state of shame
+    consists in a certain psychic lameness or inhibition," sometimes
+    accompanied by physical phenomena of paralysis, such as sinking
+    of the head and inability to meet the eye. It is a special case
+    of Lipps's psychic stasis or damming up (_psychische Stauung_),
+    always produced when the psychic activities are at the same time
+    drawn in two or more different directions. In shame there is
+    always something present in consciousness which conflicts with
+    the rest of the personality, and cannot be brought into harmony
+    with it, which cannot be brought, that is, into moral (not
+    logical) relationship with it. A young man in love with a girl is
+    ashamed when told that he is in love, because his reverence for
+    one whom he regards as a higher being cannot be brought into
+    relationship with his own lower personality. A child in the same
+    way feels shame in approaching a big, grown-up person, who seems
+    a higher sort of being. Sometimes, likewise, we feel shame in
+    approaching a stranger, for a new person tends to seem higher and
+    more interesting than ourselves. It is not so in approaching a
+    new natural phenomenon, because we do not compare it with
+    ourselves. Another kind of shame is seen when this mental contest
+    is lower than our personality, and on this account in conflict
+    with it, as when we are ashamed of sexual thoughts. Sexual ideas
+    tend to evoke shame, Hohenemser remarks, because they so easily
+    tend to pass into sexual feelings; when they do not so pass (as
+    in scientific discussions) they do not evoke shame.
+
+    It will be seen that this discussion of modesty is highly
+    generalized and abstracted; it deals simply with the formal
+    mechanism of the process. Hohenemser admits that fear is a form
+    of psychic stasis, and I have sought to show that modesty is a
+    complexus of fears. We may very well accept the conception of
+    psychic stasis at the outset. The analysis of modesty has still
+    to be carried very much further.
+
+The discussion of modesty is complicated by the difficulty, and even
+impossibility, of excluding closely-allied emotions--shame, shyness,
+bashfulness, timidity, etc.--all of which, indeed, however defined, adjoin
+or overlap modesty.[3] It is not, however, impossible to isolate the main
+body of the emotion of modesty, on account of its special connection, on
+the whole, with the consciousness of sex. I here attempt, however
+imperfectly, to sketch out a fairly-complete analysis of its constitution
+and to trace its development.
+
+    In entering upon this investigation a few facts with regard to
+    the various manifestations of modesty may be helpful to us. I
+    have selected these from scattered original sources, and have
+    sought to bring out the variety and complexity of the problems
+    with which we are here concerned.
+
+    The New Georgians of the Solomon Islands, so low a race that they
+    are ignorant both of pottery and weaving, and wear only a loin
+    cloth, "have the same ideas of what is decent with regard to
+    certain acts and exposures that we ourselves have;" so that it is
+    difficult to observe whether they practice circumcision.
+    (Somerville, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1897, p.
+    394.)
+
+    In the New Hebrides "the closest secrecy is adopted with regard
+    to the penis, not at all from a sense of decency, but to avoid
+    Narak, the _sight_ even of that of another man being considered
+    most dangerous. The natives of this savage island, accordingly,
+    wrap the penis around with many yards of calico, and other like
+    materials, winding and folding them until a preposterous bundle
+    18 inches, or 2 feet long, and 2 inches or more in diameter is
+    formed, which is then supported upward by means of a belt, in the
+    extremity decorated with flowering grasses, etc. The testicles
+    are left naked." There is no other body covering. (Somerville,
+    _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1894, p. 368.)
+
+    In the Pelew Islands, says Kubary, as quoted by Bastian, it is
+    said that when the God Irakaderugel and his wife were creating
+    man and woman (he forming man and she forming woman), and were at
+    work on the sexual organs, the god wished to see his consort's
+    handiwork. She, however, was cross, and persisted in concealing
+    what she had made. Ever since then women wear an apron of
+    pandanus-leaves and men go naked. (A. Bastian, _Inselgruppen in
+    Oceanien_, p. 112.)
+
+    In the Pelew Islands, Semper tells us that when approaching a
+    large water-hole he was surprised to hear an affrighted,
+    long-drawn cry from his native friends. "A girl's voice answered
+    out of the bushes, and my people held us back, for there were
+    women bathing there who would not allow us to pass. When I
+    remarked that they were only women, of whom they need not be
+    afraid, they replied that it was not so, that women had an
+    unbounded right to punish men who passed them when bathing
+    without their permission, and could inflict fines or even death.
+    On this account, the women's bathing place is a safe and favorite
+    spot for a secret rendezvous. Fortunately a lady's toilet lasts
+    but a short time in this island." (Carl Semper, _Die
+    Palau-Inseln_, 1873, p. 68.)
+
+    Among the Western Tribes of Torres Strait, Haddon states, "the
+    men were formerly nude, and the women wore only a leaf petticoat,
+    but I gather that they were a decent people; now both sexes are
+    prudish. A man would never go nude before me. The women would
+    never voluntarily expose their breasts to white men's gaze; this
+    applies to quite young girls, less so to old women. Amongst
+    themselves they are, of course, much less particular, but I
+    believe they are becoming more so.... Formerly, I imagine, there
+    was no restraint in speech; now there is a great deal of prudery;
+    for instance, the men were always much ashamed when I asked for
+    the name of the sexual parts of a woman." (A.C. Haddon,
+    "Ethnography of the Western Tribes of Torres Straits," _Journal
+    of the Anthropological Institute_, 1890, p. 336.) After a
+    subsequent expedition to the same region, the author reiterates
+    his observations as to the "ridiculously prudish manner" of the
+    men, attributable to missionary influence during the past thirty
+    years, and notes that even the children are affected by it. "At
+    Mabuiag, some small children were paddling in the water, and a
+    boy of about ten years of age reprimanded a little girl of five
+    or six years because she held up her dress too high." (_Reports
+    of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_,
+    vol. v, p. 272.)
+
+    "Although the women of New Guinea," Vahness says, "are very
+    slightly clothed, they are by no means lacking in a
+    well-developed sense of decorum. If they notice, for instance,
+    that any one is paying special attention to their nakedness, they
+    become ashamed and turn round." When a woman had to climb the
+    fence to enter the wild-pig enclosure, she would never do it in
+    Vahness's presence. (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Verhdlgen.,
+    1900, Heft 5, p. 415.)
+
+    In Australia "the feeling of decency is decidedly less prevalent
+    among males than females;" the clothed females retire out of
+    sight to bathe. (Curr, _Australian Race_.)
+
+    "Except for waist-bands, forehead-bands, necklets, and armlets,
+    and a conventional pubic tassel, shell, or, in the case of the
+    women, a small apron, the Central Australian native is naked. The
+    pubic tassel is a diminutive structure, about the size of a
+    five-shilling piece, made of a few short strands of fur-strings
+    flattened out into a fan-shape and attached to the pubic hair. As
+    the string, especially at _corrobboree_ times, is covered with
+    white kaolin or gypsum, it serves as a decoration rather than a
+    covering. Among the Arunta and Luritcha the women usually wear
+    nothing, but further north, a small apron is made and worn."
+    (Baldwin Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
+    Australia_, p. 572.)
+
+    Of the Central Australians Stirling says: "No sense of shame of
+    exposure was exhibited by the men on removal of the diminutive
+    articles worn as conventional coverings; they were taken off
+    _coram populo_, and bartered without hesitation. On the other
+    hand, some little persuasion was necessary to allow inspection of
+    the effect of [urethral] sub-incision, assent being given only
+    after dismissal to a distance of the women and young children. As
+    to the women, it was nearly always observed that when in camp
+    without clothing they, especially the younger ones, exhibited by
+    their attitude a keen sense of modesty, if, indeed, a
+    consciousness of their nakedness can be thus considered. When we
+    desired to take a photograph of a group of young women, they were
+    very coy at the proposal to remove their scanty garments, and
+    retired behind a wall to do so; but once in a state of nudity
+    they made no objection to exposure to the camera." (_Report of
+    the Horn Scientific Expedition_, 1896, vol. iv, p. 37.)
+
+    In Northern Queensland "phallocrypts," or "penis-concealers,"
+    only used by the males at _corrobborees_ and other public
+    rejoicings, are either formed of pearl-shell or opossum-string.
+    The _koom-pa-ra_, or opossum-string form of phallocrypt, forms a
+    kind of tassel, and is colored red; it is hung from the
+    waist-belt in the middle line. In both sexes the privates are
+    only covered on special public occasions, or when in close
+    proximity to white settlements. (W. Roth, _Ethnological Studies
+    among the Northwest-Central-Queensland Aborigines_, 1897, pp.
+    114-115.)
+
+    "The principle of chastity," said Forster, of his experiences in
+    the South Sea Islands in their unspoilt state, "we found in many
+    families exceedingly well understood. I have seen many fine women
+    who, with a modesty mixed with politeness, refuse the greatest
+    and most tempting offers made them by our forward youths; often
+    they excuse themselves with a simple _tirra-tano_, 'I am
+    married,' and at other times they smiled and declined it with
+    _epia_, 'no.' ... Virtuous women hear a joke without emotion,
+    which, amongst us, might put some men to the blush. Neither
+    austerity and anger, nor joy and ecstasy is the consequence, but
+    sometimes a modest, dignified, serene smile spreads itself over
+    their face, and seems gently to rebuke the uncouth jester." (J.R.
+    Forster, _Observations made During a Voyage Round the World_,
+    1728, p. 392.)
+
+    Captain Cook, at Tahiti, in 1769, after performing Divine service
+    on Sunday, witnessed "Vespers of a very different kind. A young
+    man, near six feet high, performed the rites of Venus with a
+    little girl about eleven or twelve years of age, before several
+    of our people and a great number of the natives, without the
+    least sense of its being indecent or improper, but, as it
+    appeared, in perfect conformity to the custom of the place. Among
+    the spectators were several women of superior rank, who may
+    properly be said to have assisted at the ceremony; for they gave
+    instructions to the girl how to perform her part, which, young as
+    she was, she did not seem much to stand in need of." (J.
+    Hawkesworth, _Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. i, p.
+    469.)
+
+    At Tahiti, according to Cook, it was customary to "gratify every
+    appetite and passion before witnesses," and it is added, "in the
+    conversation of these people, that which is the principal source
+    of their pleasure is always the principal topic; everything is
+    mentioned without any restraint or emotion, and in the most
+    direct terms, by both sexes." (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol ii, p.
+    45.)
+
+    "I have observed," Captain Cook wrote, "that our friends in the
+    South Seas have not even the idea of indecency, with respect to
+    any object or any action, but this was by no means the case with
+    the inhabitants of New Zealand, in whose carriage and
+    conversation there was as much modest reserve and decorum with
+    respect to actions, which yet in their opinion were not criminal,
+    as are to be found among the politest people in Europe. The women
+    were not impregnable; but the terms and manner of compliance were
+    as decent as those in marriage among us, and according to their
+    notions, the agreement was as innocent. When any of our people
+    made an overture to any of their young women, he was given to
+    understand that the consent of her friends was necessary, and by
+    the influence of a proper present it was generally obtained; but
+    when these preliminaries were settled, it was also necessary to
+    treat the wife for a night with the same delicacy that is here
+    required by the wife for life, and the lover who presumed to take
+    any liberties by which this was violated, was sure to be
+    disappointed." (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 254.)
+
+    Cook found that the people of New Zealand "bring the prepuce over
+    the gland, and to prevent it from being drawn back by contraction
+    of the part, they tie the string which hangs from the girdle
+    round the end of it. The glans, indeed, seemed to be the only
+    part of their body which they were solicitous to conceal, for
+    they frequently threw off all their dress but the belt and
+    string, with the most careless indifference, but showed manifest
+    signs of confusion when, to gratify our curiosity, they were
+    requested to untie the string, and never consented but with the
+    utmost reluctance and shame.... The women's lower garment was
+    always bound fast round them, except when they went into the
+    water to catch lobsters, and then they took great care not to be
+    seen by the men. We surprised several of them at this employment,
+    and the chaste Diana, with her nymphs, could not have discovered
+    more confusion and distress at the sight of Actæon, than these
+    women expressed upon our approach. Some of them hid themselves
+    among the rocks, and the rest crouched down in the sea till they
+    had made themselves a girdle and apron of such weeds as they
+    could find, and when they came out, even with this veil, we could
+    see that their modesty suffered much pain by our presence."
+    (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 257-258.)
+
+    In Rotuma, in Polynesia, where the women enjoy much freedom, but
+    where, at all events in old days, married people were, as a rule,
+    faithful to each other, "the language is not chaste according to
+    our ideas, and there is a great deal of freedom in speaking of
+    immoral vices. In this connection a man and his wife will speak
+    freely to one another before their friends. I am informed,
+    though, by European traders well conversant with the language,
+    that there are grades of language, and that certain coarse
+    phrases would never be used to any decent woman; so that
+    probably, in their way, they have much modesty, only we cannot
+    appreciate it." (J. Stanley Gardiner, "The Natives of Rotuma,"
+    _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, May, 1898, p. 481.)
+
+    The men of Rotuma, says the same writer, are very clean, the
+    women also, bathing twice a day in the sea; but "bathing in
+    public without the _kukuluga_, or _sulu_ [loin-cloth, which is
+    the ordinary dress], around the waist is absolutely unheard of,
+    and would be much looked down upon." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1898, p. 410.)
+
+    In ancient Samoa the only necessary garment for either man or
+    woman was an apron of leaves, but they possessed so "delicate a
+    sense of propriety" that even "while bathing they have a girdle
+    of leaves or some other covering around the waist." (Turner,
+    _Samoa a Hundred Years Ago_, p. 121.)
+
+    After babyhood the Indians of Guiana are never seen naked. When
+    they change their single garment they retire. The women wear a
+    little apron, now generally made of European beads, but the
+    Warraus still make it of the inner bark of a tree, and some of
+    seeds. (Everard im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, 1883.)
+
+    The Mandurucu women of Brazil, according to Tocantins (quoted by
+    Mantegazza), are completely naked, but they are careful to avoid
+    any postures which might be considered indecorous, and they do
+    this so skilfully that it is impossible to tell when they have
+    their menstrual periods. (Mantegazza, _Fisiologia della Donna_,
+    cap 9.)
+
+    The Indians of Central Brazil have no "private parts." In men the
+    little girdle, or string, surrounding the lower part of the
+    abdomen, hides nothing; it is worn after puberty, the penis being
+    often raised and placed beneath it to lengthen the prepuce. The
+    women also use a little strip of bast that goes down the groin
+    and passes between the thighs. Among some tribes (Karibs, Tupis,
+    Nu-Arwaks) a little, triangular, coquettishly-made piece of
+    bark-bast comes just below the mons veneris; it is only a few
+    centimetres in width, and is called the _uluri. In both sexes
+    concealment of the sexual mucous membrane is attained_. These
+    articles cannot be called clothing. "The red thread of the
+    Trumai, the elegant _uluri_, and the variegated flag of the
+    Bororó attract attention, like ornaments, instead of drawing
+    attention away." Von den Steinen thinks this proceeding a
+    necessary protection against the attacks of insects, which are
+    often serious in Brazil. He does think, however, that there is
+    more than this, and that the people are ashamed to show the
+    glans penis. (Karl von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern
+    Zentral-Brasiliens_, 1894, pp. 190 et seq.)
+
+    Other travelers mention that on the Amazon among some tribes the
+    women are clothed and the men naked; among others the women
+    naked, and the men clothed. Thus, among the Guaycurus the men are
+    quite naked, while the women wear a short petticoat; among the
+    Uaupás the men always wear a loin-cloth, while the women are
+    quite naked.
+
+    "The feeling of modesty is very developed among the Fuegians, who
+    are accustomed to live naked. They manifest it in their bearing
+    and in the ease with which they show themselves in a state of
+    nudity, compared with the awkwardness, blushing, and shame which
+    both men and women exhibit if one gazes at certain parts of their
+    bodies. Among themselves this is never done even between husband
+    and wife. There is no Fuegian word for modesty, perhaps because
+    the feeling is universal among them." The women wear a minute
+    triangular garment of skin suspended between the thighs and never
+    removed, being merely raised during conjugal relations. (Hyades
+    and Deniker, _Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn_, vol. vii, pp.
+    239, 307, and 347.)
+
+    Among the Crow Indians of Montana, writes Dr. Holder, who has
+    lived with them for several years, "a sense of modesty forbids
+    the attendance upon the female in labor of any male, white man or
+    Indian, physician or layman. This antipathy to receiving
+    assistance at the hands of the physician is overcome as the
+    tribes progress toward civilization, and it is especially
+    noticeable that half-breeds almost constantly seek the
+    physician's aid." Dr. Holder mentions the case of a young woman
+    who, although brought near the verge of death in a very difficult
+    first confinement, repeatedly refused to allow him to examine
+    her; at last she consented; "her modest preparation was to take
+    bits of quilt and cover thighs and lips of vulva, leaving only
+    the aperture exposed.... Their modesty would not be so striking
+    were it not that, almost to a woman, the females of this tribe
+    are prostitutes, and for a consideration will admit the
+    connection of any man." (A.B. Holder, _American Journal of
+    Obstetrics_, vol. xxv, No. 6, 1892.)
+
+    "In every North American tribe, from the most northern to the
+    most southern, the skirt of the woman is longer than that of the
+    men. In Esquimau land the _parka_ of deerskin and sealskin
+    reaches to the knees. Throughout Central North America the
+    buckskin dress of the women reached quite to the ankles. The
+    West-Coast women, from Oregon to the Gulf of California, wore a
+    petticoat of shredded bark, of plaited grass, or of strings, upon
+    which were strung hundreds of seeds. Even in the most tropical
+    areas the rule was universal, as anyone can see from the codices
+    or in pictures of the natives." (Otis T. Mason, _Woman's Share in
+    Primitive Culture_, p. 237.)
+
+    Describing the loin-cloth worn by Nicobarese men, Man says: "From
+    the clumsy mode in which this garment is worn by the Shom
+    Pen--necessitating frequent readjustment of the folds--one is led
+    to infer that its use is not _de rigueur_, but reserved for
+    special occasions, as when receiving or visiting strangers."
+    (E.H. Man, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1886, p.
+    442.)
+
+    The semi-nude natives of the island of Nias in the Indian Ocean
+    are "modest by nature," paying no attention to their own nudity
+    or that of others, and much scandalized by any attempt to go
+    beyond the limits ordained by custom. When they pass near places
+    where women are bathing they raise their voices in order to warn
+    them of their presence, and even although any bold youth
+    addressed the women, and the latter replied, no attempt would be
+    made to approach them; any such attempt would be severely
+    punished by the head man of the village. (Modigliani, _Un Viaggio
+    a Nias_, p. 460.)
+
+    Man says that the Andamanese in modesty and self-respect compare
+    favorably with many classes among civilized peoples. "Women are
+    so modest that they will not renew their leaf-aprons in the
+    presence of one another, but retire to a secluded spot for this
+    purpose; even when parting with one of their _bod_ appendages
+    [tails of leaves suspended from back of girdle] to a female
+    friend, the delicacy they manifest for the feelings of the
+    bystanders in their mode of removing it amounts to prudishness;
+    yet they wear no clothing in the ordinary sense." (_Journal of
+    the Anthropological Institute_, 1883, pp. 94 and 331.)
+
+    Of the Garo women of Bengal Dalton says: "Their sole garment is a
+    piece of cloth less than a foot in width that just meets around
+    the loins, and in order that it may not restrain the limbs it is
+    only fastened where it meets under the hip at the upper corners.
+    The girls are thus greatly restricted in the positions they may
+    modestly assume, but decorum is, in their opinion, sufficiently
+    preserved if they only keep their legs well together when they
+    sit or kneel." (E.T. Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, 1872, p. 66.)
+
+    Of the Naga women of Assam it is said: "Of clothing there was not
+    much to see; but in spite of this I doubt whether we could excel
+    them in true decency and modesty. Ibn Muhammed Wali had already
+    remarked in his history of the conquest of Assam (1662-63), that
+    the Naga women only cover their breasts. They declare that it is
+    absurd to cover those parts of the body which everyone has been
+    able to see from their births, but that it is different with the
+    breasts, which appeared later, and are, therefore, to be covered.
+    Dalton (_Journal of the Asiatic Society_, Bengal, 41, 1, 84) adds
+    that in the presence of strangers Naga women simply cross their
+    arms over their breasts, without caring much what other charms
+    they may reveal to the observer. As regards some clans of the
+    naked Nagas, to whom the Banpara belong, this may still hold
+    good." (K. Klemm, "Peal's Ausflug nach Banpara," _Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 5, p. 334.)
+
+    "In Ceylon, a woman always bathes in public streams, but she
+    never removes all her clothes. She washes under the cloth, bit by
+    bit, and then slips on the dry, new cloth, and pulls out the wet
+    one from underneath (much in the same sliding way as servant
+    girls and young women in England). This is the common custom in
+    India and the Malay States. The breasts are always bare in their
+    own houses, but in the public roads are covered whenever a
+    European passes. The vulva is never exposed. They say that a
+    devil, imagined as a white and hairy being, might have
+    intercourse with them." (Private communication.)
+
+    In Borneo, "the _sirat_, called _chawal_ by the Malays, is a
+    strip of cloth a yard wide, worn round the loins and in between
+    the thighs, so as to cover the pudenda and perinæum; it is
+    generally six yards or so in length, but the younger men of the
+    present generation use as much as twelve or fourteen yards
+    (sometimes even more), which they twist and coil with great
+    precision round and round their body, until the waist and stomach
+    are fully enveloped in its folds." (H. Ling Roth, "Low's Natives
+    of Borneo," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1892, p.
+    36.)
+
+    "In their own houses in the depths of the forest the Dwarfs are
+    said to neglect coverings for decency in the men as in the women,
+    but certainly when they emerge from the forest into the villages
+    of the agricultural Negroes, they are always observed to be
+    wearing some small piece of bark-cloth or skin, or a bunch of
+    leaves over the pudenda. Elsewhere in all the regions of Africa
+    visited by the writer, or described by other observers, a neglect
+    of decency in the male has only been recorded among the Efik
+    people of Old Calabar. The nudity of women is another question.
+    In parts of West Africa, between the Niger and the Gaboon
+    (especially on the Cameroon River, at Old Calabar, and in the
+    Niger Delta), it is, or was, customary for young women to go
+    about completely nude before they were married. In Swaziland,
+    until quite recently, unmarried women and very often matrons went
+    stark naked. Even amongst the prudish Baganda, who made it a
+    punishable offense for a man to expose any part of his leg above
+    the knee, the wives of the King would attend at his Court
+    perfectly naked. Among the Kavirondo, all unmarried girls are
+    completely nude, and although women who have become mothers are
+    supposed to wear a tiny covering before and behind, they very
+    often completely neglect to do so when in their own villages.
+    Yet, as a general rule, among the Nile Negroes, and still more
+    markedly among the Hamites and people of Masai stock, the women
+    are particular about concealing the pudenda, whereas the men are
+    ostentatiously naked. The Baganda hold nudity in the male to be
+    such an abhorrent thing that for centuries they have referred
+    with scorn and disgust to the Nile Negroes as the 'naked people.'
+    Male nudity extends northwest to within some 200 miles of
+    Khartum, or, in fact, wherever the Nile Negroes of the
+    Dinka-Acholi stock inhabit the country." (Sir H.H. Johnston,
+    _Uganda Protectorate_, vol. ii, pp. 669-672.)
+
+    Among the Nilotic Ja-luo, Johnston states that "unmarried men go
+    naked. Married men who have children wear a small piece of goat
+    skin, which, though quite inadequate for purposes of decency, is,
+    nevertheless, a very important thing in etiquette, for a married
+    man with a child must on no account call on his mother-in-law
+    without wearing this piece of goat's skin. To call on her in a
+    state of absolute nudity would be regarded as a serious insult,
+    only to be atoned for by the payment of goats. Even if under the
+    new dispensation he wears European trousers, he must have a piece
+    of goat's skin underneath. Married women wear a tail of strings
+    behind." It is very bad manners for a woman to serve food to her
+    husband without putting on this tail. (Sir H.H. Johnston, _Uganda
+    Protectorate_, vol. ii, p. 781.)
+
+    Mrs. French-Sheldon remarks that the Masai and other East African
+    tribes, with regard to menstruation, "observe the greatest
+    delicacy, and are more than modest." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1894, p. 383.)
+
+    At the same time the Masai, among whom the penis is of enormous
+    size, consider it disreputable to conceal that member, and in the
+    highest degree reputable to display it, even ostentatiously. (Sir
+    H.H. Johnston, _Kilima-njaro Expedition_, p. 413.)
+
+    Among the African Dinka, who are scrupulously clean and delicate
+    (smearing themselves with burnt cows' dung, and washing
+    themselves daily with cows' urine), and are exquisite cooks,
+    reaching in many respects a higher stage of civilization, in
+    Schweinfurth's opinion, than is elsewhere attained in Africa,
+    only the women wear aprons. The neighboring tribes of the red
+    soil--Bongo, Mittoo, Niam-Niam, etc.--are called "women" by the
+    Dinka, because among these tribes the men wear an apron, while
+    the women obstinately refuse to wear any clothes whatsoever of
+    skin or stuff, going into the woods every day, however, to get a
+    supple bough for a girdle, with, perhaps, a bundle of fine grass.
+    (Schweinfurth, _Heart of Africa_, vol. i, pp. 152, etc.)
+
+    Lombroso and Carrara, examining some Dinka negroes brought from
+    the White Nile, remark: "As to their psychology, what struck us
+    first was the exaggeration of their modesty; not in a single case
+    would the men allow us to examine their genital organs or the
+    women their breasts; we examined the tattoo-marks on the chest of
+    one of the women, and she remained sad and irritable for two days
+    afterward." They add that in sexual and all other respects these
+    people are highly moral. (Lombroso and Carrara, _Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1896, vol. xvii, fasc. 4.)
+
+    "The negro is very rarely knowingly indecent or addicted to
+    lubricity," says Sir H.H. Johnston. "In this land of nudity,
+    which I have known for seven years, I do not remember once having
+    seen an indecent gesture on the part of either man or woman, and
+    only very rarely (and that not among unspoiled savages) in the
+    case of that most shameless member of the community--the little
+    boy." He adds that the native dances are only an apparent
+    exception, being serious in character, though indecent to our
+    eyes, almost constituting a religious ceremony. The only really
+    indecent dance indigenous to Central Africa "is one which
+    originally represented the act of coition, but it is so altered
+    to a stereotyped formula that its exact purport is not obvious
+    until explained somewhat shyly by the natives.... It may safely
+    be asserted that the negro race in Central Africa is much more
+    truly modest, is much more free from real vice, than are most
+    European nations. Neither boys nor girls wear clothing (unless
+    they are the children of chiefs) until nearing the age of
+    puberty. Among the Wankonda, practically no covering is worn by
+    the men except a ring of brass wire around the stomach. The
+    Wankonda women are likewise almost entirely naked, but generally
+    cover the pudenda with a tiny bead-work apron, often a piece of
+    very beautiful workmanship, and exactly resembling the same
+    article worn by Kaffir women. A like degree of nudity prevails
+    among many of the Awemba, among the A-lungu, the Batumbuka, and
+    the Angoni. Most of the Angoni men, however, adopt the Zulu
+    fashion of covering the glans penis with a small wooden case or
+    the outer shell of a fruit. The Wa-Yao have a strong sense of
+    decency in matters of this kind, which is the more curious since
+    they are more given to obscenity in their rites, ceremonies, and
+    dances than any other tribe. Not only is it extremely rare to see
+    any Yao uncovered, but both men and women have the strongest
+    dislike to exposing their persons even to the inspection of a
+    doctor. The Atonga and many of the A-nyanga people, and all the
+    tribes west of Nyassa (with the exception possibly of the
+    A-lunda) have not the Yao regard for decency, and, although they
+    can seldom or ever be accused of a deliberate intention to expose
+    themselves, the men are relatively indifferent as to whether
+    their nakedness is or is not concealed, though the women are
+    modest and careful in this respect." (H.H. Johnston, _British
+    Central Africa_, 1897, pp. 408-419.)
+
+    In Azimba land, Central Africa, H. Crawford Angus, who has spent
+    many years in this part of Africa, writes: "It has been my
+    experience that the more naked the people, and the more to us
+    obscene and shameless their manners and customs, the more moral
+    and strict they are in the matter of sexual intercourse." He
+    proceeds to give a description of the _chensamwali_, or
+    initiation ceremony of girls at puberty, a season of rejoicing
+    when the girl is initiated into all the secrets of marriage, amid
+    songs and dances referring to the act of coition. "The whole
+    matter is looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing
+    to be ashamed of or to hide, and, being thus openly treated of
+    and no secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the
+    women are very virtuous. They know from the first all that is to
+    be known, and cannot see any reason for secrecy concerning
+    natural laws or the powers and senses that have been given them
+    from birth." (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479.)
+
+    Of the Monbuttu of Central Africa, another observer says: "It is
+    surprising how a Monbuttu woman of birth can, without the aid of
+    dress, impress others with her dignity and modesty." (_British
+    Medical Journal_. June 14, 1890.)
+
+    "The women at Upoto wear no clothes whatever, and came up to us
+    in the most unreserved manner. An interesting gradation in the
+    arrangement of the female costume has been observed by us: as we
+    ascended the Congo, the higher up the river we found ourselves,
+    the higher the dress reached, till it has now, at last,
+    culminated in absolute nudity." (T.H. Parke, _My Personal
+    Experiences in Equatorial Africa_, 1891, p. 61.)
+
+    "There exists throughout the Congo population a marked
+    appreciation of the sentiment of decency and shame as applied to
+    private actions," says Mr. Herbert Ward. In explanation of the
+    nudity of the women at Upoto, a chief remarked to Ward that
+    "concealment is food for the inquisitive." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1895, p. 293.)
+
+    In the Gold Coast and surrounding countries complete nudity is
+    extremely rare, except when circumstances make it desirable; on
+    occasion clothing is abandoned with unconcern. "I have on several
+    occasions," says Dr. Freeman, "seen women at Accra walk from the
+    beach, where they have been bathing, across the road to their
+    houses, where they would proceed to dry themselves, and resume
+    their garments; and women may not infrequently be seen bathing in
+    pools by the wayside, conversing quite unconstrainedly with their
+    male acquaintances, who are seated on the bank. The mere
+    unclothed body conveys to their minds no idea of indecency.
+    Immodesty and indelicacy of manner are practically unknown." He
+    adds that the excessive zeal of missionaries in urging their
+    converts to adopt European dress--which they are only too ready
+    to do--is much to be regretted, since the close-fitting, thin
+    garments are really less modest than the loose clothes they
+    replace, besides being much less cleanly. (R.A. Freeman, _Travels
+    and Life in Ashanti and Jaman_, 1898, p. 379.)
+
+    At Loango, says Pechuel-Loesche, "the well-bred negress likes to
+    cover her bosom, and is sensitive to critical male eyes; if she
+    meets a European when without her overgarment, she instinctively,
+    though not without coquetry, takes the attitude of the Medicean
+    Venus." Men and women bathe separately, and hide themselves from
+    each other when naked. The women also exhibit shame when
+    discovered suckling their babies. (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_,
+    1878, pp. 27-31.)
+
+    The Koran (Sura XXIV) forbids showing the pudenda, as well as the
+    face, yet a veiled Mohammedan woman, Stern remarks, even in the
+    streets of Constantinople, will stand still and pull up her
+    clothes to scratch her private parts, and in Beyrout, he saw
+    Turkish prostitutes, still veiled, place themselves in the
+    position for coitus. (B. Stern, _Medizin, etc., in der Türkei_,
+    vol. ii, p. 162.)
+
+    "An Englishman surprised a woman while bathing in the Euphrates;
+    she held her hands over her face, without troubling as to what
+    else the stranger might see. In Egypt, I have myself seen quite
+    naked young peasant girls, who hastened to see us, after covering
+    their faces." (C. Niebuhr, _Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien_,
+    1774, vol. i, p. 165.)
+
+    When Helfer was taken to visit the ladies in the palace of the
+    Imam of Muskat, at Buscheir, he found that their faces were
+    covered with black masks, though the rest of the body might be
+    clothed in a transparent sort of crape; to look at a naked face
+    was very painful to the ladies themselves; even a mother never
+    lifts the mask from the face of her daughter after the age of
+    twelve; that is reserved for her lord and husband. "I observed
+    that the ladies looked at me with a certain confusion, and after
+    they had glanced into my face, lowered their eyes, ashamed. On
+    making inquiries, I found that my uncovered face was indecent, as
+    a naked person would be to us. They begged me to assume a mask,
+    and when a waiting-woman had bound a splendidly decorated one
+    round my head, they all exclaimed: 'Tahip! tahip!'--beautiful,
+    beautiful." (J.W. Helfer, _Reisen in Vorderasian und Indien_,
+    vol. ii, p. 12.)
+
+    In Algeria--in the provinces of Constantine, in Biskra, even
+    Aures,--"among the women especially, not one is restrained by any
+    modesty in unfastening her girdle to any comer" (when a search
+    was being made for tattoo-marks on the lower extremities). "In
+    spite of the great licentiousness of the manners," the same
+    writer continues, "the Arab and the Kabyle possess great personal
+    modesty, and with difficulty are persuaded to exhibit the body
+    nude; is it the result of real modesty, or of their inveterate
+    habits of active pederasty? Whatever the cause, they always hide
+    the sexual organs with their hands or their handkerchiefs, and
+    are disagreeably affected even by the slightest touch of the
+    doctor." (Batut, _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, January
+    15, 1893.)
+
+    "Moslem modesty," remarks Wellhausen, "was carried to great
+    lengths, insufficient clothing being forbidden. It was marked
+    even among the heathen Arabs, as among Semites and old
+    civilizations generally; we must not be deceived by the
+    occasional examples of immodesty in individual cases. The Sunna
+    prescribes that a man shall not uncover himself even to himself,
+    and shall not wash naked--from fear of God and of spirits; Job
+    did so, and atoned for it heavily. When in Arab antiquity
+    grown-up persons showed themselves naked, it was only under
+    extraordinary circumstances, and to attain unusual ends.... Women
+    when mourning uncovered not only the face and bosom, but also
+    tore all their garments. The messenger who brought bad news tore
+    his garments. A mother desiring to bring pressure to bear on her
+    son took off her clothes. A man to whom vengeance is forbidden
+    showed his despair and disapproval by uncovering his posterior
+    and strewing earth on his head, or by raising his garment behind
+    and covering his head with it. This was done also in fulfilling
+    natural necessities." (Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_,
+    1897, pp. 173, 195-196.)
+
+    Mantegazza mentions that a Lapland woman refused even for the sum
+    of 150 francs to allow him to photograph her naked, though the
+    men placed themselves before the camera in the costume of Adam
+    for a much smaller sum. In the same book Mantegazza remarks that
+    in the eighteenth century, travelers found it extremely difficult
+    to persuade Samoyed women to show themselves naked. Among the
+    same people, he says, the newly-married wife must conceal her
+    face from her husband for two months after marriage, and only
+    then yield to his embraces. (Mantegazza, _La Donna_, cap. IV.)
+
+    "The beauty of a Chinese woman," says Dr. Matignon, "resides
+    largely in her foot. 'A foot which is not deformed is a
+    dishonor,' says a poet. For the husband the foot is more
+    interesting than the face. Only the husband may see his wife's
+    foot naked. A Chinese woman is as reticent in showing her feet to
+    a man as a European woman her breasts. I have often had to treat
+    Chinese women with ridiculously small feet for wounds and
+    excoriations, the result of tight-bandaging. They exhibited the
+    prudishness of school-girls, blushed, turned their backs to
+    unfasten the bandages, and then concealed the foot in a cloth,
+    leaving only the affected part uncovered. Modesty is a question
+    of convention; Chinese have it for their feet," (J. Matignon, "A
+    propos d'un Pied de Chinoise," _Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, 1898, p. 445.)
+
+    Among the Yakuts of Northeast Siberia, "there was a well-known
+    custom according to which a bride should avoid showing herself or
+    her uncovered body to her father-in-law. In ancient times, they
+    say, a bride concealed herself for seven years from her
+    father-in-law, and from the brothers and other masculine
+    relations of her husband.... The men also tried not to meet her,
+    saying, 'The poor child will be ashamed.' If a meeting could not
+    be avoided the young woman put a mask on her face.... Nowadays,
+    the young wives only avoid showing to their male relatives-in-law
+    the uncovered body. Amongst the rich they avoid going about in
+    the presence of these in the chemise alone. In some places, they
+    lay especial emphasis on the fact that it is a shame for young
+    wives to show their uncovered hair and feet to the male relatives
+    of their husbands. On the other side, the male relatives of the
+    husband ought to avoid showing to the young wife the body
+    uncovered above the elbow or the sole of the foot, and they ought
+    to avoid indecent expressions and vulgar vituperations in her
+    presence.... That these observances are not the result of a
+    specially delicate modesty, is proved by the fact that even young
+    girls constantly twist thread upon the naked thigh, unembarrassed
+    by the presence of men who do not belong to the household; nor do
+    they show any embarrassment if a strange man comes upon them when
+    uncovered to the waist. The one thing which they do not like, and
+    at which they show anger, is that such persons look carefully at
+    their uncovered feet.... The former simplicity, with lack of
+    shame in uncovering the body, is disappearing." (Sieroshevski,
+    "The Yakuts," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
+    Jan.-June, 1901, p. 93.)
+
+    "In Japan (Captain ---- tells me), the bathing-place of the women
+    was perfectly open (the shampooing, indeed, was done by a man),
+    and Englishmen were offered no obstacle, nor excited the least
+    repugnance; indeed, girls after their bath would freely pass,
+    sometimes as if holding out their hair for innocent admiration,
+    and this continued until countrymen of ours, by vile laughter and
+    jests, made them guard themselves from insult by secrecy. So
+    corruption spreads, and heathenism is blacker by our contact."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    "Speaking once with a Japanese gentleman, I observed that we
+    considered it an act of indecency for men and women to wash
+    together. He shrugged his shoulders as he answered: 'But these
+    Westerns have such prurient minds!'" (Mitford, _Tales of Old
+    Japan_, 1871.)
+
+    Dr. Carl Davidsohn, who remarks that he had ample opportunity of
+    noting the great beauty of the Japanese women in a national
+    dance, performed naked, points out that the Japanese have no
+    æsthetic sense for the nude. "This was shown at the Jubilee
+    Exposition at Kyoto. Here, among many rooms full of art objects,
+    one was devoted to oil pictures in the European manner. Among
+    these only one represented a nude figure, a Psyche, or Truth. It
+    was the first time such a picture had been seen. Men and women
+    crowded around it. After they had gazed at it for a time, most
+    began to giggle and laugh; some by their air and gestures clearly
+    showed their disgust; all found that it was not æsthetic to paint
+    a naked woman, though in Nature, nakedness was in no way
+    offensive to them. In the middle of the same city, at a fountain
+    reputed to possess special virtues, men and women will stand
+    together naked and let the water run over them." (Carl
+    Davidsohn, "Das Nackte bei den Japanern," _Globus_, 1896, No.
+    16.)
+
+    "It is very difficult to investigate the hairiness of Ainu
+    women," Baelz remarks, "for they possess a really incredible
+    degree of modesty. Even when in summer they bathe--which happens
+    but seldom--they keep their clothes on." He records that he was
+    once asked to examine a girl at the Mission School, in order to
+    advise as regards the treatment of a diseased spine; although she
+    had been at the school for seven years, she declared that "she
+    would rather die than show her back to a man, even though a
+    doctor." (Baelz, "Die Aino," _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1901,
+    Heft 2, p. 178.)
+
+    The Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, appear to have been accustomed
+    to cover the foreskin with the _kynodesme_ (a band), or the
+    _fibula_ (a ring), for custom and modesty demanded that the glans
+    should be concealed. Such covering is represented in persons who
+    were compelled to be naked, and is referred to by Celsus as
+    "decori causâ." (L. Stieda, "Anatomisch-archäologische Studien,"
+    _Anatomische Hefte_, Bd. XIX, Heft 2, 1902.)
+
+    "Among the Lydians, and, indeed, among the barbarians generally,
+    it is considered a deep disgrace, even for a man, to be seen
+    naked." (Herodotus, Book I, Chapter X.)
+
+    "The simple dress which is now common was first worn in Sparta,
+    and there, more than anywhere else, the life of the rich was
+    assimilated to that of the people. The Lacedæmonians, too, were
+    the first who, in their athletic exercises, stripped naked and
+    rubbed themselves over with oil. This was not the ancient custom;
+    athletes formerly, even when they were contending at Olympia,
+    wore girdles about their loins [earlier still, the Mycenæans had
+    always worn a loin-cloth], a practice which lasted until quite
+    lately, and still persists among barbarians, especially those of
+    Asia, where the combatants at boxing and wrestling matches wear
+    girdles." (Thucydides, _History_, Book I, Chapter VI.)
+
+    "The notion of the women exercising naked in the schools with the
+    men ... at the present day would appear truly ridiculous.... Not
+    long since it was thought discreditable and ridiculous among the
+    Greeks, as it is now among most barbarous nations, for men to be
+    seen naked. And when the Cretans first, and after them the
+    Lacedæmonians, began the practice of gymnastic exercises, the
+    wits of the time had it in their power to make sport of those
+    novelties.... As for the man who laughs at the idea of undressed
+    women going through gymnastic exercises, as a means of revealing
+    what is most perfect, his ridicule is but 'unripe fruit plucked
+    from the tree of wisdom.'" (Plato, _Republic_, Book V.)
+
+    According to Plutarch, however, among the Spartans, at all
+    events, nakedness in women was not ridiculous, since the
+    institutes of Lycurgus ordained that at solemn feasts and
+    sacrifices the young women should dance naked and sing, the young
+    men standing around in a circle to see and hear them. Aristotle
+    says that in his time Spartan girls only wore a very slight
+    garment. As described by Pausanias, and as shown by a statue in
+    the Vatican, the ordinary tunic, which was the sole garment worn
+    by women when running, left bare the right shoulder and breast,
+    and only reached to the upper third of the thighs. (M.M. Evans,
+    _Chapters on Greek Dress_, p. 34.)
+
+    Among the Greeks who were inclined to accept the doctrines of
+    Cynicism, it was held that, while shame is not unreasonable, what
+    is good may be done and discussed before all men. There are a
+    number of authorities who say that Crates and Hipparchia
+    consummated their marriage in the presence of many spectators.
+    Lactantius (_Inst._ iii, 15) says that the practice was common,
+    but this Zeller is inclined to doubt. (Zeller, _Socrates and the
+    Socratic Schools_, translated from the Third German Edition,
+    1897.)
+
+    "Among the Tyrrhenians, who carry their luxury to an
+    extraordinary pitch, Timæus, in his first book, relates that the
+    female servants wait on the men in a state of nudity. And
+    Theopompus, in the forty-third book of his _History_, states that
+    it is a law among the Tyrrhenians that all their women should be
+    in common; and that the women pay the greatest attention to their
+    persons, and often practice gymnastic exercises, naked, among the
+    men, and sometimes with one another; for that it is not accounted
+    shameful for them to be seen naked.... Nor is it reckoned among
+    the Tyrrhenians at all disgraceful either to do or suffer
+    anything in the open air, or to be seen while it is going on; for
+    it is quite the custom of their country, and they are so far from
+    thinking it disgraceful that they even say, when the master of
+    the house is indulging his appetite, and anyone asks for him,
+    that he is doing so and so, using the coarsest possible words....
+    And they are very beautiful, as is natural for people to be who
+    live delicately, and who take care of their persons." (Athenæus,
+    _Deipnosophists_, Yonge's translation, vol. iii, p. 829.)
+
+    Dennis throws doubt on the foregoing statement of Athenæus
+    regarding the Tyrrhenians or Etruscans, and points out that the
+    representations of women in Etruscan tombs shows them as clothed,
+    even the breast being rarely uncovered. Nudity, he remarks, was a
+    Greek, not an Etruscan, characteristic. "To the nudity of the
+    Spartan women I need but refer; the Thessalian women are
+    described by Persæus dancing at banquets naked, or with a very
+    scanty covering (_apud_ Athenæus, xiii, c. 86). The maidens of
+    Chios wrestled naked with the youths in the gymnasium, which
+    Athenæus (xiii, 20) pronounces to be 'a beautiful sight.' And at
+    the marriage feast of Caranus, the Macedonian women tumblers
+    performed naked before the guests (Athenæus, iv, 3)." (G. Dennis,
+    _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, 1883, vol. i, p. 321.)
+
+    In Rome, "when there was at first much less freedom in this
+    matter than in Greece, the bath became common to both sexes, and
+    though each had its basin and hot room apart, they could see each
+    other, meet, speak, form intrigues, arrange meetings, and
+    multiply adulteries. At first, the baths were so dark that men
+    and women could wash side by side, without recognizing each other
+    except by the voice; but soon the light of day was allowed to
+    enter from every side. 'In the bath of Scipio,' said Seneca,
+    'there were narrow ventholes, rather than windows, hardly
+    admitting enough light to outrage modesty; but nowadays, baths
+    are called caves if they do not receive the sun's rays through
+    large windows.' ... Hadrian severely prohibited this mingling of
+    men and women, and ordained separate lavaera for the sexes.
+    Marcus Aurelius and Alexander Severus renewed this edict, but in
+    the interval, Heliogabalus had authorized the sexes to meet in
+    the baths." (Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. ii, Ch.
+    XVIII; cf. Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,
+    Art. Balneæ.)
+
+    In Rome, according to ancient custom, actors were compelled to
+    wear drawers (_subligaculum_) on the stage, in order to safeguard
+    the modesty of Roman matrons. Respectable women, it seems, also
+    always wore some sort of _subligaculum_, even sometimes when
+    bathing. The name was also applied to a leathern girdle laced
+    behind, which they were occasionally made to wear as a girdle of
+    chastity. (Dufour, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 150.) Greek women also
+    wore a cloth round the loins when taking the bath, as did the men
+    who bathed there; and a woman is represented bathing and wearing
+    a sort of thin combinations reaching to the middle of the thigh.
+    (Smith's _Dictionary_, loc. cit.) At a later period, St.
+    Augustine refers to the _compestria_, the drawers or apron worn
+    by young men who stripped for exercise in the _campus_. (_De
+    Civitate Dei_, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII.)
+
+    Lecky (_History of Morals_, vol. ii, p. 318), brings together
+    instances of women, in both Pagan and early Christian times, who
+    showed their modesty by drawing their garments around them, even
+    at the moment that they were being brutally killed. Plutarch, in
+    his essay on the "Virtues of Women,"--moralizing on the
+    well-known story of the young women of Milesia, among whom an
+    epidemic of suicide was only brought to an end by the decree that
+    in future women who hanged themselves should be carried naked
+    through the market-places,--observes: "They, who had no dread of
+    the most terrible things in the world, death and pain, could not
+    abide the imagination of dishonor, and exposure to shame, even
+    after death."
+
+    In the second century the physician Aretæus, writing at Rome,
+    remarks: "In many cases, owing to involuntary restraint from
+    modesty at assemblies, and at banquets, the bladder becomes
+    distended, and from the consequent loss of its contractile power,
+    it no longer evacuates the urine." (_On the Causes and Symptoms
+    of Acute Diseases_, Book II, Chapter X.)
+
+    Apuleius, writing in the second century, says: "Most women, in
+    order to exhibit their native gracefulness and allurements,
+    divest themselves of all their garments, and long to show their
+    naked beauty, being conscious that they shall please more by the
+    rosy redness of their skin than by the golden splendor of their
+    robes." (Thomas Taylor's translation of _Metamorphosis_, p. 28.)
+
+    Christianity seems to have profoundly affected habits of thought
+    and feeling by uniting together the merely natural emotion of
+    sexual reserve with, on the one hand, the masculine virtue of
+    modesty--_modestia_--and, on the other, the prescription of
+    sexual abstinence. Tertullian admirably illustrates this
+    confusion, and his treatises _De Pudicitia_ and _De Cultu
+    Feminarum_ are instructive from the present point of view. In the
+    latter he remarks (Book II, Chapter I): "Salvation--and not of
+    women only, but likewise of men--consists in the exhibition,
+    principally, of modesty. Since we are all the temple of God,
+    modesty is the sacristan and priestess of that temple, who is to
+    suffer nothing unclean or profane to enter it, for fear that the
+    God who inhabits it should be offended.... Most women, either
+    from simple ignorance or from dissimulation, have the hardihood
+    so to walk as if modesty consisted only in the integrity of the
+    flesh, and in turning away from fornication, and there were no
+    need for anything else,--in dress and ornament, the studied
+    graces of form,--wearing in their gait the self-same appearance
+    as the women of the nations from whom the sense of _true_ modesty
+    is absent."
+
+    The earliest Christian ideal of modesty, not long maintained, is
+    well shown in an epistle which, there is some reason to suppose,
+    was written by Clement of Rome. "And if we see it to be requisite
+    to stand and pray for the sake of the woman, and to speak words
+    of exhortation and edification, we call the brethren and all the
+    holy sisters and maidens, likewise all the other women who are
+    there, with all modesty and becoming behavior, to come and feast
+    on the truth. And those among us who are skilled in speaking,
+    speak to them, and exhort them in those words which God has given
+    us. And then we pray, and salute one another, the men the men.
+    But the women and the maidens will wrap their hands in their
+    garments; we also, with circumspection and with all purity, our
+    eyes looking upward, shall wrap our right hand in our garments;
+    and then they will come and give us the salutation on our right
+    hand, wrapped in our garments. Then we go where God permits us."
+    (_Two Epistles Concerning Virginity_; Second Epistle, Chapter
+    III, vol. xiv. Ante-Nicene Christian Library, p. 384.)
+
+    "Women will scarce strip naked before their own husbands,
+    affecting a plausible pretense of modesty," writes Clement of
+    Alexandria, about the end of the second century, "but any others
+    who wish may see them at home, shut up in their own baths, for
+    they are not ashamed to strip before spectators, as if exposing
+    their persons for sale. The baths are opened promiscuously to men
+    and women; and there they strip for licentious indulgence (for,
+    from looking, men get to loving), as if their modesty had been
+    washed away in the bath. Those who have not become utterly
+    destitute of modesty shut out strangers, but bathe with their own
+    servants, and strip naked before their slaves, and are rubbed by
+    them, giving to the crouching menial liberty to lust, by
+    permitting fearless handling, for those who are introduced before
+    their naked mistresses while in the bath, study to strip
+    themselves in order to show audacity in lust, casting off fear in
+    consequence of the wicked custom. The ancient athletes, ashamed
+    to exhibit a man naked, preserved their modesty by going through
+    the contest in drawers; but these women, divesting themselves of
+    their modesty along with their chemise, wish to appear beautiful,
+    but, contrary to their wish, are simply proved to be wicked."
+    (Clement of Alexandria, _Pædagogus_, Book III, Chapter V. For
+    elucidations of this passage, see Migne's _Patrologiæ Cursus
+    Completus_, vol. vii.) Promiscuous bathing was forbidden by the
+    early Apostolical Constitutions, but Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage,
+    found it necessary, in the third century, to upbraid even virgins
+    vowed to chastity for continuing the custom. "What of those," he
+    asks, "who frequent baths, who prostitute to eyes that are
+    curious to lust, bodies that are dedicated to chastity and
+    modesty? They who disgracefully behold naked men, and are seen
+    naked by men? Do they not themselves afford enticement to vice?
+    Do they not solicit and invite the desires of those present to
+    their own corruption and wrong? 'Let every one,' say you, 'look
+    to the disposition with which he comes thither: my care is only
+    that of refreshing and washing my poor body.' That kind of
+    defence does not clear you, nor does it excuse the crime of
+    lasciviousness and wantonness. Such a washing defiles; it does
+    not purify nor cleanse the limbs, but stains them. You behold no
+    one immodestly, but you, yourself, are gazed upon immodestly; you
+    do not pollute your eyes with disgraceful delight, but in
+    delighting others you yourself are polluted; you make a show of
+    the bathing-place; the places where you assemble are fouler than
+    a theatre. There all modesty is put off; together with the
+    clothing of garments, the honor and modesty of the body is laid
+    aside, virginity is exposed, to be pointed at and to be
+    handled.... Let your baths be performed with women, whose
+    behavior is modest towards you." (Cyprian, _De Habitu Virginum_,
+    cap. 19, 21.) The Church carried the same spirit among the
+    barbarians of northern Europe, and several centuries later the
+    promiscuous bathing of men and women was prohibited in some of
+    the Penitentials. (The custom was, however, preserved here and
+    there in Northern Europe, even to the end of the eighteenth
+    century, or later. In Rudeck's _Geschichte der öffentlichen
+    Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_, an interesting chapter, with
+    contemporary illustrations, is devoted to this custom; also, Max
+    Bauer, _Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen Vergangenheit_, pp.
+    216-265.)
+
+    "Women," says Clement again, "should not seek to be graceful by
+    avoiding broad drinking vessels that oblige them to stretch their
+    mouths, in order to drink from narrow alabastra that cause them
+    indecently to throw back the head, revealing to men their necks
+    and breasts. The mere thought of what she is ought to inspire a
+    woman with modesty.... On no account must a woman be permitted to
+    show to a man any portion of her body naked, for fear lest both
+    fall: the one by gazing eagerly, the other by delighting to
+    attract those eager glances." (_Pædagogus_, Book II, Chapter V.)
+
+    James, Bishop of Nisibis, in the fourth century, was a man of
+    great holiness. We are told by Thedoret that once, when James had
+    newly come into Persia, it was vouchsafed to him to perform a
+    miracle under the following circumstances: He chanced to pass by
+    a fountain where young women were washing their linen, and, his
+    modesty being profoundly shocked by the exposure involved in this
+    occupation, he cursed the fountain, which instantly dried up, and
+    he changed the hair of the girls from black to a sandy color.
+    (Jortin, _Remarks on Ecclesiastical History_, vol. iii, p. 4.)
+
+    Procopius, writing in the sixth century after Christ, and
+    narrating how the Empress Theodora, in early life, would often
+    appear almost naked before the public in the theatre, adds that
+    she would willingly have appeared altogether nude, but that "no
+    woman is allowed to expose herself altogether, unless she wears
+    at least short drawers over the lower part of the abdomen."
+    Chrysostom mentions, at the end of the fourth century, that
+    Arcadius attempted to put down the August festival (Majuma),
+    during which women appeared naked in the theatres, or swimming in
+    large baths.
+
+    In mediæval days, "ladies, at all events, as represented by the
+    poets, were not, on the whole, very prudish. Meleranz surprised a
+    lady who was taking a bath under a lime tree; the bath was
+    covered with samite, and by it was a magnificent ivory bed,
+    surrounded by tapestries representing the history of Paris and
+    Helen, the destruction of Troy, the adventures of Æneas, etc. As
+    Meleranz rides by, the lady's waiting-maids run away; she
+    herself, however, with quick decision, raises the samite which
+    covers the tub, and orders him to wait on her in place of the
+    maids. He brings her shift and mantle, and shoes, and then stands
+    aside till she is dressed; when she has placed herself on the
+    bed, she calls him back and commands him to drive away the flies
+    while she sleeps. Strange to say, the men are represented as more
+    modest than the women. When two maidens prepared a bath for
+    Parzival, and proposed to bathe him, according to custom, the
+    inexperienced young knight was shy, and would not enter the bath
+    until they had gone; on another occasion, he jumped quickly into
+    bed when the maidens entered the room. When Wolfdieterich was
+    about to undress, he had to ask the ladies who pressed around him
+    to leave him alone for a short time, as he was ashamed they
+    should see him naked. When Amphons of Spain, bewitched by his
+    step-mother into a were-wolf, was at last restored, and stood
+    suddenly naked before her, he was greatly ashamed. The maiden who
+    healed Iwein was tender of his modesty. In his love-madness, the
+    hero wanders for a time naked through the wood; three women find
+    him asleep, and send a waiting-maid to annoint him with salve;
+    when he came to himself, the maiden hid herself. On the whole,
+    however, the ladies were not so delicate; they had no hesitation
+    in bathing with gentlemen, and on these occasions would put their
+    finest ornaments on their heads. I know no pictures of the
+    twelfth and thirteenth centuries representing such a scene, but
+    such baths in common are clearly represented in miniatures of the
+    fifteenth century." (A. Schultz, _Das Höfische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnesänger_, vol. i, p. 225.)
+
+    "In the years 1450-70, the use of the cod-piece was introduced,
+    whereby the attributes of manhood were accentuated in the most
+    shameless manner. It was, in fact, the avowed aim at that period
+    to attract attention to these parts. The cod-piece was sometimes
+    colored differently from the rest of the garments, often stuffed
+    out to enlarge it artificially, and decorated with ribbons."
+    (Rudeck, _Geschichte der öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in
+    Deutschland_, pp. 45-48; Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_,
+    vol. vi, pp. 21-23. Groos refers to the significance of this
+    fashion, _Spiele der Menschen_, p. 337.)
+
+    "The first shirt began to be worn [in Germany] in the sixteenth
+    century. From this fact, as well as from the custom of public
+    bathing, we reach the remarkable result, that for the German
+    people, the sight of complete nakedness was the daily rule up to
+    the sixteenth century. Everyone undressed completely before going
+    to bed, and, in the vapor-baths, no covering was used. Again, the
+    dances, both of the peasants and the townspeople, were
+    characterized by very high leaps into the air. It was the chief
+    delight of the dancers for the male to raise his partner as high
+    as possible in the air, so that her dress flew up. That feminine
+    modesty was in this respect very indifferent, we know from
+    countless references made in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+    centuries. It must not be forgotten that throughout the middle
+    ages women wore no underclothes, and even in the seventeenth
+    century, the wearing of drawers by Italian women was regarded as
+    singular. That with the disappearance of the baths, and the use
+    of body-linen, a powerful influence was exerted on the creation
+    of modesty, there can be little doubt." (Rudeck, op. cit., pp.
+    57, 399, etc.)
+
+    In 1461, when Louis XI entered Paris, three very beautiful
+    maidens, quite naked, represented the Syrens, and declaimed poems
+    before him; they were greatly admired by the public. In 1468,
+    when Charles the Bold entered Lille, he was specially pleased,
+    among the various festivities, with a representation of the
+    Judgment of Paris, in which the three goddesses were nude. When
+    Charles the Fifth entered Antwerp, the most beautiful maidens of
+    the city danced before him, in nothing but gauze, and were
+    closely contemplated by Dürer, as he told his friend, Melancthon.
+    (B. Ritter, "Nuditäten im Mittelalter," _Jahrbücher für
+    Wissenschaft und Kunst_, 1855, p. 227; this writer shows how
+    luxury, fashion, poverty, and certain festivals, all combined to
+    make nudity familiar; cf. Fahne, _Der Carneval_, p. 249. Dulaure
+    quotes many old writers concerning the important part played by
+    nude persons in ancient festivals, _Des Divinités Génératrices_,
+    Chapter XIV.)
+
+    Passek, a Polish officer who wrote an account of his campaigns,
+    admired the ladies of Denmark in 1658, but considered their
+    customs immodest. "Everyone sleeps naked as at birth, and none
+    consider it shameful to dress or undress before others. No
+    notice, even, is taken of the guest, and in the light one garment
+    is taken off after another, even the chemise is hung on the hook.
+    Then the door is bolted, the light blown out, and one goes to
+    bed. As we blamed their ways, saying that among us a woman would
+    not act so, even in the presence of her husband alone, they
+    replied that they knew nothing of such shame, and that there was
+    no need to be ashamed of limbs which God had created. Moreover,
+    to sleep without a shift was good, because, like the other
+    garments, it sufficiently served the body during the day. Also,
+    why take fleas and other insects to bed with one? Although our
+    men teased them in various ways, they would not change their
+    habits." (Passek, _Denkwürdigkeiten_, German translation, p. 14.)
+
+    Until late in the seventeenth century, women in England, as well
+    as France, suffered much in childbirth from the ignorance and
+    superstition of incompetent midwives, owing to the prevailing
+    conceptions of modesty, which rendered it impossible (as it is
+    still, to some extent, in some semi-civilized lands) for male
+    physicians to attend them. Dr. Willoughby, of Derby, tells how,
+    in 1658, he had to creep into the chamber of a lying-in woman on
+    his hands and knees, in order to examine her unperceived. In
+    France, Clement was employed secretly to attend the mistresses of
+    Louis XIV in their confinements; to the first he was conducted
+    blindfold, while the King was concealed among the bed-curtains,
+    and the face of the lady was enveloped in a network of lace. (E.
+    Malins, "Midwifery and Midwives," _British Medical Journal_, June
+    22, 1901; Witkowski, _Histoire des Accouchements_, 1887, pp. 689
+    et seq.) Even until the Revolution, the examination of women in
+    France in cases of rape or attempted outrage was left to a jury
+    of matrons. In old English manuals of midwifery, even in the
+    early nineteenth century, we still find much insistence on the
+    demands of modesty. Thus, Dr. John Burns, of Glasgow, in his
+    _Principles of Midwifery_, states that "some women, from motives
+    of false delicacy, are averse from examination until the pains
+    become severe." He adds that "it is usual for the room to be
+    darkened, and the bed-curtains drawn close, during an
+    examination." Many old pictures show the accoucheur groping in
+    the dark, beneath the bed-clothes, to perform operations on women
+    in childbirth. (A. Kind, "Das Weib als Gebärerin in der Kunst,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5, p. 203.)
+
+    In Iceland, Winkler stated in 1861 that he sometimes slept in the
+    same room as a whole family; "it is often the custom for ten or
+    more persons to use the same room for living in and sleeping,
+    young and old, master and servant, male and female, and from
+    motives of economy, all the clothes, without exception, are
+    removed." (G. Winkler, _Island; seine Bewohner_, etc., pp. 107,
+    110.)
+
+    "At Cork," saye Fynes Moryson, in 1617, "I have seen with these
+    eyes young maids stark naked grinding corn with certain stones to
+    make cakes thereof." (Moryson, _Itinerary_, Part 3, Book III,
+    Chapter V.)
+
+    "In the more remote parts of Ireland," Moryson elsewhere says,
+    where the English laws and manners are unknown, "the very chief
+    of the Irish, men as well as women, go naked in very winter-time,
+    only having their privy parts covered with a rag of linen, and
+    their bodies with a loose mantle. This I speak of my own
+    experience." He goes on to tell of a Bohemian baron, just come
+    from the North of Ireland, who "told me in great earnestness that
+    he, coming to the house of Ocane, a great lord among them, was
+    met at the door with sixteen women, all naked, excepting their
+    loose mantles; whereof eight or ten were very fair, and two
+    seemed very nymphs, with which strange sight, his eyes being
+    dazzled, they led him into the house, and then sitting down by
+    the fire with crossed legs, like tailors, and so low as could not
+    but offend chaste eyes, desired him to sit down with them. Soon
+    after, Ocane, the lord of the country, came in, all naked
+    excepting a loose mantle, and shoes, which he put off as soon as
+    he came in, and entertaining the baron after his best manner in
+    the Latin tongue, desired him to put off his apparel, which he
+    thought to be a burthen to him, and to sit naked by the fire with
+    this naked company. But the baron... for shame, durst not put off
+    his apparel." (Ib. Part 3, Book IV, Chapter II.)
+
+    Coryat, when traveling in Italy in the early part of the
+    seventeenth century, found that in Lombardy many of the women
+    and children wore only smocks, or shirts, in the hot weather. At
+    Venice and Padua, he found that wives, widows, and maids, walk
+    with naked breasts, many with backs also naked, almost to the
+    middle. (Coryat, _Crudities_, 1611. The fashion of _décolleté_
+    garments, it may be remarked, only began in the fourteenth
+    century; previously, the women of Europe generally covered
+    themselves up to the neck.)
+
+    In Northern Italy, some years ago, a fire occurred at night in a
+    house in which two girls were sleeping, naked, according to the
+    custom. One threw herself out and was saved, the other returned
+    for a garment, and was burnt to death. The narrator of the
+    incident [a man] expressed strong approval of the more modest
+    girl's action. (Private communication.) It may be added that the
+    custom of sleeping naked is still preserved, also (according to
+    Lippert and Stratz), in Jutland, in Iceland, in some parts of
+    Norway, and sometimes even in Berlin.
+
+    Lady Mary Wortley Montague writes in 1717, of the Turkish ladies
+    at the baths at Sophia: "The first sofas were covered with
+    cushions and rich carpets, on which sat the ladies, and on the
+    second, their slaves behind them, but without any distinction of
+    rank in their dress, all being in a state of Nature; that is, in
+    plain English, stark naked, without any beauty or defect
+    concealed. Yet there was not the least wanton smile or immodest
+    gesture among them. They walked and moved with the same majestic
+    grace which Milton describes of our general mother. I am here
+    convinced of the truth of a reflection I had often made, that if
+    it was the fashion to go naked, the face would be hardly
+    observed." (_Letters and Works_, 1866, vol. i, p. 285.)
+
+    At St. Petersburg, in 1774, Sir Nicholas Wraxall observed "the
+    promiscuous bathing of not less than two hundred persons, of both
+    sexes. There are several of these public bagnios," he adds, "in
+    Petersburg, and every one pays a few copecks for admittance.
+    There are, indeed, separate spaces for the men and women, but
+    they seem quite regardless of this distinction, and sit or bathe
+    in a state of absolute nudity among each other." (Sir N. Wraxall,
+    _A Tour Through Some of the Northern Parts of Europe_, 3d ed.,
+    1776, p. 248.) It is still usual for women in the country parts
+    of Russia to bathe naked in the streams.
+
+    In 1790, Wedgwood wrote to Flaxman: "The nude is so general in
+    the work of the ancients, that it will be very difficult to avoid
+    the introduction of naked figures. On the other hand, it is
+    absolutely necessary to do so, or to keep the pieces for our own
+    use; for none, either male or female, of the present generation
+    will take or apply them as furniture if the figures are naked."
+    (Meteyard, _Life of Wedgwood_, vol. ii, p. 589.)
+
+    Mary Wollstonecraft quotes (for reprobation and not for
+    approval) the following remarks: "The lady who asked the
+    question whether women may be instructed in the modern system of
+    botany, was accused of ridiculous prudery; nevertheless, if she
+    had proposed the question to me, I should certainly have
+    answered: 'They cannot!'" She further quotes from an educational
+    book: "It would be needless to caution you against putting your
+    hand, by chance, under your neck-handkerchief; for a modest woman
+    never did so." (Mary Wollstonecraft, _The Rights of Woman_, 1792,
+    pp. 277, 289.)
+
+    At the present time a knowledge of the physiology of plants is
+    not usually considered inconsistent with modesty, but a knowledge
+    of animal physiology is still so considered by many. Dr. H.R.
+    Hopkins, of New York, wrote in 1895, regarding the teaching of
+    physiology: "How can we teach growing girls the functions of the
+    various parts of the human body, and still leave them their
+    modesty? That is the practical question that has puzzled me for
+    years."
+
+    In England, the use of drawers was almost unknown among women
+    half a century ago, and was considered immodest and unfeminine.
+    Tilt, a distinguished gynecologist of that period, advocated such
+    garments, made of fine calico, and not to descend below the knee,
+    on hygienic grounds. "Thus understood," he added, "the adoption
+    of drawers will doubtless become more general in this country,
+    as, being worn without the knowledge of the general observer,
+    they will be robbed of the prejudice usually attached to an
+    appendage deemed masculine." (Tilt, _Elements of Health_, 1852,
+    p. 193.) Drawers came into general use among women during the
+    third quarter of the nineteenth century.
+
+    Drawers are an Oriental garment, and seem to have reached Europe
+    through Venice, the great channel of communication with the East.
+    Like many other refinements of decency and cleanliness, they were
+    at first chiefly cultivated by prostitutes, and, on this account,
+    there was long a prejudice against them. Even at the present day,
+    it is said that in France, a young peasant girl will exclaim, if
+    asked whether she wears drawers: "I wear drawers, Madame? A
+    respectable girl!" Drawers, however, quickly became acclimatized
+    in France, and Dufour (op. cit., vol. vi, p. 28) even regards
+    them as essentially a French garment. They were introduced at the
+    Court towards the end of the fourteenth century, and in the
+    sixteenth century were rendered almost necessary by the new
+    fashion of the _vertugale_, or farthingale. In 1615, a lady's
+    _caleçons_ are referred to as apparently an ordinary garment. It
+    is noteworthy that in London, in the middle of the same century,
+    young Mrs. Pepys, who was the daughter of French parents, usually
+    wore drawers, which were seemingly of the closed kind. (_Diary_
+    of S. Pepys, ed. Wheatley, May 15, 1663, vol. iii.) They were
+    probably not worn by Englishwomen, and even in France, with the
+    decay of the farthingale, they seem to have dropped out of use
+    during the seventeenth century. In a technical and very complete
+    book, _L'Art de la Lingerie_, published in 1771, women's drawers
+    are not even mentioned, and Mercier (_Tableau de Paris_, 1783,
+    vol. vii, p. 54) says that, except actresses, Parisian women do
+    not wear drawers. Even by ballet dancers and actresses on the
+    stage, they were not invariably worn. Camargo, the famous dancer,
+    who first shortened the skirt in dancing, early in the eighteenth
+    century, always observed great decorum, never showing the leg
+    above the knee; when appealed to as to whether she wore drawers,
+    she replied that she could not possibly appear without such a
+    "precaution." But they were not necessarily worn by dancers, and
+    in 1727 a young _ballerina_, having had her skirt accidentally
+    torn away by a piece of stage machinery, the police issued an
+    order that in future no actress or dancer should appear on the
+    stage without drawers; this regulation does not appear, however,
+    to have been long strictly maintained, though Schulz (_Ueber
+    Paris und die Pariser_, p. 145) refers to it as in force in 1791.
+    (The obscure origin and history of feminine drawers have been
+    discussed from time to time in the _Intermédiaire des Chercheurs
+    et Curieux_, especially vols. xxv, lii, and liii.)
+
+    Prof. Irving Rosse, of Washington, refers to "New England
+    prudishness," and "the colossal modesty of some New York
+    policemen, who in certain cases want to give written, rather than
+    oral testimony." He adds: "I have known this sentiment carried to
+    such an extent in a Massachusetts small town, that a shop-keeper
+    was obliged to drape a small, but innocent, statuette displayed
+    in his window." (Irving Rosse, _Virginia Medical Monthly_,
+    October, 1892.) I am told that popular feeling in South Africa
+    would not permit the exhibition of the nude in the Art
+    Collections of Cape Town. Even in Italy, nude statues are
+    disfigured by the addition of tin fig-leaves, and sporadic
+    manifestations of horror at the presence of nude statues, even
+    when of most classic type, are liable to occur in all parts of
+    Europe, including France and Germany. (Examples of this are
+    recorded from time to time in _Sexual-reform_, published as an
+    appendix to _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_.)
+
+    Some years ago, (1898), it was stated that the Philadelphia
+    _Ladies' Home Journal_ had decided to avoid, in future, all
+    reference to ladies' under-linen, because "the treatment of this
+    subject in print calls for _minutiæ_ of detail which is extremely
+    and pardonably offensive to refined and sensitive women."
+
+    "A man, married twenty years, told me that he had never seen his
+    wife entirely nude. Such concealment of the external reproductive
+    organs, by married people, appears to be common. Judging from my
+    own inquiry, very few women care to look upon male nakedness, and
+    many women, though not wanting in esthetic feeling, find no
+    beauty in man's form. Some are positively repelled by the sight
+    of nakedness, even that of a husband or lover. On the contrary,
+    most men delight in gazing upon the uncovered figure of women.
+    It seems that only highly-cultivated and imaginative women enjoy
+    the spectacle of a finely-shaped nude man (especially after
+    attending art classes, and drawing from the nude, as I am told by
+    a lady artist). Or else the majority of women dissemble their
+    curiosity or admiration. A woman of seventy, mother of several
+    children, said to a young wife with whom I am acquainted: 'I have
+    never seen a naked man in my life.' This old lady's sister
+    confessed that she had never looked at _her own_ nakedness in the
+    whole course of her life. She said that it 'frightened' her. She
+    was the mother of three sons. A maiden woman of the same family
+    told her niece that women were 'disgusting, because they have
+    monthly discharges.' The niece suggested that women have no
+    choice in the matter, to which the aunt replied: 'I know that;
+    but it doesn't make them less disgusting,' I have heard of a girl
+    who died from hæmorrhage of the womb, refusing, through shame, to
+    make the ailment known to her family. The misery suffered by some
+    women at the anticipation of a medical examination, appears to be
+    very acute. Husbands have told me of brides who sob and tremble
+    with fright on the wedding-night, the hysteria being sometimes
+    alarming. E, aged 25, refused her husband for six weeks after
+    marriage, exhibiting the greatest fear of his approach. Ignorance
+    of the nature of the sexual connection is often the cause of
+    exaggerated alarm. In Jersey, I used to hear of a bride who ran
+    to the window and screamed 'murder,' on the wedding-night."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    At the present day it is not regarded as incompatible with
+    modesty to exhibit the lower part of the thigh when in swimming
+    costume, but it is immodest to exhibit the upper part of the
+    thigh. In swimming competitions, a minimum of clothing must be
+    combined with the demands of modesty. In England, the regulations
+    of the Swimming Clubs affiliated to the Amateur Swimming
+    Association, require that the male swimmer's costume shall extend
+    not less than eight inches from the bifurcation downward, and
+    that the female swimmer's costume shall extend to within not more
+    than three inches from the knee. (A prolonged discussion, we are
+    told, arose as to whether the costume should come to one, two, or
+    three inches from the knee, and the proposal of the youngest lady
+    swimmer present, that the costume ought to be very scanty, met
+    with little approval.) The modesty of women is thus seen to be
+    greater than that of men by, roughly speaking, about two inches.
+    The same difference may be seen in the sleeves; the male sleeve
+    must extend for two inches, the female sleeve four inches, down
+    the arm. (Daily Papers, September 26, 1898.)
+
+    "At ----, bathing in a state of Nature was _de rigueur_ for the
+    _élite_ of the bathers, while our Sunday visitors from the slums
+    frequently made a great point of wearing bathing costumes; it was
+    frequently noticed that those who were most anxious to avoid
+    exposing their persons were distinguished by the foulness of
+    their language. My impression was that their foul-mindedness
+    deprived them of the consciousness of safety from coarse jests.
+    If I were bathing alone among blackguards, I should probably feel
+    uncomfortable myself, if without costume." (Private
+    communication.)
+
+    A lady in a little city of the south of Italy, told Paola
+    Lombroso that young middle-class girls there are not allowed to
+    go out except to Mass, and cannot even show themselves at the
+    window except under their mother's eye; yet they do not think it
+    necessary to have a cabin when sea-bathing, and even dispense
+    with a bathing costume without consciousness of immodesty. (P.
+    Lombroso, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1901, p. 306.)
+
+    "A woman mentioned to me that a man came to her and told her in
+    confidence his distress of mind: he feared he had _corrupted_ his
+    wife because she got into a bath in his presence, with her baby,
+    and enjoyed his looking at her splashing about. He was deeply
+    distressed, thinking he must have done her harm, and destroyed
+    her modesty. The woman to whom this was said felt naturally
+    indignant, but also it gave her the feeling as if every man may
+    secretly despise a woman for the very things he teaches her, and
+    only meets her confiding delight with regret or dislike."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    "Women will occasionally be found to hide diseases and symptoms
+    from a bashfulness and modesty so great and perverse as to be
+    hardly credible," writes Dr. W. Wynn Westcott, an experienced
+    coroner. "I have known several cases of female deaths, reported
+    as sudden, and of cause unknown, when the medical man called in
+    during the latter hours of life has been quite unaware that his
+    lady patient was dying of gangrene of a strangulated femoral
+    hernia, or was bleeding to death from the bowel, or from ruptured
+    varices of the vulva." (_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 29,
+    1908.)
+
+    The foregoing selection of facts might, of course, be
+    indefinitely enlarged, since I have not generally quoted from any
+    previous collection of facts bearing on the question of modesty.
+    Such collections may be found in Ploss and Max Bartels _Das
+    Weib_, a work that is constantly appearing in new and enlarged
+    editions; Herbert Spencer, _Descriptive Sociology_ (especially
+    under such headings as "Clothing," "Moral Sentiments," and
+    "Æsthetic Products"); W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, Ch. XI;
+    Mantegazza, _Amori degli Uomini_, Chapter II; Westermarck,
+    _Marriage_, Chapter IX; Letourneau, _L'Evolution de la Morale_,
+    pp. 126 et seq.; G. Mortimer, _Chapters on Human Love_, Chapter
+    IV; and in the general anthropological works of Waitz-Gerland,
+    Peschel, Ratzel and others.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The earliest theory I have met with is that of St. Augustine, who
+states (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII) that erections of the penis
+never occurred until after the Fall of Man. It was the occurrence of this
+"shameless novelty" which made nakedness indecent. This theory fails to
+account for modesty in women.
+
+[2] Guyau, _L'Irreligion de l'Avenir_, Ch. VII.
+
+[3] Timidity, as understood by Dugas, in his interesting essay on that
+subject, is probably most remote. Dr. H. Campbell's "morbid shyness"
+(_British Medical Journal_, September 26, 1896) is, in part, identical
+with timidity, in part, with modesty. The matter is further complicated by
+the fact that modesty itself has in English (like virtue) two distinct
+meanings. In its original form it has no special connection with sex or
+women, but may rather be considered as a masculine virtue. Cicero regards
+"modestia" as the equivalent of the Greek sôphrosunê. This is the
+"modesty" which Mary Wollstonecraft eulogized in the last century, the
+outcome of knowledge and reflection, "soberness of mind," "the graceful
+calm virtue of maturity." In French, it is possible to avoid the
+confusion, and _modestie_ is entirely distinct from _pudeur_. It is, of
+course, mainly with _pudeur_ that I am here concerned.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears--Children in Relation to
+Modesty--Modesty in Animals--The Attitude of the Medicean Venus--The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual Periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship--The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse--The Meaning of Coquetry--The Sexual Charm of Modesty--Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse--The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty--The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others--The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust--The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness--The Custom of Veiling the Face--Ornaments and
+Clothing--Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment--The Economic Factor
+in Modesty--The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty--The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.
+
+
+That modesty--like all the closely-allied emotions--is based on fear, one
+of the most primitive of the emotions, seems to be fairly evident.[4] The
+association of modesty and fear is even a very ancient observation, and is
+found in the fragments of Epicharmus, while according to one of the most
+recent definitions, "modesty is the timidity of the body." Modesty is,
+indeed, an agglomeration of fears, especially, as I hope to show, of two
+important and distinct fears: one of much earlier than human origin, and
+supplied solely by the female; the other of more distinctly human
+character, and of social, rather than sexual, origin.
+
+A child left to itself, though very bashful, is wholly devoid of
+modesty.[5] Everyone is familiar with the shocking _inconvenances_ of
+children in speech and act, with the charming ways in which they
+innocently disregard the conventions of modesty their elders thrust upon
+them, or, even when anxious to carry them out, wholly miss the point at
+issue: as when a child thinks that to put a little garment round the neck
+satisfies the demands of modesty. Julius Moses states that modesty in the
+uncovering of the sexual parts begins about the age of four. But in cases
+when this occurs it is difficult to exclude teaching and example. Under
+civilized conditions the convention of modesty long precedes its real
+development. Bell has found that in love affairs before the age of nine
+the girl is more aggressive than the boy and that at that age she begins
+to be modest.[6] It may fairly be said that complete development of
+modesty only takes place at the advent of puberty.[7] We may admit, with
+Perez, one of the very few writers who touch on the evolution of this
+emotion, that modesty may appear at a very early age if sexual desire
+appears early.[8] We should not, however, be justified in asserting that
+on this account modesty is a purely sexual phenomenon. The social impulses
+also develop about puberty, and to that coincidence the compound nature of
+the emotion of modesty may well be largely due.
+
+The sexual factor is, however, the simplest and most primitive element of
+modesty, and may, therefore, be mentioned first. Anyone who watches a
+bitch, not in heat, when approached by a dog with tail wagging gallantly,
+may see the beginnings of modesty. When the dog's attentions become a
+little too marked, the bitch squats firmly down on the front legs and hind
+quarters though when the period of oestrus comes her modesty may be flung
+to the air and she eagerly turns her hind quarters to her admirer's nose
+and elevates her tail high in the air. Her attitude of refusal is
+equivalent, that is to say, to that which in the human race is typified by
+the classical example of womanly modesty in the Medicean Venus, who
+withdraws the pelvis, at the same time holding one hand to guard the
+pubes, the other to guard the breasts.[9] The essential expression in each
+case is that of defence of the sexual centers against the undesired
+advances of the male.[10]
+
+    Stratz, who criticizes the above statement, argues (with
+    photographs of nude women in illustration) that the normal type
+    of European surprised modesty is shown by an attitude in which
+    the arms are crossed over the breast, the most sexually
+    attractive region, while the thighs are pressed together, one
+    being placed before the other, the shoulder raised and the back
+    slightly curved; occasionally, he adds, the hands may be used to
+    cover the face, and then the crossed arms conceal the breasts.
+    The Medicean Venus, he remarks, is only a pretty woman coquetting
+    with her body. Canova's Venus in the Pitti (who has drapery in
+    front of her, and presses her arms across her breast) being a
+    more accurate rendering of the attitude of modesty. But Stratz
+    admits that when a surprised woman is gazed at for some time, she
+    turns her head away, sinks or closes her eyes, and covers her
+    pubes (or any other part she thinks is being gazed at) with one
+    hand, while with the other she hides her breast or face. This he
+    terms the secondary expression of modesty. (Stratz, _Die
+    Frauenkleidung_, third ed., p. 23.)
+
+    It is certainly true that the Medicean Venus merely represents an
+    artistic convention, a generalized tradition, not founded on
+    exact and precise observation of the gestures of modesty, and it
+    is equally true that all the instinctive movements noted by
+    Stratz are commonly resorted to by a woman whose nakedness is
+    surprised. But in the absence of any series of carefully recorded
+    observations, one may doubt whether the distinction drawn by
+    Stratz between the primary and the secondary expression of
+    modesty can be upheld as the general rule, while it is most
+    certainly not true for every case. When a young woman is
+    surprised in a state of nakedness by a person of the opposite, or
+    even of the same, sex, it is her instinct to conceal the primary
+    centers of sexual function and attractiveness, in the first
+    place, the pubes, in the second place the breasts. The exact
+    attitude and the particular gestures of the hands in achieving
+    the desired end vary with the individual, and with the
+    circumstances. The hand may not be used at all as a veil, and,
+    indeed, the instinct of modesty itself may inhibit the use of the
+    hand for the protection of modesty (to turn the back towards the
+    beholder is often the chief impulse of blushing modesty, even
+    when clothed), but the application of the hand to this end is
+    primitive and natural. The lowly Fuegian woman, depicted by
+    Hyades and Deniker, who holds her hand to her pubes while being
+    photographed, is one at this point with the Roman Venus described
+    by Ovid (_Ars Amatoria_, Book  II):--
+
+        "Ipsa Venus pubem, quoties velamnia ponit,
+        Protegitur læva semireducta manus."
+
+    It may be added that young men of the lower social classes, at
+    all events in England, when bathing at the seaside in complete
+    nudity, commonly grasp the sexual organs with one hand, for
+    concealment, as they walk up from the sea.
+
+The sexual modesty of the female animal is rooted in the sexual
+periodicity of the female, and is an involuntary expression of the organic
+fact that the time for love is not now. Inasmuch as this fact is true of
+the greater part of the lives of all female animals below man, the
+expression itself becomes so habitual that it even intrudes at those
+moments when it has ceased to be in place. We may see this again
+illustrated in the bitch, who, when in heat, herself runs after the male,
+and again turns to flee, perhaps only submitting with much persuasion to
+his embrace. Thus, modesty becomes something more than a mere refusal of
+the male; it becomes an invitation to the male, and is mixed up with his
+ideas of what is sexually desirable in the female. This would alone serve
+to account for the existence of modesty as a psychical secondary sexual
+character. In this sense, and in this sense only, we may say, with Colin
+Scott, that "the feeling of shame is made to be overcome," and is thus
+correlated with its physical representative, the hymen, in the rupture of
+which, as Groos remarks, there is, in some degree, a disruption also of
+modesty. The sexual modesty of the female is thus an inevitable by-product
+of the naturally aggressive attitude of the male in sexual relationships,
+and the naturally defensive attitude of the female, this again being
+founded on the fact that, while--in man and the species allied to him--the
+sexual function in the female is periodic, and during most of life a
+function to be guarded from the opposite sex, in the male it rarely or
+never needs to be so guarded.[11]
+
+Both male and female, however, need to guard themselves during the
+exercise of their sexual activities from jealous rivals, as well as from
+enemies who might take advantage of their position to attack them. It is
+highly probable that this is one important sexual factor in the
+constitution of modesty, and it helps to explain how the male, not less
+than the female, cultivates modesty, and shuns publicity, in the exercise
+of sexual functions. Northcote has especially emphasized this element in
+modesty, as originating in the fear of rivals. "That from this seeking
+after secrecy from motives of fear should arise an instinctive feeling
+that the sexual act must always be hidden, is a natural enough sequence.
+And since it is not a long step between thinking of an act as needing
+concealment and thinking of it as wrong, it is easily conceivable that
+sexual intercourse comes to be regarded as a stolen and therefore, in some
+degree, a sinful pleasure."[12]
+
+Animals in a state of nature usually appear to seek seclusion for sexual
+intercourse, although this instinct is lost under domestication. Even the
+lowest savages, also, if uncorrupted by civilized influences, seek the
+solitude of the forest or the protection of their huts for the same
+purpose; the rare cases in which coitus is public seem usually to involve
+a ceremonial or social observance, rather than mere personal
+gratification. At Loango, for instance, it would be highly improper to
+have intercourse in an exposed spot; it must only be performed inside the
+hut, with closed doors, at night, when no one is present.[13]
+
+    It is on the sexual factor of modesty, existing in a well-marked
+    form even among animals, that coquetry is founded. I am glad to
+    find myself on this point in agreement with Professor Groos, who,
+    in his elaborate study of the play-instinct, has reached the same
+    conclusion. So far from being the mere heartless play by which a
+    woman shows her power over a man, Groos points out that coquetry
+    possesses "high biological and psychological significance," being
+    rooted in the antagonism between the sexual instinct and inborn
+    modesty. He refers to the roe, who runs away from the stag--but
+    in a circle. (Groos, _Die Spiele der Menschen_, 1899, p. 339;
+    also the same author's _Die Spiele der Thiere_, pp. 288 _et
+    seq._) Another example of coquetry is furnished by the female
+    kingfisher (_Alcedo ispida_), which will spend all the morning in
+    teasing and flying away from the male, but is careful constantly
+    to look back, and never to let him out of her sight. (Many
+    examples are given by Büchner, in _Liebe und Liebesleben in der
+    Tierwelt_.) Robert Müller (_Sexualbiologie_, p. 302) emphasizes
+    the importance of coquetry as a lure to the male.
+
+    "It is quite true," a lady writes to me in a private letter,
+    "that 'coquetry is a poor thing,' and that every milkmaid can
+    assume it, but a woman uses it principally in self-defence, while
+    she is finding out what the man himself is like." This is in
+    accordance with the remark of Marro, that modesty enables a woman
+    "to put lovers to the test, in order to select him who is best
+    able to serve the natural ends of love." It is doubtless the
+    necessity for this probationary period, as a test of masculine
+    qualities, which usually leads a woman to repel instinctively a
+    too hasty and impatient suitor, for, as Arthur Macdonald remarks,
+    "It seems to be instinctive in young women to reject the
+    impetuous lover, without the least consideration of his
+    character, ability, and fitness."
+
+This essential element in courtship, this fundamental attitude of pursuer
+and pursued, is clearly to be seen even in animals and savages; it is
+equally pronounced in the most civilized men and women, manifesting itself
+in crude and subtle ways alike. Shakespeare's Angelo, whose virtue had
+always resisted the temptations of vice, discovered at last that
+
+            "modesty may more betray our sense
+    Than woman's lightness."
+
+"What," asked the wise Montaigne, "is the object of that virginal shame,
+that sedate coldness, that severe countenance, that pretence of not
+knowing things which they understand better than we who teach them, except
+to increase in us the desire to conquer and curb, to trample under our
+appetite, all that ceremony and those obstacles? For there is not only
+matter for pleasure, but for pride also, in ruffling and debauching that
+soft sweetness and infantine modesty."[14] The masculine attitude in the
+face of feminine coyness may easily pass into a kind of sadism, but is
+nevertheless in its origin an innocent and instinctive impulse. Restif de
+la Bretonne, describing his own shame and timidity as a pretty boy whom
+the girls would run after and kiss, adds: "It is surprising that at the
+same time I would imagine the pleasure I should have in embracing a girl
+who resisted, in inspiring her with timidity, in making her flee and in
+pursuing her; that was a part which I burned to play."[15] It is the
+instinct of the sophisticated and the unsophisticated alike. The Arabs
+have developed an erotic ideal of sensuality, but they emphasize the
+importance of feminine modesty, and declare that the best woman is "she
+who sees not men and whom they see not."[16] This deep-rooted modesty of
+women towards men in courtship is intimately interwoven with the marriage
+customs and magic rites of even the most primitive peoples, and has
+survived in many civilized practices to-day.[17] The prostitute must be
+able to simulate the modesty she may often be far from feeling, and the
+immense erotic advantage of the innocent over the vicious woman lies
+largely in the fact that in her the exquisite reactions of modesty are
+fresh and vigorous. "I cannot imagine anything that is more sexually
+exciting," remarks Hans Menjago, "than to observe a person of the opposite
+sex, who, by some external or internal force, is compelled to fight
+against her physical modesty. The more modest she is the more sexually
+exciting is the picture she presents."[18] It is notable that even in
+abnormal, as well as in normal, erotic passion the desire is for innocent
+and not for vicious women, and, in association with this, the desired
+favor to be keenly relished must often be gained by sudden surprise and
+not by mutual agreement. A foot fetichist writes to me: "It is the
+_stolen_ glimpse of a pretty foot or ankle which produces the greatest
+effect on me." A urolagnic symbolist was chiefly excited by the act of
+urination when he caught a young woman unawares in the act. A fetichistic
+admirer of the nates only desired to see this region in innocent girls,
+not in prostitutes. The exhibitionist, almost invariably, only exposes
+himself to apparently respectable girls.
+
+    A Russian correspondent, who feels this charm of women in a
+    particularly strong degree, is inclined to think that there is an
+    element of perversity in it. "In the erotic action of the idea of
+    feminine enjoyment," he writes, "I think there are traces of a
+    certain perversity. In fact, owing to the impressions of early
+    youth, woman (even if we feel contempt for her in theory) is
+    placed above us, on a certain pedestal, as an almost sacred
+    being, and the more so because mysterious. Now sensuality and
+    sexual desire are considered as rather vulgar, and a little
+    dirty, even ridiculous and degrading, not to say bestial. The
+    woman who enjoys it, is, therefore, rather like a profaned altar,
+    or, at least, like a divinity who has descended on to the earth.
+    To give enjoyment to a woman is, therefore, like perpetrating a
+    sacrilege, or at least like taking a liberty with a god. The
+    feelings bequeathed to us by a long social civilization maintain
+    themselves in spite of our rational and deliberate opinions.
+    Reason tells us that there is nothing evil in sexual enjoyment,
+    whether in man or woman, but an unconscious feeling directs our
+    emotions, and this feeling (having a germ that was placed in
+    modern men by Christianity, and perhaps by still older religions)
+    says that woman _ought_ to be an absolutely pure being, with
+    ethereal sensations, and that in her sexual enjoyment is out of
+    place, improper, scandalous. To arouse sexual emotions in a
+    woman, if not to profane a sacred host, is, at all events, the
+    staining of an immaculate peplos; if not sacrilege, it is, at
+    least, irreverence or impertinence. For all men, the chaster a
+    woman is, the more agreeable it is to bring her to the orgasm.
+    That is felt as a triumph of the body over the soul, of sin over
+    virtue, of earth over heaven. There is something diabolic in such
+    pleasure, especially when it is felt by a man intoxicated with
+    love, and full of religious respect for the virgin of his
+    election. This feeling is, from a rational point of view, absurd,
+    and in its tendencies, immoral; but it is delicious in its
+    sacredly voluptuous subtlety. Defloration thus has its powerful
+    fascination in the respect consciously or unconsciously felt for
+    woman's chastity. In marriage, the feeling is yet more
+    complicated: in deflowering his bride, the Christian (that is,
+    any man brought up in a Christian civilization) has the feeling
+    of committing a sort of sin (for the 'flesh' is, for him, always
+    connected with sin) which, by a special privilege, has for him
+    become legitimate. He has received a special permit to corrupt
+    innocence. Hence, the peculiar prestige for civilized Christians,
+    of the wedding night, sung by Shelley, in ecstatic  verses:--
+
+        "'Oh, joy! Oh, fear! What will be done
+        In the absence of the sun!'"
+
+    This feeling has, however, its normal range, and is not, _per
+    se_, a perversity, though it may doubtless become so when unduly
+    heightened by Christian sentiment, and especially if it leads, as
+    to some extent it has led in my Russian correspondent, to an
+    abnormal feeling of the sexual attraction of girls who have only
+    or scarcely reached the age of puberty. The sexual charm of this
+    period of girlhood is well illustrated in many of the poems of
+    Thomas Ashe, and it is worthy of note, as perhaps supporting the
+    contention that this attraction is based on Christian feeling,
+    that Ashe had been a clergyman. An attentiveness to the woman's
+    pleasure remains, in itself, very far from a perversion, but
+    increases, as Colin Scott has pointed out, with civilization,
+    while its absence--the indifference to the partner's pleasure--is
+    a perversion of the most degraded kind.
+
+There is no such instinctive demand on the woman's part for innocence in
+the man.[19] In the nature of things that could not be. Such emotion is
+required for properly playing the part of the pursued; it is by no means
+an added attraction on the part of the pursuer. There is, however, an
+allied and corresponding desire which is very often clearly or latently
+present in the woman: a longing for pleasure that is stolen or forbidden.
+It is a mistake to suppose that this is an indication of viciousness or
+perversity. It appears to be an impulse that occurs quite naturally in
+altogether innocent women. The exciting charm of the risky and dangerous
+naturally arises on a background of feminine shyness and timidity. We may
+trace its recognition at a very early stage of history in the story of Eve
+and the forbidden fruit that has so often been the symbol of the masculine
+organs of sex. It is on this ground that many have argued the folly of
+laying external restrictions on women in matters of love. Thus in quoting
+the great Italian writer who afterwards became Pope Pius II, Robert Burton
+remarked: "I am of Æneas Sylvius' mind, 'Those jealous Italians do very
+ill to lock up their wives; for women are of such a disposition they will
+mostly covet that which is denied most, and offend least when they have
+free liberty to trespass.'"[20]
+
+It is the spontaneous and natural instinct of the lover to desire modesty
+in his mistress, and by no means any calculated opinion on his part that
+modesty is the sign of sexual emotion. It remains true, however, that
+modesty is an expression of feminine erotic impulse. We have here one of
+the instances, of which there, are so many, of that curious and
+instinctive harmony by which Nature has sought the more effectively to
+bring about the ends of courtship. As to the fact itself there can be
+little doubt. It constantly forces itself on the notice of careful
+observers, and has long been decided in the affirmative by those who have
+discussed the matter. Venette, one of the earliest writers on the
+psychology of sex, after discussing the question at length, decided that
+the timid woman is a more ardent lover than the bold woman.[21] "It is the
+most pudent girl," remarked Restif de la Bretonne whose experience of
+women was so extensive, "the girl who blushes most, who is most disposed
+to the pleasures of love," he adds that, in girls and boys alike, shyness
+is a premature consciousness of sex.[22] This observation has even become
+embodied in popular proverbs. "Do as the lasses do--say no, but take it,"
+is a Scotch saying, to which corresponds the Welsh saying, "The more
+prudish the more unchaste."[23]
+
+    It is not, at first, quite clear why an excessively shy and
+    modest woman should be the most apt for intimate relationships
+    with a man, and in such a case the woman is often charged with
+    hypocrisy. There is, however, no hypocrisy in the matter. The shy
+    and reserved woman holds herself aloof from intimacy in ordinary
+    friendship, because she is acutely sensitive to the judgments of
+    others, and fears that any seemingly immodest action may make an
+    unfavorable opinion. With a lover, however, in whose eyes she
+    feels assured that her actions can not be viewed unfavorably,
+    these barriers of modesty fall down, and the resulting intimacy
+    becomes all the more fascinating to the woman because of its
+    contrast with the extreme reserve she is impelled to maintain in
+    other relationships. It thus happens that many modest women who,
+    in non-sexual relationships with their own sex, are not able to
+    act with the physical unreserve not uncommon with women among
+    themselves, yet feel no such reserve with a man, when they are
+    once confident of his good opinion. Much the same is true of
+    modest and sensitive men in their relations with women.
+
+This fundamental animal factor of modesty, rooted in the natural facts of
+the sexual life of the higher mammals, and especially man, obviously will
+not explain all the phenomena of modesty. We must turn to the other great
+primary element of modesty, the social factor.
+
+We cannot doubt that one of the most primitive and universal of the social
+characteristics of man is an aptitude for disgust, founded, as it is, on a
+yet more primitive and animal aptitude for disgust, which has little or no
+social significance. In nearly all races, even the most savage, we seem
+to find distinct traces of this aptitude for disgust in the presence of
+certain actions of others, an emotion naturally reflected in the
+individual's own actions, and hence a guide to conduct. Notwithstanding
+our gastric community of disgust with lower animals, it is only in man
+that this disgust seems to become transformed and developed, to possess a
+distinctly social character, and to serve as a guide to social
+conduct.[24] The objects of disgust vary infinitely according to the
+circumstances and habits of particular races, but the reaction of disgust
+is fundamental throughout.
+
+The best study of the phenomena of disgust known to me is, without doubt,
+Professor Richet's.[25] Richet concludes that it is the _dangerous_ and
+the _useless_ which evoke disgust. The digestive and sexual excretions and
+secretions, being either useless or, in accordance with widespread
+primitive ideas, highly dangerous, the genito-anal region became a
+concentrated focus of disgust.[26] It is largely for this reason, no
+doubt, that savage men exhibit modesty, not only toward women, but toward
+their own sex, and that so many of the lowest savages take great
+precautions in obtaining seclusion for the fulfillment of natural
+functions. The statement, now so often made, that the primary object of
+clothes is to accentuate, rather than to conceal, has in it--as I shall
+point out later--a large element of truth, but it is by no means a
+complete account of the matter. It seems difficult not to admit that,
+alongside the impulse to accentuate sexual differences, there is also in
+both men and women a genuine impulse to concealment among the most
+primitive peoples, and the invincible repugnance often felt by savages to
+remove the girdle or apron, is scarcely accounted for by the theory that
+it is solely a sexual lure.
+
+In this connection it seems to me instructive to consider a special form
+of modesty very strongly marked among savages in some parts of the world.
+I refer to the feeling of immodesty in eating. Where this feeling exists,
+modesty is offended when one eats in public; the modest man retires to
+eat. Indecency, said Cook, was utterly unknown among the Tahitians; but
+they would not eat together; even brothers and sisters had their separate
+baskets of provisions, and generally sat some yards apart, with their
+backs to each other, when they ate.[27] The Warrua of Central Africa,
+Cameron found, when offered a drink, put up a cloth before their faces
+while they swallowed it, and would not allow anyone to see them eat or
+drink; so that every man or woman must have his own fire and cook for
+himself.[28] Karl von den Steinen remarks, in his interesting book on
+Brazil, that though the Bakairi of Central Brazil have no feeling of shame
+about nakedness, they are ashamed to eat in public; they retire to eat,
+and hung their heads in shame-faced confusion when they saw him innocently
+eat in public. Hrolf Vaughan Stevens found that, when he gave an Orang
+Laut (Malay) woman anything to eat, she not only would not eat it if her
+husband were present, but if any man were present she would go outside
+before eating or giving her children to eat.[29] Thus among these peoples
+the act of eating in public produces the same feelings as among ourselves
+the indecent exposure of the body in public.[30]
+
+It is quite easy to understand how this arises. Whenever there is any
+pressure on the means of subsistence, as among savages at some time or
+another there nearly always is, it must necessarily arouse a profound and
+mixed emotion of desire and disgust to see another person putting into his
+stomach what one might just as well have put into one's own.[31] The
+special secrecy sometimes observed by women is probably due to the fact
+that women would be less able to resist the emotions that the act of
+eating would arouse in onlookers. As social feeling develops, a man
+desires not only to eat in safety, but also to avoid being an object of
+disgust, and to spare his friends all unpleasant emotions. Hence it
+becomes a requirement of ordinary decency to eat in private. A man who
+eats in public becomes--like the man who in our cities exposes his person
+in public--an object of disgust and contempt.
+
+Long ago, when a hospital student on midwifery duty in London slums, I had
+occasion to observe that among the women of the poor, and more especially
+in those who had lost the first bloom of youth, modesty consisted chiefly
+in the fear of being disgusting. There was an almost pathetic anxiety, in
+the face of pain and discomfort, not to be disgusting in the doctor's
+eyes. This anxiety expressed itself in the ordinary symptoms of modesty.
+But, as soon as the woman realized that I found nothing disgusting in
+whatever was proper and necessary to be done under the circumstances, it
+almost invariably happened that every sign of modesty at once
+disappeared.[32] In the special and elementary conditions of parturition,
+modesty is reduced to this one fear of causing disgust; so that, when that
+is negated, the emotion is non-existent, and the subject becomes, without
+effort, as direct and natural as a little child. A fellow-student on
+similar duty, who also discovered for himself the same character of
+modesty--that if he was careful to guard her modesty the woman was careful
+also, and that if he was not the woman was not--remarked on it to me with
+sadness; it seemed to him derogatory to womanhood that what he had been
+accustomed to consider its supreme grace should be so superficial that he
+could at will set limits to it.[33] I thought then, as I think still, that
+that was rather a perversion of the matter, and that nothing becomes
+degrading because we happen to have learned something about its
+operations. But I am more convinced than ever that the fear of causing
+disgust--a fear quite distinct from that of losing a sexual lure or
+breaking a rule of social etiquette--plays a very large part in the
+modesty of the more modest sex, and in modesty generally. Our Venuses, as
+Lucretius long since remarked and Montaigne after him, are careful to
+conceal from their lovers the _vita postscenia_, and that fantastic fate
+which placed so near together the supreme foci of physical attraction and
+physical repugnance, has immensely contributed to build up all the
+subtlest coquetries of courtship. Whatever stimulates self-confidence and
+lulls the fear of evoking disgust--whether it is the presence of a beloved
+person in whose good opinion complete confidence is felt, or whether it is
+merely the grosser narcotizing influence of a slight degree of
+intoxication--always automatically lulls the emotion of modesty.[34]
+Together with the animal factor of sexual refusal, this social fear of
+evoking disgust seems to me the most fundamental element in modesty.
+
+It is, of course, impossible to argue that the fact of the sacro-pubic
+region of the body being the chief focus of concealment proves the
+importance of this factor of modesty. But it may fairly be argued that it
+owes this position not merely to being the sexual centre, but also as
+being the excretory centre. Even among many lower mammals, as well as
+among birds and insects, there is a well-marked horror of dirt, somewhat
+disguised by the varying ways in which an animal may be said to define
+"dirt." Many animals spend more time and energy in the duties of
+cleanliness than human beings, and they often show well-marked anxiety to
+remove their own excrement, or to keep away from it.[35] Thus this element
+of modesty also may be said to have an animal basis.
+
+It is on this animal basis that the human and social fear of arousing
+disgust has developed. Its probably wide extension is indicated not only
+by the strong feeling attached to the constant presence of clothing on
+this part of the body,--such constant presence being quite uncalled for if
+the garment or ornament is merely a sort of sexual war-paint,--but by the
+repugnance felt by many savages very low down in the scale to the public
+satisfaction of natural needs, and to their more than civilized
+cleanliness in this connection;[36] it is further of interest to note that
+in some parts of the world the covering is not in front, but behind;
+though of this fact there are probably other explanations. Among civilized
+people, also, it may be added, the final and invincible seat of modesty is
+sometimes not around the pubes, but the anus; that is to say, that in such
+cases the fear of arousing disgust is the ultimate and most fundamental
+element of modesty.[37]
+
+    The concentration of modesty around the anus is sometimes very
+    marked. Many women feel so high a degree of shame and reserve
+    with regard to this region, that they are comparatively
+    indifferent to an anterior examination of the sexual organs. A
+    similar feeling is not seldom found in men. "I would permit of an
+    examination of my genitals by a medical man, without any feeling
+    of discomfort," a correspondent writes, "but I think I would
+    rather die than submit to any rectal examination." Even
+    physicians have been known to endure painful rectal disorders for
+    years, rather than undergo examination.
+
+    "Among ordinary English girls," a medical correspondent writes,
+    "I have often noticed that the dislike and shame of allowing a
+    man to have sexual intercourse with them, when newly married, is
+    simply due to the fact that the sexual aperture is so closely
+    apposed to the anus and bladder. If the vulva and vagina were
+    situated between a woman's shoulder blades, and a man had a
+    separate instrument for coitus, not used for any excretory
+    purpose, I do not think women would feel about intercourse as
+    they sometimes do. Again, in their ignorance of anatomy, women
+    often look upon the vagina and womb as part of the bowel and its
+    exit of discharge, and sometimes say, for instance,
+    'inflammation of the _bowel_', when they mean _womb_. Again,
+    many, perhaps most, women believe that they pass water through
+    the vagina, and are ignorant of the existence of the separate
+    urethral orifice. Again, women associate the vulva with the anus,
+    and so feel ashamed of it; even when speaking to their husbands,
+    or to a doctor, or among themselves; they have absolutely no name
+    for the vulva (I mean among the upper classes, and people of
+    gentle birth), but speak of it as 'down below,' 'low down,' etc."
+
+    Even though this feeling is largely based on wrong and ignorant
+    ideas, it must still be recognized that it is to some extent
+    natural and inevitable. "How much is risked," exclaims Dugas, "in
+    the privacies of love! The results may be disillusion, disgust,
+    the consciousness of physical imperfection, of brutality or
+    coldness, of æsthetic disenchantment, of a sentimental shock,
+    seen or divined. To be without modesty, that is to say, to have
+    no fear of the ordeals of love, one must be sure of one's self,
+    of one's grace, of one's physical emotions, of one's feelings,
+    and be sure, moreover, of the effect of all these on the nerves,
+    the imagination, and the heart of another person. Let us suppose
+    modesty reduced to æsthetic discomfort, to a woman's fear of
+    displeasing, or of not seeming beautiful enough. Even thus
+    defined, how can modesty avoid being always awake and restless?
+    What woman could repeat, without risk, the tranquil action of
+    Phryne? And even in that action, who knows how much may not have
+    been due to mere professional insolence!" (Dugas, "La Pudeur,"
+    _Revue Philosophique_, November, 1903.) "Men and Women," Schurtz
+    points out (_Altersklassen und Männerbünde_, pp. 41-51), "have
+    certainly the capacity mutually to supplement and enrich each
+    other; but when this completion fails, or is not sought, the
+    difference may easily become a strong antipathy;" and he proceeds
+    to develop the wide-reaching significance of this psychic fact.
+
+I have emphasized the proximity of the excretory centres to the sexual
+focus in discussing this important factor of modesty, because, in
+analyzing so complex and elusive an emotion as modesty it is desirable to
+keep as near as possible to the essential and fundamental facts on which
+it is based. It is scarcely necessary to point out that, in ordinary
+civilized society, these fundamental facts are not usually present at the
+surface of consciousness and may even be absent altogether; on the
+foundation of them may arise all sorts of idealized fears, of delicate
+reserves, of æsthetic refinements, as the emotions of love become more
+complex and more subtle, and the crude simplicity of the basis on which
+they finally rest becomes inevitably concealed.
+
+Another factor of modesty, which reaches a high development in savagery,
+is the ritual element, especially the idea of ceremonial uncleanness,
+based on a dread of the supernatural influences which the sexual organs
+and functions are supposed to exert. It may be to some extent rooted in
+the elements already referred to, and it leads us into a much wider field
+than that of modesty, so that it is only necessary to touch slightly on it
+here; it has been exhaustively studied by Frazer and by Crawley. Offences
+against the ritual rendered necessary by this mysterious dread, though
+more serious than offences against sexual reticence or the fear of causing
+disgust, are so obviously allied that they all reinforce one another and
+cannot easily be disentangled.
+
+Nearly everywhere all over the world at a primitive stage of thought, and
+even to some extent in the highest civilization, the sight of the sexual
+organs or of the sexual act, the image or even the names of the sexual
+parts of either man or woman, are believed to have a curiously potent
+influence, sometimes beneficent, but quite as often maleficent. The two
+kinds of influence may even be combined, and Riedel, quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels,[38] states that the Ambon islanders carve a schematic
+representation of the vulva on their fruit trees, in part to promote the
+productiveness of the trees, and in part to scare any unauthorized person
+who might be tempted to steal the fruit. The precautions prescribed as
+regards coitus at Loango[39] are evidently associated with religious
+fears. In Ceylon, again (as a medical correspondent there informs me),
+where the penis is worshipped and held sacred, a native never allows it to
+be seen, except under compulsion, by a doctor, and even a wife must
+neither see it nor touch it nor ask for coitus, though she must grant as
+much as the husband desires. All savage and barbarous peoples who have
+attained any high degree of ceremonialism have included the functions not
+only of sex, but also of excretion, more or less stringently within the
+bounds of that ceremonialism.[40] It is only necessary to refer to the
+Jewish ritual books of the Old Testament, to Hesiod, and to the customs
+prevalent among Mohammedan peoples. Modesty in eating, also, has its roots
+by no means only in the fear of causing disgust, but very largely in this
+kind of ritual, and Crawley has shown how numerous and frequent among
+primitive peoples are the religious implications of eating and
+drinking.[41] So profound is this dread of the sacred mystery of sex, and
+so widespread is the ritual based upon it, that some have imagined that
+here alone we may find the complete explanation of modesty, and Salomon
+Reinach declares that "at the origin of the emotion of modesty lies a
+taboo."[42]
+
+    Durkheim ("La Prohibition de l'Inceste," _L'Année Sociologique_,
+    1898, p. 50), arguing that whatever sense of repugnance women may
+    inspire must necessarily reach the highest point around the womb,
+    which is hence subjected to the most stringent taboo,
+    incidentally suggests that here is an origin of modesty. "The
+    sexual organs must be veiled at an early period, to prevent the
+    dangerous effluvia which they give off from reaching the
+    environment. The veil is often a method of intercepting magic
+    action. Once constituted, the practice would be maintained and
+    transformed."
+
+    It was doubtless as a secondary and derived significance that the
+    veil became, as Reinach ("Le Voile de l'Oblation," op. cit., pp.
+    299-311) shows it was, alike among the Romans and in the Catholic
+    Church, the sign of consecration to the gods.
+
+At an early stage of culture, again, menstruation is regarded as a process
+of purification, a dangerous expulsion of vitiated humors. Hence the term
+_katharsis_ applied to it by the Greeks. Hence also the mediæval view of
+women: "_Mulier speciosa templum ædificatum super cloacam_," said
+Boethius. The sacro-pubic region in women, because it includes the source
+of menstruation, thus becomes a specially heightened seat of taboo.
+According to the Mosiac law (Leviticus, Chapter XX, v. 18), if a man
+uncovered a menstruating woman, both were to be cut off.
+
+It is probable that the Mohammedan custom of veiling the face and head
+really has its source solely in another aspect of this ritual factor of
+modesty. It must be remembered that this custom is not Mohammedan in its
+origin, since it existed long previously among the Arabians, and is
+described by Tertullian.[43] In early Arabia very handsome men also veiled
+their faces, in order to preserve themselves from the evil eye, and it has
+been conjectured with much probability that the origin of the custom of
+women veiling their faces may be traced to this magico-religious
+precaution.[44] Among the Jews of the same period, according to
+Büchler,[45] the women had their heads covered and never cut their hair;
+to appear in the streets without such covering would be like a prostitute
+and was adequate ground for divorce; adulterous women were punished by
+uncovering their heads and cutting their hair. It is possible, though not
+certain, that St. Paul's obscure injunction to women to cover their heads
+"because of the angels," may really be based on the ancient reason, that
+when uncovered they would be exposed to the wanton assaults of spirits (1
+Corinthians, Ch. XI, vv. 5-6),[46] exactly as Singhalese women believe
+that they must keep the vulva covered lest demons should have intercourse
+with them. Even at the present day St. Paul's injunction is still observed
+by Christendom, which is, however, far from accepting, or even perhaps
+understanding, the folk-lore ground on which are based such injunctions.
+
+    Crawley thus summarizes some of the evidence concerning the
+    significance of the veil:--
+
+    "Sexual shyness, not only in woman, but in man, is intensified at
+    marriage, and forms a chief feature of the dangerous sexual
+    properties mutually feared. When fully ceremonial, the idea takes
+    on the meaning that satisfaction of these feelings will lead to
+    their neutralization, as, in fact, it does. The bridegroom in
+    ancient Sparta supped on the wedding night at the men's mess, and
+    then visited his bride, leaving her before daybreak. This
+    practice was continued, and sometimes children were born before
+    the pair had ever seen each other's faces by day. At weddings in
+    the Babar Islands, the bridegroom has to hunt for his bride in a
+    darkened room. This lasts a good while if she is shy. In South
+    Africa, the bridegroom may not see his bride till the whole of
+    the marriage ceremonies have been performed. In Persia, a husband
+    never sees his wife till he has consummated the marriage. At
+    marriages in South Arabia, the bride and bridegroom have to sit
+    immovable in the same position from noon till midnight, fasting,
+    in separate rooms. The bride is attended by ladies, and the groom
+    by men. They may not see each other till the night of the fourth
+    day. In Egypt, the groom cannot see the face of his bride, even
+    by a surreptitious glance, till she is in his absolute
+    possession. Then comes the ceremony, which he performs, of
+    uncovering her face. In Egypt, of course, this has been
+    accentuated by the seclusion and veiling of women. In Morocco, at
+    the feast before the marriage, the bride and groom sit together
+    on a sort of throne; all the time, the poor bride's eyes are
+    firmly closed, and she sits amidst the revelry as immovable as a
+    statue. On the next day is the marriage. She is conducted after
+    dark to her future home, accompanied by a crowd with lanterns and
+    candles. She is led with closed eyes along the street by two
+    relatives, each holding one of her hands. The bride's head is
+    held in its proper position by a female relative, who walks
+    behind her. She wears a veil, and is not allowed to open her eyes
+    until she is set on the bridal bed, with a girl friend beside
+    her. Amongst the Zulus, the bridal party proceeds to the house of
+    the groom, having the bride hidden amongst them. They stand
+    facing the groom, while the bride sings a song. Her companions
+    then suddenly break away, and she is discovered standing in the
+    middle, with a fringe of beads covering her face. Amongst the
+    people of Kumaun, the husband sees his wife first after the
+    joining of hands. Amongst the Bedui of North East Africa, the
+    bride is brought on the evening of the wedding-day by her girl
+    friends, to the groom's house. She is closely muffled up. Amongst
+    the Jews of Jerusalem, the bride, at the marriage ceremony,
+    stands under the nuptial canopy, her eyes being closed, that she
+    may not behold the face of her future husband before she reaches
+    the bridal chamber. In Melanesia, the bride is carried to her new
+    home on some one's back, wrapped in many mats, with palm-fans
+    held about her face, because she is supposed to be modest and
+    shy. Among the Damaras, the groom cannot see his bride for four
+    days after marriage. When a Damara woman is asked in marriage,
+    she covers her face for a time with the flap of a headdress made
+    for this purpose. At the Thlinkeet marriage ceremony, the bride
+    must look down, and keep her head bowed all the time; during the
+    wedding-day, she remains hiding in a corner of the house, and the
+    groom is forbidden to enter. At a Yezedee marriage, the bride is
+    covered from head to foot with a thick veil, and when arrived at
+    her new home, she retires behind a curtain in the corner of a
+    darkened room, where she remains for three days before her
+    husband is permitted to see her. In Corea, the bride has to cover
+    her face with her long sleeves, when meeting the bridegroom at
+    the wedding. The Manchurian bride uncovers her face for the first
+    time when she descends from the nuptial couch. It is dangerous
+    even to see dangerous persons. Sight is a method of contagion in
+    primitive science, and the idea coincides with the psychological
+    aversion to see dangerous things, and with sexual shyness and
+    timidity. In the customs noticed, we can distinguish the feeling
+    that it is dangerous to the bride for her husband's eyes to be
+    upon her, and the feeling of bashfulness in her which induces her
+    neither to see him nor to be seen by him. These ideas explain the
+    origin of the bridal veil and similar concealments. The bridal
+    veil is used, to take a few instances, in China, Burmah, Corea,
+    Russia, Bulgaria, Manchuria, and Persia, and in all these cases
+    it conceals the face entirely." (E. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_,
+    pp. 328 et seq.)
+
+    Alexander Walker, writing in 1846, remarks: "Among old-fashioned
+    people, of whom a good example may be found in old country people
+    of the middle class in England, it is indecent to be seen with
+    the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the chance of
+    being seen In that condition, and if intruded on at that time,
+    she shrieks with terror, and flies to conceal herself." (A.
+    Walker, _Beauty_, p. 15.) This fear of being seen with the head
+    uncovered exists still, M. Van Gennep informs me, in some regions
+    of France, as in Brittany.
+
+So far it has only been necessary to refer incidentally to the connection
+of modesty with clothing. I have sought to emphasize the unquestionable,
+but often forgotten, fact that modesty is in its origin independent of
+clothing, that physiological modesty takes precedence of anatomical
+modesty, and that the primary factors of modesty were certainly developed
+long before the discovery of either ornament or garments. The rise of
+clothing probably had its first psychical basis on an emotion of modesty
+already compositely formed of the elements we have traced. Both the main
+elementary factors, it must be noted, must naturally tend to develop and
+unite in a more complex, though--it may well be--much less intense,
+emotion. The impulse which leads the female animal, as it leads some
+African women when found without their girdles, to squat firmly down on
+the earth, becomes a more refined and extended play of gesture and
+ornament and garment. A very notable advance, I may remark, is made when
+this primary attitude of defence against the action of the male becomes a
+defence against his eyes. We may thus explain the spread of modesty to
+various parts of the body, even when we exclude the more special influence
+of the evil eye. The breasts very early become a focus of modesty in
+women; this may be observed among many naked, or nearly naked, negro
+races; the tendency of the nates to become the chief seat of modesty in
+many parts of Africa may probably be, in large part, thus explained, since
+the full development of the gluteal regions is often the greatest
+attraction an African woman can possess.[47] The same cause contributes,
+doubtless, to the face becoming, in some races, the centre of modesty. We
+see the influence of this defence against strange eyes in the special
+precautions in gesture or clothing taken by the women in various parts of
+the world, against the more offensive eyes of civilized Europeans.
+
+But in thus becoming directed only against sight, and not against action,
+the gestures of modesty are at once free to become merely those of
+coquetry. When there is no real danger of offensive action, there is no
+need for more than playful defence, and no serious anxiety should that
+defence be taken as a disguised invitation. Thus the road is at once fully
+open toward the most civilized manifestations of the comedy of courtship.
+
+In the same way the social fear of arousing disgust combines easily and
+perfectly with any new development in the invention of ornament or
+clothing as sexual lures. Even among the most civilized races it has often
+been noted that the fashion of feminine garments (as also sometimes the
+use of scents) has the double object of concealing and attracting. It is
+so with the little apron of the young savage belle. The heightening of the
+attraction is, indeed, a logical outcome of the fear of evoking disgust.
+
+It is possible, as some ethnographists have observed,[48] that intercrural
+cords and other primitive garments have a physical ground, inasmuch as
+they protect the most sensitive and unprotected part of the body,
+especially in women. We may note in this connection the significant
+remarks of K. von den Steinen, who argues that among Brazilian tribes the
+object of the _uluri_, etc., is to obtain a maximum of protection for the
+mucous membrane with a minimum of concealment. Among the Eskimo, as Nansen
+noted, the corresponding intercrural cord is so thin as to be often
+practically invisible; this may be noted, I may add, in the excellent
+photographs of Eskimo women given by Holm.
+
+But it is evident that, in the beginning, protection is to little or no
+extent the motive for attaching foreign substances to the body. Thus the
+tribes of Central Australia wear no clothes, although they often suffer
+from the cold. But, in addition to armlets, neck-bands and head-bands,
+they have string or hair girdles, with, for the women, a very small apron
+and, for the men, a pubic tassel. The latter does not conceal the organs,
+being no larger than a coin, and often brilliantly coated with white
+pipeclay, especially during the progress of _corrobborees_, when a large
+number of men and women meet together; it serves the purpose of drawing
+attention to the organs.[49] When Forster visited the unspoilt islanders
+of the Pacific early in the eighteenth century, he tells us that, though
+they wore no clothes, they found it necessary to cover themselves with
+various ornaments, especially on, the sexual parts. "But though their
+males," he remarks, "were to all appearances equally anxious in this
+respect with their females, this part of their dress served only to make
+that more conspicuous which it intended to hide."[50] He adds the
+significant remark that "these ideas of decency and modesty are only
+observed at the age of sexual maturity," just as in Central Australia
+women may only wear aprons after the initiation of puberty.
+
+"There are certain things," said Montaigne, "which are hidden in order to
+be shown;" and there can be no doubt that the contention of Westermarck
+and others, that ornament and clothing were, in the first place, intended,
+not to conceal or even to protect the body, but, in large part, to render
+it sexually attractive, is fully proved.[51] We cannot, in the light of
+all that has gone before, regard ornaments and clothing as the sole cause
+of modesty, but the feelings that are thus gathered around the garment
+constitute a highly important factor of modesty.
+
+    Among some Australian tribes it is said that the sexual organs
+    are only covered during their erotic dances; and it is further
+    said that in some parts of the world only prostitutes are
+    clothed. "The scanty covering," as Westermarck observes, "was
+    found to act as the most powerful obtainable sexual stimulus." It
+    is undoubtedly true that this statement may be made not merely of
+    the savage, but of the most civilized world. All observers agree
+    that the complete nudity of savages, unlike the civilized
+    _décolleté_ or _détroussé_, has no suggestion of sexual
+    allurement. (Westermarck quotes numerous testimonies on this
+    point, op. cit., pp. 192 et seq.) Dr. R.W. Felkin remarks
+    concerning Central Africa, that he has never met more indecency
+    than in Uganda, where the penalty of death is inflicted on an
+    adult found naked in the street. (_Edinburgh Medical Journal_,
+    April, 1884.) A study of pictures or statuary will alone serve to
+    demonstrate that nakedness is always chaster in its effects than
+    partial clothing. As a well-known artist, Du Maurier, has
+    remarked (in _Trilby_), it is "a fact well known to all painters
+    and sculptors who have used the nude model (except a few shady
+    pretenders, whose purity, not being of the right sort, has gone
+    rank from too much watching) that nothing is so chaste as nudity.
+    Venus herself, as she drops her garments and steps on to the
+    model-throne, leaves behind her on the floor every weapon in her
+    armory by which she can pierce to the grosser passions of men."
+    Burton, in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (Part III, Sect. II,
+    Subsect. 3), deals at length with the "Allurements of Love," and
+    concludes that "the greatest provocations of lust are from our
+    apparel." The artist's model, as one informs me, is much less
+    exposed to liberties from men when nude than when she is
+    partially clothed, and it may be noted that in Paris studios the
+    model who poses naked undresses behind a screen.
+
+    An admirable poetic rendering of this element in the philosophy
+    of clothing has been given by Herrick, that master of erotic
+    psychology, in "A Lily in Crystal," where he argues that a lily
+    in crystal, and amber in a stream, and strawberries in cream,
+    gain an added delight from semi-concealment; and so, he
+    concludes, we obtain
+
+        "A rule, how far, to teach,
+        Your nakedness must reach."
+
+    In this connection, also, it is worth noting that Stanley Hall,
+    in a report based on returns from nearly a thousand persons,
+    mostly teachers, ("The Early Sense of Self," _American Journal of
+    Psychology_, 1898, p. 366), finds that of the three functions of
+    clothes--protection, ornament, and Lotzean "self-feeling"--the
+    second is by far the most conspicuous in childhood. The attitude
+    of children is testimony to the primitive attitude toward
+    clothing.
+
+    It cannot, however, be said that the use of clothing for the sake
+    of showing the natural forms of the body has everywhere been
+    developed. In Japan, where nakedness is accepted without shame,
+    clothes are worn to cover and conceal, and not to reveal, the
+    body. It is so, also, in China. A distinguished Chinese
+    gentleman, who had long resided in Europe, once told Baelz that
+    he had gradually learnt to grasp the European point of view, but
+    that it would be impossible to persuade his fellow-countrymen
+    that a woman who used her clothes to show off her figure could
+    possibly possess the least trace of modesty. (Baelz, _Zeitschrift
+    für Ethnologie_, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.)
+
+The great artistic elaboration often displayed by articles of ornament or
+clothing, even when very small, and the fact--as shown by Karl von den
+Steinen regarding the Brazilian _uluri_--that they may serve as common
+motives in general decoration, sufficiently prove that such objects
+attract rather than avoid attention. And while there is an invincible
+repugnance among some peoples to remove these articles, such repugnance
+being often strongest when the adornment is most minute, others have no
+such repugnance or are quite indifferent whether or not their aprons are
+accurately adjusted. The mere presence or possession of the article gives
+the required sense of self-respect, of human dignity, of sexual
+desirability. Thus it is that to unclothe a person, is to humiliate him;
+this was so even in Homeric times, for we may recall the threat of
+Ulysses to strip Thyestes.[52]
+
+When clothing is once established, another element, this time a
+social-economic element, often comes in to emphasize its importance and
+increase the anatomical modesty of women. I mean the growth of the
+conception of women as property. Waitz, followed by Schurtz and
+Letourneau, has insisted that the jealousy of husbands is the primary
+origin of clothing, and, indirectly, of modesty. Diderot in the eighteenth
+century had already given clear expression to the same view. It is
+undoubtedly true that only married women are among some peoples clothed,
+the unmarried women, though full grown, remaining naked. In many parts of
+the world, also, as Mantegazza and others have shown, where the men are
+naked and the women covered, clothing is regarded as a sort of disgrace,
+and men can only with difficulty be persuaded to adopt it. Before marriage
+a woman was often free, and not bound to chastity, and at the same time
+was often naked; after marriage she was clothed, and no longer free. To
+the husband's mind, the garment appears--illogically, though naturally--a
+moral and physical protection against any attack on his property.[53] Thus
+a new motive was furnished, this time somewhat artificially, for making
+nakedness, in women at all events, disgraceful. As the conception of
+property also extended to the father's right over his daughters, and the
+appreciation of female chastity developed, this motive spread to unmarried
+as well as married women. A woman on the west coast of Africa must always
+be chaste because she is first the property of her parents and afterwards
+of her husband,[54] and even in the seventeenth century of Christendom so
+able a thinker as Bishop Burnet furnished precisely the same reason for
+feminine chastity.[55] This conception probably constituted the chief and
+most persistent element furnished to the complex emotion of modesty by the
+barbarous stages of human civilization.
+
+This economic factor necessarily involved the introduction of a new moral
+element into modesty. If a woman's chastity is the property of another
+person, it is essential that she shall be modest in order that men may not
+be tempted to incur the penalties involved by the infringement of property
+rights. Thus modesty is strictly inculcated on women in order that men may
+be safeguarded from temptation. The fact was overlooked that modesty is
+itself a temptation. Immodesty being, on this ground, disapproved by men,
+a new motive for modesty is furnished to women. In the book which the
+Knight of the Tower, Landry, wrote in the fourteenth century, for the
+instruction of his daughters, this factor of modesty is naïvely revealed.
+He tells his daughters of the trouble that David got into through the
+thoughtlessness of Bathsheba, and warns them that "every woman ought
+religiously to conceal herself when dressing and washing, and neither out
+of vanity nor yet to attract attention show either her hair, or her neck,
+or her breast, or any part which ought to be covered." Hinton went so far
+as to regard what he termed "body modesty," as entirely a custom imposed
+upon women by men with the object of preserving their own virtue. While
+this motive is far from being the sole source of modesty, it must
+certainly be borne in mind as an inevitable outcome of the economic factor
+of modesty.
+
+In Europe it seems probable that the generally accepted conceptions of
+mediæval chivalry were not without influence in constituting the forms in
+which modesty shows itself among us. In the early middle ages there seems
+to have been a much greater degree of physical familiarity between the
+sexes than is commonly found among barbarians elsewhere. There was
+certainly considerable promiscuity in bathing and indifference to
+nakedness. It seems probable, as Durkheim points out,[56] that this state
+of things was modified in part by the growing force of the dictates of
+Christian morality, which regarded all intimate approaches between the
+sexes as sinful, and in part by the influence of chivalry with its
+æsthetic and moral ideals of women, as the representative of all the
+delicacies and elegancies of civilization. This ideal was regarded as
+incompatible with the familiarities of the existing social relationships
+between the sexes, and thus a separation, which at first existed only in
+art and literature, began by a curious reaction to exert an influence on
+real life.
+
+The chief new feature--it is scarcely a new element--added to modesty when
+an advanced civilization slowly emerges from barbarism is the elaboration
+of its social ritual.[57] Civilization expands the range of modesty, and
+renders it, at the same time, more changeable. The French seventeenth
+century, and the English eighteenth, represent early stages of modern
+European civilization, and they both devoted special attention to the
+elaboration of the minute details of modesty. The frequenters of the Hotel
+Rambouillet, the _précieuses_ satirized by Molière, were not only engaged
+in refining the language; they were refining feelings and ideas and
+enlarging the boundaries of modesty.[58] In England such famous and
+popular authors as Swift and Sterne bear witness to a new ardor of modesty
+in the sudden reticences, the dashes, and the asterisks, which are found
+throughout their works. The altogether new quality of literary prurience,
+of which Sterne is still the classical example, could only have arisen on
+the basis of the new modesty which was then overspreading society and
+literature. Idle people, mostly, no doubt, the women in _salons_ and
+drawing-rooms, people more familiar with books than with the realities of
+life, now laid down the rules of modesty, and were ever enlarging it, ever
+inventing new subtleties of gesture and speech, which it would be immodest
+to neglect, and which are ever being rendered vulgar by use and ever
+changing.
+
+    It was at this time, probably, that the custom of inventing an
+    arbitrary private vocabulary of words and phrases for the purpose
+    of disguising references to functions and parts of the body
+    regarded as immodest and indecent, first began to become common.
+    Such private slang, growing up independently in families, and
+    especially among women, as well as between lovers, is now almost
+    universal. It is not confined to any European country, and has
+    been studied in Italy by Niceforo (_Il Gergo_, 1897, cap. 1 and
+    2), who regards it as a weapon of social defence against an
+    inquisitive or hostile environment, since it enables things to be
+    said with a meaning which is unintelligible to all but the
+    initiated person. While it is quite true that the custom is
+    supported by the consciousness of its practical advantages, it
+    has another source in a desire to avoid what is felt to be the
+    vulgar immodesty of direct speech. This is sufficiently shown by
+    the fact that such slang is mostly concerned with the sacro-pubic
+    sphere. It is one of the chief contributions to the phenomena of
+    modesty furnished by civilization. The claims of modesty having
+    effected the clothing of the body, the impulse of modesty finds a
+    further sphere of activity--half-playful, yet wholly
+    imperative--in the clothing of language.
+
+    Modesty of speech has, however, a deep and primitive basis,
+    although in modern Europe it only became conspicuous at the
+    beginning of the eighteenth century. "All over the world," as
+    Dufour put it, "to do is good, to say is bad." Reticences of
+    speech are not adequately accounted for by the statement that
+    modesty tends to irradiate from the action to the words
+    describing the action, for there is a tendency for modesty to be
+    more deeply rooted in the words than in the actions. "Modest
+    women," as Kleinpaul truly remarks, "have a much greater horror
+    of saying immodest things than of doing them; they believe that
+    fig-leaves were especially made for the mouth." (Kleinpaul,
+    _Sprache ohne Worte_, p. 309.) It is a tendency which is linked
+    on to the religious and ritual feeling which we have already
+    found to be a factor of modesty, and which, even when applied to
+    language, appears to have an almost or quite instinctive basis,
+    for it is found among the most primitive savages, who very
+    frequently regard a name as too sacred or dangerous to utter.
+    Among the tribes of Central Australia, in addition to his
+    ordinary name, each individual has his sacred or secret name,
+    only known to the older and fully initiated members of his own
+    totemic group; among the Warramunga, it is not permitted to women
+    to utter even a man's ordinary name, though she knows it.
+    (Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p.
+    581.) In the mysterious region of sex, this feeling easily takes
+    root. In many parts of the world, men use among themselves, and
+    women use among themselves, words and even languages which they
+    may not use without impropriety in speaking to persons of the
+    opposite sex, and it has been shown that exogamy, or the fact
+    that the wife belongs to a different tribe, will not always
+    account for this phenomenon. (Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 46.)
+    A special vocabulary for the generative organs and functions is
+    very widespread. Thus, in northwest Central Queensland, there is
+    both a decent and an indecent vocabulary for the sexual parts; in
+    Mitakoodi language, for instance, _me-ne_ may be used for the
+    vulva in the best aboriginal society, but _koon-ja_ and _pukkil_,
+    which are names for the same parts, are the most blackguardly
+    words known to the natives. (W. Roth, _Ethnological Studies Among
+    the Queensland Aborigines_, p. 184.) Among the Malays, _puki_ is
+    also a name for the vulva which it is very indecent to utter, and
+    it is only used in public by people under the influence of an
+    obsessive nervous disorder. (W. Gilman Ellis, "Latah," _Journal
+    of Mental Science_, Jan., 1897.) The Swahili women of Africa have
+    a private metaphorical language of their own, referring to sexual
+    matters (Zache, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 2-3, pp.
+    70 et seq.), and in Samoa, again, young girls have a euphemistic
+    name for the penis, _aualuma_, which is not that in common use
+    (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 1, p. 31); exactly the
+    same thing is found in Europe, to-day, and is sometimes more
+    marked among young peasant women than among those of better
+    social class, who often avoid, under all circumstances, the
+    necessity for using any definite name.
+
+    Singular as it may seem, the Romans, who in their literature
+    impress us by their vigorous and naked grip of the most private
+    facts of life, showed in familiar intercourse a dread of obscene
+    language--a dread ultimately founded, it is evident, on religious
+    grounds--far exceeding that which prevails among ourselves to-day
+    in civilization. "It is remarkable," Dufour observes, "that the
+    prostitutes of ancient Rome would have blushed to say an indecent
+    word in public. The little tender words used between lovers and
+    their mistresses were not less correct and innocent when the
+    mistress was a courtesan and the lover an erotic poet. He called
+    her his rose, his queen, his goddess, his dove, his light, his
+    star, and she replied by calling him her jewel, her honey, her
+    bird, her ambrosia, the apple of her eye, and never with any
+    licentious interjection, but only 'I will love!' (_Amabo_), a
+    frequent exclamation, summing up a whole life and vocation. When
+    intimate relations began, they treated each other as 'brother'
+    and 'sister.' These appellations were common among the humblest
+    and the proudest courtesans alike." (Dufour, _Histoire de la
+    Prostitution_, vol. ii, p. 78.) So excessive was the Roman horror
+    of obscenity that even physicians were compelled to use a
+    euphemism for _urina_, and though the _urinal_ or _vas urinarium_
+    was openly used at the dining-table (following a custom
+    introduced by the Sybarites, according to Athenæus, Book XII,
+    cap. 17), the decorous guest could not ask for it by name, but
+    only by a snap of the fingers (Dufour, op. cit., vol. ii, p.
+    174).
+
+    In modern Europe, as seems fairly evident from the early
+    realistic dramatic literature of various countries, no special
+    horror of speaking plainly regarding the sacro-pubic regions and
+    their functions existed among the general population until the
+    seventeenth century. There is, however, one marked exception.
+    Such a feeling clearly existed as regards menstruation. It is not
+    difficult to see why it should have begun at this function. We
+    have here not only a function confined to one sex and, therefore,
+    easily lending itself to a vocabulary confined to one sex; but,
+    what is even of more importance, the belief which existed among
+    the Romans, as elsewhere throughout the world, concerning the
+    specially dangerous and mysterious properties of menstruation,
+    survived throughout mediæval times. (See e.g., Ploss and Bartels,
+    _Das Weib_, Bd. I, XIV; also Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_,
+    fourth ed. Ch. XI.) The very name, _menses_ ("monthlies"), is a
+    euphemism, and most of the old scientific names for this function
+    are similarly vague. As regards popular feminine terminology
+    previous to the eighteenth century, Schurig gives us fairly ample
+    information (_Parthenologia_, 1729, pp. 27 et seq.). He remarks
+    that both in Latin and Germanic countries, menstruation was
+    commonly designated by some term equivalent to "flowers,"
+    because, he says, it is a blossoming that indicates the
+    possibility of fruit. German peasant women, he tells us, called
+    it the rose-wreath (Rosenkrantz). Among the other current
+    feminine names for menstruation which he gives, some are purely
+    fanciful; thus, the Italian women dignified the function with the
+    title of "marchese magnifico;" German ladies, again, would use
+    the locution, "I have had a letter," or would say that their
+    cousin or aunt had arrived. These are closely similar to the
+    euphemisms still used by women.
+
+    It should be added that euphemisms for menstruation are not
+    confined to Europe, and are found among savages. According to
+    Hill Tout (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1904, p.
+    320; and 1905, p. 137), one of these euphemisms was "putting on
+    the moccasin," and in another branch of the same people, "putting
+    the knees together," "going outside" (in allusion to the
+    customary seclusion at this period in a solitary hut), and so on.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that this process is an
+intensification of modesty. It is, on the contrary, an attenuation of it.
+The observances of modesty become merely a part of a vast body of rules of
+social etiquette, though a somewhat stringent part on account of the vague
+sense still persisting of a deep-lying natural basis. It is a significant
+coincidence that the eighteenth century, which was marked by this new
+extension of the social ritual of modesty, also saw the first appearance
+of a new philosophic impulse not merely to analyze, but to dissolve the
+conception of modesty. This took place more especially in France.
+
+The swift rise to supremacy, during the seventeenth century, of logical
+and rational methods of thinking, in conjunction with the new development
+of geometrical and mathematical science, led in the eighteenth century to
+a widespread belief in France that human customs and human society ought
+to be founded on a strictly logical and rational basis. It was a belief
+which ignored those legitimate claims of the emotional nature which the
+nineteenth century afterwards investigated and developed, but it was of
+immense service to mankind in clearing away useless prejudices and
+superstitions, and it culminated in the reforms of the great Revolution
+which most other nations have since been painfully struggling to attain.
+Modesty offered a tempting field for the eighteenth century philosophic
+spirit to explore.
+
+The manner in which the most distinguished and adventurous minds of the
+century approached it, can scarcely be better illustrated than by a
+conversation, reported by Madame d'Epinay, which took place in 1750 at the
+table of Mlle. Quinault, the eminent actress. "A fine virtue," Duclos
+remarked, "which one fastens on in the morning with pins." He proceeded to
+argue that "a moral law must hold good always and everywhere, which
+modesty does not." Saint-Lambert, the poet, observed that "it must be
+acknowledged that one can say nothing good about innocence without being a
+little corrupted," and Duclos added "or of modesty without being
+impudent." Saint-Lambert finally held forth with much poetic enthusiasm
+concerning the desirability of consummating marriages in public.[59] This
+view of modesty, combined with the introduction of Greek fashions, gained
+ground to such an extent that towards the end of the century women, to the
+detriment of their health, were sometimes content to dress in transparent
+gauze, and even to walk abroad in the Champs Elysées without any clothing;
+that, however, was too much for the public.[60] The final outcome of the
+eighteenth century spirit in this direction was, as we know, by no means
+the dissolution of modesty. But it led to a clearer realization of what is
+permanent in its organic foundations and what is merely temporary in its
+shifting manifestations. That is a realization which is no mean task to
+achieve, and is difficult for many, even yet. So intelligent a traveler as
+Mrs. Bishop (Miss Bird), on her first visit to Japan came to the
+conclusion that Japanese women had no modesty, because they had no
+objection to being seen naked when bathing. Twenty years later she
+admitted to Dr. Baelz that she had made a mistake, and that "a woman may
+be naked and yet behave like a lady."[61] In civilized countries the
+observances of modesty differ in different regions, and in different
+social classes, but, however various the forms may be, the impulse itself
+remains persistent.[62]
+
+Modesty has thus come to have the force of a tradition, a vague but
+massive force, bearing with special power on those who cannot reason, and
+yet having its root in the instincts of all people of all classes.[63] It
+has become mainly transformed into the allied emotion of decency, which
+has been described as "modesty fossilized into social customs." The
+emotion yields more readily than in its primitive state to any
+sufficiently-strong motive. Even fashion in the more civilized countries
+can easily inhibit anatomical modesty, and rapidly exhibit or accentuate,
+in turn, almost any part of the body, while the savage Indian woman of
+America, the barbarous woman of some Mohammedan countries, can scarcely
+sacrifice her modesty in the pangs of childbirth. Even when, among
+uncivilized races, the focus of modesty may be said to be eccentric and
+arbitrary, it still remains very rigid. In such savage and barbarous
+countries modesty possesses the strength of a genuine and irresistible
+instinct. In civilized countries, however, anyone who places
+considerations of modesty before the claims of some real human need
+excites ridicule and contempt.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] Fliess (_Die Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen
+Geschlechts-Organen_, p. 194) remarks on the fact that, in the Bible
+narrative of Eden, shame and fear are represented as being brought into
+the world together: Adam feared God because he was naked. Melinaud
+("Psychologie de la Pudeur," _La Revue_, Nov. 15, 1901) remarks that shame
+differs from modesty in being, not a fear, but a kind of grief; this
+position seems untenable.
+
+[5] Bashfulness in children has been dealt with by Professor Baldwin; see
+especially his _Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, Chapter VI,
+pp. 146 et seq., and _Social Interpretations in Mental Development_,
+Chapter VI.
+
+[6] Bell, "A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love Between the Sexes,"
+_American Journal Psychology_, July, 1902.
+
+[7] Professor Starbuck (_Psychology of Religion_, Chapter XXX) refers to
+unpublished investigations showing that recognition of the rights of
+others also exhibits a sudden increment at the age of puberty.
+
+[8] Perez, _L'Enfant de Trois à Sept Ans_, 1886, pp. 267-277.
+
+[9] It must be remembered that the Medicean Venus is merely a
+comparatively recent and familiar embodiment of a natural attitude which
+is very ancient, and had impressed sculptors at a far earlier period.
+Reinach, indeed, believes ("La Sculpture en Europe," _L'Anthropologie_,
+No. 5, 1895) that the hand was first brought to the breast to press out
+the milk, and expresses the idea of exuberance, and that the attitude of
+the Venus of Medici as a symbol of modesty came later; he remarks that, as
+regards both hands, this attitude may be found in a figurine of Cyprus,
+2,000 years before Christ. This is, no doubt, correct, and I may add that
+Babylonian figurines of Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, represent her as
+clasping her hands to her breasts or her womb.
+
+[10] When there is no sexual fear the impulse of modesty may be entirely
+inhibited. French ladies under the old Régime (as A. Franklin points out
+in his _Vie Privée d'Autrefois_) sometimes showed no modesty towards their
+valets, not admitting the possibility of any sexual advance, and a lady
+would, for example, stand up in her bath while a valet added hot water by
+pouring it between her separated feet.
+
+[11] I do not hereby mean to deny a certain degree of normal periodicity
+even to the human male; but such periodicity scarcely involves any element
+of sexual fear or attitude of sexual defence, in man because it is too
+slight to involve complete latency of the sexual functions, in other
+species because latency of sexual function in the male is always
+accompanied by corresponding latency in the female.
+
+[12] H. Northcote, _Christianity and the Sex Problem_, p. 8. Crawley had
+previously argued (_The Mystic Rose_, pp. 134, 180) that this same
+necessity for solitude during the performance of nutritive, sexual, and
+excretory functions, is a factor in investing such functions with a
+potential sacredness, so that the concealment of them became a religious
+duty.
+
+[13] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1878, p. 26.
+
+[14] _Essais_, livre ii, Ch. XV.
+
+[15] _Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. i, p. 89.
+
+[16] Lane, _Arabian Society_, p. 228. The Arab insistence on the value of
+virginal modesty is well brought out in one of the most charming stories
+of the _Arabian Nights_, "The History of the Mirror of Virginity."
+
+[17] This has especially been emphasized by Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_,
+pp. 181, 324 et seq., 353.
+
+[18] _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 8, p. 358.
+
+[19] This, however, is not always or altogether true of experienced women.
+Thus, the Russian correspondent already referred to, who as a youth was
+accustomed, partly out of shyness, to feign complete ignorance of sexual
+matters, informs me that it repeatedly happened to him at this time that
+young married women took pleasure in imposing on themselves, not without
+shyness but with evident pleasure, the task of initiating him, though they
+always hastened to tell him that it was for his good, to preserve him from
+bad women and masturbation. Prostitutes, also, often take pleasure in
+innocent men, and Hans Ostwald tells (_Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908, p.
+357) of a prostitute who fell violently in love with a youth who had never
+known a woman before; she had never met an innocent man before, and it
+excited her greatly. And I have been told of an Italian prostitute who
+spoke of the exciting pleasure which an unspoilt youth gave her by his
+freshness, _tutta questa freschezza_.
+
+[20] _Anatomy of Melancholy_, Part III, Sect. III. Mem. IV. Subs. I.
+
+[21] N. Venette, _La Génération de l'Homme_, Part II, Ch. X.
+
+[22] _Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. i, p. 94.
+
+[23] Kryptadia, vol. ii, p. 26, 31. Ib. vol. iii, p. 162.
+
+[24] "Modesty is, at first," said Renouvier, "a fear which we have of
+displeasing others, and of blushing at our own natural imperfections."
+(Renouvier and Prat, _La Nouvelle Monadologie_, p. 221.)
+
+[25] C. Richet, "Les Causes du Dégoût," _L'Homme et l'Intelligence_, 1884.
+This eminent physiologist's elaborate study of disgust was not written as
+a contribution to the psychology of modesty, but it forms an admirable
+introduction to the investigation of the social factor of modesty.
+
+[26] It is interesting to note that where, as among the Eskimo, urine, for
+instance, is preserved as a highly-valuable commodity, the act of
+urination, even at table, is not regarded as in the slightest degree
+disgusting or immodest (Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, p. 202).
+
+[27] Hawkesworth, _An Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. ii, p. 52.
+
+[28] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vol. vi, p. 173.
+
+[29] Stevens, "Mittheilungen aus dem Frauenleben der Orang Belendas,"
+_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Heft 4, p. 167, 1896. Crawley, (_Mystic
+Rose_, Ch. VIII, p. 439) gives numerous other instances, even in Europe,
+with, however, special reference to sexual taboo. I may remark that
+English people of lower class, especially women, are often modest about
+eating in the presence of people of higher class. This feeling is, no
+doubt, due, in part, to the consciousness of defective etiquette, but that
+very consciousness is, in part, a development of the fear of causing
+disgust, which is a component of modesty.
+
+[30] Shame in regard to eating, it may be added, occasionally appears as a
+neurasthenic obsession in civilization, and has been studied as a form of
+psychasthenia by Janet. See e.g., (Raymond and Janet, _Les Obsessions et
+la Psychasthénie_, vol. ii, p. 386) the case of a young girl of 24, who,
+from the age of 12 or 13 (the epoch of puberty) had been ashamed to eat in
+public, thinking it nasty and ugly to do so, and arguing that it ought
+only to be done in private, like urination.
+
+[31] "Desire and disgust are curiously blended," remarks Crawley (_The
+Mystic Rose_, p. 139), "when, with one's own desire unsatisfied, one sees
+the satisfaction of another; and here we may see the altruistic stage
+beginning; this has two sides, the fear of causing desire in others, and
+the fear of causing disgust; in each case, personal isolation is the
+psychological result."
+
+[32] Hohenemser argues that the fear of causing disgust cannot be a part
+of shame. But he also argues that shame is simply psychic stasis, and it
+is quite easy to see, as in the above case, that the fear of causing
+disgust is simply a manifestation of psychic stasis. There is a conflict
+in the woman's mind between the idea of herself which she has already
+given, and the more degraded idea of herself which she fears she is likely
+to give, and this conflict is settled when she is made to feel that the
+first idea may still be maintained under the new circumstances.
+
+[33] We neither of us knew that we had merely made afresh a very ancient
+discovery. Casanova, more than a century ago, quoted the remark of a
+friend of his, that the easiest way to overcome the modesty of a woman is
+to suppose it non-existent; and he adds a saying, which he attributes to
+Clement of Alexandria, that modesty, which seems so deeply rooted in
+women, only resides in the linen that covers them, and vanishes when it
+vanishes. The passage to which Casanova referred occurs in the
+_Pædagogus_, and has already been quoted. The observation seems to have
+appealed strongly to the Fathers, always glad to make a point against
+women, and I have met with it in Cyprian's _De Habitu Feminarum_. It also
+occurs in Jerome's treatise against Jovinian. Jerome, with more scholarly
+instinct, rightly presents the remark as a quotation: "_Scribit Herodotus
+quod mulier cum veste deponat et verecundiam_." In Herodotus the saying is
+attributed to Gyges (Book I, Chapter VIII). We may thus trace very far
+back into antiquity an observation which in English has received its
+classical expression from Chaucer, who, in his "Wife of Bath's Prologue,"
+has:--
+
+    "He sayde, a woman cast hir shame away,
+    When she cast of hir smok."
+
+I need not point out that the analysis of modesty offered above robs this
+venerable saying of any sting it may have possessed as a slur upon women.
+In such a case, modesty is largely a doubt as to the spectator's attitude,
+and necessarily disappears when that doubt is satisfactorily resolved. As
+we have seen, the Central Australian maidens were very modest with regard
+to the removal of their single garment, but when that removal was
+accomplished and accepted, they were fearless.
+
+[34] The same result occurs more markedly under the deadening influence of
+insanity. Grimaldi (_Il Manicomio Moderno_, 1888) found that modesty is
+lacking in 50 per cent, of the insane.
+
+[35] For some facts bearing on this point, see Houssay, _Industries of
+Animals_, Chapter VII. "The Defence and Sanitation of Dwellings;" also P.
+Ballion, _De l'Instinct de Propreté chez les Animaux_.
+
+[36] Thus, Stevens mentions (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p. 182, 1897)
+that the Dyaks of Malacca always wash the sexual organs, even after
+urination, and are careful to use the left hand in doing so. The left hand
+is also reserved for such uses among the Jekris of the Niger coast
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 122, 1898).
+
+[37] Lombroso and Ferrero--who adopt the derivation of _pudor_ from
+_putere_; i.e., from the repugnance caused by the decomposition of the
+vaginal secretions--consider that the fear of causing disgust to men is
+the sole origin of modesty among savage women, as also it remains the sole
+form of modesty among some prostitutes to-day. (_La Donna Delinquente_, p.
+540.) Important as this factor is in the constitution of the emotion of
+modesty, I need scarcely add that I regard so exclusive a theory as
+altogether untenable.
+
+[38] _Das Weib_, Ch. VI.
+
+[39] For references as to a similar feeling among other savages, see
+Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 152.
+
+[40] See e.g., Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, pp. 141, 145, etc.
+
+[41] Crawley, op. cit., Ch. VII.
+
+[42] S, Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes et Religions_, p. 172.
+
+[43] Tertullian, _De Virginibus Velandis_, cap. 17. Hottentot women, also
+(Fritsch, _Eingeborene Südafrika's_, p. 311), cover their head with a
+cloth, and will not be persuaded to remove it.
+
+[44] Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, p. 196. The same custom is
+found among Tuareg men though it is not imperative for the women
+(Duveyrier, _Les Touaregs du Nord_, p. 291).
+
+[45] Quoted in _Zentralblatt für Anthropologie_, 1906, Heft I, p. 21.
+
+[46] Or rather, perhaps, because the sight of their nakedness might lead
+the angels into sin. See W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, p. 431.
+
+[47] In Moruland, Emin Bey remarked that women are mostly naked, but some
+wear a girdle, with a few leaves hanging behind. The women of some negro
+tribes, who thus cover themselves behind, if deprived of this sole
+covering, immediately throw themselves on the ground on their backs, in
+order to hide their nakedness.
+
+[48] E.g., Letourneau, _L'Evolution de la Morale_, p. 146.
+
+[49] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 683.
+
+[50] J.R. Forster, _Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World_,
+1728, p. 395.
+
+[51] Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, Ch. IX) ably sets forth
+this argument, with his usual wealth of illustration. Crawley (_Mystic
+Rose_, p. 135) seeks to qualify this conclusion by arguing that tattooing,
+etc., of the sex organs is not for ornament but for the purpose of
+magically insulating the organs, and is practically a permanent amulet or
+charm.
+
+[52] _Iliad_, II, 262. Waitz gives instances (_Anthropology_, p. 301)
+showing that nakedness is sometimes a mark of submission.
+
+[53] The Celtic races, in their days of developed barbarism, seem to have
+been relatively free from the idea of proprietorship in women, and it was
+probably among the Irish (as we learn from the seventeenth century
+_Itinerary_ of Fynes Moryson) that the habit of nakedness was longest
+preserved among the upper social class women of Western Europe.
+
+[54] A.B. Ellis, _Tshi-Speaking Peoples_, p. 280.
+
+[55] Burnet, _Life and Death of Rochester_, p. 110.
+
+[56] _L'Année Sociologique_, seventh year, 1904, p. 439.
+
+[57] Tallemont des Réaux, who began to write his _Historiettes_ in 1657,
+says of the Marquise de Rambouillet: "Elle est un peu trop délicate ... on
+n'oscrait prononcer le mot de _cul_. Cela va dans l'excès." Half a century
+later, in England, Mandeville, in the Remarks appended to his _Fable of
+the Bees_, refers to the almost prudish modesty inculcated on children
+from their earliest years.
+
+[58] In one of its civilized developments, this ritualized modesty becomes
+prudery, which is defined by Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, Fifth ed., p.
+125) as "codified sexual morality." Prudery is fossilized modesty, and no
+longer reacts vitally. True modesty, in an intelligent civilized person,
+is instinctively affected by motives and circumstances, responding
+sensitively to its relationships.
+
+[59] _Memoires de Madame d'Epinay_, Part I, Ch. V. Thirty years earlier,
+Mandeville had written, in England, that "the modesty of women is the
+result of custom and education."
+
+[60] Goncourt, _Histoire de la Société Française pendant le Directoire_,
+p. 422. Clothes became so gauze-like, and receded to such an extent from
+the limbs, that for a time the chemise was discarded as an awkward and
+antiquated garment.
+
+[61] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.
+
+[62] In the rural districts of Hanover, Pastor Grashoff states, "even when
+natural necessities are performed with the greatest possible freedom,
+there is no offence to modesty, in rural opinion." But he makes a
+statement which is both contradictory and false, when he adds that
+"modesty is, to the country man in general, a foreign idea."
+(_Geschlechtlich-Sittliche Verhältnisse im Deutsche Reiche_, vol. ii, p.
+45.)
+
+[63] It is frequently stated that prostitutes are devoid of modesty, but
+this is incorrect; they possess a partial and diminished modesty which,
+for a considerable period still remains genuine (see e.g., Reuss, _La
+Prostitution_, p. 58). Lombroso and Ferrero (_La Donna_, p. 540) refer to
+the objection of prostitutes to be examined during the monthly periods as
+often greater than that of respectable women. Again, Callari states
+("Prostituzione in Sicilia," _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1903, p. 205),
+that Sicilian prostitutes can only with difficulty be persuaded to expose
+themselves naked in the practice of their profession. Aretino long since
+remarked (in _La Pippa_) that no women so detest gratuitous _décolletage_
+as prostitutes. When prostitutes do not possess modesty, they frequently
+simulate it, and Ferriani remarks (in his _Delinquenti Minorenni_) that of
+ninety-seven minors (mostly females) accused of offences against public
+decency, seventy-five simulated a modesty which, in his opinion, they were
+entirely without.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Blush the Sanction of Modesty--The Phenomena of Blushing--Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush--Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.
+
+
+It is impossible to contemplate this series of phenomena, so radically
+persistent whatever its changes of form, and so constant throughout every
+stage of civilization, without feeling that, although modesty cannot
+properly be called an instinct, there must be some physiological basis to
+support it. Undoubtedly such a basis is formed by that vasomotor mechanism
+of which the most obvious outward sign is, in human beings, the blush. All
+the allied emotional forms of fear--shame, bashfulness, timidity--are to
+some extent upheld by this mechanism, but such is especially the case with
+the emotion we are now concerned with.[64] The blush is the sanction of
+modesty.
+
+    The blush is, indeed, only a part, almost, perhaps, an accidental
+    part, of the organic turmoil with which it is associated.
+    Partridge, who has studied the phenomena of blushing in one
+    hundred and twenty cases (_Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1897),
+    finds that the following are the general symptoms: tremors near
+    the waist, weakness in the limbs, pressure, trembling, warmth,
+    weight or beating in the chest, warm wave from feet upward,
+    quivering of heart, stoppage and then rapid beating of heart,
+    coldness all over followed by heat, dizziness, tingling of toes
+    and fingers, numbness, something rising in throat, smarting of
+    eyes, singing in ears, prickling sensations of face, and pressure
+    inside head. Partridge considers that the disturbance is
+    primarily central, a change in the cerebral circulation, and that
+    the actual redness of the surface comes late in the nerve storm,
+    and is really but a small part of it.
+
+    There has been some discussion as to why, and indeed how far,
+    blushing is confined to the face. Henle (_Ueber das Erröthen_)
+    thought that we blush in the face because all nervous phenomena
+    produced by mental states appear first in the face, owing to the
+    anatomical arrangement of the nerves of the body. Darwin
+    (_Expression of the Emotions_) argued that attention to a part
+    tends to produce capillary activity in the part, and that the
+    face has been the chief object of attention. It has also been
+    argued, on the other hand, that the blush is the vestigial
+    remains of a general erethism of sex, in which shame originated;
+    that the blush was thus once more widely diffused, and is so
+    still among the women of some lower races, its limitation to the
+    face being due to sexual selection and the enhanced beauty thus
+    achieved. Féré once had occasion to examine, when completely
+    nude, a boy of thirteen whose sexual organs were deformed; when
+    accused of masturbation he became covered by a blush which spread
+    uniformly over his face, neck, body and limbs, before and behind,
+    except only the hands and feet. Féré asks whether such a
+    universal blush is more common than we imagine, or whether the
+    state of nudity favors its manifestation. (_Comptes Rendus,
+    Société de Biologie_, April 1, 1905.) It may be added that
+    Partridge mentions one case in which the hands blushed.
+
+The sexual relationships of blushing are unquestionable. It occurs chiefly
+in women; it attains its chief intensity at puberty and during
+adolescence; its most common occasion is some more or less sexual
+suggestion; among one hundred and sixty-two occasions of blushing
+enumerated by Partridge, by far the most frequent cause was teasing,
+usually about the other sex. "An erection," it has been said, "is a
+blushing of the penis." Stanley Hall seems to suggest that the sexual
+blush is a vicarious genital flushing of blood, diverted from the genital
+sphere by an inhibition of fear, just as, in girls, giggling is also very
+frequently a vicarious outlet of shame; the sexual blush would thus be the
+outcome of an ancestral sex-fear; it is as an irradiation of sexual
+erethism that the blush may contain an element of pleasure.[65]
+
+    Bloch remarks that the blush is sexual, because reddening of the
+    face, as well as of the genitals, is an accompaniment of sexual
+    emotion (_Beiträge zur Ætiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Teil
+    II, p. 39). "Do you not think," a correspondent writes, "that
+    the sexual blush, at least, really represents a vaso-relaxor
+    effect quite the same as erection? The embarrassment which arises
+    is due to a perception of this fact under circumstances which are
+    felt to be unsuited for such a condition. There may arise the
+    fear of awakening disgust by the exhibition of a state which is
+    out of place. I have noticed that such a blush is produced when a
+    sufficiently young and susceptible woman is pumped full of
+    compliments. This blush seems accompanied by pleasure which does
+    not always change to fear or disgust, but is felt to be
+    attractive. When discomfort arises, most women say that they feel
+    this because 'it looks as if they had no control over
+    themselves.' When they feel that there is no need for control,
+    they no longer feel fear, and the relaxor effect has a wider
+    field of operation, producing a general rosiness, erection of
+    spinal sexual organs, etc. Such a blush would thus be a partial
+    sexual equivalent, and allow of the inhibition of other sexual
+    effects, through the warning it gives, and the fear aroused, as
+    well as being in itself a slight outlet of relaxor energy. When
+    the relationships of the persons concerned allow freedom to the
+    special sexual stimuli, as in marriage, blushing does not occur
+    so often, and when it does it has not so often the consequent of
+    fear."
+
+    There can be no doubt that the blush is sexually attractive. The
+    blush is the expression of an impulse to concealment and flight,
+    which tends automatically to arouse in the beholder the
+    corresponding impulse of pursuit, so that the central situation
+    of courtship is at once presented. Women are more or less
+    conscious of this, as well as men, and this recognition is an
+    added source of embarrassment when it cannot become a source of
+    pleasure. The ancient use of rouge testifies to the beauty of the
+    blush, and Darwin stated that, in Turkish slave-markets, the
+    girls who readily blushed fetched the highest prices. To evoke a
+    blush, even by producing embarrassment, is very commonly a cause
+    of masculine gratification.
+
+    Savages, both men and women, blush even beneath a dusky skin (for
+    the phenomenon of blushing among different races, see Waitz,
+    _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. I, pp. 149-150), and it is
+    possible that natural selection, as well as sexual selection, has
+    been favorable to the development of the blush. It is scarcely an
+    accident that, as has been often observed, criminals, or the
+    antisocial element of the community--whether by the habits of
+    their lives or by congenital abnormality--blush less easily than
+    normal persons. Kroner (_Das körperliche Gefühl_, 1887, p. 130)
+    remarks: "The origin of a specific connection between shame and
+    blushing is the work of a _social selection_. It is certainly an
+    immediate advantage for a man not to blush; indirectly, however,
+    it is a disadvantage, because in other ways he will be known as
+    shameless, and on that account, as a rule, he will be shut out
+    from propagation. This social selection will be specially
+    exercised on the female sex, and on this account, women blush to
+    a greater extent, and more readily, than men."
+
+The importance of the blush, and the emotional confusion behind it, as the
+sanction of modesty is shown by the significant fact that, by lulling
+emotional confusion, it is possible to inhibit the sense of modesty. In
+other words, we are here in the presence of a fear--to a large extent a
+sex-fear--impelling to concealment, and dreading self-attention; this fear
+naturally disappears, even though its ostensible cause remains, when it
+becomes apparent that there is no reason for fear.
+
+That is the reason why nakedness in itself has nothing to do with modesty
+or immodesty; it is the conditions under which the nakedness occurs which
+determine whether or not modesty will be roused. If none of the factors of
+modesty are violated, if no embarrassing self-attention is excited, if
+there is a consciousness of perfect propriety alike in the subject and in
+the spectator, nakedness is entirely compatible with the most scrupulous
+modesty. A. Duval, a pupil of Ingres, tells that a female model was once
+quietly posing, completely nude, at the École des Beaux Arts. Suddenly she
+screamed and ran to cover herself with her garments. She had seen a
+workman on the roof gazing inquisitively at her through a skylight.[66]
+And Paola Lombroso describes how a lady, a diplomatist's wife, who went to
+a gathering where she found herself the only woman in evening dress, felt,
+to her own surprise, such sudden shame that she could not keep back her
+tears.
+
+It thus comes about that the emotion of modesty necessarily depends on
+the feelings of the people around. The absence of the emotion by no means
+signifies immodesty, provided that the reactions of modesty are at once
+set in motion under the stress of a spectator's eye that is seen to be
+lustful, inquisitive, or reproachful. This is proved to be the case among
+primitive peoples everywhere. The Japanese woman, naked as in daily life
+she sometimes is, remains unconcerned because she excites no disagreeable
+attention, but the inquisitive and unmannerly European's eye at once
+causes her to feel confusion. Stratz, a physician, and one, moreover, who
+had long lived among the Javanese who frequently go naked, found that
+naked Japanese women felt no embarrassment in his presence.
+
+It is doubtless as a cloak to the blush that we must explain the curious
+influence of darkness in restraining the manifestations of modesty, as
+many lovers have discovered, and as we may notice in our cities after
+dark. This influence of darkness in inhibiting modesty is a very ancient
+observation. Burton, in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_, quotes from Dandinus
+the saying "_Nox facit impudentes_," directly associating this with
+blushing, and Bargagli, the Siennese novelist, wrote in the sixteenth
+century that, "it is commonly said of women, that they will do in the dark
+what they would not do in the light." It is true that the immodesty of a
+large city at night is to some extent explained by the irruption of
+prostitutes at that time; prostitutes, being habitually nearer to the
+threshold of immodesty, are more markedly affected by this influence. But
+it is an influence to which the most modest women are, at all events in
+some degree, susceptible. It has, indeed, been said that a woman is always
+more her real self in the dark than in the glare of daylight; this is part
+of what Chamberlain calls her night-inspiration.
+
+    "Traces of the night-inspiration, of the influence of the
+    primitive fire-group, abound in woman. Indeed, it may be said
+    (the life of Southern Europe and of American society of to-day
+    illustrates this point abundantly) that she is, in a sense, a
+    night-being, for the activity, physical and moral, of modern
+    women (revealed e.g. in the dance and the nocturnal
+    intellectualities of society) in this direction is remarkable.
+    Perhaps we may style a good deal of her ordinary day-labor as
+    rest, or the commonplaces and banalities of her existence, her
+    evening and night life being the true side of her activities"
+    (A.F. Chamberlain, "Work and Rest," _Popular Science Monthly_,
+    March, 1902). Giessler, who has studied the general influence of
+    darkness on human psychic life, reaches conclusions which
+    harmonize with these (C.M. Giessler, "Der Einfluss der Dunkelheit
+    auf das Seelenleben des Menschen," _Vierteljahrsschrift für
+    wissenschaftliche Philosophie_, 1904, pp. 255-279). I have not
+    been able to see Giessler's paper, but, according to a summary of
+    it, he comes to the result that in the dark the soul's activities
+    are nearer to its motor pole than to its sensitive pole, and that
+    there is a tendency for phenomena belonging to the early period
+    of development to be prominent, motor memory functioning more
+    than representative memory, attention more than apperception,
+    imagination more than logical thinking, egoistic more than
+    altruistic morals.
+
+It is curious to note that short-sightedness, naturally, though
+illogically, tends to exert the same influence as darkness in this
+respect; I am assured by short-sighted persons of both sexes that they are
+much more liable to the emotions of shyness and modesty with their glasses
+than without them; such persons with difficulty realize that they are not
+so dim to others as others are to them. To be in the company of a blind
+person seems also to be a protection against shyness.[67] It is
+interesting to learn that congenitally blind children are as sensitive to
+appearances as normal children, and blush as readily.[68] This would seem
+to be due to the fact that the habitually blind have permanently adjusted
+their mental focus to that of normal persons, and react in the same manner
+as normal persons; blindness is not for them, as it is for the
+short-sighted without their glasses, a temporary and relative, almost
+unconscious refuge from clear vision.
+
+It is, of course, not as the mere cloak of a possible blush that darkness
+gives courage; it is because it lulls detailed self-realization, such
+conscious self-realization being always a source of fears, and the blush
+their definite symbol and visible climax. It is to the blush that we must
+attribute a curious complementary relationship between the face and the
+sacro-pubic region as centres of anatomical modesty. The women of some
+African tribes who go naked, Emin Bey remarked, cover the face with the
+hand under the influence of modesty. Martial long since observed (Lib.
+iii, LXVIII) that when an innocent girl looks at the penis she gazes
+through her fingers. Where, as among many Mohammedan peoples, the face is
+the chief focus of modesty, the exposure of the rest of the body,
+including sometimes even the sacro-pubic region, and certainly the legs
+and thighs, often becomes a matter of indifference.[69]
+
+This concealment of the face is more than a convention; it has a
+psychological basis. We may observe among ourselves the well-marked
+feminine tendency to hide the face in order to cloak a possible blush, and
+to hide the eyes as a method of lulling self-consciousness, a method
+fabulously attributed to the ostrich with the same end of concealment.[70]
+A woman who is shy with her lover will sometimes experience little or no
+difficulty in showing any part of her person provided she may cover her
+face. When, in gynecological practice, examination of the sexual organs is
+necessary, women frequently find evident satisfaction in concealing the
+face with the hands, although not the slightest attention is being
+directed toward the face, and when an unsophisticated woman is betrayed
+into a confession which affects her modesty she is apt to turn her back to
+her interlocutor. "When the face of woman is covered," it has been said,
+"her heart is bared," and the Catholic Church has recognized this
+psychological truth by arranging that in the confessional the penitent's
+face shall not be visible. The gay and innocent freedom of southern women
+during Carnival is due not entirely to the permitted license of the season
+or the concealment of identity, but to the mask that hides the face. In
+England, during Queen Elizabeth's reign and at the Restoration, it was
+possible for respectable women to be present at the theatre, even during
+the performance of the most free-spoken plays, because they wore masks.
+The fan has often subserved a similar end.[71]
+
+All such facts serve to show that, though the forms of modesty may change,
+it is yet a very radical constituent of human nature in all stages of
+civilization, and that it is, to a large extent, maintained by the
+mechanism of blushing.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] Melinaud ("Pourquoi Rougit-on?" _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1 Octobre,
+1893) points out that blushing is always associated with fear, and
+indicates, in the various conditions under which it may arise,--modesty,
+timidity, confusion,--that we have something to conceal which we fear may
+be discovered. "All the evidence," Partridge states, "seems to point to
+the conclusion that the mental state underlying blushing belongs to the
+fear family. The presence of the feeling of dread, the palpitation of the
+heart, the impulse to escape, to hide, the shock, all confirms this view."
+
+[65] G. Stanley Hall, "A Study of Fears," _American Journal Psychology_,
+1897.
+
+[66] Men are also very sensitive to any such inquisitiveness on the part
+of the opposite sex. To this cause, perhaps, and possibly, also, to the
+fear of causing disgust, may be ascribed the objection of men to undress
+before women artists and women doctors. I am told there is often
+difficulty in getting men to pose nude to women artists. Sir Jonathan
+Hutchinson was compelled, some years ago, to exclude lady members of the
+medical profession from the instructive demonstrations at his museum, "on
+account of the unwillingness of male patients to undress before them." A
+similar unwillingness is not found among women patients, but it must be
+remembered that, while women are accustomed to men as doctors, men (in
+England) are not yet accustomed to women as doctors.
+
+[67] "I am acquainted with the case of a shy man," writes Dr. Harry
+Campbell, in his interesting study of "Morbid Shyness" (_British Medical
+Journal_, September 26, 1896), "who will make himself quite at home in the
+house of a blind person, and help himself to wine with the utmost
+confidence, whereas if a member of the family, who can see, comes into the
+room, all his old shyness returns, and he wishes himself far away."
+
+[68] Stanley Hall ("Showing Off and Bashfulness," _Pedagogical Seminary_,
+June, 1903), quotes Dr. Anagnos, of the Perkins Institute for the Blind,
+to this effect.
+
+[69] Thus, Sonnini, in the eighteenth century, noted that the country
+women in Egypt only wore a single garment, open from the armpits to the
+knees on each side, so that it revealed the body at every movement; "but
+this troubles the women little, provided the face is not exposed."
+(_Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte_, 1779, vol. i, p, 289.) When
+Casanova was at Constantinople, the Comte de Bonneval, a convert to Islam,
+assured him that he was mistaken in trying to see a woman's face when he
+might easily obtain greater favors from her. "The most reserved of Turkish
+women," the Comte assured him, "only carries her modesty in her face, and
+as soon as her veil is on she is sure that she will never blush at
+anything." (_Mémoires_, vol. i, p. 429.)
+
+[70] It is worth noting that this impulse is rooted in the natural
+instinctive acts and ideas of childhood. Stanley Hall, dealing with the
+"Early Sense of Self," in the report already mentioned, refers to the eyes
+as perhaps even more than the hands, feet, and mouth, "the centres of that
+kind of self-consciousness which is always mindful of how the self appears
+to others," and proceeds to mention "the very common impression of young
+children that if the eyes are covered or closed they cannot be seen. Some
+think the entire body thus vanishes from sight of others; some, that the
+head also ceases to be visible; and a still higher form of this curious
+psychosis is that, when they are closed, the soul cannot be seen."
+(_American Journal of Psychology_, vol. ix, No. 3, 1898.) The instinctive
+and unreasoned character of this act is further shown by its occurrence in
+idiots. Näcke mentions that he once had occasion to examine the abdomen of
+an idiot, who, thereupon, attempted to draw down his shirt with the left
+hand, while with the right he covered his eyes.
+
+[71] Cf. Stanley Hall and T. Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness,"
+_American Journal of Psychology_, June, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+Summary of the Factors of Modesty--The Future of Modesty--Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.
+
+
+We have seen that the factors of modesty are numerous. To attempt to
+explain modesty by dismissing it as merely an example of psychic
+paralysis, of _Stauung_, is to elude the problem by the statement of what
+is little more than a truism. Modesty is a complexus of emotions with
+their concomitant ideas which we must unravel to comprehend.
+
+We have found among the factors of modesty: (1) the primitive animal
+gesture of sexual refusal on the part of the female when she is not at
+that moment of her generative life at which she desires the male's
+advances; (2) the fear of arousing disgust, a fear primarily due to the
+close proximity of the sexual centre to the points of exit of those
+excretions which are useless and unpleasant, even in many cases to
+animals; (3) the fear of the magic influence of sexual phenomena, and the
+ceremonial and ritual practices primarily based on this fear, and
+ultimately passing into simple rules of decorum which are signs and
+guardians of modesty; (4) the development of ornament and clothing,
+concomitantly fostering alike the modesty which represses male sexual
+desire and the coquetry which seeks to allure it; (5) the conception of
+women as property, imparting a new and powerful sanction to an emotion
+already based on more natural and primitive facts.
+
+It must always be remembered that these factors do not usually occur
+separately. Very often they are all of them implied in a single impulse of
+modesty. We unravel the cord in order to investigate its construction, but
+in real life the strands are more or less indistinguishably twisted
+together.
+
+It may still be asked finally whether, on the whole, modesty really
+becomes a more prominent emotion as civilization advances. I do not think
+this position can be maintained. It is a great mistake, as we have seen,
+to suppose that in becoming extended modesty also becomes intensified. On
+the contrary, this very extension is a sign of weakness. Among savages,
+modesty is far more radical and invincible than among the civilized. Of
+the Araucanian women of Chile, Treutler has remarked that they are
+distinctly more modest than the Christian white population, and such
+observations might be indefinitely extended. It is, as we have already
+noted, in a new and crude civilization, eager to mark its separation from
+a barbarism it has yet scarcely escaped, that we find an extravagant and
+fantastic anxiety to extend the limits of modesty in life, and art, and
+literature. In older and more mature civilizations--in classical
+antiquity, in old Japan, in France--modesty, while still a very real
+influence, becomes a much less predominant and all-pervading influence. In
+life it becomes subservient to human use, in art to beauty, in literature
+to expression.
+
+Among ourselves we may note that modesty is a much more invincible motive
+among the lower social classes than among the more cultivated classes.
+This is so even when we should expect the influence of occupation to
+induce familiarity. Thus I have been told of a ballet-girl who thinks it
+immodest to bathe in the fashion customary at the seaside, and cannot make
+up her mind to do so, but she appears on the stage every night in tights
+as a matter of course; while Fanny Kemble, in her _Reminiscences_, tells
+of an actress, accustomed to appear in tights, who died a martyr to
+modesty rather than allow a surgeon to see her inflamed knee. Modesty is,
+indeed, a part of self-respect, but in the fully-developed human being
+self-respect itself holds in check any excessive modesty.[72]
+
+We must remember, moreover, that there are more definite grounds for the
+subordination of modesty with the development of civilization. We have
+seen that the factors of modesty are many, and that most of them are based
+on emotions which make little urgent appeal save to races in a savage or
+barbarous condition. Thus, disgust, as Richet has truly pointed out,
+necessarily decreases as knowledge increases.[73] As we analyze and
+understand our experiences better, so they cause us less disgust. A rotten
+egg is disgusting, but the chemist feels no disgust toward sulphuretted
+hydrogen; while a solution of propylamin does not produce the disgusting
+impression of that human physical uncleanliness of which it is an odorous
+constituent. As disgust becomes analyzed, and as self-respect tends to
+increased physical purity, so the factor of disgust in modesty is
+minimized. The factor of ceremonial uncleanness, again, which plays so
+urgent a part in modesty at certain stages of culture, is to-day without
+influence except in so far as it survives in etiquette. In the same way
+the social-economic factor of modesty, based on the conception of women as
+property, belongs to a stage of human development which is wholly alien to
+an advanced civilization. Even the most fundamental impulse of all, the
+gesture of sexual refusal, is normally only imperative among animals and
+savages. Thus civilization tends to subordinate, if not to minimize,
+modesty, to render it a grace of life rather than a fundamental social law
+of life. But an essential grace of life it still remains, and whatever
+delicate variations it may assume we can scarcely conceive of its
+disappearance.
+
+In the art of love, however, it is more than a grace; it must always be
+fundamental. Modesty is not indeed the last word of love, but it is the
+necessary foundation for all love's most exquisite audacities, the
+foundation which alone gives worth and sweetness to what Sénancour calls
+its "delicious impudence."[74] Without modesty we could not have, nor
+rightly value at its true worth, that bold and pure candor which is at
+once the final revelation of love and the seal of its sincerity.
+
+    Even Hohenemser--who argues that for the perfect man there could
+    be no shame, because shame rests on an inner conflict in one's
+    own personality, and "the perfect man knows no inner
+    conflict"--believes that, since humanity is imperfect, modesty
+    possesses a high and, indeed, symptomatic value, for "its
+    presence shows that according to the measure of a man's ideal
+    personality, his valuations are established."
+
+    Dugas goes further, and asserts that the ideals of modesty
+    develop with human development, and forever take on new and finer
+    forms. "There is," he declares, "a very close relationship
+    between naturalness, or sincerity, and modesty, for in love,
+    naturalness is the ideal attained, and modesty is only the fear
+    of coming short of that ideal. Naturalness is the sign and the
+    test of perfect love. It is the sign of it, for, when love can
+    show itself natural and true, one may conclude that it is
+    purified of its unavowable imperfections or defects, of its alloy
+    of wretched and petty passions, its grossness, its chimerical
+    notions, that it has become strong and healthy and vigorous. It
+    is the ordeal of it, for to show itself natural, to be always
+    true, without shrinking, it must have all the lovable qualities,
+    and have them without seeking, as a second nature. What we call
+    'natural,' is indeed really acquired; it is the gift of a
+    physical and moral evolution which it is precisely the object of
+    modesty to keep. Modesty is the feeling of the true, that is to
+    say, of the healthy, in love; it long exists as a vision, not yet
+    attained; vague, yet sufficiently clear for all that deviates
+    from it to be repelled as offensive and painful. At first, a
+    remote and seemingly inaccessible ideal, as it comes nearer it
+    grows human and individual, and emerges from the region of dream,
+    ceasing not to be loved as ideal, even when it is possessed as
+    real.
+
+    "At first sight, it seems paradoxical to define modesty as an
+    aspiration towards truth in love; it seems, on the contrary, to
+    be an altogether factitious feeling. But to simplify the problem,
+    we have to suppose modesty reduced to its normal functions,
+    disengaged from its superstitions, its variegated customs and
+    prejudices, the true modesty of simple and healthy natures, as
+    far removed from prudery as from immodesty. And what we term the
+    natural, or the true in love, is the singular mingling of two
+    forms of imaginations, wrongly supposed to be incompatible: ideal
+    aspiration and the sense for the realities of life. Thus defined,
+    modesty not only repudiates that cold and dissolving criticism
+    which deprives love of all poetry, and prepares the way for a
+    brutal realism; it also excludes that light and detached
+    imagination which floats above love, the mere idealism of heroic
+    sentiments, which cherishes poetic illusions, and passes, without
+    seeing it, the love that is real and alive. True modesty implies
+    a love not addressed to the heroes of vain romances, but to
+    living people, with their feet on the earth. But on the other
+    hand, modesty is the respect of love; if it is not shocked by
+    its physical necessities, if it accepts physiological and
+    psychological conditions, it also maintains the ideal of those
+    moral proprieties outside of which, for all of us, love cannot be
+    enjoyed. When love is really felt, and not vainly imagined,
+    modesty is the requirement of an ideal of dignity, conceived as
+    the very condition of that love. Separate modesty from love, that
+    is, from love which is not floating in the air, but crystallized
+    around a real person, and its psychological reality, its poignant
+    and tragic character, disappears." (Dugas, "La Pudeur," _Revue
+    Philosophique_, Nov., 1903.) So conceived, modesty becomes a
+    virtue, almost identical with the Roman _modestia_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[72] Freud remarks that one may often hear, concerning elderly ladies,
+that in their youth in the country, they suffered, almost to collapse,
+from hæmorrhages from the genital passage, because they were too modest to
+seek medical advice and examination; he adds that it is extremely rare to
+find such an attitude among our young women to-day. (S. Freud, _Zur
+Neurosenlehre_, 1906, p. 182.) It would be easy to find evidence of the
+disappearance of misplaced signs of modesty formerly prevalent, although
+this mark of increasing civilization has not always penetrated to our laws
+and regulations.
+
+[73] "Disgust," he remarks, "is a sort of synthesis which attaches to the
+total form of objects, and which must diminish and disappear as scientific
+analysis separates into parts what, as a whole, is so repugnant."
+
+[74] Sénancour, _De l'Amour_, 1834, vol. i, p. 316. He remarks that a
+useless and false reserve is due to stupidity rather than to modesty.
+
+
+
+
+THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.
+
+
+I.
+
+The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms--Menstruation--The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon--Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races--Mittelschmerz--Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle--Menstruation among Animals--Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes--What is Menstruation--Its Primary Cause Still Obscure--The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation--The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health--The Relation of Menstruation to "Heat"--The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation--The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period--Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.
+
+
+Throughout the vegetable and animal worlds the sexual functions are
+periodic. From the usually annual period of flowering in plants, with its
+play of sperm-cell and germ-cell and consequent seed-production, through
+the varying sexual energies of animals, up to the monthly effervescence of
+the generative organism in woman, seeking not without the shedding of
+blood for the gratification of its reproductive function, from first to
+last we find unfailing evidence of the periodicity of sex. At first the
+sun, and then, as some have thought, the moon, have marked throughout a
+rhythmic impress on the phenomena of sex. To understand these phenomena we
+have not only to recognize the bare existence of that periodic fact, but
+to realize its implications.
+
+Rhythm, it is scarcely necessary to remark, is far from characterizing
+sexual activity alone. It is the character of all biological activity,
+alike on the physical and the psychic sides. All the organs of the body
+appear to be in a perpetual process of rhythmic contraction and expansion.
+The heart is rhythmic, so is the respiration. The spleen is rhythmic, so
+also the bladder. The uterus constantly undergoes regular rhythmic
+contractions at brief intervals. The vascular system, down to the smallest
+capillaries, is acted on by three series of vibrations, and every
+separate fragment of muscular tissue possesses rhythmic contractility.
+Growth itself is rhythmic, and, as Malling-Hansen and subsequent observers
+have found, follows a regular annual course as well as a larger cycle. On
+the psychic sides attention is rhythmic. We are always irresistibly
+compelled to impart a rhythm to every succession of sounds, however
+uniform and monotonous. A familiar example of this is the rhythm we can
+seldom refrain from hearing in the puffing of an engine. A series of
+experiments, by Bolton, on thirty subjects showed that the clicks of an
+electric telephone connected in an induction-apparatus nearly always fell
+into rhythmic groups, usually of two or four, rarely of three or five, the
+rhythmic perception being accompanied by a strong impulse to make
+corresponding muscular movements.[75]
+
+It is, however, with the influence--to some extent real, to some extent,
+perhaps, only apparent--of cosmic rhythm that we are here concerned. The
+general tendency, physical and psychic, of nervous action to fall into
+rhythm is merely interesting from the present point of view as showing a
+biological predisposition to accept any periodicity that is habitually
+imposed upon the organism.[76] Menstruation has always been associated
+with the lunar revolutions.[77] Darwin, without specifically mentioning
+menstruation, has suggested that the explanation of the allied cycle of
+gestation in mammals, as well as incubation in birds, may be found in the
+condition under which ascidians live at high and low water in consequence
+of the phenomena of tidal change.[78] It must, however, be remembered that
+the ascidian origin of the vertebrates has since been contested from many
+sides, and, even if we admit that at all events some such allied
+conditions in the early history of vertebrates and their ancestors tended
+to impress a lunar cycle on the race, it must still be remembered that the
+monthly periodicity of menstruation only becomes well marked in the human
+species.[79] Bearing in mind the influence exerted on both the habits and
+the emotions even of animals by the brightness of moonlight nights, it is
+perhaps not extravagant to suppose that, on organisms already ancestrally
+predisposed to the influence of rhythm in general and of cosmic rhythm in
+particular, the periodically recurring full moon, not merely by its
+stimulation of the nervous system, but possibly by the special
+opportunities which it gave for the exercise of the sexual functions,
+served to implant a lunar rhythm on menstruation. How important such a
+factor may be we have evidence in the fact that the daily life of even the
+most civilized peoples is still regulated by a weekly cycle which is
+apparently a segment of the cosmic lunar cycle.
+
+Mantegazza has suggested that the sexual period became established with
+relation to the lunar period because moonlight nights were favorable to
+courting,[80] and Nelson remarks that in his experience young and robust
+persons are subject to recurrent periods of wakefulness at night which
+they attribute to the action of the full moon. One may perhaps refer also
+to the tendency of bright moonlight to stir the emotions of the young,
+especially at puberty, a tendency which in neurotic persons may become
+almost morbid.[81]
+
+It is interesting to point out that, the farther back we are able to trace
+the beginnings of culture, the more important we find the part played by
+the moon. Next to the alteration of day and night, the moon's changes are
+the most conspicuous and startling phenomena of Nature; they first suggest
+a basis for reckoning time; they are of the greatest use in primitive
+agriculture; and everywhere the moon is held to have vast influence on the
+whole of organic life. Hahn has suggested that the reason why mythological
+systems do not usually present the moon in the supreme position which we
+should expect, is that its immense importance is so ancient a fact that it
+tends, with mythological development, to become overlaid by other
+elements.[82] According to Seler, Quetzalcouatl and Tezeatlipoca, the two
+most considerable figures in the Mexican pantheon, are to be regarded
+mainly as complementary forms of the moon divinity, and the moon was the
+chief Mexican measurer of time.[83] Even in Babylonia, where the sun was
+most specially revered, at the earliest period the moon ranked higher,
+being gradually superseded by the worship of the sun.[84] Although such
+considerations as these will by no means take us as far back as the
+earliest appearance of menstruation, they may serve to indicate that the
+phases of the moon probably played a large part in the earliest evolution
+of man. With that statement we must at present rest content.
+
+It is possible that the monthly character of menstruation, while
+representing a general tendency of the human race, always and everywhere
+prevalent, may be modified in the future. It is a noteworthy fact that
+among many primitive races menstruation only occurs at long intervals.
+Thus among Eskimo women menstruation follows the peculiar cosmic
+conditions to which the people are subjected; Cook, the ethnologist of the
+Peary North Greenland expedition, found that menstruation only began after
+the age of nineteen, and that it was usually suppressed during the winter
+months, when there is no sun, only about one in ten women continuing to
+menstruate during this period.[85] It was stated by Velpeau that Lapland
+and Greenland women usually only menstruate every three months, or even
+only two or three times during the year. On the Faroe Islands it is said
+that menstruation is frequently absent. Among the Samoyeds, Mantegazza
+mentions that menstruation is so slight that some travelers have denied
+its existence. Azara noted among the Guaranis of Paraguay that
+menstruation was not only slight in amount, but the periods were separated
+by long intervals. Among the Indians in North America, again, menstruation
+appears to be scanty. Thus, Holder, speaking of his experience with the
+Crow Indians of Montana, says: "I am quite sure that full-blood Indians in
+this latitude do not menstruate so freely as white women, not usually
+exceeding three days."[86] Among the naked women of Tierra del Fuego, it
+is said that there is often no physical sign of the menses for six months
+at a time. These observations are noteworthy, though they clearly
+indicate, on the whole, that primitiveness in race is a very powerless
+factor without a cold climate. On the other hand, again, there is some
+reason to suppose that in Europe there is a latent tendency in some women
+for the menstrual cycle to split up further into two cycles, by the
+appearance of a latent minor climax in the middle of the monthly interval.
+I allude to the phenomenon usually called _Mittelschmerz_, middle period,
+or intermenstrual pain.
+
+    Since the investigations of Goodman, Stephenson, Van Ott, Reinl,
+    Jacobi, and others, it has been generally recognized that
+    menstruation is a continuous process, the flow being merely the
+    climax of a menstrual cycle, a physiological wave which is in
+    constant flux or reflux. This cycle manifests itself in all a
+    woman's activities, in metabolism, respiration, temperature,
+    etc., as well as on the nervous and psychic side. The healthier
+    the woman is, the less conscious is the cyclic return of her
+    life, but the cycle may be traced (as Hegar has found) even
+    before puberty takes place, while Salerni has found that even in
+    amenorrhoea the menstrual cycle still manifests itself in the
+    temperature and respiration. (_Rivista Sperimentale di
+    Freniatria_, XXX, fasc. 2-3.)
+
+    For a summary of the phenomena of the menstrual cycle, see
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth ed., revised and
+    enlarged, Ch. XI; "The Functional Periodicity of Women." Cf.
+    Keller, _Archives Générales de Médecine_, May, 1897; Hegar,
+    _Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie_, 1901, Heft 2 and 3;
+    Helen MacMurchy, _Lancet_, Oct. 5. 1901; A.E. Giles,
+    _Transactions Obstetrical Society London_, vol. xxxix, p. 115,
+    etc.
+
+    _Mittelschmerz_ is a condition of pain occurring about the middle
+    of the intermenstrual period, either alone or accompanied by a
+    slight sanguineous discharge, or, more frequently, a
+    non-sanguineous discharge. (In a case described by Van Voornveld,
+    the manifestation was confined to a regularly occurring rise of
+    temperature.) The phenomenon varies, but seems usually to occur
+    about the fourteenth day, and to last two or three days. Laycock,
+    in 1840 (_Nervous Diseases of Women_, p. 46), gave instances of
+    women with an intermenstrual period. Depaul and Guéniot
+    (_Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des Sciences Médicales_, Art.,
+    "Menstruation," p. 694) speak of intermenstrual symptoms, and
+    even actual flow, as occurring in women who are in a perfect
+    state of health, and constituting genuine "_règles
+    surnuméraries_." The condition is, however, said to have been
+    first fully described by Valleix; then, in 18725 by Sir William
+    Priestley; and subsequently by Fehling, Fasbender, Sorel,
+    Halliday Croom, Findley, Addinsell, and others. (See, for
+    instance, "Mittelschmerz," by J. Halliday Croom, _Transactions of
+    Edinburgh Obstetrical Society_, vol. xxi, 1896. Also, Krieger,
+    _Menstruation_, pp. 68-69.) Fliess (_Die Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen_, p. 118) goes so far as
+    to assert that an intermenstrual period of menstrual
+    symptoms--which he terms _Nebenmenstruation_--is "a phenomenon
+    well known to most healthy women." Observations are at present
+    too few to allow any definite conclusions, and in some of the
+    cases so far recorded a pathological condition of the sexual
+    organs has been found to exist. Rosner, of Cracow, however, found
+    that only in one case out of twelve was there any disease present
+    (_La Gynécologie_, June, 1905), and Storer, who has met with
+    twenty cases, insists on the remarkable and definite regularity
+    of the manifestations, wholly unlike those of neuralgia (_Boston
+    Medical and Surgical Journal_, April 19, 1900). There is no
+    agreement as to the cause of _Mittelschmerz_. Addinsell
+    attributed it to disease of the Fallopian tubes. This, however,
+    is denied by such competent authorities as Cullingworth and Bland
+    Sutton. Others, like Priestley, and subsequently Marsh (_American
+    Journal of Obstetrics_, July, 1897), have sought to find the
+    explanation in the occurrence of ovulation. This theory is,
+    however, unsupported by facts, and eventually rests on the
+    exploded belief that ovulation is the cause of menstruation.
+    Rosner, following Richelet, vaguely attributes it to the diffused
+    hyperæmia which is generally present. Van de Velde also
+    attributes it to an abnormal fall of vascular tone, causing
+    passive congestion of the pelvic viscera. Others again, like
+    Armand Routh and MacLean, in the course of an interesting
+    discussion on _Mittelschmerz_ at the Obstetric Society of London,
+    on the second day of March, 1898, believe that we may trace here
+    a double menstruation, and would explain the phenomenon by
+    assuming that in certain cases there is an intermenstrual as well
+    as a menstrual cycle. The question is not yet ripe for
+    settlement, though it is fully evident that, looking broadly at
+    the phenomena of rut and menstruation, the main basis of their
+    increasing frequency as we rise toward civilized man is increase
+    of nutrition, heat and sunlight being factors of nutrition. When
+    dealing with civilized man, however, we are probably concerned
+    not merely with general nutrition, but with the nervous direction
+    of that nutrition.
+
+At this stage it is natural to inquire what the corresponding phenomena
+are among animals. Unfortunately, imperfect as is our comprehension of the
+human phenomena, our knowledge of the corresponding phenomena among
+animals is much more fragmentary and incomplete. Among most animals
+menstruation does not exist, being replaced by what is known as heat, or
+oestrus, which usually occurs once or twice a year, in spring and in
+autumn, sometimes affecting the male as well as the female.[87] There is,
+however, a great deal of progression in the upward march of the phenomena,
+as we approach our own and allied zoölogical series. Heat in domesticated
+cows usually occurs every three weeks. The female hippopotamus in the
+Zoölogical Gardens has been observed to exhibit monthly sexual excitement,
+with swelling and secretion from the vulva. Progression is not only toward
+greater frequency with higher evolution or with increased domestication,
+but there is also a change in the character of the flow. As Wiltshire,[88]
+in his remarkable lectures on the "Comparative Physiology of
+Menstruation," asserted as a law, the more highly evolved the animal, the
+more sanguineous the catamenial flow.
+
+It is not until we reach the monkeys that this character of the flow
+becomes well marked. Monthly sanguineous discharges have been observed
+among many monkeys. In the seventeenth century various observers in many
+parts of the world--Bohnius, Peyer, Helbigius, Van der Wiel, and
+others--noted menstruation in monkeys.[89] Buffon observed it among
+various monkeys as well as in the orang-utan. J.G. St. Hilaire and Cuvier,
+many years ago, declared that menstruation exists among a variety of
+monkeys and lower apes. Rengger described a vaginal discharge in a species
+of cebus in Paraguay, while Raciborski observed in the Jardin des Plantes
+that the menstrual hæmorrhage in guenons was so abundant that the floor of
+the cage was covered by it to a considerable extent; the same variety of
+monkey was observed at Surinam, by Hill, a surgeon in the Dutch army, who
+noted an abundant sanguineous flow occurring at every new moon, and
+lasting about three days, the animal at this time also showing signs of
+sexual excitement.[90]
+
+The macaque and the baboon appear to be the non-human animals, in which
+menstruation has been most carefully observed. In the former, besides the
+flow, Bland Sutton remarks that "all the naked or pale-colored parts of
+the body, such as the face, neck, and ischial regions, assume a lively
+pink color; in some cases, it is a vivid red."[91] The flow is slight, but
+the coloring lasts several days, and in warm weather the labia are much
+swollen.
+
+Heape[92] has most fully and carefully described menstruation in monkeys.
+He found at Calcutta that the _Macacus cynomolgus_ menstruated regularly
+on the 20th of December, 20th of January, and about the 20th of February.
+The _Cynocephalus porcaria_ and the _Semnopithecus entellus_ both
+menstruated each month for about four days. In the _Macaci rhesus_ and
+_cynomolgus_ at menstruation "the nipples and vulva become swollen and
+deeply congested, and the skin of the buttocks swollen, tense, and of a
+brilliant-red or even purple color. The abdominal wall also, for a short
+space upward, and the inside of the thighs, sometimes as far down as the
+heel, and the under surface of the tail for half its length or more, are
+all colored a vivid red, while the skin of the face, especially about the
+eyes, is flushed or blotched with red." In late gestation the coloring is
+still more vivid. Something similar is to be seen in the males also.
+
+Distant, who kept a female baboon for some time, has recorded the dates of
+menstruation during a year. He found that nine periods occurred during the
+year. The average length between the periods was nearly six weeks, but
+they occurred more frequently in the late autumn and the winter than in
+the summer.[93]
+
+It is an interesting fact, Heape noted, that, notwithstanding
+menstruation, the seasonal influence, or rut, still persisted in the
+monkeys he investigated.
+
+In the anthropoid apes, Hartmann remarks that several observers have
+recorded periodic menstruation in the chimpanzee, with flushing and
+enlargement of the external parts, and protrusion of the external lips,
+which are not usually visible, while there is often excessive enlargement
+and reddening of these parts and of the posterior callosities during
+sexual excitement. Very little, however, appears to be definitely known
+regarding any form of menstruation in the higher apes. M. Deniker, who has
+made a special study of the anthropoid apes, informs me that he has so far
+been unable to make definite observations regarding the existence of
+menstruation. Moll remarks that he received information regarding such a
+phenomenon in the orang-utan. A pair of orang-utans was kept in the Berlin
+Zoölogical Gardens some years ago, and the female was stated to have at
+intervals a menstrual flow resembling that of women, and during this
+period to refrain from sexual congress, which was otherwise usually
+exercised at regular intervals, at least every two or three days; Moll
+adds, however, that, while his informant is a reliable man, the length of
+time that has elapsed may have led him to make mistakes in details. Keith,
+in a paper read before the Zoölogical Society of London, has described
+menstruation in a chimpanzee; it occurred every twenty-third or
+twenty-fourth day, and lasted for three days; the discharge was profuse,
+and first appeared in about the ninth or tenth year.[94]
+
+What is menstruation? It is easy to describe it, by its obvious symptoms,
+as a monthly discharge of blood from the uterus, but nearly as much as
+that was known in the infancy of the world. When we seek to probe more
+intimately into the nature of menstruation we are still baffled, not
+merely as regards its cause, but even as regards its precise mechanism.
+"The primary cause of menstruation remains unexplained"; "the cause of
+menstruation remains as obscure as ever"; so conclude two of the most
+thorough and cautious investigators into this subject.[95] It is, however,
+widely accepted that the main cause of menstruation is a rhythmic
+contraction of the uterus,--the result of a disappointed preparation for
+impregnation,--a kind of miniature childbirth. This seems to be the most
+reasonable view of menstruation; i.e., as an abortion of a decidua.
+Burdach (according to Beard) was the first who described menstruation as
+an abortive parturition. "The hypothesis," Marshall and Jolly conclude,
+"that the entire pro-oestrous process is of the nature of a preparation
+for the lodgment of the ovum is in accordance with the facts."[96]
+Fortunately, since we are here primarily concerned with its psychological
+aspects, the precise biological cause and physiological nature of
+menstruation do not greatly concern us.
+
+There is, however, one point which of late years has been definitely
+determined, and which should not be passed without mention: the relation
+of menstruation to ovulation. It was once supposed that the maturation of
+an ovule in the ovaries was the necessary accompaniment, and even cause,
+of menstruation. We now know that ovulation proceeds throughout the whole
+of life, even before birth, and during gestation,[97] and that removal of
+the ovaries by no means necessarily involves a cessation of menstruation.
+It has been shown that regular and even excessive menstruation may take
+place in the congenital absence of a trace of ovaries or Fallopian
+tubes.[98] On the other hand, a rudimentary state of the uterus, and a
+complete absence of menstruation, may exist with well-developed ovaries
+and normal ovulation.[99] We must regard the uterus as to some extent an
+independent organ, and menstruation as a process which arose, no doubt,
+with the object, teleologically speaking, of cooperating more effectively
+with ovulation, but has become largely independent.[100]
+
+    It is sometimes stated that menstruation may be entirely absent
+    in perfect health. Few cases of this condition have, however,
+    been recorded with the detail necessary to prove the assertion.
+    One such case was investigated by Dr. H.W. Mitchell, and
+    described in a paper read to the New York County Medical Society,
+    February 22, 1892 (to be found in _Medical Reprints_, June,
+    1892). The subject was a young, unmarried woman, 24 years of age.
+    She was born in Ireland, and, until her emigration, lived quietly
+    at home with her parents. Being then twenty years of age, she
+    left home and came to New York. Up to that time no signs of
+    menstruation had appeared, and she had never heard that such a
+    function existed. Soon after her arrival in New York, she
+    obtained a situation as a waiting-maid, and it was noticed, after
+    a time, that she was not unwell at each month. Friends filled her
+    ears with wild stories about the dreadful effects likely to
+    follow the absence of menstruation. This worried her greatly, and
+    as a consequence she became pale and anæmic, with loss of flesh,
+    appetite, and sleep, and a long train of imaginary nervous
+    symptoms. She presented herself for treatment, and insisted upon
+    a uterine examination. This revealed no pathological condition
+    of her uterus. She was assured that she would not die, or become
+    insane, nor a chronic invalid. In consequence she soon forgot
+    that she differed in any way from other girls. A course of
+    chalybeate tonics, generous diet, and proper care of her general
+    health, soon restored her to her normal condition. After close
+    observation for several years, she submitted to a thorough
+    examination, although entirely free from any abnormal symptoms.
+    The examination revealed the following physical condition:
+    Weight, 105 pounds (her weight before leaving Ireland was 130);
+    girth of chest, twenty-nine and a half inches; girth of abdomen,
+    twenty-five inches; girth of pelvis, thirty-four and a half
+    inches; girth of thigh, upper third, twenty inches; heart
+    healthy, sounds and rhythm perfectly normal; pulse, 76; lungs
+    healthy; respiratory murmur clear and distinct over every part;
+    respiration, easy and twenty per minute; the mammæ are well
+    developed, firm, and round; nipples, small, no areola; her skin
+    is soft, smooth, and healthy; figure erect, plump, and
+    symmetrical; her bowels are regular; kidneys, healthy. She has a
+    good appetite, sleeps well, and in no particular shows any sign
+    of ill health. The uterine examination reveals a short vagina,
+    and a small, round cervix uteri, rather less in size than the
+    average, and projecting very slightly into the vaginal canal.
+    Depth of uterus from os to fundus, two and a quarter inches, is
+    very nearly normal. No external sign of abnormal ovaries. She is
+    a well-developed, healthy young woman, performing all her
+    physiological functions naturally and regularly, except the
+    single function of menstruation. No vicarious menstruation takes
+    the place of the natural function, though she has been watched
+    very closely during the past two years, nor the least periodical
+    excitement. It is added that, though the clitoris is normal, the
+    mons veneris is almost destitute of hair, and the labia rather
+    undeveloped, while, "as far as is known," sexual instincts and
+    desire are entirely absent. These latter facts, I may add, would
+    seem to suggest that, in spite of the health of the subject,
+    there is yet some concealed lack of development of the sexual
+    system, of congenital character. In a case recorded by Plant
+    (_Centralblatt für Gynäkologie_, No. 9, 1896, summarized in the
+    _British Medical Journal_, April 4, 1896), in which the internal
+    sexual organs were almost wholly undeveloped, and menstruation
+    absent, the labia were similarly undeveloped, and the pubic hair
+    scanty, while the axillary hair was wholly absent, though that of
+    the head was long and strong.
+
+We may now regard as purely academic the discussion formerly carried on as
+to whether menstruation is to be regarded as analogous to heat in female
+animals. For many centuries at least the resemblance has been sufficiently
+obvious. Raciborski and Pouchet, who first established the regular
+periodicity of ovulation in mammals, identified heat and
+menstruation.[101] During the past century there was, notwithstanding, an
+occasional tendency to deny any real connection. No satisfactory grounds
+for this denial have, however, been brought forward. Lawson Tait, indeed,
+and more recently Beard, have stated that menstruation cannot be the
+period of heat, because women have a disinclination to the approach of the
+male at that time.[102] But, as we shall see later, this statement is
+unfounded. An argument which might, indeed, be brought forward is the very
+remarkable fact that, while in animals the period of heat is the only
+period for sexual intercourse, among all human races, from the very
+lowest, the period of menstruation is the one period during which sexual
+intercourse is strictly prohibited, sometimes under severe penalties, even
+life itself. This, however, is a social, not a physiological, fact.
+
+    Ploss and Bartels call attention to the curious contrast, in this
+    respect, between heat and menstruation. The same authors also
+    mention that in the Middle Ages, however, preachers found it
+    necessary to warn their hearers against the sin of intercourse
+    during the menstrual period. It may be added that Aquinas and
+    many other early theologians held, not only that such intercourse
+    was a deadly sin, but that it engendered leprous and monstrous
+    children. Some later theologians, however, like Sanchez, argued
+    that the Mosaic enactments (such as Leviticus, Ch. XX, v. 18) no
+    longer hold good. Modern theologians--in part influenced by the
+    tolerant traditions of Liguori, and, in part, like Debreyne
+    (_Moechialogie_, pp. 275 et seq.) informed by medical science--no
+    longer prohibit intercourse during menstruation, or regard it as
+    only a venial sin.
+
+We have here a remarkable, but not an isolated, example of the tendency of
+the human mind in its development to rebel against the claims of primitive
+nature. The whole of religion is a similar remolding of nature, a
+repression of natural impulses, an effort to turn them into new channels.
+Prohibition of intercourse during menstruation is a fundamental element of
+savage ritual, an element which is universal merely because the conditions
+which caused it are universal, and because--as is now beginning to be
+generally recognized--the causes of human psychic evolution are everywhere
+the same. A strictly analogous phenomenon, in the sexual sphere itself, is
+the opposed attitude in barbarism and civilization toward the sexual
+organs. Under barbaric conditions and among savages, when no
+magico-religious ideas intervene, the sexual organs are beautiful and
+pleasurable objects. Under modern conditions this is not so. This
+difference of attitude is reflected in sculpture. In savage and barbaric
+carvings of human beings, the sexual organs of both sexes are often
+enormously exaggerated. This is true of the archaic European figures on
+which Salomon Reinach has thrown so much light, but in modern sculpture,
+from the time when it reached its perfection in Greece onward, the sexual
+regions in both men and women are systematically minimized.[103]
+
+With advancing culture--as again we shall see later--there is a conflict
+of claims, and certain considerations are regarded as "higher" and more
+potent than merely "natural" claims. Nakedness is more natural than
+clothing, and on many grounds more desirable under the average
+circumstances of life, yet, everywhere, under the stress of what are
+regarded as higher considerations, there is a tendency for all races to
+add more and more to the burden of clothes. In the same way it happens
+that the tendency of the female to sexual intercourse during
+menstruation[104] has everywhere been overlaid by the ideas of a culture
+which has insisted on regarding menstruation as a supernatural phenomenon
+which, for the protection of everybody, must be strictly tabooed.[105]
+This tendency is reinforced, and in high civilization replaced, by the
+claims of an æsthetic regard for concealment and reserve during this
+period. Such facts are significant for the early history of culture, but
+they must not blind us to the real analogy between heat and menstruation,
+an analogy or even identity which may be said to be accepted now by most
+careful investigators.[106]
+
+If it is, perhaps, somewhat excessive to declare, with Johnstone, that
+"woman is the only animal in which rut is omnipresent," we must admit that
+the two groups of phenomena merge into or replace each other, that their
+object is identical, that they involve similar psychic conditions. Here,
+also, we see a striking example of the way in which women preserve a
+primitive phenomenon which earlier in the zoölogical series was common to
+both sexes, but which man has now lost. Heat and menstruation, with
+whatever difference of detail, are practically the same phenomenon. We
+cannot understand menstruation unless we bear this in mind.
+
+On the psychic side the chief normal and primitive characteristic of the
+menstrual state is the more predominant presence of the sexual impulse.
+There are other mental and emotional signs of irritability and instability
+which tend to slightly impair complete mental integrity, and to render, in
+some unbalanced individuals explosions of anger or depression, in rarer
+cases crime, more common;[107] but the heightening of the sexual impulse,
+languor, shyness, and caprice are the more human manifestations of an
+emotional state which in some of the lower female animals during heat may
+produce a state of fury.
+
+The actual period of the menstrual flow, at all events the first two or
+three days, does not, among European women, usually appear to show any
+heightening of sexual emotion.[108] This heightening occurs usually a few
+days before, and especially during, the latter part of the flow, and
+immediately after it ceases.[109] I have, however, convinced myself by
+inquiry that this absence of sexual feeling during the height of the flow
+is, in large part, apparent only. No doubt, the onset of the flow, often
+producing a general depression of vitality, may tend directly to depress
+the emotions, which are heightened by the general emotional state and
+local congestion of the days immediately preceding; but among some women,
+at all events, who are normal and in good health, I find that the period
+of menstruation itself is covered by the period of the climax of sexual
+feeling. Thus, a married lady writes: "My feelings are always very strong,
+not only just before and after, but during the period; very unfortunately,
+as, of course, they cannot then be gratified"; while a refined girl of 19,
+living a chaste life, without either coitus or masturbation, which she has
+never practiced, habitually feels very strong sexual excitement about the
+time of menstruation, and more especially during the period; this desire
+torments her life, prevents her from sleeping at these times, and she
+looks upon it as a kind of illness.[110] I could quote many other similar
+and equally emphatic statements, and the fact that so cardinal a
+relationship of the sexual life of women should be ignored or denied by
+most writers on this matter, is a curious proof of the prevailing
+ignorance.[111]
+
+This ignorance has been fostered by the fact that women, often disguise
+even to themselves the real state of their feelings. One lady remarks that
+while she would be very ready for coitus during menstruation, the thought
+that it is impossible during that time makes her put the idea of it out of
+her mind. I have reason to think that this statement may be taken to
+represent the real feelings of very many women. The aversion to coitus is
+real, but it is often due, not to failure of sexual desire, but to the
+inhibitory action of powerful extraneous causes. The absence of active
+sexual desire in women during the height of the flow may thus be regarded
+as, in part, a physiological fact, following from the correspondence of
+the actual menstrual flow to the period of _pro-oestrum_, and in part, a
+psychological fact due to the æsthetic repugnance to union when in such a
+condition, and to the unquestioned acceptance of the general belief that
+at such a period intercourse is out of the question. Some of the strongest
+factors of modesty, especially the fear of causing disgust and the sense
+of the demands of ceremonial ritual, would thus help to hold in check the
+sexual emotions during this period, and when, under the influence of
+insanity, these motives are in abeyance, the coincidence of sexual desire
+with the menstrual flow often becomes more obvious.[112]
+
+It must be added that, especially among the lower social classes, the
+primitive belief of the savage that coitus during menstruation is bad for
+the man still persists. Ploss and Bartels mention that among the peasants
+in some parts of Germany, where it is believed that impregnation is
+impossible during menstruation, coitus at that time would be frequent were
+it not thought dangerous for the man.[113] It has also been a common
+belief both in ancient and modern times that coitus during menstruation
+engenders monsters.[114]
+
+Notwithstanding all the obstacles that are thus placed in the way of
+coitus during menstruation, there is nevertheless good reason to believe
+that the first coitus very frequently takes place at this point of least
+psychic resistance. When still a student I was struck by the occurrence of
+cases in which seduction took place during the menstrual flow, though at
+that time they seemed to me inexplicable, except as evidencing brutality
+on the part of the seducer. Négrier,[115] in the lying-in wards of the
+Hôtel-Dieu at Angers, constantly found that the women from the country who
+came there pregnant as the result of a single coitus had been impregnated
+at or near the menstrual epoch, more especially when the period coincided
+with a feast-day, as St. John's Day or Christmas.
+
+Whatever doubt may exist as to the most frequent state of the sexual
+emotions during the period of menstruation, there can be no doubt whatever
+that immediately before and immediately after, very commonly at both
+times,--this varying slightly in different women,--there is usually a
+marked heightening of actual desire. It is at this period (and sometimes
+during the menstrual flow) that masturbation may take place in women who
+at other times have no strong auto-erotic impulse. The only women who do
+not show this heightening of sexual emotion seem to be those in whom
+sexual feelings have not yet been definitely called into consciousness, or
+the small minority, usually suffering from some disorder of sexual or
+general health, in whom there is a high degree of sexual anæsthesia.[116]
+
+    The majority of authorities admit a heightening of sexual emotion
+    before or after the menstrual crisis. See e.g., Krafft-Ebing, who
+    places it at the post-menstrual period (_Psychopathia Sexualis_,
+    Eng. translation of tenth edition, p. 27). Adler states that
+    sexual feeling is increased before, during and after menstruation
+    (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, 1904, p.
+    88). Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, I, 249), advises intercourse just after
+    menstruation, or even during the latter days of the flow, as the
+    period when it is most needed. Guyot says that the eight days
+    after menstruation are the period of sexual desire in women
+    (_Bréviaire de l'Amour Expérimentale_, p. 144). Harry Campbell
+    investigated the periodicity of sexual desire in healthy women of
+    the working classes, in a series of cases, by inquiries made of
+    their husbands who were patients at a London hospital. People of
+    this class are not always skilful in observation, and the method
+    adopted would permit many facts to pass unrecorded; it is,
+    therefore, noteworthy that only in one-third of the cases had no
+    connection between menstruation and sexual feeling been observed;
+    in the other two-thirds, sexual feeling was increased, either
+    before, after, or during the flow, or at all of these times; the
+    proportion of cases in which sexual feeling was increased before
+    the flow, to those in which it was increased after, was as three
+    to two. (H. Campbell, _Nervous Organization of Men and Women_, p.
+    203.)
+
+    Even this elementary fact of the sexual life has, however, been
+    denied, and, strange to say, by two women doctors. Dr. Mary
+    Putnam Jacobi, of New York, who furnished valuable contributions
+    to the physiology of menstruation, wrote some years ago, in a
+    paper on "The Theory of Menstruation," in reference to the
+    question of the connection between oestrus and menstruation:
+    "Neither can any such rhythmical alternation of sexual instinct
+    be demonstrated in women as would lead to the inference that the
+    menstrual crisis was an expression of this," i.e., of oestrus.
+    Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, again, in her book on _The Human Element
+    in Sex_, asserts that the menstrual flow itself affords complete
+    relief for the sexual feelings in women (like sexual emissions
+    during sleep in men), and thus practically denies the prevalence
+    of sexual desire in the immediately post-menstrual period, when,
+    on such a theory, sexual feeling should be at its minimum. It is
+    fair to add that Dr. Blackwell's opinion is merely the survival
+    of a view which was widely held a century ago, when various
+    writers (Bordeu, Roussel, Duffieux, J. Arnould, etc.), as Icard
+    has pointed out, regarded menstruation as a device of Providence
+    for safeguarding the virginity of women.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] Thaddeus L. Bolton, "Rhythm," _American Journal of Psychology_,
+January, 1894.
+
+[76] It is scarcely necessary to warn the reader that this statement does
+not prejudge the question of the inheritance of acquired characters,
+although it fits in with Semon's Mnemic theory. We can, however, very well
+suppose that the organism became adjusted to the rhythms of its
+environment by a series of congenital variations. Or it might be held, on
+the basis of Weismann's doctrine, that the germ-plasm has been directly
+modified by the environment.
+
+[77] Thus, the Papuans, in some districts, believe that the first
+menstruation is due to an actual connection, during sleep, with the moon
+in the shape of a man, the girl dreaming that a real man is embracing her.
+(_Reports Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, p. 206.)
+
+[78] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 164.
+
+[79] While in the majority of women the menstrual cycle is regular for the
+individual, and corresponds to the lunar month of 28 days, it must be
+added that in a considerable minority it is rather longer, or, more
+usually, shorter than this, and in many individuals is not constant.
+Osterloh found a regular type of menstruation in 68 per cent, healthy
+women, four weeks being the most usual length of the cycle; in 21 per
+cent, the cycle was always irregular. See Näcke, "Die Menstruation und ihr
+Einfluss bei chronischen Psychosen," _Archiv für Psychiatrie_, 1896, Bd,
+28, Heft 1.
+
+[80] Among the Duala and allied negro peoples of Bantu stock dances of
+markedly erotic character take place at full moon. Gason describes the
+dances and sexual festivals of the South Australian blacks, generally
+followed by promiscuous intercourse, as taking place at full moon.
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, November, 1894, p. 174.) In
+all parts of the world, indeed, including Christendom, festivals are
+frequently regulated by the phases of the moon.
+
+[81] It has often been held that the course of insanity is influenced by
+the moon. Of comparatively recent years, this thesis has been maintained
+by Koster (_Ueber die Gesetze des periodischen Irreseins und verwandter
+Nervenzustände_, Bonn, 1882), who argues in detail that periodic insanity
+tends to fall into periods of seven days or multiples of seven.
+
+[82] Ed. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, p. 23.
+
+[83] E. Seler, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1907, Heft I, p. 39. And as
+regards the primitive importance of the moon, see also Frazer, _Adonis,
+Attis, Osiris_, Ch. VIII.
+
+[84] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, 1898, pp. 68, 75-79, 461.
+
+[85] Even in England, Barnes has known women of feeble sexual constitution
+who menstruated only in summer (R. Barnes, _Diseases of Women_, 1878, p.
+192).
+
+[86] A.B. Holder, "Gynecic Notes among American Indians," _American
+Journal of Obstetrics_, No. 6, 1892.
+
+[87] In the male, the phenomenon is termed rut, and is most familiar in
+the stag. I quote from Marshall and Jolly some remarks on the infrequency
+of rut: "'The male wild Cat,' Mr. Cocks informs us, (like the stag), 'has
+a rutting season, calls loudly, almost day and night, making far more
+noise than the female.' This information is of interest, inasmuch as the
+males of most carnivores, although they undoubtedly show signs of
+increased sexual activity at some times more than at others, are not known
+to have anything of the nature of a regularly recurrent rutting season.
+Nothing of the kind is known in the Dog, nor, so far as we are aware, in
+the males of the domestic Cat, or the Ferret, all of which seem to be
+capable of copulation at any time of the year. On the other hand, the
+males of Seals appear to have a rutting season at the same time as the
+sexual season of the female." (Marshall and Jolly, "Contributions to the
+Physiology of Mammalian Reproduction," _Philosophical Transactions_, 1905,
+B. 198.)
+
+[88] A. Wiltshire, _British Medical Journal_, March, 1883. The best
+account of heat known to me is contained in Ellenberger's _Vergleichende
+Physiologie der Haussaügethiere_, 1892, Band 4, Theil 2, pp. 276-284.
+
+[89] Schurig (_Parthenologia_, 1729, p. 125), gives numerous references
+and quotations.
+
+[90] Quoted by Icard, _La Femme_, etc., p. 63.
+
+[91] Bland Sutton, _Surgical Diseases of the Ovaries_, and _British
+Gynecological Journal_, vol. ii.
+
+[92] W. Heape, "The Menstruation of _Semnopithecus Entellus_,"
+_Philosophical Transactions_, 1894; "Menstruation and Ovulation of
+_Macacus Rhesus_," _Philosophical Transactions_, 1897.
+
+[93] W.L. Distant, "Notes on the Chacma Baboon," _Zoölogist_, January,
+1897, p, 29.
+
+[94] _Nature_, March 23, 1899.
+
+[95] W. Heape, "The Menstruation of _Semnopithecus Entellus_,"
+_Philosophical Transactions_, 1894, p. 483; Bland Sutton, _Surgical
+Diseases of the Ovaries_, 1896.
+
+[96] T. Bryce and J. Teacher (_Contributions to the Study of the Early
+Development of the Human Ovum_, 1908), putting the matter somewhat
+differently, regard menstruation as a cyclical process, providing for the
+maintenance of the endometrium in a suitable condition of immaturity for
+the production of the decidua of pregnancy, which they believe may take
+place at any time of the month, though most favorably shortly before or
+after a menstrual period which has been accompanied by ovulation.
+
+[97] Robinson, _American Gynecological and Obstetrical Journal_, August,
+1905.
+
+[98] Bossi, _Annali di Ostetrica e Ginecologia_, September, 1896;
+summarized in the _British Medical Journal_, October 31, 1896. As regards
+the more normal influence of the ovaries over the uterus, see e.g.
+Carmichael and F.H.A. Marshall, "Correlation of the Ovarian and Uterine
+Functions," _Proceedings Royal Society_, vol. 79, Series B, 1907.
+
+[99] Beuttner, _Centralblatt für Gynäkologie_, No. 49, 1893; summarized in
+_British Medical Journal_, December, 1893. Many cases show that pregnancy
+may occur in the absence of menstruation. See, e.g., _Nouvelles Archives
+d'Obstétrique et de Gynécologie_, 25 Janvier, 1894, supplement, p. 9.
+
+[100] It is still possible, and even probable, that the primordial cause
+of both phenomena is the same. Heape (_Transactions Obstetrical Society of
+London_, 1898, vol. xl, p. 161) argues that both menstruation and
+ovulation are closely connected with and influenced by congestion, and
+that in the primitive condition they are largely due to the same cause.
+This primary cause he is inclined to regard as a ferment, due to a change
+in the constitution of the blood brought about by climatic influences and
+food, which he proposes to call gonadin. (W. Heape, _Proceedings of Royal
+Society_, 1905, vol. B. 76, p. 266.) Marshall, who has found that in the
+ferret and other animals, ovulation may be dependent upon copulation, also
+considers that ovulation and menstruation, though connected and able to
+react on each other, may both be dependent upon a common cause; he finds
+that in bitches and rats heat can be produced by injection of extract from
+ovaries in the oestrous state (F.H.A. Marshall, _Philosophical
+Transactions_, 1903, vol. B. 196; also Marshall and Jolly, id., 1905, B.
+198). Cf. C.J. Bond, "An Inquiry Into Some Points in Uterine and Ovarian
+Physiology and Pathology in Rabbits," _British Medical Journal_, July 21,
+1906.
+
+[101] Pouchet, _Théorie de l'Ovulation Spontanée_, 1847. As Blair Bell and
+Pontland Hick remark ("Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March 6,
+1909), the repeated oestrus of unimpregnated animals (once a fortnight in
+rabbits) is surely comparable to menstruation.
+
+[102] Tait, _Provincial Medical Journal_, May, 1891; J. Beard, _The Span
+of Gestation_, 1897, p. 69. Lawson Tait is reduced to the assertion that
+ovulation and menstruation are identical.
+
+[103] As Moll points out, even the secondary sexual characters have
+undergone a somewhat similar change. The beard was once an important
+sexual attraction, but men can now afford to dispense with it without fear
+of loss in attractiveness. (_Libido Sexualis_, Band I, p. 387.) These
+points are discussed at greater length in the fourth volume of these
+_Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man."
+
+[104] It is not absolutely established that in menstruating animals the
+period of menstruation is always a period of sexual congress; probably
+not, the influence of menstruation being diminished by the more
+fundamental influence of breeding seasons, which affect the male also;
+monkeys have a breeding season, though they menstruate regularly all the
+year round.
+
+[105] See Appendix A.
+
+[106] Bland Sutton, loc. cit., p. 896.
+
+[107] See H. Ellis, _Man and Woman_, Chapter XI.
+
+[108] This is by no means true of European women only. Thus, we read in an
+Arabic book, _The Perfumed Garden_, that women have an aversion to coitus
+during menstruation. On the other hand, the old Hindoo physician, Susruta,
+appears to have stated that a tendency to run after men is one of the
+signs of menstruation.
+
+[109] The actual period of the menstrual flow corresponds, in Heape's
+terminology, to the congestive stage, or _pro-oestrum_, in female animals;
+the _oestrus_, or period of sexual desire, immediately follows the
+_pro-oestrum_, and is the direct result of it. See Heape, "The 'Sexual
+Season' of Mammals," _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_, 1900,
+vol. xliv, Part I.
+
+[110] It may be noted that (as Barnes, Oliver, and others have pointed
+out) there is heightened blood-pressure during menstruation. Haig remarks
+that he has found a tendency for high pressure to be accompanied by
+increased sexual appetite (_Uric Acid_, 6th edition, p. 155).
+
+[111] Sir W.F. Wade, however, remarked, some years ago, in his Ingleby
+Lectures (_Lancet_, June 5, 1886): "It is far from exceptional to find
+that there is an extreme enhancement of concupiscence in the immediate
+precatamenial period," and adds, "I am satisfied that evidence is
+obtainable that in some instances, ardor is at its maximum during the
+actual period, and suspect that cases occur in which it is almost, if not
+entirely, limited to that time." Long ago, however, the genius of Haller
+had noted the same fact. More recently, Icard (_La Femme_, Chapter VI and
+elsewhere, e.g., p. 125) has brought forward much evidence in confirmation
+of this view. It may be added that there is considerable significance in
+the fact that the erotic hallucinations, which are not infrequently
+experienced by women under the influence of nitrous oxide gas, are more
+likely to appear at the monthly period than at any other time. (D.W.
+Buxton, _Anesthetics_, 1892, p. 61.)
+
+[112] Gehrung considers that in healthy young girls amorous sensations are
+normal during menstruation, and in some women persist, during this period,
+throughout life. More usually, however, as menstrual period after
+menstrual period recurs, without the natural interruption of pregnancy,
+the feeling abates, and gives place to sensations of discomfort or pain.
+He ascribes this to the vital tissues being sapped of more blood than can
+be replaced in the intervals. "The vital powers, being thus kept in
+abeyance, the amative sensations are either not developed, or destroyed.
+This, superadded by the usual moral and religious teachings, is amply
+sufficient, by degrees, to extinguish or prevent such feelings with the
+great majority. The sequestration as 'unclean,' of women during their
+catamenial period, as practiced in olden times, had the same tendency."
+(E.C. Gehrung, "The Status of Menstruation," _Transactions American
+Gynecology Society_, 1901, p. 48.)
+
+[113] It is possible there may be an element of truth in this belief.
+Diday, of Lyons, found that chronic urethorrhoea is an occasional result
+of intercourse during menstruation. Raciborski (_Traité de la
+Menstruation_, 1868, p. 12), who also paid attention to this point, while
+confirming Diday, came to the conclusion that some special conditions must
+be present on one or both sides.
+
+[114] See, e.g., Ballantyne, "Teratogenesis," _Transactions of the
+Edinburgh Obstetrical Society_, 1896, vol. xxi, pp. 324-25.
+
+[115] As quoted by Icard, _La Femme_, etc., p. 194. I have not been able
+to see Négrier's work.
+
+[116] I deal with the question of sexual anæsthesia in women in the third
+volume of these _Studies_: "The Sexual Impulse in Women."
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men--The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men--Periodicity in Disease--Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.--The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle--The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep--Original
+Observations--Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms.
+
+
+For some centuries, at least, inquisitive observers here and there have
+thought they found reason to believe that men, as well as women, present
+various signs of a menstrual physiological cycle. It would be possible to
+collect a number of opinions in favor of such a monthly physiological
+periodicity in men. Precise evidence, however, is, for the most part,
+lacking. Men have expended infinite ingenuity in establishing the remote
+rhythms of the solar system and the periodicity of comets. They have
+disdained to trouble about the simpler task of proving or disproving the
+cycles of their own organisms.[117] It is over half a century since
+Laycock wrote that "the _scientific_ observation and treatment of disease
+are impossible without a knowledge of the mysterious revolutions
+continually taking place in the system"; yet the task of summarizing the
+whole of our knowledge regarding these "mysterious revolutions" is even
+to-day no heavy one. As to the existence of a monthly cycle in the sexual
+instincts of men, with a single exception, I am not aware that any attempt
+has been made to bring forward definite evidence.[118] A certain interest
+and novelty attaches, therefore, to the evidence I am able to produce,
+although that evidence will not suffice to settle the question finally.
+
+The great Italian physician, Sanctorius, who was in so many ways the
+precursor of our modern methods of physiological research by the means of
+instruments of precision, was the first, so far as I am aware, to suggest
+a monthly cycle of the organism in men. He had carefully studied the
+weight of the body with reference to the amount of excretions, and
+believed that a monthly increase in weight to the amount of one or two
+pounds occurred in men, followed by a critical discharge of urine, this
+crisis being preceded by feelings of heaviness and lassitude.[119] Gall,
+another great initiator of modern views, likewise asserted a monthly cycle
+in men. He insisted that there is a monthly critical period, more marked
+in nervous people than in others, and that at this time the complexion
+becomes dull, the breath stronger, digestion more laborious, while there
+is sometimes disturbance of the urine, together with general _malaise_, in
+which the temper takes part; ideas are formed with more difficulty, and
+there is a tendency to melancholy, with unusual irascibility and mental
+inertia, lasting a few days. More recently Stephenson, who established the
+cyclical wave-theory of menstruation, argued that it exists in men also,
+and is really "a general law of vital energy."[120]
+
+    Sanctorius does not appear to have published the data on which
+    his belief was founded. Keill, an English, follower of
+    Sanctorius, in his _Medicina Statica Britannica_ (1718),
+    published a series of daily (morning and evening) body-weights
+    for the year, without referring to the question of a monthly
+    cycle. A period of maximum weight is shown usually, by Keill's
+    figures, to occur about once a month, but it is generally
+    irregular, and cannot usually be shown to occur at definite
+    intervals. Monthly discharges of blood from the sexual organs and
+    other parts of the body in men have been recorded in ancient and
+    modern times, and were treated of by the older medical writers as
+    an affliction peculiar to men with a feminine system. (Laycock,
+    _Nervous Diseases of Women_, p. 79.) A summary of such cases will
+    be found in Gould and Pyle (_Anomalies and Curiosities of
+    Medicine_, 1897, pp. 27-28). Laycock (_Lancet_, 1842-43, vols. i
+    and ii) brought forward cases of monthly and fortnightly cycles
+    in disease, and asserted "the general principle that there are
+    greater and less cycles of movements going on in the system,
+    involving each other, and closely connected with the organization
+    of the individual." He was inclined to accept lunar influence,
+    and believed that the physiological cycle is made up of definite
+    fractions and multiples of a period of seven days, especially a
+    unit of three and a half days. Albrecht, a somewhat erratic
+    zoölogist, put forth the view a few years ago that there are
+    menstrual periods in men, giving the following reasons: (1) males
+    are rudimentary females, (2) in all males of mammals, a
+    rudimentary masculine uterus (Müller's ducts) still persists, (3)
+    totally hypospadic male individuals menstruate; and believed that
+    he had shown that in man there is a rudimentary menstruation
+    consisting in an almost monthly periodic appearance, lasting for
+    three or four days, of white corpuscles in the urine (_Anomalo_,
+    February, 1890). Dr. Campbell Clark, some years since, made
+    observations on asylum attendants in regard to the temperature,
+    during five weeks, which tended to show that the normal male
+    temperature varies considerably within certain limits, and that
+    "so far as I have been able to observe, there is one marked and
+    prolonged rise every month or five weeks, averaging three days,
+    occasional lesser rises appearing irregularly and of shorter
+    duration. These observations are only made in three cases, and I
+    have no proof that they refer to the sexual appetite" (Campbell
+    Clark, "The Sexual Reproductive Functions," Psychological
+    Section, British Medical Association, Glasgow, 1888; also,
+    private letters). Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 114) says:
+    "I have certainly noted in some of my friends, the tendency to
+    some monthly periodic abnormal manifestations. This may be in the
+    form of a headache, or a nasal hæmorrhage, or diarrhoea, or
+    abundant discharge of uric acid, or some other unusual
+    occurrence. I think," he adds, "this is much more common than is
+    ordinarily supposed, and a careful examination or inquiry will
+    generally, if not invariably, establish the existence of a
+    periodicity of the character referred to."
+
+    Dr. Harry Campbell, in his book on _Differences in the Nervous
+    Organization of Men and Women_, deals fully with the monthly
+    rhythm (pp. 270 et seq.), and devotes a short chapter to the
+    question, "Is the Menstrual Rhythm peculiar to the Female Sex?"
+    He brings forward a few pathological cases indicating such a
+    rhythm, but although he had written a letter to the _Lancet_,
+    asking medical men to supply him with evidence bearing on this
+    question, it can scarcely be said that he has brought forward
+    much evidence of a convincing kind, and such as he has brought
+    forward is purely pathological. He believes, however, that we may
+    accept a monthly cycle in men. "We may," he concludes, "regard
+    the human being--both male and female--as the subject of a
+    monthly pulsation which begins with the beginning of life, and
+    continues till death," menstruation being regarded as a function
+    accidentally ingrafted upon this primordial rhythm.
+
+    It is not unreasonable to argue that the possibility of such a
+    menstrual cycle is increased, if we can believe that in women,
+    also, the menstrual cycle persists even when its outward
+    manifestations no longer occur. Aëtius said that menstrual
+    changes take place during gestation; in more modern times, Buffon
+    was of the same opinion. Laycock also maintained that menstrual
+    changes take place during pregnancy (_Nervous Diseases of Women_,
+    p. 47). Fliess considers that it is certainly incorrect to assert
+    that the menstrual process is arrested during pregnancy, and he
+    refers to the frequency of monthly epistaxis and other nasal
+    symptoms throughout this period (W. Fliess, _Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und Geschlechts-Organen_, pp. 44 et seq.). Beard, who
+    attaches importance to the persistence of a cyclical period in
+    gestation, calls it the muffled striking of the clock. Harry
+    Campbell (_Causation of Disease_, p. 54) has found
+    post-climacteric menstrual rhythm in a fair sprinkling of cases
+    up to the age of sixty.
+
+It is somewhat remarkable that, so far as I have observed, none of these
+authors refer to the possibility of any heightening of the sexual appetite
+at the monthly crisis which they believe to exist in men. This omission
+indicates that, as is suggested by the absence of definite statements on
+the matter of increase of sexual desire at menstruation, it was an ignored
+or unknown fact. Of recent years, however, many writers, especially
+alienists, have stated their conviction that sexual desire in men tends to
+be heightened at approximately monthly intervals, though they have not
+always been able to give definite evidence in support of their statements.
+
+    Clouston, for instance, has frequently asserted this monthly
+    periodic sexual heightening in men. In the article,
+    "Developmental Insanity," in Tuke's _Psychological Dictionary_,
+    he refers to the periodic physiological heightening of the
+    reproductive _nisus_; and, again, in an article on "Alternation,
+    Periodicity, and Relapse in Mental Diseases" (_Edinburgh Medical
+    Journal_, July, 1882), he records the case of "an insane
+    gentleman, aged 49, who, for the past twenty-six years, has been
+    subject to the most regularly occurring brain-exaltation every
+    four weeks, almost to a day. It sometimes passes off without
+    becoming acutely maniacal, or even showing itself in outward
+    acts; at other times it becomes so, and lasts for periods of from
+    one to four weeks. It is always preceded by an uncomfortable
+    feeling in the head, and pain in the back, mental hebetude, and
+    slight depression. The _nisus generativus_ is greatly increased,
+    and he says that, if in that condition, he has full and free
+    seminal emissions during sleep, the excitement passes off; if
+    not, it goes on. A full dose of bromide or iodide of potassium
+    often, but not always, has the effect of stopping the excitement,
+    and a very long walk sometimes does the same. When the
+    excitement gets to a height, it is always followed by about a
+    week of stupid depression." In the same article Clouston remarks:
+    "I have for a long time been impressed with the relationship of
+    the mental and bodily alternations and periodicities in insanity
+    to the great physiological alternations and periodicities, and I
+    have generally been led to the conclusion that they are the same
+    in all essential respects, and only differ in degree of intensity
+    or duration. By far the majority of the cases in women follow the
+    law of the menstrual and sexual periodicity; the majority of the
+    cases in men follow the law of the more irregular periodicities
+    of the _nisus generativus_ in that sex. Many of the cases in both
+    sexes follow the seasonal periodicity which perhaps in man is
+    merely a reversion to the seasonal generative activities of the
+    majority of the lower animals." He found that among 338 cases of
+    insanity, chiefly mania and melancholia, 46 per cent, of females
+    and 40 per cent, of males showed periodicity,--diurnal, monthly,
+    seasonal, or annual, and more marked in women than in men, and in
+    mania than in melancholia,--and adds: "I found that the younger
+    the patient, the greater is the tendency to periodic remission
+    and relapse. The phenomenon finds its acme in the cases of
+    pubescent and adolescent insanity."
+
+    Conolly Norman, in the article "Mania, Hysterical" (Tuke's
+    _Psychological Dictionary_), states that "the activity of the
+    sexual organs is probably in both sexes fundamentally periodic."
+
+    Krafft-Ebing records the case of a neurasthenic Russian, aged 24,
+    who experienced sexual desires of urologinic character, with fair
+    regularity, every four weeks (_Psychopathia Sexualis_), and Näcke
+    mentions the case of a man who had nocturnal emissions at
+    intervals of four weeks (_Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie_,
+    1908, p. 363), while Moll (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, pp. 621-623)
+    recorded the case of a man, otherwise normal, who had attacks of
+    homosexual feeling every four weeks, and Rohleder (_Zeitschrift
+    für Sexualwissenschaft_, Nov., 1908) gives the case of an
+    unmarried slightly neuropathic physician who for several days
+    every three to five weeks has attacks of almost satyriacal sexual
+    excitement.
+
+    Féré, whose attention was called to this point, from time to time
+    noted the existence of sexual periodicity. Thus, in a case of
+    general paralysis, attacks of continuous sexual excitement, with
+    sleeplessness, occurred every twenty-eight days; at other times,
+    the patient, a man of 42, in the stage of dementia, slept well,
+    and showed no signs of sexual excitation (_Société de Biologie_,
+    October 6, 1900). In another case, of a man of sound heredity and
+    good health till middle life, periodic sexual manifestations
+    began from puberty, with localized genital congestion, erotic
+    ideas, and copious urination, lasting for two or three days.
+    These manifestations became menstrual, with a period of
+    intermenstrual excitement appearing regularly, but never became
+    intense. Between the age of 36 and 42, the intermenstrual crises
+    gradually ceased; at about 45, the menstrual crises ceased; the
+    periodic crises continued, however, with the sole manifestation
+    of increased frequency of urination (_Société de Biologie_, July
+    23, 1904). In a third case, of sexual neurasthenia, Féré found
+    that from puberty, onwards to middle life, there appeared, every
+    twenty-five to twenty-eight days, tenderness and swelling below
+    the nipple, accompanied by slight sexual excitation and erotic
+    dreams, lasting for one or two days (_Revue de Médecine_, March,
+    1905).
+
+It is in the domain of disease that the most strenuous and, on the whole,
+the most successful efforts have been made to discover a menstrual cycle
+in men. Such a field seems promising at the outset, for many morbid
+exaggerations or defects of the nervous system might be expected to
+emphasize, or to free from inhibition, fundamental rhythmical processes of
+the organism which in health, and under the varying conditions of social
+existence, are overlaid by the higher mental activities and the pressure
+of external stimuli. In the eighteenth century Erasmus Darwin wrote a
+remarkable and interesting chapter on "The Periods of Disease," dealing
+with solar and lunar influence on biological processes.[121] Since then,
+many writers have brought forward evidence, especially in the domain of
+nervous and mental disease, which seems to justify a belief that, under
+pathological conditions, a tendency to a male menstrual rhythm may be
+clearly laid bare.
+
+We should expect an organ so primitive in character as the heart, and with
+so powerful a rhythm already stamped upon its nervous organization, to be
+peculiarly apt to display a menstrual rhythm under the stress of abnormal
+conditions. This expectation might be strengthened by the menstrual rhythm
+which Mr. Perry-Coste has found reason to suspect in pulse-frequency
+during health. I am able to present a case in which such a periodicity
+seems to be indicated. It is that of a gentleman who suffered severely for
+some years before his death from valvular disease of the heart, with a
+tendency to pulmonary congestion, and attacks of "cardiac asthma." His
+wife, a lady of great intelligence, kept notes of her husband's
+condition,[122] and at last observed that there was a certain periodicity
+in the occurrence of the exacerbations. The periods were not quite
+regular, but show a curious tendency to recur at about thirty days'
+interval, a few days before the end of every month; it was during one of
+these attacks that he finally died. There was also a tendency to minor
+attacks about ten days after the major attacks. It is noteworthy that the
+subject showed a tendency to periodicity when in health, and once remarked
+laughingly before his illness: "I am just like a woman, always most
+excitable at a particular time of the month."
+
+    Periodicity has been noted in various disorders of nervous
+    character. Periodic insanity has long been known and studied
+    (see, e.g., Pilcz, _Die periodischen Geistesstörungen_, 1901); it
+    is much commoner in women than in men. Periodicity has been
+    observed in stammering (a six-weekly period in one case), and
+    notably in hemicrania or migraine, by Harry Campbell, Osler, etc.
+    (The periodicity of a case of hemicrania has been studied in
+    detail by D. Fraser Harris, _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, July,
+    1902.) But the cycle in these cases is not always, or even
+    usually, of a menstrual type.
+
+It is now possible to turn to an investigation which, although of very
+limited extent, serves to place the question of a male menstrual cycle for
+the first time on a sound basis. If there is such a cycle analogous to
+menstruation in women, it must be a recurring period of nervous erethism,
+and it must be demonstrably accompanied by greater sexual activity. In the
+_American Journal of Psychology_ for 1888, Mr. Julius Nelson, afterward
+Professor of Biology at the Rutgers College of Agriculture, New Brunswick,
+published a study of dreams in which he recorded the results of detailed
+observations of his dreams, and also of seminal emissions during sleep (by
+him termed "gonekbole" or "ecbole"), during a period of something over two
+years. Mr. Nelson found that both dreams and ecboles fell into a
+physiological cycle of 28 days. The climax of maximum dreaming (as
+determined by the number of words in the dream record) and the climax of
+maximum ecbole fell at the same point of the cycle, the ecbolic climax
+being more distinctly marked than the dream climax.
+
+    The question of cyclic physiological changes is considerably
+    complicated by our uncertainty regarding the precise length of
+    the cycle we may expect to find. Nelson finds a 28-day cycle
+    satisfactory. Perry-Coste, as we shall see, accepts a strictly
+    lunar cycle of 29½ days. Fliess has argued that in both women and
+    men, many physiological facts fall into a cycle of 23 days, which
+    he calls male, the 28-day cycle being female. (W. Fliess, _Die
+    Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen_,
+    1897, pp. 113 et seq.) Although Fliess brings forward a number of
+    minutely-observed cases, I cannot say that I am yet convinced of
+    the reality of this 23-day cycle. It is somewhat curious,
+    however, that at the same time as Fliess, though in apparent
+    independence, and from a different point of view, another worker
+    also suggested that there is a 23-day physiological cycle (John
+    Beard, _The Span of Gestation and the Cause of Birth_, Jena,
+    1897). Beard approaches the question from the embryological
+    standpoint, and argues that there is what he terms an "ovulation
+    unit" of about 23½ days, in the interval from the end of one
+    menstruation to the beginning of the next. Two "ovulation units"
+    make up one "critical unit," and the length of pregnancy,
+    according to Beard, is always a multiple of the "critical unit;"
+    in man, the gestation period amounts to six critical units. These
+    attempts to prove a new physiological cycle deserve careful study
+    and further investigation. The possibility of such a cycle should
+    be borne in mind, but at present we are scarcely entitled to
+    accept it.
+
+So far as I am aware, Professor Nelson's very interesting series of
+observations, which, for the first time, placed the question of a
+menstrual rhythm in men on a sound and workable basis, have not directly
+led to any further observations. I am, however, in possession of a much
+more extended series of ecbolic observations completed before Nelson's
+paper was published, although the results have only been calculated at a
+comparatively-recent date. I now propose to present a summary of these
+observations, and consider how far they confirm Nelson's conclusions.
+These observations cover no less a period than twelve years, between the
+ages of 17 and 29, the subject, W.K., being a student, and afterward
+schoolmaster, leading, on the whole, a chaste life. The records were
+faithfully made throughout the whole of this long period. Here, if
+anywhere, should be material for the construction of a menstrual rhythm
+on an ecbolic basis. While the results are in many respects instructive,
+it can scarcely, perhaps, be said that they absolutely demonstrate a
+monthly cycle. When summated in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted
+by Nelson in his ecbolic observations, it is not difficult to regard the
+maximum, which is reached on the 19th to 21st days of the summated
+physiological month, as a real menstrual ecbolic climax, for no other
+three consecutive days at all approach these in number of ecboles, while
+there is a marked depression occurring four days earlier, on the 16th day
+of the month. If, however, we split up the curve by dividing the period of
+twelve years into two nearly equal periods, the earlier of about seven
+years and the latter of about four years, and summate these separately,
+the two curves do not present any parallel as regards the menstrual cycle.
+It scarcely seems to me, therefore, that these curves present any
+convincing evidence in this case of a monthly ecbolic cycle (and,
+therefore, I refrain from reproducing them), although they seem to suggest
+such a cycle. Nor is there any reason to suppose that by adopting a
+different cycle of thirty days, or of twenty-three days, any more
+conclusive results would be obtained.
+
+It seems, however, when we look at these curves more closely, that they
+are not wholly without significance. If I am justified in concluding that
+they scarcely demonstrate a monthly cycle, it may certainly be added that
+they show a rudimentary tendency for the ecboles to fall into a
+fortnightly rhythm, and a very marked and unmistakable tendency to a
+weekly rhythm. The fortnightly rhythm is shown in the curve for the
+earlier period, but is somewhat disguised in the curve for the total
+period, because the first climax is spread over two days, the 7th and 8th
+of the month. If we readjust the curve for the total period by presenting
+the days in pairs, the fortnightly tendency is more clearly brought out
+(Chart I).
+
+A more pronounced tendency still is traceable to a weekly rhythm. This is,
+indeed, the most unquestionable fact brought out by these curves. All the
+maxima occur on Saturday or Sunday, with the minima on Tuesday, Wednesday,
+Thursday, or Friday. This very pronounced weekly rhythm will serve to
+swamp more or less completely any monthly rhythm on a 28-day basis.
+Although here probably seen in an exaggerated form, it is almost certainly
+a characteristic of the ecbolic curve generally.[123] I have been told by
+several young men and women, especially those who work hard during the
+week, that Saturday, and especially Sunday afternoon, are periods when the
+thoughts spontaneously go in an erotic direction, and at this time there
+is a special tendency to masturbation or to spontaneous sexual excitement.
+It is on Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, according to Guerry's
+tables,[124] that the fewest suicides are committed, Tuesday, Wednesday,
+and Thursday, with, however, a partial fall on Wednesday, those on which
+most suicides are committed, so that there would appear to be an
+antagonism between sexual activity and the desire to throw off life. It
+also appears (in the reports of the Bavarian factory inspectors) that
+accidents in factories have a tendency to occur chiefly at the beginning
+of the week, and toward the end rather than in the middle.[125] Even
+growth, as Fleischmann has shown in the case of children, tends to fall
+into weekly cycles. It is evident that the nervous system is profoundly
+affected by the social influences resulting from the weekly cycle.
+
+The analysis of this series of ecbolic curves may thus be said to recall
+the suggestion of Laycock, that the menstrual cycle is really made up of
+four weekly cycles, the periodic unit, according to Laycock, being three
+and one-half days. I think it would, however, be more correct to say that
+the menstrual cycle, perhaps originally formed with reference to the
+influence of the moon on the sexual and social habits of men and other
+animals, tends to break up by a process of segmentation into fortnightly
+and weekly cycles. If we are justified in assuming that there is a male
+menstrual cycle, we must conclude that in such a case as that just
+analyzed, the weekly rhythm has become so marked as almost entirely to
+obliterate the larger monthly rhythm.
+
+However constituted, there seems little doubt that a physiological weekly
+cycle really exists. This was, indeed, very clearly indicated many years
+ago by the observations of Edward Smith, who showed that there are weekly
+rhythms in pulse, respiration, temperature, carbonic acid evolution, urea,
+and body-weight, Sunday being the great day of repair and increase of
+weight.[126]
+
+In an appendix to this volume I am able to present the results of another
+long series of observations of nocturnal ecbolic manifestations carried
+out by Mr. Perry-Coste, who has elaborately calculated the results, and
+has convinced himself that on the basis of a strictly lunar month, thus
+abolishing the disturbing influence of the weekly rhythm, which in his
+case also appears, a real menstrual rhythm may be traced.[127]
+
+It does not appear to me, however, even yet, that a final answer to the
+question whether a menstrual sexual rhythm occurs in men can be decisively
+given in the affirmative. That such a cycle will be proved in many cases
+seems to me highly probable, but before this can be decisively affirmed it
+is necessary that a much larger number of persons should be induced to
+carry out on themselves the simple, but protracted, series of observations
+that are required.
+
+    Since the first edition of this volume appeared, numerous series
+    of ecbolic records have reached me from different parts of the
+    world. The most notable of these series comes from a professional
+    man, of scientific training, who has for the past six years lived
+    in different parts of India, where the record was kept. Though
+    the record extends over nearly six years, there are two breaks in
+    it, due to a visit to England, and to loss of interest. Both
+    involuntary and voluntary discharges are included in the record.
+    The involuntary discharges occurred during sleep, usually with an
+    erotic dream, in which the subject invariably awaked and
+    frequently made an effort to check the emission. The voluntary
+    discharges in most cases commenced during sleep, or in the
+    half-waking state; deliberate masturbation, when fully awake, was
+    comparatively rare. The proportion of involuntary to more or less
+    voluntary ecboles was about 3 to 1. A third kind of sexual
+    manifestation (of frequency intermediate between the other two
+    forms) is also included, in which a high degree of erethism is
+    induced during the half waking state, culminating in an orgasm in
+    which the power of preventing discharge has been artificially
+    acquired. The subject, E.M., was 32 years of age when the record
+    began. He belongs to a healthy family, and is himself physically
+    sound, 5 feet 6 inches in height, but weight low, due to rickets
+    in infancy. In early life he stammered badly; his temperament is
+    emotional and self-conscious, while his work is unusually
+    exacting, and he lives for most of the year in a very trying
+    climate. As a boy he was very religious, and has always felt
+    obliged to resist sexual vice to the utmost, though there have
+    been occasional lapses.
+
+    As regards lunar periodicity, E.M., has summated his results in a
+    curve, after the same manner as Mr. Perry-Coste, beginning with
+    the new moon. The periods covered include 54 lunar months, and
+    the total number of discharges is 176; the average frequency is
+    about 3 per month of twenty-eight days. The curve, for the most
+    part, zigzags between a frequency of 4 and 9, but on the
+    twenty-fourth day it falls to 1, and then rises uninterruptedly
+    to a height of 11 on the twenty-seventh day, falling to 2 on the
+    next day. Whether a really menstrual rhythm is thus indicated I
+    do not undertake to decide, but I am inclined to agree with E.M.
+    himself that there is no definite evidence of it. "It looks to
+    me," he writes, "as if the only real rhythm (putting aside the
+    annual cycle) will be found to be the average period between the
+    ecboles, varying in different persons, but in my case, about nine
+    and one-eighth days. May not the ecbolic period in men be
+    compared to the menstrual period in women, and be an example of
+    the greater katabolic activity of men? There is the period of
+    tumescence, and the ecbole constituting the detumescence. The
+    week-end holiday would hasten the detumescence, but about every
+    third week-end there would tend to be delay to enable the system
+    to get back into its regulation nine or ten days' stride. This
+    might possibly be the explanation of the curves. The recent
+    emissions were nearly all involuntary during sleep. Age may have
+    something to do with the change in character."
+
+    E.M.'s curves frequently show the influence of weekly
+    periodicity, in the tendency to ecbole on Sunday, or sometimes on
+    Saturday or Monday. In recent years there has been some tendency
+    for this climax to be thrown towards the middle of the week, but,
+    on the whole, Wednesday is the point of lowest frequency.
+
+    In another case, the subject, A.N., who has spent nearly all his
+    life in the State of Indiana, has kept a record of sexual
+    manifestations between the ages of 30 and 34. The data, which
+    cover four years, have not been sent to me in a form which
+    enables the possibility of a monthly curve to be estimated, but
+    A.N., who has himself arranged the data on a lunar monthly basis,
+    considers that a monthly curve is thus revealed. "My memoranda,"
+    he writes, "show that discharges occur most frequently on the
+    first, second, and third days after new moon. There is also
+    another period on the fourteenth and fifteenth, which might
+    indicate a semi-lunar rhythm. The days of minimum discharge are
+    the seventh, eighth, twenty-second, and twenty-third." It may be
+    added that the yearly average of ecbolic manifestations, varying
+    between 50 and 55, comes out as 52, or exactly one per week.
+
+    A weekly periodicity is very definitely shown by A.N.'s data.
+    Sunday once more stands at the head of the week as regards
+    frequency, in this case very decisively. The figures are as  follows:--
+
+        Sun.   Mon.   Tues.  Wed.  Thurs.  Fri.   Sat.
+         48     21     24     35     28     26     27
+
+    In another case which has reached me from the United States, the
+    data are slighter, but deserve note, as the subject is a trained
+    psychologist, and I quote the case in his own words. Here, it
+    will be seen, there appears to be a tendency for the ecbolic
+    cycle to cover a period of about six weeks. In this case, also,
+    there is a tendency for the climax to occur about Saturday or
+    Sunday. "X. is 38 years old, unmarried, fair health, pretty good
+    heredity; university trained, and engaged in academic pursuits.
+    He thinks he may have completed puberty at about 13, though he
+    has no proof that he was in the full possession of his sex-powers
+    until he was 15 years 3 months old (when he had his first
+    emission). His sex life has been normal. He masturbated somewhat
+    when he slept with other boys (or men) during early manhood, but
+    not to excess.
+
+    "During the autumn of 1889 (when 28 years of age) he observed
+    that at certain times he had an itching feeling about the
+    testicles; that he felt slightly irritable; that the penis
+    erected with the slightest provocation, and that this peculiar
+    feeling usually passed away with a nightly emission. Indeed, so
+    regular was the matter that he usually wore a loin garment at
+    these times, to prevent the semen getting on the bedding. This
+    peculiar feeling ordinarily continued for two or three days. He
+    recalls at these times that he felt that he would like to wrestle
+    with some one, for there seemed to be a muscular tension. These
+    states returned with apparent regularity, and the intervals
+    seemed to be about six weeks, though no effort was made to
+    measure the periods until 1893. The following notes are taken
+    from the diaries of  X.:--
+
+    "Thursday, December 29, 1892. The peculiar feeling.
+        (This is the only entry.)
+
+    "Thursday, February 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that X. awoke nights to find erections, and
+        that the feeling continued until Sunday night following, when
+        there was an emission.)
+
+    "Friday, March 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that there was an emission the next night,
+        and that the feeling disappeared.)
+
+    "Wednesday, May 3, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that it continued until Saturday night, when
+        X. had sexual relations, and that it then disappeared.)
+
+    "Wednesday, June 14, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary states that the next night X. had an emission,
+        and the disappearance of the feeling.)
+
+    "Thursday, July 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that it was apparent at about 3 o'clock
+        that afternoon. That night at 10 o'clock, X. had sexual
+        intercourse, and the feeling was not noted the next day.)
+
+    "Friday, September 8, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Tuesday, the 11th, and then disappeared.
+        No sexual intercourse, and no nightly emission.)
+
+    "Wednesday, October 25, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Saturday night, when there was a nightly
+        emission.)
+
+    "Saturday, December 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Monday night, when there was sexual
+        relations.)
+
+    "It will be noted that the intervals observed were of about six
+    weeks' duration, excepting one, that from September to October,
+    when it was nearly seven weeks.
+
+    "These observations were not recorded after 1893. X. thinks that
+    in 1894 the intervals were longer, an opinion which is based on
+    the fact that for a period of six months he had no sexual
+    intercourse and no nightly emissions. The times during this six
+    months when he had the 'peculiar feeling,' the sensation was so
+    slight as to be scarcely noted. In 1895, the feeling seemed more
+    pronounced than ever before, and X. thinks that it may have
+    recurred as often as once a month. In 1896, 1897, and 1898, the
+    intervals, he thinks, lengthened--at times, he thought, wholly
+    disappeared. During 1899, while they did not recur often, when
+    they did come the sensation was pronounced, although the
+    emission was less common. There was a peculiar 'heavy' feeling
+    about the testicles, and a marked tendency towards erection of
+    the penis, especially at night-time (while sleeping). X. often
+    awoke to find a tense erection. Moreover, these feelings usually
+    continued a week.
+
+    "1. In general, X. is of the opinion that as he grows older these
+    intervals lengthen, though this inference is not based on
+    _recorded_ data.
+
+    "2. He notes that a discharge (through sexual intercourse or in
+    sleep) invariably brings the peculiar feeling to a close for the
+    time being.
+
+    "3. He notes that sexual intercourse _at the time_ stops it; but,
+    when there has been sexual intercourse within a week or ten days
+    of the time (based upon the observations of 1893), that it had no
+    tendency to check the feeling."
+
+    In another case, that of F.C., an Irish farmer, born in
+    Waterford, the data are still more meagre, though the periodicity
+    is stated to be very pronounced. He is chaste, steady, with
+    occasional lapses from strict sobriety, healthy and mentally
+    normal, living a regular open-air life, far from the artificial
+    stimuli of towns. The observations refer to a period when he was
+    from 20 to 27 years of age. During this period, nocturnal
+    emissions occurred at regular intervals of exactly a month. They
+    were ushered in by fits of irritability and depression, and
+    usually occurred in dreamless sleep. The discharges were abundant
+    and physically weakening, but they relieved the psychic symptoms,
+    though they occasioned mental distress, since F.C. is scrupulous
+    in a religious sense, and also apprehensive of bad constitutional
+    effects, the result of reading alarmist quack pamphlets.
+
+    In another case known to me, a young man leading a chaste life,
+    experienced crises of sexual excitement every ten to fourteen
+    days, the crisis lasting for several days.
+
+    Finally, an interesting contribution to this subject, suggested
+    by this _Study_, has been made and published (in the proceedings
+    of the Amsterdam International Congress of Psychology, in 1907)
+    by the well-known Amsterdam neurologist and psychologist, Dr.
+    L.S.A.M. Von Römer under the title, "Ueber das Verhältniss
+    zwischen Mondalter und Sexualität." Von Römer's data are made up
+    not of nocturnal involuntary emissions, but of the voluntary acts
+    of sexual intercourse of an unmarried man, during a period of
+    four years. Von Römer believes that these, to a much greater
+    extent than those of a married man, would be liable to periodic
+    influence, if such exist. On making a curve of exact lunar length
+    (similarly to Perry-Coste), he finds that there are, every month,
+    two maxima and two minima, in a way that approximately resemble
+    Perry-Coste's curve. The main point in Von Römer's results is,
+    however, the correspondence that he finds with the actual lunar
+    phases; the chief maximum occurs at the time of the full moon,
+    and the secondary maximum at the time of the new moon, the minima
+    being at the first and fourth quarters. He hazards no theory in
+    explanation of this coincidence, but insists on the need for
+    further observations. It will be seen that A.N.'s results (_ante_
+    p. 117) seem in the main to correspond to Von Römer's.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] Even counting the pulse is a comparatively recent method of
+physiological examination. It was not until 1450 that Nicolas of Cusa
+advocated counting the pulse-beats. (Binz, _Deutsche medizinische
+Wochenschrift_, October 6, 1898.)
+
+[118] I leave this statement as it stands, though since the first
+publication of this book it has ceased to be strictly accurate.
+
+[119] Sanctorius, _Medicina Statica_, Sect. I, aph. lxv.
+
+[120] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, xiv, 1882.
+
+[121] _Zoönomia_, Section XXXVI.
+
+[122] I reproduced these notes in full in earlier editions of this volume.
+
+[123] Moll refers to the case of a man whose erotic dreams occurred every
+fortnight, and always on Friday night (_Libido Sexualis_, Band I, p. 136).
+One is inclined to suspect an element of autosuggestion in such a case;
+still, the coincidence is noteworthy.
+
+[124] See Durkheim, _Le Suicide_, p. 101.
+
+[125] We must, of course, see here the results of the disorganization
+produced by holidays, and the exhaustion produced by the week's labor; but
+such influences are still the social effects of the cosmic week.
+
+[126] E. Smith, _Health and Disease_, Chapter III. I may remark that,
+according to Kemsoes (_Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift_, January 20,
+1908, and _British Medical Journal_, January 29, 1898), school-children
+work best on Monday and Tuesday.
+
+[127] See Appendix B.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Annual Sexual Rhythm--In Animals--In Man--Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn--The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals--The Feast of Fools--The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires--The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate--The Causes of those
+Variations--The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe--The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep--Original
+Observations--Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement--The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes--Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners--The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide--The Growth of
+Children According to Season--The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons--Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever--The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena.
+
+
+That there are annual seasonal changes in the human organism, especially
+connected with the sexual function, is a statement that has been made by
+physiologists and others from time to time, and the statement has even
+reached the poets, who have frequently declared that spring is the season
+of love.
+
+    Thus, sixty years ago, Laycock, an acute pioneer in the
+    investigation of the working of the human organism, brought
+    together (in a chapter on "The Periodic Movements in the
+    Reproductive Organs of Woman," in his _Nervous Diseases of
+    Women_, 1840, pp. 61-70) much interesting evidence to show that
+    the system undergoes changes about the vernal and autumnal
+    equinoxes, and that these changes are largely sexual.
+
+    Edward Smith, also a notable pioneer in this field of human
+    periodicity, and, indeed, the first to make definite observations
+    on a number of points bearing on it, sums up, in his remarkable
+    book, _Health and Disease as Influenced by Daily, Seasonal, and
+    Other Cyclical Changes in the Human System_ (1861), to the effect
+    that season is a more powerful influence on the system than
+    temperature or atmospheric pressure; "in the early and middle
+    parts of spring every function of the body is in its highest
+    degree of efficiency," while autumn is "essentially a period of
+    change from the minimum toward the maximum of vital conditions."
+    He found that in April and May most carbonic acid is evolved,
+    there being then a progressive diminution to September, and then
+    a progressive increase; the respiratory rate also fell from a
+    maximum in April to a minimum maintained at exactly the same
+    level throughout August, September, October, and November;
+    spring was found to be the season of maximum, autumn of minimum,
+    muscular power; sensibility to tactile and temperature
+    impressions was also greater in spring.
+
+    Kulischer, studying the sexual customs of various human races,
+    concluded that in primitive times, only at two special
+    seasons--at spring and in harvest-time--did pairing take place;
+    and that, when pairing ceased to be strictly confined to these
+    periods, its symbolical representation was still so confined,
+    even among the civilized nations of Europe. He further argued
+    that the physiological impulse was only felt at these periods.
+    (Kulischer, "Die geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl bei den Menschen in
+    der Urzeit," _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1876, pp. 152 and
+    157.) Cohnstein ("Ueber Prädilectionszeiten bei Schwangerschaft,"
+    _Archiv für Gynäkologie_, 1879) also suggested that women
+    sometimes only conceive at certain periods of the year.
+
+    Wiltshire, who made various interesting observations regarding
+    the physiology of menstruation, wrote: "Many years ago, I
+    concluded that every women had a law peculiar to herself, which
+    governed the times of her bringing forth (and conceiving); that
+    she was more prone to bring forth at certain epochs than at
+    others; and subsequent researches have established the accuracy
+    of the forecast." He further stated his belief in a "primordial
+    seasonal aptitude for procreation, the impress of which still
+    remains, and, to some extent, governs the breeding-times of
+    humanity." (A. Wiltshire, "Lectures on the Comparative Physiology
+    of Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March, 1883, pp.
+    502, etc.)
+
+    Westermarck, in a chapter of his _History of Human Marriage_,
+    dealing with the question of "A Human Pairing Season in Primitive
+    Times," brings forward evidence showing that spring, or, rather,
+    early summer, is the time for increase of the sexual instinct,
+    and argues that this is a survival of an ancient pairing season;
+    spring, he points out, is a season of want, rather than
+    abundance, for a frugivorous species, but when men took to herbs,
+    roots, and animal food, spring became a time of abundance, and
+    suitable for the birth of children. He thus considers that in
+    man, as in lower animals, the times of conception are governed by
+    the times most suitable for birth.
+
+    Rosenstadt, as we shall see later, also believes that men to-day
+    have inherited a physiological custom of procreating at a certain
+    epoch, and he thus accounts for the seasonal changes in the
+    birthrate.
+
+    Heape, who also believes that "at one period of its existence the
+    human species had a special breeding season," follows Wiltshire
+    in suggesting that "there is some reason to believe that the
+    human female is not always in a condition to breed." (W. Heape,
+    "Menstruation and Ovulation of _Macacus rhesus_," _Philosophical
+    Transactions_, 1897; id. "The Sexual Season of Mammals,"
+    _Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science_, 1900.)
+
+Except, however, in one important respect, with which we shall presently
+have to deal, few attempts have been made to demonstrate any annual
+organic sexual rhythm. The supposition of such annual cycle is usually
+little more than a deduction from the existence of the well-marked
+seasonal sexual rhythm in animals. Most of the higher animals breed only
+once or twice a year, and at such a period that the young are born when
+food is most plentiful. At other periods the female is incapable of
+breeding, and without sexual desires, while the male is either in the same
+condition or in a condition of latent sexuality. Under the influence of
+domestication, animals tend to lose the strict periodicity of the wild
+condition, and become apt for breeding at more frequent intervals. Thus
+among dogs in the wild state the bitch only experiences heat once a year,
+in the spring. Among domesticated dogs, there is not only the spring
+period of heat, early in the year, but also an autumn period, about six
+months later; the primitive period, however, remains the most important
+one, and the best litters of pups are said to be produced in the spring.
+The mare is in season in spring and summer; sheep take the ram in
+autumn.[128] Many of the menstruating monkeys also, whether or not sexual
+desire is present throughout the year, only conceive in spring and in
+autumn. Almost any time of the year may be an animal's pairing season,
+this season being apparently in part determined by the economic conditions
+which will prevail at birth. While it is essential that animals should be
+born during the season of greatest abundance, it is equally essential that
+pairing, which involves great expenditure of energy, should also take
+place at a season of maximum physical vigor.
+
+    As an example of the sexual history of an animal through the
+    year, I may quote the following description, by Dr. A.W.
+    Johnstone, of the habits of the American deer: "Our common
+    American deer, in winter-time, is half-starved for lack of
+    vegetation in the woods; the low temperature, snow, and ice, make
+    his conditions of life harder for lack of the proper amount of
+    food, whereby he becomes an easier prey to carnivorous animals.
+    He has difficulty even in preserving life. In spring he sheds his
+    winter coat, and is provided with a suit of lighter hair, and
+    while this is going on the male grows antlers for defence. The
+    female about this time is far along in pregnancy, and when the
+    antlers are fully grown she drops the fawn. When the fawns are
+    dropped vegetation is plentiful and lactation sets in. During
+    this time the male is kept fully employed in getting food and
+    guarding his more or less helpless family. As the season advances
+    the vegetation increases and the fawn begins to eat grass. When
+    the summer heat commences the little streams begin to dry up, and
+    the animal once more has difficulty in supporting life because of
+    the enervating heat, the effect of drought on the vegetation, and
+    the distance which has to be traveled to get water; therefore,
+    fully ten months in each year the deer has all he can do to live
+    without extra exertion incident to rutting. Soon after the autumn
+    rains commence vegetation becomes more luxurious, the antlers of
+    the male and new suits of hair for both are fully grown, heat of
+    the summer is gone, food and drink are plentiful everywhere, the
+    fawns are weaned, and both sexes are in the very finest
+    condition. Then, and then only, in the whole year, comes the rut,
+    which, to them as to most other animals, means an unwonted amount
+    of physical exercise besides the everyday runs for life from
+    their natural enemies, and an unusual amount of energy is used
+    up. If a doe dislikes the attention of a special buck, miles of
+    racing result. If jealous males meet, furious battles take place.
+    The strain on both sexes could not possibly be endured at any
+    other season of the year. With approach of cold weather, climatic
+    deprivations and winter dangers commence and rut closes. In all
+    wild animals, rut occurs only when the climatic and other
+    conditions favor the highest physical development. This law holds
+    good in all wild birds, for it is then only that they can stand
+    the strain incident to love-making. The common American crow is a
+    very good study. In the winter he travels around the ricefields
+    of the South, leading a tramp's existence in a country foreign to
+    him, and to which he goes only to escape the rigors of the
+    northern climate. For several weeks in the spring he goes about
+    the fields, gathering up the worms and grubs. After his long
+    flight from the South he experiences several weeks of an almost
+    ideal existence, his food is plentiful, he becomes strong and
+    hearty, and then he turns to thoughts of love. In the pairing
+    season he does more work than at any other time in the year:
+    fantastic dances, racing and chasing after the females, and
+    savage fights with rivals. He endures more than would be possible
+    in his ordinary physical state. Then come the care of the young
+    and the long flights for water and food during the drought of the
+    summer. After the molt, autumn finds him once more in flock, and
+    with the first frosts he is off again to the South. In the wild
+    state, rut is the capstone of perfect physical condition." (A.W.
+    Johnstone, "The Relation of Menstruation to the other
+    Reproductive Functions," _American Journal of Obstetrics_, vol.
+    xxxii, 1895.)
+
+    Wiltshire ("Lectures on the Comparative Physiology of
+    Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March, 1888) and
+    Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, Chapter II) enumerate
+    the pairing season of a number of different animals.
+
+    With regard to the breeding seasons of monkeys, little seems to
+    be positively known. Heape made special inquiries with reference
+    to the two species whose sexual life he investigated. He was
+    informed that _Semnopithecus entellus_ breeds twice a year, in
+    April and in October. He accepts Aitcheson's statement that the
+    _Macacus rhesus_, in Simla, copulates in October, and adds that
+    in the very different climate of the plains it appears to
+    copulate in May. He concludes that the breeding season varies
+    greatly in dependence on climate, but believes that the breeding
+    season is always preserved, and that it affects the sexual
+    aptitude of the male. He could not make his monkeys copulate
+    during February or March, but is unable to say whether or not
+    sexual intercourse is generally admitted outside the breeding
+    season. He quotes the observation of Breschet that monkeys
+    copulate during pregnancy.
+
+In primitive human races we very frequently trace precisely the same
+influence of the seasonal impulse as may be witnessed in the higher
+animals, although among human races it does not always result that the
+children are born at the time of the greatest plenty, and on account of
+the development of human skill such a result is not necessary. Thus Dr.
+Cook found among the Eskimo that during the long winter nights the
+secretions are diminished, muscular power is weak, and the passions are
+depressed. Soon after the sun appears a kind of rut affects the young
+population. They tremble with the intensity of sexual passion, and for
+several weeks much of the time is taken up with courtship and love. Hence,
+the majority of the children are born nine months later, when the four
+months of perpetual night are beginning. A marked seasonal periodicity of
+this kind is not confined to the Arctic regions. We may also find it in
+the tropics. In Cambodia, Mondière has found that twice a year, in April
+and September, men seem to experience a "veritable rut," and will
+sometimes even kill women who resist them.[129]
+
+These two periods, spring and autumn--the season for greeting the
+appearance of life and the season for reveling in its final
+fruition--seem to be everywhere throughout the world the most usual
+seasons for erotic festivals. In classical Greece and Rome, in India,
+among the Indians of North and South America, spring is the most usual
+season, while in Africa the yam harvest of autumn is the season chiefly
+selected. There are, of course, numerous exceptions to this rule, and it
+is common to find both seasons observed. Taking, indeed, a broad view of
+festivals throughout the world, we may say that there are four seasons
+when they are held: the winter solstice, when the days begin to lengthen
+and primitive man rejoices in the lengthening and seeks to assist it;[130]
+the vernal equinox, the period of germination and the return of life; the
+summer solstice, when the sun reaches its height; and autumn, the period
+of fruition, of thankfulness, and of repose. But it is rarely that we find
+a people seriously celebrating more than two of these festival seasons.
+
+In Australia, according to Müller as quoted by Ploss and Bartels, marriage
+and conception take place during the warm season, when there is greatest
+abundance of food, and to some extent is even confined to that period.
+Oldfield and others state that the Australian erotic festivals take place
+only in spring. Among some tribes, Müller adds, such as the Watschandis,
+conception is inaugurated by a festival called _kaaro_, which takes place
+in the warm season at the first new moon after the yams are ripe. The
+leading feature of this festival is a moonlight dance, representing the
+sexual act symbolically. With their spears, regarded as the symbols of the
+male organ, the men attack bushes, which represent the female organs.
+They thus work themselves up to a state of extreme sexual excitement.[131]
+Among the Papuans of New Guinea, also, according to Miklucho-Macleay,
+conceptions chiefly occur at the end of harvest, and Guise describes the
+great annual festival of the year which takes place at the time of the yam
+and banana harvest, when the girls undergo a ceremony of initiation and
+marriages are effected.[132] In Central Africa, says Sir H.H. Johnston, in
+his _Central Africa_, sexual orgies are seriously entered into at certain
+seasons of the year, but he neglects to mention what these seasons are.
+The people of New Britain, according to Weisser (as quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels), carefully guard their young girls from the young men. At certain
+times, however, a loud trumpet is blown in the evening, and the girls are
+then allowed to go away into the bush to mix freely with the young men. In
+ancient Peru (according to an account derived from a pastoral letter of
+Archbishop Villagomez of Lima), in December, when the fruit of the
+_paltay_ is ripe, a festival was held, preceded by a five days' fast.
+During the festival, which lasted six days and six nights, men and women
+met together in a state of complete nudity at a certain spot among the
+gardens, and all raced toward a certain hill. Every man who caught up with
+a woman in the race was bound at once to have intercourse with her.
+
+Very instructive, from our present point of view, is the account given by
+Dalton, of the festivals of the various Bengal races. Thus the Hos (a
+Kolarian tribe), of Bengal, are a purely agricultural people, and the
+chief festival of the year with them is the _mágh parah_. It is held in
+the month of January, "when the granaries are full of grain, and the
+people, to use their own expression, full of devilry." It is the festival
+of the harvest-home, the termination of the year's toil, and is always
+held at full moon. The festival is a _saturnalia_, when all rules of duty
+and decorum are forgotten, and the utmost liberty is allowed to women and
+girls, who become like bacchantes. The people believe that at this time
+both men and women become overcharged with vitality, and that a safety
+valve is absolutely necessary. The festival begins with a religious
+sacrifice made by the village priest or elders, and with prayers for the
+departed and for the vouchsafing of seasonable rain and good crops. The
+religious ceremonies over, the people give themselves up to feasting and
+to drinking the home-made beer, the preparation of which from fermented
+rice is one of a girl's chief accomplishments. "The Ho population," wrote
+Dalton, "are at other seasons quiet and reserved in manner, and in their
+demeanor toward women gentle and decorous; even in their flirtations they
+never transcend the bounds of decency. The girls, though full of spirits
+and somewhat saucy, have innate notions of propriety that make them modest
+in demeanor, though devoid of all prudery, and of the obscene abuse, so
+frequently heard from the lips of common women in Bengal, they appear to
+have no knowledge. They are delicately sensitive under harsh language of
+any kind, and never use it to others; and since their adoption of clothing
+they are careful to drape themselves decently, as well as gracefully; but
+they throw all this aside during the _mágh_ feast. Their nature appears to
+undergo a temporary change. Sons and daughters revile their parents in
+gross language, and parents their children; men and women become almost
+like animals in the indulgence of their amorous propensities. They enact
+all that was ever portrayed by prurient artists in a bacchanalian festival
+or pandean orgy; and as the light of the sun they adore, and the presence
+of numerous spectators, seems to be no restraint on their indulgence, it
+cannot be expected that chastity is preserved when the shades of night
+fall on such a scene of licentiousness and debauchery." While, however,
+thus representing the festival as a mere debauch, Dalton adds that
+relationships formed at this time generally end in marriage. There is also
+a flower festival in April and May, of religious nature, but the dances
+at this festival are quieter in character.[133]
+
+In Burmah the great festival of the year is the full moon of October,
+following the Buddhist Lent season (which is also the wet season), during
+which there is no sexual intercourse. The other great festival is the New
+Year in March.[134]
+
+In classical times the great festivals were held at the same time as in
+northern and modern Europe. The _brumalia_ took place in midwinter, when
+the days were shortest, and the _rosalia_, according to early custom in
+May or June, and at a later time about Easter. After the establishment of
+Christianity the Church made constant efforts to suppress this latter
+festival, and it was referred to by an eighth century council as "a wicked
+and reprehensible holiday-making." These festivals appear to be intimately
+associated with Dionysus worship, and the flower-festival of Dionysus, as
+well as the Roman Liberales in honor of Bacchus, was celebrated in March
+with worship of Priapus. The festivals of the Delian Apollo and of
+Artemis, both took place during the first week in May and the Roman
+Bacchanales in October.[135]
+
+The mediæval Feast of Fools was to a large extent a seasonal orgy licensed
+by the Church. It may be traced directly back through the barbatories of
+the lower empire to the Roman _saturnalia_, and at Sens, the ancient
+ecclesiastical metropolis of France, it was held at about the same time as
+the _saturnalia_, on the Feast of the Circumcision, i.e., New Year's Day.
+It was not, however, always held at this time; thus at Evreux it took
+place on the 1st of May.[136]
+
+The Easter bonfires of northern-central Europe, the Midsummer (St. John's
+Eve) fires of southern-central Europe, still bear witness to the ancient
+festivals.[137] There is certainly a connection between these bonfires and
+erotic festivals; it is noteworthy that they occur chiefly at the period
+of spring and early summer, which, on other grounds, is widely regarded as
+the time for the increase of the sexual instinct, while the less frequent
+period for the bonfires is that of the minor sexual climax. Mannhardt was
+perhaps the first to show how intimately these spring and early summer
+festivals--held with bonfires and dances and the music of violin--have
+been associated with love-making and the choice of a mate.[138] In spring,
+the first Monday in Lent (Quadrigesima) and Easter Eve were frequent days
+for such bonfires. In May, among the Franks of the Main, the unmarried
+women, naked and adorned with flowers, danced on the Blocksberg before the
+men, as described by Herbels in the tenth century.[139] In the central
+highlands of Scotland the Beltane fires were kindled on the 1st of May.
+Bonfires sometimes took place on Halloween (October 31st) and Christmas.
+But the great season all over Europe for these bonfires, then often held
+with erotic ceremonial, is the summer solstice, the 23d of June, the eve
+of Midsummer, or St. John's Day.[140]
+
+The Bohemians and other Slavonic races formerly had meetings with sexual
+license. This was so up to the beginning of the sixteenth century on the
+banks of rivers near Novgorod. The meetings took place, as a rule, the day
+before the Festival of John the Baptist, which, in pagan times, was that
+of a divinity known by the name of Jarilo (equivalent to Priapus). Half a
+century later, a new ecclesiastical code sought to abolish every vestige
+of the early festivals held on Christmas Day, on the Day of the Baptism,
+of Our Lord, and on John the Baptist's Day. A general feature of all these
+festivals (says Kowalewsky) was the prevalence of the promiscuous
+intercourse of the sexes. Among the Ehstonians, at the end of the
+eighteenth century, thousands of persons would gather around an old ruined
+church (in the Fellinschen) on the Eve of St. John, light a bonfire, and
+throw sacrificial gifts into it. Sterile women danced naked among the
+ruins; much eating and drinking went on, while the young men and maidens
+disappeared into the woods to do what they would. Festivals of this
+character still take place at the end of June in some districts. Young
+unmarried couples jump barefoot over large fires, usually near rivers or
+ponds. Licentiousness is rare.[141] But in many parts of Russia the
+peasants still attach little value to virginity, and even prefer women who
+have been mothers. The population of the Grisons in the sixteenth century
+held regular meetings not less licentious than those of the Cossacks.
+These were abolished by law. Kowalewsky regards all such customs as a
+survival of early forms of promiscuity.[142]
+
+    Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., 1900, vol. iii, pp. 236-350)
+    fully describes and discusses the dances, bonfires and festivals
+    of spring and summer, of Halloween (October 31), and Christmas.
+    He also explains the sexual character of these festivals. "There
+    are clear indications," he observes (p. 305), "that even human
+    fecundity is supposed to be promoted by the genial heat of the
+    fires. It is an Irish belief that a girl who jumps thrice over
+    the midsummer bonfire will soon marry and become the mother of
+    many children; and in various parts of France they think that if
+    a girl dances round nine fires she will be sure to marry within a
+    year. On the other hand, in Lechrain, people say that if a young
+    man and woman, leaping over the midsummer fire together, escape
+    unsmirched, the young woman will not become a mother within
+    twelve months--the flames have not touched and fertilized her.
+    The rule observed in some parts of France and Belgium, that the
+    bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent should be kindled by the
+    person who was last married, seems to belong to the same class of
+    ideas, whether it be that such a person is supposed to receive
+    from, or impart to, the fire a generative and fertilizing
+    influence. The common practice of lovers leaping over the fires
+    hand-in-hand may very well have originated in a notion that
+    thereby their marriage would be more likely to be blessed with
+    offspring. And the scenes of profligacy which appear to have
+    marked the midsummer celebration among the Ehstonians, as they
+    once marked the celebration of May Day among ourselves, may have
+    sprung, not from the mere license of holiday-makers, but from a
+    crude notion that such orgies were justified, if not required, by
+    some mysterious bond which linked the life of man, to the courses
+    of the heavens at the turning-point of the year."
+
+As regards these primitive festivals, although the evidence is scattered
+and sometimes obscure, certain main conclusions clearly emerge. In early
+Europe there were, according to Grimm, only two seasons, sometimes
+regarded as spring and winter, sometimes as spring and autumn, and for
+mythical purposes these seasons were alone available.[143] The appearance
+of each of these two seasons was inaugurated by festivals which were
+religious and often erotic in character. The Slavonic year began in March,
+at which time there was formerly, it is believed, a great festival, not
+only in Slavonic but also in Teutonic countries. In Northern Germany there
+were Easter bonfires always associated with mountains or hills. The Celtic
+bonfires were held at the beginning of May, while the Teutonic May-day, or
+_Walpurgisnacht_, is a very ancient sacred festival, associated with
+erotic ceremonial, and regarded by Grimm as having a common origin with
+the Roman _floralia_ and the Greek _dionysia_. Thus, in Europe, Grimm
+concludes: "there are four different ways of welcoming summer. In Sweden
+and Gothland a battle of winter and summer, a triumphal entry of the
+latter. In Schonen, Denmark, Lower Saxony, and England, simply May-riding,
+or fetching of the May-wagon. On the Rhine merely a battle of winter and
+summer, without immersion, without the pomp of an entry. In Franconia,
+Thuringia, Meissen, Silesia, and Bohemia only the carrying out of wintry
+death; no battle, no formal introduction of summer. Of these festivals the
+first and second fall in May, the third and fourth in March. In the first
+two, the whole population take part with unabated enthusiasm; in the last
+two only the lower poorer class.... Everything goes to prove that the
+approach of summer was to our forefathers a holy tide, welcomed by
+sacrifice, feast, and dance, and largely governing and brightening the
+people's life."[144] The early spring festival of March, the festival of
+Ostara, the goddess of spring, has become identified with the Christian
+festival of Resurrection (just as the summer solstice festival has been
+placed beneath the patronage of St. John the Baptist); but there has been
+only an amalgamation of closely-allied rites, for the Christian festival
+also may be traced back to a similar origin. Among the early Arabians the
+great _ragab_ feast, identified by Ewald and Robertson Smith with the
+Jewish _paschal_ feast, fell in the spring or early summer, when the
+camels and other domestic animals brought forth their young and the
+shepherds offered their sacrifices.[145] Babylonia, the supreme early
+centre of religious and cosmological culture, presents a more decisive
+example of the sex festival. The festival of Tammuz is precisely analogous
+to the European festival of St. John's Day. Tammuz was the solar god of
+spring vegetation, and closely associated with Ishtar, also an
+agricultural deity of fertility. The Tammuz festival was, in the earliest
+times, held toward the summer solstice, at the time of the first wheat and
+barley harvest. In Babylonia, as in primitive Europe, there were only two
+seasons; the festival of Tammuz, coming at the end of winter and the
+beginning of summer, was a fast followed by a feast, a time of mourning
+for winter, of rejoicing for summer. It is part of the primitive function
+of sacred ritual to be symbolical of natural processes, a mysterious
+representation of natural processes with the object of bringing them
+about.[146] The Tammuz festival was an appeal to the powers of Nature to
+exhibit their generative functions; its erotic character is indicated not
+only by the well-known fact that the priestesses of Ishtar (the Kadishtu,
+or "holy ones") were prostitutes, but by the statements in Babylonian
+legends concerning the state of the earth during Ishtar's winter absence,
+when the bull, the ass, and man ceased to reproduce. It is evident that
+the return of spring, coincident with the Tammuz festival, was regarded as
+the period for the return of the reproductive instinct even in man.[147]
+So that along this line also we are led back to a great procreative
+festival.
+
+Thus the great spring festivals were held between March and June,
+frequently culminating in a great orgy on Midsummer's Eve. The next great
+season of festivals in Europe was in autumn. The beginning of August was a
+great festival in Celtic lands, and the echoes of it, Rhys remarks, have
+not yet died out in Wales.[148] The beginning of November, both in Celtic
+and Teutonic countries, was a period of bonfires.[149] In Germanic
+countries especially there was a great festival at the time. The Germanic
+year began at Martinmas (November 11th), and the great festival of the
+year was then held. It is the oldest Germanic festival on record, and
+retained its importance even in the Middle Ages. There was feasting all
+night, and the cattle that were to be killed were devoted to the gods; the
+goose was associated with this festival.[150] These autumn festivals
+culminated in the great festival of the winter solstice which we have
+perpetuated in the celebrations of Christmas and New Year. Thus, while
+the two great primitive culminating festivals of spring and autumn
+correspond exactly (as we shall see) with the seasons of maximum
+fecundation, even in the Europe of to-day, the earlier spring (March)
+and--though less closely--autumn (November) festivals correspond with the
+periods of maximum spontaneous sexual disturbance, as far as I have been
+able to obtain precise evidence of such disturbance. That the maximum of
+physiological sexual excitement should tend to appear earlier than the
+maximum of fecundation is a result that might be expected.
+
+The considerations so far brought forward clearly indicate that among
+primitive races there are frequently one or two seasons in the
+year--especially spring and autumn--during which sexual intercourse is
+chiefly or even exclusively carried on, and they further indicate that
+these primitive customs persist to some extent even in Europe to-day. It
+would still remain, to determine whether any such influence affects the
+whole mass of the civilized population and determines the times at which
+intercourse, or fecundation, most frequently takes place.
+
+This question can be most conveniently answered by studying the seasonal
+variation in the birthrate, calculating back to the time of conception.
+Wargentin, in Sweden, first called attention to the periodicity of the
+birthrate in 1767.[151] The matter seems to have attracted little further
+attention until Quetelet, who instinctively scented unreclaimed fields of
+statistical investigation, showed that in Belgium and Holland there is a
+maximum of births in February, and, consequently, of conceptions in May,
+and a minimum of births about July, with consequent minimum of conceptions
+in October. Quetelet considered that the spring maximum of conceptions
+corresponded to an increase of vitality after the winter cold. He pointed
+out that this sexual climax was better marked in the country than in
+towns, and accounted for this by the consideration that in the country
+the winter cold is more keenly felt. Later, Wappäus investigated the
+matter in various parts of northern and southern Europe as well as in
+Chile, and found that there was a maximum of conceptions in May and June
+attributable to season, and in Catholic countries strengthened by customs
+connected with ecclesiastical seasons. This maximum was, he found,
+followed by a minimum in September, October, and November, due to
+gradually increasing exhaustion, and the influence of epidemic diseases,
+as well as the strain of harvest-work. The minimum is reached in the south
+earlier than in the north. About November conceptions again become more
+frequent, and reach the second maximum at about Christmas and New Year.
+This second maximum is very slightly marked in southern countries, but
+strongly marked in northern countries (in Sweden the absolute maximum of
+conceptions is reached in December), and is due, in the opinion of
+Wappäus, solely to social causes. Villermé reached somewhat similar
+results. Founding his study on 17,000,000 births, he showed that in France
+it was in April, May, and June, or from the spring equinox to the summer
+solstice, and nearer to the solstice than the equinox, that the maximum of
+fecundations takes place; while the minimum of births is normally in July,
+but is retarded by a wet and cold summer in such a manner that in August
+there are scarcely more births than in July, and, on the other hand, a
+very hot summer, accelerating the minimum of births, causes it to fall in
+June instead of in July.[152] He also showed that in Buenos Ayres, where
+the seasons are reversed, the conception-rate follows the reversed
+seasons, and is also raised by epochs of repose, of plentiful food, and of
+increased social life. Sormani studied the periodicity of conception in
+Italy, and found that the spring maximum in the southern provinces occurs
+in May, and gradually falls later as one proceeds northward, until, in the
+extreme north of the peninsula, it occurs in July. In southern Italy there
+is only one maximum and one minimum; in the north there are two. The
+minimum which follows the spring or summer maximum increases as we
+approach the south, while the minimum associated with the winter cold
+increases as we approach the north.[153] Beukemann, who studied the matter
+in various parts of Germany, found that seasonal influence was specially
+marked in the case of illegitimate births. The maximum of conceptions of
+illegitimate children takes place in the spring and summer of Europe
+generally; in Russia it takes place in the autumn and winter, when the
+harvest-working months for the population are over, and the period of
+rest, and also of minimum deathrate (September, October, and November),
+comes round. In Russia the general conception-rate has been studied by
+various investigators. Here the maximum number of conceptions is in
+winter, the minimum varying among different elements of the population.
+Looked at more closely, there are maxima of conceptions in Russia in
+January and in April. (In Russian towns, however, the maximum number of
+conceptions occurs in the autumn.) The special characteristics of the
+Russian conception-rate are held to be due to the prevalence of marriages
+in autumn and winter,[154] to the severely observed fasts of spring, and
+to the exhausting harvest-work of summer.
+
+It is instructive to compare the conception-rate of Europe with that of a
+non-European country. Such a comparison has been made by S.A. Hill for the
+Northwest Provinces of India. Here the Holi and other erotic festivals
+take place in spring; but spring is not the period when conceptions
+chiefly take place; indeed, the prevalence of erotic festivals in spring
+appears to Hill an argument in favor of those festivals having originated
+in a colder climate. The conceptions show a rise through October and
+November to a maximum in December and January, followed by a steady and
+prolonged fall to a minimum in September. This curve can be accounted for
+by climatic and economic conditions. September is near the end of the long
+and depressing hot season, when malarial influences are rapidly
+increasing to a maximum, the food-supply is nearly exhausted, and there is
+the greatest tendency to suicide. With October it forms the period of
+greatest mortality. December, on the other hand, is the month when food is
+most abundant, and it is also a very healthy month.[155]
+
+    For a summary of the chief researches into this question, see
+    Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_; also, Rosenstadt, "Zur Frage nach
+    den Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc,"
+    _Mittheilungen aus den embryologischen Institute Universität
+    Wien_, second series, fasc. 4, 1890. Rosenstadt concludes that
+    man has inherited from animal ancestors a "physiological custom"
+    which has probably been further favored by climatic and social
+    conditions. "Primitive man," he proceeds, "had inherited from his
+    ancestors the faculty of only reproducing himself at determined
+    epochs. On the arrival of this period of rut, fecundation took
+    place on a large scale, this being very easy, thanks to the
+    promiscuity in which primitive man lived. With the development of
+    civilization, men give themselves up to sexual relations all the
+    year around, but the 'physiological custom' of procreating at a
+    certain epoch has not completely disappeared; it remains as a
+    survival of the animal condition, and manifests itself in the
+    recrudescence of the number of conceptions during certain months
+    of the year." O. Rosenbach ("Bemerkungen über das Problem einer
+    Brunstzeit beim Menschen," _Archiv für Rassen und
+    Gesellschafts-Biologie_, Bd. III, Heft 5) has also argued in
+    favor of a chief sexual period in the year in man, with secondary
+    and even tertiary climaxes, in March, August, and December. He
+    finds that in some families, for several generations, birthdays
+    tend to fall in the same months, but his paper is, on the whole,
+    inconclusive.
+
+    Some years ago, Prof. J.B. Haycraft argued, on the basis of data
+    furnished by Scotland, that the conception-rate corresponds to
+    the temperature-curve (Haycraft, "Physiological Results of
+    Temperature Variation," _Transactions of the Royal Society of
+    Edinburgh_, vol. xxix, 1880). "Temperature," he concluded, "is
+    the main factor regulating the variations in the number of
+    conceptions which occur during the year. It increases their
+    number with its elevation, and this on an average of 0.5 per
+    cent, for an elevation of 1° F." Whether or not this theory may
+    fit the facts as regards Scotland, it is certainly altogether
+    untenable when we take a broader view of the phenomena.
+
+    Recently Dr. Paul Gaedeken of Copenhagen has argued in a detailed
+    statistical study ("La Réaction de l'Organisme sous l'Influence
+    Physico-Chimiques des Agents Météorologiques," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Feb., 1909) that the
+    conception-rate, as well as the periodicity of suicide and allied
+    phenomena, is due to the action of the chemical rays on the
+    unpigmented skin in early spring, this action being
+    physiologically similar to that of alcohol. He seeks thus to
+    account for the marked and early occurrence of such periodic
+    phenomena in Greenland and other northern countries where there
+    is much chemical action (owing to the clear air) in early spring,
+    but little heat. This explanation would not cover an autumnal
+    climax, the existence of which Gaedeken denies.
+
+In order to obtain a fairly typical conception-curve for Europe, and to
+allow the variations of local habit and custom to some extent to
+annihilate each other, I have summated the figures given by Mayr for about
+a quarter of a million births in Germany, France, and Italy,[156]
+obtaining a curve (Chart 2) of the conception-rate which may be said
+roughly to be that of Europe generally. If we begin at September as the
+lowest point, we find an autumn rise culminating in the lesser maximum of
+Christmas, followed by a minor depression in January and February. Then
+comes the great spring rise, culminating in May, and followed after June
+by a rapid descent to the minimum.
+
+    In Canada (see e.g., _Report of the Registrar General of the
+    Province of Ontario_ for 1904), the maximum and minimum of
+    conceptions alike fall later than in Europe; the months of
+    maximum conception are June, July, and August; of minimum
+    conception, January, February, and March. June is the favorite
+    month for marriage.
+
+    It would be of some interest to know the conception-curve for the
+    well-to-do classes, who are largely free from the industrial and
+    social influences which evidently, to a great extent, control the
+    conception-rate. It seems probable that the seasonal influence
+    would here be specially well shown. The only attempt I have made
+    in this direction is to examine a well-filled birthday-book. The
+    entries show a very high and equally maintained maximum of
+    conceptions throughout April, May and June, followed by a marked
+    minimum during the next three months, and an autumn rise very
+    strongly marked, in November. There is no December rise. As will
+    be seen, there is here a fairly exact resemblance to the yearly
+    ecbolic curve of people of the same class. The inquiry needs,
+    however, to be extended to a very much larger number of cases.
+
+    Mr. John Douglass Brown, of Philadelphia, has kindly prepared and
+    sent me, since the above was written, a series of curves showing
+    the, annual periodicity of births among the educated classes in
+    the State of Pennsylvania, using the statistics as to 4,066
+    births contained in the Biographical Catalogue of Matriculates of
+    the College of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Brown prepared
+    four curves: the first, covering the earliest period, 1757-1859;
+    the second, the period 1860-1876; the third, 1877-1893; while the
+    fourth presented the summated results for the whole period. (The
+    dates named are those of the entry to classes, and not of actual
+    occurrence of birth.) A very definite and well-marked curve is
+    shown, and the average number of births (not conceptions) per
+    day, for the whole period, is as  follows:--
+
+        Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.  May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
+        10.5 11.4  11  8.3  10.2 10.5 11.5 12.6 12.3  11.6  12  11.7
+
+    There is thus a well-marked minimum of conceptions (a depression
+    appearing here in each of the three periods, separately) about
+    the month of July. (In the second period, however, which contains
+    the smallest number of births, the minimum occurs in September.)
+    From that low minimum there is steady and unbroken rise up to the
+    chief maximum in November. (In the first period, however, the
+    maximum is delayed till January, and in the second period it is
+    somewhat diffused.) There is a tendency to a minor maximum in
+    February, specially well marked in the third and most important
+    period, and in the first period delayed until March.
+
+A very curious and perhaps not accidental coincidence might be briefly
+pointed out before we leave this part of the subject. It is found[157] by
+taking 3000 cases of children dying under one year that, among the general
+population, children born in February and September (and therefore
+conceived in May and December) appear to possess the greatest vitality,
+and those born in June, and, therefore, conceived in September, the least
+vitality.[158] As we have seen, May and December are precisely the periods
+when conceptions in Europe generally are at a maximum, and September is
+precisely the period when they are at a minimum, so that, if this
+coincidence is not accidental, the strongest children are conceived when
+there is the strongest tendency to procreate, and the feeblest children
+when that tendency is feeblest.
+
+Nelson, in his study of dreams and their relation to seasonal ecbolic
+manifestations, does not present any yearly ecbolic curve, as the two
+years and a half over which his observations extend scarcely supply a
+sufficient basis. On examining his figures, however, I find there is a
+certain amount of evidence of a yearly rhythm. There are spring and autumn
+climaxes throughout (in February and in November); there is no December
+rise. During one year there is a marked minimum from May to September,
+though it is but slightly traceable in the succeeding year. These figures
+are too uncertain to prove anything, but, as far as they go, they are in
+fair agreement with the much more extensive record, that of W.K. (_ante_
+p. 113), which I have already made use of in discussing the question of a
+monthly rhythm. This record, covering nearly twelve years, shows a general
+tendency, when the year is divided into four periods (November-January,
+February-April, May-July, August-October) and the results summated, to
+rise steadily throughout, from the minimum in the winter period to the
+maximum in the autumn period. This steady upward progress is not seen in
+each year taken separately. In three years there is a fall in passing from
+the November-January to the February-April quarter (always followed by a
+rise in the subsequent quarter); in three cases there is a fall in passing
+from the second to the third quarter (again always followed by a rise in
+the following quarter), and in two successive years there is a fall in
+passing from the third to the fourth quarter. If, however, beginning at
+the second year, we summate the results for each year with those for all
+previous years, a steady rise from season to season is seen throughout. If
+we analyze the data according to the months of the year, still more
+precise and interesting results (as shown in the curve, Chart 3) are
+obtained; two maximum points are seen, one in spring (March), one in
+autumn (October, or, rather, August-October), and each of these maximum
+points is followed by; a steep and sudden descent to the minimum points in
+April and in December. If we compare this result with Perry-Coste's also
+extending over a long series of years, we find a marked similarity. In
+both alike there are spring and autumn maxima, in both the autumn maximum
+is the highest, and in both also there is an intervening fall. In both
+cases, again, the maxima are followed by steep descents, but while in both
+the spring maximum occurs in March, in Perry-Coste's case the second
+maximum, though of precisely similar shape, occurs earlier, in
+June-September instead of August-October. In Perry-Coste's case, also,
+there is an apparently abnormal tendency, only shown in the more recent
+years of the record, to an additional maximum in January. The records
+certainly show far more points of agreement than of discrepancy, and by
+their harmony, as well with each other as with themselves, when the years
+are taken separately, certainly go far to prove that there is a very
+marked annual rhythm in the phenomena of seminal emissions during sleep,
+or, as Nelson has termed it, the ecbolic curve. We see, also, that the
+great yearly organic climax of sexual effervescence corresponds with the
+period following harvest, which, throughout the primitive world, has been
+a season of sexual erethism and orgy; though those customs have died out
+of our waking lives, they are still imprinted on our nervous texture, and
+become manifest during sleep.
+
+    The fresh records that have reached me since the first edition of
+    this book was published show well-marked annual curves, though
+    each curve always has some slight personal peculiarities of its
+    own. The most interesting and significant is that of E.M. (see
+    _ante_ p. 116), covering four years. It is indicated by the
+    following monthly frequencies, summated for the four  years:--
+
+        Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
+         16   13   14   22   19  19   12   12   14    14   12   24
+
+    E.M. lives in India. April, May, and June, are hot months, but
+    not unhealthy, and during this season, moreover, he lives in the
+    hills, under favorable conditions, getting plenty of outdoor
+    exercise. July, August, and September, are nearly as hot, but
+    much damper, and more trying; during these months, E.M. is living
+    in the city, and his work is then, also, more exacting than at
+    other times, September is the worst month of all; he has a short
+    holiday at the end of it. During December, January, and February,
+    the climate is very fine, and E.M.'s work is easier. It will be
+    seen that his ecbolic curve corresponds to his circumstances and
+    environment, although until he analyzed the record he had no idea
+    that any such relationship existed. Unfavorable climatic
+    conditions and hard work, favorable conditions and lighter work,
+    happen to coincide in his life, and the former depress the
+    frequency of seminal emissions; the latter increase their
+    frequency. At the same time, the curve is not out of harmony with
+    the northern curves. There is what corresponds to a late spring
+    (April) climax, and another still higher, late autumn (December)
+    climax. A very interesting point is the general resemblance of
+    the ecbolic curves to the Indian conception-curves as set forth
+    by Hill (_ante_ p. 140). The conception-curve is at its lowest
+    point in September, and at its highest point in December-January,
+    and this ecbolic curve follows it, except that both the minimum
+    and the maximum are reached a little earlier. When compared with
+    the English annual ecbolic curves (W.K. and Perry-Coste), both
+    spring and autumn maxima fall rather later, but all agree in
+    representing the autumn rise as the chief climax.
+
+    The annual curve of A.N. (_ante_ p. 117), who lives in Indiana,
+    U.S.A., also covers four years. It presents the usual spring
+    (May-June, in this case) and autumn (September-October) climaxes.
+    The exact monthly results, summated for the four years, are given
+    below; in order to allow for the irregular lengths of the months,
+    I have reduced them to daily averages, for convenience treating
+    the four years as one  year:--
+
+    Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.
+     13     9    13    20    23   22    20    20     21    23     9    16
+    .42   .32   .42   .66   .74  .73   .64   .64    .70   .74   .30   .52
+
+    In his book on _Adolescence_, Stanley Hall refers to three
+    ecbolic records in his possession, all made by men who were
+    doctors of philosophy, and all considering themselves normal. The
+    best of these records made by "a virtuous, active and able man,"
+    covered nearly eight years. Stanley Hall thus summarizes the
+    records, which are not presented in detail: "The best of these
+    records averages about three and a half such experiences per
+    month, the most frequent being 5.14 for July, and the least
+    frequent 2.28, for September, for all the years taken together.
+    There appears also a slight rise in April, and another in
+    November, with a fall in December." The frequency varies in the
+    different individuals. There was no tendency to a monthly cycle.
+    In the best case, the minimum number for the year was
+    thirty-seven, and the maximum, fifty. Fifty-nine per cent. of all
+    were at an interval of a week or less; forty per cent. at an
+    interval of from one to four days; thirty-four per cent, at an
+    interval of from eight to seventeen days, the longest being
+    forty-two days. Poor condition, overwork, and undersleep, led to
+    infrequency. Early morning was the most common time. Normally
+    there was a sense of distinct relief, but in low conditions, or
+    with over-frequency, depression. (G.S. Hall, _Adolescence_, vol.
+    i, p. 453.) I may add that an anonymous article on "Nocturnal
+    Emissions" (_American Journal of Psychology_, Jan., 1904) is
+    evidently a fuller presentation of the first of Stanley Hall's
+    three cases. It is the history of a healthy, unmarried, chaste
+    man, who kept a record of his nocturnal emissions (and their
+    accompanying dreams) from the age of thirty to thirty-eight. In
+    what American State he lived is not mentioned. He was ignorant of
+    the existence of any previous records. The yearly average was 37
+    to 50, remaining fairly constant; the monthly average was 3.43. I
+    reproduce the total results summated for the months, separately,
+    and I have worked out the daily average for each month, for
+    convenience counting the summated eight years as one  year:--
+
+    Jan. Feb. Mar.  Apr. May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.
+     27   27   27    31   29   28    36    25    18     27    30    24
+    .87  .94  .87  1.03  .93  .93  1.16   .81   .60    .87  1.00   .77
+
+    Here, as in all the other curves we have been able to consider,
+    we may see the usual two points of climax in spring and in
+    autumn; the major climax covers April, May, June, and July, the
+    minor autumnal climax is confined to November. In the light of
+    the evidence which has thus accumulated, we may conclude that the
+    existence of an annual ecbolic curve, with its spring and autumn
+    climaxes, as described in the first edition of this book, is now
+    definitely established.
+
+If we are to believe, as these records tend to show, that the nocturnal
+and involuntary voice of the sexual impulse usually speaks at least as
+loudly in autumn as in spring, we are confronted by a certain divergence
+of the sleeping sexual impulse from the waking sexual instinct, as
+witnessed by the conception-curve, and also, it may be added, by the
+general voice of tradition, and, indeed, of individual feeling, which
+concur, on the whole, in placing the chief epoch of sexual activity in
+spring and early summer, more especially as regards women.[159] It is not
+impossible to reconcile the contradiction, assuming it to be real, but I
+will refrain here from suggesting the various explanations which arise.
+We need a broader basis of facts.
+
+There are many facts to show that early spring and, to a certain extent,
+autumn are periods of visible excitement, mainly sexual in character. We
+have already seen that among the Eskimo menstruation and sexual desire
+occur chiefly in spring, but cases are known of healthy women in temperate
+climes who only menstruate twice a year, and in such cases the menstrual
+epochs appear to be usually in spring and autumn. Such, at all events, was
+the case in a girl of 20, whose history has been recorded by Dr. Mary
+Wenck, of Philadelphia.[160] She menstruated first when 15 years old. Six
+months later the flow again appeared for the second time, and lasted three
+weeks, without cessation. Since then, for five years, she menstruated
+during March and September only, each time for three weeks, the flow being
+profuse, but not exhaustingly so, without pain or systemic disturbance.
+Examination revealed perfectly normal uterus and ovarian organs.
+Treatment, accompanied by sitz-baths during the time of month the flow
+should appear, accomplished nothing. The semi-annual flow continued and
+the girl seemed in excellent health.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that, as noted by Dr. Hamilton Wey at Elmira,
+sexual outbursts among prisoners appear to occur at about March and
+October. "Beginning with the middle of February," writes Dr. Wey in a
+private letter, "and continuing for about two months, is a season of
+ascending sexual wave; also the latter half of September and the month of
+October. We are now (March 30th) in the midst of a wave."
+
+    According to Chinese medicine, it is the spring which awakens
+    human passions. In early Greek tradition, spring and summer were
+    noted as the time of greatest wantonness. "In the season of
+    toilsome summer," says Hesiod (_Works and Days_, xi, 569-90),
+    "the goats are fattest, wine is best, women most wanton, and men
+    weakest." It was so, also, in the experience of the Romans. Pliny
+    (_Natural History_, Bk. XII, Ch. XLIII) states that when the
+    asparagus blooms and the cicada sings loudest, is the season when
+    women are most amorous, but men least inclined to pleasure.
+    Paulus Ægineta said that hysteria specially abounds during spring
+    and autumn in lascivious girls and sterile women, while more
+    recent observers have believed that hysteria is particularly
+    difficult to treat in autumn. Oribasius (_Synopsis_, lib. i, cap.
+    6) quotes from Rufus to the effect that sexual feeling is most
+    strong in spring, and least so in summer. Rabelais said that it
+    was in March that the sexual impulse is strongest, referring this
+    to the early warmth of spring, and that August is the month least
+    favorable to sexual activity (_Pantagruel_, liv. v, Ch. XXIX).
+    Nipho, in his book on love dedicated to Joan of Aragon, discussed
+    the reasons why "women are more lustful and amorous in summer,
+    and men in winter." Venette, in his _Génération de l'homme_,
+    harmonized somewhat conflicting statements with the observation
+    that spring is the season of love for both men and women; in
+    summer, women are more amorous than men; in autumn, men revive to
+    some extent, but are still oppressed by the heat, which,
+    sexually, has a less depressing effect on women. There is
+    probably a real element of truth in this view, and both extremes
+    of heat and cold may be regarded as unfavorable to masculine
+    virility. It is highly probable that the well-recognized tendency
+    of piles to become troublesome in spring and in autumn, is due to
+    increased sexual activity. Piles are favored by congestion, and
+    sexual excitement is the most powerful cause of sudden congestion
+    in the genito-anal region. Erasmus Darwin called attention to the
+    tendency of piles to recur about the equinoxes (_Zoönomia_,
+    Section XXXVI), and since his days Gant, Bonavia, and Cullimore
+    have correlated this periodicity with sexual activity.
+
+    Laycock, quoting the opinions of some earlier authorities as to
+    the prevalence of sexual feeling in spring, stated that that
+    popular opinion "appears to be founded on fact" (_Nervous
+    Diseases of Women_, p. 69). I find that many people, and perhaps
+    especially women, confirm from their own experience, the
+    statement that sexual feeling is strongest in spring and summer.
+    Wichmann states that pollutions are most common in spring (being
+    perhaps the first to make that statement), and also nymphomania.
+    (In the eighteenth century, Schurig recorded a case of extreme
+    and life-long sexual desire in a woman whose salacity was always
+    at its height towards the festival of St. John, _Gynæcologia_, p.
+    16.) A correspondent in the Argentine Republic writes to me that
+    "on big estancias, where we have a good many shepherds, nearly
+    always married, or, rather, I should say, living with some woman
+    (for our standard of morality is not very high in these parts),
+    we always look out for trouble in springtime, as it is a very
+    common thing at this season for wives to leave their husbands and
+    go and live with some other man." A corresponding tendency has
+    been noted even among children. Thus, Sanford Bell ("The Emotion
+    of Love Between the Sexes," _American Journal Psychology_, July,
+    1902) remarks: "The season of the year seems to have its effect
+    upon the intensity of the emotion of sex-love among children. One
+    teacher, from Texas, who furnished me with seventy-six cases,
+    said that he had noticed that in the matter of love children
+    seemed 'fairly to break out in the springtime.' Many of the
+    others who reported, incidentally mentioned the love affairs as
+    beginning in the spring. This also agrees with my own
+    observations."
+
+Crichton-Browne remarks that children in springtime exhibit restlessness,
+excitability, perversity, and indisposition to exertion that are not
+displayed at other times. This condition, sometimes known as "spring
+fever," has been studied in over a hundred cases, both children and
+adults, by Kline. The majority of these report a feeling of tiredness,
+languor, lassitude, sometimes restlessness, sometimes drowsiness. There is
+often a feeling of suffocation, and a longing for Nature and fresh air and
+day-dreams, while work seems distasteful and unsatisfactory. Change is
+felt to be necessary at all costs, and sometimes there is a desire to
+begin some new plan of life.[161] In both sexes there is frequently a wave
+of sexual emotion, a longing for love. Kline also found by examination of
+a very large number of cases that between the ages of four and seventeen
+it is in spring that running away from home most often occurs. He suggests
+that this whole group of phenomena may be due to the shifting of the
+metabolic processes from the ordinary grooves into reproductive channels,
+and seeks to bring it into connection with the migrations of animals for
+reproductive purposes.[162]
+
+It has long been known that the occurrence of insanity follows an annual
+curve,[163] and though our knowledge of this curve, being founded on the
+date of admissions to asylums, cannot be said to be quite precise, it
+fairly corresponds to the outbreaks of acute insanity. The curve
+presented in Chart 4 shows the admissions to the London County Council
+Lunatic Asylums during the years 1893 to 1897 inclusive; I have arranged
+it in two-month periods, to neutralize unimportant oscillations. In order
+to show that this curve is not due to local or accidental circumstances,
+we may turn to France and take a special and chronic form of mental
+disease: Garnier, in his _Folie à Paris_, presents an almost exactly
+similar curve of the admissions of cases of general paralysis to the
+Infirmerie Spéciale at Paris during the years 1886-88 (Chart 5). Both
+curves alike show a major climax in spring and a minor climax in autumn.
+
+    Crime in general in temperate climates tends to reach its maximum
+    at the beginning of the hot season, usually in June. Thus, in
+    Belgium, the minimum is in February; the maximum in June, thence
+    gradually diminishing (Lentz, _Bulletin Société Médecine Mentale
+    Belgique_, March, 1901). In France, Lacassagne has summated the
+    data extending over more than 40 years, and finds that for all
+    crimes June is the maximum month, the minimum being reached in
+    November. He also gives the figures for each class of crime
+    separately, and every crime is found to have its own yearly
+    curve. Poisonings show a chief maximum in May, with slow fall and
+    a minor climax in December; assassinations have a February and a
+    November climax. Parricides culminate in May-June, and in October
+    (Lacassagne's tables are given by Laurent, _Les Habitués des
+    Prisons de Paris_, Ch. 1).
+
+    Notwithstanding the general tendency for crime to reach its
+    maximum in the first hot month (a tendency not necessarily due to
+    the direct influence of heat), we also find, when we consider the
+    statistics of crime generally (including sexual crime), that
+    there is another tendency for minor climaxes in spring and
+    autumn. Thus, in Italy, Penta, taking the statistics of nearly
+    four thousand crimes (murder, highway robbery, and sexual
+    offences), found the maximum in the first summer months, but
+    there were also minor climaxes in spring and in August and
+    September (Penta, _Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria_, 1899). In
+    nearly all Europe (as is shown by a diagram given by Lombroso and
+    Laschi, at the end of the first volume of _Le Crime Politique_),
+    while the chief climaxes occur about July, there is, in most
+    countries, a distinct tendency to spring (usually about March)
+    and autumn (September and November) climaxes, though they rarely
+    rise as high as the July climax.
+
+    If we consider the separate periodicity of sexual offences, we
+    find that they follow the rule for crimes generally, and usually
+    show a chief maximum in early summer. Aschaffenburg finds that
+    the annual periodicity of the sexual impulse appears more
+    strongly marked the more abnormal its manifestations, which he
+    places in the following order of increasing periodicity:
+    conceptions in marriage, conceptions out of marriage, offences
+    against decency, rape, assaults on children (_Centralblatt für
+    Nervenheilkunde_, January, 1903). In France, rapes and offences
+    against modesty are most numerous in May, June, and July, as
+    Villermé, Lacassagne, and others have shown. Villermé,
+    investigating 1,000 such cases, found a gradual ascent in
+    frequency (only slightly broken in March) to a maximum in June
+    (oscillating between May and July, when the years are considered
+    separately), and then a gradual descent to a minimum in December.
+    Legludic gives, for the 159 cases he had investigated, a table
+    showing a small February-March climax, and a large June-August
+    maximum, the minimum being reached in November-January.
+    (Legludic, _Attentats aux Moeurs_, 1896, p. 16.) In Germany,
+    Aschaffenburg finds that sexual offences begin to increase in
+    March and April, reach a maximum in June or July, and fall to a
+    minimum in winter (_Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie_, 1903, Heft
+    2). In Italy, Penta shows that sexual offences reach a minor
+    climax in May (corresponding, in his experience, with the maximum
+    for crimes generally, as well as with the maximum for
+    conceptions), and a more marked climax in August-September
+    (Penta, _I Pervertimenti Sessuali_, 1893, p. 115; id. _Rivista
+    Mensile di Psichiatria_, 1899).
+
+    Corre, in his _Crime en Pays Créole_, presents charts of the
+    seasonal distribution of crime in Guadeloupe, with relation to
+    temperature, which show that while, in a mild temperature like
+    that of France and England, crime attains its maximum in the hot
+    season, it is not so in a more tropical climate; in July, when in
+    Guadeloupe the heat attains its maximum degree, crime of all
+    kinds falls suddenly to a very low minimum. Even in the United
+    States, where the summer heat is often excessive, it tends to
+    produce a diminution of crime.
+
+    Dexter, in an elaborate study of the relationship of conduct to
+    the weather, shows that in the United States assaults present the
+    maximum of frequency in April and October, with a decrease during
+    the summer and the winter. "The unusual and interesting fact
+    demonstrated here with a certainty that cannot be doubted is," he
+    concludes, "that the unseasonably hot days of spring and autumn
+    are the pugnacious ones, even though the actual heat be much less
+    than for summer. We might infer from this that conditions of
+    heat, up to a certain extent, are vitalizing, while, at the same
+    time, irritating, but above that limit, heat is so devitalizing
+    in its effects as to leave hardly energy enough to carry on a
+    fight." (E.G. Dexter, _Conduct and the Weather_, 1899, pp. 63 _et
+    seq._)
+
+    It is not impossible that the phenomena of seasonal periodicity
+    in crimes may possess a real significance in relation to sexual
+    periodicity. If, as is possible, the occurrence of spring and
+    autumn climaxes of criminal activity is due less to any special
+    exciting causes at these seasons than to the depressing
+    influences of heat and cold in summer and winter, it may appear
+    reasonable to ask whether the spring and autumn climaxes of
+    sexual activity are not really also largely due to a like
+    depressing influence of extreme temperatures at the other two
+    seasons.
+
+Not only is there periodicity in criminal conduct, but even within the
+normal range of good and bad conduct seasonal periodicity may still be
+traced. In his _Physical and Industrial Training of Criminals_, H.D. Wey
+gives charts of the conduct of seven prisoners during several years, as
+shown by the marks received. These charts show that there is a very
+decided tendency to good behavior during summer and winter, while in
+spring (February, March, and April) and in autumn (August, September and
+October) there are very marked falls to bad conduct, each individual
+tending to adhere to a conduct-curve of his own. Wey does not himself
+appear to have noticed this seasonal periodicity. Marro, however, has
+investigated this question in Turin on a large scale and reaches results
+not very dissimilar from those shown by Wey's figures in New York. He
+noted the months in which over 4,000 punishments were inflicted on
+prisoners for assaults, insults, threatening language, etc., and shows the
+annual curve in Tavola VI of his _Caratteri dei Delinquenti_. There is a
+marked and isolated climax in May; a still more sudden rise leads to the
+chief maximum of punishment in August; and from the minimum in October
+there is rapid ascent during the two following months to a climax much
+inferior to that of May.
+
+    The seasonal periodicity of bad conduct in prisons is of interest
+    as showing that we cannot account for psychic periodicity by
+    invoking exclusively social causes. This theory of psychic
+    periodicity has been seriously put forward, but has been
+    investigated and dismissed, so far as crime in Holland is
+    concerned, by J.R.B. de Roos, in the Transactions of the sixth
+    Congress of Criminal Anthropology, at Turin, in 1906 (_Archivio
+    di Psichiatria_ fasc. 3, 1906).
+
+The general statistics of suicides in Continental Europe show a very
+regular and unbroken curve, attaining a maximum in June and a minimum in
+December, the curve rising steadily through the first six months, sinking
+steadily through the last six months, but always reaching a somewhat
+greater height in May than in July.[164] Morselli shows that in various
+European countries there is always a rise in spring and in autumn (October
+or November).[165] Morselli attributes these spring and autumn rises to
+the influence of the strain of the early heat and the early cold.[166] In
+England, also, if we take a very large number of statistics, for instance,
+the figures for London during the twenty years between 1865 and 1884, as
+given by Ogle (in a paper read before the Statistical Society in 1886), we
+find that, although the general curve has the same maximum and minimum
+points, it is interrupted by a break on each side of the maximum, and
+these two breaks occur precisely at about March and October.[167] This is
+shown in the curve in Chart 6, which presents the daily average for the
+different months.
+
+The growth of children follows an annual rhythm. Wahl, the director of an
+educational establishment for homeless girls in Denmark, who investigated
+this question, found that the increase of weight for all the ages
+investigated was constantly about 33 per cent. greater in the summer
+half-year than in the winter half-year. It was noteworthy that even the
+children who had not reached school-age, and therefore could not be
+influenced by school-life, showed a similar, though slighter, difference
+in the same direction. It is, however, Malling-Hansen, the director of an
+institution for deaf-mutes in Copenhagen, who has most thoroughly
+investigated this matter over a great many years. He finds that there are
+three periods of growth throughout the year, marked off in a fairly sharp
+manner, and that during each of these periods the growth in weight and
+height shows constant characteristics. From about the end of November up
+to about the end of March is a period when growth, both in height and
+weight, proceeds at a medium rate, reaching neither a maximum nor a
+minimum; increase in weight is slight, the increase in height, although
+trifling, preponderating. After this follows a period during which the
+children show a marked increase in height, while increase in weight is
+reduced to a minimum. The children constantly lose in weight during this
+period of growth in height almost as much as they gain in the preceding
+period. This period lasts from March and April to July and August. Then
+follows the third period, which continues until November and December.
+During this period increase in height is very slight, being at its early
+minimum; increase in weight, on the other hand, at the beginning of the
+period (in September and October), is rapid and to the middle of December
+very considerable, daily increase in weight being three times as great as
+during the winter months. Thus it may be said that the spring sexual
+climax corresponds, roughly, with growth in height and arrest of growth in
+weight, while the autumn climax corresponds roughly with a period of
+growth in weight and arrest of growth in height. Malling-Hansen found that
+slight variations in the growth of the children were often dependent on
+changes in temperature, in such a way that a rise of temperature, even
+lasting for only a few days, caused an increase of growth, and a fall of
+temperature a decrease in growth. At Halle, Schmid-Monnard found that
+nearly all growth in weight took place in the second half of the year, and
+that the holidays made little difference. In America, Peckham has shown
+that increase of growth is chiefly from the 1st of May to the 1st of
+September.[168] Among young girls in St. Petersburg, Jenjko found that
+increase in weight takes place in summer. Goepel found that increase in
+height takes place mostly during the first eight months of the year,
+reaching a maximum in August, declining during the autumn and winter, in
+February being _nil_, while in March there is sometimes loss in weight
+even in healthy children.
+
+In the course of a study as to the consumption of bread in Normal schools
+during each month of the year, as illustrating the relationship between
+intellectual work and nutrition, Binet presents a number of curves which
+bring out results to which he makes no allusion, as they are outside his
+own investigation. Almost without exception, these curves show that there
+is an increase in the consumption of bread in spring and in autumn, the
+spring rise being in February, March, and April; the autumn rise in
+October or November. There are, however, certain fallacies in dealing with
+institutions like Normal schools, where the conditions are not perfectly
+regular throughout the year, owing to vacations, etc. It is, therefore,
+instructive to find that under the monotonous conditions of prison-life
+precisely the same spring and autumn rises are found. Binet takes the
+consumption of bread in the women's prison at Clermont, where some four
+hundred prisoners, chiefly between the ages of thirty and forty, are
+confined, and he presents two curves for the years 1895 and 1896. The
+curves for these two years show certain marked disagreements with each
+other, but both unite in presenting a distinct rise in April, preceded and
+followed by a fall, and both present a still more marked autumn rise, in
+one case in September and November, in the other case in October.[169]
+
+    Some years ago, Sir J. Crichton-Browne stated that a
+    manifestation of the sexual stimulus of spring is to be found in
+    the large number of novels read during the month of March
+    ("Address in Psychology" at the annual meeting of the British
+    Medical Association, Leeds, 1889; _Lancet_, August 14, 1889).
+    The statement was supported by figures furnished by lending
+    libraries, and has since been widely copied. It would certainly
+    be interesting if we could so simply show the connection between
+    love and season, by proving that when the birds began to sing
+    their notes, the young person's fancy naturally turns to brood
+    over the pictures of mating in novels. I accordingly applied to
+    Mr. Capel Shaw, Chief Librarian of the Birmingham Free Libraries
+    (specially referred to by Sir J. Crichton-Browne), who furnished
+    me with the Reports for 1896 and 1897-98 (this latter report is
+    carried on to the end of March, 1898).
+
+    The readers who use the Birmingham Free Lending Libraries are
+    about 30,000 in number; they consist very largely of young people
+    between the ages of 14 and 25; somewhat less than half are women.
+    Certainly we seem to have here a good field for the determination
+    of this question. The monthly figures for each of the ten
+    Birmingham libraries are given separately, and it is clear at a
+    glance that without exception the maximum number of readers of
+    prose-fiction at all the libraries during 1897-98 is found in the
+    month of March. (I have chiefly taken into consideration the
+    figures for 1897-98; the figures for 1896 are somewhat abnormal
+    and irregular, probably owing to a decrease in readers,
+    attributed to increased activity in trade, and partly to a
+    disturbing influence caused by the opening of a large new library
+    in the course of the year, suddenly increasing the number of
+    readers, and drafting off borrowers from some of the other
+    libraries.) Not only so, but there is a second, or autumnal
+    climax, almost equaling the spring climax, and occuring with
+    equal certainty, appearing during 1897-98 either in October or
+    November, and during 1896, constantly in October. Thus, the
+    periodicity of the rate of consumption of prose-fiction
+    corresponds with the periodicity which is found to occur in the
+    conception rate and in sexual ecbolic manifestations.
+
+    It is necessary, however, to examine somewhat more closely the
+    tables presented in these reports, and to compare the rate of the
+    consumption of novels with that of other classes of literature.
+    In the first place, if, instead of merely considering the
+    consumption of novels per month, we make allowance for the
+    varying length of the months, and consider the average _daily_
+    consumption per month, the supremacy of March at once vanishes.
+    February is really the month during which most novels were read
+    during the first quarter of 1898, except at two libraries, where
+    February and March are equal. The result is similar if we
+    ascertain the daily averages for the first quarter in 1897,
+    while, in 1896 (which, however, as I have already remarked, is a
+    rather abnormal year), the daily average for March in many of the
+    libraries falls below that for January, as well as for February.
+    Again, when we turn to the other classes of books, we find that
+    this predominance which February possesses, and to some extent
+    shares with March and January, by no means exclusively applies to
+    novels. It is not only shared by both music and poetry,--which
+    would fit in well with the assumption of a sexual _nisus_,--but
+    the department of "history, biography, voyages, and travels"
+    shares it also with considerable regularity; so, also, does that
+    of "arts, sciences, and natural history," and it is quite well
+    marked in "theology, moral philosophy, etc.," and in "juvenile
+    literature." We even have to admit that the promptings of the
+    sexual instinct bring an increased body of visitors to the
+    reference library (where there are no novels), for here, also,
+    both the spring and autumnal climaxes are quite distinct.
+    Certainly this theory carries us a little too far.
+
+    The main factor in producing this very marked annual periodicity
+    seems to me to be wholly unconnected with the sexual impulse. The
+    winter half of the year (from the beginning of October to the end
+    of March), when outdoor life has lost its attractions, and much
+    time must be spent in the house, is naturally the season for
+    reading. But during the two central months of winter, December
+    and January, the attraction of reading meets with a powerful
+    counter-attraction in the excitement produced by the approach of
+    Christmas, and the increased activity of social life which
+    accompanies and for several weeks follows Christmas. In this way
+    the other four winter months--October and November at the
+    autumnal end, and February and March at the spring end--must
+    inevitably present the two chief reading climaxes of the year;
+    and so the reports of lending libraries present us with figures
+    which show a striking, but fallacious, resemblance to the curves
+    which are probably produced by more organic causes.
+
+    I am far from wishing to deny that the impulse which draws young
+    men and women to imaginative literature is unconnected with the
+    obscure promptings of the sexual instinct. But, until the
+    disturbing influence I have just pointed out is eliminated, I see
+    no evidence here for any true seasonal periodicity. Possibly in
+    prisons--the value of which, as laboratories of experimental
+    psychology we have scarcely yet begun to realize--more reliable
+    evidence might be obtained; and those French and other prisons
+    where novels are freely allowed to the prisoners might yield
+    evidence as regards the consumption of fiction as instructive as
+    that yielded at Clermont concerning the consumption of bread.
+
+Certain diseases show a very regular annual curve. This is notably the
+case with scarlet fever. Caiger found in a London fever hospital a marked
+seasonal prevalence: there was a minor climax in May (repeated in July),
+and a great autumnal climax in October, falling to a minimum in December
+and January. This curve corresponds closely to that usually observed in
+London.[170] It is not peculiar to London, or to urban districts, for in
+rural districts we find nearly the same spring minor maximum and major
+autumnal maximum. In Russia it is precisely the same. Many other epidemic
+diseases show very similar curves.
+
+An annual curve may be found in the expulsive force of the bladder as
+measured by the distance to which the urinary stream can be projected.
+This curve, as ascertained for one case, is interesting on account of the
+close relationship between sexual and vesical activity. After a minimum
+point in autumn there is a rise through the early part of the year to a
+height maintained through spring and summer, and reaching its maximum in
+August.[171] This may be said to correspond with the general tendency
+found in some cases of nocturnal seminal emissions from a winter minimum
+to an autumn maximum.
+
+There is an annual curve in voluntary muscle strength. Thus in Antwerp,
+where the scientific study of children is systematically carried out by a
+Pedological Bureau, Schuyten found that, measured by the dynamometer, both
+at the ages of 8 and 9, both boys and girls showed a gradual increase of
+strength from October to January, a fall from January to March and a rise
+to June or July. March was the weakest month, June and July the
+strongest.[172]
+
+Schuyten also found an annual curve for mental ability, as tested by power
+of attention, which for much of the year corresponded to the curve of
+muscular strength, being high during the cold winter months. Lobsien, at
+Kiel, seeking to test Schuyten's results and adopting a different method
+so as to gauge memory as well as attention, came to conclusions which
+confirmed those of Schuyten. He found a very marked increase of ability in
+December and January, with a fall in April; April and May were the
+minimum months, while July and October also stood low.[173] The inquiries
+of Schuyten and Lobsien thus seem to indicate that the voluntary aptitudes
+of muscular and mental force in children reach their maximum at a time of
+the year when most of the more or less involuntary activities we have been
+considering show a minimum of energy. If this conclusion should be
+confirmed by more extended investigations, it would scarcely be matter for
+surprise and would involve no true contradiction. It would, indeed, be
+natural to suppose that the voluntary and regulated activities of the
+nervous system should work most efficiently at those periods when they are
+least exposed to organic and emotional disturbance.
+
+So persistent a disturbing element in spring and autumn suggests that some
+physiological conditions underlie it, and that there is a real metabolic
+disturbance at these times of the year. So few continuous observations
+have yet been made on the metabolic processes of the body that it is not
+easy to verify such a surmise with absolute precision. Edward Smith's
+investigations, so far as they go, support it, and Perry-Coste's
+long-continued observations of pulse-frequency seem to show with fair
+regularity a maximum in early spring and another maximum in late
+autumn.[174] I may also note that Haig, who has devoted many years of
+observations to the phenomena of uric-acid excretion, finds that uric acid
+tends to be highest in the spring months, (March, April, May) and lowest
+at the first onset of cold in October.[175]
+
+Thus, while the sexual climaxes of spring and autumn are rooted in animal
+procreative cycles which in man have found expression in primitive
+festivals--these, again, perhaps, strengthening and developing the sexual
+rhythm--they yet have a wider significance. They constitute one among many
+manifestations of spring and autumn physiological disturbance
+corresponding with fair precision to the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
+They resemble those periods of atmospheric tension, of storm and wind,
+which accompany the spring and autumn phases in the earth's rhythm, and
+they may fairly be regarded as ultimately a physiological reaction to
+those cosmic influences.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[128] F. Smith, _Veterinary Physiology_; Dalziel, _The Collie_.
+
+[129] Mondière, Art "Cambodgiens," _Dictionnaire des Sciences
+Anthropologiques_.
+
+[130] This primitive aspect of the festival is well shown by the human
+sacrifices which the ancient Mexicans offered at this time, in order to
+enable the sun to recuperate his strength. The custom survives in a
+symbolical form among the Mokis, who observe the festivals of the winter
+solstice and the vernal equinox. ("Aspects of Sun-worship among the Moki
+Indians," _Nature_, July 28, 1898.) The Walpi, a Tusayan people, hold a
+similar great sun-festival at the winter solstice, and December is with
+them a sacred month, in which there is no work and little play. This
+festival, in which there is a dance dramatizing the fructification of the
+earth and the imparting of virility to the seeds of corn, is fully
+described by J. Walter Fewkes (_American Anthropologist_, March, 1898).
+That these solemn annual dances and festivals of North America frequently
+merge into "a lecherous _saturnalia_" when "all is joy and happiness," is
+stated by H.H. Bancroft (_Native Races of Pacific States_, vol. i, p.
+352).
+
+[131] As regards the northern tribes of Central Australia, Spencer and
+Gillen state that, during the performance of certain ceremonies which
+bring together a large number of natives from different parts, the
+ordinary marital rules are more or less set aside (_Northern Tribes of
+Central Australia_, p. 136). Just in the same way, among the Siberian
+Yakuts, according to Sieroshevski, during weddings and at the great
+festivals of the year, the usual oversight of maidens is largely removed.
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, Jan.-June, 1901, p. 96.)
+
+[132] R.E. Guise, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1899, pp.
+214-216.
+
+[133] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 196 et seq. W. Crooke (_Journal
+of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 243, 1899) also refers to the annual
+harvest-tree dance and _saturnalia_, and its association with the seasonal
+period for marriage. We find a similar phenomenon in the Malay Peninsula:
+"In former days, at harvest-time, the Jakuns kept an annual festival, at
+which, the entire settlement having been called together, fermented
+liquor, brewed from jungle fruits, was drunk; and to the accompaniments of
+strains of their rude and incondite music, both sexes, crowning themselves
+with fragrant leaves and flowers, indulged in bouts of singing and
+dancing, which grew gradually wilder throughout the night, and terminated
+in a strange kind of sexual orgie." (W.W. Skeat, "The Wild Tribes of the
+Malay Peninsula," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1902, p.
+133.)
+
+[134] Fielding Hall, _The Soul of a People_, 1898, Chapter XIII.
+
+[135] See e.g., L. Dyer, _Studies of the Gods in Greece_, 1891, pp. 86-89,
+375, etc.
+
+[136] For a popular account of the Feast of Fools, see Loliée, "La Fête
+des Fous," _Revue des Revues_, May 15, 1898; also, J.G. Bourke,
+_Scatologic Rites of all Nations_, pp. 11-23.
+
+[137] J. Grimm (_Teutonic Mythology_, p. 615) points out that the
+observance of the spring or Easter bonfires marks off the Saxon from the
+Franconian peoples. The Easter bonfires are held in Lower Saxony,
+Westphalia, Lower Hesse, Geldern, Holland, Friesland, Jutland, and
+Zealand. The Midsummer bonfires are held on the Rhine, in Franconia,
+Thuringia, Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and Silesia. Schwartz (_Zeitschrift
+für Ethnologie_, 1896, p. 151) shows that at Lauterberg, in the Harz
+Mountains, the line of demarcation between these two primitive districts
+may still be clearly traced.
+
+[138] _Wald und Feldkulte_, 1875, vol. i, pp. 422 et seq. He also mentions
+(p. 458) that St. Valentine's Day (14th of February),--or Ember Day, or
+the last day of February,--when the pairing of birds was supposed to take
+place, was associated, especially in England, with love-making and the
+choice of a mate. In Lorraine, it may be added, on the 1st of May, the
+young girls chose young men as their valentines, a custom known by this
+name to Rabelais.
+
+[139] Rochholz, _Drei gaugöttinnen_, p, 37.
+
+[140] Mannhardt, ibid., pp. 466 et seq. Also J.G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_,
+vol ii, Chapter IV. For further facts and references, see K. Pearson (_The
+Chances of Death_, 1897, vol, ii, "Woman as Witch," "Kindred
+Group-marriage," and Appendix on "The '_Mailehn_' and '_Kiltgang_,'") who
+incidentally brings together some of the evidence concerning primitive
+sex-festivals in Europe. Also, E. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, 1896, pp.
+38-40; and for some modern survivals, see Deniker, _Races of Man_, 1900,
+Chapter III. On a lofty tumulus near the megalithic remains at Carnac, in
+Brittany, the custom still prevails of lighting a large bonfire at the
+time of the summer solstice; it is called Tan Heol, or Tan St. Jean. In
+Ireland, the bonfires also take place on St. John's Eve, and a
+correspondent, who has often witnessed them in County Waterford, writes
+that "women, with garments raised, jump through these fires, and conduct
+which, on ordinary occasions would be reprobated, is regarded as excusable
+and harmless." Outside Europe, the Berbers of Morocco still maintain this
+midsummer festival, and in the Rif they light bonfires; here the fires
+seem to be now regarded as mainly purificatory, but they are associated
+with eating ceremonies which are still regarded as multiplicative.
+(Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-Lore_, March, 1905.)
+
+[141] Mannhardt (op. cit., p. 469) quotes a description of an Ehstonian
+festival in the Island of Moon, when the girls dance in a circle round the
+fire, and one of them,--to the envy of the rest, and the pride of her own
+family,--is chosen by the young men, borne away so violently that her
+clothes are often torn, and thrown down by a youth, who places one leg
+over her body in a kind of symbolical coitus, and lies quietly by her side
+till morning. The spring festivals of the young people of Ukrainia, in
+which, also, there is singing, dancing, and sleeping together, are
+described in "Folk-Lore de l'Ukrainie." Kryptadia, vol. v, pp. 2-6, and
+vol. viii, pp. 303 et seq.
+
+[142] M. Kowalewsky, "Marriage Among the Early Slavs," _Folk-Lore_,
+December, 1890.
+
+[143] A. Tille, however (_Yule and Christmas_, 1899), while admitting that
+the general Aryan division of the year was dual, follows Tacitus in
+asserting that the Germanic division of the year (like the Egyptian) was
+tripartite: winter, spring, and summer.
+
+[144] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_ (English translation by Stallybrass),
+pp. 612-630, 779, 788.
+
+[145] Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, 1897, p. 98.
+
+[146] See, e.g., the chapter on ritual in Gérard-Varet's interesting book,
+_L'Ignorance et l'Irreflexion_, 1899, for a popular account of this and
+allied primitive conceptions.
+
+[147] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, especially pp. 485, 571; regarding
+the priestesses, Jastrow remarks: "Among many nations, the mysterious
+aspects of woman's fertility lead to rites that, by a perversion of their
+original import, appear to be obscene. The prostitutes were priestesses
+attached to the Ishtar cult, and who took part in ceremonies intended to
+symbolize fertility." Whether there is any significance in the fact that
+the first two months of the Babylonian year (roughly corresponding to our
+March and April), when we should expect births to be at a maximum, were
+dedicated to Ea and Bel, who, according to varying legends, were the
+creators of man, and that New Year's Day was the festival of Bau, regarded
+as the mother of mankind, I cannot say, but the suggestion may be put
+forward.
+
+[148] _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 421.
+
+[149] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, p. 1465. In England, the November,
+bonfires have become merged into the Guy Fawkes celebrations. In the East,
+the great primitive autumn festivals seem to have fallen somewhat earlier.
+In Babylonia, the seventh month (roughly corresponding to September) was
+specially sacred, though nothing is known of its festivals, and this also
+was the sacred festival month of the Hebrews, and originally of the Arabs.
+In Europe, among the southern Slavs, the Reigen, or Kolo--wild dances by
+girls, adorned with flowers, and with skirts girt high, followed by sexual
+intercourse--take place in autumn, during the nights following harvest
+time.
+
+[150] A. Tille, _Yule and Christmas_, p. 21, etc.
+
+[151] Long before Wargentin, however, Rabelais had shown some interest in
+this question, and had found that there were most christenings in October
+and November, this showing, he pointed out, that the early warmth of
+spring influenced the number of conceptions (_Pantagruel_, liv. v, Ch.
+XXIX). The spring maximum of conceptions is not now so early in France.
+
+[152] Villermé, "De la Distribution par mois des conceptions," _Annales
+d'Hygiène Publique_, tome v, 1831, pp. 55-155.
+
+[153] Sormani, _Giornale di Medicina Militare_, 1870.
+
+[154] Throughout Europe, it may be said, marriages tend to take place
+either in spring or autumn (Oettinger _Moralstatistik_, p. 181, gives
+details). That is to say, that there is a tendency for marriages to take
+place at the season of the great public festivals, during which sexual
+intercourse was prevalent in more primitive times.
+
+[155] Hill, _Nature_, July 12, 1888.
+
+[156] G. Mayr, _Die Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben_, 1877, p. 240.
+
+[157] Edward Smith (_Health and Disease_), who attributes this to the
+lessened vitality of offspring at that season. Beukemann also states that
+children born in September have most vitality.
+
+[158] Westermarck has even suggested that the December maximum of
+conceptions may be due to better chance of survival for September
+offspring (_Human Marriage_, Chapter II). It may be noted that though the
+maximum of conceptions is in May, relatively the smallest proportion of
+boys is conceived at that time. (Rauber, _Der Ueberschuss an
+Knabengeburten_, p. 39.)
+
+[159] Krieger found that the great majority of German women investigated
+by him menstruated for the first time in September, October, or November.
+In America, Bowditch states that the first menstruation of country girls
+more often occurs in spring than at any other season.
+
+[160] _Women's Medical Journal_, 1894.
+
+[161] It is, perhaps, worth while noting that the wisdom of the mediæval
+Church found an outlet for this "spring fever" in pilgrimages to remote
+shrines. As Chaucer wrote, in the _Canterbury Tales_:--
+
+    "Whané that Aprille with his showers sote
+    The droughts of March hath piercèd to the root,
+    Thaen longen folk to gon on pilgrimages,
+    And palmers for to seeken strangé stronds."
+
+[162] L.W. Kline, "The Migratory Impulse," _American Journal of
+Psychology_, 1898, vol. x, especially pp. 21-24.
+
+[163] Mania comes to a crisis in spring, said the old physician, Aretæus
+(Bk. 1, Ch. V).
+
+[164] This is, at all events, the case in France, Prussia, and Italy. See,
+for instance, Durkheim's discussion of the cosmic factors of suicide, _Le
+Suicide_, 1897, Chapter III. In Spain, as Bernaldo de Quirós shows
+(_Criminologia_, p. 69), there is a slight irregular rise in December, but
+otherwise the curve is perfectly regular, with maximum in June, and
+minimum in January.
+
+[165] This holds good of a south European country, taken separately. A
+chart of the annual incidence of suicide by hanging, in Roumania,
+presented by Minovici (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, 1905, p.
+587), shows climaxes of equal height in May and September.
+
+[166] Morselli, _Suicide_, pp. 55-72.
+
+[167] Ogle himself was inclined to think that these breaks were
+accidental, being unaware of the allied phenomena with which they may be
+brought into line. It is true that (as Gaedeken objects to me) the
+autumnal break is very slight, but it is probably real when we are dealing
+with so large a mass of data.
+
+[168] _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 298. For a very full summary
+and bibliography of investigations regarding growth, see F. Burk, "Growth
+of Children in Height and Weight," _American Journal of Psychology_,
+April, 1898.
+
+[169] _L'Année Psychologique_, 1898.
+
+[170] _Lancet_, June 6, 1891. Edward Smith had pointed out many years
+earlier that scarlet fever is most fatal in periods of increasing
+vitality.
+
+[171] Havelock Ellis, "The Bladder as a Dynamometer," _American Journal of
+Dermatology_, May, 1902.
+
+[172] See, e.g., summary in _Internationales Centrablatt für
+Anthropologie_, 1902, Heft 4, p. 207.
+
+[173] Summarized in _Zeitschrift für Psychologie der Sinnesorgane_, 1903,
+p. 135.
+
+[174] Camerer found that from September to November is the period of
+greatest metabolic activity.
+
+[175] Haig, _Uric Acid_, 6th edition, 1903, p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL
+IMPULSE.
+
+
+I.
+
+Definition of Auto-erotism--Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field--The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day--Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals--Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races--The Japanese _rin-no-tama_ and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification--Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life--The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder--The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling--The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle--Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement--_Delectatio
+Morosa_--Day-dreaming--_Pollutio_--Sexual Excitement During Sleep--Erotic
+Dreams--The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis--Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women--The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical--Their Frequently Painful Character.
+
+
+By "auto-erotism" I mean the phenomena of spontaneous sexual emotion
+generated in the absence of an external stimulus proceeding, directly or
+indirectly, from another person. In a wide sense, which cannot be wholly
+ignored here, auto-erotism may be said to include those transformations of
+repressed sexual activity which are a factor of some morbid conditions as
+well as of the normal manifestation of art and poetry, and, indeed, more
+or less color the whole of life.
+
+Such a definition excludes the normal sexual excitement aroused by the
+presence of a beloved person of the opposite sex; it also excludes the
+perverted sexuality associated with an attraction to a person of the same
+sex; it further excludes the manifold forms of erotic fetichism, in which
+the normal focus of sexual attraction is displaced, and voluptuous
+emotions are only aroused by some object--hair, shoes, garments,
+etc.--which, to the ordinary lover, are of subordinate--though still,
+indeed, considerable--importance.[176] The auto-erotic field remains
+extensive; it ranges from occasional voluptuous day-dreams, in which the
+subject is entirely passive, to the perpetual unashamed efforts at sexual
+self-manipulation witnessed among the insane. It also includes, though
+chiefly as curiosities, those cases in which individuals fall in love with
+themselves. Among auto-erotic phenomena, or on the borderland, we must
+further include those religious sexual manifestations for an ideal object,
+of which we may find evidence in the lives of saints and ecstatics.[177]
+The typical form of auto-erotism is the occurrence of the sexual orgasm
+during sleep.
+
+I do not know that any apology is needful for the invention of the term
+"auto-erotism."[178] There is no existing word in current use to indicate
+the whole range of phenomena I am here concerned with. We are familiar
+with "masturbation," but that, strictly speaking, only covers a special
+and arbitrary subdivision of the field, although, it is true, the
+subdivision with which physicians and alienists have chiefly occupied
+themselves. "Self-abuse" is somewhat wider, but by no means covers the
+whole ground, while for various reasons it is an unsatisfactory term.
+"Onanism" is largely used, especially in France, and some writers even
+include all forms of homosexual connection under this name; it may be
+convenient to do so from a physiological point of view, but it is a
+confusing and antiquated mode of procedure, and from the psychological
+standpoint altogether illegitimate; "onanism" ought never to be used in
+this connection, if only on the ground that Onan's device was not
+auto-erotic, but was an early example of withdrawal before emission, or
+_coitus interruptus_.
+
+While the name that I have chosen may possibly not be the best, there
+should be no question as to the importance of grouping all these phenomena
+together. It seems to me that this field has rarely been viewed in a
+scientifically sound and morally sane light, simply because it has not
+been viewed as a whole. We have made it difficult so to view it by
+directing our attention on the special group of auto-erotic facts--that
+group included under masturbation--which was most easy to observe and
+which in an extreme form came plainly under medical observation in
+insanity and allied conditions, and we have wilfully torn this group of
+facts away from the larger group to which it naturally belongs. The
+questions which have been so widely, so diversely, and--it must
+unfortunately be added--often so mischievously discussed, concerning the
+nature and evils of masturbation are not seen in their true light and
+proportions until we realize that masturbation is but a specialized form
+of a tendency which in some form or in some degree normally affects not
+only man, but all the higher animals. From a medical point of view it is
+often convenient to regard masturbation as an isolated fact; but in order
+to understand it we must bear in mind its relationships. In this study of
+auto-erotism I shall frequently have occasion to refer to the old entity
+of "masturbation," because it has been more carefully studied than any
+other part of the auto-erotic field; but I hope it will always be borne in
+mind that the psychological significance and even the medical diagnostic
+value of masturbation cannot be appreciated unless we realize that it is
+an artificial subdivision of a great group of natural facts.
+
+The study of auto-erotism is far from being an unimportant or merely
+curious study. Yet psychologists, medical and non-medical, almost without
+exception, treat its manifestations--when they refer to them at all--in a
+dogmatic and off-hand manner which is far from scientific. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the most widely divergent opinions are
+expressed. Nor is it surprising that ignorant and chaotic notions among
+the general population should lead to results that would be ludicrous if
+they were not pathetic. To mention one instance known to me: a married
+lady who is a leader in social-purity movements and an enthusiast for
+sexual chastity, discovered, through reading some pamphlet against
+solitary vice, that she had herself been practicing masturbation for years
+without knowing it. The profound anguish and hopeless despair of this
+woman in face of what she believed to be the moral ruin of her whole life
+cannot well be described. It would be easy to give further examples,
+though scarcely a more striking one, to show the utter confusion into
+which we are thrown by leaving this matter in the hands of blind leaders
+of the blind. Moreover, the conditions of modern civilization render
+auto-erotism a matter of increasing social significance. As our
+marriage-rate declines, and as illicit sexual relationships continue to be
+openly discouraged, it is absolutely inevitable that auto-erotic phenomena
+of one kind or another, not only among women but also among men, should
+increase among us both in amount and intensity. It becomes, therefore, a
+matter of some importance, both to the moralist and the physician, to
+investigate the psychological nature of these phenomena and to decide
+precisely what their attitude should be toward them.
+
+I do not purpose to enter into a thorough discussion of all the aspects of
+auto-erotism. That would involve a very extensive study indeed. I wish to
+consider briefly certain salient points concerning auto-erotic phenomena,
+especially their prevalence, their nature, and their moral, physical, and
+other effects. I base my study partly on the facts and opinions which
+during the last thirty years have been scattered through the periodical
+and other medical literature of Europe and America, and partly on the
+experience of individuals, especially of fairly normal individuals.
+
+Among animals in isolation, and sometimes in freedom--though this can less
+often be observed--it is well known that various forms of spontaneous
+solitary sexual excitement occur. Horses when leading a lazy life may be
+observed flapping the penis until some degree of emission takes place.
+Welsh ponies, I learn from a man who has had much experience with these
+animals, habitually produce erections and emissions in their stalls; they
+do not bring their hind quarters up during this process, and they close
+their eyes, which does not take place when they have congress with mares.
+The same informant observed that bulls and goats produce emissions by
+using their forelegs as a stimulus, bringing up their hind quarters, and
+mares rub themselves against objects. I am informed by a gentleman who is
+a recognized authority on goats, that they sometimes take the penis into
+the mouth and produce actual orgasm, thus practicing auto-fellatio. As
+regards ferrets, the Rev. H. Northcote states: "I am informed by a
+gentleman who has had considerable experience of ferrets, that if the
+bitch, when in heat, cannot obtain a dog she pines and becomes ill. If a
+smooth pebble is introduced into the hutch, she will masturbate upon it,
+thus preserving her normal health for one season. But if this artificial
+substitute is given to her a second season, she will not, as formerly, be
+content with it."[179]
+
+Stags in the rutting season, when they have no partners, rub themselves
+against trees to produce ejaculation. Sheep masturbate; as also do camels,
+pressing themselves down against convenient objects; and elephants
+compress the penis between the hind legs to obtain emissions.[180]
+Blumenbach observed a bear act somewhat similarly on seeing other bears
+coupling, and hyenas, according to Ploss and Bartels, have been seen
+practicing mutual masturbation by licking each other's genitals. Mammary
+masturbation, remarks Féré, is found in certain female and even male
+animals, like the dog and the cat.[181] Apes are much given to
+masturbation, even in freedom, according to the evidence of good
+observers; for while no female apes are celibates, many of the males are
+obliged to lead a life of celibacy.[182] Male monkeys use the hand in
+masturbation, to rub and shake the penis.[183]
+
+In the human species these phenomena are by no means found in civilization
+alone. To whatever extent masturbation may have been developed by the
+conditions of European life, which carry to the utmost extreme the
+concomitant stimulation, and repression of the sexual emotions, it is far
+from being, as Mantegazza has declared it to be, one of the moral
+characteristics of Europeans.[184] It is found among the people of nearly
+every race of which we have any intimate knowledge, however natural the
+conditions under which men and women may live.[185] Thus, among the Nama
+Hottentots, among the young women at all events, Gustav Fritsch found that
+masturbation is so common that it is regarded as a custom of the country;
+no secret is made of it, and in the stories and legends of the race it is
+treated as one of the most ordinary facts of life. It is so also among the
+Basutos, and the Kaffirs are addicted to the same habit.[186] The Fuegians
+have a word for masturbation, and a special word for masturbation by
+women.[187] When the Spaniards first arrived at Vizcaya, in the
+Philippines, they found that masturbation was universal, and that it was
+customary for the women to use an artificial penis and other abnormal
+methods of sexual gratification. Among the Balinese, according to Jacobs
+(as quoted by Ploss and Bartels), masturbation is general; in the boudoir
+of many a Bali beauty, he adds, and certainly in every harem, may be found
+a wax penis to which many hours of solitude are devoted. Throughout the
+East, as Eram, speaking from a long medical experience, has declared,
+masturbation is very prevalent, especially among young girls. In Egypt,
+according to Sonnini, it is prevalent in harems. In India, a medical
+correspondent tells me, he once treated the widow of a wealthy Mohammedan,
+who informed him that she began masturbation at an early age, "just like
+all other women." The same informant tells me that on the _façade_ of a
+large temple in Orissa are bas-reliefs, representing both men and women,
+alone, masturbating, and also women masturbating men. Among the Tamils of
+Ceylon masturbation is said to be common. In Cochin China, Lorion remarks,
+it is practiced by both sexes, but especially by the married women.[188]
+Japanese women have probably carried the mechanical arts of auto-erotism
+to the highest degree of perfection. They use two hollow balls about the
+size of a pigeon's egg (sometimes one alone is used), which, as described
+by Joest, Christian, and others,[189] are made of very thin leaf of brass;
+one is empty, the other (called the little man) contains a small heavy
+metal ball, or else some quicksilver, and sometimes metal tongues which
+vibrate when set in movement; so that if the balls are held in the hand
+side by side there is a continuous movement. The empty one is first
+introduced into the vagina in contact with the uterus, then the other; the
+slightest movement of the pelvis or thighs, or even spontaneous movement
+of the organs, causes the metal ball (or the quicksilver) to roll, and the
+resulting vibration produces a prolonged voluptuous titillation, a gentle
+shock as from a weak electric inductive apparatus; the balls are called
+_rin-no-tama_, and are held in the vagina by a paper tampon. The women who
+use these balls delight to swing themselves in a hammock or rocking-chair,
+the delicate vibration of the balls slowly producing the highest degree of
+sexual excitement. Joest mentions that this apparatus, though well known
+by name to ordinary girls, is chiefly used by the more fashionable
+_geishas_, as well as by prostitutes. Its use has now spread to China,
+Annam, and India. Japanese women also, it is said, frequently use an
+artificial penis of paper or clay, called e.g.. Among the Atjeh, again,
+according to Jacobs (as quoted by Ploss), the young of both sexes
+masturbate and the elder girls use an artificial penis of wax. In China,
+also, the artificial penis--made of rosin, supple and (like the classical
+instrument described by Herondas) rose-colored--is publicly sold and
+widely used by women.[190]
+
+It may be noticed that among non-European races it is among women, and
+especially among those who are subjected to the excitement of a life
+professionally devoted to some form of pleasure, that the use of the
+artificial instruments of auto-erotism is chiefly practiced. The same is
+markedly true in Europe. The use of an artificial penis in solitary sexual
+gratification may be traced down from classic times, and doubtless
+prevailed in the very earliest human civilization, for such an instrument
+is said to be represented in old Babylonian sculptures, and it is referred
+to by Ezekiel (Ch. XVI. v. 17). The Lesbian women are said to have used
+such instruments, made of ivory or gold with silken stuffs and linen.
+Aristophanes (_Lysistrata_, v. 109) speaks of the manufacture by the
+Milesian women of a leather artificial penis, or olisbos. In the British
+Museum is a vase representing a _hetaira_ holding such instruments, which,
+as found at Pompeii, may be seen in the museum at Naples. One of the best
+of Herondas's mimes, "The Private Conversation," presents a dialogue
+between two ladies concerning a certain olisbos (or nbôn), which one of
+them vaunts as a dream of delight. Through the Middle Ages (when from time
+to time the clergy reprobated the use of such instruments[191]) they
+continued to be known, and after the fifteenth century the references to
+them became more precise. Thus Fortini, the Siennese novelist of the
+sixteenth century, refers in his _Novelle dei Novizi_ (7th Day, Novella
+XXXIX) to "the glass object filled with warm water which nuns use to calm
+the sting of the flesh and to satisfy themselves as well as they can"; he
+adds that widows and other women anxious to avoid pregnancy availed
+themselves of it. In Elizabethan England, at the same time, it appears to
+have been of similar character and Marston in his satires tells how Lucea
+prefers "a glassy instrument" to "her husband's lukewarm bed." In
+sixteenth century France, also, such instruments were sometimes made of
+glass, and Brantôme refers to the godemiche; in eighteenth century Germany
+they were called _Samthanse_, and their use, according to Heinse, as
+quoted by Dühren, was common among aristocratic women. In England by that
+time the dildo appears to have become common. Archemholtz states that
+while in Paris they are only sold secretly, in London a certain Mrs.
+Philips sold them openly on a large scale in her shop in Leicester Square.
+John Bee in 1835, stating that the name was originally dil-dol, remarks
+that their use was formerly commoner than it was in his day. In France,
+Madame Gourdan, the most notorious brothel-keeper of the eighteenth
+century, carried on a wholesale trade in _consolateurs_, as they were
+called, and "at her death numberless letters from abbesses and simple nuns
+were found among her papers, asking for a 'consolateur' to be sent."[192]
+The modern French instrument is described by Gamier as of hardened red
+rubber, exactly imitating the penis and capable of holding warm milk or
+other fluid for injection at the moment of orgasm; the compressible
+scrotum is said to have been first added in the eighteenth century.[193]
+
+In Islam the artificial penis has reached nearly as high a development as
+in Christendom. Turkish women use it and it is said to be openly sold in
+Smyrna. In the harems of Zanzibar, according to Baumann, it is of
+considerable size, carved out of ebony or ivory, and commonly bored
+through so that warm water may be injected. It is here regarded as an Arab
+invention.[194]
+
+Somewhat similar appliances may be traced in all centres of civilization.
+But throughout they appear to be frequently confined to the world of
+prostitutes and to those women who live on the fashionable or
+semi-artistic verge of that world. Ignorance and delicacy combine with a
+less versatile and perverted concentration on the sexual impulse to
+prevent any general recourse to such highly specialized methods of
+solitary gratification.
+
+On the other hand, the use, or rather abuse, of the ordinary objects and
+implements of daily life in obtaining auto-erotic gratification, among the
+ordinary population in civilized modern lands, has reached an
+extraordinary degree of extent and variety we can only feebly estimate by
+the occasional resulting mischances which come under the surgeon's hands,
+because only a certain proportion of such instruments are dangerous. Thus
+the banana seems to be widely used for masturbation by women, and appears
+to be marked out for the purpose by its size and shape[195]; it is,
+however, innocuous, and never comes under the surgeon's notice; the same
+may probably be said of the cucumbers and other vegetables more especially
+used by country and factory girls in masturbation; a lady living near
+Vichy told Pouillet that she had often heard (and had herself been able to
+verify the fact) that the young peasant women commonly used turnips,
+carrots, and beet-roots. In the eighteenth century Mirabeau, in his
+_Erotikca Biblion_ gave a list of the various objects used in convents
+(which he describes as "vast theatres" of such practices) to obtain
+solitary sexual excitement. In more recent years the following are a few
+of the objects found in the vagina or bladder whence they could only be
+removed by surgical interference[196]: Pencils, sticks of sealing-wax,
+cotton-reels, hair-pins (and in Italy very commonly the bone-pins used in
+the hair), bodkins, knitting-needles, crochet-needles, needle-cases,
+compasses, glass stoppers, candles, corks, tumblers, forks, tooth-picks,
+toothbrushes, pomade-pots (in a case recorded by Schroeder with a
+cockchafer inside, a makeshift substitute for the Japanese _rin-no-tama_),
+while in one recent English case a full-sized hen's egg was removed from
+the vagina of a middle-aged married woman. More than nine-tenths of the
+foreign bodies found in the female bladder or urethra are due to
+masturbation. The age of the individuals in whom such objects have been
+found is usually from 17 to 30, but in a few cases they have been found in
+girls below 14, infrequently in women between 40 and 50; the large
+objects, naturally, are found chiefly in the vagina, and in married
+women.[197]
+
+Hair-pins have, above all, been found in the female bladder with special
+frequency; this point is worth some consideration as an illustration of
+the enormous frequency of this form of auto-erotism. The female urethra is
+undoubtedly a normal centre of sexual feeling, as Pouillet pointed out
+many years ago; a woman medical correspondent, also, writes that in some
+women the maximum of voluptuous sensation is at the vesical sphincter or
+orifice, though not always so limited. E.H. Smith, indeed, considers that
+"the urethra is the part in which the orgasm occurs," and remarks that in
+sexual excitement mucus always flows largely from the urethra.[198] It
+should be added that when once introduced the physiological mechanism of
+the bladder apparently causes the organ to tend to "swallow" the foreign
+object. Yet for every case in which the hair-pin disappears and is lost
+in the bladder, from carelessness or the oblivion of the sexual spasm,
+there must be a vast number of cases in which the instrument is used
+without any such unfortunate result. There is thus great significance in
+the frequency with which cases of hair-pin in the bladder are strewn
+through the medical literature of all countries.
+
+In 1862, a German surgeon found the accident so common that he invented a
+special instrument for extracting hair-pins from the female bladder, as,
+indeed, Italian and French surgeons have also done. In France, Denucé, of
+Bordeaux, came to the conclusion that hair-pin in the bladder is the
+commonest result of masturbation as known to the surgeon. In England cases
+are constantly being recorded. Lawson Tait, stating that most cases of
+stone in the bladder in women are due to the introduction of a foreign
+body, very often a hair-pin, adds: "I have removed hair-pins encrusted
+with phosphates from ten different female bladders, and not one of the
+owners of these bladders would give any account of the incident."[199]
+Stokes, again, records that during four years he had four cases of
+hair-pin in the female urethra.[200] In New York one physician met with
+four cases in a short experience.[201] In Switzerland Professor Reverdin
+had a precisely similar experience.[202]
+
+There is, however, another class of material objects, widely employed for
+producing physical auto-erotism, which in the nature of things never
+reaches the surgeon. I refer to the effects that, naturally or
+unnaturally, may be produced by many of the objects and implements of
+daily life that do not normally come in direct contact with the sexual
+organs. Children sometimes, even when scarcely more than infants, produce
+sexual excitement by friction against the corner of a chair or other piece
+of furniture, and women sometimes do the same.[203] Guttceit, in Russia,
+knew women who made a large knot in their chemises to rub against, and
+mentions a woman who would sit on her naked heel and rub it against her.
+Girls in France, I am informed, are fond of riding on the
+_chevaux-de-bois_, or hobby-horses, because of the sexual excitement thus
+aroused; and that the sexual emotions play a part in the fascination
+exerted by this form of amusement everywhere is indicated by the ecstatic
+faces of its devotees.[204] At the temples in some parts of Central India,
+I am told, swings are hung up in pairs, men and women swinging in these
+until sexually excited; during the months when the men in these districts
+have to be away from home the girls put up swings to console themselves
+for the loss of their husbands.
+
+    It is interesting to observe the very wide prevalence of
+    swinging, often of a religious or magic character, and the
+    evident sexual significance underlying it, although this is not
+    always clearly brought out. Groos, discussing the frequency of
+    swinging (_Die Spiele der Menschen_, p. 114) refers, for
+    instance, to the custom of the Gilbert Islanders for a young man
+    to swing a girl from a coco palm, and then to cling on and swing
+    with her. In ancient Greece, women and grown-up girls were fond
+    of see-saws and swings. The Athenians had, indeed, a swinging
+    festival (Athenæus, Bk. XIV, Ch. X). Songs of a voluptuous
+    character, we gather from Athenæus, were sung by the women at
+    this festival. J.G. Frazer (_The Golden Bough_, vol. ii, note A,
+    "Swinging as a Magical Rite") discusses the question, and brings
+    forward instances in which men, or, especially, women swing. "The
+    notion seems to be," he states, "that the ceremony promotes
+    fertility, whether in the vegetable or in the animal kingdom;
+    though why it should be supposed to do so, I confess myself
+    unable to explain" (loc. cit., p. 450). The explanation seems,
+    however, not far to seek, in view of the facts quoted above, and
+    Frazer himself refers to the voluptuous character of the songs
+    sometimes sung.
+
+    Even apart from actual swinging of the whole body, a swinging
+    movement may suffice to arouse sexual excitement, and may,--at
+    all events, in women,--constitute an essential part of methods of
+    attaining solitary sexual gratification. Kiernan thus describes
+    the habitual auto-erotic procedure of a young American woman:
+    "The patient knelt before a chair, let her elbows drop on its
+    seat, grasping the arms with a firm grip, then commenced a
+    swinging, writhing motion, seeming to fix her pelvis, and moving
+    her trunk and limbs. The muscles were rigid, the face took on a
+    passionate expression; the features were contorted, the eyes
+    rolled, the teeth were set, and the lips compressed, while the
+    cheeks were purple. The condition bore a striking resemblance to
+    the passional stage of grand hysteria. The reveling took only a
+    moment to commence, but lasted a long time. Swaying induced a
+    pleasurable sensation, accompanied with a feeling of suction upon
+    the clitoris. Almost immediately after, a sensation of bursting,
+    caused by discharge from the vulvo-vaginal glands, occurs,
+    followed by a rapture prolonged for an indefinite time." The
+    accompanying sexual imagery is so vivid as almost to become
+    hallucinatory. (J.G. Kiernan, "Sex Transformation and Psychic
+    Impotence," _American Journal of Dermatology_, vol. ix, No. 2.)
+
+Somewhat similarly sensations of sexual character are sometimes
+experienced by boys when climbing up a pole. It is not even necessary that
+there should be direct external contact with the sexual organs, and Howe
+states that gymnastic swinging poles around which boys swing while
+supporting the whole weight on the hands, may suffice to produce sexual
+excitement.
+
+Several writers have pointed out that riding, especially in women, may
+produce sexual excitement and orgasm.[205] It is well-known, also, that
+both in men and women the vibratory motion of a railway-train frequently
+produces a certain degree of sexual excitement, especially when sitting
+forward. Such excitement may remain latent and not become specifically
+sexual.[206] I am not aware that this quality of railway traveling has
+ever been fostered as a sexual perversion, but the sewing-machine has
+attracted considerable attention on account of its influence in exciting
+auto-erotic manifestations. The early type of sewing-machine, especially,
+was of very heavy character and involved much up and down movement of the
+legs; Langdon Down pointed out many years ago that this frequently
+produced great sexual erethism which led to masturbation.[207] According
+to one French authority, it is a well-recognized fact that to work a
+sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual
+excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is
+indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds
+with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in
+large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents
+of the rooms to make the girls sit properly.[208]
+
+    "During a visit which I once paid to a manufactory of military
+    clothing," Pouillet writes, "I witnessed the following scene. In
+    the midst of the uniform sound produced by some thirty
+    sewing-machines, I suddenly heard one of the machines working
+    with much more velocity than the others. I looked at the person
+    who was working it, a brunette of 18 or 20. While she was
+    automatically occupied with the trousers she was making on the
+    machine, her face became animated, her mouth opened slightly, her
+    nostrils dilated, her feet moved the pedals with constantly
+    increasing rapidity. Soon I saw a convulsive look in her eyes,
+    her eyelids were lowered, her face turned pale and was thrown
+    backward; hands and legs stopped and became extended; a
+    suffocated cry, followed by a long sigh, was lost in the noise of
+    the workroom. The girl remained motionless a few seconds, drew
+    out her handkerchief to wipe away the pearls of sweat from her
+    forehead, and, after casting a timid and ashamed glance at her
+    companions, resumed her work. The forewoman, who acted as my
+    guide, having observed the direction of my gaze, took me up to
+    the girl, who blushed, lowered her face, and murmured some
+    incoherent words before the forewoman had opened her mouth, to
+    advise her to sit fully on the chair, and not on its edge.
+
+    "As I was leaving, I heard another machine at another part of the
+    room in accelerated movement. The forewoman smiled at me, and
+    remarked that that was so frequent that it attracted no notice.
+    It was specially observed, she told me, in the case of young
+    work-girls, apprentices, and those who sat on the edge of their
+    seats, thus much facilitating friction of the labia."
+
+In cases where the sewing-machine does not lead to direct self-excitement
+it has been held, as by Fothergill,[209] to predispose to frequency of
+involuntary sexual orgasm during sleep, from the irritation set up by the
+movement of the feet in the sitting posture during the day. The essential
+movement in working the sewing-machine is the flexion and extension of the
+ankle, but the muscles of the thighs are used to maintain the feet firmly
+on the treadle, the thighs are held together, and there is a considerable
+degree of flexion or extension of the thighs on the trunk; by a special
+adjustment of the body, and sometimes perhaps merely in the presence of
+sexual hyperæsthesia, it is thus possible to act upon the sexual organs;
+but this is by no means a necessary result of using the sewing-machine,
+and inquiry of various women, with well-developed sexual feelings, who are
+accustomed to work the treadle, has not shown the presence of any tendency
+in this direction.
+
+Sexual irritation may also be produced by the bicycle in women. Thus,
+Moll[210] remarks that he knows many married women, and some unmarried,
+who experience sexual excitement when cycling; in several cases he has
+ascertained that the excitement is carried as far as complete orgasm. This
+result cannot, however, easily happen unless the seat is too high, the
+peak in contact with the organs, and a rolling movement is adopted; in the
+absence of marked hyperæsthesia these results are only effected by a bad
+seat or an improper attitude, the body during cycling resting under proper
+conditions on the buttocks, and the work being mainly done by the muscles
+of the thighs and legs which control the ankles, flexion of the thigh on
+the pelvis being very small. Most medical authorities on cycling are of
+opinion that when cycling leads to sexual excitement the fault lies more
+with the woman than with the machine. This conclusion does not appear to
+me to be absolutely correct. I find on inquiry that with the old-fashioned
+saddle, with an elevated peak rising toward the pubes, a certain degree of
+sexual excitement, not usually producing the orgasm (but, as one lady
+expressed it, making one feel quite ready for it), is fairly common among
+women. Lydston finds that irritation of the genital organs may
+unquestionably be produced in both males and females by cycling. The
+aggravation of hæmorrhoids sometimes produced by cycling indicates also
+the tendency to local congestion. With the improved flat saddles, however,
+constructed with more definite adjustment to the anatomical formation of
+the parts, this general tendency is reduced to a negligible minimum.
+
+Reference may be made at this point to the influence of tight-lacing. This
+has been recognized by gynæcologists as a factor of sexual excitement and
+a method of masturbation.[211] Women who have never worn corsets sometimes
+find that, on first putting them on, sexual feeling is so intensified that
+it is necessary to abandon their use.[212] The reason of this (as Siebert
+points out in his _Buch für Eltern_) seems to be that the corset both
+favors pelvic congestion and at the same time exerts a pressure on the
+abdominal muscles which brings them into the state produced during coitus.
+It is doubtless for the same reason that, as some women have found, more
+distension of the bladder is possible without corsets than with them.
+
+In a further class of cases no external object whatever is used to procure
+the sexual orgasm, but the more or less voluntary pressure of the thighs
+alone is brought to bear upon the sexual regions. It is done either when
+sitting or standing, the thighs being placed together and firmly crossed,
+and the pelvis rocked so that the sexual organs are pressed against the
+inner and posterior parts of the thighs.[213] This is sometimes done by
+men, and is fairly common among women, especially, according to
+Martineau,[214] among those who sit much, such as dressmakers and
+milliners, those who use the sewing-machine, and those who ride. Vedeler
+remarks that in his experience in Scandinavia, thigh-friction is the
+commonest form of masturbation in women. The practice is widespread, and a
+medical correspondent in India tells me of a Brahmin widow who confessed
+to this form of masturbation. I am told that in London Board Schools, at
+the present time, thigh-rubbing is not infrequent among the girl scholars;
+the proportion mentioned in one school was about ten per cent, of the
+girls over eleven; the thigh-rubbing is done more or less openly and is
+interpreted by the uninitiated as due merely to a desire to relieve the
+bladder. It is found in female infants. Thus, Townsend records the case of
+an infant, 8 months old, who would cross her right thigh over the left,
+close her eyes and clench her fists; after a minute or two there would be
+complete relaxation, with sweating and redness of face; this would occur
+about once a week or oftener; the child was quite healthy, with no
+abnormal condition of the genital organs.[215] The frequency of
+thigh-friction among women as a form of masturbation is due to the fact
+that it is usually acquired innocently and it involves no indecorum. Thus
+Soutzo reports the case of a girl of 12 who at school, when having to wait
+her turn at the water-closet, for fear of wetting herself would put her
+clothes between her legs and press her thighs together, moving them
+backwards and forwards in the effort to control the bladder; she
+discovered that a pleasurable sensation was thus produced and acquired the
+habit of practicing the manoeuvre for its own sake; at the age of 17 she
+began to vary it in different ways; thus she would hang from a tree with
+her legs swinging and her chemise pressed between her thighs which she
+would rub together.[216] Thigh-friction in some of its forms is so
+comparatively decorous a form of masturbation that it may even be
+performed in public places; thus, a few years ago, while waiting for a
+train at a station on the outskirts of a provincial town, I became aware
+of the presence of a young woman, sitting alone on a seat at a little
+distance, whom I could observe unnoticed. She was leaning back with legs
+crossed, swinging the crossed foot vigorously and continuously; this
+continued without interruption for some ten minutes after I first observed
+her; then the swinging movement reached a climax; she leant still further
+back, thus bringing the sexual region still more closely in contact with
+the edge of the bench and straightened and stiffened her body and legs in
+what appeared to be a momentary spasm; there could be little doubt as to
+what had taken place. A few moments later she slowly walked from her
+solitary seat into the waiting-room and sat down among the other waiting
+passengers, quite still now and with uncrossed legs, a pale quiet young
+woman, possibly a farmer's daughter, serenely unconscious that her
+manoeuvre had been detected, and very possibly herself ignorant of its
+true nature.
+
+There are many other forms in which the impulse of auto-erotism presents
+itself. Dancing is often a powerful method of sexual excitement, not only
+among civilized but among savage peoples, and Zache describes the erotic
+dances of Swaheli women as having a masturbatory object.[217] Stimulation
+of the nates is a potent adjuvant to the production of self-excitement,
+and self-flagellation with rods, etc., is practiced by some individuals,
+especially young women.[218] Urtication is another form of this
+stimulation; Reverdin knew a young woman who obtained sexual gratification
+by flogging herself with chestnut burrs, and it is stated that in some
+parts of France (departments of the Ain and Côte d'Or) it is not uncommon
+for young girls to masturbate by rubbing the leaves of the _Linaria
+cymbalaria_ (here called "pinton" or "timbarde") on to the sexual parts,
+thus producing a burning sensation.[219] Stimulation of the mamma,
+normally an erogenous centre in women, may occasionally serve as a method
+for obtaining auto-erotic satisfaction, including the orgasm, in both
+sexes. I have been told of a case in a man, and a medical correspondent in
+India informs me that he knows a Eurasian woman, addicted to masturbation,
+who can only obtain the orgasm by rubbing the genitals with one hand while
+with the other she rubs and finally squeezes her breasts. The tactile
+stimulation even of regions of the body which are not normally erogenous
+zones in either sex may sometimes lead on to sexual excitement;
+Hirschsprung, as well as Freud, believes that this is often the case as
+regards finger-sucking and toe-sucking in infancy. Even stroking the chin,
+remarks Debreyne, may produce a pollution.[220] Taylor refers to the case
+of a young woman of 22, who was liable to attacks of choreic movements of
+the hands which would terminate in alternately pressing the middle finger
+on the tip of the nose and the tragus of the ear, when a "far-away,
+pleased expression" would appear on her face; she thus produced sexual
+excitement and satisfaction. She had no idea of wrong-doing and was
+surprised and ashamed when she realized the nature of her act.[221]
+
+Most of the foregoing examples of auto-erotism, are commonly included, by
+no means correctly, under the heading of "masturbation." There are,
+however, a vast number of people, possessing strong sexual emotions and
+living a solitary life, who experience, sometimes by instinct and
+sometimes on moral grounds, a strong repugnance for these manifestations
+of auto-erotism. As one highly intelligent lady writes: "I have sometimes
+wondered whether I could produce it (complete sexual excitement)
+mechanically, but I have a curious unreasonable repugnance to trying the
+experiment. It would materialize it too much." The same repugnance may be
+traced in the tendency to avoid, so far as possible, the use of the hands.
+It is quite common to find this instinctive unreasoning repugnance among
+women, a healthy repugnance, not founded on any moral ground. In men the
+same repugnance exists, more often combined with, or replaced by, a very
+strong moral and æsthetic objection to such practices. But the presence of
+such a repugnance, however invincible, is very far from carrying us
+outside the auto-erotic field. The production of the sexual orgasm is not
+necessarily dependent on any external contact or voluntary mechanical
+cause.
+
+As an example, though not of specifically auto-erotic manifestations, I
+may mention the case of a man of 57, a somewhat eccentric preacher, etc.,
+who writes: "My whole nature goes out so to some persons, and they thrill
+and stir me so that I have an emission while sitting by them with no
+thought of sex, only the gladness of soul found its way out thus, and a
+glow of health suffused the whole body. There was no spasmodic conclusion,
+but a pleasing gentle sensation as the few drops of semen passed." (In
+reality, no doubt, not semen, but urethral fluid.) This man's condition
+may certainly be considered somewhat morbid; he is attracted to both men
+and women, and the sexual impulse seems to be irritable and weak; but a
+similar state of things exists so often in women, no doubt due to sexual
+repression, and in individuals who are in a general state of normal and
+good health, that in these it can scarcely be called morbid. Brooding on
+sexual images, which the theologians termed _delectatio morosa_, may lead
+to spontaneous orgasm in either sex, even in perfectly normal persons.
+Hammond described as a not uncommon form of "psychic coitus," a condition
+in which the simple act of imagination alone, in the presence of the
+desired object, suffices to produce orgasm. In some public conveyance,
+theatre, or elsewhere, the man sees a desirable woman and by concentrating
+his attention on her person and imagining all the stages of intimacy he
+quickly succeeds in producing orgasm.[222] Niceforo refers to an Italian
+work-girl of 14 who could obtain ejaculation of mucus four times a day, in
+the workroom in the presence of the other girls, without touching herself
+or moving her body, by simply thinking of sexual things.[223]
+
+If the orgasm occurs spontaneously, without the aid of mental impressions,
+or any manipulations _ad hoc_, though under such conditions it ceases to
+be sinful from the theological standpoint, it certainly ceases also to be
+normal. Sérieux records the case of a somewhat neurotic woman of 50, who
+had been separated from her husband for ten years, and since lived a
+chaste life; at this age, however, she became subject to violent crises of
+sexual orgasm, which would come on without any accompaniment of voluptuous
+thoughts. MacGillicuddy records three cases of spontaneous orgasm in women
+coming under his notice.[224] Such crises are frequently found in both men
+and women, who, from moral reasons, ignorance, or on other grounds are
+restrained from attaining the complete sexual orgasm, but whose sexual
+emotions are, literally, continually dribbling from them. Schrenck-Notzing
+knows a lady who is spontaneously sexually excited on hearing music or
+seeing pictures without anything lascivious in them; she knows nothing of
+sexual relationships. Another lady is sexually excited on seeing beautiful
+and natural scenes, like the sea; sexual ideas are mixed up in her mind
+with these things, and the contemplation of a specially strong and
+sympathetic man brings the orgasm on in about a minute. Both these ladies
+"masturbate" in the streets, restaurants, railways, theatres, without
+anyone perceiving it.[225] A Brahmin woman informed a medical
+correspondent in India that she had distinct though feeble orgasm, with
+copious outflow of mucus, if she stayed long near a man whose face she
+liked, and this is not uncommon among European women. Evidently under such
+conditions there is a state of hyperæsthetic weakness. Here, however, we
+are passing the frontiers of strictly auto-erotic phenomena.
+
+    _Delectatio morosa_, as understood by the theologians, is
+    distinct from desire, and also distinct from the definite
+    intention of effecting the sexual act, although it may lead to
+    those things. It is the voluntary and complacent dallying in
+    imagination with voluptuous thoughts, when no effort is made to
+    repel them. It is, as Aquinas and others point out, constituted
+    by this act of complacent dallying, and has no reference to the
+    duration of the imaginative process. Debreyne, in his
+    _Moechialogie_ (pp. 149-163), deals fully with this question, and
+    quotes the opinions of theologians. I may add that in the early
+    Penitentials, before the elaboration of Catholic theology, the
+    voluntary emission of semen through the influence of evil
+    thoughts, was recognized as a sin, though usually only if it
+    occurred in church. In Egbert's Penitential of the eighth or
+    ninth century (cap. IX, 12), the penance assigned for this
+    offence in the case of a deacon, is 25 days; in the case of a
+    monk, 30 days; a priest, 40 days; a bishop, 50. (Haddon and
+    Stubbs, _Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents_, vol. iii, p.
+    426.)
+
+    The frequency of spontaneous orgasm in women seems to have been
+    recognized in the seventeenth century. Thus, Schurig
+    (_Syllepsilogia_, p. 4), apparently quoting Riolan, states that
+    some women are so wanton that the sight of a handsome man, or of
+    their lover, or speech with such a one, will cause them to
+    ejaculate their semen.
+
+There is, however, a closely allied, and, indeed, overlapping form of
+auto-erotism which may be considered here: I mean that associated with
+revery, or day-dreaming. Although this is a very common and important
+form of auto-erotism, besides being in a large proportion of cases the
+early stage of masturbation, it appears to have attracted little
+attention.[226] The day-dream has, indeed, been studied in its chief form,
+in the "continued story," by Mabel Learoyd, of Wellesley College. The
+continued story is an imagined narrative, more or less peculiar to the
+individual, by whom it is cherished with fondness, and regarded as an
+especially sacred mental possession, to be shared only, if at all, with
+very sympathizing friends. It is commoner among girls and young women than
+among boys and young men; among 352 persons of both sexes, 47 per cent.
+among the women and only 14 per cent. among the men, have any continued
+story. The starting-point is an incident from a book, or, more usually,
+some actual experience, which the subject develops; the subject is nearly
+always the hero or the heroine of the story. The growth of the story is
+favored by solitude, and lying in bed before going to sleep is the time
+specially sacred to its cultivation.[227] No distinct reference, perhaps
+naturally enough, is made by Miss Learoyd to the element of sexual emotion
+with which these stories are often strongly tinged, and which is
+frequently their real motive. Though by no means easy to detect, these
+elaborate and more or less erotic day-dreams are not uncommon in young
+men and especially in young women. Each individual has his own particular
+dream, which is always varying or developing, but, except in very
+imaginative persons, to no great extent. Such a day-dream is often founded
+on a basis of pleasurable personal experience, and develops on that basis.
+It may involve an element of perversity, even though that element finds no
+expression in real life. It is, of course, fostered by sexual abstinence;
+hence its frequency in young women. Most usually there is little attempt
+to realize it. It does not necessarily lead to masturbation, though it
+often causes some sexual congestion or even spontaneous sexual orgasm. The
+day-dream is a strictly private and intimate experience, not only from its
+very nature, but also because it occurs in images which the subject finds
+great difficulty in translating into language, even when willing to do so.
+In other cases it is elaborately dramatic or romantic in character, the
+hero or heroine passing through many experiences before attaining the
+erotic climax of the story. This climax tends to develop in harmony with
+the subject's growing knowledge or experience; at first, merely a kiss, it
+may develop into any refinement of voluptuous gratification. The day-dream
+may occur either in normal or abnormal persons. Rousseau, in his
+_Confessions_, describes such dreams, in his case combined with masochism
+and masturbation. A distinguished American novelist, Hamlin Garland, has
+admirably described in _Rose of Dutcher's Coolly_ the part played in the
+erotic day-dreams of a healthy normal girl at adolescence by a
+circus-rider, seen on the first visit to a circus, and becoming a majestic
+ideal to dominate the girl's thoughts for many years.[228]
+Raffalovich[229] describes the process by which in sexual inverts the
+vision of a person of the same sex, perhaps seen in the streets or the
+theatre, is evoked in solitary reveries, producing a kind of "psychic
+onanism," whether or not it leads on to physical manifestations.
+
+Although day-dreaming of this kind has at present been very little
+studied, since it loves solitude and secrecy, and has never been counted
+of sufficient interest for scientific inquisition, it is really a process
+of considerable importance, and occupies a large part of the auto-erotic
+field. It is frequently cultivated by refined and imaginative young men
+and women who lead a chaste life and would often be repelled by
+masturbation. In such persons, under such circumstances, it must be
+considered as strictly normal, the inevitable outcome of the play of the
+sexual impulse. No doubt it may often become morbid, and is never a
+healthy process when indulged in to excess, as it is liable to be by
+refined young people with artistic impulses, to whom it is in the highest
+degree seductive and insidious.[230] As we have seen, however,
+day-dreaming is far from always colored by sexual emotion; yet it is a
+significant indication of its really sexual origin that, as I have been
+informed by persons of both sexes, even in these apparently non-sexual
+cases it frequently ceases altogether on marriage.
+
+Even when we have eliminated all these forms of auto-erotic activity,
+however refined, in which the subject takes a voluntary part, we have
+still left unexplored an important portion of the auto-erotic field, a
+portion which many people are alone inclined to consider normal: sexual
+orgasm during sleep. That under conditions of sexual abstinence in healthy
+individuals there must inevitably be some auto-erotic manifestations
+during waking life, a careful study of the facts compels us to believe.
+There can be no doubt, also, that, under the same conditions, the
+occurrence of the complete orgasm during sleep with, in men, seminal
+emissions, is altogether normal. Even Zeus himself, as Pausanias has
+recorded, was liable to such accidents: a statement which, at all events,
+shows that to the Greek mind there was nothing derogatory in such an
+occurrence.[231] The Jews, however, regarded it as an impurity,[232] and
+the same idea was transmitted to the Christian church and embodied in the
+word _pollutio_, by which the phenomenon was designated in ecclesiastical
+phraseology.[233] According to Billuart and other theologians, pollution
+in sleep is not sin, unless voluntarily caused; if, however, it begins in
+sleep, and is completed in the half-waking state, with a sense of
+pleasure, it is a venial sin. But it seems allowable to permit a nocturnal
+pollution to complete itself on awaking, if it occurs without intention;
+and St. Thomas even says "_Si pollutio placeat ut naturæ exoneratio vel
+alleviatio peccatum non creditur_."
+
+    Notwithstanding the fair and logical position of the more
+    distinguished Latin theologians, there has certainly been a
+    widely prevalent belief in Catholic countries that pollution
+    during sleep is a sin. In the "Parson's Tale," Chaucer makes the
+    parson say: "Another sin appertaineth to lechery that cometh in
+    sleeping; and the sin cometh oft to them that be maidens, and eke
+    to them that be corrupt; and this sin men clepe pollution, that
+    cometh in four manners;" these four manners being (1) languishing
+    of body from rank and abundant humors, (2) infirmity, (3) surfeit
+    of meat and drink, and (4) villainous thoughts. Four hundred
+    years later, Madame Roland, in her _Mémoires Particulières_,
+    presented a vivid picture of the anguish produced in an innocent
+    girl's mind by the notion of the sinfulness of erotic dreams. She
+    menstruated first at the age of 14. "Before this," she writes, "I
+    had sometimes been awakened from the deepest sleep in a
+    surprising manner. Imagination played no part; I exercised it on
+    too many serious subjects, and my timorous conscience preserved
+    it from amusement with other subjects, so that it could not
+    represent what I would not allow it to seek to understand. But an
+    extraordinary effervescence aroused my senses in the heat of
+    repose, and, by virtue of my excellent constitution, operated by
+    itself a purification which was as strange to me as its cause.
+    The first feeling which resulted was, I know not why, a sort of
+    fear. I had observed in my _Philotée_, that we are not allowed to
+    obtain any pleasure from our bodies except in lawful marriage.
+    What I had experienced could be called a pleasure. I was then
+    guilty, and in a class of offences which caused me the most shame
+    and sorrow, since it was that which was most displeasing to the
+    Spotless Lamb. There was great agitation in my poor heart,
+    prayers and mortifications. How could I avoid it? For, indeed, I
+    had not foreseen it, but at the instant when I experienced it, I
+    had not taken the trouble to prevent it. My watchfulness became
+    extreme. I scrupulously avoided positions which I found specially
+    exposed me to the accident. My restlessness became so great that,
+    at last I was able to awake before the catastrophe. When I was
+    not in time to prevent it, I would jump out of bed, with naked
+    feet on to the polished floor, and with crossed arms pray to the
+    Saviour to preserve me from the wiles of the devil. I would then
+    impose some penance on myself, and I have carried out to the
+    letter what the prophet King probably only transmitted to us as a
+    figure of Oriental speech, mixing ashes with my bread and
+    watering it with my tears."
+
+To the early Protestant mind, as illustrated by Luther, there was
+something diseased, though not impure, in sexual excitement during sleep;
+thus, in his _Table Talk_ Luther remarks that girls who have such dreams
+should be married at once, "taking the medicine which God has given." It
+is only of comparatively recent years that medical science has obtained
+currency for the belief that this auto-erotic process is entirely normal.
+Blumenbach stated that nocturnal emissions are normal.[234] Sir James
+Paget declared that he had never known celibate men who had not such
+emissions from once or twice a week to twice every three months, both
+extremes being within the limits of good health, while Sir Lauder Brunton
+considers once a fortnight or once a month about the usual frequency, at
+these periods the emissions often following two nights in succession.
+Rohleder believes that they may normally follow for several nights in
+succession. Hammond considers that they occur about once a fortnight.[235]
+Ribbing regards ten to fourteen days as the normal interval.[236]
+Löwenfeld puts the normal frequency at about once a week;[237] this seems
+to be nearer the truth as regards most fairly healthy young men. In proof
+of this it is only necessary to refer to the exact records of healthy
+young adults summarized in the study of periodicity in the present volume.
+It occasionally happens, however, that nocturnal emissions are entirely
+absent. I am acquainted with some cases. In other fairly healthy young men
+they seldom occur except at times of intellectual activity or of anxiety
+and worry.
+
+    Lately there has been some tendency for medical opinion to revert
+    to the view of Luther, and to regard sexual excitement during
+    sleep as a somewhat unhealthy phenomenon. Moll is a distinguished
+    advocate of this view. Sexual excitement during sleep is the
+    normal result of celibacy, but it is another thing to say that it
+    is, on that account, satisfactory. We might, then, Moll remarks,
+    maintain that nocturnal incontinence of urine is satisfactory,
+    since the bladder is thus emptied. Yet, we take every precaution
+    against this by insisting that the bladder shall be emptied
+    before going to sleep. (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 552.) This
+    remark is supported by the fact, to which I find that both men
+    and women can bear witness, that sexual excitement during sleep
+    is more fatiguing than in the waking state, though this is not an
+    invariable rule, and it is sometimes found to be refreshing. In
+    a similar way, Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 55) states
+    that nocturnal emissions are no more normal than coughing or
+    vomiting.
+
+Nocturnal emissions are usually, though not invariably, accompanied by
+dreams of a voluptuous character in which the dreamer becomes conscious in
+a more or less fantastic manner of the more or less intimate presence or
+contact of a person of the opposite sex. It would seem, as a general rule,
+that the more vivid and voluptuous the dream, the greater is the physical
+excitement and the greater also the relief experienced on awakening.
+Sometimes the erotic dream occurs without any emission, and not
+infrequently the emission takes place after the dreamer has awakened.
+
+    The widest and most comprehensive investigation of erotic dreams
+    is that carried out by Gualino, in northern Italy, and based on
+    inquiries among 100 normal men--doctors, teachers, lawyers,
+    etc.--who had all had experience of the phenomenon. (L. Gualino,
+    "Il Sogno Erotico nell' Uomo Normale," _Rivista di Psicologia_,
+    Jan.-Feb., 1907.) Gualino shows that erotic dreams, with
+    emissions (whether or not seminal), began somewhat earlier than
+    the period of physical development as ascertained by Marro for
+    youths of the same part of northern Italy. Gualino found that all
+    his cases had had erotic dreams at the age of seventeen; Marro
+    found 8 per cent, of youths still sexually undeveloped at that
+    age, and while sexual development began at thirteen years, erotic
+    dreams began at twelve. Their appearance was preceded, in most
+    cases for some months, by erections. In 37 per cent, of the cases
+    there had been no actual sexual experiences (either masturbation
+    or intercourse); in 23 per cent, there had been masturbation; in
+    the rest, some form of sexual contact. The dreams are mainly
+    visual, tactual elements coming second, and the _dramatis
+    persona_ is either an unknown woman (27 per cent, cases), or only
+    known by sight (56 per cent.), and in the majority is, at all
+    events in the beginning, an ugly or fantastic figure, becoming
+    more attractive later in life, but never identical with the woman
+    loved during waking life. This, as Gualino points out, accords
+    with the general tendency for the emotions of the day to be
+    latent in sleep. Masturbation only formed the subject of the
+    dream in four cases. The emotional state in the pubertal stage,
+    apart from pleasure, was anxiety (37 per cent.), desire (17 per
+    cent.), fear (14 per cent.). In the adult stage, anxiety and fear
+    receded to 7 per cent, and 6 per cent., respectively.
+    Thirty-three of the subjects, as a result of sexual or general
+    disturbances, had had nocturnal emissions without dreams; these
+    were always found exhausting. Normally (in more than 90 per
+    cent.) erotic dreams are the most vivid of all dreams. In no case
+    was there knowledge of any monthly or other cyclic periodicity in
+    the occurrence of the manifestations. In 34 per cent, of cases,
+    they tended to occur very soon after sexual intercourse. In
+    numerous cases they were peculiarly frequent (even three in one
+    night) during courtship, when the young man was in the habit of
+    kissing and caressing his betrothed, but ceased after marriage.
+    It was not noted that position in bed or a full bladder exerted
+    any marked influence in the occurrence of erotic dreams;
+    repletion of the seminal vesicles is regarded as the main factor.
+
+    In Germany erotic dreams have been discussed by Volkelt (_Die
+    Traum-Phantasie_, 1875, pp. 78-82), and especially by Löwenfeld
+    (_Sexual-Probleme_, Oct., 1908), while in America, Stanley Hall
+    thus summarizes the general characteristics of erotic dreams in
+    men: "In by far the most cases, consciousness, even when the act
+    causes full awakening from sleep, finds only scattered images,
+    single words, gestures, and acts, many of which would perhaps
+    normally constitute no provocation. Many times the mental
+    activity seems to be remote and incidental, and the mind retains
+    in the morning nothing except, perhaps, a peculiar dress pattern,
+    the shape of a finger-nail, the back of a neck, the toss of a
+    head, the movement of a foot, or the dressing of the hair. In
+    such cases, these images stand out for a time with the
+    distinctness of a cameo, and suggest that the origin of erotic
+    fetichisms is largely to be found in sexual dreams. Very rarely
+    is there any imagery of the organs themselves, but the tendency
+    to irradiation is so strong as to re-enforce the suggestion of so
+    many other phenomena in this field, that nature designs this
+    experience to be long circuited, and that it may give a peculiar
+    ictus to almost any experience. When waking occurs just
+    afterward, it seems at least possible that there may be much
+    imagery that existed, but failed to be recalled to memory,
+    possibly because the flow of psychic impressions was over very
+    familiar fields, and this, therefore, was forgotten, while any
+    eruption into new or unwonted channels, stood out with
+    distinctness. All these psychic phenomena, although very
+    characteristic of man in his prime, are not so of the dreams of
+    dawning puberty, which are far more vivid." (G. Stanley Hall,
+    _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 455.)
+
+    I may, further, quote the experience of an anonymous
+    contributor--a healthy and chaste man between 30 and 38 years of
+    age--to the _American Journal of Psychology_ ("Nocturnal
+    Emissions," Jan., 1904): "Legs and breasts often figured
+    prominently in these dreams, the other sexual parts, however,
+    very seldom, and then they turned out to be male organs in most
+    cases. There were but two instances of copulation dreamt. Girls
+    and young women were the, usual _dramatis personæ_, and,
+    curiously enough, often the aggressors. Sometimes the face or
+    faces were well known; sometimes, only once seen; sometimes,
+    entirely unknown. The orgasm occurs at the most erotic part of
+    the dream, the physical and psychical running parallel. This most
+    erotic or suggestive part of the dream was very often quite an
+    innocent looking incident enough. As, for example: while passing
+    a strange young woman, overtaken on the street, she calls after
+    me some question. At first, I pay no heed, but when she calls
+    again, I hesitate whether to turn back and answer or
+    not--emission. Again, walking beside a young woman, she said,
+    'Shall I take your arm?' I offered it, and she took it, entwining
+    her arm around it, and raising it high--emission. I could feel
+    stronger erection as she asked the question. Sometimes, a word
+    was enough; sometimes, a gesture. Once emission took place on my
+    noticing the young woman's diminished finger-nails. Another
+    example of fetichism was my being curiously attracted in a dream
+    by the pretty embroidered figure on a little girl's dress. As an
+    illustration of the strange metamorphoses that occur in dreams, I
+    one night, in my dream (I had been observing partridges in the
+    summer) fell in love with a partridge, which changed under my
+    caresses to a beautiful girl, who yet retained an indescribable
+    wild-bird innocence, grace, and charm--a sort of Undina!"
+
+    These experiences may be regarded as fairly typical of the erotic
+    dreams of healthy and chaste young men. The bird, for instance,
+    that changes into a woman while retaining some elements of the
+    bird, has been encountered in erotic dreams by other young men.
+    It is indeed remarkable that, as De Gubernatis observes, "the
+    bird is a well-known phallic symbol," while Maeder finds
+    ("Interprétations de Quelques Rêves," _Archives de Psychologie_,
+    April, 1907) that birds have a sexual significance both in life
+    and in dreams. The appearance of male organs in the dream-woman
+    is doubtless due to the dreamer's greater familiarity with those
+    organs; but, though it occurs occasionally, it can scarcely be
+    said to be the rule in erotic dreams. Even men who have never had
+    connection with a woman, are quite commonly aware of the presence
+    of a woman's sexual organs in their erotic dreams.
+
+    Moll's comparison of nocturnal emissions of semen with nocturnal
+    incontinence of urine suggests an interesting resemblance, and at
+    the same time seeming contrast. In both cases we are concerned
+    with viscera which, when overfilled or unduly irritable,
+    spasmodically eject their contents during sleep. There is a
+    further resemblance which usually becomes clear when, as
+    occasionally happens, nocturnal incontinence of urine persists on
+    to late childhood or adolescence: both phenomena are frequently
+    accompanied by vivid dreams of appropriate character. (See e.g.
+    Ries, "Ueber Enuresis Nocturna," _Monatsschrift für
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1904; A.P. Buchan, nearly
+    a century ago, pointed out the psychic element in the
+    experiences of young persons who wetted the bed, _Venus sine
+    Concubitu_, 1816, p. 47.) Thus, in one case known to me, a child
+    of seven, who occasionally wetted the bed, usually dreamed at the
+    same time that she wanted to make water, and was out of doors,
+    running to find a suitable spot, which she at last found, and, on
+    awaking, discovered that she had wetted the bed; fifteen years
+    later she still sometimes had similar dreams, which caused her
+    much alarm until, when thoroughly awake, she realized that no
+    accident had happened; these later dreams were not the result of
+    any actual strong desire to urinate. In another case with which I
+    am acquainted, a little girl of eight, after mental excitement or
+    indigestible meals, occasionally wetted the bed, dreaming that
+    she was frightened by some one running after her, and wetted
+    herself in consequence, after the manner of the Ganymede in the
+    eagle's clutch, as depicted by Rembrandt. These two cases, it may
+    be noted, belong to two quite different types. In the first case,
+    the full bladder suggests to imagination the appropriate actions
+    for relief, and the bladder actually accepts the imaginative
+    solution offered; it is, according to Fiorani's phrase,
+    "somnambulism of the bladder." In the other case, there is no
+    such somnambulism, but a psychic and nervous disturbance, not
+    arising in the bladder at all, irradiates convulsively, and
+    whether or not the bladder is overfull, attacks a vesical nervous
+    system which is not yet sufficiently well-balanced to withstand
+    the inflow of excitement. In children of somewhat nervous
+    temperament, manifestations of this kind may occur as an
+    occasional accident, up to about the age of seven or eight; and
+    thereafter, the nervous control of the bladder having become
+    firmly established, they cease to happen, the nervous energy
+    required to affect the bladder sufficing to awake the dreamer. In
+    very rare cases, however, the phenomenon may still occasionally
+    happen, even in adolescence or later, in individuals who are
+    otherwise quite free from it. This is most apt to occur in young
+    women even in waking life. In men it is probably extremely rare.
+
+    The erotic dream seems to differ flagrantly from the vesical
+    dream, in that it occurs in adult life, and is with difficulty
+    brought under control. The contrast is, however, very
+    superficial. When we remember that sexual activity only begins
+    normally at puberty, we realize that the youth of twenty is, in
+    the matter of sexual control, scarcely much older than in the
+    matter of vesical control he was at the age of six. Moreover, if
+    we were habitually, from our earliest years, to go to bed with a
+    full bladder, as the chaste man goes to bed with unrelieved
+    sexual system, it would be fully as difficult to gain vesical
+    control during sleep as it now is to gain sexual control.
+    Ultimately, such sexual control is attained; after the age of
+    forty, it seems that erotic dreams with emission become more and
+    more rare; either the dream occurs without actual emission,
+    exactly as dreams of urination occur in adults with full bladder,
+    or else the organic stress, with or without dreams, serves to
+    awaken the sleeper before any emission has occurred. But this
+    stage is not easily or completely attained. St. Augustine, even
+    at the period when he wrote his _Confessions_, mentions, as a
+    matter of course, that sexual dreams "not merely arouse pleasure,
+    but gain the consent of the will." (X. 41.) Not infrequently
+    there is a struggle in sleep, just as the hypnotic subject may
+    resist suggestions; thus, a lady of thirty-five dreamed a sexual
+    dream, and awoke without excitement; again she fell asleep, and
+    had another dream of sexual character, but resisted the tendency
+    to excitement, and again awoke; finally, she fell asleep and had
+    a third sexual dream, which was this time accompanied by the
+    orgasm. (This has recently been described also by Näcke, who
+    terms it _pollutio interrupta, Neurologisches Centralblatt_, Oct.
+    16, 1909; the corresponding voluntary process in the waking state
+    is described by Rohleder and termed _masturbatio interrupta,
+    Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Aug., 1908.) The factors
+    involved in the acquirement of vesical and sexual control during
+    sleep are the same, but the conditions are somewhat different.
+
+    There is a very intimate connection between the vesical and the
+    sexual spheres, as I have elsewhere pointed out (see e.g. in the
+    third volume of these _Studies_, "Analysis of the Sexual
+    Impulse"). This connection is psychic as well as organic. Both in
+    men and women, a full bladder tends to develop erotic dreams.
+    (See e.g. K.A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traums_, 1861, pp. 187 et
+    seq.; Spitta also points out the connection between vesical and
+    erotic dreams, _Die Schlaf und Traumzustände_, 2d ed., 1882, pp.
+    250 et seq.) Raymond and Janet state (_Les Obscessions_, vol. ii,
+    p. 135) that nocturnal incontinence of urine, accompanied by
+    dreams of urination, may be replaced at puberty by masturbation.
+    In the reverse direction, Freud believes (_Monatsschrift für
+    Psychiatrie_, Bd. XVIII, p. 433) that masturbation plays a large
+    part in causing the bed-wetting of children who have passed the
+    age when that usually ceases, and he even finds that children are
+    themselves aware of the connection.
+
+    The diagnostic value of sexual dreams, as an indication of the
+    sexual nature of the subject when awake, has been emphasized by
+    various writers. (E.g., Moll, _Die Konträre Sexualempfindung_,
+    Ch. IX; Näcke, "Der Traum als feinstes Reagens für die Art des
+    sexuellen Empfindens," _Monatsschrift für Kriminalpsychologie_,
+    1905, p. 500.) Sexual dreams tend to reproduce, and even to
+    accentuate, those characteristics which make the strongest sexual
+    appeal to the subject when awake.
+
+    At the same time, this general statement has to be qualified,
+    more especially as regards inverted dreams. In the first place, a
+    young man, however normal, who is not familiar with the feminine
+    body when awake, is not likely to see it when asleep, even in
+    dreams of women; in the second place, the confusions and
+    combinations of dream imagery often tend to obliterate sexual
+    distinctions, however free from perversions the subjects may be.
+    Thus, a correspondent tells me of a healthy man, of very pure
+    character, totally inexperienced in sexual matters, and never
+    having seen a woman naked, who, in his sexual dreams, always sees
+    the woman with male organs, though he has never had any sexual
+    inclinations for men, and is much in love with a lady. The
+    confusions and associations of dream imagery, leading to abnormal
+    combinations, may be illustrated by a dream which once occurred
+    to me after reading Joest's account of how a young negress, whose
+    tattoo-marks he was sketching, having become bored, suddenly
+    pressed her hands to her breasts, spirting two streams of
+    lukewarm milk into his face, and ran away laughing; I dreamed of
+    a woman performing a similar action, not from her breasts,
+    however, but from a penis with which she was furnished. Again, by
+    another kind of confusion, a man dreams sexually that he is with
+    a man, although the figure of the partner revealed in the dream
+    is a woman. The following dream, in a normal man who had never
+    been, or wished to be, in the position shown by the dream, may be
+    quoted: "I dreamed that I was a big boy, and that a younger boy
+    lay close beside me, and that we (or, certainly, he) had seminal
+    emissions; I was complacently passive, and had a feeling of shame
+    when the boy was discovered. On awaking I found I had had no
+    emission, but was lying very close to my wife. The day before, I
+    had seen boys in a swimming-match." This was, it seems to me, an
+    example of dream confusion, and not an erotic inverted dream.
+    (Näcke also brings forward inverted dreams by normal persons; see
+    e.g. his "Beiträge zu den sexuellen Träumen," _Archiv für
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd. XX, 1908, p. 366.)
+
+So far as I have been able to ascertain, there seem to be, generally
+speaking, certain differences in the manifestations of auto-erotism during
+sleep in men and women which I believe to be not without psychological
+significance. In men the phenomenon is fairly simple; it usually appears
+about puberty continues at intervals of varying duration during sexual
+life provided the individual is living chastely, and is generally, though
+not always, accompanied by erotic dreams which lead up to the climax, its
+occurrence being, to some extent, influenced by a variety of
+circumstances: physical, mental, or emotional excitement, alcohol taken
+before retiring, position in bed (as lying on the back), the state of the
+bladder, sometimes the mere fact of being in a strange bed, and to some
+extent apparently by the existence of monthly and yearly rhythms. On the
+whole, it is a fairly definite and regular phenomenon which usually leaves
+little conscious trace on awaking, beyond probably some sense of fatigue
+and, occasionally, a headache. In women, however, the phenomena of
+auto-erotism during sleep seem to be much more irregular, varied, and
+diffused. So far as I have been able to make inquiries, it is the
+exception rather than the rule for girls to experience definitely erotic
+dreams about the period of puberty or adolescence.[238] Auto-erotic
+phenomena during sleep in women who have never experienced the orgasm when
+awake are usually of a very vague kind; while it is the rule in a chaste
+youth for the orgasm thus to manifest itself, it is the exception in a
+chaste girl. It is not, as a rule, until the orgasm has been definitely
+produced in the waking state--under whatever conditions it may have been
+produced--that it begins to occur during sleep, and even in a strongly
+sexual woman living a repressed life it is often comparatively
+infrequent.[239] Thus, a young medical woman who endeavors to deal
+strenuously with her physical sexual emotions writes: "I sleep soundly,
+and do not dream at all. Occasionally, but very rarely, I have had
+sensations which awakened me suddenly. They can scarcely be called dreams,
+for they are mere impulses, nothing connected or coherent, yet prompted, I
+know, by sexual feeling. This is probably an experience common to all."
+Another lady (with a restrained psycho-sexual tendency to be attracted to
+both sexes), states that her first sexual sensations with orgasm were felt
+in dreams at the age of 16, but these dreams, which she has now forgotten,
+were not agreeable and not erotic; two or three years later spontaneous
+orgasm began to occur occasionally when awake, and after this, orgasm
+took place regularly once or twice a week in sleep, but still without
+erotic dreams; she merely dreamt that the orgasm was occurring and awoke
+as it took place.
+
+It is possible that to the comparative rarity in chaste women of complete
+orgasm during sleep, we may in part attribute the violence with which
+repressed sexual emotion in women often manifests itself.[240] There is
+thus a difference here between men and women which is of some significance
+when we are considering the natural satisfaction of the sexual impulse in
+chaste women.
+
+In women, who have become accustomed to sexual intercourse, erotic dreams
+of fully developed character occur, with complete orgasm and accompanying
+relief--as may occasionally be the case in women who are not acquainted
+with actual intercourse;[241] some women, however, even when familiar with
+actual coitus, find that sexual dreams, though accompanied by emissions,
+are only the symptoms of desire and do not produce actual relief.
+
+Some interest attaches to cases in which young women, even girls at
+puberty, experience dreams of erotic character, or at all events dream
+concerning coitus or men in erection, although they profess, and almost
+certainly with truth, to be quite ignorant of sexual phenomena. Several
+such dreams of remarkable character have been communicated to me. One can
+imagine that the psychologists of some schools would see in these dreams
+the spontaneous eruption of the experiences of the race. I am inclined to
+regard them as forgotten memories, such as we know to occur sometimes in
+sleep. The child has somehow seen or heard of sexual phenomena and felt no
+interest, and the memory may subsequently be aroused in sleep, under the
+stimulation of new-born sexual sensations.
+
+    It is a curious proof of the ignorance which has prevailed in
+    recent times concerning the psychic sexual nature of women that,
+    although in earlier ages the fact that women are normally liable
+    to erotic dreams was fully recognized, in recent times it has
+    been denied, even by writers who have made a special study of the
+    sexual impulse in women. Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, 1895,
+    pp. 31, 79) appears to regard the appearances of sexual phenomena
+    during sleep, in women, as the result of masturbation. Adler, in
+    what is in many respects an extremely careful study of sexual
+    phenomena in women (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes_, 1904, p. 130), boldly states that they do not have
+    erotic dreams. In 1847, E. Guibout ("Des Pollutions Involontaires
+    chez la Femme," _Union Médicale_, p. 260) presented the case of a
+    married lady who masturbated from the age of ten, and continued
+    the practice, even after her marriage at twenty-four, and at
+    twenty-nine began to have erotic dreams with emissions every few
+    nights, and later sometimes even several times a night, though
+    they ceased to be voluptuous; he believed the case to be the
+    first ever reported of such a condition in a woman. Yet,
+    thousands of years ago, the Indian of Vedic days recognized
+    erotic dreams in women as an ordinary and normal occurrence.
+    (Löwenfeld quotes a passage to this effect from the Oupnek'hat,
+    _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 2d ed., p. 114.) Even savages
+    recognize the occurrence of erotic dreams in women as normal, for
+    the Papuans, for instance, believe that a young girl's first
+    menstruation is due to intercourse with the moon in the shape of
+    a man, the girl dreaming that a man is embracing her. (_Reports
+    Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v., p. 206.) In the
+    seventeenth century, Rolfincius, in a well-informed study (_De
+    Pollutione Nocturna_, a Jena Inaugural Dissertation, 1667),
+    concluded that women experience such manifestations, and quotes
+    Aristotle, Galen, and Fernelius, in the same sense. Sir Thomas
+    Overbury, in his _Characters_, written in the early part of the
+    same century, describing the ideal milkmaid, says that "her
+    dreams are so chaste that she dare tell them," clearly implying
+    that It was not so with most women. The notion that women are not
+    subject to erotic dreams thus appears to be of comparatively
+    recent origin.
+
+One of the most interesting and important characters by which the erotic
+dreams of women--and, indeed, their dreams generally--differ from those of
+men is in the tendency to evoke a repercussion on the waking life, a
+tendency more rarely noted in men's erotic dreams, and then only to a
+minor extent. This is very common, even in healthy and normal women, and
+is exaggerated to a high degree in neurotic subjects, by whom the dream
+may even be interpreted as a reality, and so declared on oath, a fact of
+practical importance.
+
+Hersman--having met with a case in which a school-girl with chorea, after
+having dreamed of an assault, accused the principal of a school of
+assault, securing his conviction--obtained the opinions of various
+American alienists as to the frequency with which such dreams in unstable
+mental subjects lead to delusions and criminal accusations. Dercum, H.C.
+Wood, and Rohé had not personally met with such cases; Burr believed that
+there was strong evidence "that a sexual dream may be so vivid as to make
+the subject believe she has had sexual congress"; Kiernan knew of such
+cases; C.H. Hughes, in persons with every appearance of sanity, had known
+the erotic dreams of the night to become the erotic delusions of the day,
+the patient protesting violently the truth of her story; while Hersman
+reports the case[242] of a young lady in an asylum who had nightly
+delusions that a medical officer visited her every night, and had to do
+with her, coming up the hot-air flue. I am acquainted with a similar case
+in a clever, but highly neurotic, young woman, who writes: "For years I
+have been trying to stamp out my passional nature, and was beginning to
+succeed when a strange thing happened to me last autumn. One night, as I
+lay in bed, I felt an influence so powerful that a man seemed present with
+me. I crimsoned with shame and wonder. I remember that I lay upon my back,
+and marveled when the spell had passed. The influence, I was assured, came
+from a priest whom I believed in and admired above everyone in the world.
+I had never dreamed of love in connection with him, because I always
+thought him so far above me. The influence has been upon me ever
+since--sometimes by day and nearly always by night; from it I generally go
+into a deep sleep, which lasts until morning. I am always much refreshed
+when I awake. This influence has the best effect upon my life that
+anything has ever had as regards health and mind. It is the knowledge that
+I am loved _fittingly_ that makes me so indifferent to my future. What
+worries me is that I sometimes wonder if I suffer from a nervous disorder
+merely." The subject thus seemed to regard these occurrences as
+objectively caused, but was sufficiently sane to wonder whether her
+experiences were not due to mental disorder.[243]
+
+The tendency of the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep to be manifested with
+such energy as to flow over into the waking life and influence conscious
+emotion and action, while very well marked in normal and healthy women, is
+seen to an exaggerated extent in hysterical women, in whom it has,
+therefore, chiefly been studied. Sante de Sanctis, who has investigated
+the dreams of many classes of people, remarks on the frequently sexual
+character of the dreams of hysterical women, and the repercussion of such
+dreams on the waking life of the following day; he gives a typical case of
+hysterical erotic dreaming in an uneducated servant-girl of 23, in whom
+such dreams occur usually a few days before the menstrual period; her
+dreams, especially if erotic, make an enormous impression on her; in the
+morning she is bad-tempered if they were unpleasant, while she feels
+lascivious and gives herself up to masturbation if she has had erotic
+dreams of men; she then has a feeling of pleasure throughout the day, and
+her sexual organs are bathed with moisture.[244] Pitres and Gilles de la
+Tourette, two of Charcot's most distinguished pupils, in their elaborate
+works on hysteria, both consider that dreams generally have a great
+influence on the waking life of the hysterical, and they deal with the
+special influence of erotic dreams, to which, doubtless, we must refer
+those conceptions of _incubi_ and _succubi_ which played so vast and so
+important a part in the demonology of the Middle Ages, and while not
+unknown in men were most frequent in women. Such erotic dreams--as these
+observers, confirming the experience of old writers, have found among the
+hysterical to-day--are by no means always, or even usually, of a
+pleasurable character. "It is very rare," Pitres remarks, when insisting
+on the sexual character of the hallucinations of the hysterical, "for
+these erotic hallucinations to be accompanied by agreeable voluptuous
+sensations. In most cases the illusion of sexual intercourse even provokes
+acute pain. The witches of old times nearly all affirmed that in their
+relations with the devil they suffered greatly.[245] They said that his
+organ was long and rough and pointed, with scales which lifted on
+withdrawal and tore the vagina." (It seems probable, I may remark, that
+the witches' representations, both of the devil and of sexual intercourse,
+were largely influenced by familiarity with the coupling of animals). As
+Gilles de la Tourette is careful to warn his readers, we must not too
+hastily assume, from the prevalence of nocturnal auto-erotic phenomena in
+hysterical women, that such women are necessarily sexual and libidinous in
+excess; the disorder is in them psychic, he points out, and not physical,
+and they usually receive sexual approaches with indifference and
+repugnance, because their sexual centres are anæsthetic or hyperæsthetic.
+"During the period of sexual activity they seek much more the care and
+delicate attention of men than the genital act, which they often only
+tolerate. Many households, begun under the happiest auspices--the bride
+all the more apt to believe that she loves her betrothed in virtue of her
+suggestibility, easily exalted, perhaps at the expense of the
+senses--become hells on earth. The sexual act has for the hysterical woman
+more than one disillusion; she cannot understand it; it inspires her with
+insurmountable repugnance."[246] I refer to these hysterical phenomena
+because they present to us, in an extreme form, facts which are common
+among women whom, under the artificial conditions of civilized life, we
+are compelled to regard as ordinarily healthy and normal. The frequent
+painfulness of auto-erotic phenomena is by no means an exclusively
+hysterical phenomenon, although often seen in a heightened form in
+hysterical conditions. It is probably to some extent simply the result of
+a conflict in consciousness with a merely physical impulse which is strong
+enough to assert itself in spite of the emotional and intellectual
+abhorrence of the subject. It is thus but an extreme form of the disgust
+which all sexual physical manifestations tend to inspire in a person who
+is not inclined to respond to them. Somewhat similar psychic disgust and
+physical pain are produced in the attempts to stimulate the sexual
+emotions and organs when these are exhausted by exercise. In the detailed
+history which Moll presents, of the sexual experiences of a sister in an
+American nursing guild,--a most instructive history of a woman fairly
+normal except for the results of repressed sexual emotion, and with strong
+moral tendencies,--various episodes are narrated well illustrating the way
+in which sexual excitement becomes unpleasant or even painful when it
+takes place as a physical reflex which the emotions and intellect are all
+the time struggling against.[247] It is quite probable, however, that
+there is a physiological, as well as a psychic, factor in this phenomenon,
+and Sollier, in his elaborate study of the nature and genesis of hysteria,
+by insisting on the capital importance of the disturbance of sensibility
+in hysteria, and the definite character of the phenomena produced in the
+passage between anæsthesia and normal sensation, has greatly helped to
+reveal the mechanism of this feature of auto-erotic excitement in the
+hysterical.
+
+No doubt there has been a tendency to exaggerate the unpleasant character
+of the auto-erotic phenomena of hysteria. That tendency was an inevitable
+reaction against an earlier view, according to which hysteria was little
+more than an unconscious expression of the sexual emotions and as such was
+unscientifically dismissed without any careful investigation. I agree with
+Breuer and Freud that the sexual needs of the hysterical are just as
+individual and various as those of normal women, but that they suffer from
+them more, largely through a moral struggle with their own instincts, and
+the attempt to put them into the background of consciousness.[248] In many
+hysterical and psychically abnormal women, auto-erotic phenomena, and
+sexual phenomena generally, are highly pleasurable, though such persons
+may be quite innocent of any knowledge of the erotic character of the
+experience. I have come across interesting and extreme examples of this in
+the published experiences of the women followers of the American religious
+leader, T.L. Harris, founder of the "Brotherhood of the New Life." Thus,
+in a pamphlet entitled "Internal Respiration," by Respiro, a letter is
+quoted from a lady physician, who writes: "One morning I awoke with a
+strange new feeling in the womb, which lasted for a day or two; I was so
+very happy, but the joy was in my womb, not in my heart."[249] "At last,"
+writes a lady quoted in the same pamphlet, "I fell into a slumber, lying
+on my back with arms and feet folded, a position I almost always find
+myself in when I awake, no matter in which position I may go to sleep.
+Very soon I awoke from this slumber with a most delightful sensation,
+every fibre tingling with an exquisite glow of warmth. I was lying on my
+left side (something I am never able to do), and was folded in the arms of
+my counterpart. Unless you have seen it, I cannot give you an idea of the
+beauty of his flesh, and with what joy I beheld and felt it. Think of it,
+luminous flesh; and Oh! such tints, you never could imagine without
+seeing. He folded me so closely in his arms," etc. In such cases there is
+no conflict between the physical and the psychic, and therefore the
+resulting excitement is pleasurable and not painful.
+
+At this point our study of auto-erotism brings us into the sphere of
+mysticism. Leuba, in a penetrating and suggestive essay on Christian
+mysticism, after quoting the present _Study_, refers to the famous
+passages in which St. Theresa describes how a beautiful little angel
+inserted a flame-tipped dart into her heart until it descended into her
+bowels and left her inflamed with divine love. "What physiological
+difference," he asks, "is there between this voluptuous sensation and that
+enjoyed by the disciple of the Brotherhood of New Life? St. Theresa says
+'bowels,' the woman doctor says 'womb,' that is all."[250]
+
+    The extreme form of auto-erotism is the tendency for the sexual
+    emotion to be absorbed and often entirely lost in
+    self-admiration. This Narcissus-like tendency, of which the
+    normal germ in women is symbolized by the mirror, is found in a
+    minor degree in some men, and is sometimes well marked in women,
+    usually in association with an attraction for other persons, to
+    which attraction it is, of course, normally subservient. "The
+    mirror," remarks Bloch (_Beiträge_ 1, p. 201), "plays an
+    important part in the genesis of sexual aberration.... It cannot
+    be doubted that many a boy and girl have first experienced sexual
+    excitement at the sight of their own bodies in a mirror."
+
+    Valera, the Spanish novelist, very well described this impulse in
+    his _Genio y Figura_. Rafaela, the heroine of this novel, says
+    that, after her bath: "I fall into a puerility which may be
+    innocent or vicious, I cannot decide. I only know that it is a
+    purely contemplative act, a disinterested admiration of beauty.
+    It is not coarse sensuality, but æsthetic platonism. I imitate
+    Narcissus; and I apply my lips to the cold surface of the mirror
+    and kiss my image. It is the love of beauty, the expression of
+    tenderness and affection for what God has made manifest, in an
+    ingenuous kiss imprinted on the empty and incorporeal
+    reflection." In the same spirit the real heroine of the _Tagebuch
+    einer Verlorenen_ (p. 114), at the point when she was about to
+    become a prostitute, wrote: "I am pretty. It gives me pleasure to
+    throw off my clothes, one by one, before the mirror, and to look
+    at myself, just as I am, white as snow and straight as a fir,
+    with my long, fine, hair, like a cloak of black silk. When I
+    spread abroad the black stream of it, with both hands, I am like
+    a white swan with black wings."
+
+    A typical case known to me is that of a lady of 28, brought up on
+    a farm. She is a handsome woman, of very large and fine
+    proportions, active and healthy and intelligent, with, however,
+    no marked sexual attraction to the opposite sex; at the same time
+    she is not inverted, though she would like to be a man, and has a
+    considerable degree of contempt for women. She has an intense
+    admiration for her own person, especially her limbs; she is
+    never so happy as when alone and naked in her own bedroom, and,
+    so far as possible, she cultivates nakedness. She knows by heart
+    the various measurements of her body, is proud of the fact that
+    they are strictly in accordance with the canons of proportion,
+    and she laughs proudly at the thought that her thigh is larger
+    than many a woman's waist. She is frank and assured in her
+    manners, without sexual shyness, and, while willing to receive
+    the attention and admiration of others, she makes no attempt to
+    gain it, and seems never to have experienced any emotions
+    stronger than her own pleasure in herself. I should add that I
+    have had no opportunity of detailed examination, and cannot speak
+    positively as to the absence of masturbation.
+
+    In the extreme form in which alone the name of Narcissus may
+    properly be invoked, there is comparative indifference to sexual
+    intercourse or even the admiration of the opposite sex. Such a
+    condition seems to be rare, except, perhaps, in insanity. Since I
+    called attention to this form of auto-erotism (_Alienist and
+    Neurologist_, April, 1898), several writers have discussed the
+    condition, especially Näcke, who, following out the suggestion,
+    terms the condition Narcissism. Among 1,500 insane persons, Näcke
+    has found it in four men and one woman (_Psychiatrische en
+    Neurologische Bladen_, No. 2, 1899), Dr. C.H. Hughes writes (in a
+    private letter) that he is acquainted with such cases, in which
+    men have been absorbed in admiration of their own manly forms,
+    and of their sexual organs, and women, likewise, absorbed in
+    admiration of their own mammæ and physical proportions,
+    especially of limbs. "The whole subject," he adds, "is a singular
+    phase of psychology, and it is not all morbid psychology, either.
+    It is closely allied to that æsthetic sense which admires the
+    nude in art."
+
+    Féré (_L'Instinct Sexuel_, 2d ed., p. 271) mentions a woman who
+    experienced sexual excitement in kissing her own hand. Näcke knew
+    a woman in an asylum who, during periodical fits of excitement,
+    would kiss her own arms and hands, at the same time looking like
+    a person in love. He also knew a young man with dementia præcox?
+    who would kiss his own image ("Der Kuss bei Geisteskranken,"
+    _Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie_, Bd. LXIII, p. 127).
+    Moll refers to a young homosexual lawyer, who experienced great
+    pleasure in gazing at himself in a mirror (_Konträre
+    Sexualempfindung_, 3d ed., p. 228), and mentions another inverted
+    man, an admirer of the nates of men, who, chancing to observe his
+    own nates in a mirror, when changing his shirt, was struck by
+    their beauty, and subsequently found pleasure in admiring them
+    (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, Theil I, p. 60). Krafft-Ebing knew a
+    man who masturbated before a mirror, imagining, at the same time,
+    how much better a real lover would be.
+
+    The best-observed cases of Narcissism have, however, been
+    recorded by Rohleder, who confers upon this condition the
+    ponderous name of automonosexualism, and believes that it has not
+    been previously observed (H. Rohleder, _Der Automonosexualismus_,
+    being Heft 225 of _Berliner Klinik_, March, 1907). In the two
+    cases investigated by Rohleder, both men, there was sexual
+    excitement in the contemplation of the individual's own body,
+    actually or in a mirror, with little or no sexual attraction to
+    other persons. Rohleder is inclined to regard the condition as
+    due to a congenital defect in the "sexual centre" of the brain.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[176] All the above groups of phenomena are dealt with in other volumes of
+these _Studies_: the manifestations of normal sexual excitement, in vols.
+iii, iv, and v; homosexuality, in vol. ii, and erotic fetichism, in vol.
+v.
+
+[177] See Appendix C.
+
+[178] Letamendi, of Madrid, has suggested "_auto-erastia_" to cover what
+is probably much the same field. In the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, Hufeland, in his _Makrobiotic_, invented the term "_geistige
+Onanie_," to express the filling and heating of the imagination with
+voluptuous images, without unchastity of body; and in 1844, Kaan, in his
+_Psychopathia Sexualis_, used, but did not invent, the term "_onania
+psychica_." Gustav Jaeger, in his _Entdeckung der Seele_, proposed
+"monosexual idiosyncrasy," to indicate the most animal forms of
+masturbation taking place without any correlative imaginative element, a
+condition illustrated by cases given in Moll's _Untersuchungen über die
+Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, pp. 13 et seq. Dr. Laupts (a pseudonym for the
+accomplished psychologist, Dr. Saint-Paul) uses the term _autophilie_, for
+solitary vice. (_Perversion et Perversité Sexuelles_, 1896, p. 337.) But
+all these terms only cover a portion of the field.
+
+[179] H. Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 231.
+
+[180] Rosse observed two elephants procuring erection by entwining their
+proboscides, the act being completed by one elephant opening his mouth and
+allowing the other to tickle the roof of it. (I. Rosse, _Virginia Medical
+Monthly_, October, 1892.)
+
+[181] Féré, "Perversions sexuelles chez les animaux," _Revue
+Philosophique_, May, 1897.
+
+[182] Tillier, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, 1889, p. 270.
+
+[183] Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 76. The same author mentions
+(ibid., p. 373) that parrots living in solitary confinement masturbate by
+rubbing the posterior part of the body against some object until
+ejaculation occurs. Edmund Selous ("Habits of the Peewit," _Zoölogist_,
+April, 1902) suggests that the peewit, when rolling on the ground, and
+exerting pressure on the anal region, is moved by a sexual impulse to
+satisfy desire; he adds that actual orgasm appears eventually to take
+place, a spasm of energy passing through the bird.
+
+[184] Dr. J.W. Howe (_Excessive Venery, Masturbation, and Continence_,
+London and New York, 1883, p. 62) writes of masturbation: "In savage lands
+it is of rare occurrence. Savages live in a state of Nature. No moral
+obligations exist which compel them to abstain from a natural
+gratification of their passions. There is no social law which prevents
+them from following the dictates of their lower nature. Hence, they have
+no reason for adopting onanism as an outlet for passions. The moral
+trammels of civilized society, and ignorance of physiological laws, give
+origin to the vice." Every one of these six sentences is incorrect or
+misleading. They are worth quoting as a statement of the popular view of
+savage life.
+
+[185] I can recall little evidence of its existence among the Australian
+aborigines, though there is, in the Wiradyuri language, spoken over a
+large part of New South Wales, a word (whether ancient or not, I do not
+know) meaning masturbation (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
+July-Dec., 1904, p. 303). Dr. W. Roth (_Ethnological Studies Among the
+Northwest-Central Queensland Aborigines_, p. 184), who has carefully
+studied the blacks of his district, remarks that he has no evidence as to
+the practice of either masturbation or sodomy among them. More recently
+(1906) Roth has stated that married men in North Queensland and elsewhere
+masturbate during their wives' absence. As regards the Maori of New
+Zealand, Northcote adds, there is a rare word for masturbation (as also at
+Rarotonga), but according to a distinguished Maori scholar there are no
+allusions to the practice in Maori literature, and it was probably not
+practiced in primitive times. The Maori and the Polynesians of the Cook
+Islands, Northcote remarks, consider the act unmanly, applying to it a
+phrase meaning "to make women of themselves." (Northcote, loc. cit., p.
+232.)
+
+[186] Greenlees, _Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1895. A gentleman long
+resident among the Kaffirs of South Natal, told Northcote, however, that
+he had met with no word for masturbation, and did not believe the practice
+prevailed there.
+
+[187] Hyades and Deniker, _Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn_, vol. vii, p.
+295.
+
+[188] _La Criminalité en Cochin-Chine_, 1887, p. 116; also Mondière,
+"Monographie de la Femme Annamite," _Mémoires Société d'Anthropologie_,
+tome ii, p. 465.
+
+[189] Christian, article on "Onanisme," _Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des
+Sciences Médicales_; Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_; Moraglia, "Die Onanie
+beim normalen Weibe," _Zeitschrift für Criminal-Anthropologie_, 1897;
+Dartigues, _De la Procréation Volontaire des Sexes_, p. 32. In the
+eighteenth century, the _rin-no-tama_ was known in France, sometimes as
+"pommes d'amour." Thus Bachaumont, in his Journal (under date July 31,
+1773), refers to "a very extraordinary instrument of amorous mystery,"
+brought by a traveler from India; he describes this "boule erotique" as
+the size of a pigeon's egg, covered with soft skin, and gilded. Cf. F.S.
+Krauss, _Geschlechtsleben in Brauch und Sitte der Japaner_, Leipzig, 1907.
+
+[190] It may be worth mentioning that the Salish Indians of British
+Columbia have a myth of an old woman having intercourse with young women,
+by means of a horn worn as a penis (_Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute_, July-Dec., 1904, p. 342).
+
+[191] In Burchard's Penitential (cap. 142-3), penalties are assigned to
+the woman who makes a phallus for use on herself or other women.
+(Wasserschleben, _Bussordnungen der abendländlichen Kirche_, p. 658.) The
+_penis succedaneus_, the Latin _phallus_ or _fascinum_, is in France
+called _godemiche_; in Italy, _passatempo_, and also _diletto_, whence
+_dildo_, by which it is most commonly known in England. For men, the
+corresponding _cunnus succedaneus_ is, in England, called _merkin_, which
+meant originally (as defined in old editions of Bailey's _Dictionary_)
+"counterfeit hair for women's privy parts."
+
+[192] Dühren, _Der Marquis de Sade und Seine Zeit_, 3d ed., pp. 130, 232;
+id. _Geschlechtsleben in England_, Bd. II, pp. 284 et seq.
+
+[193] Gamier, _Onanisme_, p. 378.
+
+[194] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, p. 669.
+
+[195] The mythology of Hawaii, one may note, tells of goddesses who were
+impregnated by bananas they had placed beneath their garments. B. Stern
+mentions (_Medizin in der Türkei_, Bd. II, p. 24) that the women of Turkey
+and Egypt use the banana, as well as the cucumber, etc., for masturbation.
+In a poem in the _Arabian Nights_, also ("History of the Young Nour with
+the Frank"), we read: "O bananas, of soft and smooth skins, which dilate
+the eyes of young girls ... you, alone among fruits are endowed with a
+pitying heart, O consolers of widows and divorced women." In France and
+England they are not uncommonly used for the same purpose.
+
+[196] See, e.g., Winckel, _Die Krankheiten der weiblichen Harnrohre und
+Blase_, 1885, p. 211; and "Lehrbuch der Frauenkrankheiten," 1886, p. 210;
+also, Hyrtl, _Handbuch du Topographischen Anatomie_, 7th ed., Bd. II, pp.
+212-214. Grünfeld (_Wiener medizinische Blätter_, November 26, 1896),
+collected 115 cases of foreign body in the bladder--68 in men, 47 in
+women; but while those found in men were usually the result of a surgical
+accident, those found in women were mostly introduced by the patients
+themselves. The patient usually professes profound ignorance as to how the
+object came there; or she explains that she accidentally sat down upon it,
+or that she used it to produce freer urination. The earliest surgical case
+of this kind I happen to have met with, was recorded by Plazzon, in Italy,
+in 1621 (_De Partibus Generationi Inservientibus_, lib. ii, Ch. XIII); it
+was that of a certain honorable maiden with a large clitoris, who, seeking
+to lull sexual excitement with the aid of a bone needle, inserted it in
+the bladder, whence it was removed by Aquapendente.
+
+[197] A. Poulet, _Traité des Corps étrangers en Chirurgie_, 1879. English
+translation, 1881, vol. ii, pp. 209, 230. Rohleder (_Die Masturbation_,
+1899, pp. 24-31) also gives examples of strange objects found in the
+sexual organs.
+
+[198] E.H. Smith, "Signs of Masturbation in the Female," _Pacific Medical
+Journal_, February, 1903, quoted by R.W. Taylor, _Practical Treatise on
+Sexual Disorders_, 3d ed., p. 418.
+
+[199] L. Tait, _Diseases of Women_, 1889, vol. i, p. 100.
+
+[200] _Obstetric Journal_, vol. i, 1873, p. 558. Cf. G.J. Arnold,
+_British, Medical Journal_, January 6, 1906, p. 21.
+
+[201] Dudley, _American Journal of Obstetrics_, July, 1889, p. 758.
+
+[202] A. Reverdin, "Epingles à Cheveux dans la Vessie," _Revue Médicale de
+la Suisse Romande_, January 20, 1888. His cases are fully recorded, and
+his paper is an able and interesting contribution to this by-way of sexual
+psychology. The first case was a school-master's wife, aged 22, who
+confessed in her husband's presence, without embarrassment or hesitation,
+that the manoeuvre was habitual, learned from a school-companion, and
+continued after marriage. The second was a single woman of 42, a _curé's_
+servant, who attempted to elude confession, but on leaving the doctor's
+house remarked to the house-maid, "Never go to bed without taking out your
+hair-pins; accidents happen so easily." The third was an English girl of
+17 who finally acknowledged that she had lost two hair-pins in this way.
+The fourth was a child of 12, driven by the pain to confess that the
+practice had become a habit with her.
+
+[203] "One of my patients," remarks Dr. R.T. Morris, of New York,
+(_Transactions of the American Association of Obstetricians_, for 1892,
+Philadelphia, vol. v), "who is a devout church-member, had never allowed
+herself to entertain sexual thoughts referring to men, but she masturbated
+every morning, when standing before the mirror, by rubbing against a key
+in the bureau-drawer. A man never excited her passions, but the sight of a
+key in any bureau-drawer aroused erotic desires."
+
+[204] Freud (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, p. 118) refers to the
+sexual pleasure of swinging. Swinging another person may be a source of
+voluptuous excitement, and one of the 600 forms of sexual pleasure
+enumerated in De Sade's _Les 120 Journées de Sodome_ is (according to
+Dühren) to propel a girl vigorously in a swing.
+
+[205] The fact that horse exercise may produce pollutions was well
+recognized by Catholic theologians, and Sanchez states that this fact need
+not be made a reason for traveling on foot. Rolfincius, in 1667, pointed
+out that horse-riding, in those unaccustomed to it, may lead to nocturnal
+pollutions. Rohleder (_Die Masturbation_, pp. 133-134) brings together
+evidence regarding the influence of horse exercise in producing sexual
+excitement.
+
+[206] A correspondent, to whom the idea was presented for the first time,
+wrote: "Henceforward I shall know to what I must attribute the
+bliss--almost the beatitude--I so often have experienced after traveling
+for four or five hours in a train." Penta mentions the case of a young
+girl who first experienced sexual desire at the age of twelve, after a
+railway journey.
+
+[207] Langdon Down, _British Medical Journal_, January 12, 1867.
+
+[208] Pouillet, _L'Onanisme chez la Femme_, Paris, 1880; Fournier, _De
+l'Onanisme_, 1885; Rohleder, _Die Masturbation_, p. 132.
+
+[209] _West-Riding Asylum Reports_, 1876, vol. vi.
+
+[210] _Das Nervöse Weib_, 1898, p. 193.
+
+[211] In the Appendix to volume iii of these _Studies_, I have recorded
+the experience of a lady who found sexual gratification in this manner.
+
+[212] Dr. J.G. Kiernan, to whom I am indebted for a note on this point,
+calls my attention also to the case of a homosexual and masochistic man
+(_Medical Record_, vol. xix) whose feelings were intensified by
+tight-lacing.
+
+[213] Some women are also able to produce the orgasm, when in a state of
+sexual excitement, by placing a cushion between the knees and pressing the
+thighs firmly together.
+
+[214] _Leçons sur les Déformations Vulvaires_, p. 64. Martineau was
+informed by a dressmaker that it is very frequent in workrooms and can
+usually be done without attracting attention. An ironer informed him that
+while standing at her work, she crossed her legs, slightly bending the
+trunk forward and supporting herself on the table by the hands; then a few
+movements of contraction of the adductor muscles of the thigh would
+suffice to produce the orgasm.
+
+[215] C.W. Townsend, "Thigh-friction in Children under one Year," Annual
+Meeting of the American Pediatric Society, Montreal, 1896. Five cases are
+recorded by this writer, all in female infants.
+
+[216] Soutzo, _Archives de Neurologie_, February, 1903, p. 167.
+
+[217] Zache, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, p. 72. I have discussed
+what may be regarded as the normally sexual influence of dancing, in the
+third volume of these _Studies_, "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[218] The case has been recorded of a Russian who had the spontaneous
+impulse to self-flagellation on the nates with a rod, for the sake of
+sexual excitement, from the age of 6. (_Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria_
+April, 1900, p. 102.)
+
+[219] Kryptadia, vol. v, p. 358. As regards the use of nettles, see
+Dühren, _Geschlechtsleben in England_, Bd. II, p. 392.
+
+[220] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 177.
+
+[221] R.W. Taylor, _A Practical Treatise on Sexual Disorders_, 3rd ed.,
+Ch. XXX.
+
+[222] Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, pp. 70 et seq.
+
+[223] Niceforo, _Il Gergo_, p. 98.
+
+[224] _Functional Disorders of the Nervous System in Women_, p. 114.
+
+[225] Schrenck-Notzing, _Suggestions-therapie_, p. 13. A. Kind (_Jahrbuch
+für Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang ix, 1908, p. 58) gives the case of
+a young homosexual woman, a trick cyclist at the music halls, who often,
+when excited by the sight of her colleague in tights, would experience the
+orgasm while cycling before the public.
+
+[226] Janet has, however, used day-dreaming--which he calls "_reveries
+subconscients_"--to explain a remarkable case of demon-possession, which
+he investigated and cured. (_Névroses et Idées fixes_, vol. i, pp. 390 et
+seq.)
+
+[227] "Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of Wellesley
+College," _American Journal of Psychology_, vol. vii, No. 1. G.E.
+Partridge ("Reverie," _Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1898) well describes
+the physical accompaniments of day-dreaming, especially in Normal School
+girls between sixteen and twenty-two. Pick ("Clinical Studies in
+Pathological Dreaming," _Journal of Mental Sciences_, July, 1901) records
+three more or less morbid cases of day-dreaming, usually with an erotic
+basis, all in apparently hysterical men. An important study of
+day-dreaming, based on the experiences of nearly 1,500 young people (more
+than two-thirds girls and women), has been published by Theodate L. Smith
+("The Psychology of Day Dreams," _American Journal Psychology_, October,
+1904). Continued stories were found to be rare--only one per cent. Healthy
+boys, before fifteen, had day-dreams in which sports, athletics, and
+adventure had a large part; girls put themselves in the place of their
+favorite heroines in novels. After seventeen, and earlier in the case of
+girls, day-dreams of love and marriage were found to be frequent. A
+typical confession is that of a girl of nineteen: "I seldom have time to
+build castles in Spain, but when I do, I am not different from most
+Southern girls; i.e., my dreams are usually about a pretty fair specimen
+of a six-foot three-inch biped."
+
+[228] The case has been recorded of a married woman, in love with her
+doctor, who kept a day-dream diary, at last filling three bulky volumes,
+when it was discovered by her husband, and led to an action for divorce;
+it was shown that the doctor knew nothing of the romance in which he
+played the part of hero. Kiernan, in referring to this case (as recorded
+in John Paget's _Judicial Puzzles_), mentions a similar case in Chicago.
+
+[229] _Uranisme_, p. 125.
+
+[230] The acute Anstie remarked, more than thirty years ago, in his work
+on _Neuralgia_: "It is a comparatively frequent thing to see an unsocial,
+solitary life (leading to the habit of masturbation) joined with the bad
+influence of an unhealthy ambition, prompting to premature and false work
+in literature and art." From the literary side, M. Léon Bazalgette has
+dealt with the tendency of much modern literature to devote itself to what
+he calls "mental onanism," of which the probable counterpart, he seems to
+hint, is a physical process of auto-erotism. (Léon Bazalgette, "L'onanisme
+considéré comme principe createur en art," _L'Esprit Nouveau_, 1898.)
+
+[231] Pausanias, _Achaia_, Chapter XVII. The ancient Babylonians believed
+in a certain "maid of the night," who appeared to men in sleep and roused
+without satisfying their passions. (Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, p.
+262.) This succubus was the Assyrian Liler, connected with the Hebrew
+Lilith. There was a corresponding incubus, "the little night man," who had
+nocturnal intercourse with women. (Cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 7th ed., pp. 521
+et seq.) The succubus and the incubus (the latter being more common) were
+adopted by Christendom; St. Augustine (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XV, Ch.
+XXIII) said that the wicked assaults of sylvans and fauns, otherwise
+called incubi, on women, are so generally affirmed that it would be
+impudent to deny them. Incubi flourished in mediæval belief, and can
+scarcely, indeed, be said to be extinct even to-day. They have been
+studied by many authors; see, e.g., Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_,
+vol. v, Ch. XXV, Saint-André, physician-in-ordinary to the French King,
+pointed out in 1725 that the incubus was a dream. It may be added that the
+belief in the succubus and incubus appears to be widespread. Thus, the
+West African Yorubas (according to A.B. Ellis) believe that erotic dreams
+are due to the god Elegbra, who, either as a male or a female, consorts
+with men and women in sleep.
+
+[232] "If any man's seed of copulation go out from him, then he shall
+bathe all his flesh in water and be unclean until the even. And every
+garment, and every skin, whereon is the seed of copulation, shall be
+washed with water and be unclean until the even." Leviticus, XV, v. 16-17.
+
+[233] It should be added that the term _pollutio_ also covers voluntary
+effusion of semen outside copulation. (Debreyne, _Moechialogie_,
+p. 8; for a full discussion of the opinions of theologians concerning
+nocturnal and diurnal pollutions, see the same author's _Essai sur la
+Théologie Morale_, pp. 100-149.)
+
+[234] _Memoirs_, translated by Bendyshe, p. 182.
+
+[235] _Sexual Impotence_, p. 137.
+
+[236] _L'Hygiène Sexuelle_, p. 169.
+
+[237] _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, p. 164.
+
+[238] I may here refer to the curious opinion expressed by Dr. Elizabeth
+Blackwell, that, while the sexual impulse in man is usually relieved by
+seminal emissions during sleep, in women it is relieved by the occurrence
+of menstruation. This latter statement is flagrantly at variance with the
+facts; but it may perhaps be quoted in support of the view expressed above
+as to the comparative rarity of sexual excitement during sleep in young
+girls.
+
+[239] Löwenfeld has recently expressed the same opinion. Rohleder believes
+that pollutions are physically impossible in a _real_ virgin, but that
+opinion is too extreme.
+
+[240] It may be added that in more or less neurotic women and girls,
+erotic dreams may be very frequent and depressing. Thus, J.M. Fothergill
+(_West-Riding Asylum Report_, 1876, vol. vi) remarks: "These dreams are
+much more frequent than is ordinarily thought, and are the cause of a
+great deal of nervous depression among women. Women of a highly-nervous
+diathesis suffer much more from these drains than robust women. Not only
+are these involuntary orgasms more frequent among such women, but they
+cause more disturbance of the general health in them than in other women."
+
+[241] I may remark here that a Russian correspondent considers that I have
+greatly underestimated the frequency of erotic manifestations during sleep
+in young girls. "All the women I have interrogated on this point," he
+informs me, "say that they have had such pollutions from the time of
+puberty, or even earlier, accompanied by erotic dreams. I have put the
+question to some twenty or thirty women. It is true that they were of
+southern race (Italian, Spanish, and French), and I believe that
+Southerners are, in this matter, franker than northern women, who consider
+the activity of the flesh as shameful, and seek to conceal it." My
+correspondent makes no reference to the chief point of sexual difference,
+so far as my observation goes, which is that erotic dreams are
+comparatively rare in those women "_who have yet had no sort of sexual
+experience in waking life_." Whether or not this is correct, I do not
+question the frequency of erotic dreams in girls who have had such
+experience.
+
+[242] C.C. Hersman, "Medico-legal Aspects of Eroto-Choreic Insanities,"
+_Alienist and Neurologist_, July, 1897. I may mention that Pitres (_Leçons
+cliniques sur l'Hystérie_, vol. ii, p. 34) records the almost identical
+case of a hysterical girl in one of his wards, who was at first grateful
+to the clinical clerk to whom her case was intrusted, but afterward
+changed her behavior, accused him of coming nightly through the window,
+lying beside her, caressing her, and then exerting violent coitus three or
+four times in succession, until she was utterly exhausted. I may here
+refer to the tendency to erotic excitement in women under the influence of
+chloroform and nitrous oxide, a tendency rarely or never noted in men, and
+of the frequency with which the phenomenon is attributed by the subject to
+actual assault. See H. Ellis, _Man and Woman_, pp. 269-274.
+
+[243] In Australia, some years ago, a man was charged with rape, found
+guilty of "attempt," and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment, on
+the accusation of a girl of 13, who subsequently confessed that the charge
+was imaginary; in this case, the jury found it impossible to believe that
+so young a girl could have been lying, or hallucinated, because she
+narrated the details of the alleged offence with such circumstantial
+detail. Such cases are not uncommon, and in some measure, no doubt, they
+may be accounted for by auto-erotic nocturnal hallucinations.
+
+[244] Sante de Sanctis, _I sogni e il sonno nell'isterismo e nella
+epilessia_, Rome, 1896, p. 101.
+
+[245] Pitres, _Leçons cliniques sur l'Hystérie_, vol. ii, pp. 37 et seq.
+The Lorraine inquisitor, Nicolas Remy, very carefully investigated the
+question of the feelings of witches when having intercourse with the
+Devil, questioning them minutely, and ascertained that such intercourse
+was usually extremely painful, filling them with icy horror (See, e.g.,
+Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. v, p. 127; the same author
+presents an interesting summary of the phenomena of the Witches' Sabbath).
+But intercourse with the Devil was by no means always painful. Isabel
+Gowdie, a Scotch witch, bore clear testimony to this point: "The youngest
+and lustiest women," she stated, "will have very great pleasure in their
+carnal copulation with him, yea, much more than with their own
+husbands.... He is abler for us than any man can be. (Alack! that I should
+compare him to a man!)" Yet her description scarcely sounds attractive; he
+was a "large, black, hairy man, very cold, and I found his nature as cold
+within me as spring well-water." His foot was forked and cloven; he was
+sometimes like a deer, or a roe; and he would hold up his tail while the
+witches kissed that region (Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in Scotland_, vol.
+iii, Appendix VII; see, also, the illustrations at the end of Dr. A.
+Marie's _Folie et Mysticisme_, 1907).
+
+[246] Gilles de la Tourette, loc. cit., p. 518. Erotic hallucinations have
+also been studied by Bellamy, in a Bordeaux thesis, _Hallucinations
+Erotiques_, 1900-1901.
+
+[247] On one occasion, when still a girl, whenever an artist whom she
+admired touched her hand she felt erection and moisture of the sexual
+parts, but without any sensation of pleasure; a little later, when an
+uncle's knee casually came in contact with her thigh, ejaculation of mucus
+took place, though she disliked the uncle; again, when a nurse, on
+casually seeing a man's sexual organs, an electric shock went through her,
+though the sight was disgusting to her; and when she had once to assist a
+man to urinate, she became in the highest degree excited, though without
+pleasure, and lay down on a couch in the next room, while a conclusive
+ejaculation took place. (Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 354.)
+
+[248] Breuer and Freud, _Studien über Hysterie_, 1895, p. 217.
+
+[249] Calmeil (_De la Folie_, vol. i, p. 252) called attention to the
+large part played by uterine sensations in the hallucinations of some
+famous women ascetics, and added: "It is well recognized that the
+narrative of such sensations nearly always occupies the first place in the
+divagations of hysterical virgins."
+
+[250] H. Leuba, "Les Tendances Religieuses chez les Mystiques Chrétiens,"
+_Revue Philosophique_, November, 1902, p. 465. St. Theresa herself states
+that physical sensations played a considerable part in this experience.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions--The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation--The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views--Charcot--The Revolt Against Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions--Fallacies Involved--Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament--Breuer and Freud--Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's--At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria--But They Must Not be Regarded as Final--The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons--The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria--True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.
+
+
+The nocturnal hallucinations of hysteria, as all careful students of this
+condition now seem to agree, are closely allied to the hysterical attack
+proper. Sollier, indeed, one of the ablest of the more recent
+investigators of hysteria, has argued with much force that the subjects of
+hysteria really live in a state of pathological sleep, of
+vigilambulism.[251] He regards all the various accidents of hysteria as
+having a common basis in disturbances of sensibility, in the widest sense
+of the word "sensibility,"--as the very foundation of personality,--while
+anæsthesia is "the real _sigillum hysteriæ_." Whatever the form of
+hysteria, we are thus only concerned with a more or less profound state of
+vigilambulism: a state in which the subject seems, often even to himself,
+to be more or less always asleep, whether the sleep may be regarded as
+local or general. Sollier agrees with Féré that the disorder of
+sensibility may be regarded as due to an exhaustion of the sensory centres
+of the brain, whether as the result of constitutional cerebral weakness,
+of the shock of a violent emotion, or of some toxic influence on the
+cerebral cells.
+
+We may, therefore, fitly turn from the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep
+which in women generally, and especially in hysterical women, seem to
+possess so much importance and significance, to the question--which has
+been so divergently answered at different periods and by different
+investigators--concerning the causation of hysteria, and especially
+concerning its alleged connection with conscious or unconscious sexual
+emotion.[252]
+
+It was the belief of the ancient Greeks that hysteria came from the womb;
+hence its name. We first find that statement in Plato's _Timæus_: "In men
+the organ of generation--becoming rebellious and masterful, like an animal
+disobedient to reason, and maddened with the sting of lust--seeks to gain
+absolute sway; and the same is the case with the so-called womb, or
+uterus, of women; the animal within them is desirous of procreating
+children, and, when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time, gets
+discontented and angry, and, wandering in every direction through the
+body, closes up the passages of the breath, and, by obstructing
+respiration,[253] drives them to extremity, causing all varieties of
+disease."
+
+Plato, it is true, cannot be said to reveal anywhere a very scientific
+attitude toward Nature. Yet he was here probably only giving expression to
+the current medical doctrine of his day. We find precisely the same
+doctrine attributed to Hippocrates, though without a clear distinction
+between hysteria and epilepsy.[254] If we turn to the best Roman
+physicians we find again that Aretæus, "the Esquirol of antiquity," has
+set forth the same view, adding to his description of the movements of the
+womb in hysteria: "It delights, also, in fragrant smells, and advances
+toward them; and it has an aversion to foetid smells, and flies from them;
+and, on the whole, the womb is like an animal within an animal."[255]
+Consequently, the treatment was by applying foetid smells to the nose and
+rubbing fragrant ointments around the sexual parts.[256]
+
+The Arab physicians, who carried on the traditions of Greek medicine,
+appear to have said nothing new about hysteria, and possibly had little
+knowledge of it. In Christian mediæval Europe, also, nothing new was added
+to the theory of hysteria; it was, indeed, less known medically than it
+had ever been, and, in part it may be as a result of this ignorance, in
+part as a result of general wretchedness (the hysterical phenomena of
+witchcraft reaching their height, Michelet points out, in the fourteenth
+century, which was a period of special misery for the poor), it flourished
+more vigorously. Not alone have we the records of nervous epidemics, but
+illuminated manuscripts, ivories, miniatures, bas-reliefs, frescoes, and
+engravings furnish the most vivid iconographic evidence of the prevalence
+of hysteria in its most violent forms during the Middle Ages. Much of this
+evidence is brought to the service of science in the fascinating works of
+Dr. P. Richer, one of Charcot's pupils.[257]
+
+In the seventeenth century Ambroise Paré was still talking, like
+Hippocrates, about "suffocation of the womb"; Forestus was still, like
+Aretæus, applying friction to the vulva; Fernel was still reproaching
+Galen, who had denied that the movements of the womb produced hysteria.
+
+It was in the seventeenth century (1618) that a French physician, Charles
+Lepois (Carolus Piso), physician to Henry II, trusting, as he said, to
+experience and reason, overthrew at one stroke the doctrine of hysteria
+that had ruled almost unquestioned for two thousand years, and showed that
+the malady occurred at all ages and in both sexes, that its seat was not
+in the womb, but in the brain, and that it must be considered a nervous
+disease.[258] So revolutionary a doctrine could not fail to meet with
+violent opposition, but it was confirmed by Willis, and in 1681, we owe to
+the genius of Sydenham a picture of hysteria which for lucidity,
+precision, and comprehensiveness has only been excelled in our own times.
+
+It was not possible any longer to maintain the womb theory of Hippocrates
+in its crude form, but in modified forms, and especially with the object
+of preserving the connection which many observers continued to find
+between hysteria and the sexual emotions, it still found supporters in the
+eighteenth and even the nineteenth centuries. James, in the middle of the
+eighteenth century, returned to the classical view, and in his _Dictionary
+of Medicine_ maintained that the womb is the seat of hysteria. Louyer
+Villermay in 1816 asserted that the most frequent causes of hysteria are
+deprivation of the pleasures of love, griefs connected with this passion,
+and disorders of menstruation. Foville in 1833 and Landouzy in 1846
+advocated somewhat similar views. The acute Laycock in 1840 quoted as
+"almost a medical proverb" the saying, "_Salacitas major, major ad
+hysteriam proclivitas_," fully indorsing it. More recently still Clouston
+has defined hysteria as "the loss of the inhibitory influence exercised on
+the reproductive and sexual instincts of women by the higher mental and
+moral functions" (a position evidently requiring some modification in view
+of the fact that hysteria is by no means confined to women), while the
+same authority remarks that more or less concealed sexual phenomena are
+the chief symptoms of "hysterical insanity."[259] Two gynæcologists of
+high position in different parts of the world, Hegar in Germany and
+Balls-Headley in Australia, attribute hysteria, as well as anæmia, largely
+to unsatisfied sexual desire, including the non-satisfaction of the "ideal
+feelings."[260] Lombroso and Ferrero, again, while admitting that the
+sexual feelings might be either heightened or depressed in hysteria,
+referred to the frequency of what they termed "a paradoxical sexual
+instinct" in the hysterical, by which, for instance, sexual frigidity is
+combined with intense sexual pre-occupations; and they also pointed out
+the significant fact that the crimes of the hysterical nearly always
+revolve around the sexual sphere.[261] Thus, even up to the time when the
+conception of hysteria which absolutely ignored and excluded any sexual
+relationship whatever had reached its height, independent views favoring
+such a relationship still found expression.
+
+Of recent years, however, such views usually aroused violent antagonism.
+The main current of opinion was with Briquet (1859), who, treating the
+matter with considerable ability and a wide induction of facts,
+indignantly repelled the idea that there is any connection between
+hysteria and the sexual facts of life, physical or psychic. As he himself
+admitted, Briquet was moved to deny a sexual causation of hysteria by the
+thought that such an origin would be degrading for women ("_a quelque
+chose de dégradant pour les femmes_").
+
+It was, however, the genius of Charcot, and the influence of his able
+pupils, which finally secured the overthrow of the sexual theory of
+hysteria. Charcot emphatically anathematized the visceral origin of
+hysteria; he declared that it is a psychic disorder, and to leave no
+loop-hole of escape for those who maintained a sexual causation he
+asserted that there are no varieties of hysteria, that the disease is one
+and indivisible. Charcot recognized no primordial cause of hysteria beyond
+heredity, which here plays a more important part than in any other
+neuropathic condition. Such heredity is either direct or more occasionally
+by transformation, any deviation of nutrition found in the ancestors
+(gout, diabetes, arthritis) being a possible cause of hysteria in the
+descendants. "We do not know anything about the nature of hysteria,"
+Charcot wrote in 1892; "we must make it objective in order to recognize
+it. The dominant idea for us in the etiology of hysteria is, in the widest
+sense, its hereditary predisposition. The greater number of those
+suffering from this affection are simply born _hystérisables_, and on them
+the occasional causes act directly, either through autosuggestion or by
+causing derangement of general nutrition, and more particularly of the
+nutrition of the nervous system."[262] These views were ably and
+decisively stated in Gilles de la Tourette's _Traité de l'Hystérie_,
+written under the inspiration of Charcot.
+
+While Charcot's doctrine was thus being affirmed and generally accepted,
+there were at the same time workers in these fields who, though they by no
+means ignored this doctrine of hysteria or even rejected it, were inclined
+to think that it was too absolutely stated. Writing in the _Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine_ at the same time as Charcot, Donkin, while
+deprecating any exclusive emphasis on the sexual causation, pointed out
+the enormous part played by the emotions in the production of hysteria,
+and the great influence of puberty in women due to the greater extent of
+the sexual organs, and the consequently large area of central innervation
+involved, and thus rendered liable to fall into a state of unstable
+equilibrium. Enforced abstinence from the gratification of any of the
+inherent and primitive desires, he pointed out, may be an adequate
+exciting cause. Such a view as this indicated that to set aside the
+ancient doctrine of a physical sexual cause of hysteria was by no means to
+exclude a psychic sexual cause. Ten years earlier Axenfeld and Huchard had
+pointed out that the reaction against the sexual origin of hysteria was
+becoming excessive, and they referred to the evidence brought forward by
+veterinary surgeons showing that unsatisfied sexual desire in animals may
+produce nervous symptoms very similar to hysteria.[263] The present
+writer, when in 1894 briefly discussing hysteria as an element in
+secondary sexual characterization, ventured to reflect the view, confirmed
+by his own observation, that there was a tendency to unduly minimize the
+sexual factor in hysteria, and further pointed out that the old error of a
+special connection between hysteria and the female sexual organs, probably
+arose from the fact that in woman the organic sexual sphere is larger than
+in man.[264]
+
+When, indeed, we analyze the foundation of the once predominant opinions
+of Charcot and his school regarding the sexual relationships of hysteria,
+it becomes clear that many fallacies and misunderstandings were involved.
+Briquet, Charcot's chief predecessor, acknowledged that his own view was
+that a sexual origin of hysteria would be "degrading to women"; that is to
+say, he admitted that he was influenced by a foolish and improper
+prejudice, for the belief that the unconscious and involuntary morbid
+reaction of the nervous system to any disturbance of a great primary
+instinct can have "_quelque chose de dégradant_" is itself an immoral
+belief; such disturbance of the nervous system might or might not be
+caused, but in any case the alleged "degradation" could only be the
+fiction of a distorted imagination. Again, confusion had been caused by
+the ancient error of making the physical sexual organs responsible for
+hysteria, first the womb, more recently the ovaries; the outcome of this
+belief was the extirpation of the sexual organs for the cure of hysteria.
+Charcot condemned absolutely all such operations as unscientific and
+dangerous, declaring that there is no such thing as hysteria of menstrual
+origin.[265] Subsequently, Angelucci and Pierracini carried out an
+international inquiry into the results of the surgical treatment of
+hysteria, and condemned it in the most unqualified manner.[266] It is
+clearly demonstrated that the physical sexual organs are not the seat of
+hysteria. It does not, however, follow that even physical sexual desire,
+when repressed, is not a cause of hysteria. The opinion that it was so
+formed an essential part of the early doctrine of hysteria, and was
+embodied in the ancient maxim: "_Nubat illa et morbus effugiet_." The
+womb, it seemed to the ancients, was crying out for satisfaction, and when
+that was received the disease vanished.[267] But when it became clear that
+sexual desire, though ultimately founded on the sexual apparatus, is a
+nervous and psychic fact, to put the sexual organs out of count was not
+sufficient; for the sexual emotions may exist before puberty, and persist
+after complete removal of the sexual organs. Thus it has been the object
+of many writers to repel the idea that unsatisfied sexual desire can be a
+cause of hysteria. Briquet pointed out that hysteria is rare among nuns
+and frequent among prostitutes. Krafft-Ebing believed that most
+hysterical women are not anxious for sexual satisfaction, and declared
+that "hysteria caused through the non-satisfaction of the coarse sensual
+sexual impulse I have never seen,"[268] while Pitres and others refer to
+the frequently painful nature of sexual hallucinations in the hysterical.
+But it soon becomes obvious that the psychic sexual sphere is not confined
+to the gratification of conscious physical sexual desire. It is not true
+that hysteria is rare among nuns, some of the most tremendous epidemics of
+hysteria, and the most carefully studied, having occurred in
+convents,[269] while the hysterical phenomena sometimes associated with
+revivals are well known. The supposed prevalence among prostitutes would
+not be evidence against the sexual relationships of hysteria; it has,
+however, been denied, even by so great an authority as Parent-Duchâtelet
+who found it very rare, even in prostitutes in hospitals, when it was
+often associated with masturbation; in prostitutes, however, who returned
+to a respectable life, giving up their old habits, he found hysteria
+common and severe.[270] The frequent absence of physical sexual feeling,
+again, may quite reasonably be taken as evidence of a disorder of the
+sexual emotions, while the undoubted fact that sexual intercourse usually
+has little beneficial effect on pronounced hysteria, and that sexual
+excitement during sleep and sexual hallucinations are often painful in
+the same condition, is far from showing that injury or repression of the
+sexual emotions had nothing to do with the production of the hysteria. It
+would be as reasonable to argue that the evil effect of a heavy meal on a
+starving man must be taken as evidence that he was not suffering from
+starvation. The fact, indeed, on which Gilles de la Tourette and others
+have remarked, that the hysterical often desire not so much sexual
+intercourse as simple affection, would tend to show that there is here a
+real analogy, and that starvation or lesion of the sexual emotions may
+produce, like bodily starvation, a rejection of those satisfactions which
+are demanded in health. Thus, even a mainly _a priori_ examination of the
+matter may lead us to see that many arguments brought forward in favor of
+Charcot's position on this point fall to the ground when we realize that
+the sexual emotions may constitute a highly complex sphere, often hidden
+from observation, sometimes not conscious at all, and liable to many
+lesions besides that due to the non-satisfaction of sexual desire. At the
+same time we are not thus enabled to overthrow any of the positive results
+attained by Charcot and his school.
+
+It may, however, be pointed out that Charcot's attitude toward hysteria
+was the outcome of his own temperament. He was primarily a neurologist,
+the bent of his genius was toward the investigation of facts that could be
+objectively demonstrated. His first interest in hysteria, dating from as
+far back as 1862, was in hystero-epileptic convulsive attacks, and to the
+last he remained indifferent to all facts which could not be objectively
+demonstrated. That was the secret of the advances he was enabled to make
+in neurology. For purely psychological investigation he had no liking, and
+probably no aptitude. Anyone who was privileged to observe his methods of
+work at the Salpêtrière will easily recall the great master's towering
+figure; the disdainful expression, sometimes, even, it seemed, a little
+sour; the lofty bearing which enthusiastic admirers called Napoleonic. The
+questions addressed to the patient were cold, distant, sometimes
+impatient. Charcot clearly had little faith in the value of any results so
+attained. One may well believe, also, that a man whose superficial
+personality was so haughty and awe-inspiring to strangers would, in any
+case, have had the greatest difficulty in penetrating the mysteries of a
+psychic world so obscure and elusive as that presented by the
+hysterical.[271]
+
+The way was thus opened for further investigations on the psychic side.
+Charcot had affirmed the power, not only of physical traumatism, but even
+of psychic lesions--of moral shocks--to provoke its manifestations, but
+his sole contribution to the psychology of this psychic malady,--and this
+was borrowed from the Nancy school,--lay in the one word "suggestibility";
+the nature and mechanism of this psychic process he left wholly
+unexplained. This step has been taken by others, in part by Janet, who,
+from 1889 onward, has not only insisted that the emotions stand in the
+first line among the causes of hysteria, but has also pointed out some
+portion of the mechanism of this process; thus, he saw the significance of
+the fact, already recognized, that strong emotions tend to produce
+anæsthesia and to lead to a condition of mental disaggregation, favorable
+to abulia, or abolition of will-power. It remained to show in detail the
+mechanism by which the most potent of all the emotions effects its
+influence, and, by attempting to do this, the Viennese investigators,
+Breuer and especially Freud, have greatly aided the study of
+hysteria.[272] They have not, it is important to remark, overturned the
+positive elements in their great forerunner's work. Freud began as a
+disciple of Charcot, and he himself remarks that, in his earlier
+investigations of hysteria, he had no thought of finding any sexual
+etiology for that malady; he would have regarded any such suggestion as an
+insult to his patient. The results reached by these workers were the
+outcome of long and detailed investigation. Freud has investigated many
+cases of hysteria in minute detail, often devoting to a single case over a
+hundred hours of work. The patients, unlike those on whom the results of
+the French school have been mainly founded, all belonged to the educated
+classes, and it was thus possible to carry out an elaborate psychic
+investigation which would be impossible among the uneducated. Breuer and
+Freud insist on the fine qualities of mind and character frequently found
+among the hysterical. They cannot accept suggestibility as an invariable
+characteristic of hysteria, only abnormal excitability; they are far from
+agreeing with Janet (although on many points at one with him), that
+psychic weakness marks hysteria; there is merely an appearance of mental
+weakness, they say, because the mental activity of the hysterical is split
+up, and only a part of it is conscious.[273] The superiority of character
+of the hysterical is indicated by the fact that the conflict between their
+ideas of right and the bent of their inclinations is often an element in
+the constitution of the hysterical state. Breuer and Freud are prepared to
+assert that the hysterical are among "the flower of humanity," and they
+refer to those qualities of combined imaginative genius and practical
+energy which characterized St. Theresa, "the patron saint of the
+hysterical."
+
+To understand the position of Breuer and Freud we may start from the
+phenomenon of "nervous shock" produced by physical traumatism, often of a
+very slight character. Charcot had shown that such "nervous shock," with
+the chain of resulting symptoms, is nothing more or less than hysteria.
+Breuer and Freud may be linked on to Charcot at this point. They began by
+regarding the most typical hysteria as really a _psychic traumatism_; that
+is to say, that it starts in a lesion, or rather in repeated lesions, of
+the emotional organism. It is true that the school of Charcot admitted the
+influence of moral shock, especially of the emotion of fear, but that
+merely as an "_agent provocateur_," and with a curious perversity Gilles
+de la Tourette, certainly reflecting the attitude of Charcot, in his
+elaborate treatise on hysteria fails to refer to the sphere of the sexual
+emotions even when enumerating the "_agents provocateurs_."[274]
+
+The influence of fear is not denied by Breuer and Freud, but they have
+found that careful psychic analysis frequently shows that the shock of a
+commonplace "fear" is really rooted in a lesion of the sexual emotions. A
+typical and very simple illustration is furnished in a case, recorded by
+Breuer, in which a young girl of seventeen had her first hysterical attack
+after a cat sprang on her shoulders as she was going downstairs. Careful
+investigation showed that this girl had been the object of somewhat ardent
+attentions from a young man whose advances she had resisted, although her
+own sexual emotions had been aroused. A few days before, she had been
+surprised by this young man on these same dark stairs, and had forcibly
+escaped from his hands. Here was the real psychic traumatism, the
+operation of which merely became manifest in the cat. "But in how many
+cases," asks Breuer, "is a cat thus reckoned as a completely sufficient
+_causa efficiens_?"
+
+In every case that they have investigated Breuer and Freud have found some
+similar secret lesion of the psychic sexual sphere. In one case a
+governess, whose training has been severely upright, is, in spite of
+herself and without any encouragement, led to experience for the father of
+the children under her care an affection which she refuses to acknowledge
+even to herself; in another, a young woman finds herself falling in love
+with her brother-in-law; again, an innocent girl suddenly discovers her
+uncle in the act of sexual intercourse with her playmate, and a boy on his
+way home from school is subjected to the coarse advances of a sexual
+invert. In nearly every case, as Freud eventually found reason to believe,
+a primary lesion of the sexual emotions dates from the period of puberty
+and frequently of childhood, and in nearly every case the intimately
+private nature of the lesion causes it to be carefully hidden from
+everyone, and even to be unacknowledged by the subject of it. In the
+earlier cases Breuer and Freud found that a slight degree of hypnosis is
+necessary to bring the lesion into consciousness, and the accuracy of the
+revelations thus obtained has been tested by independent witness. Freud
+has, however, long abandoned the induction of any degree of hypnosis; he
+simply tries to arrange that the patient shall feel absolutely free to
+tell her own story, and so proceeds from the surface downwards, slowly
+finding and piecing together such essential fragments of the history as
+may be recovered, in the same way he remarks, as the archæologist
+excavates below the surface and recovers and puts together the fragments
+of an antique statue. Much of the material found, however, has only a
+symbolic value requiring interpretation and is sometimes pure fantasy.
+Freud now attaches great importance to dreams as symbolically representing
+much in the subject's mental history which is otherwise difficult to
+reach.[275] The subtle and slender clues which Freud frequently follows in
+interpreting dreams cannot fail sometimes to arouse doubt in his readers'
+minds, but he certainly seems to have been often successful in thus
+reaching latent facts in consciousness. The primary lesion may thus act as
+"a foreign body in consciousness." Something is introduced into psychic
+life which refuses to merge in the general flow of consciousness. It
+cannot be accepted simply as other facts of life are accepted; it cannot
+even be talked about, and so submitted to the slow usure by which our
+experiences are worn down and gradually transformed. Breuer illustrates
+what happens by reference to the sneezing reflex. "When an irritation to
+the nasal mucous membrane for some reason fails to liberate this reflex,
+a feeling of excitement and tension arises. This excitement, being unable
+to stream out along motor channels, now spreads itself over the brain,
+inhibiting other activities.... _In the highest spheres of human activity
+we may watch the same process_." It is a result of this process that, as
+Breuer and Freud found, the mere act of confession may greatly relieve the
+hysterical symptoms produced by this psychic mechanism, and in some cases
+may wholly and permanently remove them. It is on this fact that they
+founded their method of treatment, devised by Breuer and by him termed the
+cathartic method, though Freud prefers to call it the "analytic" method.
+It is, as Freud points out, the reverse of the hypnotic method of
+suggestive treatment; there is the same difference, Freud remarks, between
+the two methods as Leonardo da Vinci found for the two technical methods
+of art, _per via di porre_ and _per via di levare_; the hypnotic method,
+like painting, works by putting in, the cathartic or analytic method, like
+sculpture, works by taking out.[276]
+
+It is part of the mechanism of this process, as understood by these
+authors, that the physical symptoms of hysteria are constituted, by a
+process of conversion, out of the injured emotions, which then sink into
+the background or altogether out of consciousness. Thus, they found the
+prolonged tension of nursing a near and dear relative to be a very
+frequent factor in the production of hysteria. For instance, an originally
+rheumatic pain experienced by a daughter when nursing her father becomes
+the symbol in memory of her painful psychic excitement, and this perhaps
+for several reasons, but chiefly because _its presence in consciousness
+almost exactly coincided with that excitement_. In another way, again,
+nausea and vomiting may become a symbol through the profound sense of
+disgust with which some emotional shock was associated. Then the symbol
+begins to have a life of its own, and draws hidden strength from the
+emotion with which it is correlated. Breuer and Freud have found by
+careful investigation that the pains and physical troubles of hysteria are
+far from being capricious, but may be traced in a varying manner to an
+origin in some incident, some pain, some action, which was associated with
+a moment of acute psychic agony. The process of conversion was an
+involuntary escape from an intolerable emotion, comparable to the physical
+pain sometimes sought in intense mental grief, and the patient wins some
+relief from the tortured emotions, though at the cost of psychic
+abnormality, of a more or less divided state of consciousness and of
+physical pain, or else anæsthesia. In Charcot's third stage of the
+hysterical convulsion, that of "_attitudes passionnelles_," Breuer and
+Freud see the hallucinatory reproduction of a recollection which is full
+of significance for the origin of the hysterical manifestations.
+
+The final result reached by these workers is clearly stated by each
+writer. "The main observation of our predecessors," states Breuer,[277]
+"still preserved in the word 'hysteria,' is nearer to the truth than the
+more recent view which puts sexuality almost in the last line, with the
+object of protecting the patient from moral reproaches. Certainly the
+sexual needs of the hysterical are just as individual and as various in
+force as those of the healthy. But they suffer from them, and in large
+measure, indeed, they suffer precisely through the struggle with them,
+through the effort to thrust sexuality aside." "The weightiest fact,"
+concludes Freud,[278] "on which we strike in a thorough pursuit of the
+analysis is this: From whatever side and from whatever symptoms we start,
+we always unfailingly reach the region of the sexual life. Here, first of
+all, an etiological condition of hysterical states is revealed.... At the
+bottom of every case of hysteria--and reproducible by an analytical effort
+after even an interval of long years--may be found one or more facts of
+precocious sexual experience belonging to earliest youth. I regard this as
+an important result, as the discovery of a _caput Nili_ of
+neuropathology." Ten years later, enlarging rather than restricting his
+conception, Freud remarks: "Sexuality is not a mere _deus ex machina_
+which intervenes but once in the hysterical process; it is the motive
+force of every separate symptom and every expression of a symptom. The
+morbid phenomena constitute, to speak plainly, the patient's sexual
+activity."[279] The actual hysterical fit, Freud now states, may be
+regarded as "the substitute for a once practiced and then abandoned
+_auto-erotic_ satisfaction," and similarly it may be regarded as an
+equivalent of coitus.[280]
+
+It is natural to ask how this conception affects that elaborate picture of
+hysteria laboriously achieved by Charcot and his school. It cannot be said
+that it abolishes any of the positive results reached by Charcot, but it
+certainly alters their significance and value; it presents them in a new
+light and changes the whole perspective. With his passion for getting at
+tangible definite physical facts, Charcot was on very safe ground. But he
+was content to neglect the psychic analysis of hysteria, while yet
+proclaiming that hysteria is a purely psychic disorder. He had no cause of
+hysteria to present save only heredity. Freud certainly admits heredity,
+but, as he points out, the part it plays has been overrated. It is too
+vague and general to carry us far, and when a specific and definite cause
+can be found, the part played by heredity recedes to become merely a
+condition, the soil on which the "specific etiology" works. Here probably
+Freud's enthusiasm at first carried him too far and the most important
+modification he has made in his views occurs at this point: he now
+attaches a preponderant influence to heredity. He has realized that sexual
+activity in one form or another is far too common in childhood to make it
+possible to lay very great emphasis on "traumatic lesions" of this
+character, and he has also realized that an outcrop of fantasies may
+somewhat later develop on these childish activities, intervening between
+them and the subsequent morbid symptoms. He is thus led to emphasize anew
+the significance of heredity, not, however, in Charcot's sense, as general
+neuropathic disposition but as "sexual constitution." The significance of
+"infantile sexual lesions" has also tended to give place to that of
+"infantilism of sexuality."[281]
+
+The real merit of Freud's subtle investigations is that--while possibly
+furnishing a justification of the imperfectly-understood idea that had
+floated in the mind of observers ever since the name "hysteria" was first
+invented--he has certainly supplied a definite psychic explanation of a
+psychic malady. He has succeeded in presenting clearly, at the expense of
+much labor, insight, and sympathy, a dynamic view of the psychic processes
+involved in the constitution of the hysterical state, and such a view
+seems to show that the physical symptoms laboriously brought to light by
+Charcot are largely but epiphenomena and by-products of an emotional
+process, often of tragic significance to the subject, which is taking
+place in the most sensitive recess of the psychic organism. That the
+picture of the mechanism involved, presented to us by Professor Freud,
+cannot be regarded as a final and complete account of the matter, may
+readily be admitted. It has developed in Freud's own hands, and some of
+the developments will require very considerable confirmation before they
+can be accepted as generally true.[282] But these investigations have at
+least served to open the door, which Charcot had inconsistently held
+closed, into the deeper mysteries of hysteria, and have shown that here,
+if anywhere, further research will be profitable. They have also served to
+show that hysteria may be definitely regarded as, in very many cases at
+least, a manifestation of the sexual emotions and their lesions; in other
+words, a transformation of auto-erotism.
+
+The conception of hysteria so vigorously enforced by Charcot and his
+school is thus now beginning to appear incomplete. But we have to
+recognize that that incompleteness was right and necessary. A strong
+reaction was needed against a widespread view of hysteria that was in
+large measure scientifically false. It was necessary to show clearly that
+hysteria is a definite disorder, even when the sexual organs and emotions
+are swept wholly out of consideration; and it was also necessary to show
+that the lying and dissimulation so widely attributed to the hysterical
+were merely the result of an ignorant and unscientific misinterpretation
+of psychic elements of the disease. This was finally and triumphantly
+achieved by Charcot's school.
+
+There is only one other point in the explanation of hysteria which I will
+here refer to, and that because it is usually ignored, and because it has
+relationship to the general psychology of the sexual emotions. I refer to
+that physiological hysteria which is the normal counterpart of the
+pathological hysteria which has been described in its physical details by
+Charcot, and to which alone the term should strictly be applied. Even
+though hysteria as a disease may be described as one and indivisible,
+there are yet to be found, among the ordinary and fairly healthy
+population, vague and diffused hysteroid symptoms which are dissipated in
+a healthy environment, or pass nearly unnoted, only to develop in a small
+proportion of cases, under the influence of a more pronounced heredity, or
+a severe physical or psychic lesion, into that definite morbid state which
+is properly called hysteria.
+
+This diffused hysteroid condition may be illustrated by the results of a
+psychological investigation carried on in America by Miss Gertrude Stein
+among the ordinary male and female students of Harvard University and
+Radcliffe College. The object of the investigation was to study, with the
+aid of a planchette, the varying liability to automatic movements among
+normal individuals. Nearly one hundred students were submitted to
+experiment. It was found that automatic responses could be obtained in two
+sittings from all but a small proportion of the students of both sexes,
+but that there were two types of individual who showed a special aptitude.
+One type (probably showing the embryonic form of neurasthenia) was a
+nervous, high-strung, imaginative type, not easily influenced from
+without, and not so much suggestible as autosuggestible. The other type,
+which is significant from our present point of view, is thus described by
+Miss Stein: "In general the individuals, often blonde and pale, are
+distinctly phlegmatic. If emotional, decidedly of the weakest, sentimental
+order. They may be either large, healthy, rather heavy, and lacking in
+vigor or they may be what we call anæmic and phlegmatic. Their power of
+concentrated attention is very small. They describe themselves as never
+being held by their work; they say that their minds wander easily; that
+they work on after they are tired, and just keep pegging away. They are
+very apt to have premonitory conversations, they anticipate the words of
+their friends, they imagine whole conversations that afterward come true.
+The feeling of having been there is very common with them; that is, they
+feel under given circumstances that they have had that identical
+experience before in all its details. They are often fatalistic in their
+ideas. They indulge in day-dreams. As a rule, they are highly
+suggestible."[283]
+
+There we have a picture of the physical constitution and psychic
+temperament on which the classical symptoms of hysteria might easily be
+built up.[284] But these persons were ordinary students, and while a few
+of their characteristics are what is commonly and vaguely called "morbid,"
+on the whole they must be regarded as ordinarily healthy individuals. They
+have the congenital constitution and predisposition on which some severe
+psychic lesion at the "psychological moment" might develop the most
+definite and obstinate symptoms of hysteria, but under favorable
+circumstances they will be ordinary men and women, of no more than
+ordinary abnormality or ordinary power. They are among the many who have
+been called to hysteria at birth; they may never be among the few who are
+chosen.
+
+We may have to recognize that on the side of the sexual emotions, as well
+as in general constitution, a condition may be traced among normal persons
+that is hysteroid in character, and serves as the healthy counterpart of a
+condition which in hysteria is morbid. In women such a condition Has been
+traced (though misnamed) by Dr. King.[285]
+
+    Dr. King describes what he calls "sexual hysteria in women,"
+    which he considers a chief variety of hysteria. He adds, however,
+    that it is not strictly a disease, but simply an automatic
+    reaction of the reproductive system, which tends to become
+    abnormal under conditions of civilization, and to be perpetuated
+    in a morbid form. In this condition he finds twelve characters:
+    1. Time of life, usually between puberty and climacteric. 2.
+    Attacks rarely occur when subject is alone. 3. Subject appears
+    unconscious, but is not really so. 4. She is instinctively
+    ashamed afterward. 5. It occurs usually in single women, or in
+    those, single or married, whose sexual needs are unsatisfied. 6.
+    No external evidence of disease, and (as Aitken pointed out) the
+    nates are not flattened; the woman's physical condition is not
+    impaired, and she may be specially attractive to men. 7. Warmth
+    of climate and the season of spring and summer are conducive to
+    the condition. 8. The paroxysm in short and temporary. 9. While
+    light touches are painful, firm pressure and rough handling give
+    relief. 10. It may occur in the occupied, but an idle,
+    purposeless life is conducive. 11. The subject delights in
+    exciting sympathy and in being fondled and caressed. 12. There is
+    defect of will and a strong stimulus is required to lead to
+    action.
+
+    Among civilized women, the author proceeds, this condition does
+    not appear to subserve any useful purpose. "Let us, however, go
+    back to aboriginal woman--to woman of the woods and the fields.
+    Let us picture ourselves a young aboriginal Venus in one of her
+    earliest hysterical paroxysms. In doing so, let us not forget
+    some of the twelve characteristics previously mentioned. She will
+    not be 'acting her part' alone, or, if alone, it will be in a
+    place where someone else is likely soon to discover her. Let this
+    Venus be now discovered by a youthful Apollo of the woods, a man
+    with fully developed animal instincts. He and she, like any other
+    animals, are in the free field of Nature. He cannot but observe
+    to himself: 'This woman is not dead; she breathes and is warm;
+    she does not look ill; she is plump and rosy.' He speaks to her;
+    she neither hears (apparently) nor responds. Her eyes are closed.
+    He touches, moves, and handles her at his pleasure. She makes no
+    resistance. What will this primitive Apollo do next? He will cure
+    the fit, and bring the woman back to consciousness, satisfy her
+    emotions, and restore her volition--not by delicate touches that
+    might be 'agonizing' to her hyperesthetic skin, but by vigorous
+    massage, passive motions, and succussion that would be painless.
+    The emotional process on the part of the woman would end,
+    perhaps, with mingled laughter, tears, and shame; and when
+    accused afterward of the part which the ancestrally acquired
+    properties of her nervous system had compelled her to act, as a
+    preliminary to the event, what woman would not deny it and be
+    angry? But the course of Nature having been followed, the natural
+    purpose of the hysterical paroxysm accomplished, there would
+    remain as a result of the treatment--instead of one discontented
+    woman--two happy people, and the possible beginning of a third."
+
+    "Natural, primary sexual hysteria in woman," King concludes, "is
+    a temporary modification of the nervous government of the body
+    and the distribution of nerve-force (occurring for the most part,
+    as we see it to-day, in prudish women of strong moral principle,
+    whose volition has disposed them to resist every sort of liberty
+    or approach from the other sex), consisting in a transient
+    abdication of the general, volitional, and self-preservational
+    ego, while the reins of government are temporarily assigned to
+    the usurping power of the reproductive ego, so that the
+    reproductive government overrules the government by volition, and
+    thus, as it were, forcibly compels the woman's organism to so
+    dispose itself, at a suitable time and place, as to allow,
+    invite, and secure the approach of the other sex, whether she
+    will or not, to the end that Nature's imperious demand for
+    reproduction shall be obeyed."
+
+This perhaps rather fantastic description is not a presentation of
+hysteria in the technical sense, but we may admit that it presents a state
+which, if not the real physiological counterpart of the hysterical
+convulsion, is yet distinctly analogous to the latter. The sexual orgasm
+has this correspondence with the hysterical fit, that they both serve to
+discharge the nervous centres and relieve emotional tension. It may even
+happen, especially in the less severe forms of hysteria, that the sexual
+orgasm takes place during the hysterical fit; this was found by Rosenthal,
+of Vienna, to be always the case in the semiconscious paroxysms of a young
+girl whose condition was easily cured;[286] no doubt such cases would be
+more frequently found if they were sought for. In severe forms of
+hysteria, however, it frequently happens, as so many observers have noted,
+that normal sexual excitement has ceased to give satisfaction, has become
+painful, perverted, paradoxical. Freud has enabled us to see how a shock
+to the sexual emotions, injuring the emotional life at its source, can
+scarcely fail sometimes to produce such a result. But the necessity for
+nervous explosion still persists.[287] It may, indeed, persist, even in an
+abnormally strong degree, in consequence of the inhibition of normal
+activities generally. The convulsive fit is the only form of relief open
+to the tension. "A lady whom I long attended," remarks Ashwell, "always
+rejoiced when the fit was over, since it relieved her system generally,
+and especially her brain, from painful irritation which had existed for
+several previous days." That the fit mostly fails to give real
+satisfaction, and that it fails to cure the disease, is due to the fact
+that it is a morbid form of relief. The same character of hysteria is
+seen, with more satisfactory results for the most part, in the influence
+of external nervous shock. It was the misunderstood influence of such
+shocks in removing hysteria which in former times led to the refusal to
+regard hysteria as a serious disease. During the Rebellion of 1745-46 in
+Scotland, Cullen remarks that there was little hysteria. The same was true
+of the French Revolution and of the Irish Rebellion, while Rush (in a
+study _On the Influence of the American Revolution on the Human Body_)
+observed that many hysterical women were "restored to perfect health by
+the events of the time." In such cases the emotional tension is given an
+opportunity of explosion in new and impersonal channels, and the chain of
+morbid personal emotions is broken.
+
+It has been urged by some that the fact that the sexual orgasm usually
+fails to remove the disorder in true hysteria excludes a sexual factor of
+hysteria. It is really, one may point out, an argument in favor of such an
+element as one of the factors of hysteria. If there were no initial lesion
+of the sexual emotions, if the natural healthy sexual channel still
+remained free for the passage of the emotional overflow, then we should
+expect that it would much oftener come into play in the removal of
+hysteria. In the more healthy, merely hysteroid condition, the psychic
+sexual organism is not injured, and still responds normally, removing the
+abnormal symptoms when allowed to do so. It is the confusion between this
+almost natural condition and the truly morbid condition, alone properly
+called hysteria, which led to the ancient opinion, inaugurated by Plato
+and Hippocrates, that hysteria may be cured by marriage.[288] The
+difference may be illustrated by the difference between a distended
+bladder which is still able to contract normally on its contents when at
+last an opportunity of doing so is afforded and the bladder in which
+distension has been so prolonged that nervous control had been lost and
+spontaneous expulsion has become impossible. The first condition
+corresponds to the constitution, which, while simulating the hysterical
+condition, is healthy enough to react normally in spite of psychic
+lesions; the second corresponds to a state in which, owing to the
+prolonged stress of psychic traumatism,--sexual or not,--a definite
+condition of hysteria has arisen. The one state is healthy, though
+abnormal; the other is one of pronounced morbidity.
+
+The condition of true hysteria is thus linked on to almost healthy states,
+and especially to a condition which may be described as one of sex-hunger.
+Such a suggestion may help us to see these puzzling phenomena in their
+true nature and perspective.
+
+    At this point I may refer to the interesting parallel, and
+    probable real relationship, between hysteria and chlorosis. As
+    Luzet has said, hysteria and chlorosis are sisters. We have seen
+    that there is some ground for regarding hysteria as an
+    exaggerated form of a normal process which is really an
+    auto-erotic phenomenon. There is some ground, also, for regarding
+    chlorosis as the exaggeration of a physiological state connected
+    with sexual conditions, more specifically with the preparation
+    for maternity. Hysteria is so frequently associated with anæmic
+    conditions that Biernacki has argued that such conditions really
+    constitute the primary and fundamental cause of hysteria
+    (_Neurologisches Centralblatt_, March, 1898). And, centuries
+    before Biernacki, Sydenham had stated his belief that poverty of
+    the blood is the chief cause of hysteria.
+
+    It would be some confirmation of this position if we could
+    believe that chlorosis, like hysteria, is in some degree a
+    congenital condition. This was the view of Virchow, who regarded
+    chlorosis as essentially dependent on a congenital hyoplasia of
+    the arterial system. Stieda, on the basis of an elaborate study
+    of twenty-three cases, has endeavored to prove that chlorosis is
+    due to a congenital defect of development (_Zeitschrift für
+    Geburtshülfe und Gynäkologie_, vol. xxxii, Part I, 1895). His
+    facts tend to prove that in chlorosis there are signs of general
+    ill-development, and that, in particular, there is imperfect
+    development of the breasts and sexual organs, with a tendency to
+    contracted pelvis. Charrin, again, regards utero-ovarian
+    inadequacy as at least one of the factors of chlorosis.
+    Chlorosis, in its extreme form, may thus be regarded as a
+    disorder of development, a sign of physical degeneracy. Even if
+    not strictly a cause, a congenital condition may, as Stockman
+    believes (_British Medical Journal_, December 14, 1895), be a
+    predisposing influence.
+
+    However it may be in extreme cases, there is very considerable
+    evidence to indicate that the ordinary anæmia of young women may
+    be due to a storing up of iron in the system, and is so far
+    normal, being a preparation for the function of reproduction.
+    Some observations of Bunge's seem to throw much light on the real
+    cause of what may be termed physiological chlorosis. He found by
+    a series of experiments on animals of different ages that young
+    animals contain a much greater amount of iron in their tissues
+    than adult animals; that, for instance, the body of a rabbit an
+    hour after birth contains more than four times as much iron as
+    that of a rabbit two and a half months old. It thus appears
+    probable that at the period of puberty, and later, there is a
+    storage of iron in the system preparatory to the exercise of the
+    maternal functions. It is precisely between the ages of fifteen
+    and twenty-three, as Stockman found by an analysis of his own
+    cases (_British Medical Journal_, December 14, 1895), that the
+    majority of cases occur; there was, indeed, he found, no case in
+    which the first onset was later than the age of twenty-three. A
+    similar result is revealed by the charts of Lloyd Jones, which
+    cover a vastly greater number of cases.
+
+    We owe to Lloyd Jones an important contribution to the knowledge
+    of chlorosis in its physiological or normal relationships. He has
+    shown that chlorosis is but the exaggeration of a condition that
+    is normal at puberty (and, in many women, at each menstrual
+    period), and which, there is good reason to believe, even has a
+    favorable influence on fertility. He found that
+    light-complexioned persons are more fertile than the
+    dark-complexioned, and that at the same time the blood of the
+    latter is of less specific gravity, containing less hæmoglobin.
+    Lloyd Jones also reached the generalization that girls who have
+    had chlorosis are often remarkably pretty, so that the tendency
+    to chlorosis is associated with all the sexual and reproductive
+    aptitudes that make a woman attractive to a man. His conclusion
+    is that the normal condition of which chlorosis is the extreme
+    and pathological condition, is a preparation for motherhood (E.
+    Lloyd Jones, "Chlorosis: The Special Anæmia of Young Women,"
+    1897; also numerous reports to the British Medical Association,
+    published in the _British Medical Journal_. There was an
+    interesting discussion of the theories of chlorosis at the Moscow
+    International Medical Congress, in 1898; see proceedings of the
+    congress, volume in, section v, pp. 224 et seq.).
+
+    We may thus, perhaps, understand why it is that hysteria and
+    anæmia are often combined, and why they are both most frequently
+    found in adolescent young women who have yet had no sexual
+    experiences. Chlorosis is a physical phenomenon; hysteria,
+    largely a psychic phenomenon; yet, both alike may, to some extent
+    at least, be regarded as sexual aptitude showing itself in
+    extreme and pathological forms.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[251] _Genèse et Nature de l'Hystérie_, 1898; and, for Sollier's latest
+statement, see "Hystérie et Sommeil," _Archives de Neurologie_, May and
+June, 1907. Lombroso (_L'Uomo Delinquente_, 1889, vol. ii, p. 329),
+referring to the diminished metabolism of the hysterical, had already
+compared them to hibernating animals, while Babinsky states that the
+hysterical are in a state of subconsciousness, a state, as Metchnikoff
+remarks (_Essais optimistes_, p. 270), reminiscent of our prehistoric
+past.
+
+[252] Professor Freud, while welcoming the introduction of the term
+"auto-erotism," remarks that it should not be made to include the whole of
+hysteria. This I fully admit, and have never questioned. Hysteria is far
+too large and complex a phenomenon to be classed as entirely a
+manifestation of auto-erotism, but certain aspects of it are admirable
+illustrations of auto-erotic transformation.
+
+[253] The hysterical phenomenon of _globus hystericus_ was long afterward
+attributed to obstruction of respiration by the womb. The interesting case
+has been recorded by E. Bloch (_Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift_, 1907, p.
+1649) of a lady who had the feeling of a ball rising from her stomach to
+her throat, and then sinking. This feeling was associated with thoughts of
+her husband's rising and falling penis, and was always most liable to
+occur when she wished for coitus.
+
+[254] As Gilles de la Tourette points out, it is not difficult to show
+that epilepsy, the _morbus sacer_ of the ancients, owed much of its sacred
+character to this confusion with hysteria. Those priestesses who, struck
+by the _morbus sacer_, gave forth their oracles amid convulsions, were
+certainly not the victims of epilepsy, but of hysteria (_Traité de
+l'Hystérie_, vol. i, p. 3).
+
+[255] Aretæus, _On the Causes and Symptoms of Acute Diseases_, Book ii,
+Chapter II.
+
+[256] It may be noted that this treatment furnishes another instance of
+the continuity of therapeutic methods, through all changes of theory, from
+the earliest to the latest times. Drugs of unpleasant odor, like
+asafoetida, have always been used in hysteria, and scientific medicine
+to-day still finds that asafoetida is a powerful sedative to the uterus,
+controlling nervous conditions during pregnancy and arresting uterine
+irritation when abortion is threatened (see, e.g., Warman, _Der
+Frauenarzt_, August, 1895). Again, the rubbing of fragrant ointments into
+the sexual regions is but a form of that massage which is one of the
+modern methods of treating the sexual disorders of women.
+
+[257] _Les Démoniaques dans l'Art_, 1887; _Les Malades et les Difformes
+dans l'Art_, 1889.
+
+[258] Glafira Abricosoff, of Moscow, in her Paris thesis, _L'Hystérie aux
+xvii et xviii siécles_, 1897, presents a summary of the various views held
+at this time; as also Gilles de la Tourette, _Traité de l'Hystérie_, vol.
+i, Chapter I.
+
+[259] _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, June, 1883, p. 1123, and _Mental
+Diseases_, 1887, p. 488.
+
+[260] Hegar, _Zusammenhang der Geschlechtskrankheiten mit nervösen
+Leiden_, Stuttgart, 1885. (Hegar, however, went much further than this,
+and was largely responsible for the surgical treatment of hysteria now
+generally recognized as worse than futile.) Balls-Headley, "Etiology of
+Nervous Diseases of the Female Genital Organs," Allbutt and Playfair,
+_System of Gynecology_, 1896, p. 141.
+
+[261] Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_, 1893, pp. 613-14.
+
+[262] Charcot and Marie, article on "Hysteria," Tuke's _Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine_.
+
+[263] Axenfeld and Huchard, _Traité des Névroses_, 1883, pp. 1092-94.
+Icard (_La Femme pendant la Période Menstruelle_, pp. 120-21) has also
+referred to recorded cases of hysteria in animals (Coste's and Peter's
+cases), as has Gilles de la Tourette (op. cit., vol. i, p. 123). See also,
+for references, Féré, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, p. 59.
+
+[264] _Man and Woman_, 4th ed., p. 326. A distinguished gynæcologist,
+Matthews Duncan, had remarked some years earlier (_Lancet_, May 18, 1889)
+that hysteria, though not a womb disease, "especially attaches itself to
+the generative system, because the genital system, more than any other,
+exerts emotional power over the individual, power also in morals, power in
+social questions."
+
+[265] Gilles de la Tourette, _Archives de Tocologie et de Gynécologie_,
+June, 1895.
+
+[266] _Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria_, 1897, p. 290; summarized in
+the _Journal of Mental Science_, January, 1898.
+
+[267] From the earliest times it was held that menstruation favors
+hysteria; more recently, Landouzy recorded a number of observations
+showing that hysterical attacks coincide with perfectly healthy
+menstruation; while Ball has maintained that it is only during
+menstruation that hysteria appears in its true color. See the opinions
+collected by Icard, _La Femme pendant la Période Menstruelle_, pp. 75-81.
+
+[268] Krafft-Ebing, "Ueber Neurosen und Psychosen durch Sexuelle
+Abstinenz," _Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie_, vol. iii, 1888. It must,
+however, be added that the relief of hysteria by sexual satisfaction is
+not rare, and that Rosenthal finds that the convulsions are thus
+diminished. (_Allgemeine Wiener Medizinal-Zeitung_, Nos. 46 and 47, 1887.)
+So they are also, in simple and uncomplicated cases, according to Mongeri,
+by pregnancy.
+
+[269] "All doctors who have patients in convents," remarks Marro (_La
+Pubertà_, p. 338), "know how hysteria dominates among them;" he adds that
+his own experience confirms that of Raciborski, who found that nuns
+devoted to the contemplative life are more liable to hysteria than those
+who are occupied in teaching or in nursing. It must be added, however,
+that there is not unanimity as to the prevalence of hysteria in convents.
+Brachet was of the same opinion as Briquet, and so considered it rare.
+Imbert-Goubeyre, also (_La Stigmatisation_, p. 436) states that during
+more than forty years of medical life, though he has been connected with a
+number of religious communities, he has not found in them a single
+hysterical subject, the reason being, he remarks, that the unbalanced and
+extravagant are refused admission to the cloister.
+
+[270] Parent-Duchâtelet, _De la Prostitution_, vol. i, p. 242.
+
+[271] It may not be unnecessary to point out that here and throughout, in
+speaking of the psychic mechanism of hysteria, I do not admit that any
+process can be _purely_ psychic. As Féré puts it in an admirable study of
+hysteria (_Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine_, 1897, vol. x, p. 556):
+"In the genesis of hysterical troubles everything takes place as if the
+psychical and the somatic phenomena were two aspects of the same
+biological fact."
+
+[272] Pierre Janet, _L'Automatisme Psychologique_, 1889; _L'Etat mental
+des Hystériques_, 1894; _Névroses et Idées fixes_, 1898; Breuer und Freud,
+_Studien über Hysterie_, Vienna, 1895; the best introduction to Freud's
+work is, however, to be found in the two series of his _Sammlung Kleiner
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, published in a collected form in 1906 and
+1909. It may be added that a useful selection of Freud's papers has lately
+(1909) been published in English.
+
+[273] We might, perhaps, even say that in hysteria the so-called higher
+centres have an abnormally strong inhibitory influence over the lower
+centres. Gioffredi (_Gazzetta degli Ospedali_, October 1, 1895) has shown
+that some hysterical symptoms, such as mutism, can be cured by
+etherization, thus loosening the control of the higher centres.
+
+[274] Charcot's school could not fail to recognize the erotic tone which
+often dominates hysterical hallucinations. Gilles de la Tourette seeks to
+minimize it by the remark that "it is more mental than real." He means to
+say that it is more psychic than physical, but he implies that the
+physical element in sex is alone "real," a strange assumption in any case,
+as well as destructive of Gilles de la Tourette's own fundamental
+assertion that hysteria is a real disease and yet purely psychic.
+
+[275] See, e.g., his substantial volume, _Die Traumdeutung_, 1900, 2d ed.
+1909.
+
+[276] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 208.
+
+[277] _Studien über Hysterie_, p. 217.
+
+[278] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 162.
+
+[279] _Sammlung_, second series, p. 102.
+
+[280] Ib. p. 146.
+
+[281] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 229. Freud has developed his conception
+of sexual constitution in _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905.
+
+[282] As Moll remarks, Freud's conceptions are still somewhat subjective,
+and in need of objective demonstration; but whatever may be thought of
+their theories, he adds, there can be no doubt that Breuer and Freud have
+done a great service by calling attention to the important action of the
+sexual life on the nervous system.
+
+[283] Gertrude Stein, "Cultivated Motor Automatism," _Psychological
+Review_, May, 1898.
+
+[284] Charcot's most faithful followers refuse to recognize a "hysteric
+temperament," and are quite right, if such a conception is used to destroy
+the conception of hysteria as a definite disease. We cannot, however, fail
+to recognize a diathesis which, while still apparently healthy, is
+predisposed to hysteria. So distinguished a disciple of Charcot as Janet
+thoroughly recognizes this, and argues (_L'Etat mental_, etc., p. 298)
+that "we may find in the habits, the passions, the psychic automatism of
+the normal man, the germ of all hysterical phenomena." Féré held a
+somewhat similar view.
+
+[285] A.F.A. King, "Hysteria," _American Journal of Obstetrics_, May 18,
+1891.
+
+[286] M. Rosenthal, _Diseases of the Nervous System_, vol. ii, p. 44. Féré
+notes similar cases (_Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine_, vol. x, p.
+551). Long previously, Gall had recorded the case of a young widow of
+ardent temperament who had convulsive attacks, apparently of hysterical
+nature, which always terminated in sexual orgasm (_Fonctions du Cerveau_,
+1825, vol. iii, p. 245).
+
+[287] There seems to be a greater necessity for such explosive
+manifestations in women than in men, whatever the reason may be. I have
+brought together some of the evidence pointing in this direction in _Man
+and Woman_, 4th ed., revised and enlarged, Chapters xii and xiii.
+
+[288] There is no doubt an element of real truth in this ancient belief,
+though it mainly holds good of minor cases of hysteria. Many excellent
+authorities accept it. "Hysteria is certainly common in the single,"
+Herman remarks (_Diseases of Women_, 1898, p. 33), "and is generally cured
+by a happy marriage." Löwenfeld (_Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, p. 153)
+says that "it cannot be denied that marriage produces a beneficial change
+in the general condition of many hysterical patients," though, he adds, it
+will not remove the hysterical temperament. The advantage of marriage for
+the hysterical is not necessarily due, solely or at all, to the exercise
+of sexual functions. This is pointed out by Mongeri, who observes
+(_Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie_, 1901, Heft 5, p. 917): "I have
+known and treated several hysterical girls who are now married, and do not
+show the least neuropathic indications. Some of these no longer have any
+wish for sexual gratification, and even fulfil their marital duties
+unwillingly, though loving their husbands and living with them in an
+extremely happy way. In my opinion, marriage is a sovereign remedy for
+neuropathic women, who need to find a support in another personality, able
+to share with them the battle of life."
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Prevalence of Masturbation--Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood--Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?--After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women--Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation--The Alleged Evils of Masturbation--Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point--The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation--Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders--Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders--The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System--Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation--Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus--Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation--Masturbation in Men of Genius--Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative--Typical Cases--The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation--Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians--The Mohammedan Attitude--The Modern
+Scientific Attitude--In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?--The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.
+
+
+The foregoing sketch will serve to show how vast is the field of life--of
+normal and not merely abnormal life--more or less infused by auto-erotic
+phenomena. If, however, we proceed to investigate precisely the exact
+extent, degree, and significance of such phenomena, we are met by many
+difficulties. We find, indeed, that no attempts have been made to study
+auto-erotic phenomena, except as regards the group--a somewhat artificial
+group, as I have already tried to show--collected under the term
+"masturbation" while even here such attempts have only been made among
+abnormal classes of people, or have been conducted in a manner scarcely
+likely to yield reliable results.[289] Still there is a certain
+significance in the more careful investigations which have been made to
+ascertain the precise frequency of masturbation.
+
+Berger, an experienced specialist in nervous diseases, concluded, in his
+_Vorlesungen_, that 99 per cent. of young men and women masturbate
+occasionally, while the hundredth conceals the truth;[290] and Hermann
+Cohn appears to accept this statement as generally true in Germany. So
+high an estimate has, of course, been called in question, and, since it
+appears to rest on no basis of careful investigation, we need not
+seriously consider it. It is useless to argue on suppositions; we must
+cling to our definite evidence, even though it yields figures which are
+probably below the mark. Rohleder considers that during adolescence at
+least 95 per cent. of both sexes masturbate, but his figures are not
+founded on precise investigation.[291] Julian Marcuse, on the basis of his
+own statistics, concludes that 92 per cent. male individuals have to some
+extent masturbated in youth. Perhaps, also, weight attaches to the opinion
+of Dukes, physician to Rugby School, who states that from 90 to 95 per
+cent. of all boys at boarding school masturbate.[292] Seerley, of
+Springfield, Mass., found that of 125 academic students only 8 assured him
+they had never masturbated; while of 347, who answered his questions, 71
+denied that they practiced masturbation, which seems to imply that 79 per
+cent. admitted that they practiced it.[293] Brockman, also in America,
+among 232 theological students, of the average age of 23½ years and coming
+from various parts of the United States, found that 132 spontaneously
+admitted that masturbation was their most serious temptation and all but
+one of these admitted that he yielded, 69 of them to a considerable
+extent. This is a proportion of at least 56 per cent., the real proportion
+being doubtless larger, since no question had been asked as to sexual
+offenses; 75 practiced masturbation after conversion, and 24 after they
+had decided to become ministers; only 66 mentioned sexual intercourse as
+their chief temptation; but altogether sexual temptations outnumbered all
+others together.[294] Moraglia, who made inquiry of 200 women of the lower
+class in Italy, found that 120 acknowledged either that they still
+masturbate or that they had done so during a long period.[295] Gualino
+found that 23 per cent. men of the professional classes in North Italy
+masturbate about puberty; no account was taken of those who began later.
+"Here in Switzerland," a correspondent writes, "I have had occasion to
+learn from adult men, whom I can trust, that they have reached the age of
+twenty-five, or over, without sexual congress. '_Wir haben nicht dieses
+Bedürfniss_,' is what they say. But I believe that, in the case of the
+Swiss mountaineers, moderate onanism is practiced, as a rule." In hot
+countries the same habits are found at a more precocious age. In
+Venezuela, for instance, among the Spanish creoles, Ernst found that in
+all classes boys and girls are infested with the vice of onanism. They
+learn it early, in the very beginning of life, from their wet-nurses,
+generally low Mulatto women, and many reasons help to foster the habit;
+the young men are often dissipated and the young women often remain
+single.[296] Niceforo, who shows a special knowledge of the working-girl
+class at Rome, states that in many milliners' and dressmakers' workrooms,
+where young girls are employed, it frequently happens that during the
+hottest hours of the day, between twelve and two, when the mistress or
+forewoman is asleep, all the girls without exception give themselves up to
+masturbation.[297] In France a country _curé_ assured Debreyne that among
+the little girls who come up for their first communion, 11 out of 12 were
+given to masturbation.[298] The medical officer of a Prussian reformatory
+told Rohleder that nearly all the inmates over the age of puberty
+masturbated. Stanley Hall knew a reform school in America where
+masturbation was practiced without exception, and he who could practice
+it oftenest was regarded with hero-worship.[299] Ferriani, who has made an
+elaborate study of youthful criminality in Italy, states that even if all
+boys and girls among the general population do not masturbate, it is
+certainly so among those who have a tendency to crime. Among 458 adult
+male criminals, Marro (as he states in his _Caratteri dei Delinquenti_)
+found that only 72 denied masturbation, while 386 had practiced it from an
+early age, 140 of them before the age of thirteen. Among 30 criminal women
+Moraglia found that 24 acknowledged the practice, at all events in early
+youth (8 of them before the age of 10, a precocity accompanied by average
+precocity in menstruation), while he suspected that most of the remainder
+were not unfamiliar with the practice. Among prostitutes of whatever class
+or position Moraglia found masturbation (though it must be pointed out
+that he does not appear to distinguish masturbation very clearly from
+homosexual practices) to be universal; in one group of 50 prostitutes
+everyone had practiced masturbation at some period; 28 began between the
+ages of 6 and 11; 19, between 12 and 14, the most usual period--a
+precocious one--of commencing puberty; the remaining 3 at 15 and 16; the
+average age of commencing masturbation, it may be added, was 11, while
+that of the first sexual intercourse was 15.[300] In a larger group of 180
+prostitutes, belonging to Genoa, Turin, Venice, etc., and among 23
+"elegant cocottes," of Italian and foreign origin, Moraglia obtained the
+same results; everyone admitted masturbation, and not less than 113
+preferred masturbation, either solitary or mutual, to normal coitus. Among
+the insane, as among idiots, masturbation is somewhat more common among
+males, according to Blandford, in England, as also it is in Germany,
+according to Näcke,[301] while Venturi, in Italy, has found it more common
+among females.[302]
+
+There appears to be no limit to the age at which spontaneous masturbation
+may begin to appear. I have already referred to the practice of
+thigh-rubbing in infants under one year of age. J.P. West has reported in
+detail 3 cases of masturbation in very early childhood--2 in girls, 1 in a
+boy--in which the practice had been acquired spontaneously, and could only
+be traced to some source of irritation in pressure from clothing,
+etc.[303] Probably there is often in such cases some hereditary lack of
+nervous stability. Block has recorded the case of a girl--very bright for
+her age, though excessively shy and taciturn--who began masturbating
+spontaneously at the age of two; in this case the mother had masturbated
+all her life, even continuing the practice after marriage, and, though she
+succeeded in refraining during pregnancy, her thoughts still dwelt upon
+it, while the maternal grandmother had died in an asylum from
+"masturbatory insanity."
+
+Freud considers that auto-erotic manifestations are common in infancy, and
+that the rhythmic function of any sensitive spot, primarily the lips, may
+easily pass into masturbation. He regards the infantile manifestations of
+which thumb-sucking is the most familiar example (Lüdeln or Lutschen in
+German) as auto-erotic, the germ arising in sucking the breasts since the
+lips are an erogenous zone which may easily be excited by the warm stream
+of milk. But this only occurs, he points out, in subjects in whom the
+sensitivity of the lip zone is heightened and especially in those who at a
+later age are liable to become hysterical.[304] Shuttleworth also points
+out that the mere fidgetiness of a neurotic infant, even when only a few
+months old, sometimes leads to the spontaneous and accidental discovery of
+pleasurable sexual sensations, which for a time appease the restlessness
+of nervous instability, though a vicious circle is thus established. He
+has found that, especially among quite young girls of neurotic heredity,
+self-induced excitement, often in the form of thigh-friction, is more
+common than is usually supposed.[305]
+
+Normally there appears to be a varying aptitude to experience the sexual
+organism, or any voluptuous sensations before puberty. I find, on
+eliciting the recollections of normal persons, that in some cases there
+have been voluptuous sensations from casual contact with the sexual organs
+at a very early age; in other cases there has been occasional slight
+excitement from early years; in yet other cases complete sexual anæsthesia
+until the age of puberty. That the latter condition is not due to mere
+absence of peripheral irritation is shown by a case I am acquainted with,
+in which a boy of 7, incited by a companion, innocently attempted, at
+intervals during several weeks, to produce erection by friction of the
+penis; no result of any kind followed, although erections occurred
+spontaneously at puberty, with normal sexual feelings.[306]
+
+    I am indebted to a correspondent for the following notes:--
+
+    "From my observation during five years at a boarding-school, it
+    _seems_ that eight out of ten boys were more or less addicted to
+    the practice. But I would not state _positively_ that such was
+    the proportion of masturbators among an average of thirty pupils,
+    though the habit was very common. I know that in one bedroom,
+    sleeping seven boys, the whole number masturbated frequently. The
+    act was performed in bed, in the closets, and sometimes in the
+    classrooms during lessons. Inquiry among my friends as to onanism
+    in the boarding-schools to which they were sent, elicited
+    somewhat contradictory answers concerning the frequency of the
+    habit. Dr. ----, who went to a French school, told me that _all_
+    the older boys had younger accomplices in mutual masturbation. He
+    also spoke with experience of the prevalence of the practice in a
+    well-known public school in the west of England. B. said _all_
+    the boys at his school masturbated; G. stated that _most_ of his
+    schoolmates were onanists; L. said 'more than half' was the
+    proportion.
+
+    "At my school, manual masturbation was both solitary and mutual;
+    and sometimes younger boys, who had not acquired the habit, were
+    induced to manipulate bigger boys. One very precocious boy of
+    fifteen always chose a companion of ten 'because his hand was
+    like a woman's.' Sometimes boys entered their friend's bed for
+    mutual excitement. In after-life they showed no signs of
+    inversion. Another boy, aged about fourteen, who had been seduced
+    by a servant-girl, embraced the bolster; the pleasurable
+    sensations, according to his statement, were heightened by
+    imagining that the bolster was a woman. He said that the
+    enjoyment of the act was greatly increased during the holidays,
+    when he was able to spread a pair of his sister's drawers upon
+    the pillow, and so intensify the illusion.
+
+    "Before puberty the boys appeared to be more continent than
+    afterward. A few of the older and more intelligent masturbators
+    regulated the habit, as some married men regulate intercourse.
+    The big boy referred to, who chose always the same manipulator,
+    professed to indulge only once in twenty days, his reason being
+    that more frequent repetition of the act would injure his health.
+    About twice a week for boys who had reached puberty, and once a
+    week for younger boys, was, I think, about the average
+    indulgence. I have never met with a parallel of one of those
+    cases of excessive masturbation recorded by many doctors. There
+    may have been such cases at this school; but, if so, the boys
+    concealed the frequency of their gratifications.
+
+    "My experience proved that many of the lads regarded masturbation
+    as reprehensible; but their plea was 'everyone does it.' Some,
+    often those who indulged inordinately and more secretly than
+    their companions, gravely condemned the practice as sinful. A few
+    seemed to think there was 'no harm in it,' but that the habit
+    might stunt the growth and weaken the body if practiced very
+    frequently. The greater number made no attempt to conceal the
+    habit, they enlarged upon the pleasure of it; it was 'ever so
+    much nicer than eating tarts,' etc.
+
+    "The chief cause I believe to be initiation by an older
+    schoolmate. But I have known accidental causes, such as the
+    discovery that swarming up a pole pleasurably excited the organ,
+    rubbing to allay irritation, and simple, curious handling of the
+    erect penis in the early morning before rising from bed."
+
+    I quote the foregoing communication as perhaps a fairly typical
+    experience in a British school, though I am myself inclined to
+    think that the prevalence of masturbation in schools is often
+    much overrated, for, while in some schools the practice is
+    doubtless rampant, in others it is practically unknown, or, at
+    all events, only practiced by a few individuals in secret. My own
+    early recollections of (private) school-life fail to yield any
+    reminiscences of any kind connected with either masturbation or
+    homosexuality; and, while such happy ignorance may be the
+    exception rather than the rule, I am certainly inclined to
+    believe that--owing to race and climate, and healthier conditions
+    of life--the sexual impulse is less precocious and less
+    prominently developed during the school-age in England than in
+    some Continental countries. It is probably to this delayed
+    development that we should attribute the contrast that Ferrero
+    finds (_L'Europa Giovane_, pp. 151-56), and certainly states too
+    absolutely, between the sexual reserve of young Englishmen and
+    the sexual immodesty of his own countrymen.
+
+    In Germany, Näcke has also stated ("Kritisches zum Kapitel der
+    Sexualität," _Archiv für Psychiatrie_, pp. 354-56, 1899) that he
+    heard nothing at school either of masturbation or homosexuality,
+    and he records the experience of medical friends who stated that
+    such phenomena were only rare exceptions, and regarded by the
+    majority of the boys as exhibitions of "_Schweinerei_." At other
+    German schools, as Hoche has shown, sexual practices are very
+    prevalent. It is evident that at different schools, and even at
+    the same school at different times, these manifestations vary in
+    frequency within wide limits.
+
+    Such variations, it seems to me, are due to two causes. In the
+    first place, they largely depend upon the character of the more
+    influential elder boys. In the second place, they depend upon the
+    attitude of the head-master. With reference to this point I may
+    quote from a letter written by an experienced master in one of
+    the most famous English public schools: "When I first came to
+    ----, a quarter of a century ago, Dr. ---- was making a crusade
+    against this failing; boys were sent away wholesale; the school
+    was summoned and lectured solemnly; and the more the severities,
+    the more rampant the disease. I thought to myself that the remedy
+    was creating the malady, and I heard afterward, from an old boy,
+    that in those days they used to talk things over by the fireside,
+    and think there must be something very choice in a sin that
+    braved so much. Dr. ---- went, and, under ----, we never spoke of
+    such things. Curiosity died down, and the thing itself, I
+    believe, was lessened. We were told to warn new boys of the
+    dangers to health and morals of such offences, lest the innocent
+    should be caught in ignorance. I have only spoken to a few; I
+    think the great thing is not to put it in boys' heads. I have
+    noticed solitary faults most commonly, and then I tell the boy
+    how he is physically weakening himself. If you notice, it is
+    puppies that seem to go against Nature, but grown dogs, never.
+    So, if two small boys acted thus, I should think it merely an
+    instinctive feeling after Nature, which would amend itself. Many
+    here would consider it a heinous sin, but those who think such
+    things sins make them sins. I have seen, in the old days, most
+    delightful little children sent away, branded with infamy, and
+    scarce knowing why--you might as well expel a boy for scratching
+    his head when it itched. I am sure the soundest way is to treat
+    it as a doctor would, and explain to the boy the physical effects
+    of over-indulgence of any sort. When it is combated from the
+    monkish standpoint, the evil becomes an epidemic." I am, however,
+    far from anxious to indorse the policy of ignoring the sexual
+    phenomena of youth. It is not the speaking about such things that
+    should be called in question, but the wisdom and good sense of
+    the speaker. We ought to expect a head-master to possess both an
+    adequate acquaintance with the nature of the phenomena of
+    auto-erotism and homosexuality, and a reasonable amount of tact
+    in dealing with boys; he may then fairly be trusted to exercise
+    his own judgment. It may be doubted whether boys should be made
+    too alive to the existence of sexual phenomena; there can be no
+    doubt about their teachers. The same is, of course, true as
+    regards girls, among whom the same phenomena, though less
+    obtrusive, are not less liable to occur.
+
+As to whether masturbation is more common in one sex than the other, there
+have been considerable differences of opinion. Tissot considered it more
+prevalent among women; Christian believed it commoner among men; Deslandes
+and Iwan Bloch hold that there are no sexual differences, and Garnier was
+doubtful. Lawson Tait, in his _Diseases of Women_, stated his opinion that
+in England, while very common among boys, it is relatively rare among
+women, and then usually taught. Spitzka, in America, also found it
+relatively rare among women, and Dana considers it commoner in boys than
+in girls or adults.[307] Moll is inclined to think that masturbation is
+less common in women and girls than in the male sex. Rohleder believes
+that after puberty, when it is equally common in both sexes, it is more
+frequently found in men, but that women masturbate with more passion and
+imaginative fervor.[308] Kellogg, in America, says it is equally prevalent
+in both sexes, but that women are more secretive. Morris, also in America,
+considers, on the other hand, that persistent masturbation is commoner in
+women, and accounts for this by the healthier life and traditions of boys.
+Pouillet, who studied the matter with considerable thoroughness in France,
+came to the conclusion that masturbation is commoner among women, among
+whom he found it to be equally prevalent in rich and poor, and especially
+so in the great centres of civilization. In Russia, Guttceit states in his
+_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, that from the ages of 10 to 16 boys masturbate
+more than girls, who know less about the practice which has not for them
+the charm of the forbidden, but after 16 he finds the practice more
+frequent in girls and women than in youths and men. Näcke, in Germany,
+believes that there is much evidence pointing in the same direction, and
+Adler considers masturbation very common in women. Moraglia is decidedly
+of the opinion, on the ground of his own observations already alluded to,
+that masturbation is more frequent among women; he refers to the fact--a
+very significant fact, as I shall elsewhere have to point out--that, while
+in man there is only one sexual centre, the penis, in woman there are
+several centres,--the clitoris, the vagina, the uterus, the
+breasts,[309]--and he mentions that he knew a prostitute, a well-developed
+brunette of somewhat nervous temperament, who boasted that she knew
+fourteen ways of masturbating herself.
+
+My own opinion is that the question of the sexual distribution of
+masturbation has been somewhat obscured by that harmful tendency, to which
+I have already alluded, to concentrate attention on a particular set of
+auto-erotic phenomena. We must group and divide our facts rationally if we
+wish to command them. If we confine our attention to very young children,
+the available evidence shows that the practice is much more common in
+females,[310] and such a result is in harmony with the fact that
+precocious puberty is most often found in female children.[311] At
+puberty and adolescence occasional or frequent masturbation is common in
+both boys and girls, though, I believe, less common than is sometimes
+supposed; it is difficult to say whether it is more prevalent among boys
+or girls; one is inclined to conclude that it prevails more widely among
+boys. The sexual impulse, and consequently the tendency to masturbation,
+tend to be aroused later, and less easily in girls than in youths, though
+it must also be remembered that boys' traditions and their more active
+life keep the tendency in abeyance, while in girls there is much less
+frequently any restraining influence of corresponding character.[312] In
+my study of inversion I have found that ignorance and the same absence of
+tradition are probably factors in the prevalence of homosexual tendencies
+among women.[313] After adolescence I think there can be no doubt that
+masturbation is more common in women than in men. Men have, by this time,
+mostly adopted some method of sexual gratification with the opposite sex;
+women are to a much larger extent shut out from such gratification;
+moreover, while in rare cases women are sexually precocious, it more often
+happens that their sexual impulses only gain strength and
+self-consciousness after adolescence has passed. I have been much
+impressed by the frequency with which masturbation is occasionally
+(especially about the period of menstruation) practiced by active,
+intelligent, and healthy women who otherwise lead a chaste life. This
+experience is confirmed by others who are in a position to ascertain the
+facts among normal people; thus a lady, who has received the confidence of
+many women, told me that she believes that all women who remain unmarried
+masturbate, as she found so much evidence pointing in this direction.[314]
+This statement certainly needs some qualification, though I believe it is
+not far from the truth as regards young and healthy women who, after
+having normal sexual relationships, have been compelled for some reason or
+other to break them off and lead a lonely life.[315] But we have to
+remember that there are some women, evidently with a considerable degree
+of congenital sexual anæsthesia (no doubt, in some respect or another
+below the standard of normal health), in whom the sexual instinct has
+never been aroused, and who not only do not masturbate, but do not show
+any desire for normal gratification; while in a large proportion of other
+cases the impulse is gratified passively in ways I have already referred
+to. The auto-erotic phenomena which take place in this way, spontaneously,
+by yielding to revery, with little or no active interference, certainly
+occur much more frequently in women than in men. On the other hand,
+contrary to what one might be led to expect, the closely-related
+auto-erotic phenomena during sleep seem to take place more frequently in
+men, although in women, as we have found ground for concluding, they
+reverberate much more widely and impressively on the waking psychical
+life.
+
+    We owe to Restif de la Bretonne what is perhaps the earliest
+    precise description of a woman masturbating. In 1755 he knew a
+    dark young woman, plain but well-made, and of warm temperament,
+    educated in a convent. She was observed one day, when gazing from
+    her window at a young man in whom she was tenderly interested, to
+    become much excited. "Her movements became agitated; I approached
+    her, and really believe that she was uttering affectionate
+    expressions; she had become red. Then she sighed deeply, and
+    became motionless, stretching out her legs, which she stiffened,
+    as if she felt pain." It is further hinted that her hands took
+    part in this manoeuvre (_Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. vi, p. 143).
+
+    Pictorial representations of a woman masturbating also occur in
+    eighteenth century engravings. Thus, in France, Baudouin's "Le
+    Midi" (reproduced in Fuchs's _Das Erotische Element in der
+    Karikatur_, Fig. 92), represents an elegant young lady in a
+    rococo garden-bower; she has been reading a book she has now just
+    dropped, together with her sunshade; she leans languorously back,
+    and her hand begins to find its way through her placket-hole.
+
+    Adler, who has studied masturbation in women with more care than
+    any previous writer, has recorded in detail the auto-erotic
+    manifestations involved in the case of an intelligent and
+    unprejudiced woman, aged 30, who had begun masturbating when
+    twenty, and practiced it at intervals of a few weeks. She
+    experienced the desire for sexual gratification under the
+    following circumstances: (1) spontaneously, directly before or
+    after menstruation; (2) as a method to cure sleeplessness; (3)
+    after washing the parts with warm (but not cold) water; (4) after
+    erotic dreams; (5) quite suddenly, without definite cause. The
+    phenomena of the masturbatory process fell into two stages: (1)
+    incomplete excitement, (2) the highest pleasurable gratification.
+    It only took place in the evening, or at night, and a special
+    position was necessary, with the right knee bent, and the right
+    foot against the knee of the extended left leg. The bent index
+    and middle fingers of the right hand were then applied firmly to
+    the lower third of the left labium minus, which was rubbed
+    against the underlying parts. At this stage, the manifestations
+    sometimes stopped, either from an effort of self-control or from
+    fatigue of the arm. There was no emission of mucus, or general
+    perspiration, but some degree of satisfaction and of fatigue,
+    followed by sleep. If, however, the manipulation was continued,
+    the second stage was reached, and the middle finger sank into the
+    vagina, while the index finger remained on the labium, the rest
+    of the hand holding and compressing the whole of the vulva, from
+    pubes to anus, against the symphysis, with a backwards and
+    forwards movement, the left hand also being frequently used to
+    support and assist the right. The parts now gave a mushroom-like
+    feeling to the touch, and in a few seconds, or after a longer
+    interval, the complete feeling of pleasurable satisfaction was
+    attained. At the same moment there was (but only after she had
+    had experience of coitus) an involuntary elevation of the pelvis,
+    together with emission of mucus, making the hand wet, this mucus
+    having an odor, and being quite distinct from the ordinary
+    odorless mucus of the vagina; at the same time, the finger in the
+    vagina felt slight contractions of the whole vaginal wall. The
+    climax of sexual pleasure lasted a few seconds, with its
+    concomitant vaginal contractions, then slowly subsided with a
+    feeling of general well-being, the finger at the same time
+    slipping out of the vagina, and she was left in a state of
+    general perspiration, and sleep would immediately follow; when
+    this was not the case, she was frequently conscious of some
+    degree of sensibility in the sacrum, lasting for several hours,
+    and especially felt when sitting. When masturbation was the
+    result of an erotic dream (which occurred but seldom), the first
+    stage was already reached in sleep, and the second was more
+    quickly obtained. During the act it was only occasionally that
+    any thoughts of men or of coitus were present, the attention
+    being fixed on the coming climax. The psychic state afterwards
+    was usually one of self-reproach. (O. Adler, _Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, 1904, pp. 26-29.) The
+    phenomena in this case may be regarded as fairly typical, but
+    there are many individual variations; mucus emissions and vaginal
+    contractions frequently occur before actual orgasm, and there is
+    not usually any insertion of the finger into the vagina in women
+    who have never experienced coitus, or, indeed, even in those who
+    have.
+
+We must now turn to that aspect of our subject which in the past has
+always seemed the only aspect of auto-erotic phenomena meriting attention:
+the symptoms and results of chronic masturbation. It appears to have been
+an Englishman who, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, first
+called popular attention to the supposed evils of masturbation. His book
+was published in London, and entitled: _Onania, or the Heinous Sin of
+Self-pollution, and all its Frightful Consequences in both Sexes,
+Considered, with Spiritual and Physical Advice_, etc. It is not a serious
+medical treatise, but an early and certainly superior example of a kind of
+literature which we have since become familiar with through the daily
+newspapers. A large part of the book, which is cleverly written, is
+devoted in the later editions to the letters of nervous and
+hypochondriacal young men and women, who are too shy to visit the author,
+but request him to send a bottle of his "Strengthening Tincture," and
+mention that they are inclosing half a guinea, a guinea, or still larger
+sum. Concerning the composition of the "Strengthening Tincture" we are not
+informed.[316] This work, which was subsequently attributed to a writer
+named Bekkers, is said to have passed through no less than eighty
+editions, and it was translated into German. Tissot, a physician of
+Lausanne, followed with his _Traité de l'Onanisme: Dissertation sur les
+Maladies produites par la Masturbation_, first published in Latin (1760),
+then in French (1764), and afterward in nearly all European languages. He
+regarded masturbation as a crime, and as "an act of suicide." His book is
+a production of amusing exaggeration and rhetoric, zealously setting forth
+the prodigious evils of masturbation in a style which combines, as
+Christian remarks, the strains of Rousseau with a vein of religious piety.
+Tissot included only manual self-abuse under the term "onanism;" shortly
+afterward, Voltaire, in his _Dictionnaire Philosophique_, took up the
+subject, giving it a wider meaning and still further popularizing it.
+Finally Lallemand, at a somewhat later period (1836), wrote a book which
+was, indeed, more scientific in character, but which still sought to
+represent masturbation as the source of all evils. These four writers--the
+author of _Onania_, Tissot, Voltaire, Lallemand--are certainly responsible
+for much. The mistaken notions of many medical authorities, carried on by
+tradition, even down to our own time; the powerful lever which has been
+put into the hand of unscrupulous quacks; the suffering, dread, and
+remorse experienced in silence by many thousands of ignorant and often
+innocent young people may all be traced in large measure back to these
+four well-meaning, but (on this question) misguided, authors.
+
+There is really no end to the list of real or supposed symptoms and
+results of masturbation, as given by various medical writers during the
+last century. Insanity, epilepsy, numerous forms of eye disease,
+supra-orbital headache, occipital headache (Spitzka), strange sensations
+at the top of the head (Savage), various forms of neuralgia (Anstie, J.
+Chapman), tenderness of the skin in the lower dorsal region (Chapman),
+mammary tenderness in young girls (Lacassagne), mammary hypertrophy
+(Ossendovsky), asthma (Peyer), cardiac murmurs (Seerley), the appearance
+of vesicles on wounds (Baraduc), acne and other forms of cutaneous
+eruptions (the author of _Onania_, Clipson), dilated pupils (Skene,
+Lewis, Moraglia), eyes directed upward and sideways (Pouillet), dark rings
+around the eyes, intermittent functional deafness (Bonnier), painful
+menstruation (J. Chapman), catarrh of uterus and vagina (Winckel,
+Pouillet), ovarian disease (Jessett), pale and discolored skin (Lewis,
+Moraglia), redness of nose (Gruner), epistaxis (Joal, J.N. Mackenzie),
+morbid changes in nose (Fliess), convulsive cough of puberty (Gowers),
+acidity of vagina (R.W. Shufeldt), incontinence of urine in young women
+(Girandeau), warts on the hands in women (Durr, Kreichmar, von Oye),
+hallucinations of smell and hearing, (Griesinger, Lewis), intermittent
+functional deafness (Bonnier), indican in the urine (Herter), an
+indescribable odor of the skin in women (Skene), these are but a few of
+the signs and consequences of masturbation given by various prominent
+authorities.[317]
+
+That many of these manifestations do occur in connection with masturbation
+is unquestionable; there is also good reason to believe that some of them
+may be the results of masturbation acting on an imperfectly healthy
+organism. But in all such cases we must speak with great caution, for
+there appears to be little reliable evidence to show that simple
+masturbation, in a well-born and healthy individual, can produce any evil
+results beyond slight functional disturbances, and these only when it is
+practiced in excess. To illustrate the real pathological relationships of
+masturbation, a few typical and important disorders may be briefly
+considered.
+
+The delicate mechanism of the eye is one of the first portions of the
+nervous apparatus to be disturbed by any undue strain on the system; it is
+not surprising that masturbation should be widely incriminated as a cause
+of eye troubles. If, however, we inquire into the results obtained by the
+most cautious and experienced ophthalmological observers, it grows evident
+that masturbation, as a cause of disease of the eye, becomes merged into
+wider causes. In Germany, Hermann Cohn, the distinguished ophthalmic
+surgeon of Breslau, has dealt fully with the question.[318] Cohn, who
+believes that all young men and women masturbate to some extent, finds
+that masturbation must be excessive for eye trouble to become apparent. In
+most of his cases there was masturbation several times daily during from
+five to seven years, in many during ten years, and in one during
+twenty-three years. In such cases we are obviously dealing with abnormal
+persons, and no one will dispute the possibility of harmful results; in
+some of the cases, when masturbation was stopped, the eye trouble
+improved. Even in these cases, however, the troubles were but slight, the
+chief being, apparently, photopsia (a subjective sensation of light) with
+otherwise normal conditions of pupil, vision, color-sense, and retina. In
+some cases there was photophobia, and he has also found paralysis of
+accommodation and conjunctivitis. At a later date Salmo Cohn, in his
+comprehensive monograph on the relationship between the eye and the sexual
+organs in women, brought together numerous cases of eye troubles in young
+women associated with masturbation, but in most of these cases
+masturbation had been practiced with great frequency for a long period and
+the ocular affections were usually not serious.[319] In England, Power has
+investigated the relations of the sexual system to eye disease. He is
+inclined to think that the effects of masturbation have been exaggerated,
+but he believes that it may produce such for the most part trivial
+complaints as photopsisæ, muscsæ, muscular asthenopia, possibly
+blepharospasm, and perhaps conjunctivitis. He goes on, however, to point
+out that more serious complaints of the eye are caused by excess in normal
+coitus, by sexual abstinence, and especially by disordered menstruation.
+Thus we see that even when we are considering a mechanism so delicately
+poised and one so easily disturbed by any jar of the system as vision,
+masturbation produces no effect except when carried to an extent which
+argues a hereditarily imperfect organism, while even in these cases the
+effects are usually but slight, moreover, in no respect specific, but are
+paralleled and even exceeded by the results of other disturbances of the
+sexual system.
+
+Let us turn to the supposed influence of masturbation in causing insanity
+and nervous diseases. Here we may chiefly realize the immense influence
+exerted on medical science by Tissot and his followers during a hundred
+years. Mental weakness is the cause and not the result of excessive
+masturbation, Gall declared,[320] but he was a man of genius, in
+isolation. Sir William Ellis, an alienist of considerable reputation at
+the beginning of the last century, could write with scientific equanimity:
+"I have no hesitation in saying that, in a very large number of patients
+in all public asylums, the disease may be attributed to that cause." He
+does, indeed, admit that it may be only a symptom sometimes, but goes on
+to assert that masturbation "has not hitherto been exhibited in the awful
+light in which it deserves to be shown," and that "in by far the greater
+number of cases" it is the true cause of dementia.[321] Esquirol lent his
+name and influence to a similar view of the pernicious influence of
+masturbation. Throughout the century, even down to the present day, this
+point of view has been traditionally preserved in a modified form. In
+apparent ignorance of the enormous prevalence of masturbation, and
+without, so far as can be seen, any attempt to distinguish between cause
+and effect or to eliminate the hereditary neuropathic element, many
+alienists have set down a large proportion of cases of insanity, idiocy,
+epilepsy, and disease of the spinal cord to uncomplicated masturbation.
+Thus, at the Matteawan State Hospital (New York) for criminal lunatics and
+insane prisoners, from 1875 to 1907, masturbation was the sole assigned
+cause of insanity in 160 men (out of 2,595); while, according to Dr. Clara
+Barrus, among 121 cases of insanity in young women, masturbation is the
+cause in ten cases.[322] It is unnecessary to multiply examples, for this
+traditional tendency is familiar to all.
+
+It appears to have been largely due to Griesinger, in the middle of the
+last century, that we owe the first authoritative appearance of a saner,
+more discriminating view regarding the results of masturbation. Although
+still to some extent fettered by the traditions prevalent in his day,
+Griesinger saw that it was not so much masturbation itself as the feelings
+aroused in sensitive minds by the social attitude toward masturbation
+which produced evil effects. "That constant struggle," he wrote, "against
+a desire which is even overpowering, and to which the individual always in
+the end succumbs, that hidden strife between shame, repentance, good
+intentions, and the irritation which impels to the act, this, after not a
+little acquaintance with onanists, we consider to be far more important
+than the primary direct physical effect." He added that there are no
+specific signs of masturbation, and concluded that it is oftener a symptom
+than a cause. The general progress of educated opinions since that date
+has, in the main, confirmed and carried forward the results cautiously
+stated by Griesinger. This distinguished alienist thought that, when
+practiced in childhood, masturbation might lead to insanity. Berkhan, in
+his investigation of the psychoses of childhood, found that in no single
+case was masturbation a cause. Vogel, Uffelmann, and Emminghaus, in the
+course of similar studies, have all come to almost similar
+conclusions.[323] It is only on a congenitally morbid nervous system,
+Emminghaus insists, that masturbation can produce any serious results.
+"Most of the cases charged to masturbation," writes Kiernan (in a private
+letter), basing his opinion on wide clinical experience, "are either
+hebephrenia or hysteria in which an effect is taken for the cause."
+Christian, during twenty years' experience in hospitals, asylums, and
+private practice in town and country, has not found any seriously evil
+effects from masturbation.[324] He thinks, indeed, that it may be a more
+serious evil in women than in men. But Yellowlees considers that in women
+"it is possibly less exhausting and injurious than in the other sex,"
+which was also the opinion of Hammond, as well as of Guttceit, though he
+found that women pushed the practice much further than men, and Näcke, who
+has given special attention to this point, could not find that
+masturbation is a definite cause of insanity in women in a single
+case.[325] Koch also reaches a similar conclusion, as regards both sexes,
+though he admits that masturbation may cause some degree of psychopathic
+deterioration. Even in this respect, however, he points out that "when
+practiced in moderation it is not injurious in the certain and
+exceptionless way in which it is believed to be in many circles. It is the
+people whose nervous systems are already injured who masturbate most
+easily and practice it more immoderately than others"; the chief source of
+its evil is self-reproach and the struggle with the impulse.[326]
+Kahlbaum, it is true, under the influence of the older tradition, when he
+erected katatonia into a separate disorder (not always accepted in later
+times), regarded prolonged and excessive masturbation as a chief cause,
+but I am not aware that he ever asserted that it was a sole and sufficient
+cause in a healthy organism. Kiernan, one of the earliest writers on
+katatonia, was careful to point out that masturbation was probably as much
+effect as cause of the morbid nervous condition.[327] Maudsley (in _Body
+and Mind_) recognized masturbation as a special exciting cause of a
+characteristic form of insanity; but he cautiously added: "Nevertheless, I
+think that self-abuse seldom, if ever, produces it without the
+co-operation of the insane neurosis."[328] Schüle also recognized a
+specific masturbatory insanity, but the general tendency to reject any
+such nosological form is becoming marked; Krafft-Ebing long since rejected
+it and Näcke decidedly opposes it. Kraepelin states that excessive
+masturbation can only occur in a dangerous degree in predisposed
+subjects; so, also, Forel and Löwenfeld, as at an earlier period,
+Trousseau.[329] It is true that Marro, in his admirable and detailed study
+of the normal and abnormal aspects of puberty, accepts a form of
+masturbatory insanity; but the only illustrative case he brings forward is
+a young man possessing various stigmata of degeneracy and the son of an
+alcoholic father; such a case tells us nothing regarding the results of
+simple masturbation.[330] Even Spitzka, who maintained several years ago
+the traditional views as to the terrible results of masturbation, and
+recognized a special "insanity of masturbation," stated his conclusions
+with a caution that undermined his position: "Self-abuse," he concluded,
+"to become a sole cause of insanity, must be begun early and carried very
+far. In persons of sound antecedents it rarely, under these circumstances,
+suffices to produce an actual vesania."[331] When we remember that there
+is no convincing evidence to show that masturbation is "begun early and
+carried very far" by "persons of sound antecedents," the significance of
+Spitzka's "typical psychosis of masturbation" is somewhat annulled. It is
+evident that these distinguished investigators, Marro and Spitzka, have
+been induced by tradition to take up a position which their own scientific
+consciences have compelled them practically to evacuate.
+
+    Recent authorities are almost unanimous in rejecting masturbation
+    as a cause of insanity. Thus, Rohleder, in his comprehensive
+    monograph (_Die Masturbation_, 1899, pp. 185-92), although taking
+    a very serious view of the evil results of masturbation, points
+    out the unanimity which is now tending to prevail on this point,
+    and lays it down that "masturbation is never the direct cause of
+    insanity." Sexual excesses of any kind, he adds (following
+    Curschmann), can, at the most, merely give an impetus to a latent
+    form of insanity. On the whole, he concludes, the best
+    authorities are unanimous in agreeing that masturbation may
+    certainly injure mental capacity, by weakening memory and
+    depressing intellectual energy; that, further, in hereditarily
+    neurotic subjects, it may produce slight psychoses like _folie du
+    doute_, hypochondria, hysteria; that, finally, under no
+    circumstances can it produce severe psychoses like paranoia or
+    general paralysis. "If it caused insanity, as often as some
+    claim," as Kellogg remarks, "the whole race would long since have
+    passed into masturbatic degeneracy of mind.... It is especially
+    injurious in the very young, and in all who have weak nervous
+    systems," but "the physical traits attributed to the habit are
+    common to thousands of neurasthenic and neurotic individuals."
+    (Kellogg, _A Text-book of Mental Diseases_, 1897, pp. 94-95.)
+    Again, at the outset of the article on "Masturbation," in Tuke's
+    _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_, Yellowlees states that,
+    on account of the mischief formerly done by reckless statements,
+    it is necessary to state plainly that "unless the practice has
+    been long and greatly indulged, no permanent evil effects may be
+    observed to follow." Näcke, again, has declared ("Kritisches zum
+    Kapitel der Sexualität," _Archiv für Psychiatrie_, 1899): "There
+    are neither somatic nor psychic symptoms peculiar on onanism. Nor
+    is there any specific onanistic psychosis. I am prepared to deny
+    that onanism ever produces any psychoses in those who are not
+    already predisposed." That such a view is now becoming widely
+    prevalent is illustrated by the cautious and temperate discussion
+    of masturbation in a recent work by a non-medical writer,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer (_Chapters on Human Love_, pp. 199-205).
+
+The testimony of expert witnesses with regard to the influence of
+masturbation in producing other forms of psychoses and neuroses is
+becoming equally decisive; and here, also, the traditions of Tissot are
+being slowly effaced. "I have not, in the whole of my practice," wrote
+West, forty years ago, "out of a large experience among children and
+women, seen convulsions, epilepsy, or idiocy _induced_ by masturbation in
+any child of either sex. Neither have I seen any instance in which
+hysteria, epilepsy, or insanity in women after puberty was _due_ to
+masturbation, as its efficient cause."[332] Gowers speaks somewhat less
+positively, but regards masturbation as not so much a cause of true
+epilepsy as of atypical attacks, sometimes of a character intermediate
+between the hysteroid and the epileptoid form; this relationship he has
+frequently seen in boys.[333] Leyden, among the causes of diseases of the
+spinal cord, does not include any form of sexual excess. "In moderation,"
+Erb remarks, "masturbation is not more dangerous to the spinal cord than
+natural coitus, and has no bad effects";[334] it makes no difference, Erb
+considers, whether the orgasm is effected normally or in solitude. This is
+also the opinion of Toulouse, of Fürbringer, and of Curschmann, as at an
+earlier period it was of Roubaud.
+
+While these authorities are doubtless justified in refusing to ascribe to
+masturbation any part in the production of psychic or nervous diseases, it
+seems to me that they are going somewhat beyond their province when they
+assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than coitus. If
+sexual coitus were a purely physiological phenomenon, this position would
+be sound. But the sexual orgasm is normally bound up with a mass of
+powerful emotions aroused by a person of the opposite sex. It is in the
+joy caused by the play of these emotions, as well as in the discharge of
+the sexual orgasm, that the satisfaction of coitus resides. In the absence
+of the desired partner the orgasm, whatever relief it may give, must be
+followed by a sense of dissatisfaction, perhaps of depression, even of
+exhaustion, often of shame and remorse. The same remark has since been
+made by Stanley Hall.[335] Practically, also, as John Hunter pointed out,
+there is more probability of excess in masturbation than in coitus.
+Whether, as some have asserted, masturbation involves a greater nervous
+effort than coitus is more doubtful.[336] It thus seems somewhat
+misleading to assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than
+coitus.[337]
+
+Reviewing the general question of the supposed grave symptoms and signs
+of masturbation, and its pernicious results, we may reach the conclusion
+that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born
+individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow.[338] With
+regard to the general signs, we may accept, as concerns both sexes, what
+the Obstetrical and Gynecological Society of Berlin decided in 1861, in a
+discussion of it in women, that there are none which can be regarded as
+reliable.[339]
+
+We may conclude finally, with Clouston, that the opposing views on the
+subject may be simply explained by the fact that the writers on both sides
+have ignored or insufficiently recognized the influence of heredity and
+temperament. They have done precisely what so many unscientific writers on
+inebriety have continued to do unto the present day, when describing the
+terrible results of alcohol without pointing out that the chief factor in
+such cases has not been the alcohol, but the organization on which the
+alcohol acted. Excess may act, according to the familiar old-fashioned
+adage, like the lighted match. But we must always remember the obvious
+truth, that it makes a considerable difference whether you threw your
+lighted match into a powder magazine or into the sea.
+
+While we may thus dismiss the extravagant views widely held during the
+past century, concerning the awful results of masturbation, as due to
+ignorance and false tradition, it must be pointed out that, even in
+healthy or moderately healthy individuals, any excess in solitary
+self-excitement may still produce results which, though slight, are yet
+harmful. The skin, digestion, and circulation may all be disordered;
+headache and neuralgia may occur; and, as in normal sexual excess or in
+undue frequency of sexual excitement during sleep, there is a certain
+general lowering of nervous tone. Probably the most important of the
+comparatively frequent results--though this also arises usually on a
+somewhat morbid soil--is neurasthenia with its manifold symptoms. There
+can be little doubt that the ancient belief, dating from the time of
+Hippocrates, that sexual excesses produce spinal disease, as well as the
+belief that masturbation causes insanity, are largely due to the failure
+to diagnose neurasthenia.
+
+    The following case of neurasthenia, recorded by Eulenburg, may be
+    given as a classical picture of the nervous disturbances which
+    may be associated with masturbation, and are frequently regarded
+    as solely caused by habits of masturbation: Miss H.H., 28 years
+    of age, a robust brunette, with fully developed figure, without
+    any trace of anæmia or chlorosis, but with an apathetic
+    expression, bluish rings around the eyes, with hypochondriacal
+    and melancholy feelings. She complains of pressure on the head
+    ("as if head would burst"), giddiness, ringing in the ears,
+    photopsia, hemicrania, pains in the back and at sacrum, and
+    symptoms of spinal adynamia, with a sense of fatigue on the least
+    exertion in walking or standing; she sways when standing with
+    closed eyes, tendon-reflexes exaggerated; there is a sense of
+    oppression, intercostal neuralgia, and all the signs of
+    neurasthenic dyspepsia; and cardialgia, nausea, flatulence,
+    meteorism, and alternate constipation and diarrhoea. She chiefly
+    complains of a feeling of weight and pain in the abdomen, caused
+    by the slightest movement, and of a form of pollution (with
+    clitoridian spasms), especially near menstruation, with copious
+    flow of mucus, characteristic pains, and hyperexcitability.
+    Menstruation was irregular and profuse. Examination showed tumid
+    and elongated nymphæ, with brown pigmentation; rather large
+    vagina, with rudimentary hymen; and retroflexion of uterus.
+    After much persuasion the patient confessed that, when a girl of
+    12, and as the result of repeated attempts at coitus by a boy of
+    16, she had been impelled to frequent masturbation. This had
+    caused great shame and remorse, which, however, had not sufficed
+    to restrain the habit. Her mother having died, she lived alone
+    with her invalid father, and had no one in whom to confide.
+    Regarding herself as no longer a virgin, she had refused several
+    offers of marriage, and thus still further aggravated her mental
+    condition. (Eulenburg, _Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 31.)
+
+    Since Beard first described neurasthenia, many diverse opinions
+    have been expressed concerning the relationships of sexual
+    irregularities to neurasthenia. Gilles de la Tourette, in his
+    little monograph on neurasthenia, following the traditions of
+    Charcot's school, dismisses the question of any sexual causation
+    without discussion. Binswanger (_Die Pathologie und Therapie der
+    Neurasthenie_), while admitting that nearly all neurasthenic
+    persons acknowledge masturbation at some period, considers it is
+    not an important cause of neurasthenia, only differing from
+    coitus by the fact that the opportunities for it are more
+    frequent, and that the sexual disturbances of neurasthenia are,
+    in the majority of cases, secondary. Rohleder, on the other hand,
+    who takes a very grave view of the importance of masturbation,
+    considers that its most serious results are a question of
+    neurasthenia. Krafft-Ebing has declared his opinion that
+    masturbation is a cause of neurasthenia. Christian, Leyden, Erb,
+    Rosenthal, Beard, Hummel, Hammond, Hermann Cohn, Curschmann,
+    Savill, Herman, Fürbringer, all attach chief importance to
+    neurasthenia as a result of masturbation. Collins and Phillip
+    (_Medical Record_, March 25, 1899), in an analysis of 333 cases
+    of neurasthenia, found that 123 cases were apparently due to
+    overwork or masturbation. Freud concludes that neurasthenia
+    proper can nearly always be traced to excessive masturbation, or
+    to spontaneous pollutions. (E.g., _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur
+    Neurosenlehre_, first series, p. 187.) This view is confirmed by
+    Gattel's careful study (_Ueber die Sexuellen Ursachen der
+    Neurasthenie und Angstneurose_, 1898). Gattel investigated 100
+    consecutive cases of severe functional nervous disorder in
+    Krafft-Ebing's clinic at Vienna, and found that in every case of
+    neurasthenia in a male (28 in all) there was masturbation, while
+    of the 15 women with neurasthenia, only one is recorded as not
+    masturbating, and she practiced _coitus reservatus_. Irrespective
+    of the particular form of the nervous disorder, Gattel found that
+    18 women out of 42, and 36 men out of 58, acknowledged
+    masturbation. (This shows a slightly larger proportion among the
+    men, but the men were mostly young, while the women were mostly
+    of more mature age.) It must, however, always be remembered that
+    we have no equally careful statistics of masturbation in
+    perfectly healthy persons. We must also remember that we have to
+    distinguish between the _post_ and the _propter_, and that it is
+    quite possible that neurasthenic persons are specially
+    predisposed to masturbation. Bloch is of this opinion, and
+    remarks that a vicious circle may thus be formed.
+
+    On the whole, there can be little doubt that neurasthenia is
+    liable to be associated with masturbation carried to an excessive
+    extent. But, while neurasthenia is probably the severest
+    affection that is liable to result from, or accompany,
+    masturbation, we are scarcely yet entitled to accept the
+    conclusion of Gattel that in such cases there is no hereditary
+    neurotic predisposition. We must steer clearly between the
+    opposite errors of those, on the one hand, who assert that
+    heredity is the sole cause of functional nervous disorders, and
+    those, on the other hand, who consider that the incident that may
+    call out the disorder is itself a sole sufficient cause.
+
+In many cases it has seemed to me that masturbation, when practiced in
+excess, especially if begun before the age of puberty, leads to inaptitude
+for coitus, as well as to indifference to it, and sometimes to undue
+sexual irritability, involving premature emission and practical impotence.
+This is, however, the exception, especially if the practice has not been
+begun until after puberty. In women I attach considerable importance, as a
+result of masturbation, to an aversion for normal coitus in later life. In
+such cases some peripheral irritation or abnormal mental stimulus trains
+the physical sexual orgasm to respond to an appeal which has nothing
+whatever to do with the fascination normally exerted by the opposite sex.
+At puberty, however, the claim of passion and the real charm of sex begin
+to make themselves felt, but, owing to the physical sexual feelings having
+been trained into a foreign channel, these new and more normal sex
+associations remain of a purely ideal and emotional character, without the
+strong sensual impulses with which under healthy conditions they tend to
+be more and more associated as puberty passes on into adolescence or
+mature adult life. I am fairly certain that in many women, often highly
+intellectual women, the precocious excess in masturbation has been a main
+cause, not necessarily the sole efficient cause, in producing a divorce in
+later life between the physical sensuous impulses and the ideal emotions.
+The sensuous impulse having been evolved and perverted before the
+manifestation of the higher emotion, the two groups of feelings have
+become divorced for the whole of life. This is a common source of much
+personal misery and family unhappiness, though at the same time the clash
+of contending impulses may lead to a high development of moral character.
+When early masturbation is a factor in producing sexual inversion it
+usually operates in the manner I have here indicated, the repulsion for
+normal coitus helping to furnish a soil on which the inverted impulse may
+develop unimpeded.
+
+    This point has not wholly escaped previous observers, though they
+    do not seem to have noted its psychological mechanism. Tissot
+    stated that masturbation causes an aversion to marriage. More
+    recently, Loiman ("Ueber Onanismus beim Weibe," _Therapeutische
+    Monatshefte_, April, 1890) considered that masturbation in women,
+    leading to a perversion of sexual feeling, including inability to
+    find satisfaction in coitus, affects the associated centres.
+    Smith Baker, again ("The Neuropsychical Element in Conjugal
+    Aversion," _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, September,
+    1892), finds that a "source of marital aversion seems to lie in
+    the fact that substitution of mechanical and iniquitous
+    excitations affords more thorough satisfaction than the mutual
+    legitimate ones do," and gives cases in point. Savill, also, who
+    believes that masturbation is more common in women than is
+    usually supposed, regards dyspareunia, or pain in coition, as one
+    of the signs of the habit.
+
+    Masturbation in women thus becomes, as Raymond and Janet point
+    out (_Les Obsessions_, vol. ii, p. 307) a frequent cause of
+    sexual frigidity in marriage. These authors illustrate the train
+    of evils which may thus be set up, by the case of a lady, 26
+    years of age, a normal woman, of healthy family, who, at the age
+    of 15, was taught by a servant to masturbate. At the age of 18
+    she married. She loved her husband, but she had no sexual
+    feelings in coitus, and she continued to masturbate, sometimes
+    several times a day, without evil consequences. At 24 she had to
+    go into a hospital for floating kidney, and was so obliged to
+    stop masturbating. She here accidentally learnt of the evil
+    results attributed to the habit. She resolved not to do it again,
+    and she kept her resolution. But while still in hospital she fell
+    wildly in love with a man. To escape from the constant thought of
+    this man, she sought relations with her husband, and at times
+    masturbated, but now it no longer gave her pleasure. She wished
+    to give up sexual things altogether. But that was easier said
+    than done. She became subject to nervous crises, often brought on
+    by the sight of a man, and accompanied by sexual excitement. They
+    disappeared under treatment, and she thereupon became entirely
+    frigid sexually. But, far from being happy, she has lost all
+    energy and interest in life, and it is her sole desire to attain
+    the sexual feelings she has lost. Adler considers that even when
+    masturbation in women becomes an overmastering passion, so far as
+    organic effects are concerned it is usually harmless, its effects
+    being primarily psychic, and he attaches especial significance to
+    it as a cause of sexual anæsthesia in normal coitus, being,
+    perhaps, the most frequent cause of such anæsthesia. He devotes
+    an important chapter to this matter, and brings forward numerous
+    cases in illustration (Adler, _Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, pp. 93-119, also 21-23). Adler
+    considers that the frequency of masturbation in women is largely
+    due to the fact that women experience greater difficulties than
+    men in obtaining sexual satisfaction, and so are impelled by
+    unsatisfying coitus to continue masturbation after marriage. He
+    adds that partly from natural shyness, partly from shame of
+    acknowledging what is commonly accounted a sin, and partly from
+    the fear of seeming disgusting or unworthy of sympathy in the
+    doctor's eyes, women are usually silent on this matter, and very
+    great tact and patience may be necessary before a confession is
+    obtained.
+
+On the psychic side, no doubt, the most frequent and the most
+characteristic result of persistent and excessive masturbation is a morbid
+heightening of self-consciousness without any co-ordinated heightening of
+self-esteem.[340] The man or woman who is kissed by a desirable and
+desired person of the opposite sex feels a satisfying sense of pride and
+elation, which must always be absent from the manifestations of
+auto-erotic activity.[341] This must be so, even apart from the
+masturbator's consciousness of the general social attitude toward his
+practices and his dread of detection, for that may also exist as regards
+normal coitus without any corresponding psychic effects. The masturbator,
+if his practice is habitual, is thus compelled to cultivate an artificial
+consciousness of self-esteem, and may show a tendency to mental arrogance.
+Self-righteousness and religiosity constitute, as it were, a protection
+against the tendency to remorse. A morbid mental soil is, of course,
+required for the full development of these characteristics. The habitual
+male masturbator, it must be remembered, is often a shy and solitary
+person; individuals of this temperament are especially predisposed to
+excesses in all the manifestations of auto-erotism, while the yielding to
+such tendencies increases the reserve and the horror of society, at the
+same time producing a certain suspicion of others. In some extreme cases
+there is, no doubt, as Kraepelin believes, some decrease of psychic
+capacity, an inability to grasp and co-ordinate external impressions,
+weakness of memory, deadening of emotions, or else the general phenomena
+of increased irritability, leading on to neurasthenia.
+
+I find good reason to believe that in many cases the psychic influence of
+masturbation on women is different from its effect on men. As Spitzka
+observed, although it may sometimes render women self-reproachful and
+hesitant, it often seems to make them bold. Boys, as we have seen, early
+assimilate the tradition that self-abuse is "unmanly" and injurious, but
+girls have seldom any corresponding tradition that it is "unwomanly," and
+thus, whether or not they are reticent on the matter, before the forum of
+their own conscience they are often less ashamed of it than men are and
+less troubled by remorse.
+
+    Eulenburg considers that the comparative absence of bad effects
+    from masturbation in girls is largely due to the fact that,
+    unlike boys, they are not terrorized by exaggerated warnings and
+    quack literature concerning the awful results of the practice.
+    Forel, who has also remarked that women are often comparatively
+    little troubled by qualms of conscience after masturbation,
+    denies that this is due to a lower moral tone than men possess
+    (Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 247). In this connection, I may
+    refer to History IV, recorded in the Appendix to the fifth volume
+    of these _Studies_, in which it is stated that of 55 prostitutes
+    of various nationalities, with whom the subject had had
+    relations, 18 spontaneously told him that they were habitual
+    masturbators, while of 26 normal women, 13 made the same
+    confession, unasked. Guttceit, in Russia, after stating that
+    women of good constitution had told him that they masturbated as
+    much as six or ten times a day or night (until they fell asleep,
+    tired), without bad results, adds that, according to his
+    observations, "masturbation, when not excessive, is, on the
+    whole, a quite innocent matter, which exerts little or no
+    permanent effect," and adds that it never, in any case, leads to
+    _hypochondria onanica_ in women, because they have not been
+    taught to expect bad results (_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, p. 306).
+    There is, I think, some truth--though the exceptions are
+    doubtless many--in the distinction drawn by W.C. Krauss
+    ("Masturbational Neuroses," _Medical News_, July 13, 1901): "From
+    my experience it [masturbation] seems to have an opposite effect
+    upon the two sexes, dulling the mental and making clumsy the
+    physical exertions of the male, while in the female it quickens
+    and excites the physical and psychical movements. The man is
+    rendered hypoesthetic, the woman hyperesthetic."
+
+In either sex auto-erotic excesses during adolescence in young men and
+women of intelligence--whatever absence of gross injury there may
+be--still often produce a certain degree of psychic perversion, and tend
+to foster false and high-strung ideals of life. Kraepelin refers to the
+frequency of exalted enthusiasms in masturbators, and I have already
+quoted Anstie's remarks on the connection between masturbation and
+premature false work in literature and art. It may be added that excess in
+masturbation has often occurred in men and women whose work in literature
+and art cannot be described as premature and false. K.P. Moritz, in early
+adult life, gave himself up to excess in masturbation, and up to the age
+of thirty had no relations with women. Lenau is said--though the statement
+is sometimes denied--to have been a masturbator from early life, the habit
+profoundly effecting his life and work. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+admirably describes how his own solitary, timid, and imaginative life
+found its chief sexual satisfaction in masturbation.[342] Gogol, the
+great Russian novelist, masturbated to excess, and it has been suggested
+that the dreamy melancholy thus induced was a factor in his success as a
+novelist. Goethe, it has been asserted, at one time masturbated to excess;
+I am not certain on what authority the statement is made, probably on a
+passage in the seventh book of _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, in which,
+describing his student-life at Leipzig, and his loss of Aennchen owing to
+his neglect of her, he tells how he revenged that neglect on his own
+physical nature by foolish practices from which he thinks he suffered for
+a considerable period.[343] The great Scandinavian philosopher, Sören
+Kierkegaard, suffered severely, according to Rasmussen, from excessive
+masturbation. That, at the present day, eminence in art, literature, and
+other fields may be combined with the excessive practice of masturbation
+is a fact of which I have unquestionable evidence.
+
+    I have the detailed history of a man of 30, of high ability in a
+    scientific direction, who, except during periods of mental
+    strain, has practiced masturbation nightly (though seldom more
+    than once a night) from early childhood, without any traceable
+    evil results, so far as his general health and energy are
+    concerned. In another case, a schoolteacher, age 30, a hard
+    worker and accomplished musician, has masturbated every night,
+    sometimes more than once a night, ever since he was at school,
+    without, so far as he knows, any bad results; he has never had
+    connection with a woman, and seldom touches wine or tobacco.
+    Curschmann knew a young and able author who, from the age of 11
+    had masturbated excessively, but who retained physical and mental
+    freshness. It would be very easy to refer to other examples, and
+    I may remark that, as regards the histories recorded in various
+    volumes of these _Studies_, a notable proportion of those in
+    which excessive masturbation is admitted, are of persons of
+    eminent and recognized ability.
+
+It is often possible to trace the precise mechanism of the relationship
+between auto-erotic excitement and intellectual activity. Brown-Séquard,
+in old age, considered that to induce a certain amount of sexual
+excitement, not proceeding to emission, was an aid to mental work. Raymond
+and Janet knew a man considering himself a poet, who, in order to attain
+the excitation necessary to compose his ideal verses, would write with one
+hand while with the other he caressed his penis, though not to the extent
+of producing ejaculation.[344] We must not believe, however, that this is
+by any means the method of workers who deserve to be accepted seriously;
+it would be felt, to say the least, as unworthy. It is indeed a method
+that would only appeal to a person of feeble or failing mental power. What
+more usually happens is that the auto-erotic excitement develops, _pari
+passu_ and spontaneously, with the mental activity and at the climax of
+the latter the auto-erotic excitement also culminates, almost or even
+quite spontaneously, in an explosion of detumescence which relieves the
+mental tension. I am acquainted with such cases in both young men and
+women of intellectual ability, and they probably occur much more
+frequently than we usually suspect.
+
+    In illustration of the foregoing observations, I may quote the
+    following narrative, written by a man of letters: "From puberty
+    to the age of 30 (when I married), I lived in virgin continence,
+    in accord with my principle. During these years I worked
+    exceedingly hard--chiefly at art (music and poetry). My days
+    being spent earning my livelihood, these art studies fell into my
+    evening time. I noticed that productive power came in
+    periods--periods of irregular length, and which certainly, to a
+    partial extent, could be controlled by the will. Such a period of
+    vital power began usually with a sensation of melancholy, and it
+    quickened my normal revolt against the narrowness of conventional
+    life into a red-hot detestation of the paltriness and pettiness
+    with which so many mortals seem to content themselves. As the
+    mood grew in intensity, this scorn of the lower things mixed with
+    and gave place to a vivid insight into higher truths. The
+    oppression began to give place to a realization of the eternity
+    of the heroic things; the fatuities were seen as mere fashions;
+    love was seen as the true lord of life; the eternal romance was
+    evident in its glory; the naked strength and beauty of men were
+    known despite their clothes. In such mood my work was produced;
+    bitter protest and keen-sighted passion mingled in its building.
+    The arising vitality had certainly deep relation to the
+    periodicity of the sex-force of manhood. At the height of the
+    power of the art-creative mood would come those natural emissions
+    with which Nature calmly disposes of the unused force of the
+    male. Such emissions were natural and healthy, and not exhaustive
+    or hysterical. The process is undoubtedly sane and protective,
+    unless the subject be unhealthy. The period of creative art power
+    extended a little beyond the end of the period of natural seed
+    emission--the art work of this last stage being less vibrant, and
+    of a gentler force. Then followed a time of calm natural rest,
+    which gradually led up to the next sequence of melancholy and
+    power. The periods certainly varied in length of time, controlled
+    somewhat by the force of the mind and the mental will to create;
+    that is to say, I could somewhat delay the natural emission, by
+    which I gained an extension of the period of power."
+
+How far masturbation in moderately healthy persons living without normal
+sexual relationships may be considered normal is a difficult question only
+to be decided with reference to individual cases. As a general rule, when
+only practiced at rare intervals, and _faute de mieux_, in order to obtain
+relief for physical oppression and mental obsession, it may be regarded as
+the often inevitable result of the unnatural circumstances of our
+civilized social life. When, as often happens in mental degeneracy,--and
+as in shy and imaginative persons, perhaps of neurotic temperament, may
+also sometimes become the case,--it is practiced in preference to sexual
+relationships, it at once becomes abnormal and may possibly lead to a
+variety of harmful results, mental and physical.[345]
+
+It must always be remembered, however, that, while the practice of
+masturbation may be harmful in its consequences, it is also, in the
+absence of normal sexual relationships, frequently not without good
+results. In the medical literature of the last hundred years a number of
+cases have been incidentally recorded in which the patients found
+masturbation beneficial, and such cases might certainly have been
+enormously increased if there had been any open-eyed desire to discover
+them. My own observations agree with those of Sudduth, who asserts that
+"masturbation is, in the main, practiced for its sedative effect on the
+nervous system. The relaxation that follows the act constitutes its real
+attraction.... Both masturbation and sexual intercourse should be classed
+as typical sedatives."[346]
+
+    Gall (_Fonctions du Cerveau_, 1825, vol. iii, p. 235) mentioned a
+    woman who was tormented by strong sexual desire, which she
+    satisfied by masturbation ten or twelve times a day; this caused
+    no bad results, and led to the immediate disappearance of a
+    severe pain in the back of the neck, from which she often
+    suffered. Clouston (_Mental Diseases_, 1887, p. 496) quotes as
+    follows from a letter written by a youth of 22: "I am sure I
+    cannot explain myself, nor give account of such conduct.
+    Sometimes I felt so uneasy at my work that I would go to the
+    water-closet to do it, and it seemed to give me ease, and then I
+    would work like a hatter for a whole week, till the sensation
+    overpowered me again. I have been the most filthy scoundrel in
+    existence," etc. Garnier presents the case of a monk, aged 33,
+    living a chaste life, who wrote the following account of his
+    experiences: "For the past three years, at least, I have felt,
+    every two or three weeks, a kind of fatigue in the penis, or,
+    rather, slight shooting pains, increasing during several days,
+    and then I feel a strong desire to expel the semen. When no
+    nocturnal pollution follows, the retention of the semen causes
+    general disturbance, headache, and sleeplessness. I must confess
+    that, occasionally, to free myself from the general and local
+    oppression, I lie on my stomach and obtain ejaculation. I am at
+    once relieved; a weight seems to be lifted from my chest, and
+    sleep returns." This patient consulted Gamier as to whether this
+    artificial relief was not more dangerous than the sufferings it
+    relieved. Gamier advised that if the ordinary _régime_ of a
+    well-ordered monastry, together with anaphrodisiac sedatives,
+    proved inefficacious, the manoeuvre might be continued when
+    necessary (P. Garnier, _Célibat et Célibataires_, 1887, p. 320).
+    H.C. Coe (_American Journal of Obstetrics_, p. 766, July, 1889)
+    gives the case of a married lady who was deeply sensitive of the
+    wrong nature of masturbation, but found in it the only means of
+    relieving the severe ovarian pain, associated with intense sexual
+    excitement, which attended menstruation. During the
+    intermenstrual period the temptation was absent. Turnbull knew a
+    youth who found that masturbation gave great relief to feelings
+    of heaviness and confusion which came on him periodically; and
+    Wigglesworth has frequently seen masturbation after epileptic
+    fits in patients who never masturbated at other times. Moll
+    (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 13) refers to a woman of 28, an
+    artist of nervous and excitable temperament, who could not find
+    sexual satisfaction with her lover, but only when masturbating,
+    which she did once or twice a day, or oftener; without
+    masturbation, she said, she would be in a much more nervous
+    state. A friend tells me of a married lady of 40, separated from
+    her husband on account of incompatibility, who suffered from
+    irregular menstruation; she tried masturbation, and, in her own
+    words, "became normal again;" she had never masturbated
+    previously. I have also been informed of the case of a young
+    unmarried woman, intellectual, athletic, and well developed, who,
+    from the age of seven or eight, has masturbated nearly every
+    night before going to sleep, and would be restless and unable to
+    sleep if she did not.
+
+Judging from my own observations among both sexes, I should say that in
+normal persons, well past the age of puberty, and otherwise leading a
+chaste life, masturbation would be little practiced except for the
+physical and mental relief it brings. Many vigorous and healthy unmarried
+women or married women apart from their husbands, living a life of sexual
+abstinence, have asserted emphatically that only by sexually exciting
+themselves, at intervals, could they escape from a condition of nervous
+oppression and sexual obsession which they felt to be a state of hysteria.
+In most cases this happens about the menstrual period, and, whether
+accomplished as a purely physical act--in the same way as they would
+soothe a baby to sleep by rocking it or patting it--or by the co-operation
+of voluptuous mental imagery, the practice is not cultivated for its own
+sake during the rest of the month.
+
+    In illustration of the foregoing statements I will here record a
+    few typical observations of experiences with regard to
+    masturbation. The cases selected are all women, and are all in a
+    fairly normal, and, for the most part, excellent, state of
+    health; some of them, however, belong to somewhat neurotic
+    families, and these are persons of unusual mental ability and
+    intelligence.
+
+    OBSERVATION I.--Unmarried, aged 38. She is very vigorous and
+    healthy, of a strongly passionate nature, but never masturbated
+    until a few years ago, when she was made love to by a man who
+    used to kiss her, etc. Although she did not respond to these
+    advances, she was thrown into a state of restless sexual
+    excitement; on one occasion, when in bed in this restless state,
+    she accidentally found, on passing her hand over her body, that,
+    by playing with "a round thing" [clitoris] a pleasurable feeling
+    was produced. She found herself greatly relieved and quieted by
+    these manipulations, though there remained a feeling of tiredness
+    afterward. She has sometimes masturbated six times in a night,
+    especially before and after the menstrual period, until she was
+    unable to produce the orgasm or any feeling of pleasure.
+
+    OBSERVATION II.--Unmarried, aged 45, of rather nervous
+    temperament. She has for many years been accustomed, usually
+    about a week before the appearance of the menses, to obtain
+    sexual relief by kicking out her legs when lying down. In this
+    way, she says, she obtains complete satisfaction. She never
+    touches herself. On the following day she frequently has pains
+    over the lower part of the abdomen, such pains being apparently
+    muscular and due to the exertion.
+
+    OBSERVATION III.--Aged 29, recently married, belonging to a
+    neurotic and morbid family, herself healthy, and living usually
+    in the country; vivacious, passionate, enthusiastic,
+    intellectual, and taking a prominent part in philanthropic
+    schemes and municipal affairs; at the same time, fond of society,
+    and very attractive to men. For many years she had been
+    accustomed to excite herself, though she felt it was not good for
+    her. The habit was merely practiced _faute de mieux_. "I used to
+    sit on the edge of the bed sometimes," she said, "and it came
+    over me so strongly that I simply couldn't resist it. I felt that
+    I should go mad, and I thought it was better to touch myself than
+    be insane.... I used to press my clitoris in.... It made me very
+    tired afterward--not like being with my husband." The confession
+    was made from a conviction of the importance of the subject, and
+    with the hope that some way might be found out of the
+    difficulties which so often beset women.
+
+    OBSERVATION IV.--Unmarried, aged 27; possesses much force of
+    character and high intelligence; is actively engaged in a
+    professional career. As a child of seven or eight she began to
+    experience what she describes as lightning-like sensations,
+    "mere, vague, uneasy feelings or momentary twitches, which took
+    place alike in the vulva or the vagina or the uterus, not
+    amounting to an orgasm and nothing like it." These sensations,
+    it should be added, have continued into adult life. "I always
+    experience them just before menstruation, and afterward for a few
+    days, and, occasionally, though it seems to me not so often,
+    during the period itself. I may have the sensation four or five
+    times during the day; it is not dependent at all upon external
+    impressions, or my own thoughts, and is sometimes absent for days
+    together. It is just one flash, as if you would snap your
+    fingers, and it is over."
+
+    As a child, she was, of course, quite unconscious that there was
+    anything sexual in these sensations. They were then usually
+    associated with various imaginary scenes. The one usually
+    indulged in was that a black bear was waiting for her up in a
+    tree, and that she was slowly raised up toward the bear by means
+    of ropes and then lowered again, and raised, feeling afraid of
+    being caught by the bear, and yet having a morbid desire to be
+    caught. In after years she realized that there was a physical
+    sexual cause underlying these imaginations, and that what she
+    liked was a feeling of resistance to the bear giving rise to the
+    physical sensation.
+
+    At a somewhat later age, though while still a child, she
+    cherished an ideal passion for a person very much older than
+    herself, this passion absorbing her thoughts for a period of two
+    years, during which, however, there was no progress made in
+    physical sensation. It was when she was nearly thirteen years of
+    age, soon after the appearance of menstruation, and under the
+    influence of this ideal passion, that she first learned to
+    experience conscious orgasm, which was not associated with the
+    thought of any person. "I did not associate it with anything high
+    or beautiful, owing to the fact that I had imbibed our current
+    ideas in regard to sexual feelings, and viewed them in a very
+    poor light indeed." She considers that her sexual feelings were
+    stronger at this period than at any other time in her life. She
+    could, however, often deny herself physical satisfaction for
+    weeks at a time, in order that she might not feel unworthy of the
+    object of her ideal passion. "As for the sexual satisfaction,"
+    she writes, "it was experimental. I had heard older girls speak
+    of the pleasure of such feelings, but I was not taught anything
+    by example, or otherwise. I merely rubbed myself with the
+    wash-rag while bathing, waiting for a result, and having the same
+    peculiar feeling I had so often experienced. I am not aware of
+    any ill effects having resulted, but I felt degraded, and tried
+    hard to overcome the habit. No one had spoken to me of the habit,
+    but from the secrecy of grown people, and passages I had heard
+    from the Bible, I conceived the idea that it was a reprehensible
+    practice. And, while this did not curb my desire, it taught me
+    self-control, and I vowed that each time should be the last. I
+    was often able to keep the resolution for two or three weeks."
+    Some four years later she gradually succeeded in breaking herself
+    of the practice in so far as it had become a habit; she has,
+    however, acquired a fuller knowledge of sexual matters, and,
+    though she has still a great dread of masturbation as a vice, she
+    does not hesitate to relieve her physical feelings when it seems
+    best to her to do so. "I am usually able to direct my thoughts
+    from these sensations," she writes, "but if they seem to make me
+    irritable or wakeful, I relieve myself. It is a physical act,
+    unassociated with deep feeling of any kind. I have always felt
+    that it was a rather unpleasant compromise with my physical
+    nature, but certainly necessary in my case. Yet, I have abstained
+    from gratification for very long periods. If the feeling is not
+    strong at the menstrual period, I go on very well without either
+    the sensation or the gratification until the next period. And,
+    strange as it may seem, the best antidote I have found and the
+    best preventive is to think about spiritual things or someone
+    whom I love. It is simply a matter of training, I suppose,--a
+    sort of mental gymnastics,--which draws the attention away from
+    the physical feelings." This lady has never had any sexual
+    relationships, and, since she is ambitious, and believes that the
+    sexual emotions may be transformed so as to become a source of
+    motive power throughout the whole of life, she wishes to avoid
+    such relationships.
+
+    OBSERVATION V.--Unmarried, aged 31, in good health, with,
+    however, a somewhat hysterical excess of energy. "When I was
+    about 26 years of age," she writes, "a friend came to me with the
+    confession that for several years she had masturbated, and had
+    become such a slave to the habit that she severely suffered from
+    its ill effects. At that time I had never heard of self-abuse by
+    women. I listened to her story with much sympathy and interest,
+    but some skepticism, and determined to try experiments upon
+    myself, with the idea of getting to understand the matter in
+    order to assist my friend. After some manipulation, I succeeded
+    in awakening what had before been unconscious and unknown. I
+    purposely allowed the habit to grow upon me, and one night--for I
+    always operated upon myself before going to sleep, never in the
+    morning--I obtained considerable pleasurable satisfaction, but
+    the following day my conscience awoke; I also felt pain located
+    at the back of my head and down the spinal column. I ceased my
+    operations for a time, and then began again somewhat regularly,
+    once a month, a few days after menstruation. During those months
+    in which I exercised moderation, I think I obtained much local
+    relief with comparatively little injury, but, later on, finding
+    myself in robust health, I increased my experiments, the habit
+    grew upon me, and it was only with an almost superhuman effort
+    that I broke myself free. Needless to say that I gave no
+    assistance to my suffering friend, nor did I ever refer to the
+    subject after her confession to me.
+
+    "Some two years later I heard of sexual practices between women
+    as a frequent habit in certain quarters. I again interested
+    myself in masturbation, for I had been told something that led me
+    to believe that there was much more for me to discover. Not
+    knowing the most elementary physiology, I questioned some of my
+    friends, and then commenced again. I restricted myself to relief
+    from local congestion and irritation by calling forth the
+    emission of mucus, rather than by seeking pleasure. At the same
+    time, I sought to discover what manipulation of the clitoris
+    would lead to. The habit grew upon me with startling rapidity,
+    and I became more or less its slave, but I suffered from no very
+    great ill effects until I started in search of more discoveries.
+    I found that I was a complete ignoramus as to the formation of a
+    woman's body, and by experiments upon myself sought to discover
+    the vagina. I continued my operations until I obtained an
+    entrance. I think the rough handling of myself during this final
+    stage disturbed my nervous system, and caused me considerable
+    pain and exhaustion at the back of my head, the spinal column,
+    the back of my eyes, and a general feeling of languor, etc.
+
+    "I could not bear to be the slave of a habit, and after much
+    suffering and efforts, which only led to falls to lower depths of
+    conscious failure, my better self rebelled, until, by a great
+    effort and much prayer, I kept myself pure for a whole week. This
+    partial recovery gave me hope, but then I again fell a victim to
+    the habit, much to my chagrin, and became hopeless of ever
+    retracing my steps toward my ideal of virtue. For some days I
+    lost energy, spirit, and hope; my nervous system appeared to be
+    ruined, but I did not really despair of victory in the end. I
+    thought of all the drunkards chained by their intemperate habits,
+    of inveterate smokers who could not exist without tobacco, and of
+    all the various methods by which men were slaves, and the longing
+    to be freed of what had, in my case, proved to be a painful and
+    unnecessary habit, increased daily until, after one night when I
+    struggled with myself for hours, I believed I had finally
+    succeeded.
+
+    "At times, when I reached a high degree of sexual excitement, I
+    felt that I was at least one step removed from those of morbid
+    and repressed sex, who had not the slightest suspicion of the
+    latent joys of womanhood within them. For a little while the
+    habit took the shape of an exalted passion, but I rapidly tired
+    it out by rough, thoughtless, and too impatient handling.
+    Revulsion set in with the pain of an exhausted and badly used
+    nervous system, and finding myself the slave of a passion, I
+    determined to endeavor to be its master.
+
+    "In conclusion, I should say that masturbation has proved itself
+    to be to me one of the blind turnings of my life's history, from
+    which I have gained much valuable experience."
+
+    The practice was, however, by no means thus dismissed. Some time
+    later the subject writes: "I have again restarted masturbation
+    for the relief of localized feelings. One morning I was engaged
+    in reading a very heavy volume which, for convenience sake, I
+    held in my lap, leaning back on my chair. I had become deep in
+    my study for an hour or so when I became aware of certain
+    feelings roused by the weight of the book. Being tempted to see
+    what would happen by such conduct, I shifted so that the edge of
+    the volume came in closer contact. The pleasurable feelings
+    increased, so I gave myself up to my emotions for some thirty
+    minutes.
+
+    "Notwithstanding the intense pleasure I enjoyed for so long a
+    period, I maintain that it is wiser to refrain, and, although I
+    admit in the same breath that, by gentle treatment, such pleasure
+    may be harmless to the general health, it does lead to a desire
+    for solitude, which is not conducive to a happy frame of mind.
+    There is an accompanying reticence of speech concerning the
+    pleasure, which, therefore, appears to be unnatural, like the
+    eating of stolen fruit. After such an event, one seems to require
+    to fly to the woods, and to listen to the song of the birds, so
+    as to shake off after-effects."
+
+    In a letter dated some months later, she writes: "I think I have
+    risen above the masturbation habit." In the same letter the
+    writer remarks: "If I had consciously abnormal or unsatisfied
+    appetites I would satisfy them in the easiest and least harmful
+    way."
+
+    Again, eighteen months later, she writes: "It is curious to note
+    that for months this habit is forgotten, but awakens sometimes to
+    self-assertion. If a feeling of pressure is felt in the head, and
+    a slight irritation elsewhere, and experience shows that the time
+    has come for pacification, exquisite pleasure can be enjoyed,
+    never more than twice a month, and sometimes less often."
+
+    OBSERVATION VI.--Unmarried, actively engaged in the practice of
+    her profession. Well-developed, feminine in contour, but boyish
+    in manner and movements; strong, though muscles small, and
+    healthy, with sound nervous system; never had anæmia. Thick brown
+    hair; pubic hair thick, and hair on toes and legs up to
+    umbilicus; it began to appear at the age of 10 (before pubic
+    hair) and continued until 18. A few stray hairs round nipples,
+    and much dark down on upper lip, as well as light down on arms
+    and hands. Hips, normal; nates, small; labia minora, large; and
+    clitoris, deeply hooded. Hymen thick, vagina, probably small.
+    Considerable pigmentation of parts. Menstruation began at 15, but
+    not regular till 17; is painless and scanty; the better the state
+    of health, the less it is. No change of sexual or other feelings
+    connected with it; it lasts one to three days.
+
+    "I believe," she writes, "my first experience of physical sex
+    sensations was when I was about 16, and in sleep. But I did not
+    then recognize it, and seldom, indeed, gave the subject of sex a
+    thought. I was a child far beyond the age of childhood. The
+    accompanying dreams were disagreeable, but I cannot remember what
+    they were about. It was not until I was nearly 19 that I knew the
+    sexual orgasm in my waking state. It surprised me completely,
+    but I knew that I had known it before in my sleep.
+
+    "The knowledge came one summer when I was leading a rather
+    isolated life, and my mind was far from sex subjects, being deep
+    in books, Carlyle, Ruskin, Huxley, Darwin, Scott, etc. I noticed
+    that when I got up in the morning I felt very hot and
+    uncomfortable. The clitoris and the parts around were swollen and
+    erect, and often tender and painful. I had no idea what it was,
+    but found I was unable to pass my water for an hour or two. One
+    day, when I was straining a little to pass water, the full orgasm
+    occurred. The next time it happened, I tried to check it by
+    holding myself firmly, of course, with the opposite result. I do
+    not know that I found it highly pleasurable, but it was a very
+    great relief. I allowed myself a good many experiments, to come
+    to a conclusion in the matter, and I thought about it. I was much
+    too shy to speak to any one, and thought it was probably a sin. I
+    tried not to do it, and not to think about it, saying to myself
+    that surely I was lord of my body. But I found that the matter
+    was not entirely under my control. However unwilling or passive I
+    might be, there were times when the involuntary discomfort was
+    not in my keeping. My touching myself or not did not save me from
+    it. Because it sometimes gave me pleasure, I thought it might be
+    a form of self-indulgence, and did not do it until it could
+    scarcely be helped. Soon the orgasm began to occur fairly
+    frequently in my sleep, perhaps once or twice a week. I had no
+    erotic dreams, then or at any other time, but I had nights of
+    restless sleep, and woke as it occurred, dreaming that it was
+    happening, as, in fact, it was. At times I hardly awoke, but went
+    to sleep again in a moment. I continued for two or three years to
+    be sorely tried by day at frequent intervals. I acquired a
+    remarkable degree of control, so that, though one touch or
+    steadily directed thought would have caused the orgasm, I could
+    keep it off, and go to sleep without 'wrong doing.' Of course,
+    when I fell asleep, my control ended. All this gave me a good
+    deal of physical worry, and kept my attention unwillingly fixed
+    upon the matter. I do not think my body was readily irritable,
+    but I had unquestionably very strong sexual impulses.
+
+    "After a year or two, when I was working hard, I could not afford
+    the attention the control cost me, or the prolonged mitigated
+    sexual excitement it caused. I took drugs for a time, but they
+    lost effect, produced lassitude, and agreed with me badly. I
+    therefore put away my scruples and determined to try the effect
+    of giving myself an instant and business-like relief. Instead of
+    allowing my feelings to gather strength, I satisfied them out of
+    hand. Instead of five hours of heat and discomfort, I did not
+    allow myself five minutes, if I could help it.
+
+    "The effect was marvelous. I practically had no more trouble. The
+    thing rarely came to me at all by day, and though it continued at
+    times by night, it became less frequent and less strong; often it
+    did not wake me. The erotic images and speculations that had
+    begun to come to me died down. I left off being afraid of my
+    feelings, or, indeed, thinking about them. I may say that I had
+    decided that I should be obliged to lead a single life, and that
+    the less I thought about matters of sex, the more easy I should
+    find life. Later on I had religious ideas which helped me
+    considerably in my ideals of a decent, orderly, self-contained
+    life. I do not lay stress on these; they were not at all
+    emotional, and my physical and psychical development do not
+    appear to have run much on parallel lines. I had a strong moral
+    sense before I had a religious one, and a 'common-sense' which I
+    perhaps trusted more than either.
+
+    "When I was about 28 I thought I might perhaps leave off the
+    habit of regular relief I had got into. (It was not regular as
+    regards time, being anything from one day to six weeks.) The
+    change was probably made easier by a severe illness I had had. I
+    gave this abstinence a fair trial for several years (until I was
+    about 34), but my nocturnal manifestations certainly gathered
+    strength, especially when I got much better in health, and,
+    finally, as at puberty, began to worry my waking life. I reasoned
+    that by my attempt at abstinence I had only exchanged control for
+    uncontrol, and reverted to my old habits of relief, with the same
+    good results as before. The whole trouble subsided and I got
+    better at once. (The orgasm during sleep continued, and occurs
+    about once a fortnight; it is increased by change of air,
+    especially at the seaside, when it may occur on two or three
+    nights running.) I decided that, for the proper control of my
+    single life, relief was normal and right. It would be very
+    difficult for anyone to demonstrate the contrary to me. My aim
+    has always been to keep myself in the best condition of physical
+    and mental balance that a single person is capable of."
+
+There is some interest in briefly reviewing the remarkable transformations
+in the attitude toward masturbation from Greek times down to our own day.
+The Greeks treated masturbation with little opprobrium. At the worst they
+regarded it as unmanly, and Aristophanes, in various passages, connects
+the practice with women, children, slaves, and feeble old men. Æschines
+seems to have publicly brought it as a charge against Demosthenes that he
+had practiced masturbation, though, on the other hand, Plutarch tells us
+that Diogenes--described by Zeller, the historian of Greek philosophy, as
+"the most typical figure of ancient Greece"--was praised by Chrysippus,
+the famous philosopher, for masturbating in the market-place. The more
+strenuous Romans, at all events as exemplified by Juvenal and Martial,
+condemned masturbation more vigorously.[347] Aretæus, without alluding to
+masturbation, dwells on the tonic effects of retaining the semen; but, on
+the other hand, Galen regarded the retention of semen as injurious, and
+advocated its frequent expulsion, a point of view which tended to justify
+masturbation. In classical days, doubtless, masturbation and all other
+forms of the auto-erotic impulse were comparatively rare. So much scope
+was allowed in early adult age for homosexual and later for heterosexual
+relationships that any excessive or morbid development of solitary
+self-indulgence could seldom occur. The case was altered when Christian
+ideals became prominent. Christian morality strongly proscribed sexual
+relationships except under certain specified conditions. It is true that
+Christianity discouraged all sexual manifestations, and that therefore its
+ban fell equally on masturbation, but, obviously, masturbation lay at the
+weakest line of defence against the assaults of the flesh; it was there
+that resistance would most readily yield. Christianity thus probably led
+to a considerable increase of masturbation. The attention which the
+theologians devoted to its manifestations clearly bears witness to their
+magnitude. It is noteworthy that Mohammedan theologians regarded
+masturbation as a Christian vice. In Islam both doctrine and practice
+tended to encourage sexual relationships, and not much attention was paid
+to masturbation, nor even any severe reprobation directed against it. Omer
+Haleby remarks that certain theologians of Islam are inclined to consider
+the practice of masturbation in vogue among Christians as allowable to
+devout Mussulmans when alone on a journey; he himself regards this as a
+practice good neither for soul nor body (seminal emissions during sleep
+providing all necessary relief); should, however, a Mussulman fall into
+this error, God is merciful![348]
+
+    In Theodore's Penitential of the seventh century, forty days'
+    penance is prescribed for masturbation. Aquinas condemned
+    masturbation as worse than fornication, though less heinous than
+    other sexual offences against Nature; in opposition, also, to
+    those who believed that _distillatio_ usually takes place without
+    pleasure, he observed that it was often caused by sexual emotion,
+    and should, therefore, always be mentioned to the confessor.
+    Liguori also regarded masturbation as a graver sin than
+    fornication, and even said that _distillatio_, if voluntary and
+    with notable physical commotion, is without doubt a mortal sin,
+    for in such a case it is the beginning of a pollution. On the
+    other hand, some theologians have thought that _distillatio_ may
+    be permitted, even if there is some commotion, so long as it has
+    not been voluntarily procured, and Caramuel, who has been
+    described as a theological _enfant terrible_, declared that
+    "natural law does not forbid masturbation," but that proposition
+    was condemned by Innocent XI. The most enlightened modern
+    Catholic view is probably represented by Debreyne, who, after
+    remarking that he has known pious and intelligent persons who had
+    an irresistible impulse to masturbate, continues: "Must we
+    excuse, or condemn, these people? Neither the one nor the other.
+    If you condemn and repulse absolutely these persons as altogether
+    guilty, against their own convictions, you will perhaps throw
+    them into despair; if, on the contrary, you completely excuse
+    them, you maintain them in a disorder from which they may,
+    perhaps, never emerge. Adopt a wise middle course, and, perhaps,
+    with God's aid, you may often cure them."
+
+    Under certain circumstances some Catholic theologians have
+    permitted a married woman to masturbate. Thus, the Jesuit
+    theologian, Gury, asserts that the wife does not sin "_quæ se
+    ipsam tactibus excitat ad seminationem statim post copulam in quâ
+    vir solus seminavit_." This teaching seems to have been
+    misunderstood, since ethical and even medical writers have
+    expended a certain amount of moral indignation on the Church
+    whose theologians committed themselves to this statement. As a
+    matter of fact, this qualified permission to masturbate merely
+    rests on a false theory of procreation, which is clearly
+    expressed in the word _seminatio_. It was believed that
+    ejaculation in the woman is as necessary to fecundation as
+    ejaculation in the man. Galen, Avicenna, and Aquinas recognized,
+    indeed, that such feminine semination was not necessary; Sanchez,
+    however, was doubtful, while Suarez and Zacchia, following
+    Hippocrates, regarded it as necessary. As sexual intercourse
+    without fecundation is not approved by the Catholic Church, it
+    thus became logically necessary to permit women to masturbate
+    whenever the ejaculation of mucus had not occurred at or before
+    coitus.
+
+    The belief that the emission of vaginal mucus, under the
+    influence of sexual excitement in women, corresponded to
+    spermatic emission, has led to the practice of masturbation on
+    hygienic grounds. Garnier (_Célibat_, p. 255) mentions that
+    Mesué, in the eighteenth century, invented a special pessary to
+    take the place of the penis, and, as he stated, effect the due
+    expulsion of the feminine sperm.
+
+Protestantism, no doubt, in the main accepted the general Catholic,
+tradition, but the tendency of Protestantism, in reaction against the
+minute inquisition of the earlier theologians, has always been to exercise
+a certain degree of what it regarded as wholesome indifference toward the
+less obvious manifestations of the flesh. Thus in Protestant countries
+masturbation seems to have been almost ignored until Tissot, combining
+with his reputation as a physician the fanaticism of a devout believer,
+raised masturbation to the position of a colossal bogy which during a
+hundred years has not only had an unfortunate influence on medical opinion
+in these matters, but has been productive of incalculable harm to ignorant
+youth and tender consciences. During the past forty years the efforts of
+many distinguished physicians--a few of whose opinions I have already
+quoted--have gradually dragged the bogy down from its pedestal, and now,
+as I have ventured to suggest, there is a tendency for the reaction to be
+excessive. There is even a tendency to-day to regard masturbation, with
+various qualifications, as normal. Remy de Gourmont, for instance,
+considers that masturbation is natural because it is the method by which
+fishes procreate: "All things considered, it must be accepted that
+masturbation is part of the doings of Nature. A different conclusion might
+be agreeable, but in every ocean and under the reeds of every river,
+myriads of beings would protest."[349] Tillier remarks that since
+masturbation appears to be universal among the higher animals we are not
+entitled to regard it as a vice; it has only been so considered because
+studied exclusively by physicians under abnormal conditions.[350] Hirth,
+while asserting that masturbation must be strongly repressed in the young,
+regards it as a desirable method of relief for adults, and especially,
+under some circumstances, for women.[351] Venturi, a well-known Italian
+alienist, on the other hand, regards masturbation as strictly
+physiological in youth; it is the normal and natural passage toward the
+generous and healthy passion of early manhood; it only becomes abnormal
+and vicious, he holds, when continued into adult life.
+
+    The appearance of masturbation at puberty, Venturi considers, "is
+    a moment in the course of the development of the function of that
+    organ which is the necessary instrument of sexuality." It finds
+    its motive in the satisfaction of an organic need having much
+    analogy with that which arises from the tickling of a very
+    sensitive cutaneous surface. In this masturbation of early
+    adolescence lies, according to Venturi, the germ of what will
+    later be love: a pleasure of the body and of the spirit,
+    following the relief of a satisfied need. "As the youth develops,
+    onanism becomes a sexual act comparable to coitus as a dream is
+    comparable to reality, imagery forming in correspondence with the
+    desires. In its fully developed form in adolescence," Venturi
+    continues, "masturbation has an almost hallucinatory character;
+    onanism at this period psychically approximates to the true
+    sexual act, and passes insensibly into it. If, however, continued
+    on into adult age, it becomes morbid, passing into erotic
+    fetichism; what in the inexperienced youth is the natural
+    auxiliary and stimulus to imagination, in the degenerate onanist
+    of adult age is a sign of arrested development. Thus, onanism,"
+    the author concludes, "is not always a vice such as is fiercely
+    combated by educators and moralists. It is the natural transition
+    by which we reach the warm and generous love of youth, and, in
+    natural succession to this, the tranquil, positive, matrimonial
+    love of the mature man." (Silvio Venturi, _Le Degenerazioni
+    Psico-sessuale_, 1892, pp. 6-9.)
+
+    It may be questioned whether this view is acceptable even for the
+    warm climate of the south of Europe, where the impulses of
+    sexuality are undoubtedly precocious. It is certainly not in
+    harmony with general experience and opinion in the north; this is
+    well expressed in the following passage by Edward Carpenter
+    (_International Journal of Ethics_, July, 1899): "After all,
+    purity (in the sense of continence) _is_ of the first importance
+    to boyhood. To prolong the period of continence in a boy's life
+    is to prolong the period of _growth_. This is a simple
+    physiological law, and a very obvious one; and, whatever other
+    things may be said in favor of purity, it remains, perhaps, the
+    most weighty. To introduce sensual and sexual habits--and one of
+    the worst of them is self-abuse--at an early age, is to arrest
+    growth, both physical and mental. And what is even more, it means
+    to arrest the capacity for affection. All experience shows that
+    the early outlet toward sex cheapens and weakens affectional
+    capacity."
+
+I do not consider that we can decide the precise degree in which
+masturbation may fairly be called normal so long as we take masturbation
+by itself. We are thus, in conclusion, brought back to the point which I
+sought to emphasize at the outset: masturbation belongs to a group of
+auto-erotic phenomena. From one point of view it may be said that all
+auto-erotic phenomena are unnatural, since the natural aim of the sexual
+impulse is sexual conjunction, and all exercise of that impulse outside
+such conjunction is away from the end of Nature. But we do not live in a
+state of Nature which answers to such demands; all our life is
+"unnatural." And as soon as we begin to restrain the free play of sexual
+impulse toward sexual ends, at once auto-erotic phenomena inevitably
+spring up on every side. There is no end to them; it is impossible to say
+what finest elements in art, in morals, in civilization generally, may not
+really be rooted in an auto-erotic impulse. "Without a certain overheating
+of the sexual system," said Nietzsche, "we could not have a Raphael."
+Auto-erotic phenomena are inevitable. It is our wisest course to recognize
+this inevitableness of sexual and transmuted sexual manifestations under
+the perpetual restraints of civilized life, and, while avoiding any
+attitude of excessive indulgence or indifference,[352] to avoid also any
+attitude of excessive horror, for our horror not only leads to the facts
+being effectually veiled from our sight, but itself serves to manufacture
+artificially a greater evil than that which we seek to combat.
+
+The sexual impulse is not, as some have imagined, the sole root of the
+most massive human emotions, the most brilliant human aptitudes,--of
+sympathy, of art, of religion. In the complex human organism, where all
+the parts are so many-fibred and so closely interwoven, no great
+manifestation can be reduced to one single source. But it largely enters
+into and molds all of these emotions and aptitudes, and that by virtue of
+its two most peculiar characteristics: it is, in the first place, the
+deepest and most volcanic of human impulses, and, in the second
+place,--unlike the only other human impulse with which it can be compared,
+the nutritive impulse,--it can, to a large extent, be transmuted into a
+new force capable of the strangest and most various uses. So that in the
+presence of all these manifestations we may assert that in a real sense,
+though subtly mingled with very diverse elements, auto-erotism everywhere
+plays its part. In the phenomena of auto-erotism, when we take a broad
+view of those phenomena, we are concerned, not with a form of insanity,
+not necessarily with a form of depravity, but with the inevitable
+by-products of that mighty process on which the animal creation rests.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[289] For a bibliography of masturbation, see Rohleder, _Die
+Masturbation_, pp. 11-18; also, Arthur MacDonald, _Le Criminel Type_, pp.
+227 et seq.; cf. G. Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, pp. 432 _et seq._
+
+[290] Oskar Berger, _Archiv für Psychiatrie_, Bd. 6, 1876.
+
+[291] _Die Masturbation_, p. 41.
+
+[292] Dukes, _Preservation of Health_, 1884, p. 150.
+
+[293] G. Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 434.
+
+[294] F.S. Brockman, "A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of Students
+in the United States," _Pedagogical Seminary_, September, 1902. Many
+pitiful narratives are reproduced.
+
+[295] Moraglia, "Die Onanie beim normalen Weibe und bei den Prostituten,"
+_Zeitschrift für Criminal-Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 489. It should be added
+that Moraglia is not a very critical investigator. It is probable,
+however, that on this point his results are an approximation to the truth.
+
+[296] Ernst, "Anthropological Researches on the Population of Venezuela,"
+_Memoirs of the Anthropological Society_, vol. iii, 1870, p. 277.
+
+[297] Niceforo, _Il Gergo nei Normali_, etc., 1897, cap. V.
+
+[298] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 64. Yet theologians and casuists,
+Debreyne remarks, frequently never refer to masturbation in women.
+
+[299] Stanley Hall, op. cit., vol. i, p. 34. Hall mentions, also, that
+masturbation is specially common among the blind.
+
+[300] Moraglia, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xvi, fasc. 4 and 5, p.
+313.
+
+[301] See his careful study, "Die Sexuellen Perversitäten in der
+Irrenanstalt," _Psychiatrische Bladen_, No. 2. 1899.
+
+[302] Venturi, _Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali_, pp. 105, 133, 148, 152.
+
+[303] J.P. West, _Transactions of the Ohio Pediatric Society_, 1895.
+_Abstract in Medical Standard_, November, 1895; cases are also recorded by
+J.T. Winter, "Self-abuse in Infancy and Childhood," _American Journal
+Obstetrics_, June, 1902.
+
+[304] Freud, _Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, pp. 36 et seq.
+
+[305] G.E. Shuttleworth, _British Medical Journal_, October 3, 1903.
+
+[306] See for a detailed study of sexuality in childhood, Moll's valuable
+book, _Das Sexualleben des Kindes_; cf. vol. vi of these _Studies_, Ch.
+II.
+
+[307] This is, no doubt, the most common opinion, and it is frequently
+repeated in text-books. It is scarcely necessary, however, to point out
+that only the opinions of those who have given special attention to the
+matter can carry any weight. R.W. Shufeldt ("On a Case of Female
+Impotency," pp. 5-7) quotes the opinions of various cautious observers as
+to the difficulty of detecting masturbation in women.
+
+[308] This latter opinion is confirmed by Näcke so far as the insane are
+concerned. In a careful study of sexual perversity in a large asylum,
+Näcke found that, while moderate masturbation could be more easily traced
+among men than among women, excessive masturbation was more common among
+women. And, while among the men masturbation was most frequent in the
+lowest grades of mental development (idiocy and imbecility), and least
+frequent in the highest grades (general paralysis), in the women it was
+the reverse. (P. Näcke, "Die Sexuellen Perversitäten in der Irrenanstalt,"
+_Psychiatrische en Neurologische Bladen_, No. 2, 1899.)
+
+[309] Mammary masturbation sometimes occurs; see, e.g., Rohleder, _Die
+Masturbation_ (pp. 32-33); it is, however, rare.
+
+[310] Hirschsprung pointed out this, indeed, many years ago, on the ground
+of his own experience. And see Rohleder, op. cit., pp. 44-47.
+
+[311] In many cases, of course, the physical precocity is associated with
+precocity in sexual habits. An instructive case is reported (_Alienist and
+Neurologist_, October, 1895) of a girl of 7, a beautiful child, of healthy
+family, and very intelligent, who, from the age of three, was perpetually
+masturbating, when not watched. The clitoris and mons veneris were those
+of a fully-grown woman, and the child was as well informed upon most
+subjects as an average woman. She was cured by care and hygienic
+attention, and when seen last was in excellent condition. A medical friend
+tells me of a little girl of two, whose external genital organs are
+greatly developed, and who is always rubbing herself.
+
+[312] R.T. Morris, of New York, has also pointed out the influence of
+traditions in this respect. "Among boys," he remarks, "there are
+traditions to the effect that self-abuse is harmful. Among girls, however,
+there are no such saving traditions." Dr. Kiernan writes in a private
+letter: "It has been by experience, that from ignorance or otherwise,
+there are young women who do not look upon sexual manipulation with the
+same fear that men do." Guttceit, similarly, remarks that men have been
+warned of masturbation, and fear its evil results, while girls, even if
+warned, attach little importance to the warning; he adds that in healthy
+women, masturbation, even in excess, has little bad results. The attitude
+of many women in this matter may be illustrated by the following passage
+from a letter written by a medical friend in India: "The other day one of
+my English women patients gave me the following reason for having taught
+the 17-year-old daughter of a retired Colonel to masturbate: 'Poor girl,
+she was troubled with dreams of men, and in case she should be tempted
+with one, and become pregnant, I taught her to bring the feeling on
+herself--as it is safer, and, after all, nearly as nice as with a man.'"
+
+[313] H. Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, volume ii, "Sexual
+Inversion," Chapter IV.
+
+[314] See, also, the Appendix to the third volume of these _Studies_, in
+which I have brought forward sexual histories of normal persons.
+
+[315] E.H. Smith, also, states that from 25 to 35 is the age when most
+women come under the physician's eye with manifest and pronounced habits
+of masturbation.
+
+[316] It may, however, be instructive to observe that at the end of the
+volume we find an advertisement of "Dr. Robinson's Treatise on the Virtues
+and Efficacy of a Crust of Bread, Eat Early in the Morning Fasting."
+
+[317] Pouillet alone enumerates and apparently accepts considerably over
+one hundred different morbid conditions as signs and results of
+masturbation.
+
+[318] "Augenkrankheiten bei Masturbanten," Knapp-Schweigger's _Archiv für
+Augenheitkunde_, Bd. II, 1882, p. 198.
+
+[319] Salmo Cohn, _Uterus und Auge_, 1890, pp. 63-66.
+
+[320] _Fonctions du Cerveau_, 1825, vol. iii, p. 337.
+
+[321] W. Ellis, _Treatise on Insanity_, 1838, pp. 335, 340.
+
+[322] Clara Barrus, "Insanity in Young Women," _Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Disease_, June, 1896.
+
+[323] See, for instance, H. Emminghaus, "Die Psychosen des Kindesalters,"
+Gerlandt's _Handbuch der Kinder-Krankheiten_, Nachtrag II, pp. 61-63.
+
+[324] Christian, article "Onanisme," _Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des
+Sciences Médicales_.
+
+[325] Näcke, _Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe_, 1894, p. 57.
+
+[326] J.L.A. Koch, _Die Psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten_, 1892, p. 273
+et seq.
+
+[327] J.G. Kiernan, _American Journal of Insanity_, July, 1877.
+
+[328] Maudsley dealt, in his vigorous, picturesque manner, with the more
+extreme morbid mental conditions sometimes found associated with
+masturbation, in "Illustrations of a Variety of Insanity," _Journal of
+Mental Science_, July, 1868.
+
+[329] See, e.g., Löwenfeld, _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 2d. ed., Ch.
+VIII.
+
+[330] Marro, _La Pubertà_, Turin, 1898, p. 174.
+
+[331] E.C. Spitzka, "Cases of Masturbation," _Journal of Mental Science_,
+July, 1888.
+
+[332] Charles West, _Lancet_, November 17, 1866.
+
+[333] Gowers, _Epilepsy_, 1881, p. 31. Löwenfeld believes that epileptic
+attacks are certainly caused by masturbation. Féré thought that both
+epilepsy and hysteria may be caused by masturbation.
+
+[334] Ziemssen's _Handbuch_, Bd. XI.
+
+[335] _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 441.
+
+[336] See a discussion of these points by Rohleder, _Die Masturbation_,
+pp. 168-175.
+
+[337] The surgeons, it may be remarked, have especially stated the
+harmlessness of masturbation in too absolute a manner. Thus, John Hunter
+(_Treatise on the Venereal Disease_, 1786, p. 200), after pointing out
+that "the books on this subject have done more harm than good," adds, "I
+think I may affirm that this act does less harm to the constitution in
+general than the natural." And Sir James Paget, in his lecture on "Sexual
+Hypochondriasis," said: "Masturbation does neither more nor less harm than
+sexual intercourse practiced with the same frequency, in the same
+conditions of general health and age and circumstances."
+
+[338] It is interesting to note that an analogous result seems to hold
+with animals. Among highly-bred horses excessive masturbation is liable to
+occur with injurious results. It is scarcely necessary to point out that
+highly-bred horses are apt to be abnormal.
+
+[339] With regard to the physical signs, the same conclusion is reached by
+Legludic (in opposition to Martineau) on the basis of a large experience.
+He has repeatedly found, in young girls who acknowledged frequent
+masturbation, that the organs were perfectly healthy and normal, and his
+convictions are the more noteworthy, since he speaks as a pupil of
+Tardieu, who attached very grave significance to the local signs of sexual
+perversity and excess. (Legludic, _Notes et Observations de Médecine
+Légale_, 1896, p. 95.) Matthews Duncan (_Goulstonian Lectures on Sterility
+in Women_, 1884, p. 97) was often struck by the smallness, and even
+imperfect development, of the external genitals of women who masturbate.
+Clara Barrus considers that there is no necessary connection between
+hypertrophy of the external female genital organs and masturbation, though
+in six cases of prolonged masturbation she found such a condition in three
+(_American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1895, p. 479). Bachterew denies
+that masturbation produces enlargement of the penis, and Hammond considers
+there is no evidence to show that it enlarges the clitoris, while Guttceit
+states that it does not enlarge the nymphæ; this, however, is doubtful. It
+would not suffice in many cases to show that large sexual organs are
+correlated with masturbation; it would still be necessary to show whether
+the size of the organs stood to masturbation in the relation of effect or
+of cause.
+
+[340] Thus, Bechterew ("La Phobie du Regard," _Archives de Neurologie_,
+July, 1905) considers that masturbation plays a large part in producing
+the morbid fear of the eyes of others.
+
+[341] It is especially an undesirable tendency of masturbation, that it
+deadens the need for affection, and merely eludes, instead of satisfying,
+the sexual impulse. "Masturbation," as Godfrey well says (_The Science of
+Sex_, p. 178), "though a manifestation of sexual activity, is not a sexual
+act in the higher, or even in the real fundamental sense. For sex implies
+duality, a characteristic to which masturbation can plainly lay no claim.
+The physical, moral, and mental reciprocity which gives stability and
+beauty to a normal sexual intimacy, are as foreign to the masturbator as
+to the celibate. In a sense, therefore, masturbation is as complete a
+negative of the sexual life as chastity itself. It is, therefore, an
+evasion of, not an answer to, the sexual problem; and it will ever remain
+so, no matter how surely we may be convinced of its physical
+harmlessness."
+
+[342] "I learnt that dangerous supplement," Rousseau tells us (Part I, Bk.
+III), "which deceives Nature. This vice, which bashfulness and timidity
+find so convenient, has, moreover, a great attraction for lively
+imaginations, for it enables them to do what they will, so to speak, with
+the whole fair sex, and to enjoy at pleasure the beauty who attracts them,
+without having obtained her consent."
+
+[343] "Ich hatte sie wirklich verloren, und die Tollheit, mit der ich
+meinen Fehler an mir selbst rächte, indem ich auf mancherlei unsinnige
+Weise in meine physische Natur sturmte, um der sittlichen etwas zu Leide
+zu thun, hat sehr viel zu den körperlichen Uebeln beigetragen, unter denen
+ich einige der besten Jahre meines Lebens verlor; ja ich wäre vielleicht
+an diesem Verlust vollig zu Grunde gegangen, hätte sich hier nicht das
+poetische Talent mit seinen Heilkraften besonders hülfreich erwiesen."
+This is scarcely conclusive, and it may be added that there were many
+reasons why Goethe should have suffered physically at this time, quite
+apart from masturbation. See, e.g., Bielschowsky, _Life of Goethe_, vol.
+i, p. 88.
+
+[344] _Les Obsessions_, vol. ii, p. 136.
+
+[345] A somewhat similar classification has already been made by Max
+Dessoir, who points out that we must distinguish between onanists _aus
+Noth_, and onanists _aus Leidenschaft_, the latter group alone being of
+really serious importance. The classification of Dallemagne is also
+somewhat similar; he distinguishes _onanie par impulsion_, occurring in
+mental degeneration and in persons of inferior intelligence, from _onanie
+par evocation ou obsession_.
+
+[346] W. Xavier Sudduth, "A Study in the Psycho-physics of Masturbation,"
+_Chicago Medical Recorder_, March, 1898. Haig, who reaches a similar
+conclusion, has sought to find its precise mechanism in the
+blood-pressure. "As the sexual act produces lower and falling
+blood-pressure," he remarks, "it will of necessity relieve conditions
+which are due to high and rising blood-pressure, such, for instance, as
+mental depression and bad temper; and, unless my observation deceives me,
+we have here a connection between conditions of high blood-pressure with
+mental and bodily depression and acts of masturbation, for this act will
+relieve these conditions and tend to be practiced for this purpose."
+(_Uric Acid_, 6th edition, p. 154.)
+
+[347] Northcote discusses the classic attitude towards masturbation,
+_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 233.
+
+[348] _El Ktab_, traduction de Paul de Régla, Paris, 1893.
+
+[349] Remy de Gourmont, _Physique de l'Amour_, p. 133.
+
+[350] Tillier, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, Paris, 1889, p. 270.
+
+[351] G. Hirth, _Wege zur Heimat_, p. 648.
+
+[352] Féré, in the course of his valuable work, _L'Instinct Sexuel_,
+stated that my conclusion is that masturbation is normal, and that
+"_l'indulgence s'impose_." I had, however, already guarded myself against
+this misinterpretation.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF MENSTRUATION ON THE POSITION OF WOMEN.
+
+
+A question of historical psychology which, so far as I know, has never
+been fully investigated is the influence of menstruation in constituting
+the emotional atmosphere through which men habitually view women.[353] I
+do not purpose to deal fully with this question, because it is one which
+may be more properly dealt with at length by the student of culture and by
+the historian, rather than from the standpoint of empirical psychology. It
+is, moreover, a question full of complexities in regard to which it is
+impossible to speak with certainty. But we here strike on a factor of such
+importance, such neglected importance, for the proper understanding of the
+sexual relations of men and women, that it cannot be wholly ignored.
+
+Among the negroes of Surinam a woman must live in solitude during the time
+of her period; it is dangerous for any man or woman to approach her, and
+when she sees a person coming near she cries out anxiously: "_Mi kay! Mi
+kay!_"--I am unclean! I am unclean! Throughout the world we find traces of
+the custom of which this is a typical example, but we must not too hastily
+assume that this custom is evidence of the inferior position occupied by
+semi-civilized women. It is necessary to take a broad view, not only of
+the beliefs of semi-civilized man regarding menstruation, but of his
+general beliefs regarding the supernatural forces of the world.
+
+There is no fragment of folk-lore so familiar to the European world as
+that which connects woman with the serpent. It is, indeed, one of the
+foundation stones of Christian theology.[354] Yet there is no fragment of
+folk-lore which remains more obscure. How has it happened that in all
+parts of the world the snake or his congeners, the lizard and the
+crocodile, have been credited with some design, sinister or erotic, on
+women?
+
+Of the wide prevalence of the belief there can be no doubt. Among the Port
+Lincoln tribe of South Australia a lizard is said to have divided man from
+woman.[355] Among the Chiriguanos of Bolivia, on the appearance of
+menstruation, old women ran about with sticks to hunt the snake that had
+wounded the girl. Frazer, who quotes this example from the "_Lettres
+édifiantes et curieuses_," also refers to a modern Greek folk-tale,
+according to which a princess at puberty must not let the sun shine upon
+her, or she would be turned into a lizard.[356] The lizard was a sexual
+symbol among the Mexicans. In some parts of Brazil at the onset of puberty
+a girl must not go into the woods for fear of the amorous attacks of
+snakes, and so it is also among the Macusi Indians of British Guiana,
+according to Schomburgk. Among the Basutos of South Africa the young girls
+must dance around the clay image of a snake. In Polynesian mythology the
+lizard is a very sacred animal, and legends represent women as often
+giving birth to lizards.[357] At a widely remote spot, in Bengal, if you
+dream of a snake a child will be born to you, reports Sarat Chandra
+Mitra.[358] In the Berlin Museum für Volkerkunde there is a carved wooden
+figure from New Guinea of a woman into whose vulva a crocodile is
+inserting its snout, while the same museum contains another figure of a
+snake-like crocodile crawling out of a woman's vulva, and a third figure
+shows a small round snake with a small head, and closely resembling a
+penis, at the mouth of the vagina. All these figures are reproduced by
+Ploss and Bartels. Even in modern Europe the same ideas prevail. In
+Portugal, according to Reys, it is believed that during menstruation women
+are liable to be bitten by lizards, and to guard against this risk they
+wear drawers during the period. In Germany, again, it was believed, up to
+the eighteenth century at least, that the hair of a menstruating woman, if
+buried, would turn into a snake. It may be added that in various parts of
+the world virgin priestesses are dedicated to a snake-god and are married
+to the god.[359] At Rome, it is interesting to note, the serpent was the
+symbol of fecundation, and as such often figures at Pompeii as the _genius
+patrisfamilias_, the generative power of the family.[360] In Rabbinical
+tradition, also, the serpent is the symbol of sexual desire.
+
+There can be no doubt that--as Ploss and Bartels, from whom some of these
+examples have been taken, point out--in widely different parts of the
+world menstruation is believed to have been originally caused by a snake,
+and that this conception is frequently associated with an erotic and
+mystic idea.[361] How the connection arose Ploss and Bartels are unable to
+say. It can only be suggested that its shape and appearance, as well as
+its venomous nature, may have contributed to the mystery everywhere
+associated with the snake--a mystery itself fortified by the association
+with women--to build up this world-wide belief regarding the origin of
+menstruation.
+
+This primitive theory of the origin of menstruation probably brings before
+us in its earliest shape the special and intimate bond which has ever been
+held to connect women, by virtue of the menstrual process, with the
+natural or supernatural powers of the world. Everywhere menstruating women
+are supposed to be possessed by spirits and charged with mysterious
+forces. It is at this point that a serious misconception, due to ignorance
+of primitive religious ideas, has constantly intruded. It is stated that
+the menstruating woman is "unclean" and possessed by an evil spirit. As a
+matter of fact, however, the savage rarely discriminates between bad and
+good spirits. Every spirit may have either a beneficial or malignant
+influence. An interesting instance of this is given in Colenso's _Maori
+Lexicon_ as illustrated by the meaning of the Maori word _atua_.
+
+The importance of recognizing the special sense in which the word
+"unclean" is used in this connection was clearly pointed out by Robertson
+Smith in the case of the Semites. "The Hebrew word _tame_ (unclean)," he
+remarked, "is not the ordinary word for things physically foul; it is a
+ritual term, and corresponds exactly to the idea of _taboo_. The ideas
+'unclean' and 'holy' seem to us to stand in polar opposition to one
+another, but it was not so with the Semites. Among the later Jews the Holy
+Books 'defiled the hands' of the reader as contact with an impure thing
+did; among Lucian's Syrians the dove was so holy that he who touched it
+was unclean for a day; and the _taboo_ attaching to the swine was
+explained by some, and beyond question correctly explained, in the same
+way. Among the heathen Semites,[362] therefore, unclean animals, which it
+was pollution to eat, were simply holy animals." Robertson Smith here
+made no reference to menstruation, but he exactly described the primitive
+attitude toward menstruation. Wellhausen, however, dealing with the early
+Arabians, expressly mentions that in pre-Islamic days, "clean" and
+"unclean" were used solely with reference to women in and out of the
+menstrual state. At a later date Frazer developed this aspect of the
+conception of taboo, and showed how it occurs among savage races
+generally. He pointed out that the conceptions of holiness and pollution
+not having yet been differentiated, women at childbirth and during
+menstruation are on the same level as divine kings, chiefs, and priests,
+and must observe the same rules of ceremonial purity. To seclude such
+persons from the rest of the world, so that the dreaded spiritual danger
+shall not spread, is the object of the taboo, which Frazer compares to "an
+electrical insulator to preserve the spiritual force with which these
+persons are charged from suffering or inflicting, harm by contact with the
+outer world." After describing the phenomena (especially the prohibition
+to touch the ground or see the sun) found among various races, Frazer
+concludes: "The object of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralize
+the dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such
+times. The general effect of these rules is to keep the girl suspended, so
+to say, between heaven and earth. Whether enveloped in her hammock and
+slung up to the roof, as in South America, or elevated above the ground in
+a dark and narrow cage, as in New Zealand, she may be considered to be out
+of the way of doing mischief, since, being shut off both from the earth
+and from the sun, she can poison neither of these great sources of life by
+her deadly contagion. The precautions thus taken to isolate or insulate
+the girl are dictated by regard for her own safety as well as for the
+safety of others.... In short, the girl is viewed as charged with a
+powerful force which, if not kept within bounds, may prove the destruction
+both of the girl herself and of all with whom she comes in contact. To
+repress this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all
+concerned is the object of the taboos in question. The same explanation
+applies to the observance of the same rules by divine kings and priests.
+The uncleanliness, as it is called, of girls at puberty and the sanctity
+of holy men do not, to the primitive mind, differ from each other. They
+are only different manifestations of the same supernatural energy, which,
+like energy in general, is in itself neither good nor bad, but becomes
+beneficent or malignant according to its application."[363]
+
+More recently this view of the matter has been further extended by the
+distinguished French sociologist, Durkheim. Investigating the origins of
+the prohibition of incest, and arguing that it proceeds from the custom of
+exogamy (or marriage outside the clan), and that this rests on certain
+ideas about blood, which, again, are traceable to totemism,--a theory
+which we need not here discuss,--Durkheim is brought face to face with the
+group of conceptions that now concern us. He insists on the extreme
+ambiguity found in primitive culture concerning the notion of the divine,
+and the close connection between aversion and veneration, and points out
+that it is not only at puberty and each recurrence of the menstrual epoch
+that women have aroused these emotions, but also at childbirth. "A
+sentiment of religious horror," he continues, "which can reach such a
+degree of intensity, which can be called forth by so many circumstances,
+and reappears regularly every month to last for a week at least, cannot
+fail to extend its influence beyond the periods to which it was originally
+confined, and to affect the whole course of life. A being who must be
+secluded or avoided for weeks, months, or years preserves something of the
+characteristics to which the isolation was due, even outside those special
+periods. And, in fact, in these communities, the separation of the sexes
+is not merely intermittent; it has become chronic. The two elements of the
+population live separately." Durkheim proceeds to argue that the origin of
+the occult powers attributed to the feminine organism is to be found in
+primitive ideas concerning blood. Not only menstrual blood but any kind of
+blood is the object of such feelings among savage and barbarous peoples.
+All sorts of precautions must be observed with regard to blood; in it
+resides a divine principle, or as Romans, Jews, and Arabs believed, life
+itself. The prohibition to drink wine, the blood of the grape, found among
+some peoples, is traced to its resemblance to blood, and to its
+sacrificial employment (as among the ancient Arabians and still in the
+Christian sacrament) as a substitute for drinking blood. Throughout, blood
+is generally taboo, and it taboos everything that comes in contact with
+it. Now woman is chronically "the theatre of bloody manifestations," and
+therefore she tends to become chronically taboo for the other members of
+the community. "A more or less conscious anxiety, a certain religious
+fear, cannot fail to enter into all the relations of her companions with
+her, and that is why all such relations are reduced to a minimum.
+Relations of a sexual character are specially excluded. In the first
+place, such relations are so intimate that they are incompatible with the
+sort of repulsion which the sexes must experience for each other; the
+barrier between them does not permit of such a close union. In the second
+place, the organs of the body here specially concerned are precisely the
+source of the dreaded manifestations. Thus it is natural that the feelings
+of aversion inspired by women attain their greatest intensity at this
+point. Thus it is, also, that of all parts of the feminine organization it
+is this region which is most severely shut out from commerce." So that,
+while the primitive emotion is mainly one of veneration, and is allied to
+that experienced for kings and priests, there is an element of fear in
+such veneration, and what men fear is to some extent odious to them.[364]
+
+These conceptions necessarily mingled at a very early period with men's
+ideas of sexual intercourse with women and especially with menstruating
+women. Contact with women, as Crawley shows by abundant illustration, is
+dangerous. In any case, indeed, the same ideas being transferred to women
+also, coitus produces weakness, and it prevents the acquisition of
+supernatural powers. Thus, among the western tribes of Canada, Boas
+states: "Only a youth who has never touched a woman, or a virgin, both
+being called _te 'e 'its_, can become shamans. After having had sexual
+intercourse men as well as women, become _t 'k-e 'el_, i.e., weak,
+incapable of gaining supernatural powers. The faculty cannot be regained
+by subsequent fasting and abstinence."[365] The mysterious effects of
+sexual intercourse in general are intensified in the case of intercourse
+with a menstruating woman. Thus the ancient Indian legislator declares
+that "the wisdom, the energy, the strength, the sight, and the vitality of
+a man who approaches a woman covered with menstrual excretions utterly
+perish."[366] It will be seen that these ideas are impartially spread over
+the most widely separated parts of the globe. They equally affected the
+Christian Church, and the Penitentials ordained forty or fifty days
+penance for sexual intercourse during menstruation.
+
+Yet the twofold influence of the menstruating woman remains clear when we
+review the whole group of influences which in this state she is supposed
+to exert. She by no means acts only by paralyzing social activities and
+destroying the powers of life, by causing flowers to fade, fruit to fall
+from the trees, grains to lose their germinative power, and grafts to die.
+She is not accurately summed up in the old lines:--
+
+    "Oh! menstruating woman, thou'rt a fiend
+    From whom all nature should be closely screened."
+
+Her powers are also beneficial. A woman at this time, as Ælian expressed
+it, is in regular communication with the starry bodies. Even at other
+times a woman when led naked around the orchard protected it from
+caterpillars, said Pliny, and this belief is acted upon (according to
+Bastanzi) even in the Italy of to-day.[367] A garment stained with a
+virgin's menstrual blood, it is said in Bavaria, is a certain safeguard
+against cuts and stabs. It will also extinguish fire. It was valuable as a
+love-philter; as a medicine its uses have been endless.[368] A sect of
+Valentinians even attributed sacramental virtues to menstrual blood, and
+partook of it as the blood of Christ. The Church soon, however, acquired a
+horror of menstruating women; they were frequently not allowed to take the
+sacrament or to enter sacred places, and it was sometimes thought best to
+prohibit the presence of women altogether.[369] The Anglo-Saxon
+Penitentials declared that menstruating women must not enter a church. It
+appears to have been Gregory II who overturned this doctrine.
+
+In our own time the slow disintegration of primitive animistic
+conceptions, aided certainly by the degraded conception of sexual
+phenomena taught by mediæval monks--for whom woman was "_templum
+ædificatum super cloacam_"--has led to a disbelief in the more salutary
+influences of the menstruating woman. A fairly widespread faith in her
+pernicious influence alone survives. It may be traced even in practical
+and commercial--one might add, medical--quarters. In the great
+sugar-refineries in the North of France the regulations strictly forbid a
+woman to enter the factory while the sugar is boiling or cooling, the
+reason given being that, if a woman were to enter during her period, the
+sugar would blacken. For the same reason--to turn to the East--no woman is
+employed in the opium manufactory at Saigon, it being said that the opium
+would turn and become bitter, while Annamite women say that it is very
+difficult for them to prepare opium-pipes during the catamenial
+period.[370] In India, again, when a native in charge of a limekiln which
+had gone wrong, declared that one of the women workers must be
+menstruating, all the women--Hindus, Mahometans, aboriginal Gonds,
+etc.,--showed by their energetic denials that they understood this
+superstition.[371]
+
+In 1878 a member of the British Medical Association wrote to the _British
+Medical Journal_, asking whether it was true that if a woman cured hams
+while menstruating the hams would be spoiled. He had known this to happen
+twice. Another medical man wrote that if so, what would happen to the
+patients of menstruating lady doctors? A third wrote (in the _Journal_ for
+April 27, 1878): "I thought the fact was so generally known to every
+housewife and cook that meat would spoil if salted at the menstrual
+period, that I am surprised to see so many letters on the subject in the
+_Journal_. If I am not mistaken, the question was mooted many years ago in
+the periodicals. It is undoubtedly the fact that meat will be tainted if
+cured by women at the catamenial period. Whatever the rationale may be, I
+can speak positively as to the fact."
+
+It is probably the influence of these primitive ideas which has caused
+surgeons and gynæcologists to dread operations during the catamenial
+period. Such, at all events, is the opinion of a distinguished authority,
+Dr. William Goodell, who wrote in 1891[372]: "I have learned to unlearn
+the teaching that women must not be subjected to a surgical operation
+during the monthly flux. Our forefathers, from time immemorial, have
+thought and taught that the presence of a menstruating woman would pollute
+solemn religious rites, would sour milk, spoil the fermentation in
+wine-vats, and much other mischief in a general way. Influenced by hoary
+tradition, modern physicians very generally postpone all operative
+treatment until the flow has ceased. But why this delay, if time is
+precious, and it enters as an important factor in the case? I have found
+menstruation to be the very best time to curette away fungous vegetations
+of the endometrium, for, being swollen then by the afflux of blood, they
+are larger than at any other time, and can the more readily be removed.
+There is, indeed, no surer way of checking or of stopping a metrorrhagia
+than by curetting the womb during the very flow. While I do not select
+this period for the removal of ovarian cysts, or for other abdominal work,
+such as the extirpation of the ovaries, or a kidney, or breaking up
+intestinal adhesions, etc., yet I have not hesitated to perform these
+operations at such a time, and have never had reason to regret the course.
+The only operations that I should dislike to perform during menstruation
+would be those involving the womb itself."
+
+It must be added to this that we still have to take into consideration not
+merely the surviving influence of ancient primitive beliefs, but the
+possible existence of actual nervous conditions during the menstrual
+period, producing what may be described as an abnormal nervous tension. In
+this way, we are doubtless concerned with a tissue of phenomena,
+inextricably woven of folk-lore, autosuggestion, false observation, and
+real mental and nervous abnormality. Laurent (loc. cit.) has brought
+forward several cases which may illustrate this point. Thus, he speaks of
+two young girls of about 16 and 17, slightly neuropathic, but without
+definite hysterical symptoms, who, during the menstrual period, feel
+themselves in a sort of electrical state, "with tingling and prickling
+sensations and feelings of attraction or repulsion at the contact of
+various objects." These girls believe their garments stick to their skin
+during the periods; it was only with difficulty that they could remove
+their slippers, though fitting easily; stockings had to be drawn off
+violently by another person, and they had given up changing their chemises
+during the period because the linen became so glued to the skin. An
+orchestral performer on the double-bass informed Laurent that whenever he
+left a tuned double-bass in his lodgings during his wife's period a
+string snapped; consequently he always removed his instrument at this time
+to a friend's house. He added that the same thing happened two years
+earlier with a mistress, a _café-concert_ singer, who had, indeed, warned
+him beforehand. A harpist also informed Laurent that she had been obliged
+to give up her profession because during her periods several strings of
+her harp, always the same strings, broke, especially when she was playing.
+A friend of Laurent's, an official in Cochin China, also told him that the
+strings of his violin often snapped during the menstrual periods of his
+Annamite mistress, who informed him that Annamite women are familiar with
+the phenomenon, and are careful not to play on their instruments at this
+time. Two young ladies, both good violinists, also affirmed that ever
+since their first menstruation they had noted a tendency for the strings
+to snap at this period; one, a genuine artist, who often performed at
+charity concerts, systematically refused to play at these times, and was
+often embarrassed to find a pretext; the other, who admitted that she was
+nervous and irritable at such times, had given up playing on account of
+the trouble of changing the strings so frequently. Laurent also refers to
+the frequency with which women break things during the menstrual periods,
+and considers that this is not simply due to the awkwardness caused by
+nervous exhaustion or hysterical tremors, but that there is spontaneous
+breakage. Most usually it happens that a glass breaks when it is being
+dried with a cloth; needles also break with unusual facility at this time;
+clocks are stopped by merely placing the hand upon them.
+
+I do not here attempt to estimate critically the validity of these alleged
+manifestations (some of which may certainly be explained by the
+unconscious muscular action which forms the basis of the phenomena of
+table-turning and thought-reading); such a task may best be undertaken
+through the minute study of isolated cases, and in this place I am merely
+concerned with the general influence of the menstrual state in affecting
+the social position of women, without reference to the analysis of the
+elements that go to make up that influence.
+
+There is only one further point to which attention may be called. I
+allude to the way in which the more favorable side of the primitive
+conception of the menstruating woman--as priestess, sibyl, prophetess, an
+almost miraculous agent for good, an angel, the peculiar home of the
+divine element--was slowly and continuously carried on side by side with
+the less favorable view, through the beginnings of European civilization
+until our own times. The actual physical phenomena of menstruation, with
+the ideas of taboo associated with that state, sank into the background as
+culture evolved; but, on the other hand, the ideas of the angelic position
+and spiritual mission of women, based on the primitive conception of the
+mystery associated with menstruation, still in some degree persisted.
+
+It is evident, however, that, while, in one form or another, the more
+favorable aspect of the primitive view of women's magic function has never
+quite died out, the gradual decay and degradation of the primitive view
+has, on the whole, involved a lower estimate of women's nature and
+position. Woman has always been the witch; she was so even in ancient
+Babylonia; but she has ceased to be the priestess. The early Teutons saw
+"_sanctum aliquid et providum_" in women who, for the mediæval German
+preacher, were only "_bestiæ bipedales_"; and Schopenhauer and even
+Nietzsche have been more inclined to side with the preacher than with the
+half-naked philosophers of Tacitus's day. But both views alike are but the
+extremes of the same primitive conception; and the gradual evolution from
+one extreme of the magical doctrine to the other was inevitable.
+
+In an advanced civilization, as we see, these ideas having their ultimate
+basis on the old story of the serpent, and on a special and mysterious
+connection between the menstruating woman and the occult forces of magic,
+tend to die out. The separation of the sexes they involve becomes
+unnecessary. Living in greater community with men, women are seen to
+possess something, it may well be, but less than before, of the
+angel-devil of early theories. Menstruation is no longer a monstrific
+state requiring spiritual taboo, but a normal physiological process, not
+without its psychic influences on the woman herself and on those who live
+with her.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[353] Several recent works, however, notably Frazer's _Golden Bough_ and
+Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, throw light directly or indirectly on this
+question.
+
+[354] Robertson Smith points out that since snakes are the last noxious
+animals which man is able to exterminate, they are the last to be
+associated with demons. They were ultimately the only animals directly and
+constantly associated with the Arabian _jinn_, or demon, and the serpent
+of Eden was a demon, and not a temporary disguise of Satan (_Religion of
+Semites_, pp. 129 and 442). Perhaps it was, in part, because the snake was
+thus the last embodiment of demonic power that women were associated with
+it, women being always connected with the most ancient religious beliefs.
+
+[355] In the northern territory of the same colony menstruation is said to
+be due to a bandicoot scratching the vagina and causing blood to flow
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 177, November, 1894). At
+Glenelg, and near Portland, in Victoria, the head of a snake was inserted
+into a virgin's vagina, when not considered large enough for intercourse
+(Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, vol. ii, p. 319).
+
+[356] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. ii, p. 231. Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_,
+p. 192) also brings together various cases of primitive peoples who
+believe the bite of a snake to be the cause of menstruation.
+
+[357] Meyners d'Estrez, "Etude ethnographique sur le lézard chez les
+peuples malais et polynésiens," _L'Anthropologie_, 1892; see also, as
+regards the lizard in Samoan folk-lore, _Globus_, vol. lxxiv, No. 16.
+
+[358] _Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay_, 1890, p. 589.
+
+[359] Boudin (_Etude Anthropologique: Culte du Serpent_, Paris, 1864, pp.
+66-70) brings forward examples of this aspect of snake-worship.
+
+[360] Attilio de Marchi, _Il Culto privato di Roma_, p. 74. The
+association of the power of generation with a god in the form of a serpent
+is, indeed, common; see, e.g. Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Cities of Phrygia_, vol.
+i, p. 94.
+
+[361] It is noteworthy that one of the names for the penis used by the
+Swahili women of German East Africa, in a kind of private language of
+their own, is "the snake" (Zache, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p. 73,
+1899). It may be added that Maeder ("Interprétation de Quelques Rêves,"
+_Archives de Psychologie_, April, 1907) brings forward various items of
+folk-lore showing the phallic significance of the serpent, as well as
+evidence indicating that, in the dreams of women of to-day, the snake
+sometimes has a sexual significance.
+
+[362] W.R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1885, p. 307.
+The point is elaborated in the same author's _Religion of Semites_, second
+edition, Appendix on "Holiness, Uncleanness, and Taboo," pp. 446-54. See
+also Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, second edition, pp.
+167-77. Even to the early Arabians, Wellhausen remarks (p. 168), "clean"
+meant "profane and allowed," while "unclean" meant "sacred and forbidden."
+It was the same, as Jastrow remarks (_Religion of Babylonia_, p. 662),
+among the Babylonian Semites.
+
+[363] J.C. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, Chapter IV.
+
+[364] E. Durkheim, "La Prohibition de l'Inceste et ses Origines," _L'Année
+Sociologique_, Première Année, 1898, esp. pp. 44, 46-47, 48, 50-57.
+Crawley (_Mystic Rose_, p. 212) opposes Durkheim's view as to the
+significance of blood in relation to the attitude towards women.
+
+[365] _British Association Report on North Western Tribes of Canada_,
+1890, p. 581.
+
+[366] _Laws of Manu_, iv, 41.
+
+[367] Pliny, who, in Book VII, Chapter XIII, and Book XXVIII, Chapter
+XXIII, of his _Natural History_, gives long lists of the various good and
+evil influences attributed to menstruation, writes in the latter place:
+"Hailstorms, they say, whirlwinds, and lightnings, even, will be scared
+away by a woman uncovering her body while her monthly courses are upon
+her. The same, too, with all other kinds of tempestuous weather; and out
+at sea, a storm may be stilled by a woman uncovering her body merely, even
+though not menstruating at the time. At any other time, also, if a woman
+strips herself naked while she is menstruating, and walks round a field of
+wheat, the caterpillars, worms, beetles, and other vermin will fall from
+off the ears of corn."
+
+[368] See Bourke, _Scatologic Rites of all Nations_, 1891, pp. 217-219,
+250 and 254; Ploss and Max Bartels, _Das Weib_, vol. i; H.L. Strack, _Der
+Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit_, fourth edition, 1892, pp. 14-18. The
+last mentioned refers to the efficacy frequently attributed to menstrual
+blood in the Middle Ages in curing leprosy, and gives instances, occurring
+even in Germany to-day, of girls who have administered drops of menstrual
+blood in coffee to their sweethearts, to make sure of retaining their
+affections.
+
+[369] See, e.g., Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. iii, p. 115.
+
+[370] Dr. L. Laurent gives these instances, "De Quelques Phenomènes
+Mécaniques produits au moment de la Menstruation," _Annales des Sciences
+Psychiques_, September and October, 1897.
+
+[371] _Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay_, 1890, p. 403. Even the
+glance of a menstruating woman is widely believed to have serious results.
+See Tuchmann, "La Fascination," _Mélasine_, 1888, pp. 347 _et seq._
+
+[372] As quoted in the _Provincial Medical Journal_, April, 1891.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+
+SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEN.
+
+BY F.H. PERRY-COSTE, B. Sc. (LOND.).
+
+
+In a recent _brochure_ on the "Rhythm of the Pulse"[373] I showed _inter
+alia_ that the readings of the pulse, in both man and woman, if arranged
+in lunar monthly periods, and averaged over several years, displayed a
+clear, and sometimes very strongly marked and symmetrical, rhythm.[374]
+After pointing out that, in at any rate some cases, the male and female
+pulse-curves, both monthly and annual, seemed to be converse to one
+another, I added: "It is difficult to ignore the suggestion that in this
+tracing of the monthly rhythm of the pulse we have a history of the
+monthly function in women; and that, if so, the tracing of the male pulse
+may eventually afford us some help in discovering a corresponding monthly
+period in men: the existence of which has been suggested by Mr. Havelock
+Ellis and Professor Stanley Hall, among other writers. Certainly the mere
+fact that we can trace a clear monthly rhythm in man's pulse seems to
+point strongly to the existence of a monthly physiological period in him
+also."
+
+Obviously, however, it is only indirectly and by inference that we can
+argue from a monthly rhythm of the pulse in men to a male sexual
+periodicity; but I am now able to adduce more direct evidence that will
+fairly demonstrate the existence of a sexual periodicity in men.
+
+We will start from the fact that celibacy is profoundly unnatural,
+and is, therefore, a physical--as well as an emotional and
+intellectual--abnormality. This being so, it is entirety in accord with
+all that we know of physiology that, when relief to the sexual secretory
+system by Nature's means is denied, and when, in consequence, a certain
+degree of tension or pressure has been attained, the system should relieve
+itself by a spontaneous discharge--such discharge being, of course, in the
+strict sense of the term, pathological, since it would never occur in any
+animal that followed the strict law of its physical being without any
+regard to other and higher laws of concern for its fellows.
+
+Notoriously, that which we should have anticipated _a priori_ actually
+occurs; for any unmarried man, who lives in strict chastity, periodically
+experiences, while sleeping, a loss of seminal fluid--such phenomena being
+popularly referred to as _wet dreams_.[375]
+
+During some eight or ten years I have carefully recorded the occurrence of
+such discharges as I have experienced myself, and I have now accumulated
+sufficient data to justify an attempt to formulate some provisional
+conclusions.[376]
+
+In order to render these observations as serviceable as may be to students
+of periodicity, I here repeat (at the request of Mr. Havelock Ellis) the
+statement which was subjoined, for the same reasons, to my "Rhythm of the
+Pulse." These observations upon myself were made between the ages of 20
+and 33. I am about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, broad-shouldered, and weigh
+about 10 stone 3 lbs. _net_--this weight being, I believe, about 7 lbs.
+below the normal for my height. Also I have green-brown eyes, very
+dark-brown hair, and a complexion that leads strangers frequently to
+mistake me for a foreigner--this complexion being, perhaps, attributable
+to some Huguenot blood, although on the maternal side I am, so far as all
+information goes, pure English. I can stand a good deal of heat, enjoy
+relaxing climates, am at once upset by "bracing" sea-air, hate the cold,
+and sweat profusely after exercise. To this it will suffice to add that my
+temperament is of a decidedly nervous and emotional type.
+
+Before proceeding to remark upon the various rhythms that I have
+discovered, I will tabulate the data on which my conclusions are founded.
+The numbers of discharges recorded in the years in question are as
+follows:--
+
+    In 1886, 30. (Records commenced in April.)
+    In 1887, 40.
+    In 1888, 37.
+    In 1889, 18. (Pretty certainly not fully recorded.)
+    In 1890,  0  (No records kept this year.[377])
+    In 1891, 19. (Records recommenced in June.)
+    In 1892, 35.
+    In 1893, 40.
+    In 1894, 38.
+    In 1895, 36.
+    In 1896, 36.
+    In 1897, 35.
+    Average, 37. (Omitting 1886, 1889, and 1891.)
+
+Thus I have complete records for eight years, and incomplete records for
+three more; and the remarkable concord between the respective annual
+numbers of observations in these eight years not only affords us intrinsic
+evidence of the accuracy of my records, but, also, at once proves that
+there is an undeniable regularity in the occurrence of these sexual
+discharges, and, therefore, gives us reason for expecting to find this
+regularity rhythmical. Moreover, since it seemed reasonable to expect
+that there might be more than one rhythm, I have examined my data with a
+view to discovering (1) an annual, (2) a lunar-monthly, and (3) a weekly
+rhythm, and I now proceed to show that all three such rhythms exist.
+
+
+THE ANNUAL RHYTHM.
+
+It is obvious that, in searching for an annual rhythm, we must ignore the
+records of the three incomplete years; but those of the remaining eight
+are graphically depicted upon Chart 8. The curves speak so plainly for
+themselves that any comment were almost superfluous, and the concord
+between the various curves, although, of course, not perfect, is far
+greater than the scantiness of the data would have justified us in
+expecting. The curves all agree in pointing to the existence of three
+well-defined maxima,--viz., in March, June, and September,--these being,
+therefore, the months in which the sexual instinct is most active; and the
+later curves show that there is also often a fourth maximum in January. In
+the earlier years the March and June maxima are more strikingly marked
+than the September one; but the uppermost curve shows that on the average
+of all eight years the September maximum is the highest, the June and
+January maxima occupying the second place, and the March maximum being the
+least strongly marked of all.
+
+Now, remembering that, in calculating the curves of the annual rhythm of
+the pulse, I had found it necessary to average two months' records
+together, in order to bring out the full significance of the rhythm, I
+thought it well to try the effect upon these curves also of similarly
+averaging two months together. At first my results were fairly
+satisfactory; but, as my data increased year by year, I found that these
+curves were contradicting one another, and therefore concluded that I had
+selected unnatural periods for my averaging. My first attempted remedy was
+to arrange the months in the pairs December-January, February-March, etc.,
+instead of in January-February, March-April, etc.; but with these pairs I
+fared no better than with the former. I then arranged the months in the
+triplets, January-February-March, etc.; and the results are graphically
+recorded on Chart 7. Here, again, comment would be quite futile, but I
+need only point out that, _on the whole_, the sexual activity rises
+steadily during the first nine months in the year to its maximum in
+September, and then sinks rapidly and abruptly during the next three to
+its minimum in December.
+
+The study of these curves suggests two interesting questions, to neither
+of which, however, do the data afford us an answer.
+
+In the first place, are the alterations, in my case, of the maximum of the
+discharges from March and June in the earlier years to September in the
+later, and the interpolation of a new secondary maximum in January,
+correlated with the increase in age; or is the discrepancy due simply to a
+temporary irregularity that would have been equally averaged out had I
+recorded the discharges of 1881-89 instead of those from 1887 to 1897?
+
+The second question is one of very great importance--socially, ethically,
+and physically. How often, in this climate, should a man have sexual
+connection with his wife in order to maintain himself in perfect
+physiological equilibrium? My results enable us to state definitely the
+minimum limits, and to reply that 37 embraces annually would be too few;
+but, unfortunately, they give us no clue to the maximum limit. It is
+obvious that the necessary frequency should be greater than 37 times
+annually,--possibly very considerably in excess thereof,--seeing that the
+spontaneous discharges, with which we are dealing, are due to
+over-pressure, and occur only when the system, being denied natural
+relief, can no longer retain its secretions; and, therefore, it seems very
+reasonable to suggest that the frequency of natural relief should be some
+multiple of 37. I do not perceive, however, that the data in hand afford
+us any clue to this multiple, or enable us to suggest either 2, 3, 4, or 5
+as the required multiple of 37. It is true that other observations upon
+myself have afforded me what I believe to be a fairly satisfactory and
+reliable answer so far as concerns myself; but these observations are of
+such a nature that they cannot be discussed here, and I have no
+inclination to offer as a counsel to others an opinion which I am unable
+to justify by the citation of facts and statistics. Moreover, I am quite
+unable to opine whether, given 37 as the annual frequency of spontaneous
+discharges in a number of men, the multiple required for the frequency of
+natural relief should be the same in every case. For aught I know to the
+contrary, the physiological idiosyncrasies of men may be so varied that,
+given two men with an annual frequency of 37 spontaneous discharges, the
+desired multiple may be in one case X and in the other 2X.[378] Our data,
+however, do clearly denote that the frequency in the six or eight summer
+months should bear to the frequency of the six or four winter months the
+proportion of three or four to two.[379] It should never be forgotten,
+however, that, under all conditions, both man and wife should exercise
+prudence, both _selfward_ and _otherward_, and that each should utterly
+refuse to gratify self by accepting a sacrifice, however willingly
+offered, that may be gravely prejudicial to the health of the other; for
+only experience can show whether, in any union, the receptivity of the
+woman be greater or less than, or equal to, the _physical_ desire of the
+man. To those, of course, who regard marriage from the old-fashioned and
+grossly immoral standpoint of Melancthon and other theologians, and who
+consider a wife as the divinely ordained vehicle for the chartered
+intemperance of her husband, it will seem grotesque in the highest degree
+that a physiological inquirer should attempt to advise them how often to
+seek the embraces of their wives; but those who regard woman from the
+standpoint of a higher ethics, who abhor the notion that she should be
+only the vehicle for her husband's passions, and who demand that she shall
+be mistress of her own body, will not be ungrateful for any guidance that
+physiology can afford them. It will be seen presently, moreover, that the
+study of the weekly rhythm does afford us some less inexact clue to the
+desired solution.
+
+One curious fact may be mentioned before we quit this interesting
+question. It is stated that "Solon required [of the husband] three
+_payments_ per month. By the Misna a daily debt was imposed upon an idle
+vigorous young husband; _twice a week_ on a citizen; once in thirty days
+on a camel-driver; once in six months on a seaman."[380] Now it is
+certainly striking that Solon's "three payments per month" exactly
+correspond with my records of 37 discharges annually. Had Solon similarly
+recorded a series of observations upon himself?
+
+
+THE LUNAR-MONTHLY RHYTHM.
+
+We now come to that division of the inquiry which is of the greatest
+physiological interest, although of little social import. Is there a
+monthly period in man as well as in woman? My records indicate clearly
+that there is.
+
+In searching for this monthly rhythm I have utilized not only the data of
+the eight completely-recorded years, but also those of the three years of
+1886, 1889, and 1891, for, although it would obviously have been
+inaccurate to utilize these incomplete records when calculating the
+yearly rhythm, there seems no objection to making use of them in the
+present section of the inquiry. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
+terms "first day of the month," "second day," "third day," etc., are to be
+understood as denoting "new-moon day," "day after new moon," "third lunar
+day," and so on; but it should be explained that, since these discharges
+occur at night, I have adopted the astronomical, instead of the civil,
+day; so that a new moon occurring between noon yesterday and noon to-day
+is reckoned as occurring yesterday, and yesterday is regarded as the first
+lunar day: thus, a discharge occurring in the night between December 31st
+and January 1st is tabulated as occurring on December 31st, and, in the
+present discussion, is assigned to the lunar day comprised between noon of
+December 31st and noon of January 1st.
+
+Since it is obvious that the number of discharges in any one
+year--averaging, as they do, only 1.25 per day--are far too few to yield a
+curve of any value, I have combined my data in two series. The dotted
+curve on Chart 9 is obtained by combining the results of the years
+1886-92: two of these years are incompletely recorded, and there are no
+records for 1890; the total number of observations was 179. The broken
+curve is obtained by combining those of the years 1893-97, the total
+number of observations being 185. Even so, the data are far too scanty to
+yield a really characteristic curve; but the _continuous_ curve, which
+sums up the results of the eleven years, is more reliable, and obviously
+more satisfactory.
+
+If the two former curves be compared, it will be seen that, on the whole,
+they display a general concordance, such differences as exist being
+attributable chiefly to two facts: (1) that the second curve is more even
+throughout, neither maximum nor minimum being so strongly marked as in the
+first; and (2) that the main maximum occurs in the middle of the month
+instead of on the second lunar day, and the absence of the marked initial
+maximum alters the character of the first week or so of this curve. It is,
+however, scarcely fair to lay any great stress on the characters of curves
+obtained from such scanty data, and we will, therefore, pass to the
+continuous curve, the study of which will prove more valuable.[381]
+
+Now, even a cursory examination of this continuous curve will yield the
+following results:--
+
+1. The discharges occur most frequently on the second lunar day.
+
+2. The days of the next most frequent discharges are the 22d; the 13th;
+the 7th, 20th, and 26th; the 11th and 16th; so that, if we regard only the
+first six of these, we find that the discharges occur most frequently on
+the 2d, 7th, 13th, 20th, 22d, and 26th lunar days--i.e., the discharges
+occur most frequently on days separated, on the average, by four-day
+intervals; but actually the period between the 20th and 22d days is that
+characterized by the most frequent discharges.
+
+3. The days of minimum of discharge are the 1st, 5th, 15th, 18th, and
+21st.
+
+4. The curve is characterized by a continual see-sawing; so that every
+notable maximum is immediately followed by a notable minimum. Thus, the
+curve is of an entirely different character from that representing the
+monthly rhythm of the pulse,[382] and this is only what one might have
+expected; for, whereas the _mean_ pulsations vary only very slightly from
+day to day,--thus giving rise to a gradually rising or sinking curve,--a
+discharge from the sexual system relieves the tension by exhausting the
+stored-up secretion, and is necessarily followed by some days of rest and
+inactivity. In the very nature of the case, therefore, a curve of this
+kind could not possibly be otherwise than most irregular if the discharges
+tended to occur most frequently upon definite days of the month; and thus
+the very irregularity of the curve affords us proof that there is a
+regular male periodicity, such that on certain days of the month there is
+greater probability of a spontaneous discharge than on any other days.
+
+5. Gratifying, however, though this irregularity of the curve may be, yet
+it entails a corresponding disadvantage, for we are precluded thereby from
+readily perceiving the characteristics of the monthly rhythm as a whole. I
+thought that perhaps this aspect of the rhythm might be rendered plainer
+if I calculated the data into two-day averages; and the result, as shown
+in Chart 10, is extremely satisfactory. Here we can at once perceive the
+wonderful and almost geometric symmetry of the monthly rhythm; indeed, if
+the third maximum were one unit higher, if the first minimum were one unit
+lower, and if the lines joining the second minimum and third maximum, and
+the fourth maximum and fourth minimum, were straight instead of being
+slightly broken, then the curve would, in its chief features, be
+geometrically symmetrical; and this symmetry appears to me to afford a
+convincing proof of the representative accuracy of the curve. We see that
+the month is divided into five periods; that the maxima occur on the
+following pairs of days: the 19th-20th, 13th-14th, 25th-26th, 1st-2d,
+7th-8th; and that the minima occur at the beginning, end, and exact middle
+of the month. There have been many idle superstitions as to the influence
+of the moon upon the earth and its inhabitants, and some beliefs
+that--once deemed equally idle--have now been re-instated in the regard of
+science; but it would certainly seem to be a very fascinating and very
+curious fact if the influence of the moon upon men should be such as to
+regulate the spontaneous discharges of their sexual system. Certainly the
+lovers of all ages would then have "builded better than they knew," when
+they reared altars of devotional verse to that chaste goddess Artemis.
+
+
+THE WEEKLY RHYTHM.
+
+We now come to the third branch of our inquiry, and have to ask whether
+there be any weekly rhythm of the sexual activity. _A priori_ it might be
+answered that to expect any such weekly rhythm were absurd, seeing that
+our week--unlike the lunar month of the year--is a purely artificial and
+conventional period; while, on the other hand, it might be retorted that
+the existence of an _induced_ weekly periodicity is quite conceivable,
+such periodicity being induced by the habitual difference between our
+occupation, or mode of life, on one or two days of the week and that on
+the remaining days. In such an inquiry, however, _a priori_ argument is
+futile, as the question can be answered only by an induction from
+observations, and the curves on Chart 11 (_A_ and _B_) prove conclusively
+that there is a notable weekly rhythm. The existence of this weekly rhythm
+being granted, it would naturally be assumed that either the maximum or
+the minimum would regularly occur on Saturday or Sunday; but an
+examination of the curves discloses the unexpected result that the day of
+maximum discharge varies from year to year. Thus it is[383]
+
+    Sunday in    1888, 1892, 1896.
+    Tuesday in   1894.
+    Thursday in  1886, 1897.
+    Friday in    1887.
+    Saturday in  1893 and 1895.
+
+Since, in Chart 11, the curves are drawn from Sunday to Sunday, it is
+obvious that the real symmetry of the curve is brought out in those years
+only which are characterized by a Sunday maximum; and, accordingly, in
+Chart 12 I have depicted the curves in a more suitable form.
+
+Chart 12 _A_ is obtained by combining the data of 1888, 1892, and 1896:
+the years of a Sunday maximum. Curve 12 _B_ represents the results of
+1894, the year of a Tuesday maximum--multiplied throughout by three in
+order to render the curve strictly comparable with the former. Curve 12
+_C_ represents 1886 and 1897--the years of a Thursday maximum--similarly
+multiplied by 1.5. In Curve 12 _D_ we have the results of 1887--the year
+of a Friday maximum--again multiplied by three; and in Curve 12 _E_ those
+of 1893 and 1895--the years of a Saturday maximum--multiplied by 1.5.
+Finally, Curve 12 _F_ represents the combined results of all nine years
+plus (the latter half of) 1891; and this curve shows that, on the whole
+period, there is a very strongly marked Sunday maximum.
+
+I hardly think that these curves call for much comment. In their general
+character they display a notable concord among themselves; and it is
+significant that the most regular of the five curves are _A_ and _E_,
+representing the combinations of three years and of two years,
+respectively, while the least regular is _B_, which is based upon the
+records of one year only. In every case we find that the maximum which
+opens the week is rapidly succeeded by a minimum, which is itself
+succeeded by a secondary maximum,--usually very secondary, although in
+1894 it nearly equals the primary maximum,--followed again by a second
+minimum--usually nearly identical with the first minimum,--after which
+there is a rapid rise to the original maximum. The study of these curves
+fortunately amplifies the conclusion drawn from our study of the annual
+rhythm, and suggests that, in at least part of the year, the physiological
+condition of man requires sexual union at least twice a week.
+
+As to Curve 12_F_, its remarkable symmetry speaks for itself. The
+existence of two secondary maxima, however, has not the same significance
+as had that of our secondary maximum in the preceding curves; for one of
+these secondary maxima is due to the influence of the 1894 curve with its
+primary Tuesday maximum, and the other to the similar influence of Curve
+_C_ with its primary Thursday maximum. Similarly, the veiled third
+secondary maximum is due to the influence of Curve _E_. Probably, any
+student of curves will concede that, on a still larger average, the two
+secondary maxima of Curve _F_ would be replaced by a single one on
+Wednesday or Thursday.
+
+One more question remains for consideration in connection with this weekly
+rhythm. Is it possible to trace any connection between the weekly and
+yearly rhythms of such a character that the weekly day of maximum
+discharge should vary from month to month in the year; in other words,
+does the greater frequency of a Sunday discharge characterize one part of
+the year, that of a Tuesday another, and so on? In order to answer this
+question I have re-calculated all my data, with results that are
+graphically represented in Chart 13. These curves prove that the Sunday
+maxima discharges occur in March and September, and the minima in June;
+that the Monday maxima discharges occur in September, Friday in July, and
+so on. Thus, there is a regular rhythm, according to which the days of
+maximum discharge vary from one month of the year to another; and the
+existence of this final rhythm appears to me very remarkable. I would
+especially direct attention to the almost geometric symmetry of the Sunday
+curve, and to the only less complete symmetry of the Thursday and Friday
+curves. Certainly in these rhythms we have an ample field for farther
+study and speculation.
+
+I have now concluded my study of this fascinating inquiry; a study that is
+necessarily incomplete, since it is based upon records furnished by one
+individual only. The fact, however, that, even with so few observations,
+and notwithstanding the consequently exaggerated disturbing influence of
+minor irregularities, such remarkable and unexpected symmetry is evidenced
+by these curves, only increases one's desire to have the opportunity of
+handling a series of observations sufficiently numerous to render the
+generalizations induced from them absolutely conclusive. I would again
+appeal[384] to heads of colleges to assist this inquiry by enlisting in
+its aid a band of students. If only one hundred students, living under
+similar conditions, could be induced to keep such records with scrupulous
+regularity for only twelve months, the results induced from such a series
+of observations would be more than ten times as valuable as those which
+have only been reached after ten years' observations on my part; and, if
+other centuries of students in foreign and colonial colleges--e.g., in
+Italy, India, Australia, and America--could be similarly enlisted in this
+work, we should quickly obtain a series of results exhibiting the sexual
+needs and sexual peculiarities of the male human animal in various
+climates. Obviously, however, the records of any such students would be
+worse than useless unless their care and accuracy, on the one hand, and
+their habitual chastity, on the other, could be implicitly guaranteed.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[373] First published in the _University Magazine and Free Review_ of
+February, 1898, and since reprinted as a pamphlet. A preliminary
+communication appeared in _Nature_, May 14, 1891.
+
+[374] [Later study (1906) has convinced me that my attempt to find a
+lunar-monthly period in the female pulse was vitiated by a hopeless error:
+for any monthly rhythm in a woman must be sought by arranging her records
+according to her own menstrual month; and this menstrual month may vary in
+different women, from considerably less than a lunar month to thirty days
+or more.]
+
+[375] I may add, however, that in my own case these discharges are--so far
+as I can trust my waking consciousness--frequently, if not usually,
+dreamless; and that strictly sexual dreams are extremely rare,
+notwithstanding the possession of a strongly emotional temperament.
+
+[376] If I can trust my memory, I first experienced this discharge when a
+few months under fifteen years of age, and, if so, within a few weeks of
+the time when I was, in an instant, suddenly struck with the thought that
+possibly the religion in which I had been educated might be false. It is
+curiously interesting that the advent of puberty should have been heralded
+by this intellectual crisis.
+
+[377] This unfortunate breach in the records was due to the fact that,
+failing to discover any regularity in, or law of, the occurrences of the
+discharges, I became discouraged and abandoned my records. In June, 1891,
+a re-examination of my pulse-records having led to my discovery of a
+lunar-monthly rhythm of the pulse, my interest in other physiological
+periodicities was reawakened, and I recommenced my records of these
+discharges.
+
+[378] As a matter of fact, I take it that we may safely assert that no man
+who is content to be guided by his own instinctive cravings, and who
+neither suppresses these, on the one hand, nor endeavors to force himself,
+on the other hand, will be in any danger of erring by either excess or the
+contrary.
+
+[379] [It is obvious that the opportunity of continuing such an inquiry as
+that described in this Appendix, ceases with marriage; but I may add
+(1906) that certain notes that I have kept with scrupulous exactness
+during eight years of married life, lend almost no support to the
+suggestion made in the text--i.e., that sexual desire is greater at one
+season of the year than at another. The nature of these notes I cannot
+discuss; but, they clearly indicate that, although there is a slight
+degree more of sexual desire in the second and third quarters of the year,
+than in the first and fourth, yet, this difference is so slight as to be
+almost negligible. Even if the months be rearranged in the
+triplets--November-December-January, etc.,--so as to bring the maximum
+months of May, June, and July together, the difference between the highest
+quarter and the lowest amounts to an increase of only ten per cent, upon
+the latter--after allowing, of course, for the abnormal shortness of
+February; and, neglecting February, the increase in the maximum months
+(June and July) over the minimum (November) is equal to an increase of
+under 14 per cent, upon the latter. These differences are so vastly less
+than those shown on Chart 7 that they possess almost no significance: but,
+lest too much stress be laid upon the apparently _equalizing_ influence of
+married life, it must be added that the records discussed in the text were
+obtained during residence in London, whereas, since my marriage, I have
+lived in South Cornwall, where the climate is both milder and more
+equable.]
+
+[380] Selden's _Uxor Hebraica_ as quoted in Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_,
+vol. v, p. 52, of Bonn's edition.
+
+[381] I may add that the curve yielded by 1896-97 is remarkably parallel
+with that yielded by the preceding nine years, but I have not thought it
+worth while to chart these two additional curves.
+
+[382] See "Rhythm of the Pulse," Chart 4.
+
+[383] As will be observed, I have omitted the results of the incompletely
+recorded years of 1889 and 1891. The apparent explanation of this curious
+oscillation will be given directly.
+
+[384] See "Rhythm of the Pulse," p. 21.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+THE AUTO-EROTIC FACTOR IN RELIGION.
+
+
+The intimate association between the emotions of love and religion is well
+known to all those who are habitually brought into close contact with the
+phenomena of the religious life. Love and religion are the two most
+volcanic emotions to which the human organism is liable, and it is not
+surprising that, when there is a disturbance in one of these spheres, the
+vibrations should readily extend to the other. Nor is it surprising that
+the two emotions should have a dynamic relation to each other, and that
+the auto-erotic impulse, being the more primitive and fundamental of the
+two impulses, should be able to pass its unexpended energy over to the
+religious emotion, there to find the expansion hitherto denied it, the
+love of the human becoming the love of the divine.
+
+    "I was not good enough for man,
+    And so am given to God."
+
+Even when there is absolute physical suppression on the sexual side, it
+seems probable that thereby a greater intensity of spiritual fervor is
+caused. Many eminent thinkers seem to have been without sexual desire.
+
+It is a noteworthy and significant fact that the age of love is also the
+age of conversion. Starbuck, for instance, in his very elaborate study of
+the psychology of conversion shows that the majority of conversions take
+place during the period of adolescence; that is, from the age of puberty
+to about 24 or 25.[385]
+
+It would be easy to bring forward a long series of observations, from the
+most various points of view, to show the wide recognition of this close
+affinity between the sexual and the religious emotions. It is probable, as
+Hahn points out, that the connection between sexual suppression and
+religious rites, which we may trace at the very beginning of culture, was
+due to an instinctive impulse to heighten rather than abolish the sexual
+element. Early religious rites were largely sexual and orgiastic because
+they were largely an appeal to the generative forces of Nature to exhibit
+a beneficial productiveness. Among happily married people, as Hahn
+remarks, the sexual emotions rapidly give place to the cares and anxieties
+involved in supporting children; but when the exercise of the sexual
+function is prevented by celibacy, or even by castration, the most
+complete form of celibacy, the sexual emotions may pass into the psychical
+sphere to take on a more pronounced shape.[386] The early Christians
+adopted the traditional Eastern association between religion and celibacy,
+and, as the writings of the Fathers amply show, they expended on sexual
+matters a concentrated fervor of thought rarely known to the Greek and
+Roman writers of the best period.[387] As Christian theology developed,
+the minute inquisition into sexual things sometimes became almost an
+obsession. So far as I am aware, however (I cannot profess to have made
+any special investigation), it was not until the late Middle Ages that
+there is any clear recognition of the fact that, between the religious
+emotions and the sexual emotions, there is not only a superficial
+antagonism, but an underlying relationship. At this time so great a
+theologian and philosopher as Aquinas said that it is especially on the
+days when a man is seeking to make himself pleasing to God that the Devil
+troubles him by polluting him with seminal emissions. With somewhat more
+psychological insight, the wise old Knight of the Tower, Landry, in the
+fourteenth century, tells his daughters that "no young woman, in love,
+can ever serve her God with that unfeignedness which she did aforetime.
+For I have heard it argued by many who, in their young days, had been in
+love that, when they were in the church, the condition and the pleasing
+melancholy in which they found themselves would infallibly set them
+brooding over all their tender love-sick longings and all their amorous
+passages, when they should have been attending to the service which was
+going on at the time. And such is the property of this mystery of love
+that it is ever at the moment when the priest is holding our Saviour upon
+the altar that the most enticing emotions come." After narrating the
+history of two queens beyond the seas who indulged in amours even on Holy
+Thursday and Good Friday, at midnight in their oratories, when the lights
+were put out, he concludes: "Every woman in love is more liable to fall in
+church or at her devotion than at any other time."
+
+The connection between religious emotion and sexual emotion was very
+clearly set forth by Swift about the end of the seventeenth century, in a
+passage which it may be worth while to quote from his "Discourse
+Concerning the Mechanical Operation of the Spirit." After mentioning that
+he was informed by a very eminent physician that when the Quakers first
+appeared he was seldom without female Quaker patients affected with
+nymphomania, Swift continues: "Persons of a visionary devotion, either men
+or women, are, in their complexion, of all others the most amorous. For
+zeal is frequently kindled from the same spark with other fires, and from
+inflaming brotherly love will proceed to raise that of a gallant. If we
+inspect into the usual process of modern courtship, we shall find it to
+consist in a devout turn of the eyes, called _ogling_; an artificial form
+of canting and whining, by rote, every interval, for want of other matter,
+made up with a shrug, or a hum; a sigh or a groan; the style compact of
+insignificant words, incoherences, and repetitions. These I take to be the
+most accomplished rules of address to a mistress; and where are these
+performed with more dexterity than by the _saints_? Nay, to bring this
+argument yet closer, I have been informed by certain sanguine brethren of
+the first class, that in the height and _orgasmus_ of their spiritual
+exercise, it has been frequent with them[388]; ... immediately after
+which, they found the _spirit_ to relax and flag of a sudden with the
+nerves, and they were forced to hasten to a conclusion. This may be
+farther strengthened by observing with wonder how unaccountably all
+females are attracted by visionary or enthusiastic preachers, though never
+so contemptible in their _outward mien_; which is usually supposed to be
+done upon considerations purely spiritual, without any carnal regards at
+all. But I have reason to think, the sex hath certain characteristics, by
+which they form a truer judgment of human abilities and performings than
+we ourselves can possibly do of each other. Let that be as it will, thus
+much is certain, that however spiritual intrigues begin, they generally
+conclude like all others; they may branch upwards toward heaven, but the
+root is in the earth. Too intense a contemplation is not the business of
+flesh and blood; it must, by the necessary course of things, in a little
+time let go its hold, and fall into _matter_. Lovers for the sake of
+celestial converse, are but another sort of Platonics, who pretend to see
+stars and heaven in ladies' eyes, and to look or think no lower; but the
+same _pit_ is provided for both."
+
+To come down to recent times, in the last century the head-master of
+Clifton College, when discussing the sexual vices of boyhood, remarked
+that the boys whose temperament exposes them to these faults are usually
+far from destitute of religious feelings; that there is, and always has
+been, an undoubted co-existence of religion and animalism; that emotional
+appeals and revivals are far from rooting out carnal sin; and that in some
+places, as is well known, they seem actually to stimulate, even at the
+present day, to increased licentiousness.[389]
+
+It is not difficult to see how, even in technique, the method of the
+revivalist is a quasi-sexual method, and resembles the attempt of the male
+to overcome the sexual shyness of the female. "In each case," as W. Thomas
+remarks, "the will has to be set aside, and strong suggestive means are
+used; and in both cases the appeal is not of the conflict type, but of an
+intimate, sympathetic and pleading kind. In the effort to make a moral
+adjustment it consequently turns out that a technique is used which
+was derived originally from sexual life, and the use, so to speak,
+of the sexual machinery for a moral adjustment involves, in some
+cases, the carrying over into the general process of some sexual
+manifestations."[390]
+
+The relationship of the sexual and the religious emotions--like so many
+other of the essential characters of human nature--is seen in its nakedest
+shape by the alienist. Esquirol referred to this relationship, and, many
+years ago, J.B. Friedreich, a German alienist of wide outlook and
+considerable insight, emphasized the connection between the sexual and the
+religious emotions, and brought forward illustrative cases.[391] Schroeder
+van der Kolk also remarked: "I venture to express my conviction that we
+should rarely err if, in a case of religious melancholy, we assumed the
+sexual apparatus to be implicated."[392] Régis, in France, lays it down
+that "there exists a close connection between mystic ideas and erotic
+ideas, and most often these two orders of conception are associated in
+insanity."[393] Berthier considered that erotic forms of insanity are
+those most frequently found in convents. Bevan-Lewis points out how
+frequently religious exaltation occurs at puberty in women, and religious
+depression at the climacteric, the period of sexual decline.[394]
+"Religion is very closely allied to love," remarks Savage, "and the love
+of woman and the worship of God are constantly sources of trouble in
+unstable youth; it is very interesting to note the frequency with which
+these two deep feelings are associated."[395] "Closely connected with
+salacity, particularly in women," remarks Conolly Norman, when discussing
+mania (Tuke's _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_), "is religious
+excitement.... Ecstasy, as we see in cases of acute mental disease, is
+probably always connected with sexual excitement, if not with sexual
+depravity. The same association is constantly seen in less extreme cases,
+and one of the commonest features in the conversation of an acutely
+maniacal woman is the intermingling of erotic and religious ideas."
+"Patients who believe," remarks Clara Barrus, "that they are the Virgin
+Mary, the bride of Christ, the Church, 'God's wife,' and 'Raphael's
+consort,' are sure, sooner or later, to disclose symptoms which show that
+they are some way or other sexually depraved."[396] Forel, who devotes a
+chapter of his book _Die Sexuelle Frage_, to the subject, argues that the
+strongest feelings of religious emotion are often unconsciously rooted in
+erotic emotion or represent a transformation of such emotion; and, in an
+interesting discussion (Ch. VI) of this question in his _Sexualleben
+unserer Zeit_, Bloch states that "in a certain sense we may describe the
+history of religions as the history of a special manifestation of the
+human sexual instinct." Ball, Brouardel, Morselli, Vallon and Marie,[397]
+C.H. Hughes,[398] to mention but a few names among many, have emphasized
+the same point.[399] Krafft-Ebing deals briefly with the connection
+between holiness and the sexual emotion, and the special liability of the
+saints to sexual temptations; he thus states his own conclusions:
+"Religious and sexual emotional states at the height of their development
+exhibit a harmony in quantity and quality of excitement, and can thus in
+certain circumstances act vicariously. Both," he adds, "can be converted
+into cruelty under pathological conditions."[400]
+
+After quoting these opinions it is, perhaps, not unnecessary to point out
+that, while sexual emotion constitutes the main reservoir of energy on
+which religion can draw, it is far from constituting either the whole
+content of religion or its root. Murisier, in an able study of the
+psychology of religious ecstasy, justly protests against too crude an
+explanation of its nature, though at the same time he admits that "the
+passion of the religious ecstatic lacks nothing of what goes to make up
+sexual love, not even jealousy."[401]
+
+Sérieux, in his little work, _Recherches Cliniques sur les Anomalies de
+l'Instinct Sexuel_, valuable on account of its instructive cases, records
+in detail a case which so admirably illustrates this phase of auto-erotism
+on the borderland between ordinary erotic day-dreaming and religious
+mysticism, the phenomena for a time reaching an insane degree of
+intensity, that I summarize it. "Thérèse M., aged 24, shows physical
+stigmata of degeneration. The heredity is also bad; the father is a man of
+reckless and irregular conduct; the mother was at one time in a lunatic
+asylum. The patient was brought up in an orphanage, and was a troublesome,
+volatile child; she treated household occupations with contempt, but was
+fond of study. Even at an early age her lively imagination attracted
+attention, and the pleasure which she took in building castles in the air.
+From the age of seven to ten she masturbated. At her first communion she
+felt that Jesus would for ever be the one master of her heart. At
+thirteen, after the death of her mother, she seemed to see her, and to
+hear her say that she was watching over her child. Shortly afterward she
+was overwhelmed by a new grief, the death of a teacher for whom she
+cherished great affection on account of her pure character. On the
+following day she seemed to see and hear this teacher, and would not leave
+the house where the body lay. Tendencies to melancholy appeared. Saddened
+by the funeral ceremonies, exhorted by nuns, fed on mystic revery, she
+passed from the orphanage to a convent. She devoted herself solely to the
+worship of Jesus; to be like Jesus, to be near Jesus, became her constant
+pre-occupations. The Virgin's name was rarely seen in her writings, God's
+name never. 'I wanted', she said, 'to love Jesus more than any of the nuns
+I saw, and I even thought that he had a partiality for me.' She was also
+haunted by the idea of preserving her purity. She avoided frivolous
+conversation, and left the room when marriage was discussed, such a union
+being incompatible with a pure life; 'it was my fixed idea for two years
+to make my soul ever more pure in order to be agreeable to Him; the
+Beloved is well pleased among the lilies.'
+
+"Already, however, in a rudimentary form appeared contrary tendencies
+[strictly speaking they were not contrary, but related, tendencies].
+Beneath the mystic passion which concealed it sexual desire was sometimes
+felt. At sixteen she experienced emotions which she could not master, when
+thinking of a priest who, she said, loved her. In spite of all remorse she
+would have been willing to have relations with him. Notwithstanding these
+passing weaknesses, the idea of purity always possessed her. The nuns,
+however, were concerned about her exaltation. She was sent away from the
+convent, became discouraged, and took a place as a servant, but her fervor
+continued. Her confessor inspired her with great affection; she sends him
+tender letters. She would be willing to have relations with him, even
+though she considers the desire a temptation of the devil. The ground was
+now prepared for the manifestation of hallucinations. 'One evening in
+May', she writes, 'after being absorbed in thoughts of my confessor, and
+feeling discouraged, as I thought that Jesus, whom I loved so much, would
+have nothing to do with me, "Mother," I cried out, "what must I do to win
+your son?" My eyes were fixed on the sky, and I remained in a state of
+mad expectation. It was absurd. I to become the mother of the World! My
+heart went on repeating: "Yes, he is coming; Jesus is coming!"' The
+psychic erethism, reverberating on the sensorial and sensory centres, led
+to genital, auditory, and visual hallucinations, which produced the
+sensation of sexual connection. 'For the first time I went to bed and was
+not alone. As soon as I felt that touch, I heard the words: "Fear not, it
+is I." I was lost in Him whom I loved. For many days I was cradled in a
+world of pleasure; I saw Him everywhere, overwhelming me with His chaste
+caresses.' On the following day at mass she seemed to see Calvary before
+her. 'Jesus was naked and surrounded by a thousand voluptuous
+imaginations; His arms were loosened from the cross, and he said to me:
+"Come!" I longed to fly to Him with my body, but could not make up my mind
+to show myself naked. However, I was carried away by a force I could not
+control, I threw myself on my Saviour's neck, and felt that all was over
+between the world and me.' From that day, 'by sheer reasoning,' she has
+understood everything. Previously she thought that the religious life was
+a renunciation of the joys of marriage and enjoyment generally; now she
+understands its object. Jesus Christ desires that she should have
+relations with a priest; he is himself incarnated in priests; just as St.
+Joseph was the guardian of the Virgin, so are priests the guardians of
+nuns. She has been impregnated by Jesus, and this imaginary pregnancy
+pre-occupies her in the highest degree. From this time she masturbated
+daily. She cannot even go to communion without experiencing voluptuous
+sensations. Her delusions having thus become systematized, nothing shakes
+her tenacity in seeking to carry them out; she attempts at all costs to
+have relations with her confessor, embraces him, throws herself at his
+knees, pursues him, and so becomes a cause of scandal. When brought to the
+asylum, there is intense sexual excitement, and she masturbates a dozen
+times a day, even when talking to the doctor. The sexual organs are
+normal, the vulva moist and red, the vagina is painful to touch; the
+contact of the finger causes erectile turgescence. She has had no rest,
+she says, since she has learned to love her Jesus. He desires her to have
+sexual relations with someone, and she cannot succeed; 'all my soul's
+strength is arrested by this constant endeavor.' Her new surroundings
+modify her behavior, and now it is the doctor whom she pursues with her
+obsessions. 'I expected everything from the charity of the priests I have
+known; I have not deserved what I wanted from them. But is not a doctor
+free to do everything for the good of the patients intrusted to him by
+Providence? Cannot a doctor thus devote himself? Since I have tasted the
+tree of life I am tormented by the desire to share it with a loving
+friend.' Then she falls in love with an employee, and makes the crudest
+advances to him, believing that she is thus executing the will of Jesus.
+'Necessity makes laws,' she exclaims to him, 'the moments are pressing, I
+have been waiting too long.' She still speaks of her religious vocation
+which might be compromised by so long a delay. 'I do not want to get
+married.' Gradually a transformation took place; the love of God was
+effaced and earthly love became more intense than ever. 'Quitting the
+heights in which I wished to soar, I am coming so near to earth that I
+shall soon fix my desires there.' In a last letter Thérèse recognizes with
+terror the insanity to which the exaltation of her imagination had led
+her. 'Now I only believe in God and in suffering; I feel that it is
+necessary for me to get married.'"
+
+Mariani[402] has very fully described a case of erotico-religious insanity
+(climacteric paranoia on an hysterical basis) in a married woman of 44.
+During the early stages of her disorder she inflicted all sorts of
+penances upon herself (fasting, constant prayer, drinking her own urine,
+cleaning dirty plates with her tongue, etc.). Finally she felt that by her
+penances she had obtained forgiveness of her sins, and then began a stage
+of joy and satisfaction during which she believed that she had entered
+into a state of the most intimate personal relationship with Jesus. She
+finally recovered. Mariani shows how closely this history corresponds with
+the histories of the saints, and that all the acts and emotions of this
+woman can be exactly paralleled in the lives of famous saints.[403]
+
+The justice of these comparisons becomes manifest when we turn to the
+records that have been left by holy persons. A most instructive record
+from this point of view is the autobiography of Soeur Jeanne des Anges,
+superior of the Ursulines of Loudun in the seventeenth century.[404] She
+was clever, beautiful, ambitious, fond of pleasure, still more of power.
+With this, as sometimes happens, she was highly hysterical, and in the
+early years of her religious life was possessed by various demons of
+unchastity and blasphemy with whom for many years she was in constant
+struggle. She fell in love with a priest of Loudun, Grandier, a man whom
+she had never even seen, only knowing of him as a powerful and fascinating
+personality at whose feet all women fell, and she imagined that she and
+the other nuns of her convent were possessed through his influence. She
+was thus the cause of the trial and execution of Grandier, a famous case
+in the annals of witchcraft. In her autobiography Soeur Jeanne describes
+in detail how the demons assailed her at night, appearing in lascivious
+attitudes, making indecent proposals, raising the bed-clothes, touching
+all parts of her body, imploring her to yield to them, and she tells how
+strong her temptation was to yield. On one night, for instance, she
+writes: "I seemed to feel someone's breath, and I heard a voice saying:
+'The time for resistance has gone by, you must no longer rebel; by putting
+off your consent to what has been proposed you will be injured; you cannot
+persist in this resistance; God has subjected you to the demands of a
+nature which you must satisfy on occasions so urgent.' Then I felt impure
+impressions in my imagination and disordered movements in my body. I
+persisted in saying at the bottom of my heart that I would do nothing. I
+turned to God and asked Him for strength in this extraordinary struggle.
+Then there was a loud noise in my room, and I felt as if someone had
+approached me and put his hand into my bed and touched me; and having
+perceived this I rose, in a state of restlessness, which lasted for a long
+time afterward. Some days later, at midnight, I began to tremble all over
+my body as I lay in bed, and to experience much mental anxiety without
+knowing the cause. After this had lasted for some time I heard noises in
+various parts of my room; the sheet was twice pulled without entirely
+uncovering me; the oratory close to my bed was upset. I heard a voice on
+the left side, toward which I was lying. I was asked if I had thought over
+the advantageous offer that had been made to me. It was added: 'I have
+come to know your reply; I will keep my promise if you will give your
+consent; if, on the contrary, you refuse, you will be the most miserable
+girl in the world, and all sorts of mischances will happen to you.' I
+replied: 'If there were no God I would fear those threats; I am
+consecrated to Him.' It was replied to me: 'You will not get much help
+from God; He will abandon you.' I replied: 'God is my father; He will take
+care of me; I have resolved to be faithful to Him.' He said: 'I will give
+you three days to think over it.' I rose and went to the Holy Sacrament
+with an anxious mind. Having returned to my room, and being seated on a
+chair, it was drawn from under me so that I fell on the floor. Then the
+same things happened again. I heard a man's voice saying lascivious and
+pleasant things to seduce me; he pressed me to give him room in my bed; he
+tried to touch me in an indecent way; I resisted and prevented him,
+calling the nuns who were near my room; the window had been open, it was
+closed; I felt strong movements of love for a certain person, and improper
+desire for dishonorable things."
+
+She writes again, at a later period: "These impurities and the fire of
+concupiscence which the evil spirit caused me to feel, beyond all that I
+can say, forced me to throw myself on to braziers of hot coal, where I
+would remain for half an hour at a time, in order to extinguish that other
+fire, so that half my body was quite burnt. At other times, in the depth
+of winter, I have sometimes passed part of the night entirely naked in the
+snow, or in tubs of icy water. I have besides often gone among thorns so
+that I have been torn by them; at other times I have rolled in nettles,
+and I have passed whole nights defying my enemies to attack me, and
+assuring them that I was resolved to defend myself with the grace of God."
+With her confessor's permission, she also had an iron girdle made, with
+spikes, and wore this day and night for nearly six months until the spikes
+so entered her flesh that the girdle could only be removed with
+difficulty. By means of these austerities she succeeded in almost
+exorcising the demons of unchastity, and a little later, after a severe
+illness, of which she believed that she was miraculously cured by St.
+Joseph, she appeared before the world almost as a saint, herself
+possessing a miraculous power of healing; she traveled through France,
+bringing healing wherever she went; the king, the queen, and Cardinal
+Richelieu were at her feet, and so great became the fame of her holiness
+that her tomb was a shrine for pilgrims for more than a century after her
+death. It was not until late in life, and after her autobiography
+terminates, that sexual desire in Soeur Jeanne (though its sting seems
+never to have quite disappeared) became transformed into passionate love
+of Jesus, and it is only in her later letters that we catch glimpses of
+the complete transmutation. Thus, in one of her later letters we read: "I
+cried with ardor, 'Lord! join me to Thyself, transform Thyself into me!'
+It seemed to me that that lovable Spouse was reposing in my heart as on
+His throne. What makes me almost swoon with love and admiration is a
+certain pleasure which it seems to me that He takes when all my being
+flows into His, restoring to Him with respect and love all that He has
+given to me. Sometimes I have permission to speak to our Lord with more
+familiarity, calling Him my Love, interesting Him in all that I ask of
+Him, as well for myself as for others."
+
+The lives of all the great saints and mystics bear witness to operations
+similar to those so vividly described by Soeur Jeanne des Anges, though it
+is very rarely that any saint has so frankly presented the dynamic
+mechanism of the auto-erotic process. The indications they give us,
+however, are sufficiently clear. It is enough to refer to the special
+affection which the mystics have ever borne toward the Song of
+Songs,[405] and to note how the most earthly expressions of love in that
+poem enter as a perpetual refrain into their writings.[406]
+
+The courage of the early Christian martyrs, it is abundantly evident, was
+in part supported by an exaltation which they frankly drew from the sexual
+impulse. Felicula, we are told in the acts of Achilles and Nereus,[407]
+preferred imprisonment, torture, and death to marriage or pagan
+sacrifices. When on the rack she was bidden to deny Christianity, she
+exclaimed: "_Ego non nego amatorem meum!_"--I will not deny my lover who
+for my sake has eaten gall and drunk vinegar, crowned with thorns, and
+fastened to the cross.
+
+Christian mysticism and its sexual coloring was absorbed by the Islamic
+world at a very early period and intensified. In the thirteenth century it
+was reintroduced into Christendom in this intensified form by the genius
+of Raymond Lull who had himself been born on the confines of Islam, and
+his "Book of the Lover and the Friend" is a typical manifestation of
+sexual mysticism which inspired the great Spanish school of mystics a few
+centuries later. The "delicious agony" the "sweet martyrdom," the strongly
+combined pleasure and pain experienced by St. Theresa were certainly
+associated with physical sexual sensations.[408]
+
+The case of Marguerite-Marie Alacoque is typical. Jesus, as her
+autobiography shows, was always her lover, her husband, her dear master;
+she is betrothed to Him, He is the most passionate of lovers, nothing can
+be sweeter than His caresses, they are so excessive she is beside herself
+with the delight of them. The central imagination of the mystic consists
+essentially, as Ribot remarks, in a love romance.[409]
+
+If we turn to the most popular devotional work that was ever written, _The
+Imitation of Christ_, we shall find that the "love" there expressed is
+precisely and exactly the love that finds its motive power in the emotions
+aroused by a person of the other sex. (A very intellectual woman once
+remarked to me that the book seemed to her "a sort of religious
+aphrodisiac.") If we read, for instance, Book III, Chapter V, of this work
+("De Mirabili affectu Divini amoris"), we shall find in the eloquence of
+this solitary monk in the Low Countries neither more nor less than the
+emotions of every human lover at their highest limit of exaltation.
+"Nothing is sweeter than love, nothing stronger, nothing higher, nothing
+broader, nothing pleasanter, nothing fuller nor better in heaven or in
+earth. He who loves, flies, runs, and rejoices; he is free and cannot be
+held. He gives all in exchange for all, and possesses all in all. He looks
+not at gifts, but turns to the giver above all good things. Love knows no
+measure, but is fervent beyond all measure. Love feels no burden, thinks
+nothing of labor, strives beyond its force, reckons not of impossibility,
+for it judges that all things are possible. Therefore it attempts all
+things, and therefore it effects much when he who is not a lover fails and
+falls.... My Love! thou all mine, and I all thine."
+
+There is a certain natural disinclination in many quarters to recognize
+any special connection between the sexual emotions and the religious
+emotions. But this attitude is not reasonable. A man who is swayed by
+religious emotions cannot be held responsible for the indirect emotional
+results of his condition; he can be held responsible for their control.
+Nothing is gained by refusing to face the possibility that such control
+may be necessary, and much is lost. There is certainly, as I have tried to
+indicate, good reason to think that the action and interaction between
+the spheres of sexual and religious emotion are very intimate. The obscure
+promptings of the organism at puberty frequently assume on the psychic
+side a wholly religious character; the activity of the religious emotions
+sometimes tends to pass over into the sexual region; the suppression of
+the sexual emotions often furnishes a powerful reservoir of energy to the
+religious emotions; occasionally the suppressed sexual emotions break
+through all obstacles.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[385] Starbuck, _The Psychology of Religion_, 1899. Also, A.H. Daniels,
+"The New Life," _American Journal of Psychology_, vol. vi, 1893. Cf.
+William James, _The Varieties of Religious Experience_.
+
+[386] Ed. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, 1896, pp. 50-51. Hahn is arguing for
+the religious origin of the plough, as a generative implement, drawn by a
+sacred and castrated animal, the ox. G. Herman, in his _Genesis_, develops
+the idea that modern religious rites have arisen out of sexual feasts and
+mysteries.
+
+[387] Bloch (_Beiträge zur Ætiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Bd. I, p.
+98) points out the great interest taken by the saints and ascetics in sex
+matters.
+
+[388] This omission was made by the original publisher of the "Discourse;"
+several of the most important passages throughout have been similarly cut
+out.
+
+[389] Rev. J.M. Wilson, _Journal of Education_, 1881. At about the same
+period (1882) Spurgeon pointed out in one of his sermons that by a
+strange, yet natural law, excess of spirituality is next door to
+sensuality. Theodore Schroeder has recently brought together a number of
+opinions of religious teachers, from Henry More the Platonist to Baring
+Gould, concerning the close relationship between sexual passion and
+religious passion, _American Journal of Religious Psychology_, 1908.
+
+[390] W. Thomas, "The Sexual Element in Sensibility," _Psychological
+Review_, Jan., 1904.
+
+[391] _System der gerichtlichen Psychologie_, second edition, 1842, pp.
+266-68; and more at length in his _Allgemeine Diagnostik der psychischen
+Krankheiten_, second edition, 1832, pp. 247-51.
+
+[392] _Handboek van de Pathologie en Therapie der Krankzinnigheid_, 1863,
+p. 139 of English edition.
+
+[393] _Manuel pratique de Médecine mentale_, 1892, p. 31.
+
+[394] _Text-book of Mental Diseases_, p. 393.
+
+[395] G.H. Savage, _Insanity_, 1886.
+
+[396] _American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1895.
+
+[397] "Des Psychoses Religieuses," _Archives de Neurologie_, 1897.
+
+[398] "Erotopathia," _Alienist and Neurologist_, October, 1893.
+
+[399] Reference may be specially made to the interesting chapter on
+"Délire Religieux" in Icard's _La Femme pendant la Période Menstruelle_,
+pp. 211-234.
+
+[400] _Psychopathia Sexualis_, eighth edition, pp. 8 and 11. Gannouchkine
+("La Volupté, la Cruanté et la Religion," _Annales Medico-Psychologique_,
+1901, No. 3) has further emphasized this convertibility.
+
+[401] E. Murisier, "Le Sentiment Religieux dans l'Extase," _Revue
+Philosophique_, November, 1898. Starbuck, again (_Psychology of Religion_,
+Chapter XXX), in a brief discussion of this point, concludes that "the
+sexual life, although it has left its impress on fully developed religion,
+seems to have originally given the psychic impulse which called out the
+latent possibilities of developments, rather than to have furnished the
+raw material out of which religion was constructed."
+
+[402] "Una Santa," _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xix, pp. 438-47, 1898.
+
+[403] With regard to the sexual element in the worship of the Virgin, see
+"Ueber den Mariencultus," L. Feuerbach's _Sammtliche Werke_, Bd. I, 1846.
+
+[404] Published for the first time (with a Preface by Charcot) in a volume
+of the _Bibliothèque Diabolique_, 1886.
+
+[405] The Hebrews, themselves, used the same word for the love of woman
+and for the Divine love (Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, p.
+140).
+
+[406] Thus, in St. Theresa's _Conceptos del Amor de Dios_, the words
+"_Beseme con el beso de su boca_,"--Let him kiss me with the kisses of his
+mouth--constantly recur.
+
+[407] _Acta Sanctorum_, May 12th.
+
+[408] Leuba and Montmorand, in their valuable and detailed studies of
+Christian mysticism, though differing from each other in some points, are
+agreed on this; H. Leuba, "Les Tendances Religieuses chez les Mystiques
+Chrétiens," _Revue Philosophique_, July and Nov., 1902; B. de Montmorand,
+"L'Erotomanie des Mystiques Chrétiens," id., Oct., 1903. Montmorand points
+out that physical sexual manifestations were sometimes recognized and
+frankly accepted by mystics. He quotes from Molinos, a passage in which
+the famous Spanish quietist states that there is no reason to be
+disquieted even at the occurrence of pollutions or masturbation, _et etiam
+pejora_.
+
+[409] Ribot, _La Logique des Sentiments_, p. 174.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS.
+
+Abricosoff, G.
+Addinsell
+Adler
+Ælian
+Æschines
+Aëtius
+Alacoque, M.
+Albrecht
+Allin
+Anagnos
+Angelucci
+Anges, Soeur Jeanne des
+Angus, H.C.
+Anstie
+Apuleius
+Aquinas, St. Thomas
+Archemholtz
+Aretæus
+Aretino
+Aristophanes
+Aristotle
+Arnold, G.J.
+Aschaffenburg
+Ashe, T.
+Ashwell
+Athenæus
+Augustine, St.
+Avicenna
+Axenfeld
+Azara
+
+Babinsky
+Bachaumont
+Baelz
+Baker, Smith
+Baldwin, J.M.
+Ball
+Ballantyne
+Ballion
+Balls-Headley
+Bancroft, H.H.
+Baraduc
+Bargagli
+Barnes, K.
+Barrus, Clara
+Bartels, Max
+Bastanzi
+Bastian
+Batut
+Bauer, Max
+Baumann
+Bazalgette
+Beard
+Beard, J.
+Bechterew
+Bee, J.
+Bekkers
+Bell, Blair
+Bell, Sanford
+Berger
+Bellamy
+Berkhan
+Berthier
+Beukemann
+Beuttner
+Bevan-Lewis
+Biernacki
+Billuart
+Binet
+Binswanger
+Bishop, Mrs.
+Blackwell, Elizabeth
+Blandford
+Bloch, Iwan
+Block
+Blumenbach
+Boas, F.
+Boethius
+Bohnius
+Bolton, T.L.
+Bonavia
+Bond, C.H.
+Bonnier
+Bossi
+Boudin
+Bourke, J.G.
+Brachet
+Brantôme
+Breuer
+Briquet
+Brockman
+Brouardel
+Brown, J.D.
+Brown-Séquard
+Brunton, Sir Lauder
+Bryce, T.
+Buchan, A.P.
+Büchler
+Büchner
+Buffon
+Bunge
+Burchard
+Burdach
+Burk, F.
+Burnet
+Burns, J.
+Burr
+Burton, Robert
+Buxton, D.W.
+
+Caiger
+Callari
+Calmeil
+Camerer
+Cameron
+Campbell, H.
+Caramuel
+Carmichael
+Carpenter, E.
+Carrara
+Casanova
+Chamberlain, A.F.
+Chapman, J.
+Charcot
+Charrin
+Chaucer
+Christian
+Chrysostom
+Cicero
+Clark, Campbell
+Clement of Alexandria
+Clement of Rome
+Clipson
+Clouston
+Coe, H.C.
+Cohn, Hermann
+Cohn, Salmo
+Cohnstein
+Colenso, W.
+Cook, Capt.
+Cook, Dr. F.
+Corre
+Coryat
+Crawley, A.E.
+Crichton-Browne, Sir J.
+Crooke, W.
+Croom, Sir J. Halliday
+Cullen
+Cullingworth
+Curr
+Curschmann
+Cuvier
+Cyprian
+
+Dallemagne
+Dalton, E.T.
+Dalziel
+Dana
+Dandinus
+Daniels
+Dartigues
+Darwin, C.
+Darwin, Erasmus
+Davidsohn
+Debreyne
+Deniker
+Dennis
+Denucé
+Depaul
+D'Epinay, Mme.
+Dercum
+Deslandes
+Dessoir, Max
+Dexter
+Diday
+Diderot
+Distant, W.L.
+Donkin
+Down, Langdon
+Dudley
+Dufour, P.
+Dugas
+Dühren, _see_ Bloch, Iwan.
+Dukes, C.
+Dulaure
+Du Maurier
+Duncan, Matthews
+Durr
+Duval, A.
+Duveyrier
+Dyer, L.
+
+Ellenberger
+Ellis, Sir A.B.
+Ellis, Havelock
+Ellis, Sir W.
+Ellis, W.G.
+Emin, Pasha
+Emminghaus
+Epicharmus
+Eram
+Erb
+Ernst
+Esquirol
+Eulenburg
+Evans, M.M.
+Ezekiel
+
+Fahne
+Fasbender
+Fehling
+Felkin
+Féré
+Fernel
+Ferrero
+Ferriani
+Fewkes, J.W.
+Findley
+Fleischmann
+Fliess
+Forel
+Forestus
+Forster, J.R.
+Fortini
+Fothergill, J.M.
+Fournier
+Foville
+Franklin, A.
+Frazer, J.G.
+Freeman, R.A.
+French-Sheldon, Mrs.
+Freud
+Friedreich, J.B.
+Fritsch, G.
+Fuchs
+Fürbringer
+
+Gaedeken
+Galen
+Gall
+Gant
+Gardiner, J.S.
+Garland, Hamlin
+Gamier
+Gason
+Gattel
+Gehrung
+Gennep, A. von
+Gérard-Varet
+Gerland
+Gibbon
+Giessler
+Giles, A.E.
+Gillen
+Gilles de la Tourette
+Gioffredi
+Girandeau
+Godfrey
+Goepel
+Goethe
+Goncourt
+Goodell, W.
+Goodman
+Gould
+Gourmont, Remy de
+Gowers, Sir W.R.
+Grashoff
+Greenlees
+Griesinger
+Grimaldi
+Grimm, J.
+Groos
+Grosse
+Gruner
+Grünfeld
+Gualino
+Gubernatis
+Guéniot
+Guerry
+Guibout
+Guise, R.E.
+Gury
+Guttceit
+Guyau
+Guyot
+
+Haddon, A.C.
+Hahn, E.
+Haig
+Hall, Fielding
+Hall, G. Stanley
+Haller
+Hammond, W.
+Harris, D.F.
+Hartmann
+Hawkesworth, J.
+Haycraft
+Heape, W.
+Hegar
+Helbigius, O.
+Heifer, J.W.
+Henle
+Herman
+Herodotus
+Herondas
+Herrick
+Hersman
+Herter
+Hesiod
+Hick, P.
+Hill, S.A.
+Hinton, James
+Hippocrates
+Hirschsprung
+Hirth, G.
+Hoche
+Hohenemser
+Holder, A.B.
+Holm
+Homer
+Hopkins, H.R.
+Houssay
+Howe, J.W.
+Huchard
+Hufeland
+Hughes, C.H.
+Hummel
+Hunter, John
+Hutchinson, Sir J.
+Hyades
+Hyrtl
+
+Icard
+Imbert-Goubeyre
+
+Jacobi, M.P.
+Jacobs
+Jaeger
+James
+James, W.
+Janet, Pierre
+Jastrow, Morris
+Jenjko
+Jerome, St.
+Jessett
+Joal
+Joest
+Johnston, Sir H.H.
+Johnstone, A.W.
+Jolly
+Jones, Lloyd
+Jortin
+Juvenal
+
+Kaan
+Kahlbaum
+Keill
+Keith
+Keller
+Kellogg
+Kemble, Fanny
+Kemsoes
+Kiernan, J.G.
+Kind, A.
+King, A.F.A.
+Kleinpaul
+Klemm, K.
+Kline, L.W.
+Koch, J.L.A.
+Koster
+Kossmann
+Kowalewsky, M.
+Kraepelin
+Krafft-Ebing
+Krauss, F.S.
+Krauss, W.C.
+Krieger
+Kreichmar
+Kroner
+Kulischer
+
+Lacassagne
+Lactantius
+Lallemand
+Landouzy
+Landry
+Lane
+Laschi
+Laupts
+Laurent, L.
+Laycock
+Learoyd, Mabel
+Lecky
+Legludic
+Lentz
+Lepois, C.
+Letamendi
+Letourneau
+Leuba
+Leyden
+Liguori
+Lippert
+Lipps
+Lobsien
+Loiman
+Loliée
+Lombroso, C.
+Lombroso, P.
+Lorion
+Löwenfeld
+Lucretius
+Lull, Raymond
+Luther
+Luzet
+Lydston
+
+MacDonald, A.
+MacGillicuddy
+Mackenzie, J.N.
+MacLean
+MacMurchy
+Maeder
+Malins
+Malling-Hansen
+Man, E.H.
+Mandeville
+Mannhardt
+Mantegazza
+Marchi, Attilio de
+Marcuse, J.
+Mariani
+Marie, A.
+Marie, P.
+Marro
+Marsh
+Marshall, F.
+Marston
+Martial
+Martineau
+Mason, Otis
+Matignon
+Maudsley
+Mayr, G.
+Melinaud
+Menjago
+Mercier
+Metchnikoff
+Meteyard
+Meyners, d'Estrez
+Michelet
+Miklucho-Macleay
+Minovici
+Mirabeau
+Mitchell, H.W.
+Mitford
+Modigliani
+Molière
+Moll
+Mondière
+Mongeri
+Montague, Lady M.W.
+Montaigne
+Montmorand
+Moraglia
+Morris, R.T.
+Morselli
+Mortimer, G.
+Moryson, Fynes
+Moses, Julius
+Müller, R.
+Murisier
+
+Näcke
+Nansen
+Négrier
+Nelson, J.
+Neugebauer
+Niceforo
+Nicolas of Cusa
+Niebuhr, C.
+Nietzsche
+Nipho
+Norman, Conolly
+Northcote, H.
+
+Oettinger
+Ogle
+Oldfield
+Oliver
+Omer, Haleby
+Oribasius
+Osier
+Ossendovsky
+Osterloh
+Ostwald, Hans
+Ott, von
+Overbury, Sir T.
+Ovid
+
+Paget, Sir J.
+Paget, John
+Paré, A.
+Parent-Duchâtelet
+Parke, T.H.
+Partridge
+Passek
+Paulus, Ægineta
+Pausanias
+Pearson, K.
+Pechuel-Loesche
+Peckham
+Penta
+Pepys, S.
+Perez
+Perry-Coste
+Peschel
+Peyer, A.
+Peyer, J.
+Pick
+Pierracini
+Pilcz
+Pitcairn
+Pitres
+Plant
+Plato
+Plazzon
+Pliny the Elder
+Ploss
+Plutarch
+Pouchet
+Pouillet
+Poulet
+Power
+Prat
+Priestley, Sir W.
+Procopius
+Pyle
+
+Quetelet
+Quirós, Bernaldo de
+
+Rabelais
+Raciborski
+Raffalovich
+Ramsay, Sir W.M.
+Rasmussen
+Ratzel
+Rauber
+Raymond
+Régis
+Reinach, S.
+Reinl
+Rengger
+Renooz, Mine. Céline
+Renouvier
+Restif de la Bretonne
+Reuss
+Reverdin
+Reys
+Rhys, Sir J.
+Ribbing
+Ribot
+Richelet
+Richer
+Richet
+Riedel
+Ries
+Riolan
+Ritter
+Rochholz
+Rohé
+Rohleder
+Roland, Mme.
+Rolfincius
+Römer, L.S.A.M. von
+Roos, J. de
+Rosenbach
+Rosenstadt
+Rosenthal
+Rosner
+Rosse, Irving
+Roth, H. Ling
+Roth, W.
+Roubaud
+Rousseau
+Routh, A.
+Rudeck
+Rush
+
+Sade, De
+St. André
+St. Hilaire, J.G.
+St. Paul, Dr.
+Salerni
+Sanchez, T.
+Sanctis, Sante de
+Sanctorius
+Savage
+Savill
+Schemer
+Schmid-Monnard
+Schrenck-Notzing
+Schroeder, T.
+Schroeder, van der Kolk
+Schüle
+Schultz, Alwyn
+Schulz
+Schurig
+Schurtz
+Schuyten
+Schwartz
+Schweinfurth
+Scott, Colin
+Seerley
+Selden
+Seler
+Selous, E.
+Semon
+Semper
+Sénancour
+Sérieux
+Sergi
+Shakespeare
+Shaw, Capel
+Shufeldt, R.W.
+Shuttleworth
+Siebert
+Sieroshevski
+Skeat, W.W.
+Skene
+Smith, E.
+Smith, E.H.
+Smith, F.
+Smith, Robertson
+Smith, Theodate
+Smyth, Brough
+Sollier
+Solon
+Somerville
+Sonnini
+Sorel
+Sormani
+Soutzo
+Spencer, Baldwin
+Spencer, Herbert
+Spitta
+Spitzka, E.C.
+Spurgeon
+Starbuck
+Stein, G.
+Steinen, Karl von den
+Stendhal
+Stephenson
+Stern, B.
+Sterne
+Stevens, H.V.
+Stieda
+Stirling
+Stockman
+Stokes
+Storer
+Strack
+Stratz
+Stubbs
+Sudduth
+Sumner, W.G.
+Susruta
+Sutton, Bland
+Swift
+Sydenham
+
+Tacitus
+Tait, Lawson
+Tallemont des Réaux
+Tardieu
+Taylor, R.W.
+Teacher, J.
+Tertullian
+Theresa, St.
+Thomas, W.
+Thucydides
+Thurn, Sir E. im
+Tille
+Tillier
+Tilt
+Tissot
+Toulouse
+Tout, Hill
+Townsend, C.W.
+Treutler
+Trousseau
+Tuchmann
+Turner
+
+Uffelmann
+
+Vahness
+Valera
+Valleix
+Vallon
+Vedeler
+Velde, van de
+Velpeau
+Venette
+Venturi
+Viazzi
+Villagomez
+Villermay
+Villermé
+Virchow
+Vogel
+Volkelt
+Voltaire
+Voornveld, van
+
+Wade, Sir W.F.
+Wahl
+Waitz
+Walker, A.
+Wappäus
+Ward, H.
+Wargentin
+Warman
+Wasserschleben
+Wedge wood
+Weismann
+Weisser
+Wellhausen
+Wenck
+West, C.
+West, J.P.
+Westcott, Wynn
+Westermarck
+Wey, H.D.
+Wichmann
+Wiel, Van der
+Willis
+Wilson, J.M.
+Wiltshire, A.
+Winckel
+Winkler, G.
+Winter, J.T.
+Witkowski
+Wollstonecraft, M.
+Wood, H.C.
+Wraxall, Sir N.
+
+Yellowlees
+
+Zacchia
+Zache
+Zeller
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
+
+Africa,
+  modesty in
+  sexual periodicity in
+Ainu,
+  modesty of
+American Indians,
+  menstruation in
+  modesty of
+Anæmia and hysteria
+Andamanese modesty
+Animals,
+  breeding season of
+  hysteria in
+  masturbation in
+  modesty in
+  their dislike of dirt
+Annual sexual rhythm
+Anus as a centre of modesty
+Apes,
+  masturbation in
+  menstruation in
+Arabian festivals
+Arabs,
+  modesty in
+  their ancient conception of uncleanness
+Art and auto-erotism
+Asafoetida in hysteria
+_Attitudes passionnelles_
+Australia,
+  modesty in
+  sexual festivals in
+Autumn festivals
+
+Baboon,
+  menstruation in
+Babylonian festivals
+Bashfulness
+Bathing,
+  promiscuous
+Beltane fires
+Bengal,
+  modesty in
+  sexual periodicity in
+Birds,
+  dreams of
+Birthrate,
+  periodicity of
+Bladder,
+  as a source of dreams
+  foreign bodies in
+  periodicity in expulsive force of
+Blindness in relation to modesty
+Blood,
+  primitive ideas about
+  supposed virtues of menstrual
+Blood-pressure
+Blushing,
+  the significance of
+Bonfire festivals
+Borneo,
+  modesty in
+Bosom in relation to modesty
+Brazil,
+  modesty in
+Bread,
+  periodicity in consumption of
+Breeding season
+_Brumalia_
+
+Camargo
+Catholic theologians,
+  on _delectatio morosa_
+  on erotic dreams
+  on masturbation
+Celibacy and religion
+Ceremonial element in religion
+Chastity in Polynesia
+Chemical rays and sexual periodicity
+Childbirth,
+  modesty in
+Children,
+  masturbation in
+  periodicity of growth in
+  spring fever in
+  their lack of modesty
+Chimpanzee, menstruation in
+Chinese modesty
+Chivalry and modesty
+Chlorosis and hysteria
+Christianity,
+  in relation to modesty
+  its attitude towards masturbation
+Christmas festivals
+Clothing and modesty
+Cod-piece
+Coitus,
+  and ceremonial ritual
+  as a sedative
+  in relation to masturbation
+  in relation to menstruation
+  in relation to modesty
+  often painful in hysteria
+Conception rate
+Conduct,
+  periodicity in
+Continence,
+  importance of
+Convents,
+  hysteria in
+Coquetry,
+  function of
+Courtship,
+  the essential element in
+Crime,
+  periodicity of
+Criminals,
+  masturbation among
+  sexual outbursts in
+Crow,
+  breeding habits of
+Cycling in relation to sexual excitement
+
+Dancing,
+  auto-erotic aspects of
+Dancing and modesty
+Darkness in relation to blushing
+Day-dreaming
+Deer,
+  breeding habits of
+_Delectatio morosa_
+Denmark,
+  modesty in
+Diogenes
+Dionysian festivals
+Disgust as a factor of modesty
+_Distillatio_
+Dog,
+  breeding season of
+Drawers,
+  origin of feminine
+Dreams,
+  and sexual periodicity
+  day
+  erotic
+  Freud on
+  inverted
+  vesical
+
+Easter festivals
+Eating,
+  modesty in
+Ecbolic curve
+Economic factor of modesty
+Elephants,
+  masturbation in
+Enuresis,
+  nocturnal
+Epilepsy,
+  anciently confused with hysteria
+  in relation to masturbation
+Erotic dreams
+  festivals
+  hallucinations
+Eskimo,
+  menstruation in
+  modesty of
+  sexual habits of
+Etruscans,
+  modesty among
+Evil eye and modesty
+Excretory customs and modesty
+Eye disorders and masturbation
+
+Face as a centre of modesty
+Fear,
+  modesty based on
+Ferrets,
+  masturbation in
+Festivals,
+  erotic
+Fools,
+  Feast of
+Foot and modesty
+Frigidity caused by masturbation
+Fuegians,
+  modesty of
+
+General paralysis,
+  annual curve of
+_Globus hystericus_
+Goethe
+Gogol
+Greeks,
+  festivals of
+  modesty among
+  their attitude towards masturbation
+
+Growth, periodicity in
+
+Hair-pin used in masturbation
+Hallucinations,
+  erotic
+Head,
+  covering the
+Heart disease,
+  monthly rhythm in
+
+"Heat" in animals
+  its relation to menstruation
+Hemicrania,
+  periodicity in
+Horse exercise and sexual excitement
+Horses,
+  masturbation in
+Hottentots,
+  masturbation among
+Hymen in relation to modesty
+Hysteria,
+  alleged seasonal prevalence of
+  and chlorosis
+  and masturbation
+  Breuer and Freud on
+  Charcot and
+  coitus often painful in
+  in relation to sexual emotion
+  nocturnal hallucinations of
+  physiological
+  the theory of
+
+Iceland,
+  modesty in
+Illegitimate births,
+  periodicity of
+Incubus
+India,
+  conception rate in
+  masturbation in
+  modesty in
+Infants,
+  masturbation in
+Insane,
+  masturbation in the
+  modesty in the
+Insanity and masturbation
+  periodicity of
+Inversion,
+  dreams in
+Ireland,
+  modesty in
+Ishtar
+Italy,
+  modesty in
+
+Japanese,
+  masturbation among
+  modesty of
+Jealousy in relation to modesty
+
+Kadishtu
+Kierkegaard
+
+Lapps,
+  menstruation among
+ modesty of
+Lizard and women in folk-lore
+Love largely based on modesty
+
+Macaque,
+  menstruation in
+Malay festivals
+Maori,
+  modesty
+Marriage caused by masturbation,
+  aversion to
+Marriage and the hysterical
+Masturbation among animals
+  among lower human races
+  among higher human races
+  as a sedative
+  combined with religious emotions
+  in men of genius
+  interrupted
+  in the insane
+  methods of
+  periodicity of
+  prevalence of
+  symptoms and results of
+May-day festivals
+Mediæval modesty
+Medicean Venus,
+  attitude of
+Menstrual blood,
+  supposed virtues of
+Menstrual cycle in men
+Menstruation,
+  among primitive peoples
+  and hysteria
+  and modesty
+  and pregnancy
+  and social position of women
+  as a continuous process
+  as a process of purification
+  cause doubtful
+  euphemisms for
+  in animals
+  occasional absence in health
+  origin of
+  precocity in
+  primitive theory of
+  relation to "heat"
+  relation to ovulation
+  relation to sexual desire
+Mental energy, periodicity of
+Metabolism,
+  seasonal influences on
+_Mittelschmerz_
+Mohammedans,
+  attitude towards menstruation
+  modesty of
+  mysticism among
+Midsummer festivals
+Monkeys,
+  breeding season of
+  masturbation in
+  menstruation in
+
+Moon and masturbation
+Moral element in modesty
+Moritz, K.P.
+Muscular force,
+  periodicity of
+Mysticism and sexual emotion
+
+Nakedness,
+  chaste in its effects
+  in relation to modesty
+Narcissism
+Nates as a centre of modesty
+Negroes,
+  modesty of
+Nervous diseases and masturbation
+Neurasthenia and masturbation
+New England,
+  modesty in
+New Georgians,
+  modesty among
+New Guinea,
+  folk-lore of menstruation in
+  modesty in
+New Hebrides,
+  modesty in
+New Zealand,
+  modesty in
+Nicobarese modesty
+Night-inspiration
+Novel-reading,
+  alleged sexual periodicity in
+
+Obscenity,
+  Roman horror of
+Oestrus
+"Onanism,"
+  the term
+Orang-utan,
+  menstruation in
+Orgasm,
+  spontaneous
+Ornament as a sexual lure
+Ovaries with hysteria,
+  alleged association of
+Ovulation and menstruation
+
+Papuans,
+  modesty of
+  sexual periodicity among
+_Penis suecedaneus_
+_Pollutio_
+_Pollutio interruptus_
+Polynesian modesty
+Precocity,
+  sexual
+Pregnancy,
+  menstrual cycle during
+Prostitutes,
+  hysteria among
+  masturbation in
+  modesty of
+Prudery
+Prurience based on modesty
+Psychic coitus
+Psychic traumatism
+Pulse,
+  periodicity of the
+
+Railway travelling as cause of sexual excitement
+Rapes,
+  periodicity of
+Religion and sexual emotions
+Revery
+Rhythm
+Riding as a cause of sexual excitement
+Ritual factor of modesty
+Roland, Mme.
+Romans,
+  modesty of
+Rosalia
+Rousseau
+Russia,
+  conception rate in
+  modesty in
+Rest
+
+Sacro-pubic region as a centre of modesty
+St. John's Eve,
+  festival of
+Samoa
+Samoyeds,
+  menstruation among
+Saturnalia
+Scarlet fever,
+  periodicity of
+Schools,
+  auto-erotic phenomena in
+Seasonal periodicity of sexual impulse
+Seduction and menstruation
+Seminal emissions during sleep
+Serpent in folk-lore
+Sewing-machine as a cause of sexual excitement
+Sexual anæsthesia induced by masturbation
+Sexual factor of modesty
+Sexual desire,
+  in relation to blushing
+  in relation to hysteria
+  in relation to menstruation
+  in relation to modesty
+  in relation to season
+  in women
+Sexual periodicity in men
+  what we owe to irradiations of
+Sexual organs viewed differently by savage and civilized peoples
+Shame,
+  definition and nature of
+Short sight and modesty
+Shyness
+Slang,
+  private
+Sleep in relation to sexual activity
+Snake and women in folk-lore
+Somnambulism of bladder
+Speech,
+  modesty in
+Spring,
+  as season of sexual excitement
+  festivals of
+Swinging,
+  auto-erotic aspects of
+Succubus
+Suicide,
+  periodicity of
+
+Taboo and menstruation
+  and modesty
+Tahiti
+Tammuz festival
+Theologians,
+  opinions of
+Theresa, St.
+Thigh-friction
+Thumb-sucking
+Timidity
+Tight-lacing as a cause of sexual excitement
+Torres Straits,
+  modesty at
+Turkish modesty
+
+Uncleanness,
+  primitive conception of
+Uric acid,
+  excretion, periodicity of
+Urine,
+  incontinence of
+Urtication,
+  as a form of auto-erotism
+
+Valentine's Day
+Veil,
+  origin of the
+Vesical dreams
+Vocabularies,
+  private
+
+_Walpurgisnacht_
+Weekly sexual rhythm
+Witches,
+  erotic hallucinations of
+Womb anciently thought source of hysteria
+Women,
+  as property in relation to modesty
+  masturbation among
+  menstruation in
+  sexual impulse in
+  their auto-erotic manifestations in sleep
+  their night-inspiration
+  whether more modest than men
+
+Year,
+  primitive divisions of
+
+Zeus,
+  auto-erotic manifestations in
+
+DIAGRAMS
+
+     I.--The Monthly Ecbolic Curve.
+    II.--The Annual Curve of the Conception-rate in Europe.
+   III.--The Annual Ecbolic Curve.
+    IV.--Curve of the Annual Incidence of Insanity in London.
+     V.--Curve of the Annual Incidence of General Paralysis in Paris
+         (Garnier).
+    VI.--The Suicide-rate in London.
+   VII.
+  VIII.
+    IX.--Lunar-monthly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+     X.--Curves of Lunar-monthly Rhythm as Smoothed by taking Pairs of
+         Days.
+   XIa.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+   XIb.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+   XII.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+  XIII.--Joint Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period, years 1886, 1887,
+         1888, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897 combined.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
+VOLUME 1 (OF 6)***
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1 (of 6)</p>
+<p>Author: Havelock Ellis</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13610]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME 1 (OF 6)***</p>
+<br><br><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland<br>
+            and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br>
+            (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3><br><br>
+<hr class="pg" noshade>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name='1_Page_ii'></a>
+
+<h1>STUDIES<br />
+<br />
+IN THE<br />
+<br />
+PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX</h1>
+<br />
+<h2>VOLUME I</h2>
+<br />
+<h3>THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY<br />
+THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY<br />
+AUTO-EROTISM</h3><br />
+<br />
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<br />
+<h2>HAVELOCK ELLIS</h2>
+<br />
+<h4>THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED</h4>
+<br />
+<h5>1927</h5><br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<br>
+
+<a name='1_GENERAL_PREFACE'></a><h2><a name='1_Page_iii'></a>GENERAL PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>The origin of these <i>Studies</i> dates from many years back. As a youth I was
+faced, as others are, by the problem of sex. Living partly in an
+Australian city where the ways of life were plainly seen, partly in the
+solitude of the bush, I was free both to contemplate and to meditate many
+things. A resolve slowly grew up within me: one main part of my life-work
+should be to make clear the problems of sex.</p>
+
+<p>That was more than twenty years ago. Since then I can honestly say that in
+all that I have done that resolve has never been very far from my
+thoughts. I have always been slowly working up to this central problem;
+and in a book published some three years ago&mdash;<i>Man and Woman: a Study of
+Human Secondary Sexual Characters</i>&mdash;I put forward what was, in my own
+eyes, an introduction to the study of the primary questions of sexual
+psychology.</p>
+
+<p>Now that I have at length reached the time for beginning to publish my
+results, these results scarcely seem to me large. As a youth, I had hoped
+to settle problems for those who came after; now I am quietly content if I
+do little more than state them. For even that, I now think, is much; it is
+at least the half of knowledge. In this particular field the evil of
+ignorance is magnified by our efforts to suppress that which never can be
+suppressed, though in the effort of suppression it may become perverted. I
+have at least tried to find out what are the facts, among normal people as
+well as among abnormal people; for, while it seems to me that the
+physician's training is necessary in order to ascertain the facts, the
+physician for the most part only obtains the abnormal facts, which alone
+bring little light. I have tried to get at the facts, and, having got at
+<a name='1_Page_iv'></a>the facts, to look them simply and squarely in the face. If I cannot
+perhaps turn the lock myself, I bring the key which can alone in the end
+rightly open the door: the key of sincerity. That is my one panacea:
+sincerity.</p>
+
+<p>I know that many of my friends, people on whose side I, too, am to be
+found, retort with another word: reticence. It is a mistake, they say, to
+try to uncover these things; leave the sexual instincts alone, to grow up
+and develop in the shy solitude they love, and they will be sure to grow
+up and develop wholesomely. But, as a matter of fact, that is precisely
+what we can not and will not ever allow them to do. There are very few
+middle-aged men and women who can clearly recall the facts of their lives
+and tell you in all honesty that their sexual instincts have developed
+easily and wholesomely throughout. And it should not be difficult to see
+why this is so. Let my friends try to transfer their feelings and theories
+from the reproductive region to, let us say, the nutritive region, the
+only other which can be compared to it for importance. Suppose that eating
+and drinking was never spoken of openly, save in veiled or poetic
+language, and that no one ever ate food publicly, because it was
+considered immoral and immodest to reveal the mysteries of this natural
+function. We know what would occur. A considerable proportion of the
+community, more especially the more youthful members, possessed by an
+instinctive and legitimate curiosity, would concentrate their thoughts on
+the subject. They would have so many problems to puzzle over: How often
+ought I to eat? What ought I to eat? Is it wrong to eat fruit, which I
+like? Ought I to eat grass, which I don't like? Instinct notwithstanding,
+we may be quite sure that only a small minority would succeed in eating
+reasonably and wholesomely. The sexual secrecy of life is even more
+disastrous than such a nutritive secrecy would be; partly because we
+expend such a wealth of moral energy in directing or misdirecting it,
+partly because the sexual impulse normally develops at the same time as
+the intellectual impulse, not in <a name='1_Page_v'></a>the early years of life, when wholesome
+instinctive habits might be formed. And there is always some ignorant and
+foolish friend who is prepared still further to muddle things: Eat a meal
+every other day! Eat twelve meals a day! Never eat fruit! Always eat
+grass! The advice emphatically given in sexual matters is usually not less
+absurd than this. When, however, the matter is fully open, the problems of
+food are not indeed wholly solved, but everyone is enabled by the
+experience of his fellows to reach some sort of situation suited to his
+own case. And when the rigid secrecy is once swept away a sane and natural
+reticence becomes for the first time possible.</p>
+
+<p>This secrecy has not always been maintained. When the Catholic Church was
+at the summit of its power and influence it fully realized the magnitude
+of sexual problems and took an active and inquiring interest in all the
+details of normal and abnormal sexuality. Even to the present time there
+are certain phenomena of the sexual life which have scarcely been
+accurately described except in ancient theological treatises. As the type
+of such treatises I will mention the great tome of Sanchez, <i>De
+Matrimonio</i>. Here you will find the whole sexual life of men and women
+analyzed in its relationships to sin. Everything is set forth, as clearly
+and as concisely as it can be&mdash;without morbid prudery on the one hand, or
+morbid sentimentality on the other&mdash;in the coldest scientific language;
+the right course of action is pointed out for all the cases that may
+occur, and we are told what is lawful, what a venial sin, what a mortal
+sin. Now I do not consider that sexual matters concern the theologian
+alone, and I deny altogether that he is competent to deal with them. In
+his hands, also, undoubtedly, they sometimes become prurient, as they can
+scarcely fail to become on the non-natural and unwholesome basis of
+asceticism, and as they with difficulty become in the open-air light of
+science. But we are bound to recognize the thoroughness with which the
+Catholic theologians dealt with these matters, and, from their own point
+of view, indeed, <a name='1_Page_vi'></a>the entire reasonableness; we are bound to recognize the
+admirable spirit in which, successfully or not, they sought to approach
+them. We need to-day the same spirit and temper applied from a different
+standpoint. These things concern everyone; the study of these things
+concerns the physiologist, the psychologist, the moralist. We want to get
+into possession of the actual facts, and from the investigation of the
+facts we want to ascertain what is normal and what is abnormal, from the
+point of view of physiology and of psychology. We want to know what is
+naturally lawful under the various sexual chances that may befall man, not
+as the born child of sin, but as a naturally social animal. What is a
+venial sin against nature, what a mortal sin against nature? The answers
+are less easy to reach than the theologians' answers generally were, but
+we can at least put ourselves in the right attitude; we may succeed in
+asking that question which is sometimes even more than the half of
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps a mistake to show so plainly at the outset that I approach
+what may seem only a psychological question not without moral fervour. But
+I do not wish any mistake to be made. I regard sex as the central problem
+of life. And now that the problem of religion has practically been
+settled, and that the problem of labor has at least been placed on a
+practical foundation, the question of sex&mdash;with the racial questions that
+rest on it&mdash;stands before the coming generations as the chief problem for
+solution. Sex lies at the root of life, and we can never learn to
+reverence life until we know how to understand sex.&mdash;So, at least, it
+seems to me.</p>
+
+<p>Having said so much, I will try to present such results as I have to
+record in that cold and dry light through which alone the goal of
+knowledge may truly be seen.</p>
+
+<p>HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
+
+<p>July, 1897.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_PREFACE_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION'></a><a name='1_Page_vii'></a><h2>PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.</h2>
+
+<p>The first edition of this volume was published in 1899, following &quot;Sexual
+Inversion,&quot; which now forms Volume II. The second edition, issued by the
+present publishers and substantially identical with the first edition,
+appeared in the following year. Ten years have elapsed since then and this
+new edition will be found to reflect the course of that long interval. Not
+only is the volume greatly enlarged, but nearly every page has been partly
+rewritten. This is mainly due to three causes: Much new literature
+required to be taken into account; my own knowledge of the historical and
+ethnographic aspects of the sexual impulse has increased; many fresh
+illustrative cases of a valuable and instructive character have
+accumulated in my hands. It is to these three sources of improvement that
+the book owes its greatly revised and enlarged condition, and not to the
+need for modifying any of its essential conclusions. These, far from
+undergoing any change, have by the new material been greatly strengthened.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that the General Preface to the whole work, which was
+originally published in 1898 at the beginning of &quot;Sexual Inversion,&quot; now
+finds its proper place at the outset of the present volume.</p>
+
+<p>HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
+
+<p>Carbis Bay,</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall, Eng.</p><a name='1_Page_viii'></a>
+
+<a name='1_Page_ix'></a>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION'></a><h2>PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h2>
+
+<p>The present volume contains three studies which seem to me to be necessary
+<i>prolegomena</i> to that analysis of the sexual instinct which must form the
+chief part of an investigation into the psychology of sex. The first
+sketches the main outlines of a complex emotional state which is of
+fundamental importance in sexual psychology; the second, by bringing
+together evidence from widely different regions, suggests a tentative
+explanation of facts that are still imperfectly known; the third attempts
+to show that even in fields where we assume our knowledge to be adequate a
+broader view of the phenomena teaches us to suspend judgment and to adopt
+a more cautious attitude. So far as they go, these studies are complete in
+themselves; their special use, as an introduction to a more comprehensive
+analysis of sexual phenomena, is that they bring before us, under varying
+aspects, a characteristic which, though often ignored, is of the first
+importance in obtaining a clear understanding of the facts: the tendency
+of the sexual impulse to appear in a spontaneous and to some extent
+periodic manner, affecting women differently from men. This is a tendency
+which, later, I hope to make still more apparent, for it has practical and
+social, as well as psychological, implications. Here&mdash;and more especially
+in the study of those spontaneous solitary manifestations which I call
+auto-erotic&mdash;I have attempted to clear the ground, and to indicate the
+main lines along which the progress of our knowledge in these fields may
+best be attained.</p>
+
+<p>It may surprise many medical readers that in the third and longest study I
+have said little, save incidentally, either of treatment or prevention.
+The omission of such considerations at this stage is intentional. It may
+safely be said that in no other field of human activity is so vast an
+amount of strenuous didactic <a name='1_Page_x'></a>morality founded on so slender a basis of
+facts. In most other departments of life we at least make a pretence of
+learning before we presume to teach; in the field of sex we content
+ourselves with the smallest and vaguest minimum of information, often
+ostentatiously second-hand, usually unreliable. I wish to emphasize the
+fact that before we can safely talk either of curing or preventing these
+manifestations we must know a great deal more than we know at present
+regarding their distribution, etiology, and symptomatology; and we must
+exercise the same coolness and caution as&mdash;if our work is to be
+fruitful&mdash;we require in any other field of serious study. We must approach
+these facts as physicians, it is true, but also as psychologists,
+primarily concerned to find out the workings of such manifestations in
+fairly healthy and normal people. If we found a divorce-court judge
+writing a treatise on marriage we should smile. But it is equally absurd
+for the physician, so long as his knowledge is confined to disease, to
+write regarding sex at large; valuable as the facts he brings forward may
+be, he can never be in a position to generalize concerning them. And to
+me, at all events, it seems that we have had more than enough pictures of
+gross sexual perversity, whether furnished by the asylum or the brothel.
+They are only really instructive when they are seen in their proper
+perspective as the rare and ultimate extremes of a chain of phenomena
+which we may more profitably study nearer home.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, although we are, on every hand, surrounded by the normal
+manifestations of sex, conscious or unconscious, these manifestations are
+extremely difficult to observe, and, in those cases in which we are best
+able to observe them, it frequently happens that we are unable to make any
+use of our knowledge. Moreover, even when we have obtained our data, the
+difficulties&mdash;at all events, for an English investigator&mdash;are by no means
+overcome. He may take for granted that any serious and precise study of
+the sexual instinct will not meet with general approval; his work will be
+misunderstood; his motives will be called in question; among those for
+whom he is chiefly working he will find indifference. Indeed, the pioneer
+in this field may well <a name='1_Page_xi'></a>count himself happy if he meets with nothing worse
+than indifference. Hence it is that the present volume will not be
+published in England, but that, availing myself of the generous sympathy
+with which my work has been received in America, I have sought the wider
+medical and scientific audience of the United States. In matters of faith,
+&quot;liberty of prophesying&quot; was centuries since eloquently vindicated for
+Englishmen; the liberty of investigating facts is still called in
+question, under one pretence or another, and to seek out the most vital
+facts of life is still in England a perilous task.</p>
+
+<p>I desire most heartily to thank the numerous friends and correspondents,
+some living in remote parts of the world, who have freely assisted me in
+my work with valuable information and personal histories. To Mr. F. H.
+Perry-Coste I owe an appendix which is by far the most elaborate attempt
+yet made to find evidence of periodicity in the spontaneous sexual
+manifestations of sleep; my debts to various medical and other
+correspondents are duly stated in the text. To many women friends and
+correspondents I may here express my gratitude for the manner in which
+they have furnished me with intimate personal records, and for the
+cross-examination to which they have allowed me to subject them. I may
+already say here, what I shall have occasion to say more emphatically in
+subsequent volumes, that without the assistance I have received from women
+of fine intelligence and high character my work would be impossible. I
+regret that I cannot make my thanks more specific.</p>
+
+<p>HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p><a name='1_Page_xii'></a>
+
+<a name='1_Page_xiii'></a>
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_CONTENTS'></a><h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<h4><a href='#1_GENERAL_PREFACE'>GENERAL PREFACE.</a></h4>
+<h4><a href='#1_PREFACE_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION'>PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.</a></h4>
+<h4><a href='#1_PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION'>PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.</a></h4>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_THE_EVOLUTION_OF_MODESTY'>THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.</a></h4>
+<h5><a href='#1_I'>I.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Definition of Modesty&mdash;The Significance of Modesty&mdash;Difficulties in the Way
+of Its Analysis&mdash;The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among
+Different Peoples and in Different Ages.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_II'>II.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears&mdash;Children in Relation to
+Modesty&mdash;Modesty in Animals&mdash;The Attitude of the Medicean Venus&mdash;The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship&mdash;The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse&mdash;The Meaning of Coquetry&mdash;The Sexual Charm of Modesty&mdash;Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse&mdash;The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty&mdash;The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others&mdash;The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust&mdash;The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness&mdash;The Custom of Veiling the Face&mdash;Ornaments and
+Clothing&mdash;Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment&mdash;The Economic Factor
+in Modesty&mdash;The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty&mdash;The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_III'>III.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Blush the Sanction of Modesty&mdash;The Phenomena of Blushing&mdash;Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush&mdash;Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_IV'>IV.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Summary of the Factors of Modesty&mdash;The Future of Modesty&mdash;Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_THE_PHENOMENA_OF_SEXUAL_PERIODICITY'>THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.</a></h4>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_I-P'>I.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms&mdash;Menstruation&mdash;The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon&mdash;Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races&mdash;Mittelschmerz&mdash;Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle&mdash;Menstruation among Animals&mdash;Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes&mdash;What is Menstruation&mdash;Its Primary Cause Still Obscure&mdash;The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation&mdash;The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health&mdash;The Relation of Menstruation <a name='1_Page_-2'></a>to &quot;Heat&quot;&mdash;The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation&mdash;The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period&mdash;Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_II-P'>II.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men&mdash;The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men&mdash;Periodicity in Disease&mdash;Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.&mdash;The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle&mdash;The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep&mdash;Original
+Observations&mdash;Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms. </p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_III-P'>III.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Annual Sexual Rhythm&mdash;In Animals&mdash;In Man&mdash;Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn&mdash;The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals&mdash;The Feast of Fools&mdash;The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires&mdash;The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate&mdash;The Causes of those
+Variations&mdash;The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe&mdash;The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep&mdash;Original
+Observations&mdash;Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement&mdash;The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes&mdash;Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners&mdash;The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide&mdash;The Growth of
+Children According to Season&mdash;The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons&mdash;Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever&mdash;The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena. </p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_AUTO_EROTISM_A_STUDY_OF_THE_SPONTANEOUS_MANIFESTATIONS_OF_THE_SEXUAL'>AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL IMPULSE</a></h4>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_I-E'>I.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Definition of Auto-erotism&mdash;Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field&mdash;The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day&mdash;Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals&mdash;Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races&mdash;The Japanese <i>rin-no-tama</i> and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification&mdash;Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life&mdash;The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder&mdash;The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling&mdash;The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle&mdash;Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement&mdash;<i>Delectatio
+Morosa</i>&mdash;Day-dreaming&mdash;<i>Pollutio</i>&mdash;Sexual Excitement During Sleep&mdash;Erotic
+Dreams&mdash;The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis&mdash;Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women&mdash;The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical&mdash;Their Frequently Painful Character.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_II-E'>II.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions&mdash;The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation&mdash;The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views&mdash;Charcot&mdash;The Revolt Against<a name='1_Page_-1'></a> Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions&mdash;Fallacies Involved&mdash;Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament&mdash;Breuer and Freud&mdash;Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's&mdash;At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria&mdash;But They Must Not be Regarded as Final&mdash;The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons&mdash;The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria&mdash;True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#1_III-E'>III.</a></h5>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Prevalence of Masturbation&mdash;Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood&mdash;Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?&mdash;After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women&mdash;Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation&mdash;The Alleged Evils of Masturbation&mdash;Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point&mdash;The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation&mdash;Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders&mdash;Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders&mdash;The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System&mdash;Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation&mdash;Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus&mdash;Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation&mdash;Masturbation in Men of Genius&mdash;Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative&mdash;Typical Cases&mdash;The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation&mdash;Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians&mdash;The Mohammedan Attitude&mdash;The Modern
+Scientific Attitude&mdash;In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?&mdash;The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_APPENDIX_A'>APPENDIX A.</a></h4>
+<center>The Influence of Menstruation on the Position of Women.</center>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_APPENDIX_B'>APPENDIX B.</a></h4>
+
+<center>Sexual Periodicity in Men.</center>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_APPENDIX_C'>APPENDIX C.</a></h4>
+
+<center>The Auto-erotic Factor in Religion.</center>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#1_INDEX_OF_AUTHORS'>INDEX OF AUTHORS.</a></h4>
+<h4><a href='#1_INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS'>INDEX OF SUBJECTS.</a></h4>
+<h4><a href='#1_DIAGRAMS'>DIAGRAMS</a></h4>
+
+<a name='1_Page_0'></a>
+
+<a name='1_Page_1'></a>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_THE_EVOLUTION_OF_MODESTY'></a><h2>THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.</h2>
+
+<a name='1_I'></a><h3>I.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Definition of Modesty&mdash;The Significance of Modesty&mdash;Difficulties in
+the Way of Its Analysis&mdash;The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among Different
+Peoples and in Different Ages.</p></div>
+<br />
+<p>Modesty, which may be provisionally defined as an almost instinctive fear
+prompting to concealment and usually centering around the sexual
+processes, while common to both sexes is more peculiarly feminine, so that
+it may almost be regarded as the chief secondary sexual character of women
+on the psychical side. The woman who is lacking in this kind of fear is
+lacking, also, in sexual attractiveness to the normal and average man. The
+apparent exceptions seem to prove the rule, for it will generally be found
+that the women who are, not immodest (for immodesty is more closely
+related to modesty than mere negative absence of the sense of modesty),
+but without that fear which implies the presence of a complex emotional
+feminine organization to defend, only make a strong sexual appeal to men
+who are themselves lacking in the complementary masculine qualities. As a
+psychical secondary sexual character of the first rank, it is necessary,
+before any psychology of sex can be arranged in order, to obtain a clear
+view of modesty.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The immense importance of feminine modesty in creating masculine
+    passion must be fairly obvious. I may, however, quote the
+    observations of two writers who have shown evidence of insight
+    and knowledge regarding this matter.</p>
+
+<p>    Casanova describes how, when at Berne, he went to the baths, and
+    was, according to custom, attended by a young girl, whom he
+    selected from a group of bath attendants. She undressed him,
+    proceeded to undress herself, and then entered the bath with him,
+    and rubbed him thoroughly all over, the operation being performed
+    in the most serious manner and without a word being spoken. When
+    all was over, however, he perceived that the girl had expected
+    him to make advances, and he proceeds to describe and discuss his
+    own feelings of indifference under such circumstances. &quot;Though
+    without gazing on the girl's figure, I had <a name='1_Page_2'></a>seen enough to
+    recognize that she had all that a man can desire to find in a
+    woman: a beautiful face, lively and well-formed eyes, a beautiful
+    mouth, with good teeth, a healthy complexion, well-developed
+    breasts, and everything in harmony. It is true that I had felt
+    that her hands could have been smoother, but I could only
+    attribute this to hard work; moreover, my Swiss girl was only
+    eighteen, and yet I remained entirely cold. What was the cause of
+    this? That was the question that I asked myself.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;It is clear,&quot; wrote Stendhal, &quot;that three parts of modesty are
+    taught. This is, perhaps, the only law born of civilization which
+    produces nothing but happiness. It has been observed that birds
+    of prey hide themselves to drink, because, being obliged to
+    plunge their heads in the water, they are at that moment
+    defenceless. After having considered what passes at Otaheite, I
+    can see no other natural foundation for modesty. Love is the
+    miracle of civilization. Among savage and very barbarous races we
+    find nothing but physical love of a gross character. It is
+    modesty that gives to love the aid of imagination, and in so
+    doing imparts life to it. Modesty is very early taught to little
+    girls by their mothers, and with extreme jealousy, one might say,
+    by <i>esprit de corps</i>. They are watching in advance over the
+    happiness of the future lover. To a timid and tender woman there
+    ought to be no greater torture than to allow herself in the
+    presence of a man something which she thinks she ought to blush
+    at. I am convinced that a proud woman would prefer a thousand
+    deaths. A slight liberty taken on the tender side by the man she
+    loves gives a woman a moment of keen pleasure, but if he has the
+    air of blaming her for it, or only of not enjoying it with
+    transport, an awful doubt must be left in her mind. For a woman
+    above the vulgar level there is, then, everything to gain by very
+    reserved manners. The play is not equal. She hazards against a
+    slight pleasure, or against the advantage of appearing a little
+    amiable, the danger of biting remorse, and a feeling of shame
+    which must render even the lover less dear. An evening passed
+    gaily and thoughtlessly, without thinking of what comes after, is
+    dearly paid at this price. The sight of a lover with whom one
+    fears that one has had this kind of wrong must become odious for
+    several days. Can one be surprised at the force of a habit, the
+    slightest infractions of which are punished with such atrocious
+    shame? As to the utility of modesty, it is the mother of love. As
+    to the mechanism of the feeling, nothing is simpler. The mind is
+    absorbed in feeling shame instead of being occupied with desire.
+    Desires are forbidden, and desires lead to actions. It is evident
+    that every tender and proud woman&mdash;and these two things, being
+    cause and effect, naturally go together&mdash;must contract habits of
+    coldness which the people whom she disconcerts call prudery. The
+    power of modesty is so great that a tender woman betrays herself
+    with her lover rather <a name='1_Page_3'></a>by deeds than by words. The evil of
+    modesty is that it constantly leads to falsehood.&quot; (Stendhal, <i>De
+    l'Amour</i>, Chapter XXIV.)</p>
+
+<p>    It thus happens that, as Adler remarks (<i>Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>, p. 133), the sexual impulse in
+    women is fettered by an inhibition which has to be conquered. A
+    thin veil of reticence, shyness, and anxiety is constantly cast
+    anew over a woman's love, and her wooer, in every act of
+    courtship, has the enjoyment of conquering afresh an oft-won
+    woman.</p>
+
+<p>    An interesting testimony to the part played by modesty in
+    effecting the union of the sexes is furnished by the fact&mdash;to
+    which attention has often been called&mdash;that the special modesty
+    of women usually tends to diminish, though not to disappear, with
+    the complete gratification of the sexual impulses. This may be
+    noted among savage as well as among civilized women. The
+    comparatively evanescent character of modesty has led to the
+    argument (Venturi, <i>Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali</i>, pp. 92-93)
+    that modesty (<i>pudore</i>) is possessed by women alone, men
+    exhibiting, instead, a sense of decency which remains at about
+    the same level of persistency throughout life. Viazzi (&quot;Pudore
+    nell 'uomo e nella donna,&quot; <i>Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria
+    Forense</i>, 1898), on the contrary, following Sergi, argues that
+    men are, throughout, more modest than women; but the points he
+    brings forward, though often just, scarcely justify his
+    conclusion. While the young virgin, however, is more modest and
+    shy than the young man of the same age, the experienced married
+    woman is usually less so than her husband, and in a woman who is
+    a mother the shy reticences of virginal modesty would be rightly
+    felt to be ridiculous. (&quot;Les petites pudeurs n'existent pas pour
+    les m&egrave;res,&quot; remarks Goncourt, <i>Journal des Goncourt</i>, vol. iii,
+    p. 5.) She has put off a sexual livery that has no longer any
+    important part to play in life, and would, indeed, be
+    inconvenient and harmful, just as a bird loses its sexual plumage
+    when the pairing season is over.</p>
+
+<p>    Madame C&eacute;line Renooz, in an elaborate study of the psychological
+    sexual differences between men and women (<i>Psychologie Compar&eacute;e
+    de l'Homme et de la Femme</i>, 1898, pp. 85-87), also believes that
+    modesty is not really a feminine characteristic. &quot;Modesty,&quot; she
+    argues, &quot;is masculine shame attributed to women for two reasons:
+    first, because man believes that woman is subject to the same
+    laws as himself; secondly, because the course of human evolution
+    has reversed the psychology of the sexes, attributing to women
+    the psychological results of masculine sexuality. This is the
+    origin of the conventional lies which by a sort of social
+    suggestion have intimidated women. They have, in appearance at
+    least, accepted the rule of shame imposed on them by men, but
+    only custom inspires the modesty for which they are praised; it
+    is really an outrage to their sex. This reversal of psychological
+    laws has, however, only been accepted by women with a struggle.
+    Primitive woman, proud of <a name='1_Page_4'></a>her womanhood, for a long time
+    defended her nakedness which ancient art has always represented.
+    And in the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a moment
+    when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex, the
+    intuition of her moral superiority, and cannot understand why she
+    must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the laws of
+    Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if nakedness
+    should or should not affright her. A sort of confused atavistic
+    memory recalls to her a period before clothing was known, and
+    reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of that human
+    epoch.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In support of this view the authoress proceeds to point out that
+    the <i>d&eacute;collet&eacute;</i> constantly reappears in feminine clothing, never
+    in male; that missionaries experience great difficulty in
+    persuading women to cover themselves; that, while women accept
+    with facility an examination by male doctors, men cannot force
+    themselves to accept examination by a woman doctor, etc. (These
+    and similar points had already been independently brought forward
+    by Sergi, <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, vol. xiii, 1892.)</p>
+
+<p>    It cannot be said that Madame Renooz's arguments will all bear
+    examination, if only on the ground that nakedness by no means
+    involves absence of modesty, but the point of view which she
+    expresses is one which usually fails to gain recognition, though
+    it probably contains an important element of truth. It is quite
+    true, as Stendhal said, that modesty is very largely taught; from
+    the earliest years, a girl child is trained to show a modesty
+    which she quickly begins really to feel. This fact cannot fail to
+    strike any one who reads the histories of pseudo-hermaphroditic
+    persons, really males, who have from infancy been brought up in
+    the belief that they are girls, and who show, and feel, all the
+    shrinking reticence and blushing modesty of their supposed sex.
+    But when the error is discovered, and they are restored to their
+    proper sex, this is quickly changed, and they exhibit all the
+    boldness of masculinity. (See <i>e.g.</i>, Neugebauer, &quot;Beobachtungen
+    aus dem Gebiete des Scheinzwittertumes,&quot; <i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Sexuelle
+    Zwischenstufen</i>, Jahrgang iv, 1902, esp. p. 92.) At the same time
+    this is only one thread in the tangled skein with which we are
+    here concerned. The mass of facts which meets us when we turn to
+    the study of modesty in women cannot be dismissed as a group of
+    artificially-imposed customs. They gain rather than lose in
+    importance if we have to realize that the organic sexual demands
+    of women, calling for coyness in courtship, lead to the temporary
+    suppression of another feminine instinct of opposite, though
+    doubtless allied, nature.</p>
+
+<p>    But these somewhat conflicting, though not really contradictory,
+    statements serve to bring out the fact that a woman's modesty is
+    often an incalculable element. The woman who, under some
+    circumstances and at some times, is extreme in her reticences,
+    under other circumstances <a name='1_Page_5'></a>or at other times, may be extreme in
+    her abandonment. Not that her modesty is an artificial garment,
+    which she throws off or on at will. It is organic, but like the
+    snail's shell, it sometimes forms an impenetrable covering, and
+    sometimes glides off almost altogether. A man's modesty is more
+    rigid, with little tendency to deviate toward either extreme.
+    Thus it is, that, when uninstructed, a man is apt to be impatient
+    with a woman's reticences, and yet shocked at her abandonments. </p></div>
+
+<p>The significance of our inquiry becomes greater when we reflect that to
+the reticences of sexual modesty, in their progression, expansion, and
+complication, we largely owe, not only the refinement and development of
+the sexual emotions,&mdash;&quot;<i>la pudeur</i>&quot; as Guyau remarked, &quot;<i>a civilis&eacute;
+l'amour</i>&quot;&mdash;but the subtle and pervading part which the sexual instinct has
+played in the evolution of all human culture.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;It is certain that very much of what is best in religion, art,
+    and life,&quot; remark Stanley Hall and Allin, &quot;owes its charm to the
+    progressively-widening irradiation of sexual feeling. Perhaps the
+    reluctance of the female first long-circuited the exquisite
+    sensations connected with sexual organs and acts to the antics of
+    animal and human courtship, while restraint had the physiological
+    function of developing the colors, plumes, excessive activity,
+    and exuberant life of the pairing season. To keep certain parts
+    of the body covered, irradiated the sense of beauty to eyes,
+    hair, face, complexion, dress, form, etc., while many savage
+    dances, costumes and postures are irradiations of the sexual act.
+    Thus reticence, concealment, and restraint are among the prime
+    conditions of religion and human culture.&quot; (Stanley Hall and
+    Allin, &quot;The Psychology of Tickling,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+    Psychology</i>, 1897, p. 31.)</p>
+
+<p>    Groos attributes the deepening of the conjugal relation among
+    birds to the circumstance that the male seeks to overcome the
+    reticence of the female by the display of his charms and
+    abilities. &quot;And in the human world,&quot; he continues, &quot;it is the
+    same; without the modest reserve of the woman that must, in most
+    cases, be overcome by lovable qualities, the sexual relationship
+    would with difficulty find a singer who would extol in love the
+    highest movements of the human soul.&quot; (Groos, <i>Spiele der
+    Menschen</i>, p. 341.) </p></div>
+
+<p>I have not, however, been, able to find that the subject of modesty has
+been treated in any comprehensive way by psychologists. Though valuable
+facts and suggestions bearing on the sexual emotions, on disgust, the
+origins of tatooing, on ornament and clothing, have been, brought forward
+by physiologists, psychologists, <a name='1_Page_6'></a>and ethnographists, few or no attempts
+appear to have been made to reach a general synthetic statement of these
+facts and suggestions. It is true that a great many unreliable, slight, or
+fragmentary efforts have been made to ascertain the constitution or basis
+of this emotion.<a name='1_FNanchor_1'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_1'><sup>[1]</sup></a> Many psychologists have regarded modesty simply as the
+result of clothing. This view is overturned by the well-ascertained fact
+that many races which go absolutely naked possess a highly-developed sense
+of modesty. These writers have not realized that physiological modesty is
+earlier in appearance, and more fundamental, than anatomical modesty. A
+partial contribution to the analysis of modesty has been made by Professor
+James, who, with his usual insight and lucidity, has set forth certain of
+its characteristics, especially the element due to &quot;the application to
+ourselves of judgments primarily passed upon our mates.&quot; Guyau, in a very
+brief discussion of modesty, realized its great significance and touched
+on most of its chief elements.<a name='1_FNanchor_2'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_2'><sup>[2]</sup></a> Westermarck, again, followed by Grosse,
+has very ably and convincingly set forth certain factors in the origin of
+ornament and clothing, a subject which many writers imagine to cover the
+whole field of modesty. More recently Ribot, in his work on the emotions,
+has vaguely outlined most of the factors of modesty, but has not developed
+a coherent view of their origins and relationships.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Since the present <i>Study</i> first appeared, Hohenemser, who
+    considers that my analysis of modesty is unsatisfactory, has made
+    a notable attempt to define the psychological mechanism of shame.
+    (&quot;Versuch einer Analyse der Scham,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r die Gesamte
+    Psychologie</i>, Bd. II, Heft 2-3, 1903.) He regards shame as a
+    general psycho-physical phenomenon, &quot;a definite tension of the
+    whole soul,&quot; with an emotion superadded. &quot;The state of shame
+    consists in a certain psychic lameness or inhibition,&quot; sometimes
+    accompanied by physical phenomena of paralysis, such as sinking
+    of the head and inability to meet the eye. It is a special case
+    of Lipps's psychic stasis or damming up (<i>psychische Stauung</i>),
+    always <a name='1_Page_7'></a>produced when the psychic activities are at the same time
+    drawn in two or more different directions. In shame there is
+    always something present in consciousness which conflicts with
+    the rest of the personality, and cannot be brought into harmony
+    with it, which cannot be brought, that is, into moral (not
+    logical) relationship with it. A young man in love with a girl is
+    ashamed when told that he is in love, because his reverence for
+    one whom he regards as a higher being cannot be brought into
+    relationship with his own lower personality. A child in the same
+    way feels shame in approaching a big, grown-up person, who seems
+    a higher sort of being. Sometimes, likewise, we feel shame in
+    approaching a stranger, for a new person tends to seem higher and
+    more interesting than ourselves. It is not so in approaching a
+    new natural phenomenon, because we do not compare it with
+    ourselves. Another kind of shame is seen when this mental contest
+    is lower than our personality, and on this account in conflict
+    with it, as when we are ashamed of sexual thoughts. Sexual ideas
+    tend to evoke shame, Hohenemser remarks, because they so easily
+    tend to pass into sexual feelings; when they do not so pass (as
+    in scientific discussions) they do not evoke shame.</p>
+
+<p>    It will be seen that this discussion of modesty is highly
+    generalized and abstracted; it deals simply with the formal
+    mechanism of the process. Hohenemser admits that fear is a form
+    of psychic stasis, and I have sought to show that modesty is a
+    complexus of fears. We may very well accept the conception of
+    psychic stasis at the outset. The analysis of modesty has still
+    to be carried very much further. </p></div>
+
+<p>The discussion of modesty is complicated by the difficulty, and even
+impossibility, of excluding closely-allied emotions&mdash;shame, shyness,
+bashfulness, timidity, etc.&mdash;all of which, indeed, however defined, adjoin
+or overlap modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_3'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_3'><sup>[3]</sup></a> It is not, however, impossible to isolate the main
+body of the emotion of modesty, on account of its special connection, on
+the whole, with <a name='1_Page_8'></a>the consciousness of sex. I here attempt, however
+imperfectly, to sketch out a fairly-complete analysis of its constitution
+and to trace its development.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In entering upon this investigation a few facts with regard to
+    the various manifestations of modesty may be helpful to us. I
+    have selected these from scattered original sources, and have
+    sought to bring out the variety and complexity of the problems
+    with which we are here concerned.</p>
+
+<p>    The New Georgians of the Solomon Islands, so low a race that they
+    are ignorant both of pottery and weaving, and wear only a loin
+    cloth, &quot;have the same ideas of what is decent with regard to
+    certain acts and exposures that we ourselves have;&quot; so that it is
+    difficult to observe whether they practice circumcision.
+    (Somerville, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1897, p.
+    394.)</p>
+
+<p>    In the New Hebrides &quot;the closest secrecy is adopted with regard
+    to the penis, not at all from a sense of decency, but to avoid
+    Narak, the <i>sight</i> even of that of another man being considered
+    most dangerous. The natives of this savage island, accordingly,
+    wrap the penis around with many yards of calico, and other like
+    materials, winding and folding them until a preposterous bundle
+    18 inches, or 2 feet long, and 2 inches or more in diameter is
+    formed, which is then supported upward by means of a belt, in the
+    extremity decorated with flowering grasses, etc. The testicles
+    are left naked.&quot; There is no other body covering. (Somerville,
+    <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1894, p. 368.)</p>
+
+<p>    In the Pelew Islands, says Kubary, as quoted by Bastian, it is
+    said that when the God Irakaderugel and his wife were creating
+    man and woman (he forming man and she forming woman), and were at
+    work on the sexual organs, the god wished to see his consort's
+    handiwork. She, however, was cross, and persisted in concealing
+    what she had made. Ever since then women wear an apron of
+    pandanus-leaves and men go naked. (A. Bastian, <i>Inselgruppen in
+    Oceanien</i>, p. 112.)</p>
+
+<p>    In the Pelew Islands, Semper tells us that when approaching a
+    large water-hole he was surprised to hear an affrighted,
+    long-drawn cry from his native friends. &quot;A girl's voice answered
+    out of the bushes, and my people held us back, for there were
+    women bathing there who would not allow us to pass. When I
+    remarked that they were only women, of whom they need not be
+    afraid, they replied that it was not so, that women had an
+    unbounded right to punish men who passed them when bathing
+    without their permission, and could inflict fines or even death.
+    On this account, the women's bathing place is a safe and favorite
+    spot for a secret rendezvous. Fortunately a lady's toilet lasts
+    but a short time in this island.&quot; (Carl Semper, <i>Die
+    Palau-Inseln</i>, 1873, p. 68.)</p><a name='1_Page_9'></a>
+
+<p>    Among the Western Tribes of Torres Strait, Haddon states, &quot;the
+    men were formerly nude, and the women wore only a leaf petticoat,
+    but I gather that they were a decent people; now both sexes are
+    prudish. A man would never go nude before me. The women would
+    never voluntarily expose their breasts to white men's gaze; this
+    applies to quite young girls, less so to old women. Amongst
+    themselves they are, of course, much less particular, but I
+    believe they are becoming more so.... Formerly, I imagine, there
+    was no restraint in speech; now there is a great deal of prudery;
+    for instance, the men were always much ashamed when I asked for
+    the name of the sexual parts of a woman.&quot; (A. C. Haddon,
+    &quot;Ethnography of the Western Tribes of Torres Straits,&quot; <i>Journal
+    of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1890, p. 336.) After a
+    subsequent expedition to the same region, the author reiterates
+    his observations as to the &quot;ridiculously prudish manner&quot; of the
+    men, attributable to missionary influence during the past thirty
+    years, and notes that even the children are affected by it. &quot;At
+    Mabuiag, some small children were paddling in the water, and a
+    boy of about ten years of age reprimanded a little girl of five
+    or six years because she held up her dress too high.&quot; (<i>Reports
+    of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i>,
+    vol. v, p. 272.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Although the women of New Guinea,&quot; Vahness says, &quot;are very
+    slightly clothed, they are by no means lacking in a
+    well-developed sense of decorum. If they notice, for instance,
+    that any one is paying special attention to their nakedness, they
+    become ashamed and turn round.&quot; When a woman had to climb the
+    fence to enter the wild-pig enclosure, she would never do it in
+    Vahness's presence. (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, Verhdlgen.,
+    1900, Heft 5, p. 415.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Australia &quot;the feeling of decency is decidedly less prevalent
+    among males than females;&quot; the clothed females retire out of
+    sight to bathe. (Curr, <i>Australian Race</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Except for waist-bands, forehead-bands, necklets, and armlets,
+    and a conventional pubic tassel, shell, or, in the case of the
+    women, a small apron, the Central Australian native is naked. The
+    pubic tassel is a diminutive structure, about the size of a
+    five-shilling piece, made of a few short strands of fur-strings
+    flattened out into a fan-shape and attached to the pubic hair. As
+    the string, especially at <i>corrobboree</i> times, is covered with
+    white kaolin or gypsum, it serves as a decoration rather than a
+    covering. Among the Arunta and Luritcha the women usually wear
+    nothing, but further north, a small apron is made and worn.&quot;
+    (Baldwin Spencer and Gillen, <i>Native Tribes of Central
+    Australia</i>, p. 572.)</p>
+
+<p>    Of the Central Australians Stirling says: &quot;No sense of shame of
+    exposure was exhibited by the men on removal of the diminutive
+    articles worn as conventional coverings; they were taken off
+    <i>coram populo</i>, <a name='1_Page_10'></a>and bartered without hesitation. On the other
+    hand, some little persuasion was necessary to allow inspection of
+    the effect of [urethral] sub-incision, assent being given only
+    after dismissal to a distance of the women and young children. As
+    to the women, it was nearly always observed that when in camp
+    without clothing they, especially the younger ones, exhibited by
+    their attitude a keen sense of modesty, if, indeed, a
+    consciousness of their nakedness can be thus considered. When we
+    desired to take a photograph of a group of young women, they were
+    very coy at the proposal to remove their scanty garments, and
+    retired behind a wall to do so; but once in a state of nudity
+    they made no objection to exposure to the camera.&quot; (<i>Report of
+    the Horn Scientific Expedition</i>, 1896, vol. iv, p. 37.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Northern Queensland &quot;phallocrypts,&quot; or &quot;penis-concealers,&quot;
+    only used by the males at <i>corrobborees</i> and other public
+    rejoicings, are either formed of pearl-shell or opossum-string.
+    The <i>koom-pa-ra</i>, or opossum-string form of phallocrypt, forms a
+    kind of tassel, and is colored red; it is hung from the
+    waist-belt in the middle line. In both sexes the privates are
+    only covered on special public occasions, or when in close
+    proximity to white settlements. (W. Roth, <i>Ethnological Studies
+    among the Northwest-Central-Queensland Aborigines</i>, 1897, pp.
+    114-115.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The principle of chastity,&quot; said Forster, of his experiences in
+    the South Sea Islands in their unspoilt state, &quot;we found in many
+    families exceedingly well understood. I have seen many fine women
+    who, with a modesty mixed with politeness, refuse the greatest
+    and most tempting offers made them by our forward youths; often
+    they excuse themselves with a simple <i>tirra-tano</i>, 'I am
+    married,' and at other times they smiled and declined it with
+    <i>epia</i>, 'no.' ... Virtuous women hear a joke without emotion,
+    which, amongst us, might put some men to the blush. Neither
+    austerity and anger, nor joy and ecstasy is the consequence, but
+    sometimes a modest, dignified, serene smile spreads itself over
+    their face, and seems gently to rebuke the uncouth jester.&quot; (J. R.
+    Forster, <i>Observations made During a Voyage Round the World</i>,
+    1728, p. 392.)</p>
+
+<p>    Captain Cook, at Tahiti, in 1769, after performing Divine service
+    on Sunday, witnessed &quot;Vespers of a very different kind. A young
+    man, near six feet high, performed the rites of Venus with a
+    little girl about eleven or twelve years of age, before several
+    of our people and a great number of the natives, without the
+    least sense of its being indecent or improper, but, as it
+    appeared, in perfect conformity to the custom of the place. Among
+    the spectators were several women of superior rank, who may
+    properly be said to have assisted at the ceremony; for they gave
+    instructions to the girl how to perform her part, which, young as
+    she was, she did not seem much to stand in need of.&quot; (J.
+    Hawkesworth, <i>Account of the Voyages</i>, etc., 1775, vol. i, p.
+    469.)</p><a name='1_Page_11'></a>
+
+<p>    At Tahiti, according to Cook, it was customary to &quot;gratify every
+    appetite and passion before witnesses,&quot; and it is added, &quot;in the
+    conversation of these people, that which is the principal source
+    of their pleasure is always the principal topic; everything is
+    mentioned without any restraint or emotion, and in the most
+    direct terms, by both sexes.&quot; (Hawkesworth, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol ii,
+    p. 45.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;I have observed,&quot; Captain Cook wrote, &quot;that our friends in the
+    South Seas have not even the idea of indecency, with respect to
+    any object or any action, but this was by no means the case with
+    the inhabitants of New Zealand, in whose carriage and
+    conversation there was as much modest reserve and decorum with
+    respect to actions, which yet in their opinion were not criminal,
+    as are to be found among the politest people in Europe. The women
+    were not impregnable; but the terms and manner of compliance were
+    as decent as those in marriage among us, and according to their
+    notions, the agreement was as innocent. When any of our people
+    made an overture to any of their young women, he was given to
+    understand that the consent of her friends was necessary, and by
+    the influence of a proper present it was generally obtained; but
+    when these preliminaries were settled, it was also necessary to
+    treat the wife for a night with the same delicacy that is here
+    required by the wife for life, and the lover who presumed to take
+    any liberties by which this was violated, was sure to be
+    disappointed.&quot; (Hawkesworth, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 254.)</p>
+
+<p>    Cook found that the people of New Zealand &quot;bring the prepuce over
+    the gland, and to prevent it from being drawn back by contraction
+    of the part, they tie the string which hangs from the girdle
+    round the end of it. The glans, indeed, seemed to be the only
+    part of their body which they were solicitous to conceal, for
+    they frequently threw off all their dress but the belt and
+    string, with the most careless indifference, but showed manifest
+    signs of confusion when, to gratify our curiosity, they were
+    requested to untie the string, and never consented but with the
+    utmost reluctance and shame.... The women's lower garment was
+    always bound fast round them, except when they went into the
+    water to catch lobsters, and then they took great care not to be
+    seen by the men. We surprised several of them at this employment,
+    and the chaste Diana, with her nymphs, could not have discovered
+    more confusion and distress at the sight of Act&aelig;on, than these
+    women expressed upon our approach. Some of them hid themselves
+    among the rocks, and the rest crouched down in the sea till they
+    had made themselves a girdle and apron of such weeds as they
+    could find, and when they came out, even with this veil, we could
+    see that their modesty suffered much pain by our presence.&quot;
+    (Hawkesworth, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, pp. 257-258.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Rotuma, in Polynesia, where the women enjoy much freedom, but
+    where, at all events in old days, married people were, as a rule,
+    <a name='1_Page_12'></a>faithful to each other, &quot;the language is not chaste according to
+    our ideas, and there is a great deal of freedom in speaking of
+    immoral vices. In this connection a man and his wife will speak
+    freely to one another before their friends. I am informed,
+    though, by European traders well conversant with the language,
+    that there are grades of language, and that certain coarse
+    phrases would never be used to any decent woman; so that
+    probably, in their way, they have much modesty, only we cannot
+    appreciate it.&quot; (J. Stanley Gardiner, &quot;The Natives of Rotuma,&quot;
+    <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, May, 1898, p. 481.)</p>
+
+<p>    The men of Rotuma, says the same writer, are very clean, the
+    women also, bathing twice a day in the sea; but &quot;bathing in
+    public without the <i>kukuluga</i>, or <i>sulu</i> [loin-cloth, which is
+    the ordinary dress], around the waist is absolutely unheard of,
+    and would be much looked down upon.&quot; (<i>Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute</i>, 1898, p. 410.)</p>
+
+<p>    In ancient Samoa the only necessary garment for either man or
+    woman was an apron of leaves, but they possessed so &quot;delicate a
+    sense of propriety&quot; that even &quot;while bathing they have a girdle
+    of leaves or some other covering around the waist.&quot; (Turner,
+    <i>Samoa a Hundred Years Ago</i>, p. 121.)</p>
+
+<p>    After babyhood the Indians of Guiana are never seen naked. When
+    they change their single garment they retire. The women wear a
+    little apron, now generally made of European beads, but the
+    Warraus still make it of the inner bark of a tree, and some of
+    seeds. (Everard im Thurn, <i>Among the Indians of Guiana</i>, 1883.)</p>
+
+<p>    The Mandurucu women of Brazil, according to Tocantins (quoted by
+    Mantegazza), are completely naked, but they are careful to avoid
+    any postures which might be considered indecorous, and they do
+    this so skilfully that it is impossible to tell when they have
+    their menstrual periods. (Mantegazza, <i>Fisiologia della Donna</i>,
+    cap 9.)</p>
+
+<p>    The Indians of Central Brazil have no &quot;private parts.&quot; In men the
+    little girdle, or string, surrounding the lower part of the
+    abdomen, hides nothing; it is worn after puberty, the penis being
+    often raised and placed beneath it to lengthen the prepuce. The
+    women also use a little strip of bast that goes down the groin
+    and passes between the thighs. Among some tribes (Karibs, Tupis,
+    Nu-Arwaks) a little, triangular, coquettishly-made piece of
+    bark-bast comes just below the mons veneris; it is only a few
+    centimetres in width, and is called the <i>uluri. In both sexes
+    concealment of the sexual mucous membrane is attained</i>. These
+    articles cannot be called clothing. &quot;The red thread of the
+    Trumai, the elegant <i>uluri</i>, and the variegated flag of the
+    Boror&oacute; attract attention, like ornaments, instead of drawing
+    attention away.&quot; Von den Steinen thinks this proceeding a
+    necessary protection against the attacks of insects, which are
+    often serious in Brazil. He does think, however, that there is
+    more than this, and that the people are ashamed to show the
+    <a name='1_Page_13'></a>glans penis. (Karl von den Steinen, <i>Unter den Naturv&ouml;lkern
+    Zentral-Brasiliens</i>, 1894, pp. 190 <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>    Other travelers mention that on the Amazon among some tribes the
+    women are clothed and the men naked; among others the women
+    naked, and the men clothed. Thus, among the Guaycurus the men are
+    quite naked, while the women wear a short petticoat; among the
+    Uaup&aacute;s the men always wear a loin-cloth, while the women are
+    quite naked.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The feeling of modesty is very developed among the Fuegians, who
+    are accustomed to live naked. They manifest it in their bearing
+    and in the ease with which they show themselves in a state of
+    nudity, compared with the awkwardness, blushing, and shame which
+    both men and women exhibit if one gazes at certain parts of their
+    bodies. Among themselves this is never done even between husband
+    and wife. There is no Fuegian word for modesty, perhaps because
+    the feeling is universal among them.&quot; The women wear a minute
+    triangular garment of skin suspended between the thighs and never
+    removed, being merely raised during conjugal relations. (Hyades
+    and Deniker, <i>Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn</i>, vol. vii, pp.
+    239, 307, and 347.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Crow Indians of Montana, writes Dr. Holder, who has
+    lived with them for several years, &quot;a sense of modesty forbids
+    the attendance upon the female in labor of any male, white man or
+    Indian, physician or layman. This antipathy to receiving
+    assistance at the hands of the physician is overcome as the
+    tribes progress toward civilization, and it is especially
+    noticeable that half-breeds almost constantly seek the
+    physician's aid.&quot; Dr. Holder mentions the case of a young woman
+    who, although brought near the verge of death in a very difficult
+    first confinement, repeatedly refused to allow him to examine
+    her; at last she consented; &quot;her modest preparation was to take
+    bits of quilt and cover thighs and lips of vulva, leaving only
+    the aperture exposed.... Their modesty would not be so striking
+    were it not that, almost to a woman, the females of this tribe
+    are prostitutes, and for a consideration will admit the
+    connection of any man.&quot; (A. B. Holder, <i>American Journal of
+    Obstetrics</i>, vol. xxv, No. 6, 1892.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In every North American tribe, from the most northern to the
+    most southern, the skirt of the woman is longer than that of the
+    men. In Esquimau land the <i>parka</i> of deerskin and sealskin
+    reaches to the knees. Throughout Central North America the
+    buckskin dress of the women reached quite to the ankles. The
+    West-Coast women, from Oregon to the Gulf of California, wore a
+    petticoat of shredded bark, of plaited grass, or of strings, upon
+    which were strung hundreds of seeds. Even in the most tropical
+    areas the rule was universal, as anyone can see from the codices
+    or in pictures of the natives.&quot; (Otis T. Mason, <i>Woman's Share in
+    Primitive Culture</i>, p. 237.)</p><a name='1_Page_14'></a>
+
+<p>    Describing the loin-cloth worn by Nicobarese men, Man says: &quot;From
+    the clumsy mode in which this garment is worn by the Shom
+    Pen&mdash;necessitating frequent readjustment of the folds&mdash;one is led
+    to infer that its use is not <i>de rigueur</i>, but reserved for
+    special occasions, as when receiving or visiting strangers.&quot;
+    (E. H. Man, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1886, p.
+    442.)</p>
+
+<p>    The semi-nude natives of the island of Nias in the Indian Ocean
+    are &quot;modest by nature,&quot; paying no attention to their own nudity
+    or that of others, and much scandalized by any attempt to go
+    beyond the limits ordained by custom. When they pass near places
+    where women are bathing they raise their voices in order to warn
+    them of their presence, and even although any bold youth
+    addressed the women, and the latter replied, no attempt would be
+    made to approach them; any such attempt would be severely
+    punished by the head man of the village. (Modigliani, <i>Un Viaggio
+    a Nias</i>, p. 460.)</p>
+
+<p>    Man says that the Andamanese in modesty and self-respect compare
+    favorably with many classes among civilized peoples. &quot;Women are
+    so modest that they will not renew their leaf-aprons in the
+    presence of one another, but retire to a secluded spot for this
+    purpose; even when parting with one of their <i>bod</i> appendages
+    [tails of leaves suspended from back of girdle] to a female
+    friend, the delicacy they manifest for the feelings of the
+    bystanders in their mode of removing it amounts to prudishness;
+    yet they wear no clothing in the ordinary sense.&quot; (<i>Journal of
+    the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1883, pp. 94 and 331.)</p>
+
+<p>    Of the Garo women of Bengal Dalton says: &quot;Their sole garment is a
+    piece of cloth less than a foot in width that just meets around
+    the loins, and in order that it may not restrain the limbs it is
+    only fastened where it meets under the hip at the upper corners.
+    The girls are thus greatly restricted in the positions they may
+    modestly assume, but decorum is, in their opinion, sufficiently
+    preserved if they only keep their legs well together when they
+    sit or kneel.&quot; (E. T. Dalton, <i>Ethnology of Bengal</i>, 1872, p. 66.)</p>
+
+<p>    Of the Naga women of Assam it is said: &quot;Of clothing there was not
+    much to see; but in spite of this I doubt whether we could excel
+    them in true decency and modesty. Ibn Muhammed Wali had already
+    remarked in his history of the conquest of Assam (1662-63), that
+    the Naga women only cover their breasts. They declare that it is
+    absurd to cover those parts of the body which everyone has been
+    able to see from their births, but that it is different with the
+    breasts, which appeared later, and are, therefore, to be covered.
+    Dalton (<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society</i>, Bengal, 41, 1, 84) adds
+    that in the presence of strangers Naga women simply cross their
+    arms over their breasts, without caring much what other charms
+    they may reveal to the observer. As regards some clans of the
+    naked Nagas, to whom the Banpara belong, this may <a name='1_Page_15'></a>still hold
+    good.&quot; (K. Klemm, &quot;Peal's Ausflug nach Banpara,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Ethnologie</i>, 1898, Heft 5, p. 334.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In Ceylon, a woman always bathes in public streams, but she
+    never removes all her clothes. She washes under the cloth, bit by
+    bit, and then slips on the dry, new cloth, and pulls out the wet
+    one from underneath (much in the same sliding way as servant
+    girls and young women in England). This is the common custom in
+    India and the Malay States. The breasts are always bare in their
+    own houses, but in the public roads are covered whenever a
+    European passes. The vulva is never exposed. They say that a
+    devil, imagined as a white and hairy being, might have
+    intercourse with them.&quot; (Private communication.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Borneo, &quot;the <i>sirat</i>, called <i>chawal</i> by the Malays, is a
+    strip of cloth a yard wide, worn round the loins and in between
+    the thighs, so as to cover the pudenda and perin&aelig;um; it is
+    generally six yards or so in length, but the younger men of the
+    present generation use as much as twelve or fourteen yards
+    (sometimes even more), which they twist and coil with great
+    precision round and round their body, until the waist and stomach
+    are fully enveloped in its folds.&quot; (H. Ling Roth, &quot;Low's Natives
+    of Borneo,&quot; <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1892, p.
+    36.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In their own houses in the depths of the forest the Dwarfs are
+    said to neglect coverings for decency in the men as in the women,
+    but certainly when they emerge from the forest into the villages
+    of the agricultural Negroes, they are always observed to be
+    wearing some small piece of bark-cloth or skin, or a bunch of
+    leaves over the pudenda. Elsewhere in all the regions of Africa
+    visited by the writer, or described by other observers, a neglect
+    of decency in the male has only been recorded among the Efik
+    people of Old Calabar. The nudity of women is another question.
+    In parts of West Africa, between the Niger and the Gaboon
+    (especially on the Cameroon River, at Old Calabar, and in the
+    Niger Delta), it is, or was, customary for young women to go
+    about completely nude before they were married. In Swaziland,
+    until quite recently, unmarried women and very often matrons went
+    stark naked. Even amongst the prudish Baganda, who made it a
+    punishable offense for a man to expose any part of his leg above
+    the knee, the wives of the King would attend at his Court
+    perfectly naked. Among the Kavirondo, all unmarried girls are
+    completely nude, and although women who have become mothers are
+    supposed to wear a tiny covering before and behind, they very
+    often completely neglect to do so when in their own villages.
+    Yet, as a general rule, among the Nile Negroes, and still more
+    markedly among the Hamites and people of Masai stock, the women
+    are particular about concealing the pudenda, whereas the men are
+    ostentatiously naked. The Baganda hold nudity in the male to be
+    such an abhorrent thing that for centuries they <a name='1_Page_16'></a>have referred
+    with scorn and disgust to the Nile Negroes as the 'naked people.'
+    Male nudity extends northwest to within some 200 miles of
+    Khartum, or, in fact, wherever the Nile Negroes of the
+    Dinka-Acholi stock inhabit the country.&quot; (Sir H. H. Johnston,
+    <i>Uganda Protectorate</i>, vol. ii, pp. 669-672.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Nilotic Ja-luo, Johnston states that &quot;unmarried men go
+    naked. Married men who have children wear a small piece of goat
+    skin, which, though quite inadequate for purposes of decency, is,
+    nevertheless, a very important thing in etiquette, for a married
+    man with a child must on no account call on his mother-in-law
+    without wearing this piece of goat's skin. To call on her in a
+    state of absolute nudity would be regarded as a serious insult,
+    only to be atoned for by the payment of goats. Even if under the
+    new dispensation he wears European trousers, he must have a piece
+    of goat's skin underneath. Married women wear a tail of strings
+    behind.&quot; It is very bad manners for a woman to serve food to her
+    husband without putting on this tail. (Sir H. H. Johnston, <i>Uganda
+    Protectorate</i>, vol. ii, p. 781.)</p>
+
+<p>    Mrs. French-Sheldon remarks that the Masai and other East African
+    tribes, with regard to menstruation, &quot;observe the greatest
+    delicacy, and are more than modest.&quot; (<i>Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute</i>, 1894, p. 383.)</p>
+
+<p>    At the same time the Masai, among whom the penis is of enormous
+    size, consider it disreputable to conceal that member, and in the
+    highest degree reputable to display it, even ostentatiously. (Sir
+    H. H. Johnston, <i>Kilima-njaro Expedition</i>, p. 413.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the African Dinka, who are scrupulously clean and delicate
+    (smearing themselves with burnt cows' dung, and washing
+    themselves daily with cows' urine), and are exquisite cooks,
+    reaching in many respects a higher stage of civilization, in
+    Schweinfurth's opinion, than is elsewhere attained in Africa,
+    only the women wear aprons. The neighboring tribes of the red
+    soil&mdash;Bongo, Mittoo, Niam-Niam, etc.&mdash;are called &quot;women&quot; by the
+    Dinka, because among these tribes the men wear an apron, while
+    the women obstinately refuse to wear any clothes whatsoever of
+    skin or stuff, going into the woods every day, however, to get a
+    supple bough for a girdle, with, perhaps, a bundle of fine grass.
+    (Schweinfurth, <i>Heart of Africa</i>, vol. i, pp. 152, etc.)</p>
+
+<p>    Lombroso and Carrara, examining some Dinka negroes brought from
+    the White Nile, remark: &quot;As to their psychology, what struck us
+    first was the exaggeration of their modesty; not in a single case
+    would the men allow us to examine their genital organs or the
+    women their breasts; we examined the tattoo-marks on the chest of
+    one of the women, and she remained sad and irritable for two days
+    afterward.&quot; They add that in sexual and all other respects these
+    people are highly moral. (Lombroso and Carrara, <i>Archivio di
+    Psichiatria</i>, 1896, vol. xvii, fasc. 4.)</p><a name='1_Page_17'></a>
+
+<p>    &quot;The negro is very rarely knowingly indecent or addicted to
+    lubricity,&quot; says Sir H. H. Johnston. &quot;In this land of nudity,
+    which I have known for seven years, I do not remember once having
+    seen an indecent gesture on the part of either man or woman, and
+    only very rarely (and that not among unspoiled savages) in the
+    case of that most shameless member of the community&mdash;the little
+    boy.&quot; He adds that the native dances are only an apparent
+    exception, being serious in character, though indecent to our
+    eyes, almost constituting a religious ceremony. The only really
+    indecent dance indigenous to Central Africa &quot;is one which
+    originally represented the act of coition, but it is so altered
+    to a stereotyped formula that its exact purport is not obvious
+    until explained somewhat shyly by the natives.... It may safely
+    be asserted that the negro race in Central Africa is much more
+    truly modest, is much more free from real vice, than are most
+    European nations. Neither boys nor girls wear clothing (unless
+    they are the children of chiefs) until nearing the age of
+    puberty. Among the Wankonda, practically no covering is worn by
+    the men except a ring of brass wire around the stomach. The
+    Wankonda women are likewise almost entirely naked, but generally
+    cover the pudenda with a tiny bead-work apron, often a piece of
+    very beautiful workmanship, and exactly resembling the same
+    article worn by Kaffir women. A like degree of nudity prevails
+    among many of the Awemba, among the A-lungu, the Batumbuka, and
+    the Angoni. Most of the Angoni men, however, adopt the Zulu
+    fashion of covering the glans penis with a small wooden case or
+    the outer shell of a fruit. The Wa-Yao have a strong sense of
+    decency in matters of this kind, which is the more curious since
+    they are more given to obscenity in their rites, ceremonies, and
+    dances than any other tribe. Not only is it extremely rare to see
+    any Yao uncovered, but both men and women have the strongest
+    dislike to exposing their persons even to the inspection of a
+    doctor. The Atonga and many of the A-nyanga people, and all the
+    tribes west of Nyassa (with the exception possibly of the
+    A-lunda) have not the Yao regard for decency, and, although they
+    can seldom or ever be accused of a deliberate intention to expose
+    themselves, the men are relatively indifferent as to whether
+    their nakedness is or is not concealed, though the women are
+    modest and careful in this respect.&quot; (H. H. Johnston, <i>British
+    Central Africa</i>, 1897, pp. 408-419.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Azimba land, Central Africa, H. Crawford Angus, who has spent
+    many years in this part of Africa, writes: &quot;It has been my
+    experience that the more naked the people, and the more to us
+    obscene and shameless their manners and customs, the more moral
+    and strict they are in the matter of sexual intercourse.&quot; He
+    proceeds to give a description of the <i>chensamwali</i>, or
+    initiation ceremony of girls at puberty, a season of rejoicing
+    when the girl is initiated into all the secrets of marriage, amid
+    songs and dances referring to the act of <a name='1_Page_18'></a>coition. &quot;The whole
+    matter is looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing
+    to be ashamed of or to hide, and, being thus openly treated of
+    and no secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the
+    women are very virtuous. They know from the first all that is to
+    be known, and cannot see any reason for secrecy concerning
+    natural laws or the powers and senses that have been given them
+    from birth.&quot; (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479.)</p>
+
+<p>    Of the Monbuttu of Central Africa, another observer says: &quot;It is
+    surprising how a Monbuttu woman of birth can, without the aid of
+    dress, impress others with her dignity and modesty.&quot; (<i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>. June 14, 1890.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The women at Upoto wear no clothes whatever, and came up to us
+    in the most unreserved manner. An interesting gradation in the
+    arrangement of the female costume has been observed by us: as we
+    ascended the Congo, the higher up the river we found ourselves,
+    the higher the dress reached, till it has now, at last,
+    culminated in absolute nudity.&quot; (T. H. Parke, <i>My Personal
+    Experiences in Equatorial Africa</i>, 1891, p. 61.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;There exists throughout the Congo population a marked
+    appreciation of the sentiment of decency and shame as applied to
+    private actions,&quot; says Mr. Herbert Ward. In explanation of the
+    nudity of the women at Upoto, a chief remarked to Ward that
+    &quot;concealment is food for the inquisitive.&quot; (<i>Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute</i>, 1895, p. 293.)</p>
+
+<p>    In the Gold Coast and surrounding countries complete nudity is
+    extremely rare, except when circumstances make it desirable; on
+    occasion clothing is abandoned with unconcern. &quot;I have on several
+    occasions,&quot; says Dr. Freeman, &quot;seen women at Accra walk from the
+    beach, where they have been bathing, across the road to their
+    houses, where they would proceed to dry themselves, and resume
+    their garments; and women may not infrequently be seen bathing in
+    pools by the wayside, conversing quite unconstrainedly with their
+    male acquaintances, who are seated on the bank. The mere
+    unclothed body conveys to their minds no idea of indecency.
+    Immodesty and indelicacy of manner are practically unknown.&quot; He
+    adds that the excessive zeal of missionaries in urging their
+    converts to adopt European dress&mdash;which they are only too ready
+    to do&mdash;is much to be regretted, since the close-fitting, thin
+    garments are really less modest than the loose clothes they
+    replace, besides being much less cleanly. (R. A. Freeman, <i>Travels
+    and Life in Ashanti and Jaman</i>, 1898, p. 379.)</p>
+
+<p>    At Loango, says Pechuel-Loesche, &quot;the well-bred negress likes to
+    cover her bosom, and is sensitive to critical male eyes; if she
+    meets a European when without her overgarment, she instinctively,
+    though not without coquetry, takes the attitude of the Medicean
+    Venus.&quot; Men <a name='1_Page_19'></a>and women bathe separately, and hide themselves from
+    each other when naked. The women also exhibit shame when
+    discovered suckling their babies. (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>,
+    1878, pp. 27-31.)</p>
+
+<p>    The Koran (Sura XXIV) forbids showing the pudenda, as well as the
+    face, yet a veiled Mohammedan woman, Stern remarks, even in the
+    streets of Constantinople, will stand still and pull up her
+    clothes to scratch her private parts, and in Beyrout, he saw
+    Turkish prostitutes, still veiled, place themselves in the
+    position for coitus. (B. Stern, <i>Medizin, etc., in der T&uuml;rkei</i>,
+    vol. ii, p. 162.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;An Englishman surprised a woman while bathing in the Euphrates;
+    she held her hands over her face, without troubling as to what
+    else the stranger might see. In Egypt, I have myself seen quite
+    naked young peasant girls, who hastened to see us, after covering
+    their faces.&quot; (C. Niebuhr, <i>Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien</i>,
+    1774, vol. i, p. 165.)</p>
+
+<p>    When Helfer was taken to visit the ladies in the palace of the
+    Imam of Muskat, at Buscheir, he found that their faces were
+    covered with black masks, though the rest of the body might be
+    clothed in a transparent sort of crape; to look at a naked face
+    was very painful to the ladies themselves; even a mother never
+    lifts the mask from the face of her daughter after the age of
+    twelve; that is reserved for her lord and husband. &quot;I observed
+    that the ladies looked at me with a certain confusion, and after
+    they had glanced into my face, lowered their eyes, ashamed. On
+    making inquiries, I found that my uncovered face was indecent, as
+    a naked person would be to us. They begged me to assume a mask,
+    and when a waiting-woman had bound a splendidly decorated one
+    round my head, they all exclaimed: 'Tahip! tahip!'&mdash;beautiful,
+    beautiful.&quot; (J. W. Helfer, <i>Reisen in Vorderasian und Indien</i>,
+    vol. ii, p. 12.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Algeria&mdash;in the provinces of Constantine, in Biskra, even
+    Aures,&mdash;&quot;among the women especially, not one is restrained by any
+    modesty in unfastening her girdle to any comer&quot; (when a search
+    was being made for tattoo-marks on the lower extremities). &quot;In
+    spite of the great licentiousness of the manners,&quot; the same
+    writer continues, &quot;the Arab and the Kabyle possess great personal
+    modesty, and with difficulty are persuaded to exhibit the body
+    nude; is it the result of real modesty, or of their inveterate
+    habits of active pederasty? Whatever the cause, they always hide
+    the sexual organs with their hands or their handkerchiefs, and
+    are disagreeably affected even by the slightest touch of the
+    doctor.&quot; (Batut, <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, January
+    15, 1893.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Moslem modesty,&quot; remarks Wellhausen, &quot;was carried to great
+    lengths, insufficient clothing being forbidden. It was marked
+    even among the heathen Arabs, as among Semites and old
+    civilizations generally; <a name='1_Page_20'></a>we must not be deceived by the
+    occasional examples of immodesty in individual cases. The Sunna
+    prescribes that a man shall not uncover himself even to himself,
+    and shall not wash naked&mdash;from fear of God and of spirits; Job
+    did so, and atoned for it heavily. When in Arab antiquity
+    grown-up persons showed themselves naked, it was only under
+    extraordinary circumstances, and to attain unusual ends.... Women
+    when mourning uncovered not only the face and bosom, but also
+    tore all their garments. The messenger who brought bad news tore
+    his garments. A mother desiring to bring pressure to bear on her
+    son took off her clothes. A man to whom vengeance is forbidden
+    showed his despair and disapproval by uncovering his posterior
+    and strewing earth on his head, or by raising his garment behind
+    and covering his head with it. This was done also in fulfilling
+    natural necessities.&quot; (Wellhausen, <i>Reste Arabischen Heidentums</i>,
+    1897, pp. 173, 195-196.)</p>
+
+<p>    Mantegazza mentions that a Lapland woman refused even for the sum
+    of 150 francs to allow him to photograph her naked, though the
+    men placed themselves before the camera in the costume of Adam
+    for a much smaller sum. In the same book Mantegazza remarks that
+    in the eighteenth century, travelers found it extremely difficult
+    to persuade Samoyed women to show themselves naked. Among the
+    same people, he says, the newly-married wife must conceal her
+    face from her husband for two months after marriage, and only
+    then yield to his embraces. (Mantegazza, <i>La Donna</i>, cap. IV.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The beauty of a Chinese woman,&quot; says Dr. Matignon, &quot;resides
+    largely in her foot. 'A foot which is not deformed is a
+    dishonor,' says a poet. For the husband the foot is more
+    interesting than the face. Only the husband may see his wife's
+    foot naked. A Chinese woman is as reticent in showing her feet to
+    a man as a European woman her breasts. I have often had to treat
+    Chinese women with ridiculously small feet for wounds and
+    excoriations, the result of tight-bandaging. They exhibited the
+    prudishness of school-girls, blushed, turned their backs to
+    unfasten the bandages, and then concealed the foot in a cloth,
+    leaving only the affected part uncovered. Modesty is a question
+    of convention; Chinese have it for their feet,&quot; (J. Matignon, &quot;A
+    propos d'un Pied de Chinoise,&quot; <i>Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle</i>, 1898, p. 445.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Yakuts of Northeast Siberia, &quot;there was a well-known
+    custom according to which a bride should avoid showing herself or
+    her uncovered body to her father-in-law. In ancient times, they
+    say, a bride concealed herself for seven years from her
+    father-in-law, and from the brothers and other masculine
+    relations of her husband.... The men also tried not to meet her,
+    saying, 'The poor child will be ashamed.' If a meeting could not
+    be avoided the young woman put a mask on her <a name='1_Page_21'></a>face.... Nowadays,
+    the young wives only avoid showing to their male relatives-in-law
+    the uncovered body. Amongst the rich they avoid going about in
+    the presence of these in the chemise alone. In some places, they
+    lay especial emphasis on the fact that it is a shame for young
+    wives to show their uncovered hair and feet to the male relatives
+    of their husbands. On the other side, the male relatives of the
+    husband ought to avoid showing to the young wife the body
+    uncovered above the elbow or the sole of the foot, and they ought
+    to avoid indecent expressions and vulgar vituperations in her
+    presence.... That these observances are not the result of a
+    specially delicate modesty, is proved by the fact that even young
+    girls constantly twist thread upon the naked thigh, unembarrassed
+    by the presence of men who do not belong to the household; nor do
+    they show any embarrassment if a strange man comes upon them when
+    uncovered to the waist. The one thing which they do not like, and
+    at which they show anger, is that such persons look carefully at
+    their uncovered feet.... The former simplicity, with lack of
+    shame in uncovering the body, is disappearing.&quot; (Sieroshevski,
+    &quot;The Yakuts,&quot; <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>,
+    Jan.-June, 1901, p. 93.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In Japan (Captain &mdash;&mdash; tells me), the bathing-place of the women
+    was perfectly open (the shampooing, indeed, was done by a man),
+    and Englishmen were offered no obstacle, nor excited the least
+    repugnance; indeed, girls after their bath would freely pass,
+    sometimes as if holding out their hair for innocent admiration,
+    and this continued until countrymen of ours, by vile laughter and
+    jests, made them guard themselves from insult by secrecy. So
+    corruption spreads, and heathenism is blacker by our contact.&quot;
+    (Private communication.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Speaking once with a Japanese gentleman, I observed that we
+    considered it an act of indecency for men and women to wash
+    together. He shrugged his shoulders as he answered: 'But these
+    Westerns have such prurient minds!'&quot; (Mitford, <i>Tales of Old
+    Japan</i>, 1871.)</p>
+
+<p>    Dr. Carl Davidsohn, who remarks that he had ample opportunity of
+    noting the great beauty of the Japanese women in a national
+    dance, performed naked, points out that the Japanese have no
+    &aelig;sthetic sense for the nude. &quot;This was shown at the Jubilee
+    Exposition at Kyoto. Here, among many rooms full of art objects,
+    one was devoted to oil pictures in the European manner. Among
+    these only one represented a nude figure, a Psyche, or Truth. It
+    was the first time such a picture had been seen. Men and women
+    crowded around it. After they had gazed at it for a time, most
+    began to giggle and laugh; some by their air and gestures clearly
+    showed their disgust; all found that it was not &aelig;sthetic to paint
+    a naked woman, though in Nature, nakedness was in no way
+    offensive to them. In the middle of the same city, at a fountain
+    reputed to possess special virtues, men and women will stand
+    <a name='1_Page_22'></a>together naked and let the water run over them.&quot; (Carl
+    Davidsohn, &quot;Das Nackte bei den Japanern,&quot; <i>Globus</i>, 1896, No.
+    16.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;It is very difficult to investigate the hairiness of Ainu
+    women,&quot; Baelz remarks, &quot;for they possess a really incredible
+    degree of modesty. Even when in summer they bathe&mdash;which happens
+    but seldom&mdash;they keep their clothes on.&quot; He records that he was
+    once asked to examine a girl at the Mission School, in order to
+    advise as regards the treatment of a diseased spine; although she
+    had been at the school for seven years, she declared that &quot;she
+    would rather die than show her back to a man, even though a
+    doctor.&quot; (Baelz, &quot;Die Aino,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1901,
+    Heft 2, p. 178.)</p>
+
+<p>    The Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, appear to have been accustomed
+    to cover the foreskin with the <i>kynodesme</i> (a band), or the
+    <i>fibula</i> (a ring), for custom and modesty demanded that the glans
+    should be concealed. Such covering is represented in persons who
+    were compelled to be naked, and is referred to by Celsus as
+    &quot;decori caus&acirc;.&quot; (L. Stieda, &quot;Anatomisch-arch&auml;ologische Studien,&quot;
+    <i>Anatomische Hefte</i>, Bd. XIX, Heft 2, 1902.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Among the Lydians, and, indeed, among the barbarians generally,
+    it is considered a deep disgrace, even for a man, to be seen
+    naked.&quot; (Herodotus, Book I, Chapter X.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The simple dress which is now common was first worn in Sparta,
+    and there, more than anywhere else, the life of the rich was
+    assimilated to that of the people. The Laced&aelig;monians, too, were
+    the first who, in their athletic exercises, stripped naked and
+    rubbed themselves over with oil. This was not the ancient custom;
+    athletes formerly, even when they were contending at Olympia,
+    wore girdles about their loins [earlier still, the Mycen&aelig;ans had
+    always worn a loin-cloth], a practice which lasted until quite
+    lately, and still persists among barbarians, especially those of
+    Asia, where the combatants at boxing and wrestling matches wear
+    girdles.&quot; (Thucydides, <i>History</i>, Book I, Chapter VI.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The notion of the women exercising naked in the schools with the
+    men ... at the present day would appear truly ridiculous.... Not
+    long since it was thought discreditable and ridiculous among the
+    Greeks, as it is now among most barbarous nations, for men to be
+    seen naked. And when the Cretans first, and after them the
+    Laced&aelig;monians, began the practice of gymnastic exercises, the
+    wits of the time had it in their power to make sport of those
+    novelties.... As for the man who laughs at the idea of undressed
+    women going through gymnastic exercises, as a means of revealing
+    what is most perfect, his ridicule is but 'unripe fruit plucked
+    from the tree of wisdom.'&quot; (Plato, <i>Republic</i>, Book V.)</p>
+
+<p>    According to Plutarch, however, among the Spartans, at all
+    events, nakedness in women was not ridiculous, since the
+    institutes of Lycurgus <a name='1_Page_23'></a>ordained that at solemn feasts and
+    sacrifices the young women should dance naked and sing, the young
+    men standing around in a circle to see and hear them. Aristotle
+    says that in his time Spartan girls only wore a very slight
+    garment. As described by Pausanias, and as shown by a statue in
+    the Vatican, the ordinary tunic, which was the sole garment worn
+    by women when running, left bare the right shoulder and breast,
+    and only reached to the upper third of the thighs. (M. M. Evans,
+    <i>Chapters on Greek Dress</i>, p. 34.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Greeks who were inclined to accept the doctrines of
+    Cynicism, it was held that, while shame is not unreasonable, what
+    is good may be done and discussed before all men. There are a
+    number of authorities who say that Crates and Hipparchia
+    consummated their marriage in the presence of many spectators.
+    Lactantius (<i>Inst.</i> iii, 15) says that the practice was common,
+    but this Zeller is inclined to doubt. (Zeller, <i>Socrates and the
+    Socratic Schools</i>, translated from the Third German Edition,
+    1897.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Among the Tyrrhenians, who carry their luxury to an
+    extraordinary pitch, Tim&aelig;us, in his first book, relates that the
+    female servants wait on the men in a state of nudity. And
+    Theopompus, in the forty-third book of his <i>History</i>, states that
+    it is a law among the Tyrrhenians that all their women should be
+    in common; and that the women pay the greatest attention to their
+    persons, and often practice gymnastic exercises, naked, among the
+    men, and sometimes with one another; for that it is not accounted
+    shameful for them to be seen naked.... Nor is it reckoned among
+    the Tyrrhenians at all disgraceful either to do or suffer
+    anything in the open air, or to be seen while it is going on; for
+    it is quite the custom of their country, and they are so far from
+    thinking it disgraceful that they even say, when the master of
+    the house is indulging his appetite, and anyone asks for him,
+    that he is doing so and so, using the coarsest possible words....
+    And they are very beautiful, as is natural for people to be who
+    live delicately, and who take care of their persons.&quot; (Athen&aelig;us,
+    <i>Deipnosophists</i>, Yonge's translation, vol. iii, p. 829.)</p>
+
+<p>    Dennis throws doubt on the foregoing statement of Athen&aelig;us
+    regarding the Tyrrhenians or Etruscans, and points out that the
+    representations of women in Etruscan tombs shows them as clothed,
+    even the breast being rarely uncovered. Nudity, he remarks, was a
+    Greek, not an Etruscan, characteristic. &quot;To the nudity of the
+    Spartan women I need but refer; the Thessalian women are
+    described by Pers&aelig;us dancing at banquets naked, or with a very
+    scanty covering (<i>apud</i> Athen&aelig;us, xiii, c. 86). The maidens of
+    Chios wrestled naked with the youths in the gymnasium, which
+    Athen&aelig;us (xiii, 20) pronounces to be 'a beautiful sight.' And at
+    the marriage feast of Caranus, the Macedonian women <a name='1_Page_24'></a>tumblers
+    performed naked before the guests (Athen&aelig;us, iv, 3).&quot; (G. Dennis,
+    <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, 1883, vol. i, p. 321.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Rome, &quot;when there was at first much less freedom in this
+    matter than in Greece, the bath became common to both sexes, and
+    though each had its basin and hot room apart, they could see each
+    other, meet, speak, form intrigues, arrange meetings, and
+    multiply adulteries. At first, the baths were so dark that men
+    and women could wash side by side, without recognizing each other
+    except by the voice; but soon the light of day was allowed to
+    enter from every side. 'In the bath of Scipio,' said Seneca,
+    'there were narrow ventholes, rather than windows, hardly
+    admitting enough light to outrage modesty; but nowadays, baths
+    are called caves if they do not receive the sun's rays through
+    large windows.' ... Hadrian severely prohibited this mingling of
+    men and women, and ordained separate lavaera for the sexes.
+    Marcus Aurelius and Alexander Severus renewed this edict, but in
+    the interval, Heliogabalus had authorized the sexes to meet in
+    the baths.&quot; (Dufour, <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>, vol. ii, Ch.
+    XVIII; <i>cf.</i> Smith's <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>,
+    Art. Balne&aelig;.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Rome, according to ancient custom, actors were compelled to
+    wear drawers (<i>subligaculum</i>) on the stage, in order to safeguard
+    the modesty of Roman matrons. Respectable women, it seems, also
+    always wore some sort of <i>subligaculum</i>, even sometimes when
+    bathing. The name was also applied to a leathern girdle laced
+    behind, which they were occasionally made to wear as a girdle of
+    chastity. (Dufour, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 150.) Greek women also
+    wore a cloth round the loins when taking the bath, as did the men
+    who bathed there; and a woman is represented bathing and wearing
+    a sort of thin combinations reaching to the middle of the thigh.
+    (Smith's <i>Dictionary</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>) At a later period, St.
+    Augustine refers to the <i>compestria</i>, the drawers or apron worn
+    by young men who stripped for exercise in the <i>campus</i>. (<i>De
+    Civitate Dei</i>, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII.)</p>
+
+<p>    Lecky (<i>History of Morals</i>, vol. ii, p. 318), brings together
+    instances of women, in both Pagan and early Christian times, who
+    showed their modesty by drawing their garments around them, even
+    at the moment that they were being brutally killed. Plutarch, in
+    his essay on the &quot;Virtues of Women,&quot;&mdash;moralizing on the
+    well-known story of the young women of Milesia, among whom an
+    epidemic of suicide was only brought to an end by the decree that
+    in future women who hanged themselves should be carried naked
+    through the market-places,&mdash;observes: &quot;They, who had no dread of
+    the most terrible things in the world, death and pain, could not
+    abide the imagination of dishonor, and exposure to shame, even
+    after death.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In the second century the physician Aret&aelig;us, writing at Rome,
+    remarks: &quot;In many cases, owing to involuntary restraint from
+    modesty <a name='1_Page_25'></a>at assemblies, and at banquets, the bladder becomes
+    distended, and from the consequent loss of its contractile power,
+    it no longer evacuates the urine.&quot; (<i>On the Causes and Symptoms
+    of Acute Diseases</i>, Book II, Chapter X.)</p>
+
+<p>    Apuleius, writing in the second century, says: &quot;Most women, in
+    order to exhibit their native gracefulness and allurements,
+    divest themselves of all their garments, and long to show their
+    naked beauty, being conscious that they shall please more by the
+    rosy redness of their skin than by the golden splendor of their
+    robes.&quot; (Thomas Taylor's translation of <i>Metamorphosis</i>, p. 28.)</p>
+
+<p>    Christianity seems to have profoundly affected habits of thought
+    and feeling by uniting together the merely natural emotion of
+    sexual reserve with, on the one hand, the masculine virtue of
+    modesty&mdash;<i>modestia</i>&mdash;and, on the other, the prescription of
+    sexual abstinence. Tertullian admirably illustrates this
+    confusion, and his treatises <i>De Pudicitia</i> and <i>De Cultu
+    Feminarum</i> are instructive from the present point of view. In the
+    latter he remarks (Book II, Chapter I): &quot;Salvation&mdash;and not of
+    women only, but likewise of men&mdash;consists in the exhibition,
+    principally, of modesty. Since we are all the temple of God,
+    modesty is the sacristan and priestess of that temple, who is to
+    suffer nothing unclean or profane to enter it, for fear that the
+    God who inhabits it should be offended.... Most women, either
+    from simple ignorance or from dissimulation, have the hardihood
+    so to walk as if modesty consisted only in the integrity of the
+    flesh, and in turning away from fornication, and there were no
+    need for anything else,&mdash;in dress and ornament, the studied
+    graces of form,&mdash;wearing in their gait the self-same appearance
+    as the women of the nations from whom the sense of <i>true</i> modesty
+    is absent.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The earliest Christian ideal of modesty, not long maintained, is
+    well shown in an epistle which, there is some reason to suppose,
+    was written by Clement of Rome. &quot;And if we see it to be requisite
+    to stand and pray for the sake of the woman, and to speak words
+    of exhortation and edification, we call the brethren and all the
+    holy sisters and maidens, likewise all the other women who are
+    there, with all modesty and becoming behavior, to come and feast
+    on the truth. And those among us who are skilled in speaking,
+    speak to them, and exhort them in those words which God has given
+    us. And then we pray, and salute one another, the men the men.
+    But the women and the maidens will wrap their hands in their
+    garments; we also, with circumspection and with all purity, our
+    eyes looking upward, shall wrap our right hand in our garments;
+    and then they will come and give us the salutation on our right
+    hand, wrapped in our garments. Then we go where God permits us.&quot;
+    (<i>Two Epistles Concerning Virginity</i>; Second Epistle, Chapter
+    III, vol. xiv. Ante-Nicene Christian Library, p. 384.)</p><a name='1_Page_26'></a>
+
+<p>    &quot;Women will scarce strip naked before their own husbands,
+    affecting a plausible pretense of modesty,&quot; writes Clement of
+    Alexandria, about the end of the second century, &quot;but any others
+    who wish may see them at home, shut up in their own baths, for
+    they are not ashamed to strip before spectators, as if exposing
+    their persons for sale. The baths are opened promiscuously to men
+    and women; and there they strip for licentious indulgence (for,
+    from looking, men get to loving), as if their modesty had been
+    washed away in the bath. Those who have not become utterly
+    destitute of modesty shut out strangers, but bathe with their own
+    servants, and strip naked before their slaves, and are rubbed by
+    them, giving to the crouching menial liberty to lust, by
+    permitting fearless handling, for those who are introduced before
+    their naked mistresses while in the bath, study to strip
+    themselves in order to show audacity in lust, casting off fear in
+    consequence of the wicked custom. The ancient athletes, ashamed
+    to exhibit a man naked, preserved their modesty by going through
+    the contest in drawers; but these women, divesting themselves of
+    their modesty along with their chemise, wish to appear beautiful,
+    but, contrary to their wish, are simply proved to be wicked.&quot;
+    (Clement of Alexandria, <i>P&aelig;dagogus</i>, Book III, Chapter V. For
+    elucidations of this passage, see Migne's <i>Patrologi&aelig; Cursus
+    Completus</i>, vol. vii.) Promiscuous bathing was forbidden by the
+    early Apostolical Constitutions, but Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage,
+    found it necessary, in the third century, to upbraid even virgins
+    vowed to chastity for continuing the custom. &quot;What of those,&quot; he
+    asks, &quot;who frequent baths, who prostitute to eyes that are
+    curious to lust, bodies that are dedicated to chastity and
+    modesty? They who disgracefully behold naked men, and are seen
+    naked by men? Do they not themselves afford enticement to vice?
+    Do they not solicit and invite the desires of those present to
+    their own corruption and wrong? 'Let every one,' say you, 'look
+    to the disposition with which he comes thither: my care is only
+    that of refreshing and washing my poor body.' That kind of
+    defence does not clear you, nor does it excuse the crime of
+    lasciviousness and wantonness. Such a washing defiles; it does
+    not purify nor cleanse the limbs, but stains them. You behold no
+    one immodestly, but you, yourself, are gazed upon immodestly; you
+    do not pollute your eyes with disgraceful delight, but in
+    delighting others you yourself are polluted; you make a show of
+    the bathing-place; the places where you assemble are fouler than
+    a theatre. There all modesty is put off; together with the
+    clothing of garments, the honor and modesty of the body is laid
+    aside, virginity is exposed, to be pointed at and to be
+    handled.... Let your baths be performed with women, whose
+    behavior is modest towards you.&quot; (Cyprian, <i>De Habitu Virginum</i>,
+    cap. 19, 21.) The Church carried the same spirit among the
+    barbarians of northern Europe, and several centuries later the
+    promiscuous <a name='1_Page_27'></a>bathing of men and women was prohibited in some of
+    the Penitentials. (The custom was, however, preserved here and
+    there in Northern Europe, even to the end of the eighteenth
+    century, or later. In Rudeck's <i>Geschichte der &ouml;ffentlichen
+    Sittlichkeit in Deutschland</i>, an interesting chapter, with
+    contemporary illustrations, is devoted to this custom; also, Max
+    Bauer, <i>Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen Vergangenheit</i>, pp.
+    216-265.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Women,&quot; says Clement again, &quot;should not seek to be graceful by
+    avoiding broad drinking vessels that oblige them to stretch their
+    mouths, in order to drink from narrow alabastra that cause them
+    indecently to throw back the head, revealing to men their necks
+    and breasts. The mere thought of what she is ought to inspire a
+    woman with modesty.... On no account must a woman be permitted to
+    show to a man any portion of her body naked, for fear lest both
+    fall: the one by gazing eagerly, the other by delighting to
+    attract those eager glances.&quot; (<i>P&aelig;dagogus</i>, Book II, Chapter V.)</p>
+
+<p>    James, Bishop of Nisibis, in the fourth century, was a man of
+    great holiness. We are told by Thedoret that once, when James had
+    newly come into Persia, it was vouchsafed to him to perform a
+    miracle under the following circumstances: He chanced to pass by
+    a fountain where young women were washing their linen, and, his
+    modesty being profoundly shocked by the exposure involved in this
+    occupation, he cursed the fountain, which instantly dried up, and
+    he changed the hair of the girls from black to a sandy color.
+    (Jortin, <i>Remarks on Ecclesiastical History</i>, vol. iii, p. 4.)</p>
+
+<p>    Procopius, writing in the sixth century after Christ, and
+    narrating how the Empress Theodora, in early life, would often
+    appear almost naked before the public in the theatre, adds that
+    she would willingly have appeared altogether nude, but that &quot;no
+    woman is allowed to expose herself altogether, unless she wears
+    at least short drawers over the lower part of the abdomen.&quot;
+    Chrysostom mentions, at the end of the fourth century, that
+    Arcadius attempted to put down the August festival (Majuma),
+    during which women appeared naked in the theatres, or swimming in
+    large baths.</p>
+
+<p>    In medi&aelig;val days, &quot;ladies, at all events, as represented by the
+    poets, were not, on the whole, very prudish. Meleranz surprised a
+    lady who was taking a bath under a lime tree; the bath was
+    covered with samite, and by it was a magnificent ivory bed,
+    surrounded by tapestries representing the history of Paris and
+    Helen, the destruction of Troy, the adventures of &AElig;neas, etc. As
+    Meleranz rides by, the lady's waiting-maids run away; she
+    herself, however, with quick decision, raises the samite which
+    covers the tub, and orders him to wait on her in place of the
+    maids. He brings her shift and mantle, and shoes, and then stands
+    aside till she is dressed; when she has placed herself on the
+    bed, <a name='1_Page_28'></a>she calls him back and commands him to drive away the flies
+    while she sleeps. Strange to say, the men are represented as more
+    modest than the women. When two maidens prepared a bath for
+    Parzival, and proposed to bathe him, according to custom, the
+    inexperienced young knight was shy, and would not enter the bath
+    until they had gone; on another occasion, he jumped quickly into
+    bed when the maidens entered the room. When Wolfdieterich was
+    about to undress, he had to ask the ladies who pressed around him
+    to leave him alone for a short time, as he was ashamed they
+    should see him naked. When Amphons of Spain, bewitched by his
+    step-mother into a were-wolf, was at last restored, and stood
+    suddenly naked before her, he was greatly ashamed. The maiden who
+    healed Iwein was tender of his modesty. In his love-madness, the
+    hero wanders for a time naked through the wood; three women find
+    him asleep, and send a waiting-maid to annoint him with salve;
+    when he came to himself, the maiden hid herself. On the whole,
+    however, the ladies were not so delicate; they had no hesitation
+    in bathing with gentlemen, and on these occasions would put their
+    finest ornaments on their heads. I know no pictures of the
+    twelfth and thirteenth centuries representing such a scene, but
+    such baths in common are clearly represented in miniatures of the
+    fifteenth century.&quot; (A. Schultz, <i>Das H&ouml;fische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnes&auml;nger</i>, vol. i, p. 225.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In the years 1450-70, the use of the cod-piece was introduced,
+    whereby the attributes of manhood were accentuated in the most
+    shameless manner. It was, in fact, the avowed aim at that period
+    to attract attention to these parts. The cod-piece was sometimes
+    colored differently from the rest of the garments, often stuffed
+    out to enlarge it artificially, and decorated with ribbons.&quot;
+    (Rudeck, <i>Geschichte der &ouml;ffentlichen Sittlichkeit in
+    Deutschland</i>, pp. 45-48; Dufour, <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>,
+    vol. vi, pp. 21-23. Groos refers to the significance of this
+    fashion, <i>Spiele der Menschen</i>, p. 337.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The first shirt began to be worn [in Germany] in the sixteenth
+    century. From this fact, as well as from the custom of public
+    bathing, we reach the remarkable result, that for the German
+    people, the sight of complete nakedness was the daily rule up to
+    the sixteenth century. Everyone undressed completely before going
+    to bed, and, in the vapor-baths, no covering was used. Again, the
+    dances, both of the peasants and the townspeople, were
+    characterized by very high leaps into the air. It was the chief
+    delight of the dancers for the male to raise his partner as high
+    as possible in the air, so that her dress flew up. That feminine
+    modesty was in this respect very indifferent, we know from
+    countless references made in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+    centuries. It must not be forgotten that throughout the middle
+    ages women wore no underclothes, and even in the seventeenth
+    century, the wearing of drawers by Italian women was regarded as
+    singular. That with the disappearance <a name='1_Page_29'></a>of the baths, and the use
+    of body-linen, a powerful influence was exerted on the creation
+    of modesty, there can be little doubt.&quot; (Rudeck, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp.
+    57, 399, etc.)</p>
+
+<p>    In 1461, when Louis XI entered Paris, three very beautiful
+    maidens, quite naked, represented the Syrens, and declaimed poems
+    before him; they were greatly admired by the public. In 1468,
+    when Charles the Bold entered Lille, he was specially pleased,
+    among the various festivities, with a representation of the
+    Judgment of Paris, in which the three goddesses were nude. When
+    Charles the Fifth entered Antwerp, the most beautiful maidens of
+    the city danced before him, in nothing but gauze, and were
+    closely contemplated by D&uuml;rer, as he told his friend, Melancthon.
+    (B. Ritter, &quot;Nudit&auml;ten im Mittelalter,&quot; <i>Jahrb&uuml;cher f&uuml;r
+    Wissenschaft und Kunst</i>, 1855, p. 227; this writer shows how
+    luxury, fashion, poverty, and certain festivals, all combined to
+    make nudity familiar; <i>cf.</i> Fahne, <i>Der Carneval</i>, p. 249.
+    Dulaure quotes many old writers concerning the important part
+    played by nude persons in ancient festivals, <i>Des Divinit&eacute;s
+    G&eacute;n&eacute;ratrices</i>, Chapter XIV.)</p>
+
+<p>    Passek, a Polish officer who wrote an account of his campaigns,
+    admired the ladies of Denmark in 1658, but considered their
+    customs immodest. &quot;Everyone sleeps naked as at birth, and none
+    consider it shameful to dress or undress before others. No
+    notice, even, is taken of the guest, and in the light one garment
+    is taken off after another, even the chemise is hung on the hook.
+    Then the door is bolted, the light blown out, and one goes to
+    bed. As we blamed their ways, saying that among us a woman would
+    not act so, even in the presence of her husband alone, they
+    replied that they knew nothing of such shame, and that there was
+    no need to be ashamed of limbs which God had created. Moreover,
+    to sleep without a shift was good, because, like the other
+    garments, it sufficiently served the body during the day. Also,
+    why take fleas and other insects to bed with one? Although our
+    men teased them in various ways, they would not change their
+    habits.&quot; (Passek, <i>Denkw&uuml;rdigkeiten</i>, German translation, p. 14.)</p>
+
+<p>    Until late in the seventeenth century, women in England, as well
+    as France, suffered much in childbirth from the ignorance and
+    superstition of incompetent midwives, owing to the prevailing
+    conceptions of modesty, which rendered it impossible (as it is
+    still, to some extent, in some semi-civilized lands) for male
+    physicians to attend them. Dr. Willoughby, of Derby, tells how,
+    in 1658, he had to creep into the chamber of a lying-in woman on
+    his hands and knees, in order to examine her unperceived. In
+    France, Clement was employed secretly to attend the mistresses of
+    Louis XIV in their confinements; to the first he was conducted
+    blindfold, while the King was concealed among the bed-curtains,
+    and the face of the lady was enveloped in a network of lace.<a name='1_Page_30'></a> (E.
+    Malins, &quot;Midwifery and Midwives,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, June
+    22, 1901; Witkowski, <i>Histoire des Accouchements</i>, 1887, pp. 689
+    <i>et seq.</i>) Even until the Revolution, the examination of women in
+    France in cases of rape or attempted outrage was left to a jury
+    of matrons. In old English manuals of midwifery, even in the
+    early nineteenth century, we still find much insistence on the
+    demands of modesty. Thus, Dr. John Burns, of Glasgow, in his
+    <i>Principles of Midwifery</i>, states that &quot;some women, from motives
+    of false delicacy, are averse from examination until the pains
+    become severe.&quot; He adds that &quot;it is usual for the room to be
+    darkened, and the bed-curtains drawn close, during an
+    examination.&quot; Many old pictures show the accoucheur groping in
+    the dark, beneath the bed-clothes, to perform operations on women
+    in childbirth. (A. Kind, &quot;Das Weib als Geb&auml;rerin in der Kunst,&quot;
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. II, Heft 5, p. 203.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Iceland, Winkler stated in 1861 that he sometimes slept in the
+    same room as a whole family; &quot;it is often the custom for ten or
+    more persons to use the same room for living in and sleeping,
+    young and old, master and servant, male and female, and from
+    motives of economy, all the clothes, without exception, are
+    removed.&quot; (G. Winkler, <i>Island; seine Bewohner</i>, etc., pp. 107,
+    110.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;At Cork,&quot; saye Fynes Moryson, in 1617, &quot;I have seen with these
+    eyes young maids stark naked grinding corn with certain stones to
+    make cakes thereof.&quot; (Moryson, <i>Itinerary</i>, Part 3, Book III,
+    Chapter V.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In the more remote parts of Ireland,&quot; Moryson elsewhere says,
+    where the English laws and manners are unknown, &quot;the very chief
+    of the Irish, men as well as women, go naked in very winter-time,
+    only having their privy parts covered with a rag of linen, and
+    their bodies with a loose mantle. This I speak of my own
+    experience.&quot; He goes on to tell of a Bohemian baron, just come
+    from the North of Ireland, who &quot;told me in great earnestness that
+    he, coming to the house of Ocane, a great lord among them, was
+    met at the door with sixteen women, all naked, excepting their
+    loose mantles; whereof eight or ten were very fair, and two
+    seemed very nymphs, with which strange sight, his eyes being
+    dazzled, they led him into the house, and then sitting down by
+    the fire with crossed legs, like tailors, and so low as could not
+    but offend chaste eyes, desired him to sit down with them. Soon
+    after, Ocane, the lord of the country, came in, all naked
+    excepting a loose mantle, and shoes, which he put off as soon as
+    he came in, and entertaining the baron after his best manner in
+    the Latin tongue, desired him to put off his apparel, which he
+    thought to be a burthen to him, and to sit naked by the fire with
+    this naked company. But the baron... for shame, durst not put off
+    his apparel.&quot; (<i>Ib.</i> Part 3, Book IV, Chapter II.)</p>
+
+<p>    Coryat, when traveling in Italy in the early part of the
+    seventeenth <a name='1_Page_31'></a>century, found that in Lombardy many of the women
+    and children wore only smocks, or shirts, in the hot weather. At
+    Venice and Padua, he found that wives, widows, and maids, walk
+    with naked breasts, many with backs also naked, almost to the
+    middle. (Coryat, <i>Crudities</i>, 1611. The fashion of <i>d&eacute;collet&eacute;</i>
+    garments, it may be remarked, only began in the fourteenth
+    century; previously, the women of Europe generally covered
+    themselves up to the neck.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Northern Italy, some years ago, a fire occurred at night in a
+    house in which two girls were sleeping, naked, according to the
+    custom. One threw herself out and was saved, the other returned
+    for a garment, and was burnt to death. The narrator of the
+    incident [a man] expressed strong approval of the more modest
+    girl's action. (Private communication.) It may be added that the
+    custom of sleeping naked is still preserved, also (according to
+    Lippert and Stratz), in Jutland, in Iceland, in some parts of
+    Norway, and sometimes even in Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>    Lady Mary Wortley Montague writes in 1717, of the Turkish ladies
+    at the baths at Sophia: &quot;The first sofas were covered with
+    cushions and rich carpets, on which sat the ladies, and on the
+    second, their slaves behind them, but without any distinction of
+    rank in their dress, all being in a state of Nature; that is, in
+    plain English, stark naked, without any beauty or defect
+    concealed. Yet there was not the least wanton smile or immodest
+    gesture among them. They walked and moved with the same majestic
+    grace which Milton describes of our general mother. I am here
+    convinced of the truth of a reflection I had often made, that if
+    it was the fashion to go naked, the face would be hardly
+    observed.&quot; (<i>Letters and Works</i>, 1866, vol. i, p. 285.)</p>
+
+<p>    At St. Petersburg, in 1774, Sir Nicholas Wraxall observed &quot;the
+    promiscuous bathing of not less than two hundred persons, of both
+    sexes. There are several of these public bagnios,&quot; he adds, &quot;in
+    Petersburg, and every one pays a few copecks for admittance.
+    There are, indeed, separate spaces for the men and women, but
+    they seem quite regardless of this distinction, and sit or bathe
+    in a state of absolute nudity among each other.&quot; (Sir N. Wraxall,
+    <i>A Tour Through Some of the Northern Parts of Europe</i>, 3d ed.,
+    1776, p. 248.) It is still usual for women in the country parts
+    of Russia to bathe naked in the streams.</p>
+
+<p>    In 1790, Wedgwood wrote to Flaxman: &quot;The nude is so general in
+    the work of the ancients, that it will be very difficult to avoid
+    the introduction of naked figures. On the other hand, it is
+    absolutely necessary to do so, or to keep the pieces for our own
+    use; for none, either male or female, of the present generation
+    will take or apply them as furniture if the figures are naked.&quot;
+    (Meteyard, <i>Life of Wedgwood</i>, vol. ii, p. 589.)</p>
+
+<p>    Mary Wollstonecraft quotes (for reprobation and not for
+    approval)<a name='1_Page_32'></a> the following remarks: &quot;The lady who asked the
+    question whether women may be instructed in the modern system of
+    botany, was accused of ridiculous prudery; nevertheless, if she
+    had proposed the question to me, I should certainly have
+    answered: 'They cannot!'&quot; She further quotes from an educational
+    book: &quot;It would be needless to caution you against putting your
+    hand, by chance, under your neck-handkerchief; for a modest woman
+    never did so.&quot; (Mary Wollstonecraft, <i>The Rights of Woman</i>, 1792,
+    pp. 277, 289.)</p>
+
+<p>    At the present time a knowledge of the physiology of plants is
+    not usually considered inconsistent with modesty, but a knowledge
+    of animal physiology is still so considered by many. Dr. H. R.
+    Hopkins, of New York, wrote in 1895, regarding the teaching of
+    physiology: &quot;How can we teach growing girls the functions of the
+    various parts of the human body, and still leave them their
+    modesty? That is the practical question that has puzzled me for
+    years.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In England, the use of drawers was almost unknown among women
+    half a century ago, and was considered immodest and unfeminine.
+    Tilt, a distinguished gynecologist of that period, advocated such
+    garments, made of fine calico, and not to descend below the knee,
+    on hygienic grounds. &quot;Thus understood,&quot; he added, &quot;the adoption
+    of drawers will doubtless become more general in this country,
+    as, being worn without the knowledge of the general observer,
+    they will be robbed of the prejudice usually attached to an
+    appendage deemed masculine.&quot; (Tilt, <i>Elements of Health</i>, 1852,
+    p. 193.) Drawers came into general use among women during the
+    third quarter of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>    Drawers are an Oriental garment, and seem to have reached Europe
+    through Venice, the great channel of communication with the East.
+    Like many other refinements of decency and cleanliness, they were
+    at first chiefly cultivated by prostitutes, and, on this account,
+    there was long a prejudice against them. Even at the present day,
+    it is said that in France, a young peasant girl will exclaim, if
+    asked whether she wears drawers: &quot;I wear drawers, Madame? A
+    respectable girl!&quot; Drawers, however, quickly became acclimatized
+    in France, and Dufour (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. vi, p. 28) even regards
+    them as essentially a French garment. They were introduced at the
+    Court towards the end of the fourteenth century, and in the
+    sixteenth century were rendered almost necessary by the new
+    fashion of the <i>vertugale</i>, or farthingale. In 1615, a lady's
+    <i>cale&ccedil;ons</i> are referred to as apparently an ordinary garment. It
+    is noteworthy that in London, in the middle of the same century,
+    young Mrs. Pepys, who was the daughter of French parents, usually
+    wore drawers, which were seemingly of the closed kind. (<i>Diary</i>
+    of S. Pepys, ed. Wheatley, May 15, 1663, vol. iii.) They were
+    probably not worn by Englishwomen, and even in France, with the
+    decay of the farthingale, they seem to have dropped out of use
+    during the seventeenth <a name='1_Page_33'></a>century. In a technical and very complete
+    book, <i>L'Art de la Lingerie</i>, published in 1771, women's drawers
+    are not even mentioned, and Mercier (<i>Tableau de Paris</i>, 1783,
+    vol. vii, p. 54) says that, except actresses, Parisian women do
+    not wear drawers. Even by ballet dancers and actresses on the
+    stage, they were not invariably worn. Camargo, the famous dancer,
+    who first shortened the skirt in dancing, early in the eighteenth
+    century, always observed great decorum, never showing the leg
+    above the knee; when appealed to as to whether she wore drawers,
+    she replied that she could not possibly appear without such a
+    &quot;precaution.&quot; But they were not necessarily worn by dancers, and
+    in 1727 a young <i>ballerina</i>, having had her skirt accidentally
+    torn away by a piece of stage machinery, the police issued an
+    order that in future no actress or dancer should appear on the
+    stage without drawers; this regulation does not appear, however,
+    to have been long strictly maintained, though Schulz (<i>Ueber
+    Paris und die Pariser</i>, p. 145) refers to it as in force in 1791.
+    (The obscure origin and history of feminine drawers have been
+    discussed from time to time in the <i>Interm&eacute;diaire des Chercheurs
+    et Curieux</i>, especially vols. xxv, lii, and liii.)</p>
+
+<p>    Prof. Irving Rosse, of Washington, refers to &quot;New England
+    prudishness,&quot; and &quot;the colossal modesty of some New York
+    policemen, who in certain cases want to give written, rather than
+    oral testimony.&quot; He adds: &quot;I have known this sentiment carried to
+    such an extent in a Massachusetts small town, that a shop-keeper
+    was obliged to drape a small, but innocent, statuette displayed
+    in his window.&quot; (Irving Rosse, <i>Virginia Medical Monthly</i>,
+    October, 1892.) I am told that popular feeling in South Africa
+    would not permit the exhibition of the nude in the Art
+    Collections of Cape Town. Even in Italy, nude statues are
+    disfigured by the addition of tin fig-leaves, and sporadic
+    manifestations of horror at the presence of nude statues, even
+    when of most classic type, are liable to occur in all parts of
+    Europe, including France and Germany. (Examples of this are
+    recorded from time to time in <i>Sexual-reform</i>, published as an
+    appendix to <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>    Some years ago, (1898), it was stated that the Philadelphia
+    <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i> had decided to avoid, in future, all
+    reference to ladies' under-linen, because &quot;the treatment of this
+    subject in print calls for <i>minuti&aelig;</i> of detail which is extremely
+    and pardonably offensive to refined and sensitive women.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;A man, married twenty years, told me that he had never seen his
+    wife entirely nude. Such concealment of the external reproductive
+    organs, by married people, appears to be common. Judging from my
+    own inquiry, very few women care to look upon male nakedness, and
+    many women, though not wanting in esthetic feeling, find no
+    beauty in man's form. Some are positively repelled by the sight
+    of nakedness, even that of a husband or lover. On the contrary,
+    most men delight in <a name='1_Page_34'></a>gazing upon the uncovered figure of women.
+    It seems that only highly-cultivated and imaginative women enjoy
+    the spectacle of a finely-shaped nude man (especially after
+    attending art classes, and drawing from the nude, as I am told by
+    a lady artist). Or else the majority of women dissemble their
+    curiosity or admiration. A woman of seventy, mother of several
+    children, said to a young wife with whom I am acquainted: 'I have
+    never seen a naked man in my life.' This old lady's sister
+    confessed that she had never looked at <i>her own</i> nakedness in the
+    whole course of her life. She said that it 'frightened' her. She
+    was the mother of three sons. A maiden woman of the same family
+    told her niece that women were 'disgusting, because they have
+    monthly discharges.' The niece suggested that women have no
+    choice in the matter, to which the aunt replied: 'I know that;
+    but it doesn't make them less disgusting,' I have heard of a girl
+    who died from h&aelig;morrhage of the womb, refusing, through shame, to
+    make the ailment known to her family. The misery suffered by some
+    women at the anticipation of a medical examination, appears to be
+    very acute. Husbands have told me of brides who sob and tremble
+    with fright on the wedding-night, the hysteria being sometimes
+    alarming. E, aged 25, refused her husband for six weeks after
+    marriage, exhibiting the greatest fear of his approach. Ignorance
+    of the nature of the sexual connection is often the cause of
+    exaggerated alarm. In Jersey, I used to hear of a bride who ran
+    to the window and screamed 'murder,' on the wedding-night.&quot;
+    (Private communication.)</p>
+
+<p>    At the present day it is not regarded as incompatible with
+    modesty to exhibit the lower part of the thigh when in swimming
+    costume, but it is immodest to exhibit the upper part of the
+    thigh. In swimming competitions, a minimum of clothing must be
+    combined with the demands of modesty. In England, the regulations
+    of the Swimming Clubs affiliated to the Amateur Swimming
+    Association, require that the male swimmer's costume shall extend
+    not less than eight inches from the bifurcation downward, and
+    that the female swimmer's costume shall extend to within not more
+    than three inches from the knee. (A prolonged discussion, we are
+    told, arose as to whether the costume should come to one, two, or
+    three inches from the knee, and the proposal of the youngest lady
+    swimmer present, that the costume ought to be very scanty, met
+    with little approval.) The modesty of women is thus seen to be
+    greater than that of men by, roughly speaking, about two inches.
+    The same difference may be seen in the sleeves; the male sleeve
+    must extend for two inches, the female sleeve four inches, down
+    the arm. (Daily Papers, September 26, 1898.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;At &mdash;&mdash;, bathing in a state of Nature was <i>de rigueur</i> for the
+    <i>&eacute;lite</i> of the bathers, while our Sunday visitors from the slums
+    frequently made a great point of wearing bathing costumes; it was
+    frequently noticed that those who were most anxious to avoid
+    exposing their persons <a name='1_Page_35'></a>were distinguished by the foulness of
+    their language. My impression was that their foul-mindedness
+    deprived them of the consciousness of safety from coarse jests.
+    If I were bathing alone among blackguards, I should probably feel
+    uncomfortable myself, if without costume.&quot; (Private
+    communication.)</p>
+
+<p>    A lady in a little city of the south of Italy, told Paola
+    Lombroso that young middle-class girls there are not allowed to
+    go out except to Mass, and cannot even show themselves at the
+    window except under their mother's eye; yet they do not think it
+    necessary to have a cabin when sea-bathing, and even dispense
+    with a bathing costume without consciousness of immodesty. (P.
+    Lombroso, <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, 1901, p. 306.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;A woman mentioned to me that a man came to her and told her in
+    confidence his distress of mind: he feared he had <i>corrupted</i> his
+    wife because she got into a bath in his presence, with her baby,
+    and enjoyed his looking at her splashing about. He was deeply
+    distressed, thinking he must have done her harm, and destroyed
+    her modesty. The woman to whom this was said felt naturally
+    indignant, but also it gave her the feeling as if every man may
+    secretly despise a woman for the very things he teaches her, and
+    only meets her confiding delight with regret or dislike.&quot;
+    (Private communication.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Women will occasionally be found to hide diseases and symptoms
+    from a bashfulness and modesty so great and perverse as to be
+    hardly credible,&quot; writes Dr. W. Wynn Westcott, an experienced
+    coroner. &quot;I have known several cases of female deaths, reported
+    as sudden, and of cause unknown, when the medical man called in
+    during the latter hours of life has been quite unaware that his
+    lady patient was dying of gangrene of a strangulated femoral
+    hernia, or was bleeding to death from the bowel, or from ruptured
+    varices of the vulva.&quot; (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Feb. 29,
+    1908.)</p>
+
+<p>    The foregoing selection of facts might, of course, be
+    indefinitely enlarged, since I have not generally quoted from any
+    previous collection of facts bearing on the question of modesty.
+    Such collections may be found in Ploss and Max Bartels <i>Das
+    Weib</i>, a work that is constantly appearing in new and enlarged
+    editions; Herbert Spencer, <i>Descriptive Sociology</i> (especially
+    under such headings as &quot;Clothing,&quot; &quot;Moral Sentiments,&quot; and
+    &quot;&AElig;sthetic Products&quot;); W. G. Sumner, <i>Folkways</i>, Ch. XI;
+    Mantegazza, <i>Amori degli Uomini</i>, Chapter II; Westermarck,
+    <i>Marriage</i>, Chapter IX; Letourneau, <i>L'Evolution de la Morale</i>,
+    pp. 126 <i>et seq.</i>; G. Mortimer, <i>Chapters on Human Love</i>, Chapter
+    IV; and in the general anthropological works of Waitz-Gerland,
+    Peschel, Ratzel and others. </p></div><a name='1_Page_36'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_1'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_1'>[1]</a><div class='note'><p> The earliest theory I have met with is that of St. Augustine,
+who states (<i>De Civitate Dei</i>, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII) that erections of the
+penis never occurred until after the Fall of Man. It was the occurrence of
+this &quot;shameless novelty&quot; which made nakedness indecent. This theory fails
+to account for modesty in women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_2'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_2'>[2]</a><div class='note'><p> Guyau, <i>L'Irreligion de l'Avenir</i>, Ch. VII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_3'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_3'>[3]</a><div class='note'><p> Timidity, as understood by Dugas, in his interesting essay on
+that subject, is probably most remote. Dr. H. Campbell's &quot;morbid shyness&quot;
+(<i>British Medical Journal</i>, September 26, 1896) is, in part, identical
+with timidity, in part, with modesty. The matter is further complicated by
+the fact that modesty itself has in English (like virtue) two distinct
+meanings. In its original form it has no special connection with sex or
+women, but may rather be considered as a masculine virtue. Cicero regards
+&quot;modestia&quot; as the equivalent of the Greek &#963;&#969;&#966;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#8059;&#957;&#951;. This is the
+&quot;modesty&quot; which Mary Wollstonecraft eulogized in the last century, the
+outcome of knowledge and reflection, &quot;soberness of mind,&quot; &quot;the graceful
+calm virtue of maturity.&quot; In French, it is possible to avoid the
+confusion, and <i>modestie</i> is entirely distinct from <i>pudeur</i>. It is, of
+course, mainly with <i>pudeur</i> that I am here concerned.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_II'></a><h3>II.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears&mdash;Children in Relation to
+Modesty&mdash;Modesty in Animals&mdash;The Attitude of the Medicean Venus&mdash;The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual Periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship&mdash;The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse&mdash;The Meaning of Coquetry&mdash;The Sexual Charm of Modesty&mdash;Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse&mdash;The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty&mdash;The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others&mdash;The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust&mdash;The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness&mdash;The Custom of Veiling the Face&mdash;Ornaments and
+Clothing&mdash;Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment&mdash;The Economic Factor
+in Modesty&mdash;The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty&mdash;The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>That modesty&mdash;like all the closely-allied emotions&mdash;is based on fear, one
+of the most primitive of the emotions, seems to be fairly evident.<a name='1_FNanchor_4'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_4'><sup>[4]</sup></a> The
+association of modesty and fear is even a very ancient observation, and is
+found in the fragments of Epicharmus, while according to one of the most
+recent definitions, &quot;modesty is the timidity of the body.&quot; Modesty is,
+indeed, an agglomeration of fears, especially, as I hope to show, of two
+important and distinct fears: one of much earlier than human origin, and
+supplied solely by the female; the other of more distinctly human
+character, and of social, rather than sexual, origin.</p>
+
+<p>A child left to itself, though very bashful, is wholly devoid of
+modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_5'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_5'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Everyone is familiar with the shocking <i>inconvenances</i><a name='1_Page_37'></a> of
+children in speech and act, with the charming ways in which they
+innocently disregard the conventions of modesty their elders thrust upon
+them, or, even when anxious to carry them out, wholly miss the point at
+issue: as when a child thinks that to put a little garment round the neck
+satisfies the demands of modesty. Julius Moses states that modesty in the
+uncovering of the sexual parts begins about the age of four. But in cases
+when this occurs it is difficult to exclude teaching and example. Under
+civilized conditions the convention of modesty long precedes its real
+development. Bell has found that in love affairs before the age of nine
+the girl is more aggressive than the boy and that at that age she begins
+to be modest.<a name='1_FNanchor_6'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_6'><sup>[6]</sup></a> It may fairly be said that complete development of
+modesty only takes place at the advent of puberty.<a name='1_FNanchor_7'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_7'><sup>[7]</sup></a> We may admit, with
+Perez, one of the very few writers who touch on the evolution of this
+emotion, that modesty may appear at a very early age if sexual desire
+appears early.<a name='1_FNanchor_8'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_8'><sup>[8]</sup></a> We should not, however, be justified in asserting that
+on this account modesty is a purely sexual phenomenon. The social impulses
+also develop about puberty, and to that coincidence the compound nature of
+the emotion of modesty may well be largely due.</p>
+
+<p>The sexual factor is, however, the simplest and most primitive element of
+modesty, and may, therefore, be mentioned first. Anyone who watches a
+bitch, not in heat, when approached by a dog with tail wagging gallantly,
+may see the beginnings of modesty. When the dog's attentions become a
+little too marked, the bitch squats firmly down on the front legs and hind
+quarters though when the period of &oelig;strus comes her modesty may
+be flung to the air and she eagerly turns her hind quarters to her
+admirer's nose and elevates her tail high in the air. Her attitude of
+refusal is equivalent, that is to say, to that which in the human race is
+typified by the classical example of womanly <a name='1_Page_38'></a>modesty in the Medicean
+Venus, who withdraws the pelvis, at the same time holding one hand to
+guard the pubes, the other to guard the breasts.<a name='1_FNanchor_9'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_9'><sup>[9]</sup></a> The essential
+expression in each case is that of defence of the sexual centers against
+the undesired advances of the male.<a name='1_FNanchor_10'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_10'><sup>[10]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Stratz, who criticizes the above statement, argues (with
+    photographs of nude women in illustration) that the normal type
+    of European surprised modesty is shown by an attitude in which
+    the arms are crossed over the breast, the most sexually
+    attractive region, while the thighs are pressed together, one
+    being placed before the other, the shoulder raised and the back
+    slightly curved; occasionally, he adds, the hands may be used to
+    cover the face, and then the crossed arms conceal the breasts.
+    The Medicean Venus, he remarks, is only a pretty woman coquetting
+    with her body. Canova's Venus in the Pitti (who has drapery in
+    front of her, and presses her arms across her breast) being a
+    more accurate rendering of the attitude of modesty. But Stratz
+    admits that when a surprised woman is gazed at for some time, she
+    turns her head away, sinks or closes her eyes, and covers her
+    pubes (or any other part she thinks is being gazed at) with one
+    hand, while with the other she hides her breast or face. This he
+    terms the secondary expression of modesty. (Stratz, <i>Die
+    Frauenkleidung</i>, third ed., p. 23.)</p>
+
+<p>    It is certainly true that the Medicean Venus merely represents an
+    artistic convention, a generalized tradition, not founded on
+    exact and precise observation of the gestures of modesty, and it
+    is equally true that all the instinctive movements noted by
+    Stratz are commonly resorted to by a woman whose nakedness is
+    surprised. But in the absence of any series of carefully recorded
+    observations, one may doubt <a name='1_Page_39'></a>whether the distinction drawn by
+    Stratz between the primary and the secondary expression of
+    modesty can be upheld as the general rule, while it is most
+    certainly not true for every case. When a young woman is
+    surprised in a state of nakedness by a person of the opposite, or
+    even of the same, sex, it is her instinct to conceal the primary
+    centers of sexual function and attractiveness, in the first
+    place, the pubes, in the second place the breasts. The exact
+    attitude and the particular gestures of the hands in achieving
+    the desired end vary with the individual, and with the
+    circumstances. The hand may not be used at all as a veil, and,
+    indeed, the instinct of modesty itself may inhibit the use of the
+    hand for the protection of modesty (to turn the back towards the
+    beholder is often the chief impulse of blushing modesty, even
+    when clothed), but the application of the hand to this end is
+    primitive and natural. The lowly Fuegian woman, depicted by
+    Hyades and Deniker, who holds her hand to her pubes while being
+    photographed, is one at this point with the Roman Venus described
+    by Ovid (<i>Ars Amatoria</i>, Book II):&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>"Ipsa Venus pubem, quoties velamnia ponit,<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Protegitur l&aelig;va semireducta manus.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It may be added that young men of the lower social classes, at
+    all events in England, when bathing at the seaside in complete
+    nudity, commonly grasp the sexual organs with one hand, for
+    concealment, as they walk up from the sea. </p></div>
+
+<p>The sexual modesty of the female animal is rooted in the sexual
+periodicity of the female, and is an involuntary expression of the organic
+fact that the time for love is not now. Inasmuch as this fact is true of
+the greater part of the lives of all female animals below man, the
+expression itself becomes so habitual that it even intrudes at those
+moments when it has ceased to be in place. We may see this again
+illustrated in the bitch, who, when in heat, herself runs after the male,
+and again turns to flee, perhaps only submitting with much persuasion to
+his embrace. Thus, modesty becomes something more than a mere refusal of
+the male; it becomes an invitation to the male, and is mixed up with his
+ideas of what is sexually desirable in the female. This would alone serve
+to account for the existence of modesty as a psychical secondary sexual
+character. In this sense, and in this sense only, we may say, with Colin
+Scott, that &quot;the feeling of shame is made to be overcome,&quot; and is thus
+correlated with its physical representative, the hymen, in the rupture of
+which, as Groos remarks, <a name='1_Page_40'></a>there is, in some degree, a disruption also of
+modesty. The sexual modesty of the female is thus an inevitable by-product
+of the naturally aggressive attitude of the male in sexual relationships,
+and the naturally defensive attitude of the female, this again being
+founded on the fact that, while&mdash;in man and the species allied to him&mdash;the
+sexual function in the female is periodic, and during most of life a
+function to be guarded from the opposite sex, in the male it rarely or
+never needs to be so guarded.<a name='1_FNanchor_11'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_11'><sup>[11]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Both male and female, however, need to guard themselves during the
+exercise of their sexual activities from jealous rivals, as well as from
+enemies who might take advantage of their position to attack them. It is
+highly probable that this is one important sexual factor in the
+constitution of modesty, and it helps to explain how the male, not less
+than the female, cultivates modesty, and shuns publicity, in the exercise
+of sexual functions. Northcote has especially emphasized this element in
+modesty, as originating in the fear of rivals. &quot;That from this seeking
+after secrecy from motives of fear should arise an instinctive feeling
+that the sexual act must always be hidden, is a natural enough sequence.
+And since it is not a long step between thinking of an act as needing
+concealment and thinking of it as wrong, it is easily conceivable that
+sexual intercourse comes to be regarded as a stolen and therefore, in some
+degree, a sinful pleasure.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_12'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_12'><sup>[12]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Animals in a state of nature usually appear to seek seclusion for sexual
+intercourse, although this instinct is lost under domestication. Even the
+lowest savages, also, if uncorrupted by civilized influences, seek the
+solitude of the forest or the protection <a name='1_Page_41'></a>of their huts for the same
+purpose; the rare cases in which coitus is public seem usually to involve
+a ceremonial or social observance, rather than mere personal
+gratification. At Loango, for instance, it would be highly improper to
+have intercourse in an exposed spot; it must only be performed inside the
+hut, with closed doors, at night, when no one is present.<a name='1_FNanchor_13'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_13'><sup>[13]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is on the sexual factor of modesty, existing in a well-marked
+    form even among animals, that coquetry is founded. I am glad to
+    find myself on this point in agreement with Professor Groos, who,
+    in his elaborate study of the play-instinct, has reached the same
+    conclusion. So far from being the mere heartless play by which a
+    woman shows her power over a man, Groos points out that coquetry
+    possesses &quot;high biological and psychological significance,&quot; being
+    rooted in the antagonism between the sexual instinct and inborn
+    modesty. He refers to the roe, who runs away from the stag&mdash;but
+    in a circle. (Groos, <i>Die Spiele der Menschen</i>, 1899, p. 339;
+    also the same author's <i>Die Spiele der Thiere</i>, pp. 288 <i>et
+    seq.</i>) Another example of coquetry is furnished by the female
+    kingfisher (<i>Alcedo ispida</i>), which will spend all the morning in
+    teasing and flying away from the male, but is careful constantly
+    to look back, and never to let him out of her sight. (Many
+    examples are given by B&uuml;chner, in <i>Liebe und Liebesleben in der
+    Tierwelt</i>.) Robert M&uuml;ller (<i>Sexualbiologie</i>, p. 302) emphasizes
+    the importance of coquetry as a lure to the male.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;It is quite true,&quot; a lady writes to me in a private letter,
+    &quot;that 'coquetry is a poor thing,' and that every milkmaid can
+    assume it, but a woman uses it principally in self-defence, while
+    she is finding out what the man himself is like.&quot; This is in
+    accordance with the remark of Marro, that modesty enables a woman
+    &quot;to put lovers to the test, in order to select him who is best
+    able to serve the natural ends of love.&quot; It is doubtless the
+    necessity for this probationary period, as a test of masculine
+    qualities, which usually leads a woman to repel instinctively a
+    too hasty and impatient suitor, for, as Arthur Macdonald remarks,
+    &quot;It seems to be instinctive in young women to reject the
+    impetuous lover, without the least consideration of his
+    character, ability, and fitness.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>This essential element in courtship, this fundamental attitude of pursuer
+and pursued, is clearly to be seen even in animals and savages; it is
+equally pronounced in the most civilized men and women, manifesting itself
+in crude and subtle ways alike.<a name='1_Page_42'></a> Shakespeare's Angelo, whose virtue had
+always resisted the temptations of vice, discovered at last that</p>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i2'>&quot;modesty may more betray our sense<br /></span>
+<span>Than woman's lightness.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>&quot;What,&quot; asked the wise Montaigne, &quot;is the object of that virginal shame,
+that sedate coldness, that severe countenance, that pretence of not
+knowing things which they understand better than we who teach them, except
+to increase in us the desire to conquer and curb, to trample under our
+appetite, all that ceremony and those obstacles? For there is not only
+matter for pleasure, but for pride also, in ruffling and debauching that
+soft sweetness and infantine modesty.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_14'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_14'><sup>[14]</sup></a> The masculine attitude in the
+face of feminine coyness may easily pass into a kind of sadism, but is
+nevertheless in its origin an innocent and instinctive impulse. Restif de
+la Bretonne, describing his own shame and timidity as a pretty boy whom
+the girls would run after and kiss, adds: &quot;It is surprising that at the
+same time I would imagine the pleasure I should have in embracing a girl
+who resisted, in inspiring her with timidity, in making her flee and in
+pursuing her; that was a part which I burned to play.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_15'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_15'><sup>[15]</sup></a> It is the
+instinct of the sophisticated and the unsophisticated alike. The Arabs
+have developed an erotic ideal of sensuality, but they emphasize the
+importance of feminine modesty, and declare that the best woman is &quot;she
+who sees not men and whom they see not.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_16'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_16'><sup>[16]</sup></a> This deep-rooted modesty of
+women towards men in courtship is intimately interwoven with the marriage
+customs and magic rites of even the most primitive peoples, and has
+survived in many civilized practices to-day.<a name='1_FNanchor_17'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_17'><sup>[17]</sup></a> The prostitute must be
+able to simulate the modesty she may often be far from feeling, and the
+immense erotic advantage of the innocent over the vicious woman lies
+largely in the fact that in her the exquisite reactions of <a name='1_Page_43'></a>modesty are
+fresh and vigorous. &quot;I cannot imagine anything that is more sexually
+exciting,&quot; remarks Hans Menjago, &quot;than to observe a person of the opposite
+sex, who, by some external or internal force, is compelled to fight
+against her physical modesty. The more modest she is the more sexually
+exciting is the picture she presents.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_18'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_18'><sup>[18]</sup></a> It is notable that even in
+abnormal, as well as in normal, erotic passion the desire is for innocent
+and not for vicious women, and, in association with this, the desired
+favor to be keenly relished must often be gained by sudden surprise and
+not by mutual agreement. A foot fetichist writes to me: &quot;It is the
+<i>stolen</i> glimpse of a pretty foot or ankle which produces the greatest
+effect on me.&quot; A urolagnic symbolist was chiefly excited by the act of
+urination when he caught a young woman unawares in the act. A fetichistic
+admirer of the nates only desired to see this region in innocent girls,
+not in prostitutes. The exhibitionist, almost invariably, only exposes
+himself to apparently respectable girls.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>A Russian correspondent, who feels this charm of women in a
+    particularly strong degree, is inclined to think that there is an
+    element of perversity in it. &quot;In the erotic action of the idea of
+    feminine enjoyment,&quot; he writes, &quot;I think there are traces of a
+    certain perversity. In fact, owing to the impressions of early
+    youth, woman (even if we feel contempt for her in theory) is
+    placed above us, on a certain pedestal, as an almost sacred
+    being, and the more so because mysterious. Now sensuality and
+    sexual desire are considered as rather vulgar, and a little
+    dirty, even ridiculous and degrading, not to say bestial. The
+    woman who enjoys it, is, therefore, rather like a profaned altar,
+    or, at least, like a divinity who has descended on to the earth.
+    To give enjoyment to a woman is, therefore, like perpetrating a
+    sacrilege, or at least like taking a liberty with a god. The
+    feelings bequeathed to us by a long social civilization maintain
+    themselves in spite of our rational and deliberate opinions.
+    Reason tells us that there is nothing evil in sexual enjoyment,
+    whether in man or woman, but an unconscious feeling directs our
+    emotions, and this feeling (having a germ that was placed in
+    modern men by Christianity, and perhaps by still older religions)
+    says that woman <i>ought</i> to be an absolutely pure being, with
+    ethereal sensations, and that in her sexual enjoyment is out of
+    place, improper, scandalous. To arouse sexual emotions in a
+    woman, if not to profane a sacred host, is, at all events, the
+    staining of an immaculate <a name='1_Page_44'></a>peplos; if not sacrilege, it is, at
+    least, irreverence or impertinence. For all men, the chaster a
+    woman is, the more agreeable it is to bring her to the orgasm.
+    That is felt as a triumph of the body over the soul, of sin over
+    virtue, of earth over heaven. There is something diabolic in such
+    pleasure, especially when it is felt by a man intoxicated with
+    love, and full of religious respect for the virgin of his
+    election. This feeling is, from a rational point of view, absurd,
+    and in its tendencies, immoral; but it is delicious in its
+    sacredly voluptuous subtlety. Defloration thus has its powerful
+    fascination in the respect consciously or unconsciously felt for
+    woman's chastity. In marriage, the feeling is yet more
+    complicated: in deflowering his bride, the Christian (that is,
+    any man brought up in a Christian civilization) has the feeling
+    of committing a sort of sin (for the 'flesh' is, for him, always
+    connected with sin) which, by a special privilege, has for him
+    become legitimate. He has received a special permit to corrupt
+    innocence. Hence, the peculiar prestige for civilized Christians,
+    of the wedding night, sung by Shelley, in ecstatic verses:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;'Oh, joy! Oh, fear! What will be done<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>In the absence of the sun!'&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>This feeling has, however, its normal range, and is not, <i>per
+    se</i>, a perversity, though it may doubtless become so when unduly
+    heightened by Christian sentiment, and especially if it leads, as
+    to some extent it has led in my Russian correspondent, to an
+    abnormal feeling of the sexual attraction of girls who have only
+    or scarcely reached the age of puberty. The sexual charm of this
+    period of girlhood is well illustrated in many of the poems of
+    Thomas Ashe, and it is worthy of note, as perhaps supporting the
+    contention that this attraction is based on Christian feeling,
+    that Ashe had been a clergyman. An attentiveness to the woman's
+    pleasure remains, in itself, very far from a perversion, but
+    increases, as Colin Scott has pointed out, with civilization,
+    while its absence&mdash;the indifference to the partner's pleasure&mdash;is
+    a perversion of the most degraded kind. </p></div>
+
+<p>There is no such instinctive demand on the woman's part for innocence in
+the man.<a name='1_FNanchor_19'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_19'><sup>[19]</sup></a> In the nature of things that could <a name='1_Page_45'></a>not be. Such emotion is
+required for properly playing the part of the pursued; it is by no means
+an added attraction on the part of the pursuer. There is, however, an
+allied and corresponding desire which is very often clearly or latently
+present in the woman: a longing for pleasure that is stolen or forbidden.
+It is a mistake to suppose that this is an indication of viciousness or
+perversity. It appears to be an impulse that occurs quite naturally in
+altogether innocent women. The exciting charm of the risky and dangerous
+naturally arises on a background of feminine shyness and timidity. We may
+trace its recognition at a very early stage of history in the story of Eve
+and the forbidden fruit that has so often been the symbol of the masculine
+organs of sex. It is on this ground that many have argued the folly of
+laying external restrictions on women in matters of love. Thus in quoting
+the great Italian writer who afterwards became Pope Pius II, Robert Burton
+remarked: &quot;I am of &AElig;neas Sylvius' mind, 'Those jealous Italians do very
+ill to lock up their wives; for women are of such a disposition they will
+mostly covet that which is denied most, and offend least when they have
+free liberty to trespass.'&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_20'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_20'><sup>[20]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is the spontaneous and natural instinct of the lover to desire modesty
+in his mistress, and by no means any calculated opinion on his part that
+modesty is the sign of sexual emotion. It remains true, however, that
+modesty is an expression of feminine erotic impulse. We have here one of
+the instances, of which there, are so many, of that curious and
+instinctive harmony by which Nature has sought the more effectively to
+bring about the ends of courtship. As to the fact itself there can be
+little doubt. It constantly forces itself on the notice of careful
+observers, and has long been decided in the affirmative by those who have
+discussed the matter. Venette, one <a name='1_Page_46'></a>of the earliest writers on the
+psychology of sex, after discussing the question at length, decided that
+the timid woman is a more ardent lover than the bold woman.<a name='1_FNanchor_21'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_21'><sup>[21]</sup></a> &quot;It is the
+most pudent girl,&quot; remarked Restif de la Bretonne whose experience of
+women was so extensive, &quot;the girl who blushes most, who is most disposed
+to the pleasures of love,&quot; he adds that, in girls and boys alike, shyness
+is a premature consciousness of sex.<a name='1_FNanchor_22'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_22'><sup>[22]</sup></a> This observation has even become
+embodied in popular proverbs. &quot;Do as the lasses do&mdash;say no, but take it,&quot;
+is a Scotch saying, to which corresponds the Welsh saying, &quot;The more
+prudish the more unchaste.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_23'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_23'><sup>[23]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is not, at first, quite clear why an excessively shy and
+    modest woman should be the most apt for intimate relationships
+    with a man, and in such a case the woman is often charged with
+    hypocrisy. There is, however, no hypocrisy in the matter. The shy
+    and reserved woman holds herself aloof from intimacy in ordinary
+    friendship, because she is acutely sensitive to the judgments of
+    others, and fears that any seemingly immodest action may make an
+    unfavorable opinion. With a lover, however, in whose eyes she
+    feels assured that her actions can not be viewed unfavorably,
+    these barriers of modesty fall down, and the resulting intimacy
+    becomes all the more fascinating to the woman because of its
+    contrast with the extreme reserve she is impelled to maintain in
+    other relationships. It thus happens that many modest women who,
+    in non-sexual relationships with their own sex, are not able to
+    act with the physical unreserve not uncommon with women among
+    themselves, yet feel no such reserve with a man, when they are
+    once confident of his good opinion. Much the same is true of
+    modest and sensitive men in their relations with women. </p></div>
+
+<p>This fundamental animal factor of modesty, rooted in the natural facts of
+the sexual life of the higher mammals, and especially man, obviously will
+not explain all the phenomena of modesty. We must turn to the other great
+primary element of modesty, the social factor.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot doubt that one of the most primitive and universal of the social
+characteristics of man is an aptitude for disgust, founded, as it is, on a
+yet more primitive and animal aptitude for disgust, which has little or no
+social significance.<a name='1_Page_47'></a> In nearly all races, even the most savage, we seem
+to find distinct traces of this aptitude for disgust in the presence of
+certain actions of others, an emotion naturally reflected in the
+individual's own actions, and hence a guide to conduct. Notwithstanding
+our gastric community of disgust with lower animals, it is only in man
+that this disgust seems to become transformed and developed, to possess a
+distinctly social character, and to serve as a guide to social
+conduct.<a name='1_FNanchor_24'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_24'><sup>[24]</sup></a> The objects of disgust vary infinitely according to the
+circumstances and habits of particular races, but the reaction of disgust
+is fundamental throughout.</p>
+
+<p>The best study of the phenomena of disgust known to me is, without doubt,
+Professor Richet's.<a name='1_FNanchor_25'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_25'><sup>[25]</sup></a> Richet concludes that it is the <i>dangerous</i> and
+the <i>useless</i> which evoke disgust. The digestive and sexual excretions and
+secretions, being either useless or, in accordance with widespread
+primitive ideas, highly dangerous, the genito-anal region became a
+concentrated focus of disgust.<a name='1_FNanchor_26'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_26'><sup>[26]</sup></a> It is largely for this reason, no
+doubt, that savage men exhibit modesty, not only toward women, but toward
+their own sex, and that so many of the lowest savages take great
+precautions in obtaining seclusion for the fulfillment of natural
+functions. The statement, now so often made, that the primary object of
+clothes is to accentuate, rather than to conceal, has in it&mdash;as I shall
+point out later&mdash;a large element of truth, but it is by no means a
+complete account of the matter. It seems difficult not to admit that,
+alongside the impulse to accentuate sexual differences, there is also in
+both men and women a genuine impulse to concealment among the most
+primitive peoples, and the invincible repugnance often felt by savages to
+remove the girdle or <a name='1_Page_48'></a>apron, is scarcely accounted for by the theory that
+it is solely a sexual lure.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it seems to me instructive to consider a special form
+of modesty very strongly marked among savages in some parts of the world.
+I refer to the feeling of immodesty in eating. Where this feeling exists,
+modesty is offended when one eats in public; the modest man retires to
+eat. Indecency, said Cook, was utterly unknown among the Tahitians; but
+they would not eat together; even brothers and sisters had their separate
+baskets of provisions, and generally sat some yards apart, with their
+backs to each other, when they ate.<a name='1_FNanchor_27'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_27'><sup>[27]</sup></a> The Warrua of Central Africa,
+Cameron found, when offered a drink, put up a cloth before their faces
+while they swallowed it, and would not allow anyone to see them eat or
+drink; so that every man or woman must have his own fire and cook for
+himself.<a name='1_FNanchor_28'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_28'><sup>[28]</sup></a> Karl von den Steinen remarks, in his interesting book on
+Brazil, that though the Bakairi of Central Brazil have no feeling of shame
+about nakedness, they are ashamed to eat in public; they retire to eat,
+and hung their heads in shame-faced confusion when they saw him innocently
+eat in public. Hrolf Vaughan Stevens found that, when he gave an Orang
+Laut (Malay) woman anything to eat, she not only would not eat it if her
+husband were present, but if any man were present she would go outside
+before eating or giving her children to eat.<a name='1_FNanchor_29'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_29'><sup>[29]</sup></a> Thus among these peoples
+the act of eating in public produces the same feelings as among ourselves
+the indecent exposure of the body in public.<a name='1_FNanchor_30'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_30'><sup>[30]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_49'></a>
+
+<p>It is quite easy to understand how this arises. Whenever there is any
+pressure on the means of subsistence, as among savages at some time or
+another there nearly always is, it must necessarily arouse a profound and
+mixed emotion of desire and disgust to see another person putting into his
+stomach what one might just as well have put into one's own.<a name='1_FNanchor_31'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_31'><sup>[31]</sup></a> The
+special secrecy sometimes observed by women is probably due to the fact
+that women would be less able to resist the emotions that the act of
+eating would arouse in onlookers. As social feeling develops, a man
+desires not only to eat in safety, but also to avoid being an object of
+disgust, and to spare his friends all unpleasant emotions. Hence it
+becomes a requirement of ordinary decency to eat in private. A man who
+eats in public becomes&mdash;like the man who in our cities exposes his person
+in public&mdash;an object of disgust and contempt.</p>
+
+<p>Long ago, when a hospital student on midwifery duty in London slums, I had
+occasion to observe that among the women of the poor, and more especially
+in those who had lost the first bloom of youth, modesty consisted chiefly
+in the fear of being disgusting. There was an almost pathetic anxiety, in
+the face of pain and discomfort, not to be disgusting in the doctor's
+eyes. This anxiety expressed itself in the ordinary symptoms of modesty.
+But, as soon as the woman realized that I found nothing disgusting in
+whatever was proper and necessary to be done under the circumstances, it
+almost invariably happened that every sign of modesty at once
+disappeared.<a name='1_FNanchor_32'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_32'><sup>[32]</sup></a> In the special <a name='1_Page_50'></a>and elementary conditions of parturition,
+modesty is reduced to this one fear of causing disgust; so that, when that
+is negated, the emotion is non-existent, and the subject becomes, without
+effort, as direct and natural as a little child. A fellow-student on
+similar duty, who also discovered for himself the same character of
+modesty&mdash;that if he was careful to guard her modesty the woman was careful
+also, and that if he was not the woman was not&mdash;remarked on it to me with
+sadness; it seemed to him derogatory to womanhood that what he had been
+accustomed to consider its supreme grace should be so superficial that he
+could at will set limits to it.<a name='1_FNanchor_33'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_33'><sup>[33]</sup></a> I thought then, as I think still, that
+that was rather a perversion of the matter, and that nothing becomes
+degrading because we happen to have learned something about its
+operations. But I am more convinced than ever that the fear of causing
+disgust&mdash;a fear quite distinct from that of losing a sexual lure or
+breaking a rule of social etiquette&mdash;plays <a name='1_Page_51'></a>a very large part in the
+modesty of the more modest sex, and in modesty generally. Our Venuses, as
+Lucretius long since remarked and Montaigne after him, are careful to
+conceal from their lovers the <i>vita postscenia</i>, and that fantastic fate
+which placed so near together the supreme foci of physical attraction and
+physical repugnance, has immensely contributed to build up all the
+subtlest coquetries of courtship. Whatever stimulates self-confidence and
+lulls the fear of evoking disgust&mdash;whether it is the presence of a beloved
+person in whose good opinion complete confidence is felt, or whether it is
+merely the grosser narcotizing influence of a slight degree of
+intoxication&mdash;always automatically lulls the emotion of modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_34'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_34'><sup>[34]</sup></a>
+Together with the animal factor of sexual refusal, this social fear of
+evoking disgust seems to me the most fundamental element in modesty.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, impossible to argue that the fact of the sacro-pubic
+region of the body being the chief focus of concealment proves the
+importance of this factor of modesty. But it may fairly be argued that it
+owes this position not merely to being the sexual centre, but also as
+being the excretory centre. Even among many lower mammals, as well as
+among birds and insects, there is a well-marked horror of dirt, somewhat
+disguised by the varying ways in which an animal may be said to define
+&quot;dirt.&quot; Many animals spend more time and energy in the duties of
+cleanliness than human beings, and they often show well-marked anxiety to
+remove their own excrement, or to keep away from it.<a name='1_FNanchor_35'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_35'><sup>[35]</sup></a> Thus this element
+of modesty also may be said to have an animal basis.</p>
+
+<p>It is on this animal basis that the human and social fear of arousing
+disgust has developed. Its probably wide extension is indicated not only
+by the strong feeling attached to the constant presence of clothing on
+this part of the body,&mdash;such constant presence being quite uncalled for if
+the garment or ornament <a name='1_Page_52'></a>is merely a sort of sexual war-paint,&mdash;but by the
+repugnance felt by many savages very low down in the scale to the public
+satisfaction of natural needs, and to their more than civilized
+cleanliness in this connection;<a name='1_FNanchor_36'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_36'><sup>[36]</sup></a> it is further of interest to note that
+in some parts of the world the covering is not in front, but behind;
+though of this fact there are probably other explanations. Among civilized
+people, also, it may be added, the final and invincible seat of modesty is
+sometimes not around the pubes, but the anus; that is to say, that in such
+cases the fear of arousing disgust is the ultimate and most fundamental
+element of modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_37'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_37'><sup>[37]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The concentration of modesty around the anus is sometimes very
+    marked. Many women feel so high a degree of shame and reserve
+    with regard to this region, that they are comparatively
+    indifferent to an anterior examination of the sexual organs. A
+    similar feeling is not seldom found in men. &quot;I would permit of an
+    examination of my genitals by a medical man, without any feeling
+    of discomfort,&quot; a correspondent writes, &quot;but I think I would
+    rather die than submit to any rectal examination.&quot; Even
+    physicians have been known to endure painful rectal disorders for
+    years, rather than undergo examination.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Among ordinary English girls,&quot; a medical correspondent writes,
+    &quot;I have often noticed that the dislike and shame of allowing a
+    man to have sexual intercourse with them, when newly married, is
+    simply due to the fact that the sexual aperture is so closely
+    apposed to the anus and bladder. If the vulva and vagina were
+    situated between a woman's shoulder blades, and a man had a
+    separate instrument for coitus, not used for any excretory
+    purpose, I do not think women would feel about intercourse as
+    they sometimes do. Again, in their ignorance of anatomy, women
+    often look upon the vagina and womb as part of the bowel and its
+    exit of discharge, and sometimes say, for <a name='1_Page_53'></a>instance,
+    'inflammation of the <i>bowel</i>', when they mean <i>womb</i>. Again,
+    many, perhaps most, women believe that they pass water through
+    the vagina, and are ignorant of the existence of the separate
+    urethral orifice. Again, women associate the vulva with the anus,
+    and so feel ashamed of it; even when speaking to their husbands,
+    or to a doctor, or among themselves; they have absolutely no name
+    for the vulva (I mean among the upper classes, and people of
+    gentle birth), but speak of it as 'down below,' 'low down,' etc.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Even though this feeling is largely based on wrong and ignorant
+    ideas, it must still be recognized that it is to some extent
+    natural and inevitable. &quot;How much is risked,&quot; exclaims Dugas, &quot;in
+    the privacies of love! The results may be disillusion, disgust,
+    the consciousness of physical imperfection, of brutality or
+    coldness, of &aelig;sthetic disenchantment, of a sentimental shock,
+    seen or divined. To be without modesty, that is to say, to have
+    no fear of the ordeals of love, one must be sure of one's self,
+    of one's grace, of one's physical emotions, of one's feelings,
+    and be sure, moreover, of the effect of all these on the nerves,
+    the imagination, and the heart of another person. Let us suppose
+    modesty reduced to &aelig;sthetic discomfort, to a woman's fear of
+    displeasing, or of not seeming beautiful enough. Even thus
+    defined, how can modesty avoid being always awake and restless?
+    What woman could repeat, without risk, the tranquil action of
+    Phryne? And even in that action, who knows how much may not have
+    been due to mere professional insolence!&quot; (Dugas, &quot;La Pudeur,&quot;
+    <i>Revue Philosophique</i>, November, 1903.) &quot;Men and Women,&quot; Schurtz
+    points out (<i>Altersklassen und M&auml;nnerb&uuml;nde</i>, pp. 41-51), &quot;have
+    certainly the capacity mutually to supplement and enrich each
+    other; but when this completion fails, or is not sought, the
+    difference may easily become a strong antipathy;&quot; and he proceeds
+    to develop the wide-reaching significance of this psychic fact. </p></div>
+
+<p>I have emphasized the proximity of the excretory centres to the sexual
+focus in discussing this important factor of modesty, because, in
+analyzing so complex and elusive an emotion as modesty it is desirable to
+keep as near as possible to the essential and fundamental facts on which
+it is based. It is scarcely necessary to point out that, in ordinary
+civilized society, these fundamental facts are not usually present at the
+surface of consciousness and may even be absent altogether; on the
+foundation of them may arise all sorts of idealized fears, of delicate
+reserves, of &aelig;sthetic refinements, as the emotions of love become more
+complex and more subtle, and the crude simplicity of the basis on which
+they finally rest becomes inevitably concealed.</p><a name='1_Page_54'></a>
+
+<p>Another factor of modesty, which reaches a high development in savagery,
+is the ritual element, especially the idea of ceremonial uncleanness,
+based on a dread of the supernatural influences which the sexual organs
+and functions are supposed to exert. It may be to some extent rooted in
+the elements already referred to, and it leads us into a much wider field
+than that of modesty, so that it is only necessary to touch slightly on it
+here; it has been exhaustively studied by Frazer and by Crawley. Offences
+against the ritual rendered necessary by this mysterious dread, though
+more serious than offences against sexual reticence or the fear of causing
+disgust, are so obviously allied that they all reinforce one another and
+cannot easily be disentangled.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly everywhere all over the world at a primitive stage of thought, and
+even to some extent in the highest civilization, the sight of the sexual
+organs or of the sexual act, the image or even the names of the sexual
+parts of either man or woman, are believed to have a curiously potent
+influence, sometimes beneficent, but quite as often maleficent. The two
+kinds of influence may even be combined, and Riedel, quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels,<a name='1_FNanchor_38'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_38'><sup>[38]</sup></a> states that the Ambon islanders carve a schematic
+representation of the vulva on their fruit trees, in part to promote the
+productiveness of the trees, and in part to scare any unauthorized person
+who might be tempted to steal the fruit. The precautions prescribed as
+regards coitus at Loango<a name='1_FNanchor_39'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_39'><sup>[39]</sup></a> are evidently associated with religious
+fears. In Ceylon, again (as a medical correspondent there informs me),
+where the penis is worshipped and held sacred, a native never allows it to
+be seen, except under compulsion, by a doctor, and even a wife must
+neither see it nor touch it nor ask for coitus, though she must grant as
+much as the husband desires. All savage and barbarous peoples who have
+attained any high degree of ceremonialism have included the functions not
+only of sex, but also of excretion, more or less stringently within the
+bounds of that ceremonialism.<a name='1_FNanchor_40'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_40'><sup>[40]</sup></a> It is only necessary to refer to the
+Jewish ritual books of the Old Testament, <a name='1_Page_55'></a>to Hesiod, and to the customs
+prevalent among Mohammedan peoples. Modesty in eating, also, has its roots
+by no means only in the fear of causing disgust, but very largely in this
+kind of ritual, and Crawley has shown how numerous and frequent among
+primitive peoples are the religious implications of eating and
+drinking.<a name='1_FNanchor_41'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_41'><sup>[41]</sup></a> So profound is this dread of the sacred mystery of sex, and
+so widespread is the ritual based upon it, that some have imagined that
+here alone we may find the complete explanation of modesty, and Salomon
+Reinach declares that &quot;at the origin of the emotion of modesty lies a
+taboo.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_42'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_42'><sup>[42]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Durkheim (&quot;La Prohibition de l'Inceste,&quot; <i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>,
+    1898, p. 50), arguing that whatever sense of repugnance women may
+    inspire must necessarily reach the highest point around the womb,
+    which is hence subjected to the most stringent taboo,
+    incidentally suggests that here is an origin of modesty. &quot;The
+    sexual organs must be veiled at an early period, to prevent the
+    dangerous effluvia which they give off from reaching the
+    environment. The veil is often a method of intercepting magic
+    action. Once constituted, the practice would be maintained and
+    transformed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It was doubtless as a secondary and derived significance that the
+    veil became, as Reinach (&quot;Le Voile de l'Oblation,&quot; <i>op. cit.</i>,
+    pp. 299-311) shows it was, alike among the Romans and in the
+    Catholic Church, the sign of consecration to the gods. </p></div>
+
+<p>At an early stage of culture, again, menstruation is regarded as a process
+of purification, a dangerous expulsion of vitiated humors. Hence the term
+<i>katharsis</i> applied to it by the Greeks. Hence also the medi&aelig;val view of
+women: &quot;<i>Mulier speciosa templum &aelig;dificatum super cloacam</i>,&quot; said
+Boethius. The sacro-pubic region in women, because it includes the source
+of menstruation, thus becomes a specially heightened seat of taboo.
+According to the Mosiac law (Leviticus, Chapter XX, v. 18), if a man
+uncovered a menstruating woman, both were to be cut off.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the Mohammedan custom of veiling the face and head
+really has its source solely in another aspect of this ritual factor of
+modesty. It must be remembered that this custom is not Mohammedan in its
+origin, since it existed long previously <a name='1_Page_56'></a>among the Arabians, and is
+described by Tertullian.<a name='1_FNanchor_43'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_43'><sup>[43]</sup></a> In early Arabia very handsome men also veiled
+their faces, in order to preserve themselves from the evil eye, and it has
+been conjectured with much probability that the origin of the custom of
+women veiling their faces may be traced to this magico-religious
+precaution.<a name='1_FNanchor_44'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_44'><sup>[44]</sup></a> Among the Jews of the same period, according to
+B&uuml;chler,<a name='1_FNanchor_45'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_45'><sup>[45]</sup></a> the women had their heads covered and never cut their hair;
+to appear in the streets without such covering would be like a prostitute
+and was adequate ground for divorce; adulterous women were punished by
+uncovering their heads and cutting their hair. It is possible, though not
+certain, that St. Paul's obscure injunction to women to cover their heads
+&quot;because of the angels,&quot; may really be based on the ancient reason, that
+when uncovered they would be exposed to the wanton assaults of spirits (1
+Corinthians, Ch. XI, vv. 5-6),<a name='1_FNanchor_46'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_46'><sup>[46]</sup></a> exactly as Singhalese women believe
+that they must keep the vulva covered lest demons should have intercourse
+with them. Even at the present day St. Paul's injunction is still observed
+by Christendom, which is, however, far from accepting, or even perhaps
+understanding, the folk-lore ground on which are based such injunctions.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Crawley thus summarizes some of the evidence concerning the
+    significance of the veil:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Sexual shyness, not only in woman, but in man, is intensified at
+    marriage, and forms a chief feature of the dangerous sexual
+    properties mutually feared. When fully ceremonial, the idea takes
+    on the meaning that satisfaction of these feelings will lead to
+    their neutralization, as, in fact, it does. The bridegroom in
+    ancient Sparta supped on the wedding night at the men's mess, and
+    then visited his bride, leaving her before daybreak. This
+    practice was continued, and sometimes children were born before
+    the pair had ever seen each other's faces by day. At weddings in
+    the Babar Islands, the bridegroom has <a name='1_Page_57'></a>to hunt for his bride in a
+    darkened room. This lasts a good while if she is shy. In South
+    Africa, the bridegroom may not see his bride till the whole of
+    the marriage ceremonies have been performed. In Persia, a husband
+    never sees his wife till he has consummated the marriage. At
+    marriages in South Arabia, the bride and bridegroom have to sit
+    immovable in the same position from noon till midnight, fasting,
+    in separate rooms. The bride is attended by ladies, and the groom
+    by men. They may not see each other till the night of the fourth
+    day. In Egypt, the groom cannot see the face of his bride, even
+    by a surreptitious glance, till she is in his absolute
+    possession. Then comes the ceremony, which he performs, of
+    uncovering her face. In Egypt, of course, this has been
+    accentuated by the seclusion and veiling of women. In Morocco, at
+    the feast before the marriage, the bride and groom sit together
+    on a sort of throne; all the time, the poor bride's eyes are
+    firmly closed, and she sits amidst the revelry as immovable as a
+    statue. On the next day is the marriage. She is conducted after
+    dark to her future home, accompanied by a crowd with lanterns and
+    candles. She is led with closed eyes along the street by two
+    relatives, each holding one of her hands. The bride's head is
+    held in its proper position by a female relative, who walks
+    behind her. She wears a veil, and is not allowed to open her eyes
+    until she is set on the bridal bed, with a girl friend beside
+    her. Amongst the Zulus, the bridal party proceeds to the house of
+    the groom, having the bride hidden amongst them. They stand
+    facing the groom, while the bride sings a song. Her companions
+    then suddenly break away, and she is discovered standing in the
+    middle, with a fringe of beads covering her face. Amongst the
+    people of Kumaun, the husband sees his wife first after the
+    joining of hands. Amongst the Bedui of North East Africa, the
+    bride is brought on the evening of the wedding-day by her girl
+    friends, to the groom's house. She is closely muffled up. Amongst
+    the Jews of Jerusalem, the bride, at the marriage ceremony,
+    stands under the nuptial canopy, her eyes being closed, that she
+    may not behold the face of her future husband before she reaches
+    the bridal chamber. In Melanesia, the bride is carried to her new
+    home on some one's back, wrapped in many mats, with palm-fans
+    held about her face, because she is supposed to be modest and
+    shy. Among the Damaras, the groom cannot see his bride for four
+    days after marriage. When a Damara woman is asked in marriage,
+    she covers her face for a time with the flap of a headdress made
+    for this purpose. At the Thlinkeet marriage ceremony, the bride
+    must look down, and keep her head bowed all the time; during the
+    wedding-day, she remains hiding in a corner of the house, and the
+    groom is forbidden to enter. At a Yezedee marriage, the bride is
+    covered from head to foot with a thick veil, and when arrived at
+    her new home, she retires behind a curtain in the corner of a
+    darkened room, <a name='1_Page_58'></a>where she remains for three days before her
+    husband is permitted to see her. In Corea, the bride has to cover
+    her face with her long sleeves, when meeting the bridegroom at
+    the wedding. The Manchurian bride uncovers her face for the first
+    time when she descends from the nuptial couch. It is dangerous
+    even to see dangerous persons. Sight is a method of contagion in
+    primitive science, and the idea coincides with the psychological
+    aversion to see dangerous things, and with sexual shyness and
+    timidity. In the customs noticed, we can distinguish the feeling
+    that it is dangerous to the bride for her husband's eyes to be
+    upon her, and the feeling of bashfulness in her which induces her
+    neither to see him nor to be seen by him. These ideas explain the
+    origin of the bridal veil and similar concealments. The bridal
+    veil is used, to take a few instances, in China, Burmah, Corea,
+    Russia, Bulgaria, Manchuria, and Persia, and in all these cases
+    it conceals the face entirely.&quot; (E. Crawley, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>,
+    pp. 328 <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>    Alexander Walker, writing in 1846, remarks: &quot;Among old-fashioned
+    people, of whom a good example may be found in old country people
+    of the middle class in England, it is indecent to be seen with
+    the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the chance of
+    being seen In that condition, and if intruded on at that time,
+    she shrieks with terror, and flies to conceal herself.&quot; (A.
+    Walker, <i>Beauty</i>, p. 15.) This fear of being seen with the head
+    uncovered exists still, M. Van Gennep informs me, in some regions
+    of France, as in Brittany. </p></div>
+
+<p>So far it has only been necessary to refer incidentally to the connection
+of modesty with clothing. I have sought to emphasize the unquestionable,
+but often forgotten, fact that modesty is in its origin independent of
+clothing, that physiological modesty takes precedence of anatomical
+modesty, and that the primary factors of modesty were certainly developed
+long before the discovery of either ornament or garments. The rise of
+clothing probably had its first psychical basis on an emotion of modesty
+already compositely formed of the elements we have traced. Both the main
+elementary factors, it must be noted, must naturally tend to develop and
+unite in a more complex, though&mdash;it may well be&mdash;much less intense,
+emotion. The impulse which leads the female animal, as it leads some
+African women when found without their girdles, to squat firmly down on
+the earth, becomes a more refined and extended play of gesture and
+ornament and garment. A very notable advance, I may remark, is made when
+this primary attitude of defence against <a name='1_Page_59'></a>the action of the male becomes a
+defence against his eyes. We may thus explain the spread of modesty to
+various parts of the body, even when we exclude the more special influence
+of the evil eye. The breasts very early become a focus of modesty in
+women; this may be observed among many naked, or nearly naked, negro
+races; the tendency of the nates to become the chief seat of modesty in
+many parts of Africa may probably be, in large part, thus explained, since
+the full development of the gluteal regions is often the greatest
+attraction an African woman can possess.<a name='1_FNanchor_47'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_47'><sup>[47]</sup></a> The same cause contributes,
+doubtless, to the face becoming, in some races, the centre of modesty. We
+see the influence of this defence against strange eyes in the special
+precautions in gesture or clothing taken by the women in various parts of
+the world, against the more offensive eyes of civilized Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>But in thus becoming directed only against sight, and not against action,
+the gestures of modesty are at once free to become merely those of
+coquetry. When there is no real danger of offensive action, there is no
+need for more than playful defence, and no serious anxiety should that
+defence be taken as a disguised invitation. Thus the road is at once fully
+open toward the most civilized manifestations of the comedy of courtship.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way the social fear of arousing disgust combines easily and
+perfectly with any new development in the invention of ornament or
+clothing as sexual lures. Even among the most civilized races it has often
+been noted that the fashion of feminine garments (as also sometimes the
+use of scents) has the double object of concealing and attracting. It is
+so with the little apron of the young savage belle. The heightening of the
+attraction is, indeed, a logical outcome of the fear of evoking disgust. </p><a name='1_Page_60'></a>
+
+<p>It is possible, as some ethnographists have observed,<a name='1_FNanchor_48'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_48'><sup>[48]</sup></a> that intercrural
+cords and other primitive garments have a physical ground, inasmuch as
+they protect the most sensitive and unprotected part of the body,
+especially in women. We may note in this connection the significant
+remarks of K. von den Steinen, who argues that among Brazilian tribes the
+object of the <i>uluri</i>, etc., is to obtain a maximum of protection for the
+mucous membrane with a minimum of concealment. Among the Eskimo, as Nansen
+noted, the corresponding intercrural cord is so thin as to be often
+practically invisible; this may be noted, I may add, in the excellent
+photographs of Eskimo women given by Holm.</p>
+
+<p>But it is evident that, in the beginning, protection is to little or no
+extent the motive for attaching foreign substances to the body. Thus the
+tribes of Central Australia wear no clothes, although they often suffer
+from the cold. But, in addition to armlets, neck-bands and head-bands,
+they have string or hair girdles, with, for the women, a very small apron
+and, for the men, a pubic tassel. The latter does not conceal the organs,
+being no larger than a coin, and often brilliantly coated with white
+pipeclay, especially during the progress of <i>corrobborees</i>, when a large
+number of men and women meet together; it serves the purpose of drawing
+attention to the organs.<a name='1_FNanchor_49'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_49'><sup>[49]</sup></a> When Forster visited the unspoilt islanders
+of the Pacific early in the eighteenth century, he tells us that, though
+they wore no clothes, they found it necessary to cover themselves with
+various ornaments, especially on, the sexual parts. &quot;But though their
+males,&quot; he remarks, &quot;were to all appearances equally anxious in this
+respect with their females, this part of their dress served only to make
+that more conspicuous which it intended to hide.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_50'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_50'><sup>[50]</sup></a> He adds the
+significant remark that &quot;these ideas of decency and modesty are only
+observed at the age of sexual maturity,&quot; just as in Central Australia
+women may only wear aprons after the initiation of puberty. </p><a name='1_Page_61'></a>
+
+<p>&quot;There are certain things,&quot; said Montaigne, &quot;which are hidden in order to
+be shown;&quot; and there can be no doubt that the contention of Westermarck
+and others, that ornament and clothing were, in the first place, intended,
+not to conceal or even to protect the body, but, in large part, to render
+it sexually attractive, is fully proved.<a name='1_FNanchor_51'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_51'><sup>[51]</sup></a> We cannot, in the light of
+all that has gone before, regard ornaments and clothing as the sole cause
+of modesty, but the feelings that are thus gathered around the garment
+constitute a highly important factor of modesty.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Among some Australian tribes it is said that the sexual organs
+    are only covered during their erotic dances; and it is further
+    said that in some parts of the world only prostitutes are
+    clothed. &quot;The scanty covering,&quot; as Westermarck observes, &quot;was
+    found to act as the most powerful obtainable sexual stimulus.&quot; It
+    is undoubtedly true that this statement may be made not merely of
+    the savage, but of the most civilized world. All observers agree
+    that the complete nudity of savages, unlike the civilized
+    <i>d&eacute;collet&eacute;</i> or <i>d&eacute;trouss&eacute;</i>, has no suggestion of sexual
+    allurement. (Westermarck quotes numerous testimonies on this
+    point, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 192 <i>et seq.</i>) Dr. R. W. Felkin remarks
+    concerning Central Africa, that he has never met more indecency
+    than in Uganda, where the penalty of death is inflicted on an
+    adult found naked in the street. (<i>Edinburgh Medical Journal</i>,
+    April, 1884.) A study of pictures or statuary will alone serve to
+    demonstrate that nakedness is always chaster in its effects than
+    partial clothing. As a well-known artist, Du Maurier, has
+    remarked (in <i>Trilby</i>), it is &quot;a fact well known to all painters
+    and sculptors who have used the nude model (except a few shady
+    pretenders, whose purity, not being of the right sort, has gone
+    rank from too much watching) that nothing is so chaste as nudity.
+    Venus herself, as she drops her garments and steps on to the
+    model-throne, leaves behind her on the floor every weapon in her
+    armory by which she can pierce to the grosser passions of men.&quot;
+    Burton, in the <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i> (Part III, Sect. II,
+    Subsect. 3), deals at length with the &quot;Allurements of Love,&quot; and
+    concludes that &quot;the greatest provocations of lust are from our
+    apparel.&quot; The artist's model, as one informs me, is much less
+    exposed to liberties from men when nude <a name='1_Page_62'></a>than when she is
+    partially clothed, and it may be noted that in Paris studios the
+    model who poses naked undresses behind a screen.</p>
+
+<p>    An admirable poetic rendering of this element in the philosophy
+    of clothing has been given by Herrick, that master of erotic
+    psychology, in &quot;A Lily in Crystal,&quot; where he argues that a lily
+    in crystal, and amber in a stream, and strawberries in cream,
+    gain an added delight from semi-concealment; and so, he
+    concludes, we obtain </p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;A rule, how far, to teach,<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Your nakedness must reach.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In this connection, also, it is worth noting that Stanley Hall,
+    in a report based on returns from nearly a thousand persons,
+    mostly teachers, (&quot;The Early Sense of Self,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+    Psychology</i>, 1898, p. 366), finds that of the three functions of
+    clothes&mdash;protection, ornament, and Lotzean &quot;self-feeling&quot;&mdash;the
+    second is by far the most conspicuous in childhood. The attitude
+    of children is testimony to the primitive attitude toward
+    clothing.</p>
+
+<p>    It cannot, however, be said that the use of clothing for the sake
+    of showing the natural forms of the body has everywhere been
+    developed. In Japan, where nakedness is accepted without shame,
+    clothes are worn to cover and conceal, and not to reveal, the
+    body. It is so, also, in China. A distinguished Chinese
+    gentleman, who had long resided in Europe, once told Baelz that
+    he had gradually learnt to grasp the European point of view, but
+    that it would be impossible to persuade his fellow-countrymen
+    that a woman who used her clothes to show off her figure could
+    possibly possess the least trace of modesty. (Baelz, <i>Zeitschrift
+    f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.) </p></div>
+
+<p>The great artistic elaboration often displayed by articles of ornament or
+clothing, even when very small, and the fact&mdash;as shown by Karl von den
+Steinen regarding the Brazilian <i>uluri</i>&mdash;that they may serve as common
+motives in general decoration, sufficiently prove that such objects
+attract rather than avoid attention. And while there is an invincible
+repugnance among some peoples to remove these articles, such repugnance
+being often strongest when the adornment is most minute, others have no
+such repugnance or are quite indifferent whether or not their aprons are
+accurately adjusted. The mere presence or possession of the article gives
+the required sense of self-respect, of human dignity, of sexual
+desirability. Thus it is that to unclothe a person, is to humiliate him;
+this was so even in Homeric <a name='1_Page_63'></a>times, for we may recall the threat of
+Ulysses to strip Thyestes.<a name='1_FNanchor_52'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_52'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>When clothing is once established, another element, this time a
+social-economic element, often comes in to emphasize its importance and
+increase the anatomical modesty of women. I mean the growth of the
+conception of women as property. Waitz, followed by Schurtz and
+Letourneau, has insisted that the jealousy of husbands is the primary
+origin of clothing, and, indirectly, of modesty. Diderot in the eighteenth
+century had already given clear expression to the same view. It is
+undoubtedly true that only married women are among some peoples clothed,
+the unmarried women, though full grown, remaining naked. In many parts of
+the world, also, as Mantegazza and others have shown, where the men are
+naked and the women covered, clothing is regarded as a sort of disgrace,
+and men can only with difficulty be persuaded to adopt it. Before marriage
+a woman was often free, and not bound to chastity, and at the same time
+was often naked; after marriage she was clothed, and no longer free. To
+the husband's mind, the garment appears&mdash;illogically, though naturally&mdash;a
+moral and physical protection against any attack on his property.<a name='1_FNanchor_53'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_53'><sup>[53]</sup></a> Thus
+a new motive was furnished, this time somewhat artificially, for making
+nakedness, in women at all events, disgraceful. As the conception of
+property also extended to the father's right over his daughters, and the
+appreciation of female chastity developed, this motive spread to unmarried
+as well as married women. A woman on the west coast of Africa must always
+be chaste because she is first the property of her parents and afterwards
+of her husband,<a name='1_FNanchor_54'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_54'><sup>[54]</sup></a> and even in the seventeenth century of Christendom so
+able a thinker as Bishop Burnet furnished precisely the same reason <a name='1_Page_64'></a>for
+feminine chastity.<a name='1_FNanchor_55'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_55'><sup>[55]</sup></a> This conception probably constituted the chief and
+most persistent element furnished to the complex emotion of modesty by the
+barbarous stages of human civilization.</p>
+
+<p>This economic factor necessarily involved the introduction of a new moral
+element into modesty. If a woman's chastity is the property of another
+person, it is essential that she shall be modest in order that men may not
+be tempted to incur the penalties involved by the infringement of property
+rights. Thus modesty is strictly inculcated on women in order that men may
+be safeguarded from temptation. The fact was overlooked that modesty is
+itself a temptation. Immodesty being, on this ground, disapproved by men,
+a new motive for modesty is furnished to women. In the book which the
+Knight of the Tower, Landry, wrote in the fourteenth century, for the
+instruction of his daughters, this factor of modesty is na&iuml;vely revealed.
+He tells his daughters of the trouble that David got into through the
+thoughtlessness of Bathsheba, and warns them that &quot;every woman ought
+religiously to conceal herself when dressing and washing, and neither out
+of vanity nor yet to attract attention show either her hair, or her neck,
+or her breast, or any part which ought to be covered.&quot; Hinton went so far
+as to regard what he termed &quot;body modesty,&quot; as entirely a custom imposed
+upon women by men with the object of preserving their own virtue. While
+this motive is far from being the sole source of modesty, it must
+certainly be borne in mind as an inevitable outcome of the economic factor
+of modesty.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe it seems probable that the generally accepted conceptions of
+medi&aelig;val chivalry were not without influence in constituting the forms in
+which modesty shows itself among us. In the early middle ages there seems
+to have been a much greater degree of physical familiarity between the
+sexes than is commonly found among barbarians elsewhere. There was
+certainly considerable promiscuity in bathing and indifference to
+nakedness. It seems probable, as Durkheim points out,<a name='1_FNanchor_56'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_56'><sup>[56]</sup></a> that this <a name='1_Page_65'></a>state
+of things was modified in part by the growing force of the dictates of
+Christian morality, which regarded all intimate approaches between the
+sexes as sinful, and in part by the influence of chivalry with its
+&aelig;sthetic and moral ideals of women, as the representative of all the
+delicacies and elegancies of civilization. This ideal was regarded as
+incompatible with the familiarities of the existing social relationships
+between the sexes, and thus a separation, which at first existed only in
+art and literature, began by a curious reaction to exert an influence on
+real life.</p>
+
+<p>The chief new feature&mdash;it is scarcely a new element&mdash;added to modesty when
+an advanced civilization slowly emerges from barbarism is the elaboration
+of its social ritual.<a name='1_FNanchor_57'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_57'><sup>[57]</sup></a> Civilization expands the range of modesty, and
+renders it, at the same time, more changeable. The French seventeenth
+century, and the English eighteenth, represent early stages of modern
+European civilization, and they both devoted special attention to the
+elaboration of the minute details of modesty. The frequenters of the Hotel
+Rambouillet, the <i>pr&eacute;cieuses</i> satirized by Moli&egrave;re, were not only engaged
+in refining the language; they were refining feelings and ideas and
+enlarging the boundaries of modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_58'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_58'><sup>[58]</sup></a> In England such famous and
+popular authors as Swift and Sterne bear witness to a new ardor of modesty
+in the sudden reticences, the dashes, and the asterisks, which are found
+throughout their works. The altogether new quality of literary prurience,
+of which Sterne is still the classical example, could only have arisen on
+the basis of the new modesty which was then overspreading society and
+literature. Idle people, <a name='1_Page_66'></a>mostly, no doubt, the women in <i>salons</i> and
+drawing-rooms, people more familiar with books than with the realities of
+life, now laid down the rules of modesty, and were ever enlarging it, ever
+inventing new subtleties of gesture and speech, which it would be immodest
+to neglect, and which are ever being rendered vulgar by use and ever
+changing.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It was at this time, probably, that the custom of inventing an
+    arbitrary private vocabulary of words and phrases for the purpose
+    of disguising references to functions and parts of the body
+    regarded as immodest and indecent, first began to become common.
+    Such private slang, growing up independently in families, and
+    especially among women, as well as between lovers, is now almost
+    universal. It is not confined to any European country, and has
+    been studied in Italy by Niceforo (<i>Il Gergo</i>, 1897, cap. 1 and
+    2), who regards it as a weapon of social defence against an
+    inquisitive or hostile environment, since it enables things to be
+    said with a meaning which is unintelligible to all but the
+    initiated person. While it is quite true that the custom is
+    supported by the consciousness of its practical advantages, it
+    has another source in a desire to avoid what is felt to be the
+    vulgar immodesty of direct speech. This is sufficiently shown by
+    the fact that such slang is mostly concerned with the sacro-pubic
+    sphere. It is one of the chief contributions to the phenomena of
+    modesty furnished by civilization. The claims of modesty having
+    effected the clothing of the body, the impulse of modesty finds a
+    further sphere of activity&mdash;half-playful, yet wholly
+    imperative&mdash;in the clothing of language.</p>
+
+<p>    Modesty of speech has, however, a deep and primitive basis,
+    although in modern Europe it only became conspicuous at the
+    beginning of the eighteenth century. &quot;All over the world,&quot; as
+    Dufour put it, &quot;to do is good, to say is bad.&quot; Reticences of
+    speech are not adequately accounted for by the statement that
+    modesty tends to irradiate from the action to the words
+    describing the action, for there is a tendency for modesty to be
+    more deeply rooted in the words than in the actions. &quot;Modest
+    women,&quot; as Kleinpaul truly remarks, &quot;have a much greater horror
+    of saying immodest things than of doing them; they believe that
+    fig-leaves were especially made for the mouth.&quot; (Kleinpaul,
+    <i>Sprache ohne Worte</i>, p. 309.) It is a tendency which is linked
+    on to the religious and ritual feeling which we have already
+    found to be a factor of modesty, and which, even when applied to
+    language, appears to have an almost or quite instinctive basis,
+    for it is found among the most primitive savages, who very
+    frequently regard a name as too sacred or dangerous to utter.
+    Among the tribes of Central Australia, in addition to his
+    ordinary name, each individual has his <a name='1_Page_67'></a>sacred or secret name,
+    only known to the older and fully initiated members of his own
+    totemic group; among the Warramunga, it is not permitted to women
+    to utter even a man's ordinary name, though she knows it.
+    (Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>, p.
+    581.) In the mysterious region of sex, this feeling easily takes
+    root. In many parts of the world, men use among themselves, and
+    women use among themselves, words and even languages which they
+    may not use without impropriety in speaking to persons of the
+    opposite sex, and it has been shown that exogamy, or the fact
+    that the wife belongs to a different tribe, will not always
+    account for this phenomenon. (Crawley, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>, p. 46.)
+    A special vocabulary for the generative organs and functions is
+    very widespread. Thus, in northwest Central Queensland, there is
+    both a decent and an indecent vocabulary for the sexual parts; in
+    Mitakoodi language, for instance, <i>me-ne</i> may be used for the
+    vulva in the best aboriginal society, but <i>koon-ja</i> and <i>pukkil</i>,
+    which are names for the same parts, are the most blackguardly
+    words known to the natives. (W. Roth, <i>Ethnological Studies Among
+    the Queensland Aborigines</i>, p. 184.) Among the Malays, <i>puki</i> is
+    also a name for the vulva which it is very indecent to utter, and
+    it is only used in public by people under the influence of an
+    obsessive nervous disorder. (W. Gilman Ellis, &quot;Latah,&quot; <i>Journal
+    of Mental Science</i>, Jan., 1897.) The Swahili women of Africa have
+    a private metaphorical language of their own, referring to sexual
+    matters (Zache, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899, Heft 2-3, pp.
+    70 <i>et seq.</i>), and in Samoa, again, young girls have a
+    euphemistic name for the penis, <i>aualuma</i>, which is not that in
+    common use (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899, Heft 1, p. 31);
+    exactly the same thing is found in Europe, to-day, and is
+    sometimes more marked among young peasant women than among those
+    of better social class, who often avoid, under all circumstances,
+    the necessity for using any definite name.</p>
+
+<p>    Singular as it may seem, the Romans, who in their literature
+    impress us by their vigorous and naked grip of the most private
+    facts of life, showed in familiar intercourse a dread of obscene
+    language&mdash;a dread ultimately founded, it is evident, on religious
+    grounds&mdash;far exceeding that which prevails among ourselves to-day
+    in civilization. &quot;It is remarkable,&quot; Dufour observes, &quot;that the
+    prostitutes of ancient Rome would have blushed to say an indecent
+    word in public. The little tender words used between lovers and
+    their mistresses were not less correct and innocent when the
+    mistress was a courtesan and the lover an erotic poet. He called
+    her his rose, his queen, his goddess, his dove, his light, his
+    star, and she replied by calling him her jewel, her honey, her
+    bird, her ambrosia, the apple of her eye, and never with any
+    licentious interjection, but only 'I will love!' (<i>Amabo</i>), a
+    frequent exclamation, summing up a whole life and vocation. When
+    intimate <a name='1_Page_68'></a>relations began, they treated each other as 'brother'
+    and 'sister.' These appellations were common among the humblest
+    and the proudest courtesans alike.&quot; (Dufour, <i>Histoire de la
+    Prostitution</i>, vol. ii, p. 78.) So excessive was the Roman horror
+    of obscenity that even physicians were compelled to use a
+    euphemism for <i>urina</i>, and though the <i>urinal</i> or <i>vas urinarium</i>
+    was openly used at the dining-table (following a custom
+    introduced by the Sybarites, according to Athen&aelig;us, Book XII,
+    cap. 17), the decorous guest could not ask for it by name, but
+    only by a snap of the fingers (Dufour, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p.
+    174).</p>
+
+<p>    In modern Europe, as seems fairly evident from the early
+    realistic dramatic literature of various countries, no special
+    horror of speaking plainly regarding the sacro-pubic regions and
+    their functions existed among the general population until the
+    seventeenth century. There is, however, one marked exception.
+    Such a feeling clearly existed as regards menstruation. It is not
+    difficult to see why it should have begun at this function. We
+    have here not only a function confined to one sex and, therefore,
+    easily lending itself to a vocabulary confined to one sex; but,
+    what is even of more importance, the belief which existed among
+    the Romans, as elsewhere throughout the world, concerning the
+    specially dangerous and mysterious properties of menstruation,
+    survived throughout medi&aelig;val times. (See <i>e.g.</i>, Ploss and
+    Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>, Bd. I, XIV; also Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and
+    Woman</i>, fourth ed. Ch. XI.) The very name, <i>menses</i>
+    (&quot;monthlies&quot;), is a euphemism, and most of the old scientific
+    names for this function are similarly vague. As regards popular
+    feminine terminology previous to the eighteenth century, Schurig
+    gives us fairly ample information (<i>Parthenologia</i>, 1729, pp. 27
+    <i>et seq.</i>). He remarks that both in Latin and Germanic countries,
+    menstruation was commonly designated by some term equivalent to
+    &quot;flowers,&quot; because, he says, it is a blossoming that indicates
+    the possibility of fruit. German peasant women, he tells us,
+    called it the rose-wreath (Rosenkrantz). Among the other current
+    feminine names for menstruation which he gives, some are purely
+    fanciful; thus, the Italian women dignified the function with the
+    title of &quot;marchese magnifico;&quot; German ladies, again, would use
+    the locution, &quot;I have had a letter,&quot; or would say that their
+    cousin or aunt had arrived. These are closely similar to the
+    euphemisms still used by women.</p>
+
+<p>    It should be added that euphemisms for menstruation are not
+    confined to Europe, and are found among savages. According to
+    Hill Tout (<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, 1904, p.
+    320; and 1905, p. 137), one of these euphemisms was &quot;putting on
+    the moccasin,&quot; and in another branch of the same people, &quot;putting
+    the knees together,&quot; &quot;going outside&quot; (in allusion to the
+    customary seclusion at this period in a solitary hut), and so on. </p></div><a name='1_Page_69'></a>
+
+<p>It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that this process is an
+intensification of modesty. It is, on the contrary, an attenuation of it.
+The observances of modesty become merely a part of a vast body of rules of
+social etiquette, though a somewhat stringent part on account of the vague
+sense still persisting of a deep-lying natural basis. It is a significant
+coincidence that the eighteenth century, which was marked by this new
+extension of the social ritual of modesty, also saw the first appearance
+of a new philosophic impulse not merely to analyze, but to dissolve the
+conception of modesty. This took place more especially in France.</p>
+
+<p>The swift rise to supremacy, during the seventeenth century, of logical
+and rational methods of thinking, in conjunction with the new development
+of geometrical and mathematical science, led in the eighteenth century to
+a widespread belief in France that human customs and human society ought
+to be founded on a strictly logical and rational basis. It was a belief
+which ignored those legitimate claims of the emotional nature which the
+nineteenth century afterwards investigated and developed, but it was of
+immense service to mankind in clearing away useless prejudices and
+superstitions, and it culminated in the reforms of the great Revolution
+which most other nations have since been painfully struggling to attain.
+Modesty offered a tempting field for the eighteenth century philosophic
+spirit to explore.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the most distinguished and adventurous minds of the
+century approached it, can scarcely be better illustrated than by a
+conversation, reported by Madame d'Epinay, which took place in 1750 at the
+table of Mlle. Quinault, the eminent actress. &quot;A fine virtue,&quot; Duclos
+remarked, &quot;which one fastens on in the morning with pins.&quot; He proceeded to
+argue that &quot;a moral law must hold good always and everywhere, which
+modesty does not.&quot; Saint-Lambert, the poet, observed that &quot;it must be
+acknowledged that one can say nothing good about innocence without being a
+little corrupted,&quot; and Duclos added &quot;or of modesty without being
+impudent.&quot; Saint-Lambert finally held forth with much poetic enthusiasm
+concerning <a name='1_Page_70'></a>the desirability of consummating marriages in public.<a name='1_FNanchor_59'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_59'><sup>[59]</sup></a> This
+view of modesty, combined with the introduction of Greek fashions, gained
+ground to such an extent that towards the end of the century women, to the
+detriment of their health, were sometimes content to dress in transparent
+gauze, and even to walk abroad in the Champs Elys&eacute;es without any clothing;
+that, however, was too much for the public.<a name='1_FNanchor_60'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_60'><sup>[60]</sup></a> The final outcome of the
+eighteenth century spirit in this direction was, as we know, by no means
+the dissolution of modesty. But it led to a clearer realization of what is
+permanent in its organic foundations and what is merely temporary in its
+shifting manifestations. That is a realization which is no mean task to
+achieve, and is difficult for many, even yet. So intelligent a traveler as
+Mrs. Bishop (Miss Bird), on her first visit to Japan came to the
+conclusion that Japanese women had no modesty, because they had no
+objection to being seen naked when bathing. Twenty years later she
+admitted to Dr. Baelz that she had made a mistake, and that &quot;a woman may
+be naked and yet behave like a lady.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_61'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_61'><sup>[61]</sup></a> In civilized countries the
+observances of modesty differ in different regions, and in different
+social classes, but, however various the forms may be, the impulse itself
+remains persistent.<a name='1_FNanchor_62'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_62'><sup>[62]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Modesty has thus come to have the force of a tradition, a vague but
+massive force, bearing with special power on those who cannot reason, and
+yet having its root in the instincts of all people of all classes.<a name='1_FNanchor_63'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_63'><sup>[63]</sup></a> It
+has become mainly transformed into <a name='1_Page_71'></a>the allied emotion of decency, which
+has been described as &quot;modesty fossilized into social customs.&quot; The
+emotion yields more readily than in its primitive state to any
+sufficiently-strong motive. Even fashion in the more civilized countries
+can easily inhibit anatomical modesty, and rapidly exhibit or accentuate,
+in turn, almost any part of the body, while the savage Indian woman of
+America, the barbarous woman of some Mohammedan countries, can scarcely
+sacrifice her modesty in the pangs of childbirth. Even when, among
+uncivilized races, the focus of modesty may be said to be eccentric and
+arbitrary, it still remains very rigid. In such savage and barbarous
+countries modesty possesses the strength of a genuine and irresistible
+instinct. In civilized countries, however, anyone who places
+considerations of modesty before the claims of some real human need
+excites ridicule and contempt. </p><a name='1_Page_72'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_4'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_4'>[4]</a><div class='note'><p> Fliess (<i>Die Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen
+Geschlechts-Organen</i>, p. 194) remarks on the fact that, in the Bible
+narrative of Eden, shame and fear are represented as being brought into
+the world together: Adam feared God because he was naked. Melinaud
+(&quot;Psychologie de la Pudeur,&quot; <i>La Revue</i>, Nov. 15, 1901) remarks that shame
+differs from modesty in being, not a fear, but a kind of grief; this
+position seems untenable.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_5'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_5'>[5]</a><div class='note'><p> Bashfulness in children has been dealt with by Professor
+Baldwin; see especially his <i>Mental Development in the Child and the
+Race</i>, Chapter VI, pp. 146 <i>et seq.</i>, and <i>Social Interpretations in
+Mental Development</i>, Chapter VI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_6'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_6'>[6]</a><div class='note'><p> Bell, &quot;A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love Between the
+Sexes,&quot; <i>American Journal Psychology</i>, July, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_7'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_7'>[7]</a><div class='note'><p> Professor Starbuck (<i>Psychology of Religion</i>, Chapter XXX)
+refers to unpublished investigations showing that recognition of the
+rights of others also exhibits a sudden increment at the age of puberty.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_8'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_8'>[8]</a><div class='note'><p> Perez, <i>L'Enfant de Trois &agrave; Sept Ans</i>, 1886, pp. 267-277.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_9'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_9'>[9]</a><div class='note'><p> It must be remembered that the Medicean Venus is merely a
+comparatively recent and familiar embodiment of a natural attitude which
+is very ancient, and had impressed sculptors at a far earlier period.
+Reinach, indeed, believes (&quot;La Sculpture en Europe,&quot; <i>L'Anthropologie</i>,
+No. 5, 1895) that the hand was first brought to the breast to press out
+the milk, and expresses the idea of exuberance, and that the attitude of
+the Venus of Medici as a symbol of modesty came later; he remarks that, as
+regards both hands, this attitude may be found in a figurine of Cyprus,
+2,000 years before Christ. This is, no doubt, correct, and I may add that
+Babylonian figurines of Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, represent her as
+clasping her hands to her breasts or her womb.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_10'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_10'>[10]</a><div class='note'><p> When there is no sexual fear the impulse of modesty may be
+entirely inhibited. French ladies under the old R&eacute;gime (as A. Franklin
+points out in his <i>Vie Priv&eacute;e d'Autrefois</i>) sometimes showed no modesty
+towards their valets, not admitting the possibility of any sexual advance,
+and a lady would, for example, stand up in her bath while a valet added
+hot water by pouring it between her separated feet.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_11'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_11'>[11]</a><div class='note'><p> I do not hereby mean to deny a certain degree of normal
+periodicity even to the human male; but such periodicity scarcely involves
+any element of sexual fear or attitude of sexual defence, in man because
+it is too slight to involve complete latency of the sexual functions, in
+other species because latency of sexual function in the male is always
+accompanied by corresponding latency in the female.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_12'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_12'>[12]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Northcote, <i>Christianity and the Sex Problem</i>, p. 8.
+Crawley had previously argued (<i>The Mystic Rose</i>, pp. 134, 180) that this
+same necessity for solitude during the performance of nutritive, sexual,
+and excretory functions, is a factor in investing such functions with a
+potential sacredness, so that the concealment of them became a religious
+duty.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_13'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_13'>[13]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1878, p. 26.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_14'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_14'>[14]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Essais</i>, livre ii, Ch. XV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_15'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_15'>[15]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Monsieur Nicolas</i>, vol. i, p. 89.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_16'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_16'>[16]</a><div class='note'><p> Lane, <i>Arabian Society</i>, p. 228. The Arab insistence on the
+value of virginal modesty is well brought out in one of the most charming
+stories of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, &quot;The History of the Mirror of
+Virginity.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_17'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_17'>[17]</a><div class='note'><p> This has especially been emphasized by Crawley, <i>The Mystic
+Rose</i>, pp. 181, 324 <i>et seq.</i>, 353.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_18'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_18'>[18]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. II, Heft 8, p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_19'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_19'>[19]</a><div class='note'><p> This, however, is not always or altogether true of
+experienced women. Thus, the Russian correspondent already referred to,
+who as a youth was accustomed, partly out of shyness, to feign complete
+ignorance of sexual matters, informs me that it repeatedly happened to him
+at this time that young married women took pleasure in imposing on
+themselves, not without shyness but with evident pleasure, the task of
+initiating him, though they always hastened to tell him that it was for
+his good, to preserve him from bad women and masturbation. Prostitutes,
+also, often take pleasure in innocent men, and Hans Ostwald tells
+(<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, June, 1908, p. 357) of a prostitute who fell violently
+in love with a youth who had never known a woman before; she had never met
+an innocent man before, and it excited her greatly. And I have been told
+of an Italian prostitute who spoke of the exciting pleasure which an
+unspoilt youth gave her by his freshness, <i>tutta questa freschezza</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_20'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_20'>[20]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, Part III, Sect. III. Mem. IV. Subs.
+I.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_21'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_21'>[21]</a><div class='note'><p> N. Venette, <i>La G&eacute;n&eacute;ration de l'Homme</i>, Part II, Ch. X.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_22'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_22'>[22]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Monsieur Nicolas</i>, vol. i, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_23'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_23'>[23]</a><div class='note'><p> &#922;&#961;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#8049;&#948;&#953;&#945;, vol. ii, p. 26, 31. <i>Ib.</i> vol. iii, p.
+162.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_24'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_24'>[24]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Modesty is, at first,&quot; said Renouvier, &quot;a fear which we
+have of displeasing others, and of blushing at our own natural
+imperfections.&quot; (Renouvier and Prat, <i>La Nouvelle Monadologie</i>, p. 221.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_25'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_25'>[25]</a><div class='note'><p> C. Richet, &quot;Les Causes du D&eacute;go&ucirc;t,&quot; <i>L'Homme et
+l'Intelligence</i>, 1884. This eminent physiologist's elaborate study of
+disgust was not written as a contribution to the psychology of modesty,
+but it forms an admirable introduction to the investigation of the social
+factor of modesty.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_26'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_26'>[26]</a><div class='note'><p> It is interesting to note that where, as among the Eskimo,
+urine, for instance, is preserved as a highly-valuable commodity, the act
+of urination, even at table, is not regarded as in the slightest degree
+disgusting or immodest (Bourke, <i>Scatologic Rites</i>, p. 202).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_27'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_27'>[27]</a><div class='note'><p> Hawkesworth, <i>An Account of the Voyages</i>, etc., 1775, vol.
+ii, p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_28'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_28'>[28]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, vol. vi, p.
+173.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_29'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_29'>[29]</a><div class='note'><p> Stevens, &quot;Mittheilungen aus dem Frauenleben der Orang
+Belendas,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, Heft 4, p. 167, 1896. Crawley,
+(<i>Mystic Rose</i>, Ch. VIII, p. 439) gives numerous other instances, even in
+Europe, with, however, special reference to sexual taboo. I may remark
+that English people of lower class, especially women, are often modest
+about eating in the presence of people of higher class. This feeling is,
+no doubt, due, in part, to the consciousness of defective etiquette, but
+that very consciousness is, in part, a development of the fear of causing
+disgust, which is a component of modesty.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_30'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_30'>[30]</a><div class='note'><p> Shame in regard to eating, it may be added, occasionally
+appears as a neurasthenic obsession in civilization, and has been studied
+as a form of psychasthenia by Janet. See <i>e.g.</i>, (Raymond and Janet, <i>Les
+Obsessions et la Psychasth&eacute;nie</i>, vol. ii, p. 386) the case of a young girl
+of 24, who, from the age of 12 or 13 (the epoch of puberty) had been
+ashamed to eat in public, thinking it nasty and ugly to do so, and arguing
+that it ought only to be done in private, like urination.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_31'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_31'>[31]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Desire and disgust are curiously blended,&quot; remarks Crawley
+(<i>The Mystic Rose</i>, p. 139), &quot;when, with one's own desire unsatisfied, one
+sees the satisfaction of another; and here we may see the altruistic stage
+beginning; this has two sides, the fear of causing desire in others, and
+the fear of causing disgust; in each case, personal isolation is the
+psychological result.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_32'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_32'>[32]</a><div class='note'><p> Hohenemser argues that the fear of causing disgust cannot be
+a part of shame. But he also argues that shame is simply psychic stasis,
+and it is quite easy to see, as in the above case, that the fear of
+causing disgust is simply a manifestation of psychic stasis. There is a
+conflict in the woman's mind between the idea of herself which she has
+already given, and the more degraded idea of herself which she fears she
+is likely to give, and this conflict is settled when she is made to feel
+that the first idea may still be maintained under the new circumstances.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_33'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_33'>[33]</a><div class='note'><p> We neither of us knew that we had merely made afresh a very
+ancient discovery. Casanova, more than a century ago, quoted the remark of
+a friend of his, that the easiest way to overcome the modesty of a woman
+is to suppose it non-existent; and he adds a saying, which he attributes
+to Clement of Alexandria, that modesty, which seems so deeply rooted in
+women, only resides in the linen that covers them, and vanishes when it
+vanishes. The passage to which Casanova referred occurs in the
+<i>P&aelig;dagogus</i>, and has already been quoted. The observation seems to have
+appealed strongly to the Fathers, always glad to make a point against
+women, and I have met with it in Cyprian's <i>De Habitu Feminarum</i>. It also
+occurs in Jerome's treatise against Jovinian. Jerome, with more scholarly
+instinct, rightly presents the remark as a quotation: &quot;<i>Scribit Herodotus
+quod mulier cum veste deponat et verecundiam</i>.&quot; In Herodotus the saying is
+attributed to Gyges (Book I, Chapter VIII). We may thus trace very far
+back into antiquity an observation which in English has received its
+classical expression from Chaucer, who, in his &quot;Wife of Bath's Prologue,&quot;
+has:&mdash;</p>
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span>&quot;He sayde, a woman cast hir shame away,<br /></span>
+<span>When she cast of hir smok.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p>
+I need not point out that the analysis of modesty offered above robs this
+venerable saying of any sting it may have possessed as a slur upon women.
+In such a case, modesty is largely a doubt as to the spectator's attitude,
+and necessarily disappears when that doubt is satisfactorily resolved. As
+we have seen, the Central Australian maidens were very modest with regard
+to the removal of their single garment, but when that removal was
+accomplished and accepted, they were fearless.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_34'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_34'>[34]</a><div class='note'><p> The same result occurs more markedly under the deadening
+influence of insanity. Grimaldi (<i>Il Manicomio Moderno</i>, 1888) found that
+modesty is lacking in 50 per cent, of the insane.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_35'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_35'>[35]</a><div class='note'><p> For some facts bearing on this point, see Houssay,
+<i>Industries of Animals</i>, Chapter VII. &quot;The Defence and Sanitation of
+Dwellings;&quot; also P. Ballion, <i>De l'Instinct de Propret&eacute; chez les
+Animaux</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_36'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_36'>[36]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, Stevens mentions (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, p.
+182, 1897) that the Dyaks of Malacca always wash the sexual organs, even
+after urination, and are careful to use the left hand in doing so. The
+left hand is also reserved for such uses among the Jekris of the Niger
+coast (<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, p. 122, 1898).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_37'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_37'>[37]</a><div class='note'><p> Lombroso and Ferrero&mdash;who adopt the derivation of <i>pudor</i>
+from <i>putere</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, from the repugnance caused by the decomposition of
+the vaginal secretions&mdash;consider that the fear of causing disgust to men
+is the sole origin of modesty among savage women, as also it remains the
+sole form of modesty among some prostitutes to-day. (<i>La Donna
+Delinquente</i>, p. 540.) Important as this factor is in the constitution of
+the emotion of modesty, I need scarcely add that I regard so exclusive a
+theory as altogether untenable.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_38'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_38'>[38]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Das Weib</i>, Ch. VI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_39'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_39'>[39]</a><div class='note'><p> For references as to a similar feeling among other savages,
+see Westermarck, <i>History of Human Marriage</i>, p. 152.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_40'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_40'>[40]</a><div class='note'><p> See <i>e.g.</i>, Bourke, <i>Scatologic Rites</i>, pp. 141, 145, etc.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_41'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_41'>[41]</a><div class='note'><p> Crawley, <i>op. cit.</i>, Ch. VII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_42'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_42'>[42]</a><div class='note'><p> S, Reinach, <i>Cultes, Mythes et Religions</i>, p. 172.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_43'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_43'>[43]</a><div class='note'><p> Tertullian, <i>De Virginibus Velandis</i>, cap. 17. Hottentot
+women, also (Fritsch, <i>Eingeborene S&uuml;dafrika's</i>, p. 311), cover their head
+with a cloth, and will not be persuaded to remove it.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_44'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_44'>[44]</a><div class='note'><p> Wellhausen, <i>Reste Arabischen Heidentums</i>, p. 196. The same
+custom is found among Tuareg men though it is not imperative for the women
+(Duveyrier, <i>Les Touaregs du Nord</i>, p. 291).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_45'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_45'>[45]</a><div class='note'><p> Quoted in <i>Zentralblatt f&uuml;r Anthropologie</i>, 1906, Heft I, p.
+21.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_46'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_46'>[46]</a><div class='note'><p> Or rather, perhaps, because the sight of their nakedness
+might lead the angels into sin. See W. G. Sumner, <i>Folkways</i>, p. 431.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_47'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_47'>[47]</a><div class='note'><p> In Moruland, Emin Bey remarked that women are mostly naked,
+but some wear a girdle, with a few leaves hanging behind. The women of
+some negro tribes, who thus cover themselves behind, if deprived of this
+sole covering, immediately throw themselves on the ground on their backs,
+in order to hide their nakedness.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_48'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_48'>[48]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>E.g.</i>, Letourneau, <i>L'Evolution de la Morale</i>, p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_49'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_49'>[49]</a><div class='note'><p> Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>,
+p. 683.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_50'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_50'>[50]</a><div class='note'><p> J. R. Forster, <i>Observations Made During a Voyage Round the
+World</i>, 1728, p. 395.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_51'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_51'>[51]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck (<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, Ch. IX) ably sets
+forth this argument, with his usual wealth of illustration. Crawley
+(<i>Mystic Rose</i>, p. 135) seeks to qualify this conclusion by arguing that
+tattooing, etc., of the sex organs is not for ornament but for the purpose
+of magically insulating the organs, and is practically a permanent amulet
+or charm.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_52'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_52'>[52]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Iliad</i>, II, 262. Waitz gives instances (<i>Anthropology</i>, p.
+301) showing that nakedness is sometimes a mark of submission.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_53'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_53'>[53]</a><div class='note'><p> The Celtic races, in their days of developed barbarism, seem
+to have been relatively free from the idea of proprietorship in women, and
+it was probably among the Irish (as we learn from the seventeenth century
+<i>Itinerary</i> of Fynes Moryson) that the habit of nakedness was longest
+preserved among the upper social class women of Western Europe.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_54'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_54'>[54]</a><div class='note'><p> A. B. Ellis, <i>Tshi-Speaking Peoples</i>, p. 280.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_55'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_55'>[55]</a><div class='note'><p> Burnet, <i>Life and Death of Rochester</i>, p. 110.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_56'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_56'>[56]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, seventh year, 1904, p. 439.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_57'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_57'>[57]</a><div class='note'><p> Tallemont des R&eacute;aux, who began to write his <i>Historiettes</i>
+in 1657, says of the Marquise de Rambouillet: &quot;Elle est un peu trop
+d&eacute;licate ... on n'oscrait prononcer le mot de <i>cul</i>. Cela va dans
+l'exc&egrave;s.&quot; Half a century later, in England, Mandeville, in the Remarks
+appended to his <i>Fable of the Bees</i>, refers to the almost prudish modesty
+inculcated on children from their earliest years.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_58'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_58'>[58]</a><div class='note'><p> In one of its civilized developments, this ritualized
+modesty becomes prudery, which is defined by Forel (<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>,
+Fifth ed., p. 125) as &quot;codified sexual morality.&quot; Prudery is fossilized
+modesty, and no longer reacts vitally. True modesty, in an intelligent
+civilized person, is instinctively affected by motives and circumstances,
+responding sensitively to its relationships.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_59'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_59'>[59]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Memoires de Madame d'Epinay</i>, Part I, Ch. V. Thirty years
+earlier, Mandeville had written, in England, that &quot;the modesty of women is
+the result of custom and education.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_60'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_60'>[60]</a><div class='note'><p> Goncourt, <i>Histoire de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Fran&ccedil;aise pendant le
+Directoire</i>, p. 422. Clothes became so gauze-like, and receded to such an
+extent from the limbs, that for a time the chemise was discarded as an
+awkward and antiquated garment.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_61'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_61'>[61]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_62'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_62'>[62]</a><div class='note'><p> In the rural districts of Hanover, Pastor Grashoff states,
+&quot;even when natural necessities are performed with the greatest possible
+freedom, there is no offence to modesty, in rural opinion.&quot; But he makes a
+statement which is both contradictory and false, when he adds that
+&quot;modesty is, to the country man in general, a foreign idea.&quot;
+(<i>Geschlechtlich-Sittliche Verh&auml;ltnisse im Deutsche Reiche</i>, vol. ii, p.
+45.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_63'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_63'>[63]</a><div class='note'><p> It is frequently stated that prostitutes are devoid of
+modesty, but this is incorrect; they possess a partial and diminished
+modesty which, for a considerable period still remains genuine (see
+<i>e.g.</i>, Reuss, <i>La Prostitution</i>, p. 58). Lombroso and Ferrero (<i>La
+Donna</i>, p. 540) refer to the objection of prostitutes to be examined
+during the monthly periods as often greater than that of respectable
+women. Again, Callari states (&quot;Prostituzione in Sicilia,&quot; <i>Archivio di
+Psichiatria</i>, 1903, p. 205), that Sicilian prostitutes can only with
+difficulty be persuaded to expose themselves naked in the practice of
+their profession. Aretino long since remarked (in <i>La Pippa</i>) that no
+women so detest gratuitous <i>d&eacute;colletage</i> as prostitutes. When prostitutes
+do not possess modesty, they frequently simulate it, and Ferriani remarks
+(in his <i>Delinquenti Minorenni</i>) that of ninety-seven minors (mostly
+females) accused of offences against public decency, seventy-five
+simulated a modesty which, in his opinion, they were entirely without.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_III'></a><h3>III.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Blush the Sanction of Modesty&mdash;The Phenomena of Blushing&mdash;Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush&mdash;Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It is impossible to contemplate this series of phenomena, so radically
+persistent whatever its changes of form, and so constant throughout every
+stage of civilization, without feeling that, although modesty cannot
+properly be called an instinct, there must be some physiological basis to
+support it. Undoubtedly such a basis is formed by that vasomotor mechanism
+of which the most obvious outward sign is, in human beings, the blush. All
+the allied emotional forms of fear&mdash;shame, bashfulness, timidity&mdash;are to
+some extent upheld by this mechanism, but such is especially the case with
+the emotion we are now concerned with.<a name='1_FNanchor_64'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_64'><sup>[64]</sup></a> The blush is the sanction of
+modesty.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The blush is, indeed, only a part, almost, perhaps, an accidental
+    part, of the organic turmoil with which it is associated.
+    Partridge, who has studied the phenomena of blushing in one
+    hundred and twenty cases (<i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, April, 1897),
+    finds that the following are the general symptoms: tremors near
+    the waist, weakness in the limbs, pressure, trembling, warmth,
+    weight or beating in the chest, warm wave from feet upward,
+    quivering of heart, stoppage and then rapid beating of heart,
+    coldness all over followed by heat, dizziness, tingling of toes
+    and fingers, numbness, something rising in throat, smarting of
+    eyes, singing in ears, prickling sensations of face, and pressure
+    inside head. Partridge considers that the disturbance is
+    primarily central, a change in the cerebral circulation, and that
+    the actual redness of the surface comes late in the nerve storm,
+    and is really but a small part of it.</p><a name='1_Page_73'></a>
+
+<p>    There has been some discussion as to why, and indeed how far,
+    blushing is confined to the face. Henle (<i>Ueber das Err&ouml;then</i>)
+    thought that we blush in the face because all nervous phenomena
+    produced by mental states appear first in the face, owing to the
+    anatomical arrangement of the nerves of the body. Darwin
+    (<i>Expression of the Emotions</i>) argued that attention to a part
+    tends to produce capillary activity in the part, and that the
+    face has been the chief object of attention. It has also been
+    argued, on the other hand, that the blush is the vestigial
+    remains of a general erethism of sex, in which shame originated;
+    that the blush was thus once more widely diffused, and is so
+    still among the women of some lower races, its limitation to the
+    face being due to sexual selection and the enhanced beauty thus
+    achieved. F&eacute;r&eacute; once had occasion to examine, when completely
+    nude, a boy of thirteen whose sexual organs were deformed; when
+    accused of masturbation he became covered by a blush which spread
+    uniformly over his face, neck, body and limbs, before and behind,
+    except only the hands and feet. F&eacute;r&eacute; asks whether such a
+    universal blush is more common than we imagine, or whether the
+    state of nudity favors its manifestation. (<i>Comptes Rendus,
+    Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de Biologie</i>, April 1, 1905.) It may be added that
+    Partridge mentions one case in which the hands blushed. </p></div>
+
+<p>The sexual relationships of blushing are unquestionable. It occurs chiefly
+in women; it attains its chief intensity at puberty and during
+adolescence; its most common occasion is some more or less sexual
+suggestion; among one hundred and sixty-two occasions of blushing
+enumerated by Partridge, by far the most frequent cause was teasing,
+usually about the other sex. &quot;An erection,&quot; it has been said, &quot;is a
+blushing of the penis.&quot; Stanley Hall seems to suggest that the sexual
+blush is a vicarious genital flushing of blood, diverted from the genital
+sphere by an inhibition of fear, just as, in girls, giggling is also very
+frequently a vicarious outlet of shame; the sexual blush would thus be the
+outcome of an ancestral sex-fear; it is as an irradiation of sexual
+erethism that the blush may contain an element of pleasure.<a name='1_FNanchor_65'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_65'><sup>[65]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Bloch remarks that the blush is sexual, because reddening of the
+    face, as well as of the genitals, is an accompaniment of sexual
+    emotion (<i>Beitr&auml;ge zur &AElig;tiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis</i>, Teil
+    II, p. 39).<a name='1_Page_74'></a> &quot;Do you not think,&quot; a correspondent writes, &quot;that
+    the sexual blush, at least, really represents a vaso-relaxor
+    effect quite the same as erection? The embarrassment which arises
+    is due to a perception of this fact under circumstances which are
+    felt to be unsuited for such a condition. There may arise the
+    fear of awakening disgust by the exhibition of a state which is
+    out of place. I have noticed that such a blush is produced when a
+    sufficiently young and susceptible woman is pumped full of
+    compliments. This blush seems accompanied by pleasure which does
+    not always change to fear or disgust, but is felt to be
+    attractive. When discomfort arises, most women say that they feel
+    this because 'it looks as if they had no control over
+    themselves.' When they feel that there is no need for control,
+    they no longer feel fear, and the relaxor effect has a wider
+    field of operation, producing a general rosiness, erection of
+    spinal sexual organs, etc. Such a blush would thus be a partial
+    sexual equivalent, and allow of the inhibition of other sexual
+    effects, through the warning it gives, and the fear aroused, as
+    well as being in itself a slight outlet of relaxor energy. When
+    the relationships of the persons concerned allow freedom to the
+    special sexual stimuli, as in marriage, blushing does not occur
+    so often, and when it does it has not so often the consequent of
+    fear.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    There can be no doubt that the blush is sexually attractive. The
+    blush is the expression of an impulse to concealment and flight,
+    which tends automatically to arouse in the beholder the
+    corresponding impulse of pursuit, so that the central situation
+    of courtship is at once presented. Women are more or less
+    conscious of this, as well as men, and this recognition is an
+    added source of embarrassment when it cannot become a source of
+    pleasure. The ancient use of rouge testifies to the beauty of the
+    blush, and Darwin stated that, in Turkish slave-markets, the
+    girls who readily blushed fetched the highest prices. To evoke a
+    blush, even by producing embarrassment, is very commonly a cause
+    of masculine gratification.</p>
+
+<p>    Savages, both men and women, blush even beneath a dusky skin (for
+    the phenomenon of blushing among different races, see Waitz,
+    <i>Anthropologie der Naturv&ouml;lker</i>, Bd. I, pp. 149-150), and it is
+    possible that natural selection, as well as sexual selection, has
+    been favorable to the development of the blush. It is scarcely an
+    accident that, as has been often observed, criminals, or the
+    antisocial element of the community&mdash;whether by the habits of
+    their lives or by congenital abnormality&mdash;blush less easily than
+    normal persons. Kroner (<i>Das k&ouml;rperliche Gef&uuml;hl</i>, 1887, p. 130)
+    remarks: &quot;The origin of a specific connection between shame and
+    blushing is the work of a <i>social selection</i>. It is certainly an
+    immediate advantage for a man not to blush; indirectly, however,
+    it is a disadvantage, because in other ways he will be known as
+    shameless, and on that account, as a rule, he will be shut out
+    from <a name='1_Page_75'></a>propagation. This social selection will be specially
+    exercised on the female sex, and on this account, women blush to
+    a greater extent, and more readily, than men.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>The importance of the blush, and the emotional confusion behind it, as the
+sanction of modesty is shown by the significant fact that, by lulling
+emotional confusion, it is possible to inhibit the sense of modesty. In
+other words, we are here in the presence of a fear&mdash;to a large extent a
+sex-fear&mdash;impelling to concealment, and dreading self-attention; this fear
+naturally disappears, even though its ostensible cause remains, when it
+becomes apparent that there is no reason for fear.</p>
+
+<p>That is the reason why nakedness in itself has nothing to do with modesty
+or immodesty; it is the conditions under which the nakedness occurs which
+determine whether or not modesty will be roused. If none of the factors of
+modesty are violated, if no embarrassing self-attention is excited, if
+there is a consciousness of perfect propriety alike in the subject and in
+the spectator, nakedness is entirely compatible with the most scrupulous
+modesty. A. Duval, a pupil of Ingres, tells that a female model was once
+quietly posing, completely nude, at the &Eacute;cole des Beaux Arts. Suddenly she
+screamed and ran to cover herself with her garments. She had seen a
+workman on the roof gazing inquisitively at her through a skylight.<a name='1_FNanchor_66'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_66'><sup>[66]</sup></a>
+And Paola Lombroso describes how a lady, a diplomatist's wife, who went to
+a gathering where she found herself the only woman in evening dress, felt,
+to her own surprise, such sudden shame that she could not keep back her
+tears.</p>
+
+<p>It thus comes about that the emotion of modesty necessarily <a name='1_Page_76'></a>depends on
+the feelings of the people around. The absence of the emotion by no means
+signifies immodesty, provided that the reactions of modesty are at once
+set in motion under the stress of a spectator's eye that is seen to be
+lustful, inquisitive, or reproachful. This is proved to be the case among
+primitive peoples everywhere. The Japanese woman, naked as in daily life
+she sometimes is, remains unconcerned because she excites no disagreeable
+attention, but the inquisitive and unmannerly European's eye at once
+causes her to feel confusion. Stratz, a physician, and one, moreover, who
+had long lived among the Javanese who frequently go naked, found that
+naked Japanese women felt no embarrassment in his presence.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless as a cloak to the blush that we must explain the curious
+influence of darkness in restraining the manifestations of modesty, as
+many lovers have discovered, and as we may notice in our cities after
+dark. This influence of darkness in inhibiting modesty is a very ancient
+observation. Burton, in the <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, quotes from Dandinus
+the saying &quot;<i>Nox facit impudentes</i>,&quot; directly associating this with
+blushing, and Bargagli, the Siennese novelist, wrote in the sixteenth
+century that, &quot;it is commonly said of women, that they will do in the dark
+what they would not do in the light.&quot; It is true that the immodesty of a
+large city at night is to some extent explained by the irruption of
+prostitutes at that time; prostitutes, being habitually nearer to the
+threshold of immodesty, are more markedly affected by this influence. But
+it is an influence to which the most modest women are, at all events in
+some degree, susceptible. It has, indeed, been said that a woman is always
+more her real self in the dark than in the glare of daylight; this is part
+of what Chamberlain calls her night-inspiration.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Traces of the night-inspiration, of the influence of the
+    primitive fire-group, abound in woman. Indeed, it may be said
+    (the life of Southern Europe and of American society of to-day
+    illustrates this point abundantly) that she is, in a sense, a
+    night-being, for the activity, physical and moral, of modern
+    women (revealed <i>e.g.</i> in the dance and the nocturnal
+    intellectualities of society) in this direction is remarkable.
+    Perhaps we may style a good deal of her ordinary day-labor as
+    rest, or the commonplaces and banalities of her existence, her
+    evening and night <a name='1_Page_77'></a>life being the true side of her activities&quot;
+    (A. F. Chamberlain, &quot;Work and Rest,&quot; <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>,
+    March, 1902). Giessler, who has studied the general influence of
+    darkness on human psychic life, reaches conclusions which
+    harmonize with these (C. M. Giessler, &quot;Der Einfluss der Dunkelheit
+    auf das Seelenleben des Menschen,&quot; <i>Vierteljahrsschrift f&uuml;r
+    wissenschaftliche Philosophie</i>, 1904, pp. 255-279). I have not
+    been able to see Giessler's paper, but, according to a summary of
+    it, he comes to the result that in the dark the soul's activities
+    are nearer to its motor pole than to its sensitive pole, and that
+    there is a tendency for phenomena belonging to the early period
+    of development to be prominent, motor memory functioning more
+    than representative memory, attention more than apperception,
+    imagination more than logical thinking, egoistic more than
+    altruistic morals. </p></div>
+
+<p>It is curious to note that short-sightedness, naturally, though
+illogically, tends to exert the same influence as darkness in this
+respect; I am assured by short-sighted persons of both sexes that they are
+much more liable to the emotions of shyness and modesty with their glasses
+than without them; such persons with difficulty realize that they are not
+so dim to others as others are to them. To be in the company of a blind
+person seems also to be a protection against shyness.<a name='1_FNanchor_67'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_67'><sup>[67]</sup></a> It is
+interesting to learn that congenitally blind children are as sensitive to
+appearances as normal children, and blush as readily.<a name='1_FNanchor_68'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_68'><sup>[68]</sup></a> This would seem
+to be due to the fact that the habitually blind have permanently adjusted
+their mental focus to that of normal persons, and react in the same manner
+as normal persons; blindness is not for them, as it is for the
+short-sighted without their glasses, a temporary and relative, almost
+unconscious refuge from clear vision.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, not as the mere cloak of a possible blush that darkness
+gives courage; it is because it lulls detailed self-realization, such
+conscious self-realization being always a source <a name='1_Page_78'></a>of fears, and the blush
+their definite symbol and visible climax. It is to the blush that we must
+attribute a curious complementary relationship between the face and the
+sacro-pubic region as centres of anatomical modesty. The women of some
+African tribes who go naked, Emin Bey remarked, cover the face with the
+hand under the influence of modesty. Martial long since observed (Lib.
+iii, LXVIII) that when an innocent girl looks at the penis she gazes
+through her fingers. Where, as among many Mohammedan peoples, the face is
+the chief focus of modesty, the exposure of the rest of the body,
+including sometimes even the sacro-pubic region, and certainly the legs
+and thighs, often becomes a matter of indifference.<a name='1_FNanchor_69'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_69'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>This concealment of the face is more than a convention; it has a
+psychological basis. We may observe among ourselves the well-marked
+feminine tendency to hide the face in order to cloak a possible blush, and
+to hide the eyes as a method of lulling self-consciousness, a method
+fabulously attributed to the ostrich with the same end of concealment.<a name='1_FNanchor_70'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_70'><sup>[70]</sup></a>
+A woman who is shy with <a name='1_Page_79'></a>her lover will sometimes experience little or no
+difficulty in showing any part of her person provided she may cover her
+face. When, in gynecological practice, examination of the sexual organs is
+necessary, women frequently find evident satisfaction in concealing the
+face with the hands, although not the slightest attention is being
+directed toward the face, and when an unsophisticated woman is betrayed
+into a confession which affects her modesty she is apt to turn her back to
+her interlocutor. &quot;When the face of woman is covered,&quot; it has been said,
+&quot;her heart is bared,&quot; and the Catholic Church has recognized this
+psychological truth by arranging that in the confessional the penitent's
+face shall not be visible. The gay and innocent freedom of southern women
+during Carnival is due not entirely to the permitted license of the season
+or the concealment of identity, but to the mask that hides the face. In
+England, during Queen Elizabeth's reign and at the Restoration, it was
+possible for respectable women to be present at the theatre, even during
+the performance of the most free-spoken plays, because they wore masks.
+The fan has often subserved a similar end.<a name='1_FNanchor_71'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_71'><sup>[71]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>All such facts serve to show that, though the forms of modesty may change,
+it is yet a very radical constituent of human nature in all stages of
+civilization, and that it is, to a large extent, maintained by the
+mechanism of blushing.</p><a name='1_Page_80'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_64'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_64'>[64]</a><div class='note'><p> Melinaud (&quot;Pourquoi Rougit-on?&quot; <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1
+Octobre, 1893) points out that blushing is always associated with fear,
+and indicates, in the various conditions under which it may
+arise,&mdash;modesty, timidity, confusion,&mdash;that we have something to conceal
+which we fear may be discovered. &quot;All the evidence,&quot; Partridge states,
+&quot;seems to point to the conclusion that the mental state underlying
+blushing belongs to the fear family. The presence of the feeling of dread,
+the palpitation of the heart, the impulse to escape, to hide, the shock,
+all confirms this view.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_65'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_65'>[65]</a><div class='note'><p> G. Stanley Hall, &quot;A Study of Fears,&quot; <i>American Journal
+Psychology</i>, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_66'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_66'>[66]</a><div class='note'><p> Men are also very sensitive to any such inquisitiveness on
+the part of the opposite sex. To this cause, perhaps, and possibly, also,
+to the fear of causing disgust, may be ascribed the objection of men to
+undress before women artists and women doctors. I am told there is often
+difficulty in getting men to pose nude to women artists. Sir Jonathan
+Hutchinson was compelled, some years ago, to exclude lady members of the
+medical profession from the instructive demonstrations at his museum, &quot;on
+account of the unwillingness of male patients to undress before them.&quot; A
+similar unwillingness is not found among women patients, but it must be
+remembered that, while women are accustomed to men as doctors, men (in
+England) are not yet accustomed to women as doctors.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_67'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_67'>[67]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;I am acquainted with the case of a shy man,&quot; writes Dr.
+Harry Campbell, in his interesting study of &quot;Morbid Shyness&quot; (<i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, September 26, 1896), &quot;who will make himself quite at
+home in the house of a blind person, and help himself to wine with the
+utmost confidence, whereas if a member of the family, who can see, comes
+into the room, all his old shyness returns, and he wishes himself far
+away.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_68'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_68'>[68]</a><div class='note'><p> Stanley Hall (&quot;Showing Off and Bashfulness,&quot; <i>Pedagogical
+Seminary</i>, June, 1903), quotes Dr. Anagnos, of the Perkins Institute for
+the Blind, to this effect.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_69'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_69'>[69]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, Sonnini, in the eighteenth century, noted that the
+country women in Egypt only wore a single garment, open from the armpits
+to the knees on each side, so that it revealed the body at every movement;
+&quot;but this troubles the women little, provided the face is not exposed.&quot;
+(<i>Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte</i>, 1779, vol. i, p, 289.) When
+Casanova was at Constantinople, the Comte de Bonneval, a convert to Islam,
+assured him that he was mistaken in trying to see a woman's face when he
+might easily obtain greater favors from her. &quot;The most reserved of Turkish
+women,&quot; the Comte assured him, &quot;only carries her modesty in her face, and
+as soon as her veil is on she is sure that she will never blush at
+anything.&quot; (<i>M&eacute;moires</i>, vol. i, p. 429.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_70'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_70'>[70]</a><div class='note'><p> It is worth noting that this impulse is rooted in the
+natural instinctive acts and ideas of childhood. Stanley Hall, dealing
+with the &quot;Early Sense of Self,&quot; in the report already mentioned, refers to
+the eyes as perhaps even more than the hands, feet, and mouth, &quot;the
+centres of that kind of self-consciousness which is always mindful of how
+the self appears to others,&quot; and proceeds to mention &quot;the very common
+impression of young children that if the eyes are covered or closed they
+cannot be seen. Some think the entire body thus vanishes from sight of
+others; some, that the head also ceases to be visible; and a still higher
+form of this curious psychosis is that, when they are closed, the soul
+cannot be seen.&quot; (<i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. ix, No. 3, 1898.)
+The instinctive and unreasoned character of this act is further shown by
+its occurrence in idiots. N&auml;cke mentions that he once had occasion to
+examine the abdomen of an idiot, who, thereupon, attempted to draw down
+his shirt with the left hand, while with the right he covered his eyes.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_71'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_71'>[71]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Cf.</i> Stanley Hall and T. Smith, &quot;Showing Off and
+Bashfulness,&quot; <i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, June, 1903.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_IV'></a><h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Summary of the Factors of Modesty&mdash;The Future of Modesty&mdash;Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>We have seen that the factors of modesty are numerous. To attempt to
+explain modesty by dismissing it as merely an example of psychic
+paralysis, of <i>Stauung</i>, is to elude the problem by the statement of what
+is little more than a truism. Modesty is a complexus of emotions with
+their concomitant ideas which we must unravel to comprehend.</p>
+
+<p>We have found among the factors of modesty: (1) the primitive animal
+gesture of sexual refusal on the part of the female when she is not at
+that moment of her generative life at which she desires the male's
+advances; (2) the fear of arousing disgust, a fear primarily due to the
+close proximity of the sexual centre to the points of exit of those
+excretions which are useless and unpleasant, even in many cases to
+animals; (3) the fear of the magic influence of sexual phenomena, and the
+ceremonial and ritual practices primarily based on this fear, and
+ultimately passing into simple rules of decorum which are signs and
+guardians of modesty; (4) the development of ornament and clothing,
+concomitantly fostering alike the modesty which represses male sexual
+desire and the coquetry which seeks to allure it; (5) the conception of
+women as property, imparting a new and powerful sanction to an emotion
+already based on more natural and primitive facts.</p>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered that these factors do not usually occur
+separately. Very often they are all of them implied in a single impulse of
+modesty. We unravel the cord in order to investigate its construction, but
+in real life the strands are more or less indistinguishably twisted
+together.</p>
+
+<p>It may still be asked finally whether, on the whole, modesty really
+becomes a more prominent emotion as civilization advances. I do not think
+this position can be maintained. It is a great mistake, as we have seen,
+to suppose that in becoming extended <a name='1_Page_81'></a>modesty also becomes intensified. On
+the contrary, this very extension is a sign of weakness. Among savages,
+modesty is far more radical and invincible than among the civilized. Of
+the Araucanian women of Chile, Treutler has remarked that they are
+distinctly more modest than the Christian white population, and such
+observations might be indefinitely extended. It is, as we have already
+noted, in a new and crude civilization, eager to mark its separation from
+a barbarism it has yet scarcely escaped, that we find an extravagant and
+fantastic anxiety to extend the limits of modesty in life, and art, and
+literature. In older and more mature civilizations&mdash;in classical
+antiquity, in old Japan, in France&mdash;modesty, while still a very real
+influence, becomes a much less predominant and all-pervading influence. In
+life it becomes subservient to human use, in art to beauty, in literature
+to expression.</p>
+
+<p>Among ourselves we may note that modesty is a much more invincible motive
+among the lower social classes than among the more cultivated classes.
+This is so even when we should expect the influence of occupation to
+induce familiarity. Thus I have been told of a ballet-girl who thinks it
+immodest to bathe in the fashion customary at the seaside, and cannot make
+up her mind to do so, but she appears on the stage every night in tights
+as a matter of course; while Fanny Kemble, in her <i>Reminiscences</i>, tells
+of an actress, accustomed to appear in tights, who died a martyr to
+modesty rather than allow a surgeon to see her inflamed knee. Modesty is,
+indeed, a part of self-respect, but in the fully-developed human being
+self-respect itself holds in check any excessive modesty.<a name='1_FNanchor_72'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_72'><sup>[72]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>We must remember, moreover, that there are more definite grounds for the
+subordination of modesty with the development <a name='1_Page_82'></a>of civilization. We have
+seen that the factors of modesty are many, and that most of them are based
+on emotions which make little urgent appeal save to races in a savage or
+barbarous condition. Thus, disgust, as Richet has truly pointed out,
+necessarily decreases as knowledge increases.<a name='1_FNanchor_73'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_73'><sup>[73]</sup></a> As we analyze and
+understand our experiences better, so they cause us less disgust. A rotten
+egg is disgusting, but the chemist feels no disgust toward sulphuretted
+hydrogen; while a solution of propylamin does not produce the disgusting
+impression of that human physical uncleanliness of which it is an odorous
+constituent. As disgust becomes analyzed, and as self-respect tends to
+increased physical purity, so the factor of disgust in modesty is
+minimized. The factor of ceremonial uncleanness, again, which plays so
+urgent a part in modesty at certain stages of culture, is to-day without
+influence except in so far as it survives in etiquette. In the same way
+the social-economic factor of modesty, based on the conception of women as
+property, belongs to a stage of human development which is wholly alien to
+an advanced civilization. Even the most fundamental impulse of all, the
+gesture of sexual refusal, is normally only imperative among animals and
+savages. Thus civilization tends to subordinate, if not to minimize,
+modesty, to render it a grace of life rather than a fundamental social law
+of life. But an essential grace of life it still remains, and whatever
+delicate variations it may assume we can scarcely conceive of its
+disappearance.</p>
+
+<p>In the art of love, however, it is more than a grace; it must always be
+fundamental. Modesty is not indeed the last word of love, but it is the
+necessary foundation for all love's most exquisite audacities, the
+foundation which alone gives worth and sweetness to what S&eacute;nancour calls
+its &quot;delicious impudence.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_74'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_74'><sup>[74]</sup></a> Without modesty we could not have, nor
+rightly value at its true worth, that bold and pure candor which is at
+once the final revelation of love and the seal of its sincerity. </p><a name='1_Page_83'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Even Hohenemser&mdash;who argues that for the perfect man there could
+    be no shame, because shame rests on an inner conflict in one's
+    own personality, and &quot;the perfect man knows no inner
+    conflict&quot;&mdash;believes that, since humanity is imperfect, modesty
+    possesses a high and, indeed, symptomatic value, for &quot;its
+    presence shows that according to the measure of a man's ideal
+    personality, his valuations are established.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Dugas goes further, and asserts that the ideals of modesty
+    develop with human development, and forever take on new and finer
+    forms. &quot;There is,&quot; he declares, &quot;a very close relationship
+    between naturalness, or sincerity, and modesty, for in love,
+    naturalness is the ideal attained, and modesty is only the fear
+    of coming short of that ideal. Naturalness is the sign and the
+    test of perfect love. It is the sign of it, for, when love can
+    show itself natural and true, one may conclude that it is
+    purified of its unavowable imperfections or defects, of its alloy
+    of wretched and petty passions, its grossness, its chimerical
+    notions, that it has become strong and healthy and vigorous. It
+    is the ordeal of it, for to show itself natural, to be always
+    true, without shrinking, it must have all the lovable qualities,
+    and have them without seeking, as a second nature. What we call
+    'natural,' is indeed really acquired; it is the gift of a
+    physical and moral evolution which it is precisely the object of
+    modesty to keep. Modesty is the feeling of the true, that is to
+    say, of the healthy, in love; it long exists as a vision, not yet
+    attained; vague, yet sufficiently clear for all that deviates
+    from it to be repelled as offensive and painful. At first, a
+    remote and seemingly inaccessible ideal, as it comes nearer it
+    grows human and individual, and emerges from the region of dream,
+    ceasing not to be loved as ideal, even when it is possessed as
+    real.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;At first sight, it seems paradoxical to define modesty as an
+    aspiration towards truth in love; it seems, on the contrary, to
+    be an altogether factitious feeling. But to simplify the problem,
+    we have to suppose modesty reduced to its normal functions,
+    disengaged from its superstitions, its variegated customs and
+    prejudices, the true modesty of simple and healthy natures, as
+    far removed from prudery as from immodesty. And what we term the
+    natural, or the true in love, is the singular mingling of two
+    forms of imaginations, wrongly supposed to be incompatible: ideal
+    aspiration and the sense for the realities of life. Thus defined,
+    modesty not only repudiates that cold and dissolving criticism
+    which deprives love of all poetry, and prepares the way for a
+    brutal realism; it also excludes that light and detached
+    imagination which floats above love, the mere idealism of heroic
+    sentiments, which cherishes poetic illusions, and passes, without
+    seeing it, the love that is real and alive. True modesty implies
+    a love not addressed to the heroes of vain romances, but to
+    living people, with their feet on the earth. But on the other
+    hand, modesty is the respect <a name='1_Page_84'></a>of love; if it is not shocked by
+    its physical necessities, if it accepts physiological and
+    psychological conditions, it also maintains the ideal of those
+    moral proprieties outside of which, for all of us, love cannot be
+    enjoyed. When love is really felt, and not vainly imagined,
+    modesty is the requirement of an ideal of dignity, conceived as
+    the very condition of that love. Separate modesty from love, that
+    is, from love which is not floating in the air, but crystallized
+    around a real person, and its psychological reality, its poignant
+    and tragic character, disappears.&quot; (Dugas, &quot;La Pudeur,&quot; <i>Revue
+    Philosophique</i>, Nov., 1903.) So conceived, modesty becomes a
+    virtue, almost identical with the Roman <i>modestia</i>. </p></div><a name='1_Page_85'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_72'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_72'>[72]</a><div class='note'><p> Freud remarks that one may often hear, concerning elderly
+ladies, that in their youth in the country, they suffered, almost to
+collapse, from h&aelig;morrhages from the genital passage, because they were too
+modest to seek medical advice and examination; he adds that it is
+extremely rare to find such an attitude among our young women to-day. (S.
+Freud, <i>Zur Neurosenlehre</i>, 1906, p. 182.) It would be easy to find
+evidence of the disappearance of misplaced signs of modesty formerly
+prevalent, although this mark of increasing civilization has not always
+penetrated to our laws and regulations.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_73'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_73'>[73]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Disgust,&quot; he remarks, &quot;is a sort of synthesis which
+attaches to the total form of objects, and which must diminish and
+disappear as scientific analysis separates into parts what, as a whole, is
+so repugnant.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_74'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_74'>[74]</a><div class='note'><p> S&eacute;nancour, <i>De l'Amour</i>, 1834, vol. i, p. 316. He remarks
+that a useless and false reserve is due to stupidity rather than to
+modesty.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_THE_PHENOMENA_OF_SEXUAL_PERIODICITY'></a><h2>THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.</h2>
+
+<a name='1_I-P'></a><h3>I.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms&mdash;Menstruation&mdash;The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon&mdash;Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races&mdash;Mittelschmerz&mdash;Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle&mdash;Menstruation among Animals&mdash;Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes&mdash;What is Menstruation&mdash;Its Primary Cause Still Obscure&mdash;The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation&mdash;The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health&mdash;The Relation of Menstruation to &quot;Heat&quot;&mdash;The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation&mdash;The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period&mdash;Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Throughout the vegetable and animal worlds the sexual functions are
+periodic. From the usually annual period of flowering in plants, with its
+play of sperm-cell and germ-cell and consequent seed-production, through
+the varying sexual energies of animals, up to the monthly effervescence of
+the generative organism in woman, seeking not without the shedding of
+blood for the gratification of its reproductive function, from first to
+last we find unfailing evidence of the periodicity of sex. At first the
+sun, and then, as some have thought, the moon, have marked throughout a
+rhythmic impress on the phenomena of sex. To understand these phenomena we
+have not only to recognize the bare existence of that periodic fact, but
+to realize its implications.</p>
+
+<p>Rhythm, it is scarcely necessary to remark, is far from characterizing
+sexual activity alone. It is the character of all biological activity,
+alike on the physical and the psychic sides. All the organs of the body
+appear to be in a perpetual process of rhythmic contraction and expansion.
+The heart is rhythmic, so is the respiration. The spleen is rhythmic, so
+also the bladder. The uterus constantly undergoes regular rhythmic
+contractions at brief intervals. The vascular system, down to the smallest
+capillaries, is acted on by three series of vibrations, and every
+<a name='1_Page_86'></a>separate fragment of muscular tissue possesses rhythmic contractility.
+Growth itself is rhythmic, and, as Malling-Hansen and subsequent observers
+have found, follows a regular annual course as well as a larger cycle. On
+the psychic sides attention is rhythmic. We are always irresistibly
+compelled to impart a rhythm to every succession of sounds, however
+uniform and monotonous. A familiar example of this is the rhythm we can
+seldom refrain from hearing in the puffing of an engine. A series of
+experiments, by Bolton, on thirty subjects showed that the clicks of an
+electric telephone connected in an induction-apparatus nearly always fell
+into rhythmic groups, usually of two or four, rarely of three or five, the
+rhythmic perception being accompanied by a strong impulse to make
+corresponding muscular movements.<a name='1_FNanchor_75'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_75'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is, however, with the influence&mdash;to some extent real, to some extent,
+perhaps, only apparent&mdash;of cosmic rhythm that we are here concerned. The
+general tendency, physical and psychic, of nervous action to fall into
+rhythm is merely interesting from the present point of view as showing a
+biological predisposition to accept any periodicity that is habitually
+imposed upon the organism.<a name='1_FNanchor_76'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_76'><sup>[76]</sup></a> Menstruation has always been associated
+with the lunar revolutions.<a name='1_FNanchor_77'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_77'><sup>[77]</sup></a> Darwin, without specifically mentioning
+menstruation, has suggested that the explanation of the allied cycle of
+gestation in mammals, as well as incubation in birds, may be found in the
+condition under which ascidians live at high and low water in consequence
+of the phenomena of tidal change.<a name='1_FNanchor_78'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_78'><sup>[78]</sup></a> It must, however, be remembered that
+the ascidian <a name='1_Page_87'></a>origin of the vertebrates has since been contested from many
+sides, and, even if we admit that at all events some such allied
+conditions in the early history of vertebrates and their ancestors tended
+to impress a lunar cycle on the race, it must still be remembered that the
+monthly periodicity of menstruation only becomes well marked in the human
+species.<a name='1_FNanchor_79'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_79'><sup>[79]</sup></a> Bearing in mind the influence exerted on both the habits and
+the emotions even of animals by the brightness of moonlight nights, it is
+perhaps not extravagant to suppose that, on organisms already ancestrally
+predisposed to the influence of rhythm in general and of cosmic rhythm in
+particular, the periodically recurring full moon, not merely by its
+stimulation of the nervous system, but possibly by the special
+opportunities which it gave for the exercise of the sexual functions,
+served to implant a lunar rhythm on menstruation. How important such a
+factor may be we have evidence in the fact that the daily life of even the
+most civilized peoples is still regulated by a weekly cycle which is
+apparently a segment of the cosmic lunar cycle.</p>
+
+<p>Mantegazza has suggested that the sexual period became established with
+relation to the lunar period because moonlight nights were favorable to
+courting,<a name='1_FNanchor_80'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_80'><sup>[80]</sup></a> and Nelson remarks that in his experience young and robust
+persons are subject to recurrent periods of wakefulness at night which
+they attribute to the action of the full moon. One may perhaps refer also
+to the tendency of bright moonlight to stir the emotions of the young,
+<a name='1_Page_88'></a>especially at puberty, a tendency which in neurotic persons may become
+almost morbid.<a name='1_FNanchor_81'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_81'><sup>[81]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to point out that, the farther back we are able to trace
+the beginnings of culture, the more important we find the part played by
+the moon. Next to the alteration of day and night, the moon's changes are
+the most conspicuous and startling phenomena of Nature; they first suggest
+a basis for reckoning time; they are of the greatest use in primitive
+agriculture; and everywhere the moon is held to have vast influence on the
+whole of organic life. Hahn has suggested that the reason why mythological
+systems do not usually present the moon in the supreme position which we
+should expect, is that its immense importance is so ancient a fact that it
+tends, with mythological development, to become overlaid by other
+elements.<a name='1_FNanchor_82'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_82'><sup>[82]</sup></a> According to Seler, Quetzalcouatl and Tezeatlipoca, the two
+most considerable figures in the Mexican pantheon, are to be regarded
+mainly as complementary forms of the moon divinity, and the moon was the
+chief Mexican measurer of time.<a name='1_FNanchor_83'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_83'><sup>[83]</sup></a> Even in Babylonia, where the sun was
+most specially revered, at the earliest period the moon ranked higher,
+being gradually superseded by the worship of the sun.<a name='1_FNanchor_84'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_84'><sup>[84]</sup></a> Although such
+considerations as these will by no means take us as far back as the
+earliest appearance of menstruation, they may serve to indicate that the
+phases of the moon probably played a large part in the earliest evolution
+of man. With that statement we must at present rest content.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the monthly character of menstruation, while
+representing a general tendency of the human race, always and everywhere
+prevalent, may be modified in the future. It is <a name='1_Page_89'></a>a noteworthy fact that
+among many primitive races menstruation only occurs at long intervals.
+Thus among Eskimo women menstruation follows the peculiar cosmic
+conditions to which the people are subjected; Cook, the ethnologist of the
+Peary North Greenland expedition, found that menstruation only began after
+the age of nineteen, and that it was usually suppressed during the winter
+months, when there is no sun, only about one in ten women continuing to
+menstruate during this period.<a name='1_FNanchor_85'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_85'><sup>[85]</sup></a> It was stated by Velpeau that Lapland
+and Greenland women usually only menstruate every three months, or even
+only two or three times during the year. On the Faroe Islands it is said
+that menstruation is frequently absent. Among the Samoyeds, Mantegazza
+mentions that menstruation is so slight that some travelers have denied
+its existence. Azara noted among the Guaranis of Paraguay that
+menstruation was not only slight in amount, but the periods were separated
+by long intervals. Among the Indians in North America, again, menstruation
+appears to be scanty. Thus, Holder, speaking of his experience with the
+Crow Indians of Montana, says: &quot;I am quite sure that full-blood Indians in
+this latitude do not menstruate so freely as white women, not usually
+exceeding three days.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_86'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_86'><sup>[86]</sup></a> Among the naked women of Tierra del Fuego, it
+is said that there is often no physical sign of the menses for six months
+at a time. These observations are noteworthy, though they clearly
+indicate, on the whole, that primitiveness in race is a very powerless
+factor without a cold climate. On the other hand, again, there is some
+reason to suppose that in Europe there is a latent tendency in some women
+for the menstrual cycle to split up further into two cycles, by the
+appearance of a latent minor climax in the middle of the monthly interval.
+I allude to the phenomenon usually called <i>Mittelschmerz</i>, middle period,
+or intermenstrual pain. </p><a name='1_Page_90'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Since the investigations of Goodman, Stephenson, Van Ott, Reinl,
+    Jacobi, and others, it has been generally recognized that
+    menstruation is a continuous process, the flow being merely the
+    climax of a menstrual cycle, a physiological wave which is in
+    constant flux or reflux. This cycle manifests itself in all a
+    woman's activities, in metabolism, respiration, temperature,
+    etc., as well as on the nervous and psychic side. The healthier
+    the woman is, the less conscious is the cyclic return of her
+    life, but the cycle may be traced (as Hegar has found) even
+    before puberty takes place, while Salerni has found that even in
+    amenorrh&oelig;a the menstrual cycle still manifests itself in
+    the temperature and respiration. (<i>Rivista Sperimentale di
+    Freniatria</i>, XXX, fasc. 2-3.)</p>
+
+<p>    For a summary of the phenomena of the menstrual cycle, see
+    Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, fourth ed., revised and
+    enlarged, Ch. XI; &quot;The Functional Periodicity of Women.&quot; <i>Cf.</i>
+    Keller, <i>Archives G&eacute;n&eacute;rales de M&eacute;decine</i>, May, 1897; Hegar,
+    <i>Allgemeine Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, 1901, Heft 2 and 3;
+    Helen MacMurchy, <i>Lancet</i>, Oct. 5. 1901; A. E. Giles,
+    <i>Transactions Obstetrical Society London</i>, vol. xxxix, p. 115,
+    etc.</p>
+
+<p>    <i>Mittelschmerz</i> is a condition of pain occurring about the middle
+    of the intermenstrual period, either alone or accompanied by a
+    slight sanguineous discharge, or, more frequently, a
+    non-sanguineous discharge. (In a case described by Van Voornveld,
+    the manifestation was confined to a regularly occurring rise of
+    temperature.) The phenomenon varies, but seems usually to occur
+    about the fourteenth day, and to last two or three days. Laycock,
+    in 1840 (<i>Nervous Diseases of Women</i>, p. 46), gave instances of
+    women with an intermenstrual period. Depaul and Gu&eacute;niot
+    (<i>Dictionnaire Encyclop&eacute;dique des Sciences M&eacute;dicales</i>, Art.,
+    &quot;Menstruation,&quot; p. 694) speak of intermenstrual symptoms, and
+    even actual flow, as occurring in women who are in a perfect
+    state of health, and constituting genuine &quot;<i>r&egrave;gles
+    surnum&eacute;raries</i>.&quot; The condition is, however, said to have been
+    first fully described by Valleix; then, in 18725 by Sir William
+    Priestley; and subsequently by Fehling, Fasbender, Sorel,
+    Halliday Croom, Findley, Addinsell, and others. (See, for
+    instance, &quot;Mittelschmerz,&quot; by J. Halliday Croom, <i>Transactions of
+    Edinburgh Obstetrical Society</i>, vol. xxi, 1896. Also, Krieger,
+    <i>Menstruation</i>, pp. 68-69.) Fliess (<i>Die Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen</i>, p. 118) goes so far as
+    to assert that an intermenstrual period of menstrual
+    symptoms&mdash;which he terms <i>Nebenmenstruation</i>&mdash;is &quot;a phenomenon
+    well known to most healthy women.&quot; Observations are at present
+    too few to allow any definite conclusions, and in some of the
+    cases so far recorded a pathological condition of the sexual
+    organs has been found to exist. Rosner, of Cracow, however, found
+    that only in one case out of twelve was there any disease present
+    (<i>La Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, June, 1905), and Storer, who has met with
+    twenty <a name='1_Page_91'></a>cases, insists on the remarkable and definite regularity
+    of the manifestations, wholly unlike those of neuralgia (<i>Boston
+    Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, April 19, 1900). There is no
+    agreement as to the cause of <i>Mittelschmerz</i>. Addinsell
+    attributed it to disease of the Fallopian tubes. This, however,
+    is denied by such competent authorities as Cullingworth and Bland
+    Sutton. Others, like Priestley, and subsequently Marsh (<i>American
+    Journal of Obstetrics</i>, July, 1897), have sought to find the
+    explanation in the occurrence of ovulation. This theory is,
+    however, unsupported by facts, and eventually rests on the
+    exploded belief that ovulation is the cause of menstruation.
+    Rosner, following Richelet, vaguely attributes it to the diffused
+    hyper&aelig;mia which is generally present. Van de Velde also
+    attributes it to an abnormal fall of vascular tone, causing
+    passive congestion of the pelvic viscera. Others again, like
+    Armand Routh and MacLean, in the course of an interesting
+    discussion on <i>Mittelschmerz</i> at the Obstetric Society of London,
+    on the second day of March, 1898, believe that we may trace here
+    a double menstruation, and would explain the phenomenon by
+    assuming that in certain cases there is an intermenstrual as well
+    as a menstrual cycle. The question is not yet ripe for
+    settlement, though it is fully evident that, looking broadly at
+    the phenomena of rut and menstruation, the main basis of their
+    increasing frequency as we rise toward civilized man is increase
+    of nutrition, heat and sunlight being factors of nutrition. When
+    dealing with civilized man, however, we are probably concerned
+    not merely with general nutrition, but with the nervous direction
+    of that nutrition. </p></div>
+
+<p>At this stage it is natural to inquire what the corresponding phenomena
+are among animals. Unfortunately, imperfect as is our comprehension of the
+human phenomena, our knowledge of the corresponding phenomena among
+animals is much more fragmentary and incomplete. Among most animals
+menstruation does not exist, being replaced by what is known as heat, or
+&oelig;strus, which usually occurs once or twice a year, in spring and
+in autumn, sometimes affecting the male as well as the female.<a name='1_FNanchor_87'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_87'><sup>[87]</sup></a> There
+is, however, a great deal of progression in the upward march of the
+phenomena, as we approach our own and <a name='1_Page_92'></a>allied zo&ouml;logical series. Heat in
+domesticated cows usually occurs every three weeks. The female
+hippopotamus in the Zo&ouml;logical Gardens has been observed to exhibit
+monthly sexual excitement, with swelling and secretion from the vulva.
+Progression is not only toward greater frequency with higher evolution or
+with increased domestication, but there is also a change in the character
+of the flow. As Wiltshire,<a name='1_FNanchor_88'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_88'><sup>[88]</sup></a> in his remarkable lectures on the
+&quot;Comparative Physiology of Menstruation,&quot; asserted as a law, the more
+highly evolved the animal, the more sanguineous the catamenial flow.</p>
+
+<p>It is not until we reach the monkeys that this character of the flow
+becomes well marked. Monthly sanguineous discharges have been observed
+among many monkeys. In the seventeenth century various observers in many
+parts of the world&mdash;Bohnius, Peyer, Helbigius, Van der Wiel, and
+others&mdash;noted menstruation in monkeys.<a name='1_FNanchor_89'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_89'><sup>[89]</sup></a> Buffon observed it among
+various monkeys as well as in the orang-utan. J. G. St. Hilaire and Cuvier,
+many years ago, declared that menstruation exists among a variety of
+monkeys and lower apes. Rengger described a vaginal discharge in a species
+of cebus in Paraguay, while Raciborski observed in the Jardin des Plantes
+that the menstrual h&aelig;morrhage in guenons was so abundant that the floor of
+the cage was covered by it to a considerable extent; the same variety of
+monkey was observed at Surinam, by Hill, a surgeon in the Dutch army, who
+noted an abundant sanguineous flow occurring at every new moon, and
+lasting about three days, the animal at this time also showing signs of
+sexual excitement.<a name='1_FNanchor_90'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_90'><sup>[90]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_93'></a>
+
+<p>The macaque and the baboon appear to be the non-human animals, in which
+menstruation has been most carefully observed. In the former, besides the
+flow, Bland Sutton remarks that &quot;all the naked or pale-colored parts of
+the body, such as the face, neck, and ischial regions, assume a lively
+pink color; in some cases, it is a vivid red.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_91'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_91'><sup>[91]</sup></a> The flow is slight, but
+the coloring lasts several days, and in warm weather the labia are much
+swollen.</p>
+
+<p>Heape<a name='1_FNanchor_92'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_92'><sup>[92]</sup></a> has most fully and carefully described menstruation in monkeys.
+He found at Calcutta that the <i>Macacus cynomolgus</i> menstruated regularly
+on the 20th of December, 20th of January, and about the 20th of February.
+The <i>Cynocephalus porcaria</i> and the <i>Semnopithecus entellus</i> both
+menstruated each month for about four days. In the <i>Macaci rhesus</i> and
+<i>cynomolgus</i> at menstruation &quot;the nipples and vulva become swollen and
+deeply congested, and the skin of the buttocks swollen, tense, and of a
+brilliant-red or even purple color. The abdominal wall also, for a short
+space upward, and the inside of the thighs, sometimes as far down as the
+heel, and the under surface of the tail for half its length or more, are
+all colored a vivid red, while the skin of the face, especially about the
+eyes, is flushed or blotched with red.&quot; In late gestation the coloring is
+still more vivid. Something similar is to be seen in the males also.</p>
+
+<p>Distant, who kept a female baboon for some time, has recorded the dates of
+menstruation during a year. He found that nine periods occurred during the
+year. The average length between the periods was nearly six weeks, but
+they occurred more frequently in the late autumn and the winter than in
+the summer.<a name='1_FNanchor_93'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_93'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact, Heape noted, that, notwithstanding
+menstruation, the seasonal influence, or rut, still persisted in the
+monkeys he investigated. </p><a name='1_Page_94'></a>
+
+<p>In the anthropoid apes, Hartmann remarks that several observers have
+recorded periodic menstruation in the chimpanzee, with flushing and
+enlargement of the external parts, and protrusion of the external lips,
+which are not usually visible, while there is often excessive enlargement
+and reddening of these parts and of the posterior callosities during
+sexual excitement. Very little, however, appears to be definitely known
+regarding any form of menstruation in the higher apes. M. Deniker, who has
+made a special study of the anthropoid apes, informs me that he has so far
+been unable to make definite observations regarding the existence of
+menstruation. Moll remarks that he received information regarding such a
+phenomenon in the orang-utan. A pair of orang-utans was kept in the Berlin
+Zo&ouml;logical Gardens some years ago, and the female was stated to have at
+intervals a menstrual flow resembling that of women, and during this
+period to refrain from sexual congress, which was otherwise usually
+exercised at regular intervals, at least every two or three days; Moll
+adds, however, that, while his informant is a reliable man, the length of
+time that has elapsed may have led him to make mistakes in details. Keith,
+in a paper read before the Zo&ouml;logical Society of London, has described
+menstruation in a chimpanzee; it occurred every twenty-third or
+twenty-fourth day, and lasted for three days; the discharge was profuse,
+and first appeared in about the ninth or tenth year.<a name='1_FNanchor_94'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_94'><sup>[94]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>What is menstruation? It is easy to describe it, by its obvious symptoms,
+as a monthly discharge of blood from the uterus, but nearly as much as
+that was known in the infancy of the world. When we seek to probe more
+intimately into the nature of menstruation we are still baffled, not
+merely as regards its cause, but even as regards its precise mechanism.
+&quot;The primary cause of menstruation remains unexplained&quot;; &quot;the cause of
+menstruation remains as obscure as ever&quot;; so conclude two of the most
+thorough and cautious investigators into this subject.<a name='1_FNanchor_95'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_95'><sup>[95]</sup></a> It is, however,
+widely accepted that the main cause of <a name='1_Page_95'></a>menstruation is a rhythmic
+contraction of the uterus,&mdash;the result of a disappointed preparation for
+impregnation,&mdash;a kind of miniature childbirth. This seems to be the most
+reasonable view of menstruation; <i>i.e.</i>, as an abortion of a decidua.
+Burdach (according to Beard) was the first who described menstruation as
+an abortive parturition. &quot;The hypothesis,&quot; Marshall and Jolly conclude,
+&quot;that the entire pro-&oelig;strous process is of the nature of a
+preparation for the lodgment of the ovum is in accordance with the
+facts.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_96'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_96'><sup>[96]</sup></a> Fortunately, since we are here primarily concerned with its
+psychological aspects, the precise biological cause and physiological
+nature of menstruation do not greatly concern us.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, one point which of late years has been definitely
+determined, and which should not be passed without mention: the relation
+of menstruation to ovulation. It was once supposed that the maturation of
+an ovule in the ovaries was the necessary accompaniment, and even cause,
+of menstruation. We now know that ovulation proceeds throughout the whole
+of life, even before birth, and during gestation,<a name='1_FNanchor_97'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_97'><sup>[97]</sup></a> and that removal of
+the ovaries by no means necessarily involves a cessation of menstruation.
+It has been shown that regular and even excessive menstruation may take
+place in the congenital absence of a trace of ovaries or Fallopian
+tubes.<a name='1_FNanchor_98'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_98'><sup>[98]</sup></a> On the other hand, a rudimentary state of the uterus, and a
+complete absence of menstruation, may exist with well-developed ovaries
+and <a name='1_Page_96'></a>normal ovulation.<a name='1_FNanchor_99'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_99'><sup>[99]</sup></a> We must regard the uterus as to some extent an
+independent organ, and menstruation as a process which arose, no doubt,
+with the object, teleologically speaking, of cooperating more effectively
+with ovulation, but has become largely independent.<a name='1_FNanchor_100'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_100'><sup>[100]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is sometimes stated that menstruation may be entirely absent
+    in perfect health. Few cases of this condition have, however,
+    been recorded with the detail necessary to prove the assertion.
+    One such case was investigated by Dr. H. W. Mitchell, and
+    described in a paper read to the New York County Medical Society,
+    February 22, 1892 (to be found in <i>Medical Reprints</i>, June,
+    1892). The subject was a young, unmarried woman, 24 years of age.
+    She was born in Ireland, and, until her emigration, lived quietly
+    at home with her parents. Being then twenty years of age, she
+    left home and came to New York. Up to that time no signs of
+    menstruation had appeared, and she had never heard that such a
+    function existed. Soon after her arrival in New York, she
+    obtained a situation as a waiting-maid, and it was noticed, after
+    a time, that she was not unwell at each month. Friends filled her
+    ears with wild stories about the dreadful effects likely to
+    follow the absence of menstruation. This worried her greatly, and
+    as a consequence she became pale and an&aelig;mic, with loss of flesh,
+    appetite, and sleep, and a long train of imaginary nervous
+    symptoms. She presented herself for treatment, and insisted upon
+    a uterine examination. This revealed no <a name='1_Page_97'></a>pathological condition
+    of her uterus. She was assured that she would not die, or become
+    insane, nor a chronic invalid. In consequence she soon forgot
+    that she differed in any way from other girls. A course of
+    chalybeate tonics, generous diet, and proper care of her general
+    health, soon restored her to her normal condition. After close
+    observation for several years, she submitted to a thorough
+    examination, although entirely free from any abnormal symptoms.
+    The examination revealed the following physical condition:
+    Weight, 105 pounds (her weight before leaving Ireland was 130);
+    girth of chest, twenty-nine and a half inches; girth of abdomen,
+    twenty-five inches; girth of pelvis, thirty-four and a half
+    inches; girth of thigh, upper third, twenty inches; heart
+    healthy, sounds and rhythm perfectly normal; pulse, 76; lungs
+    healthy; respiratory murmur clear and distinct over every part;
+    respiration, easy and twenty per minute; the mamm&aelig; are well
+    developed, firm, and round; nipples, small, no areola; her skin
+    is soft, smooth, and healthy; figure erect, plump, and
+    symmetrical; her bowels are regular; kidneys, healthy. She has a
+    good appetite, sleeps well, and in no particular shows any sign
+    of ill health. The uterine examination reveals a short vagina,
+    and a small, round cervix uteri, rather less in size than the
+    average, and projecting very slightly into the vaginal canal.
+    Depth of uterus from os to fundus, two and a quarter inches, is
+    very nearly normal. No external sign of abnormal ovaries. She is
+    a well-developed, healthy young woman, performing all her
+    physiological functions naturally and regularly, except the
+    single function of menstruation. No vicarious menstruation takes
+    the place of the natural function, though she has been watched
+    very closely during the past two years, nor the least periodical
+    excitement. It is added that, though the clitoris is normal, the
+    mons veneris is almost destitute of hair, and the labia rather
+    undeveloped, while, &quot;as far as is known,&quot; sexual instincts and
+    desire are entirely absent. These latter facts, I may add, would
+    seem to suggest that, in spite of the health of the subject,
+    there is yet some concealed lack of development of the sexual
+    system, of congenital character. In a case recorded by Plant
+    (<i>Centralblatt f&uuml;r Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, No. 9, 1896, summarized in the
+    <i>British Medical Journal</i>, April 4, 1896), in which the internal
+    sexual organs were almost wholly undeveloped, and menstruation
+    absent, the labia were similarly undeveloped, and the pubic hair
+    scanty, while the axillary hair was wholly absent, though that of
+    the head was long and strong. </p></div>
+
+<p>We may now regard as purely academic the discussion formerly carried on as
+to whether menstruation is to be regarded as analogous to heat in female
+animals. For many centuries at least the resemblance has been sufficiently
+obvious. Raciborski <a name='1_Page_98'></a>and Pouchet, who first established the regular
+periodicity of ovulation in mammals, identified heat and
+menstruation.<a name='1_FNanchor_101'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_101'><sup>[101]</sup></a> During the past century there was, notwithstanding, an
+occasional tendency to deny any real connection. No satisfactory grounds
+for this denial have, however, been brought forward. Lawson Tait, indeed,
+and more recently Beard, have stated that menstruation cannot be the
+period of heat, because women have a disinclination to the approach of the
+male at that time.<a name='1_FNanchor_102'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_102'><sup>[102]</sup></a> But, as we shall see later, this statement is
+unfounded. An argument which might, indeed, be brought forward is the very
+remarkable fact that, while in animals the period of heat is the only
+period for sexual intercourse, among all human races, from the very
+lowest, the period of menstruation is the one period during which sexual
+intercourse is strictly prohibited, sometimes under severe penalties, even
+life itself. This, however, is a social, not a physiological, fact.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Ploss and Bartels call attention to the curious contrast, in this
+    respect, between heat and menstruation. The same authors also
+    mention that in the Middle Ages, however, preachers found it
+    necessary to warn their hearers against the sin of intercourse
+    during the menstrual period. It may be added that Aquinas and
+    many other early theologians held, not only that such intercourse
+    was a deadly sin, but that it engendered leprous and monstrous
+    children. Some later theologians, however, like Sanchez, argued
+    that the Mosaic enactments (such as Leviticus, Ch. XX, v. 18) no
+    longer hold good. Modern theologians&mdash;in part influenced by the
+    tolerant traditions of Liguori, and, in part, like Debreyne
+    (<i>Moechialogie</i>, pp. 275 <i>et seq.</i>) informed by medical
+    science&mdash;no longer prohibit intercourse during menstruation, or
+    regard it as only a venial sin. </p></div>
+
+<p>We have here a remarkable, but not an isolated, example of the tendency of
+the human mind in its development to rebel against the claims of primitive
+nature. The whole of religion is a similar remolding of nature, a
+repression of natural impulses, <a name='1_Page_99'></a>an effort to turn them into new channels.
+Prohibition of intercourse during menstruation is a fundamental element of
+savage ritual, an element which is universal merely because the conditions
+which caused it are universal, and because&mdash;as is now beginning to be
+generally recognized&mdash;the causes of human psychic evolution are everywhere
+the same. A strictly analogous phenomenon, in the sexual sphere itself, is
+the opposed attitude in barbarism and civilization toward the sexual
+organs. Under barbaric conditions and among savages, when no
+magico-religious ideas intervene, the sexual organs are beautiful and
+pleasurable objects. Under modern conditions this is not so. This
+difference of attitude is reflected in sculpture. In savage and barbaric
+carvings of human beings, the sexual organs of both sexes are often
+enormously exaggerated. This is true of the archaic European figures on
+which Salomon Reinach has thrown so much light, but in modern sculpture,
+from the time when it reached its perfection in Greece onward, the sexual
+regions in both men and women are systematically minimized.<a name='1_FNanchor_103'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_103'><sup>[103]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>With advancing culture&mdash;as again we shall see later&mdash;there is a conflict
+of claims, and certain considerations are regarded as &quot;higher&quot; and more
+potent than merely &quot;natural&quot; claims. Nakedness is more natural than
+clothing, and on many grounds more desirable under the average
+circumstances of life, yet, everywhere, under the stress of what are
+regarded as higher considerations, there is a tendency for all races to
+add more and more to the burden of clothes. In the same way it happens
+that the tendency of the female to sexual intercourse during
+menstruation<a name='1_FNanchor_104'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_104'><sup>[104]</sup></a> has everywhere been overlaid by the ideas of a culture
+<a name='1_Page_100'></a>which has insisted on regarding menstruation as a supernatural phenomenon
+which, for the protection of everybody, must be strictly tabooed.<a name='1_FNanchor_105'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_105'><sup>[105]</sup></a>
+This tendency is reinforced, and in high civilization replaced, by the
+claims of an &aelig;sthetic regard for concealment and reserve during this
+period. Such facts are significant for the early history of culture, but
+they must not blind us to the real analogy between heat and menstruation,
+an analogy or even identity which may be said to be accepted now by most
+careful investigators.<a name='1_FNanchor_106'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_106'><sup>[106]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>If it is, perhaps, somewhat excessive to declare, with Johnstone, that
+&quot;woman is the only animal in which rut is omnipresent,&quot; we must admit that
+the two groups of phenomena merge into or replace each other, that their
+object is identical, that they involve similar psychic conditions. Here,
+also, we see a striking example of the way in which women preserve a
+primitive phenomenon which earlier in the zo&ouml;logical series was common to
+both sexes, but which man has now lost. Heat and menstruation, with
+whatever difference of detail, are practically the same phenomenon. We
+cannot understand menstruation unless we bear this in mind.</p>
+
+<p>On the psychic side the chief normal and primitive characteristic of the
+menstrual state is the more predominant presence of the sexual impulse.
+There are other mental and emotional signs of irritability and instability
+which tend to slightly impair complete mental integrity, and to render, in
+some unbalanced individuals explosions of anger or depression, in rarer
+cases crime, more common;<a name='1_FNanchor_107'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_107'><sup>[107]</sup></a> but the heightening of the sexual impulse,
+languor, shyness, and caprice are the more human manifestations of an
+emotional state which in some of the lower female animals during heat may
+produce a state of fury.</p>
+
+<p>The actual period of the menstrual flow, at all events the first two or
+three days, does not, among European women, usually appear to show any
+heightening of sexual emotion.<a name='1_FNanchor_108'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_108'><sup>[108]</sup></a> This heightening <a name='1_Page_101'></a>occurs usually a few
+days before, and especially during, the latter part of the flow, and
+immediately after it ceases.<a name='1_FNanchor_109'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_109'><sup>[109]</sup></a> I have, however, convinced myself by
+inquiry that this absence of sexual feeling during the height of the flow
+is, in large part, apparent only. No doubt, the onset of the flow, often
+producing a general depression of vitality, may tend directly to depress
+the emotions, which are heightened by the general emotional state and
+local congestion of the days immediately preceding; but among some women,
+at all events, who are normal and in good health, I find that the period
+of menstruation itself is covered by the period of the climax of sexual
+feeling. Thus, a married lady writes: &quot;My feelings are always very strong,
+not only just before and after, but during the period; very unfortunately,
+as, of course, they cannot then be gratified&quot;; while a refined girl of 19,
+living a chaste life, without either coitus or masturbation, which she has
+never practiced, habitually feels very strong sexual excitement about the
+time of menstruation, and more especially during the period; this desire
+torments her life, prevents her from sleeping at these times, and she
+looks upon it as a kind of illness.<a name='1_FNanchor_110'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_110'><sup>[110]</sup></a> I could quote many other similar
+and equally emphatic statements, and the fact that so cardinal a
+relationship of the sexual life of women should be ignored or denied by
+most writers on this matter, is a curious proof of the prevailing
+ignorance.<a name='1_FNanchor_111'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_111'><sup>[111]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_102'></a>
+
+<p>This ignorance has been fostered by the fact that women, often disguise
+even to themselves the real state of their feelings. One lady remarks that
+while she would be very ready for coitus during menstruation, the thought
+that it is impossible during that time makes her put the idea of it out of
+her mind. I have reason to think that this statement may be taken to
+represent the real feelings of very many women. The aversion to coitus is
+real, but it is often due, not to failure of sexual desire, but to the
+inhibitory action of powerful extraneous causes. The absence of active
+sexual desire in women during the height of the flow may thus be regarded
+as, in part, a physiological fact, following from the correspondence of
+the actual menstrual flow to the period of <i>pro-&oelig;strum</i>, and in
+part, a psychological fact due to the &aelig;sthetic repugnance to union when in
+such a condition, and to the unquestioned acceptance of the general belief
+that at such a period intercourse is out of the question. Some of the
+strongest factors of modesty, especially the fear of causing disgust and
+the sense of the demands of ceremonial ritual, would thus help to hold in
+check the sexual emotions during this period, and when, under the
+influence of insanity, these motives are in abeyance, the coincidence of
+sexual desire with the menstrual flow often becomes more obvious.<a name='1_FNanchor_112'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_112'><sup>[112]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_103'></a>
+
+<p>It must be added that, especially among the lower social classes, the
+primitive belief of the savage that coitus during menstruation is bad for
+the man still persists. Ploss and Bartels mention that among the peasants
+in some parts of Germany, where it is believed that impregnation is
+impossible during menstruation, coitus at that time would be frequent were
+it not thought dangerous for the man.<a name='1_FNanchor_113'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_113'><sup>[113]</sup></a> It has also been a common
+belief both in ancient and modern times that coitus during menstruation
+engenders monsters.<a name='1_FNanchor_114'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_114'><sup>[114]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding all the obstacles that are thus placed in the way of
+coitus during menstruation, there is nevertheless good reason to believe
+that the first coitus very frequently takes place at this point of least
+psychic resistance. When still a student I was struck by the occurrence of
+cases in which seduction took place during the menstrual flow, though at
+that time they seemed to me inexplicable, except as evidencing brutality
+on the part of the seducer. N&eacute;grier,<a name='1_FNanchor_115'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_115'><sup>[115]</sup></a> in the lying-in wards of the
+H&ocirc;tel-Dieu at Angers, constantly found that the women from the country who
+came there pregnant as the result of a single coitus had been impregnated
+at or near the menstrual epoch, more especially when the period coincided
+with a feast-day, as St. John's Day or Christmas.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever doubt may exist as to the most frequent state of the sexual
+emotions during the period of menstruation, there can be no doubt whatever
+that immediately before and immediately after, very commonly at both
+times,&mdash;this varying slightly in different women,&mdash;there is usually a
+marked heightening of actual desire. It is at this period (and sometimes
+during the menstrual flow) that masturbation may take place <a name='1_Page_104'></a>in women who
+at other times have no strong auto-erotic impulse. The only women who do
+not show this heightening of sexual emotion seem to be those in whom
+sexual feelings have not yet been definitely called into consciousness, or
+the small minority, usually suffering from some disorder of sexual or
+general health, in whom there is a high degree of sexual an&aelig;sthesia.<a name='1_FNanchor_116'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_116'><sup>[116]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The majority of authorities admit a heightening of sexual emotion
+    before or after the menstrual crisis. See <i>e.g.</i>, Krafft-Ebing,
+    who places it at the post-menstrual period (<i>Psychopathia
+    Sexualis</i>, Eng. translation of tenth edition, p. 27). Adler
+    states that sexual feeling is increased before, during and after
+    menstruation (<i>Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>,
+    1904, p. 88). Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage</i>, I, 249), advises intercourse just after
+    menstruation, or even during the latter days of the flow, as the
+    period when it is most needed. Guyot says that the eight days
+    after menstruation are the period of sexual desire in women
+    (<i>Br&eacute;viaire de l'Amour Exp&eacute;rimentale</i>, p. 144). Harry Campbell
+    investigated the periodicity of sexual desire in healthy women of
+    the working classes, in a series of cases, by inquiries made of
+    their husbands who were patients at a London hospital. People of
+    this class are not always skilful in observation, and the method
+    adopted would permit many facts to pass unrecorded; it is,
+    therefore, noteworthy that only in one-third of the cases had no
+    connection between menstruation and sexual feeling been observed;
+    in the other two-thirds, sexual feeling was increased, either
+    before, after, or during the flow, or at all of these times; the
+    proportion of cases in which sexual feeling was increased before
+    the flow, to those in which it was increased after, was as three
+    to two. (H. Campbell, <i>Nervous Organization of Men and Women</i>, p.
+    203.)</p>
+
+<p>    Even this elementary fact of the sexual life has, however, been
+    denied, and, strange to say, by two women doctors. Dr. Mary
+    Putnam Jacobi, of New York, who furnished valuable contributions
+    to the physiology of menstruation, wrote some years ago, in a
+    paper on &quot;The Theory of Menstruation,&quot; in reference to the
+    question of the connection between &oelig;strus and
+    menstruation: &quot;Neither can any such rhythmical alternation of
+    sexual instinct be demonstrated in women as would lead to the
+    inference that the menstrual crisis was an expression of this,&quot;
+    <i>i.e.</i>, of &oelig;strus. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, again, in
+    her book on <i>The Human Element in Sex</i>, asserts that the
+    menstrual flow itself affords <a name='1_Page_105'></a>complete relief for the sexual
+    feelings in women (like sexual emissions during sleep in men),
+    and thus practically denies the prevalence of sexual desire in
+    the immediately post-menstrual period, when, on such a theory,
+    sexual feeling should be at its minimum. It is fair to add that
+    Dr. Blackwell's opinion is merely the survival of a view which
+    was widely held a century ago, when various writers (Bordeu,
+    Roussel, Duffieux, J. Arnould, etc.), as Icard has pointed out,
+    regarded menstruation as a device of Providence for safeguarding
+    the virginity of women. </p></div><a name='1_Page_106'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_75'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_75'>[75]</a><div class='note'><p> Thaddeus L. Bolton, &quot;Rhythm,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+Psychology</i>, January, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_76'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_76'>[76]</a><div class='note'><p> It is scarcely necessary to warn the reader that this
+statement does not prejudge the question of the inheritance of acquired
+characters, although it fits in with Semon's Mnemic theory. We can,
+however, very well suppose that the organism became adjusted to the
+rhythms of its environment by a series of congenital variations. Or it
+might be held, on the basis of Weismann's doctrine, that the germ-plasm
+has been directly modified by the environment.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_77'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_77'>[77]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, the Papuans, in some districts, believe that the first
+menstruation is due to an actual connection, during sleep, with the moon
+in the shape of a man, the girl dreaming that a real man is embracing her.
+(<i>Reports Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, vol. v, p. 206.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_78'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_78'>[78]</a><div class='note'><p> Darwin, <i>Descent of Man</i>, p. 164.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_79'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_79'>[79]</a><div class='note'><p> While in the majority of women the menstrual cycle is
+regular for the individual, and corresponds to the lunar month of 28 days,
+it must be added that in a considerable minority it is rather longer, or,
+more usually, shorter than this, and in many individuals is not constant.
+Osterloh found a regular type of menstruation in 68 per cent, healthy
+women, four weeks being the most usual length of the cycle; in 21 per
+cent, the cycle was always irregular. See N&auml;cke, &quot;Die Menstruation und ihr
+Einfluss bei chronischen Psychosen,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, 1896, Bd,
+28, Heft 1.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_80'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_80'>[80]</a><div class='note'><p> Among the Duala and allied negro peoples of Bantu stock
+dances of markedly erotic character take place at full moon. Gason
+describes the dances and sexual festivals of the South Australian blacks,
+generally followed by promiscuous intercourse, as taking place at full
+moon. (<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, November, 1894, p.
+174.) In all parts of the world, indeed, including Christendom, festivals
+are frequently regulated by the phases of the moon.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_81'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_81'>[81]</a><div class='note'><p> It has often been held that the course of insanity is
+influenced by the moon. Of comparatively recent years, this thesis has
+been maintained by Koster (<i>Ueber die Gesetze des periodischen Irreseins
+und verwandter Nervenzust&auml;nde</i>, Bonn, 1882), who argues in detail that
+periodic insanity tends to fall into periods of seven days or multiples of
+seven.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_82'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_82'>[82]</a><div class='note'><p> Ed. Hahn, <i>Demeter und Baubo</i>, p. 23.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_83'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_83'>[83]</a><div class='note'><p> E. Seler, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1907, Heft I, p. 39.
+And as regards the primitive importance of the moon, see also Frazer,
+<i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>, Ch. VIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_84'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_84'>[84]</a><div class='note'><p> Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia</i>, 1898, pp. 68, 75-79, 461.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_85'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_85'>[85]</a><div class='note'><p> Even in England, Barnes has known women of feeble sexual
+constitution who menstruated only in summer (R. Barnes, <i>Diseases of
+Women</i>, 1878, p. 192).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_86'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_86'>[86]</a><div class='note'><p> A. B. Holder, &quot;Gynecic Notes among American Indians,&quot;
+<i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, No. 6, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_87'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_87'>[87]</a><div class='note'><p> In the male, the phenomenon is termed rut, and is most
+familiar in the stag. I quote from Marshall and Jolly some remarks on the
+infrequency of rut: &quot;'The male wild Cat,' Mr. Cocks informs us, (like the
+stag), 'has a rutting season, calls loudly, almost day and night, making
+far more noise than the female.' This information is of interest, inasmuch
+as the males of most carnivores, although they undoubtedly show signs of
+increased sexual activity at some times more than at others, are not known
+to have anything of the nature of a regularly recurrent rutting season.
+Nothing of the kind is known in the Dog, nor, so far as we are aware, in
+the males of the domestic Cat, or the Ferret, all of which seem to be
+capable of copulation at any time of the year. On the other hand, the
+males of Seals appear to have a rutting season at the same time as the
+sexual season of the female.&quot; (Marshall and Jolly, &quot;Contributions to the
+Physiology of Mammalian Reproduction,&quot; <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1905,
+B. 198.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_88'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_88'>[88]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Wiltshire, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, March, 1883. The
+best account of heat known to me is contained in Ellenberger's
+<i>Vergleichende Physiologie der Haussa&uuml;gethiere</i>, 1892, Band 4, Theil 2,
+pp. 276-284.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_89'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_89'>[89]</a><div class='note'><p> Schurig (<i>Parthenologia</i>, 1729, p. 125), gives numerous
+references and quotations.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_90'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_90'>[90]</a><div class='note'><p> Quoted by Icard, <i>La Femme</i>, etc., p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_91'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_91'>[91]</a><div class='note'><p> Bland Sutton, <i>Surgical Diseases of the Ovaries</i>, and
+<i>British Gynecological Journal</i>, vol. ii.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_92'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_92'>[92]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Heape, &quot;The Menstruation of <i>Semnopithecus Entellus</i>,&quot;
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1894; &quot;Menstruation and Ovulation of
+<i>Macacus Rhesus</i>,&quot; <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_93'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_93'>[93]</a><div class='note'><p> W. L. Distant, &quot;Notes on the Chacma Baboon,&quot; <i>Zo&ouml;logist</i>,
+January, 1897, p, 29.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_94'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_94'>[94]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Nature</i>, March 23, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_95'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_95'>[95]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Heape, &quot;The Menstruation of <i>Semnopithecus Entellus</i>,&quot;
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1894, p. 483; Bland Sutton, <i>Surgical
+Diseases of the Ovaries</i>, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_96'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_96'>[96]</a><div class='note'><p> T. Bryce and J. Teacher (<i>Contributions to the Study of the
+Early Development of the Human Ovum</i>, 1908), putting the matter somewhat
+differently, regard menstruation as a cyclical process, providing for the
+maintenance of the endometrium in a suitable condition of immaturity for
+the production of the decidua of pregnancy, which they believe may take
+place at any time of the month, though most favorably shortly before or
+after a menstrual period which has been accompanied by ovulation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_97'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_97'>[97]</a><div class='note'><p> Robinson, <i>American Gynecological and Obstetrical Journal</i>,
+August, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_98'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_98'>[98]</a><div class='note'><p> Bossi, <i>Annali di Ostetrica e Ginecologia</i>, September, 1896;
+summarized in the <i>British Medical Journal</i>, October 31, 1896. As regards
+the more normal influence of the ovaries over the uterus, see <i>e.g.</i>
+Carmichael and F. H. A. Marshall, &quot;Correlation of the Ovarian and Uterine
+Functions,&quot; <i>Proceedings Royal Society</i>, vol. 79, Series B, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_99'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_99'>[99]</a><div class='note'><p> Beuttner, <i>Centralblatt f&uuml;r Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, No. 49, 1893;
+summarized in <i>British Medical Journal</i>, December, 1893. Many cases show
+that pregnancy may occur in the absence of menstruation. See, <i>e.g.</i>,
+<i>Nouvelles Archives d'Obst&eacute;trique et de Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, 25 Janvier, 1894,
+supplement, p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_100'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_100'>[100]</a><div class='note'><p> It is still possible, and even probable, that the
+primordial cause of both phenomena is the same. Heape (<i>Transactions
+Obstetrical Society of London</i>, 1898, vol. xl, p. 161) argues that both
+menstruation and ovulation are closely connected with and influenced by
+congestion, and that in the primitive condition they are largely due to
+the same cause. This primary cause he is inclined to regard as a ferment,
+due to a change in the constitution of the blood brought about by climatic
+influences and food, which he proposes to call gonadin. (W. Heape,
+<i>Proceedings of Royal Society</i>, 1905, vol. B. 76, p. 266.) Marshall, who
+has found that in the ferret and other animals, ovulation may be dependent
+upon copulation, also considers that ovulation and menstruation, though
+connected and able to react on each other, may both be dependent upon a
+common cause; he finds that in bitches and rats heat can be produced by
+injection of extract from ovaries in the &oelig;strous state (F. H. A.
+Marshall, <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1903, vol. B. 196; also Marshall
+and Jolly, <i>id.</i>, 1905, B. 198). <i>Cf.</i> C. J. Bond, &quot;An Inquiry Into Some
+Points in Uterine and Ovarian Physiology and Pathology in Rabbits,&quot;
+<i>British Medical Journal</i>, July 21, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_101'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_101'>[101]</a><div class='note'><p> Pouchet, <i>Th&eacute;orie de l'Ovulation Spontan&eacute;e</i>, 1847. As Blair
+Bell and Pontland Hick remark (&quot;Menstruation,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+March 6, 1909), the repeated &oelig;strus of unimpregnated animals
+(once a fortnight in rabbits) is surely comparable to menstruation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_102'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_102'>[102]</a><div class='note'><p> Tait, <i>Provincial Medical Journal</i>, May, 1891; J. Beard,
+<i>The Span of Gestation</i>, 1897, p. 69. Lawson Tait is reduced to the
+assertion that ovulation and menstruation are identical.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_103'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_103'>[103]</a><div class='note'><p> As Moll points out, even the secondary sexual characters
+have undergone a somewhat similar change. The beard was once an important
+sexual attraction, but men can now afford to dispense with it without fear
+of loss in attractiveness. (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Band I, p. 387.) These
+points are discussed at greater length in the fourth volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>, &quot;Sexual Selection in Man.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_104'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_104'>[104]</a><div class='note'><p> It is not absolutely established that in menstruating
+animals the period of menstruation is always a period of sexual congress;
+probably not, the influence of menstruation being diminished by the more
+fundamental influence of breeding seasons, which affect the male also;
+monkeys have a breeding season, though they menstruate regularly all the
+year round.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_105'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_105'>[105]</a><div class='note'><p> See Appendix A.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_106'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_106'>[106]</a><div class='note'><p> Bland Sutton, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 896.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_107'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_107'>[107]</a><div class='note'><p> See H. Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, Chapter XI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_108'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_108'>[108]</a><div class='note'><p> This is by no means true of European women only. Thus, we
+read in an Arabic book, <i>The Perfumed Garden</i>, that women have an aversion
+to coitus during menstruation. On the other hand, the old Hindoo
+physician, Susruta, appears to have stated that a tendency to run after
+men is one of the signs of menstruation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_109'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_109'>[109]</a><div class='note'><p> The actual period of the menstrual flow corresponds, in
+Heape's terminology, to the congestive stage, or <i>pro-&oelig;strum</i>, in
+female animals; the <i>&oelig;strus</i>, or period of sexual desire,
+immediately follows the <i>pro-&oelig;strum</i>, and is the direct result of
+it. See Heape, &quot;The 'Sexual Season' of Mammals,&quot; <i>Quarterly Journal of
+Microscopical Science</i>, 1900, vol. xliv, Part I.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_110'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_110'>[110]</a><div class='note'><p> It may be noted that (as Barnes, Oliver, and others have
+pointed out) there is heightened blood-pressure during menstruation. Haig
+remarks that he has found a tendency for high pressure to be accompanied
+by increased sexual appetite (<i>Uric Acid</i>, 6th edition, p. 155).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_111'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_111'>[111]</a><div class='note'><p> Sir W. F. Wade, however, remarked, some years ago, in his
+Ingleby Lectures (<i>Lancet</i>, June 5, 1886): &quot;It is far from exceptional to
+find that there is an extreme enhancement of concupiscence in the
+immediate precatamenial period,&quot; and adds, &quot;I am satisfied that evidence
+is obtainable that in some instances, ardor is at its maximum during the
+actual period, and suspect that cases occur in which it is almost, if not
+entirely, limited to that time.&quot; Long ago, however, the genius of Haller
+had noted the same fact. More recently, Icard (<i>La Femme</i>, Chapter VI and
+elsewhere, <i>e.g.</i>, p. 125) has brought forward much evidence in
+confirmation of this view. It may be added that there is considerable
+significance in the fact that the erotic hallucinations, which are not
+infrequently experienced by women under the influence of nitrous oxide
+gas, are more likely to appear at the monthly period than at any other
+time. (D. W. Buxton, <i>Anesthetics</i>, 1892, p. 61.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_112'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_112'>[112]</a><div class='note'><p> Gehrung considers that in healthy young girls amorous
+sensations are normal during menstruation, and in some women persist,
+during this period, throughout life. More usually, however, as menstrual
+period after menstrual period recurs, without the natural interruption of
+pregnancy, the feeling abates, and gives place to sensations of discomfort
+or pain. He ascribes this to the vital tissues being sapped of more blood
+than can be replaced in the intervals. &quot;The vital powers, being thus kept
+in abeyance, the amative sensations are either not developed, or
+destroyed. This, superadded by the usual moral and religious teachings, is
+amply sufficient, by degrees, to extinguish or prevent such feelings with
+the great majority. The sequestration as 'unclean,' of women during their
+catamenial period, as practiced in olden times, had the same tendency.&quot;
+(E. C. Gehrung, &quot;The Status of Menstruation,&quot; <i>Transactions American
+Gynecology Society</i>, 1901, p. 48.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_113'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_113'>[113]</a><div class='note'><p> It is possible there may be an element of truth in this
+belief. Diday, of Lyons, found that chronic urethorrh&oelig;a is an
+occasional result of intercourse during menstruation. Raciborski (<i>Trait&eacute;
+de la Menstruation</i>, 1868, p. 12), who also paid attention to this point,
+while confirming Diday, came to the conclusion that some special
+conditions must be present on one or both sides.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_114'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_114'>[114]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Ballantyne, &quot;Teratogenesis,&quot; <i>Transactions of
+the Edinburgh Obstetrical Society</i>, 1896, vol. xxi, pp. 324-25.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_115'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_115'>[115]</a><div class='note'><p> As quoted by Icard, <i>La Femme</i>, etc., p. 194. I have not
+been able to see N&eacute;grier's work.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_116'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_116'>[116]</a><div class='note'><p> I deal with the question of sexual an&aelig;sthesia in women in
+the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>: &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_II-P'></a><h3>II.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men&mdash;The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men&mdash;Periodicity in Disease&mdash;Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.&mdash;The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle&mdash;The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep&mdash;Original
+Observations&mdash;Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>For some centuries, at least, inquisitive observers here and there have
+thought they found reason to believe that men, as well as women, present
+various signs of a menstrual physiological cycle. It would be possible to
+collect a number of opinions in favor of such a monthly physiological
+periodicity in men. Precise evidence, however, is, for the most part,
+lacking. Men have expended infinite ingenuity in establishing the remote
+rhythms of the solar system and the periodicity of comets. They have
+disdained to trouble about the simpler task of proving or disproving the
+cycles of their own organisms.<a name='1_FNanchor_117'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_117'><sup>[117]</sup></a> It is over half a century since
+Laycock wrote that &quot;the <i>scientific</i> observation and treatment of disease
+are impossible without a knowledge of the mysterious revolutions
+continually taking place in the system&quot;; yet the task of summarizing the
+whole of our knowledge regarding these &quot;mysterious revolutions&quot; is even
+to-day no heavy one. As to the existence of a monthly cycle in the sexual
+instincts of men, with a single exception, I am not aware that any attempt
+has been made to bring forward definite evidence.<a name='1_FNanchor_118'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_118'><sup>[118]</sup></a> A certain interest
+and novelty attaches, therefore, to the evidence I am able to produce,
+although that evidence will not suffice to settle the question finally.</p>
+
+<p>The great Italian physician, Sanctorius, who was in so many ways the
+precursor of our modern methods of physiological research <a name='1_Page_107'></a>by the means of
+instruments of precision, was the first, so far as I am aware, to suggest
+a monthly cycle of the organism in men. He had carefully studied the
+weight of the body with reference to the amount of excretions, and
+believed that a monthly increase in weight to the amount of one or two
+pounds occurred in men, followed by a critical discharge of urine, this
+crisis being preceded by feelings of heaviness and lassitude.<a name='1_FNanchor_119'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_119'><sup>[119]</sup></a> Gall,
+another great initiator of modern views, likewise asserted a monthly cycle
+in men. He insisted that there is a monthly critical period, more marked
+in nervous people than in others, and that at this time the complexion
+becomes dull, the breath stronger, digestion more laborious, while there
+is sometimes disturbance of the urine, together with general <i>malaise</i>, in
+which the temper takes part; ideas are formed with more difficulty, and
+there is a tendency to melancholy, with unusual irascibility and mental
+inertia, lasting a few days. More recently Stephenson, who established the
+cyclical wave-theory of menstruation, argued that it exists in men also,
+and is really &quot;a general law of vital energy.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_120'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_120'><sup>[120]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Sanctorius does not appear to have published the data on which
+    his belief was founded. Keill, an English, follower of
+    Sanctorius, in his <i>Medicina Statica Britannica</i> (1718),
+    published a series of daily (morning and evening) body-weights
+    for the year, without referring to the question of a monthly
+    cycle. A period of maximum weight is shown usually, by Keill's
+    figures, to occur about once a month, but it is generally
+    irregular, and cannot usually be shown to occur at definite
+    intervals. Monthly discharges of blood from the sexual organs and
+    other parts of the body in men have been recorded in ancient and
+    modern times, and were treated of by the older medical writers as
+    an affliction peculiar to men with a feminine system. (Laycock,
+    <i>Nervous Diseases of Women</i>, p. 79.) A summary of such cases will
+    be found in Gould and Pyle (<i>Anomalies and Curiosities of
+    Medicine</i>, 1897, pp. 27-28). Laycock (<i>Lancet</i>, 1842-43, vols. i
+    and ii) brought forward cases of monthly and fortnightly cycles
+    in disease, and asserted &quot;the general principle that there are
+    greater and less cycles of movements going on in the system,
+    involving each other, and closely connected with the organization
+    of the individual.&quot; He was inclined to accept lunar influence,
+    <a name='1_Page_108'></a>and believed that the physiological cycle is made up of definite
+    fractions and multiples of a period of seven days, especially a
+    unit of three and a half days. Albrecht, a somewhat erratic
+    zo&ouml;logist, put forth the view a few years ago that there are
+    menstrual periods in men, giving the following reasons: (1) males
+    are rudimentary females, (2) in all males of mammals, a
+    rudimentary masculine uterus (M&uuml;ller's ducts) still persists, (3)
+    totally hypospadic male individuals menstruate; and believed that
+    he had shown that in man there is a rudimentary menstruation
+    consisting in an almost monthly periodic appearance, lasting for
+    three or four days, of white corpuscles in the urine (<i>Anomalo</i>,
+    February, 1890). Dr. Campbell Clark, some years since, made
+    observations on asylum attendants in regard to the temperature,
+    during five weeks, which tended to show that the normal male
+    temperature varies considerably within certain limits, and that
+    &quot;so far as I have been able to observe, there is one marked and
+    prolonged rise every month or five weeks, averaging three days,
+    occasional lesser rises appearing irregularly and of shorter
+    duration. These observations are only made in three cases, and I
+    have no proof that they refer to the sexual appetite&quot; (Campbell
+    Clark, &quot;The Sexual Reproductive Functions,&quot; Psychological
+    Section, British Medical Association, Glasgow, 1888; also,
+    private letters). Hammond (<i>Treatise on Insanity</i>, p. 114) says:
+    &quot;I have certainly noted in some of my friends, the tendency to
+    some monthly periodic abnormal manifestations. This may be in the
+    form of a headache, or a nasal h&aelig;morrhage, or diarrh&oelig;a,
+    or abundant discharge of uric acid, or some other unusual
+    occurrence. I think,&quot; he adds, &quot;this is much more common than is
+    ordinarily supposed, and a careful examination or inquiry will
+    generally, if not invariably, establish the existence of a
+    periodicity of the character referred to.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Dr. Harry Campbell, in his book on <i>Differences in the Nervous
+    Organization of Men and Women</i>, deals fully with the monthly
+    rhythm (pp. 270 <i>et seq.</i>), and devotes a short chapter to the
+    question, &quot;Is the Menstrual Rhythm peculiar to the Female Sex?&quot;
+    He brings forward a few pathological cases indicating such a
+    rhythm, but although he had written a letter to the <i>Lancet</i>,
+    asking medical men to supply him with evidence bearing on this
+    question, it can scarcely be said that he has brought forward
+    much evidence of a convincing kind, and such as he has brought
+    forward is purely pathological. He believes, however, that we may
+    accept a monthly cycle in men. &quot;We may,&quot; he concludes, &quot;regard
+    the human being&mdash;both male and female&mdash;as the subject of a
+    monthly pulsation which begins with the beginning of life, and
+    continues till death,&quot; menstruation being regarded as a function
+    accidentally ingrafted upon this primordial rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>    It is not unreasonable to argue that the possibility of such a
+    menstrual cycle is increased, if we can believe that in women,
+    also, the <a name='1_Page_109'></a>menstrual cycle persists even when its outward
+    manifestations no longer occur. A&euml;tius said that menstrual
+    changes take place during gestation; in more modern times, Buffon
+    was of the same opinion. Laycock also maintained that menstrual
+    changes take place during pregnancy (<i>Nervous Diseases of Women</i>,
+    p. 47). Fliess considers that it is certainly incorrect to assert
+    that the menstrual process is arrested during pregnancy, and he
+    refers to the frequency of monthly epistaxis and other nasal
+    symptoms throughout this period (W. Fliess, <i>Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und Geschlechts-Organen</i>, pp. 44 <i>et seq.</i>). Beard, who
+    attaches importance to the persistence of a cyclical period in
+    gestation, calls it the muffled striking of the clock. Harry
+    Campbell (<i>Causation of Disease</i>, p. 54) has found
+    post-climacteric menstrual rhythm in a fair sprinkling of cases
+    up to the age of sixty. </p></div>
+
+<p>It is somewhat remarkable that, so far as I have observed, none of these
+authors refer to the possibility of any heightening of the sexual appetite
+at the monthly crisis which they believe to exist in men. This omission
+indicates that, as is suggested by the absence of definite statements on
+the matter of increase of sexual desire at menstruation, it was an ignored
+or unknown fact. Of recent years, however, many writers, especially
+alienists, have stated their conviction that sexual desire in men tends to
+be heightened at approximately monthly intervals, though they have not
+always been able to give definite evidence in support of their statements.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Clouston, for instance, has frequently asserted this monthly
+    periodic sexual heightening in men. In the article,
+    &quot;Developmental Insanity,&quot; in Tuke's <i>Psychological Dictionary</i>,
+    he refers to the periodic physiological heightening of the
+    reproductive <i>nisus</i>; and, again, in an article on &quot;Alternation,
+    Periodicity, and Relapse in Mental Diseases&quot; (<i>Edinburgh Medical
+    Journal</i>, July, 1882), he records the case of &quot;an insane
+    gentleman, aged 49, who, for the past twenty-six years, has been
+    subject to the most regularly occurring brain-exaltation every
+    four weeks, almost to a day. It sometimes passes off without
+    becoming acutely maniacal, or even showing itself in outward
+    acts; at other times it becomes so, and lasts for periods of from
+    one to four weeks. It is always preceded by an uncomfortable
+    feeling in the head, and pain in the back, mental hebetude, and
+    slight depression. The <i>nisus generativus</i> is greatly increased,
+    and he says that, if in that condition, he has full and free
+    seminal emissions during sleep, the excitement passes off; if
+    not, it goes on. A full dose of bromide or iodide of potassium
+    often, but not always, has the effect of stopping the excitement,
+    and a very long walk sometimes <a name='1_Page_110'></a>does the same. When the
+    excitement gets to a height, it is always followed by about a
+    week of stupid depression.&quot; In the same article Clouston remarks:
+    &quot;I have for a long time been impressed with the relationship of
+    the mental and bodily alternations and periodicities in insanity
+    to the great physiological alternations and periodicities, and I
+    have generally been led to the conclusion that they are the same
+    in all essential respects, and only differ in degree of intensity
+    or duration. By far the majority of the cases in women follow the
+    law of the menstrual and sexual periodicity; the majority of the
+    cases in men follow the law of the more irregular periodicities
+    of the <i>nisus generativus</i> in that sex. Many of the cases in both
+    sexes follow the seasonal periodicity which perhaps in man is
+    merely a reversion to the seasonal generative activities of the
+    majority of the lower animals.&quot; He found that among 338 cases of
+    insanity, chiefly mania and melancholia, 46 per cent, of females
+    and 40 per cent, of males showed periodicity,&mdash;diurnal, monthly,
+    seasonal, or annual, and more marked in women than in men, and in
+    mania than in melancholia,&mdash;and adds: &quot;I found that the younger
+    the patient, the greater is the tendency to periodic remission
+    and relapse. The phenomenon finds its acme in the cases of
+    pubescent and adolescent insanity.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Conolly Norman, in the article &quot;Mania, Hysterical&quot; (Tuke's
+    <i>Psychological Dictionary</i>), states that &quot;the activity of the
+    sexual organs is probably in both sexes fundamentally periodic.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Krafft-Ebing records the case of a neurasthenic Russian, aged 24,
+    who experienced sexual desires of urologinic character, with fair
+    regularity, every four weeks (<i>Psychopathia Sexualis</i>), and N&auml;cke
+    mentions the case of a man who had nocturnal emissions at
+    intervals of four weeks (<i>Archiv f&uuml;r Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>,
+    1908, p. 363), while Moll (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, pp. 621-623)
+    recorded the case of a man, otherwise normal, who had attacks of
+    homosexual feeling every four weeks, and Rohleder (<i>Zeitschrift
+    f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Nov., 1908) gives the case of an
+    unmarried slightly neuropathic physician who for several days
+    every three to five weeks has attacks of almost satyriacal sexual
+    excitement.</p>
+
+<p>    F&eacute;r&eacute;, whose attention was called to this point, from time to time
+    noted the existence of sexual periodicity. Thus, in a case of
+    general paralysis, attacks of continuous sexual excitement, with
+    sleeplessness, occurred every twenty-eight days; at other times,
+    the patient, a man of 42, in the stage of dementia, slept well,
+    and showed no signs of sexual excitation (<i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de Biologie</i>,
+    October 6, 1900). In another case, of a man of sound heredity and
+    good health till middle life, periodic sexual manifestations
+    began from puberty, with localized genital congestion, erotic
+    ideas, and copious urination, lasting for two or three days.
+    These manifestations became menstrual, with a period of
+    intermenstrual excitement appearing regularly, but never became
+    intense. Between the <a name='1_Page_111'></a>age of 36 and 42, the intermenstrual crises
+    gradually ceased; at about 45, the menstrual crises ceased; the
+    periodic crises continued, however, with the sole manifestation
+    of increased frequency of urination (<i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de Biologie</i>, July
+    23, 1904). In a third case, of sexual neurasthenia, F&eacute;r&eacute; found
+    that from puberty, onwards to middle life, there appeared, every
+    twenty-five to twenty-eight days, tenderness and swelling below
+    the nipple, accompanied by slight sexual excitation and erotic
+    dreams, lasting for one or two days (<i>Revue de M&eacute;decine</i>, March,
+    1905). </p></div>
+
+<p>It is in the domain of disease that the most strenuous and, on the whole,
+the most successful efforts have been made to discover a menstrual cycle
+in men. Such a field seems promising at the outset, for many morbid
+exaggerations or defects of the nervous system might be expected to
+emphasize, or to free from inhibition, fundamental rhythmical processes of
+the organism which in health, and under the varying conditions of social
+existence, are overlaid by the higher mental activities and the pressure
+of external stimuli. In the eighteenth century Erasmus Darwin wrote a
+remarkable and interesting chapter on &quot;The Periods of Disease,&quot; dealing
+with solar and lunar influence on biological processes.<a name='1_FNanchor_121'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_121'><sup>[121]</sup></a> Since then,
+many writers have brought forward evidence, especially in the domain of
+nervous and mental disease, which seems to justify a belief that, under
+pathological conditions, a tendency to a male menstrual rhythm may be
+clearly laid bare.</p>
+
+<p>We should expect an organ so primitive in character as the heart, and with
+so powerful a rhythm already stamped upon its nervous organization, to be
+peculiarly apt to display a menstrual rhythm under the stress of abnormal
+conditions. This expectation might be strengthened by the menstrual rhythm
+which Mr. Perry-Coste has found reason to suspect in pulse-frequency
+during health. I am able to present a case in which such a periodicity
+seems to be indicated. It is that of a gentleman who suffered severely for
+some years before his death from valvular disease of the heart, with a
+tendency to pulmonary congestion, and attacks of &quot;cardiac asthma.&quot; His
+wife, a lady of great <a name='1_Page_112'></a>intelligence, kept notes of her husband's
+condition,<a name='1_FNanchor_122'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_122'><sup>[122]</sup></a> and at last observed that there was a certain periodicity
+in the occurrence of the exacerbations. The periods were not quite
+regular, but show a curious tendency to recur at about thirty days'
+interval, a few days before the end of every month; it was during one of
+these attacks that he finally died. There was also a tendency to minor
+attacks about ten days after the major attacks. It is noteworthy that the
+subject showed a tendency to periodicity when in health, and once remarked
+laughingly before his illness: &quot;I am just like a woman, always most
+excitable at a particular time of the month.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Periodicity has been noted in various disorders of nervous
+    character. Periodic insanity has long been known and studied
+    (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Pilcz, <i>Die periodischen Geistesst&ouml;rungen</i>, 1901);
+    it is much commoner in women than in men. Periodicity has been
+    observed in stammering (a six-weekly period in one case), and
+    notably in hemicrania or migraine, by Harry Campbell, Osler, etc.
+    (The periodicity of a case of hemicrania has been studied in
+    detail by D. Fraser Harris, <i>Edinburgh Medical Journal</i>, July,
+    1902.) But the cycle in these cases is not always, or even
+    usually, of a menstrual type. </p></div>
+
+<p>It is now possible to turn to an investigation which, although of very
+limited extent, serves to place the question of a male menstrual cycle for
+the first time on a sound basis. If there is such a cycle analogous to
+menstruation in women, it must be a recurring period of nervous erethism,
+and it must be demonstrably accompanied by greater sexual activity. In the
+<i>American Journal of Psychology</i> for 1888, Mr. Julius Nelson, afterward
+Professor of Biology at the Rutgers College of Agriculture, New Brunswick,
+published a study of dreams in which he recorded the results of detailed
+observations of his dreams, and also of seminal emissions during sleep (by
+him termed &quot;gonekbole&quot; or &quot;ecbole&quot;), during a period of something over two
+years. Mr. Nelson found that both dreams and ecboles fell into a
+physiological cycle of 28 days. The climax of maximum dreaming (as
+determined by the number of words in the dream record) and the climax of
+<a name='1_Page_113'></a>maximum ecbole fell at the same point of the cycle, the ecbolic climax
+being more distinctly marked than the dream climax.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The question of cyclic physiological changes is considerably
+    complicated by our uncertainty regarding the precise length of
+    the cycle we may expect to find. Nelson finds a 28-day cycle
+    satisfactory. Perry-Coste, as we shall see, accepts a strictly
+    lunar cycle of 29&frac12; days. Fliess has argued that in both women and
+    men, many physiological facts fall into a cycle of 23 days, which
+    he calls male, the 28-day cycle being female. (W. Fliess, <i>Die
+    Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen</i>,
+    1897, pp. 113 <i>et seq.</i>) Although Fliess brings forward a number
+    of minutely-observed cases, I cannot say that I am yet convinced
+    of the reality of this 23-day cycle. It is somewhat curious,
+    however, that at the same time as Fliess, though in apparent
+    independence, and from a different point of view, another worker
+    also suggested that there is a 23-day physiological cycle (John
+    Beard, <i>The Span of Gestation and the Cause of Birth</i>, Jena,
+    1897). Beard approaches the question from the embryological
+    standpoint, and argues that there is what he terms an &quot;ovulation
+    unit&quot; of about 23&frac12; days, in the interval from the end of one
+    menstruation to the beginning of the next. Two &quot;ovulation units&quot;
+    make up one &quot;critical unit,&quot; and the length of pregnancy,
+    according to Beard, is always a multiple of the &quot;critical unit;&quot;
+    in man, the gestation period amounts to six critical units. These
+    attempts to prove a new physiological cycle deserve careful study
+    and further investigation. The possibility of such a cycle should
+    be borne in mind, but at present we are scarcely entitled to
+    accept it. </p></div>
+
+<p>So far as I am aware, Professor Nelson's very interesting series of
+observations, which, for the first time, placed the question of a
+menstrual rhythm in men on a sound and workable basis, have not directly
+led to any further observations. I am, however, in possession of a much
+more extended series of ecbolic observations completed before Nelson's
+paper was published, although the results have only been calculated at a
+comparatively-recent date. I now propose to present a summary of these
+observations, and consider how far they confirm Nelson's conclusions.
+These observations cover no less a period than twelve years, between the
+ages of 17 and 29, the subject, W. K., being a student, and afterward
+schoolmaster, leading, on the whole, a chaste life. The records were
+faithfully made throughout the whole of this long period. Here, if
+anywhere, should be material <a name='1_Page_114'></a>for the construction of a menstrual rhythm
+on an ecbolic basis. While the results are in many respects instructive,
+it can scarcely, perhaps, be said that they absolutely demonstrate a
+monthly cycle. When summated in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted
+by Nelson in his ecbolic observations, it is not difficult to regard the
+maximum, which is reached on the 19th to 21st days of the summated
+physiological month, as a real menstrual ecbolic climax, for no other
+three consecutive days at all approach these in number of ecboles, while
+there is a marked depression occurring four days earlier, on the 16th day
+of the month. If, however, we split up the curve by dividing the period of
+twelve years into two nearly equal periods, the earlier of about seven
+years and the latter of about four years, and summate these separately,
+the two curves do not present any parallel as regards the menstrual cycle.
+It scarcely seems to me, therefore, that these curves present any
+convincing evidence in this case of a monthly ecbolic cycle (and,
+therefore, I refrain from reproducing them), although they seem to suggest
+such a cycle. Nor is there any reason to suppose that by adopting a
+different cycle of thirty days, or of twenty-three days, any more
+conclusive results would be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>It seems, however, when we look at these curves more closely, that they
+are not wholly without significance. If I am justified in concluding that
+they scarcely demonstrate a monthly cycle, it may certainly be added that
+they show a rudimentary tendency for the ecboles to fall into a
+fortnightly rhythm, and a very marked and unmistakable tendency to a
+weekly rhythm. The fortnightly rhythm is shown in the curve for the
+earlier period, but is somewhat disguised in the curve for the total
+period, because the first climax is spread over two days, the 7th and 8th
+of the month. If we readjust the curve for the total period by presenting
+the days in pairs, the fortnightly tendency is more clearly brought out
+(<a href='#1_CHART_I'>Chart I</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A more pronounced tendency still is traceable to a weekly rhythm. This is,
+indeed, the most unquestionable fact brought out by these curves. All the
+maxima occur on Saturday or Sunday, with the minima on Tuesday, Wednesday,
+Thursday, or Friday. This very pronounced weekly rhythm will serve to
+<a name='1_Page_115'></a>swamp more or less completely any monthly rhythm on a 28-day basis.
+Although here probably seen in an exaggerated form, it is almost certainly
+a characteristic of the ecbolic curve generally.<a name='1_FNanchor_123'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_123'><sup>[123]</sup></a> I have been told by
+several young men and women, especially those who work hard during the
+week, that Saturday, and especially Sunday afternoon, are periods when the
+thoughts spontaneously go in an erotic direction, and at this time there
+is a special tendency to masturbation or to spontaneous sexual excitement.
+It is on Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, according to Guerry's
+tables,<a name='1_FNanchor_124'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_124'><sup>[124]</sup></a> that the fewest suicides are committed, Tuesday, Wednesday,
+and Thursday, with, however, a partial fall on Wednesday, those on which
+most suicides are committed, so that there would appear to be an
+antagonism between sexual activity and the desire to throw off life. It
+also appears (in the reports of the Bavarian factory inspectors) that
+accidents in factories have a tendency to occur chiefly at the beginning
+of the week, and toward the end rather than in the middle.<a name='1_FNanchor_125'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_125'><sup>[125]</sup></a> Even
+growth, as Fleischmann has shown in the case of children, tends to fall
+into weekly cycles. It is evident that the nervous system is profoundly
+affected by the social influences resulting from the weekly cycle.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of this series of ecbolic curves may thus be said to recall
+the suggestion of Laycock, that the menstrual cycle is really made up of
+four weekly cycles, the periodic unit, according to Laycock, being three
+and one-half days. I think it would, however, be more correct to say that
+the menstrual cycle, perhaps originally formed with reference to the
+influence of the moon on the sexual and social habits of men and other
+animals, tends to break up by a process of segmentation into fortnightly
+and weekly cycles. If we are justified in assuming that there is a male
+menstrual cycle, we must conclude that in such a case as <a name='1_Page_116'></a>that just
+analyzed, the weekly rhythm has become so marked as almost entirely to
+obliterate the larger monthly rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>However constituted, there seems little doubt that a physiological weekly
+cycle really exists. This was, indeed, very clearly indicated many years
+ago by the observations of Edward Smith, who showed that there are weekly
+rhythms in pulse, respiration, temperature, carbonic acid evolution, urea,
+and body-weight, Sunday being the great day of repair and increase of
+weight.<a name='1_FNanchor_126'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_126'><sup>[126]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In an appendix to this volume I am able to present the results of another
+long series of observations of nocturnal ecbolic manifestations carried
+out by Mr. Perry-Coste, who has elaborately calculated the results, and
+has convinced himself that on the basis of a strictly lunar month, thus
+abolishing the disturbing influence of the weekly rhythm, which in his
+case also appears, a real menstrual rhythm may be traced.<a name='1_FNanchor_127'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_127'><sup>[127]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It does not appear to me, however, even yet, that a final answer to the
+question whether a menstrual sexual rhythm occurs in men can be decisively
+given in the affirmative. That such a cycle will be proved in many cases
+seems to me highly probable, but before this can be decisively affirmed it
+is necessary that a much larger number of persons should be induced to
+carry out on themselves the simple, but protracted, series of observations
+that are required.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Since the first edition of this volume appeared, numerous series
+    of ecbolic records have reached me from different parts of the
+    world. The most notable of these series comes from a professional
+    man, of scientific training, who has for the past six years lived
+    in different parts of India, where the record was kept. Though
+    the record extends over nearly six years, there are two breaks in
+    it, due to a visit to England, and to loss of interest. Both
+    involuntary and voluntary discharges are included in the record.
+    The involuntary discharges occurred during sleep, usually with an
+    erotic dream, in which the subject invariably awaked and
+    frequently made an effort to check the emission. The voluntary
+    discharges in most cases commenced during sleep, or <a name='1_Page_117'></a>in the
+    half-waking state; deliberate masturbation, when fully awake, was
+    comparatively rare. The proportion of involuntary to more or less
+    voluntary ecboles was about 3 to 1. A third kind of sexual
+    manifestation (of frequency intermediate between the other two
+    forms) is also included, in which a high degree of erethism is
+    induced during the half waking state, culminating in an orgasm in
+    which the power of preventing discharge has been artificially
+    acquired. The subject, E. M., was 32 years of age when the record
+    began. He belongs to a healthy family, and is himself physically
+    sound, 5 feet 6 inches in height, but weight low, due to rickets
+    in infancy. In early life he stammered badly; his temperament is
+    emotional and self-conscious, while his work is unusually
+    exacting, and he lives for most of the year in a very trying
+    climate. As a boy he was very religious, and has always felt
+    obliged to resist sexual vice to the utmost, though there have
+    been occasional lapses.</p>
+
+<p>    As regards lunar periodicity, E. M., has summated his results in a
+    curve, after the same manner as Mr. Perry-Coste, beginning with
+    the new moon. The periods covered include 54 lunar months, and
+    the total number of discharges is 176; the average frequency is
+    about 3 per month of twenty-eight days. The curve, for the most
+    part, zigzags between a frequency of 4 and 9, but on the
+    twenty-fourth day it falls to 1, and then rises uninterruptedly
+    to a height of 11 on the twenty-seventh day, falling to 2 on the
+    next day. Whether a really menstrual rhythm is thus indicated I
+    do not undertake to decide, but I am inclined to agree with E. M.
+    himself that there is no definite evidence of it. &quot;It looks to
+    me,&quot; he writes, &quot;as if the only real rhythm (putting aside the
+    annual cycle) will be found to be the average period between the
+    ecboles, varying in different persons, but in my case, about nine
+    and one-eighth days. May not the ecbolic period in men be
+    compared to the menstrual period in women, and be an example of
+    the greater katabolic activity of men? There is the period of
+    tumescence, and the ecbole constituting the detumescence. The
+    week-end holiday would hasten the detumescence, but about every
+    third week-end there would tend to be delay to enable the system
+    to get back into its regulation nine or ten days' stride. This
+    might possibly be the explanation of the curves. The recent
+    emissions were nearly all involuntary during sleep. Age may have
+    something to do with the change in character.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    E. M.'s curves frequently show the influence of weekly
+    periodicity, in the tendency to ecbole on Sunday, or sometimes on
+    Saturday or Monday. In recent years there has been some tendency
+    for this climax to be thrown towards the middle of the week, but,
+    on the whole, Wednesday is the point of lowest frequency.</p>
+
+<p>    In another case, the subject, A. N., who has spent nearly all his
+    <a name='1_Page_118'></a>life in the State of Indiana, has kept a record of sexual
+    manifestations between the ages of 30 and 34. The data, which
+    cover four years, have not been sent to me in a form which
+    enables the possibility of a monthly curve to be estimated, but
+    A. N., who has himself arranged the data on a lunar monthly basis,
+    considers that a monthly curve is thus revealed. &quot;My memoranda,&quot;
+    he writes, &quot;show that discharges occur most frequently on the
+    first, second, and third days after new moon. There is also
+    another period on the fourteenth and fifteenth, which might
+    indicate a semi-lunar rhythm. The days of minimum discharge are
+    the seventh, eighth, twenty-second, and twenty-third.&quot; It may be
+    added that the yearly average of ecbolic manifestations, varying
+    between 50 and 55, comes out as 52, or exactly one per week.</p>
+
+<p>    A weekly periodicity is very definitely shown by A. N.'s data.
+    Sunday once more stands at the head of the week as regards
+    frequency, in this case very decisively. The figures are as follows:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='center'>Sun.</td><td align='center'>Mon.</td><td align='center'>Tues.</td><td align='center'>Wed.</td><td align='center'>Thurs.</td><td align='center'>Fri.</td><td align='center'>Sat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>48</td><td align='center'>21</td><td align='center'>24</td><td align='center'>35</td><td align='center'>28</td><td align='center'>26</td><td align='center'>27</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In another case which has reached me from the United States, the
+    data are slighter, but deserve note, as the subject is a trained
+    psychologist, and I quote the case in his own words. Here, it
+    will be seen, there appears to be a tendency for the ecbolic
+    cycle to cover a period of about six weeks. In this case, also,
+    there is a tendency for the climax to occur about Saturday or
+    Sunday. &quot;X. is 38 years old, unmarried, fair health, pretty good
+    heredity; university trained, and engaged in academic pursuits.
+    He thinks he may have completed puberty at about 13, though he
+    has no proof that he was in the full possession of his sex-powers
+    until he was 15 years 3 months old (when he had his first
+    emission). His sex life has been normal. He masturbated somewhat
+    when he slept with other boys (or men) during early manhood, but
+    not to excess.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;During the autumn of 1889 (when 28 years of age) he observed
+    that at certain times he had an itching feeling about the
+    testicles; that he felt slightly irritable; that the penis
+    erected with the slightest provocation, and that this peculiar
+    feeling usually passed away with a nightly emission. Indeed, so
+    regular was the matter that he usually wore a loin garment at
+    these times, to prevent the semen getting on the bedding. This
+    peculiar feeling ordinarily continued for two or three days. He
+    recalls at these times that he felt that he would like to wrestle
+    with some one, for there seemed to be a muscular tension. These
+    states returned with apparent regularity, and the intervals
+    seemed to be about six weeks, though no effort was made to
+    measure the periods until 1893. The following notes are taken
+    from the diaries of X.:&mdash;</p></div><a name='1_Page_119'></a>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Thursday, December 29, 1892. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(This is the only entry.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Thursday, February 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(The diary notes that X. awoke nights to find erections, and<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>that the feeling continued until Sunday night following, when<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>there was an emission.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Friday, March 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(The diary notes that there was an emission the next night,<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>and that the feeling disappeared.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Wednesday, May 3, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(The diary notes that it continued until Saturday night, when<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>X. had sexual relations, and that it then disappeared.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Wednesday, June 14, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(The diary states that the next night X. had an emission,<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>and the disappearance of the feeling.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Thursday, July 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(The diary notes that it was apparent at about 3 o'clock<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>that afternoon. That night at 10 o'clock, X. had sexual<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>intercourse, and the feeling was not noted the next day.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Friday, September 8, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(Continued until Tuesday, the 11th, and then disappeared.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>No sexual intercourse, and no nightly emission.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Wednesday, October 25, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(Continued until Saturday night, when there was a nightly<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>emission.)<br /></span>
+</div><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i4'>&quot;Saturday, December 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>(Continued until Monday night, when there was sexual<br /></span>
+<span class='i8'>relations.)<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It will be noted that the intervals observed were of about six
+    weeks' duration, excepting one, that from September to October,
+    when it was nearly seven weeks.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;These observations were not recorded after 1893. X. thinks that
+    in 1894 the intervals were longer, an opinion which is based on
+    the fact that for a period of six months he had no sexual
+    intercourse and no nightly emissions. The times during this six
+    months when he had the 'peculiar feeling,' the sensation was so
+    slight as to be scarcely noted. In 1895, the feeling seemed more
+    pronounced than ever before, and X. thinks that it may have
+    recurred as often as once a month. In 1896, 1897, and 1898, the
+    intervals, he thinks, lengthened&mdash;at times, he thought, wholly
+    disappeared. During 1899, while they did not recur often, when
+    they did come the sensation was pronounced, although <a name='1_Page_120'></a>the
+    emission was less common. There was a peculiar 'heavy' feeling
+    about the testicles, and a marked tendency towards erection of
+    the penis, especially at night-time (while sleeping). X. often
+    awoke to find a tense erection. Moreover, these feelings usually
+    continued a week.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;1. In general, X. is of the opinion that as he grows older these
+    intervals lengthen, though this inference is not based on
+    <i>recorded</i> data.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;2. He notes that a discharge (through sexual intercourse or in
+    sleep) invariably brings the peculiar feeling to a close for the
+    time being.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;3. He notes that sexual intercourse <i>at the time</i> stops it; but,
+    when there has been sexual intercourse within a week or ten days
+    of the time (based upon the observations of 1893), that it had no
+    tendency to check the feeling.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In another case, that of F. C., an Irish farmer, born in
+    Waterford, the data are still more meagre, though the periodicity
+    is stated to be very pronounced. He is chaste, steady, with
+    occasional lapses from strict sobriety, healthy and mentally
+    normal, living a regular open-air life, far from the artificial
+    stimuli of towns. The observations refer to a period when he was
+    from 20 to 27 years of age. During this period, nocturnal
+    emissions occurred at regular intervals of exactly a month. They
+    were ushered in by fits of irritability and depression, and
+    usually occurred in dreamless sleep. The discharges were abundant
+    and physically weakening, but they relieved the psychic symptoms,
+    though they occasioned mental distress, since F. C. is scrupulous
+    in a religious sense, and also apprehensive of bad constitutional
+    effects, the result of reading alarmist quack pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p>    In another case known to me, a young man leading a chaste life,
+    experienced crises of sexual excitement every ten to fourteen
+    days, the crisis lasting for several days.</p>
+
+<p>    Finally, an interesting contribution to this subject, suggested
+    by this <i>Study</i>, has been made and published (in the proceedings
+    of the Amsterdam International Congress of Psychology, in 1907)
+    by the well-known Amsterdam neurologist and psychologist, Dr.
+    L. S. A. M. Von R&ouml;mer under the title, &quot;Ueber das Verh&auml;ltniss
+    zwischen Mondalter und Sexualit&auml;t.&quot; Von R&ouml;mer's data are made up
+    not of nocturnal involuntary emissions, but of the voluntary acts
+    of sexual intercourse of an unmarried man, during a period of
+    four years. Von R&ouml;mer believes that these, to a much greater
+    extent than those of a married man, would be liable to periodic
+    influence, if such exist. On making a curve of exact lunar length
+    (similarly to Perry-Coste), he finds that there are, every month,
+    two maxima and two minima, in a way that approximately resemble
+    Perry-Coste's curve. The main point in Von R&ouml;mer's results is,
+    however, the correspondence that he finds with the actual lunar
+    <a name='1_Page_121'></a>phases; the chief maximum occurs at the time of the full moon,
+    and the secondary maximum at the time of the new moon, the minima
+    being at the first and fourth quarters. He hazards no theory in
+    explanation of this coincidence, but insists on the need for
+    further observations. It will be seen that A. N.'s results (<i>ante</i>
+    p. 117) seem in the main to correspond to Von R&ouml;mer's. </p></div><a name='1_Page_122'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_117'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_117'>[117]</a><div class='note'><p> Even counting the pulse is a comparatively recent method of
+physiological examination. It was not until 1450 that Nicolas of Cusa
+advocated counting the pulse-beats. (Binz, <i>Deutsche medizinische
+Wochenschrift</i>, October 6, 1898.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_118'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_118'>[118]</a><div class='note'><p> I leave this statement as it stands, though since the first
+publication of this book it has ceased to be strictly accurate.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_119'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_119'>[119]</a><div class='note'><p> Sanctorius, <i>Medicina Statica</i>, Sect. I, aph. lxv.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_120'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_120'>[120]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, xiv, 1882.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_121'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_121'>[121]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Zo&ouml;nomia</i>, Section XXXVI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_122'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_122'>[122]</a><div class='note'><p> I reproduced these notes in full in earlier editions of
+this volume.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_123'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_123'>[123]</a><div class='note'><p> Moll refers to the case of a man whose erotic dreams
+occurred every fortnight, and always on Friday night (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>,
+Band I, p. 136). One is inclined to suspect an element of autosuggestion
+in such a case; still, the coincidence is noteworthy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_124'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_124'>[124]</a><div class='note'><p> See Durkheim, <i>Le Suicide</i>, p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_125'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_125'>[125]</a><div class='note'><p> We must, of course, see here the results of the
+disorganization produced by holidays, and the exhaustion produced by the
+week's labor; but such influences are still the social effects of the
+cosmic week.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_126'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_126'>[126]</a><div class='note'><p> E. Smith, <i>Health and Disease</i>, Chapter III. I may remark
+that, according to Kemsoes (<i>Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift</i>, January
+20, 1908, and <i>British Medical Journal</i>, January 29, 1898),
+school-children work best on Monday and Tuesday.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_127'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_127'>[127]</a><div class='note'><p> See Appendix B.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_III-P'></a><h3>III.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Annual Sexual Rhythm&mdash;In Animals&mdash;In Man&mdash;Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn&mdash;The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals&mdash;The Feast of Fools&mdash;The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires&mdash;The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate&mdash;The Causes of those
+Variations&mdash;The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe&mdash;The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep&mdash;Original
+Observations&mdash;Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement&mdash;The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes&mdash;Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners&mdash;The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide&mdash;The Growth of
+Children According to Season&mdash;The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons&mdash;Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever&mdash;The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>That there are annual seasonal changes in the human organism, especially
+connected with the sexual function, is a statement that has been made by
+physiologists and others from time to time, and the statement has even
+reached the poets, who have frequently declared that spring is the season
+of love.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Thus, sixty years ago, Laycock, an acute pioneer in the
+    investigation of the working of the human organism, brought
+    together (in a chapter on &quot;The Periodic Movements in the
+    Reproductive Organs of Woman,&quot; in his <i>Nervous Diseases of
+    Women</i>, 1840, pp. 61-70) much interesting evidence to show that
+    the system undergoes changes about the vernal and autumnal
+    equinoxes, and that these changes are largely sexual.</p>
+
+<p>    Edward Smith, also a notable pioneer in this field of human
+    periodicity, and, indeed, the first to make definite observations
+    on a number of points bearing on it, sums up, in his remarkable
+    book, <i>Health and Disease as Influenced by Daily, Seasonal, and
+    Other Cyclical Changes in the Human System</i> (1861), to the effect
+    that season is a more powerful influence on the system than
+    temperature or atmospheric pressure; &quot;in the early and middle
+    parts of spring every function of the body is in its highest
+    degree of efficiency,&quot; while autumn is &quot;essentially a period of
+    change from the minimum toward the maximum of vital conditions.&quot;
+    He found that in April and May most carbonic acid is evolved,
+    there being then a progressive diminution to September, and then
+    a progressive increase; the respiratory rate also fell from a
+    maximum in April to a minimum maintained at exactly the same
+    level throughout August, September,<a name='1_Page_123'></a> October, and November;
+    spring was found to be the season of maximum, autumn of minimum,
+    muscular power; sensibility to tactile and temperature
+    impressions was also greater in spring.</p>
+
+<p>    Kulischer, studying the sexual customs of various human races,
+    concluded that in primitive times, only at two special
+    seasons&mdash;at spring and in harvest-time&mdash;did pairing take place;
+    and that, when pairing ceased to be strictly confined to these
+    periods, its symbolical representation was still so confined,
+    even among the civilized nations of Europe. He further argued
+    that the physiological impulse was only felt at these periods.
+    (Kulischer, &quot;Die geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl bei den Menschen in
+    der Urzeit,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1876, pp. 152 and
+    157.) Cohnstein (&quot;Ueber Pr&auml;dilectionszeiten bei Schwangerschaft,&quot;
+    <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, 1879) also suggested that women
+    sometimes only conceive at certain periods of the year.</p>
+
+<p>    Wiltshire, who made various interesting observations regarding
+    the physiology of menstruation, wrote: &quot;Many years ago, I
+    concluded that every women had a law peculiar to herself, which
+    governed the times of her bringing forth (and conceiving); that
+    she was more prone to bring forth at certain epochs than at
+    others; and subsequent researches have established the accuracy
+    of the forecast.&quot; He further stated his belief in a &quot;primordial
+    seasonal aptitude for procreation, the impress of which still
+    remains, and, to some extent, governs the breeding-times of
+    humanity.&quot; (A. Wiltshire, &quot;Lectures on the Comparative Physiology
+    of Menstruation,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, March, 1883, pp.
+    502, etc.)</p>
+
+<p>    Westermarck, in a chapter of his <i>History of Human Marriage</i>,
+    dealing with the question of &quot;A Human Pairing Season in Primitive
+    Times,&quot; brings forward evidence showing that spring, or, rather,
+    early summer, is the time for increase of the sexual instinct,
+    and argues that this is a survival of an ancient pairing season;
+    spring, he points out, is a season of want, rather than
+    abundance, for a frugivorous species, but when men took to herbs,
+    roots, and animal food, spring became a time of abundance, and
+    suitable for the birth of children. He thus considers that in
+    man, as in lower animals, the times of conception are governed by
+    the times most suitable for birth.</p>
+
+<p>    Rosenstadt, as we shall see later, also believes that men to-day
+    have inherited a physiological custom of procreating at a certain
+    epoch, and he thus accounts for the seasonal changes in the
+    birthrate.</p>
+
+<p>    Heape, who also believes that &quot;at one period of its existence the
+    human species had a special breeding season,&quot; follows Wiltshire
+    in suggesting that &quot;there is some reason to believe that the
+    human female is not always in a condition to breed.&quot; (W. Heape,
+    &quot;Menstruation and Ovulation of <i>Macacus rhesus</i>,&quot; <i>Philosophical
+    Transactions</i>, 1897; <i>id.</i> &quot;The Sexual Season of Mammals,&quot;
+    <i>Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science</i>, 1900.) </p></div><a name='1_Page_124'></a>
+
+<p>Except, however, in one important respect, with which we shall presently
+have to deal, few attempts have been made to demonstrate any annual
+organic sexual rhythm. The supposition of such annual cycle is usually
+little more than a deduction from the existence of the well-marked
+seasonal sexual rhythm in animals. Most of the higher animals breed only
+once or twice a year, and at such a period that the young are born when
+food is most plentiful. At other periods the female is incapable of
+breeding, and without sexual desires, while the male is either in the same
+condition or in a condition of latent sexuality. Under the influence of
+domestication, animals tend to lose the strict periodicity of the wild
+condition, and become apt for breeding at more frequent intervals. Thus
+among dogs in the wild state the bitch only experiences heat once a year,
+in the spring. Among domesticated dogs, there is not only the spring
+period of heat, early in the year, but also an autumn period, about six
+months later; the primitive period, however, remains the most important
+one, and the best litters of pups are said to be produced in the spring.
+The mare is in season in spring and summer; sheep take the ram in
+autumn.<a name='1_FNanchor_128'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_128'><sup>[128]</sup></a> Many of the menstruating monkeys also, whether or not sexual
+desire is present throughout the year, only conceive in spring and in
+autumn. Almost any time of the year may be an animal's pairing season,
+this season being apparently in part determined by the economic conditions
+which will prevail at birth. While it is essential that animals should be
+born during the season of greatest abundance, it is equally essential that
+pairing, which involves great expenditure of energy, should also take
+place at a season of maximum physical vigor.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>As an example of the sexual history of an animal through the
+    year, I may quote the following description, by Dr. A. W.
+    Johnstone, of the habits of the American deer: &quot;Our common
+    American deer, in winter-time, is half-starved for lack of
+    vegetation in the woods; the low temperature, snow, and ice, make
+    his conditions of life harder for lack of the proper amount of
+    food, whereby he becomes an easier prey to carnivorous animals.
+    He has difficulty even in preserving life. In spring he sheds his
+    winter coat, and is provided with a suit of lighter hair, and
+    <a name='1_Page_125'></a>while this is going on the male grows antlers for defence. The
+    female about this time is far along in pregnancy, and when the
+    antlers are fully grown she drops the fawn. When the fawns are
+    dropped vegetation is plentiful and lactation sets in. During
+    this time the male is kept fully employed in getting food and
+    guarding his more or less helpless family. As the season advances
+    the vegetation increases and the fawn begins to eat grass. When
+    the summer heat commences the little streams begin to dry up, and
+    the animal once more has difficulty in supporting life because of
+    the enervating heat, the effect of drought on the vegetation, and
+    the distance which has to be traveled to get water; therefore,
+    fully ten months in each year the deer has all he can do to live
+    without extra exertion incident to rutting. Soon after the autumn
+    rains commence vegetation becomes more luxurious, the antlers of
+    the male and new suits of hair for both are fully grown, heat of
+    the summer is gone, food and drink are plentiful everywhere, the
+    fawns are weaned, and both sexes are in the very finest
+    condition. Then, and then only, in the whole year, comes the rut,
+    which, to them as to most other animals, means an unwonted amount
+    of physical exercise besides the everyday runs for life from
+    their natural enemies, and an unusual amount of energy is used
+    up. If a doe dislikes the attention of a special buck, miles of
+    racing result. If jealous males meet, furious battles take place.
+    The strain on both sexes could not possibly be endured at any
+    other season of the year. With approach of cold weather, climatic
+    deprivations and winter dangers commence and rut closes. In all
+    wild animals, rut occurs only when the climatic and other
+    conditions favor the highest physical development. This law holds
+    good in all wild birds, for it is then only that they can stand
+    the strain incident to love-making. The common American crow is a
+    very good study. In the winter he travels around the ricefields
+    of the South, leading a tramp's existence in a country foreign to
+    him, and to which he goes only to escape the rigors of the
+    northern climate. For several weeks in the spring he goes about
+    the fields, gathering up the worms and grubs. After his long
+    flight from the South he experiences several weeks of an almost
+    ideal existence, his food is plentiful, he becomes strong and
+    hearty, and then he turns to thoughts of love. In the pairing
+    season he does more work than at any other time in the year:
+    fantastic dances, racing and chasing after the females, and
+    savage fights with rivals. He endures more than would be possible
+    in his ordinary physical state. Then come the care of the young
+    and the long flights for water and food during the drought of the
+    summer. After the molt, autumn finds him once more in flock, and
+    with the first frosts he is off again to the South. In the wild
+    state, rut is the capstone of perfect physical condition.&quot; (A. W.
+    Johnstone, &quot;The Relation of Menstruation to the other
+    Reproductive Functions,&quot; <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, vol.
+    xxxii, 1895.)</p><a name='1_Page_126'></a>
+
+<p>    Wiltshire (&quot;Lectures on the Comparative Physiology of
+    Menstruation,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, March, 1888) and
+    Westermarck (<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, Chapter II) enumerate
+    the pairing season of a number of different animals.</p>
+
+<p>    With regard to the breeding seasons of monkeys, little seems to
+    be positively known. Heape made special inquiries with reference
+    to the two species whose sexual life he investigated. He was
+    informed that <i>Semnopithecus entellus</i> breeds twice a year, in
+    April and in October. He accepts Aitcheson's statement that the
+    <i>Macacus rhesus</i>, in Simla, copulates in October, and adds that
+    in the very different climate of the plains it appears to
+    copulate in May. He concludes that the breeding season varies
+    greatly in dependence on climate, but believes that the breeding
+    season is always preserved, and that it affects the sexual
+    aptitude of the male. He could not make his monkeys copulate
+    during February or March, but is unable to say whether or not
+    sexual intercourse is generally admitted outside the breeding
+    season. He quotes the observation of Breschet that monkeys
+    copulate during pregnancy. </p></div>
+
+<p>In primitive human races we very frequently trace precisely the same
+influence of the seasonal impulse as may be witnessed in the higher
+animals, although among human races it does not always result that the
+children are born at the time of the greatest plenty, and on account of
+the development of human skill such a result is not necessary. Thus Dr.
+Cook found among the Eskimo that during the long winter nights the
+secretions are diminished, muscular power is weak, and the passions are
+depressed. Soon after the sun appears a kind of rut affects the young
+population. They tremble with the intensity of sexual passion, and for
+several weeks much of the time is taken up with courtship and love. Hence,
+the majority of the children are born nine months later, when the four
+months of perpetual night are beginning. A marked seasonal periodicity of
+this kind is not confined to the Arctic regions. We may also find it in
+the tropics. In Cambodia, Mondi&egrave;re has found that twice a year, in April
+and September, men seem to experience a &quot;veritable rut,&quot; and will
+sometimes even kill women who resist them.<a name='1_FNanchor_129'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_129'><sup>[129]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>These two periods, spring and autumn&mdash;the season for greeting the
+appearance of life and the season for reveling in its final
+<a name='1_Page_127'></a>fruition&mdash;seem to be everywhere throughout the world the most usual
+seasons for erotic festivals. In classical Greece and Rome, in India,
+among the Indians of North and South America, spring is the most usual
+season, while in Africa the yam harvest of autumn is the season chiefly
+selected. There are, of course, numerous exceptions to this rule, and it
+is common to find both seasons observed. Taking, indeed, a broad view of
+festivals throughout the world, we may say that there are four seasons
+when they are held: the winter solstice, when the days begin to lengthen
+and primitive man rejoices in the lengthening and seeks to assist it;<a name='1_FNanchor_130'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_130'><sup>[130]</sup></a>
+the vernal equinox, the period of germination and the return of life; the
+summer solstice, when the sun reaches its height; and autumn, the period
+of fruition, of thankfulness, and of repose. But it is rarely that we find
+a people seriously celebrating more than two of these festival seasons.</p>
+
+<p>In Australia, according to M&uuml;ller as quoted by Ploss and Bartels, marriage
+and conception take place during the warm season, when there is greatest
+abundance of food, and to some extent is even confined to that period.
+Oldfield and others state that the Australian erotic festivals take place
+only in spring. Among some tribes, M&uuml;ller adds, such as the Watschandis,
+conception is inaugurated by a festival called <i>kaaro</i>, which takes place
+in the warm season at the first new moon after the yams are ripe. The
+leading feature of this festival is a moonlight dance, representing the
+sexual act symbolically. With their spears, regarded as the symbols of the
+male organ, the men attack bushes, which <a name='1_Page_128'></a>represent the female organs.
+They thus work themselves up to a state of extreme sexual excitement.<a name='1_FNanchor_131'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_131'><sup>[131]</sup></a>
+Among the Papuans of New Guinea, also, according to Miklucho-Macleay,
+conceptions chiefly occur at the end of harvest, and Guise describes the
+great annual festival of the year which takes place at the time of the yam
+and banana harvest, when the girls undergo a ceremony of initiation and
+marriages are effected.<a name='1_FNanchor_132'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_132'><sup>[132]</sup></a> In Central Africa, says Sir H. H. Johnston, in
+his <i>Central Africa</i>, sexual orgies are seriously entered into at certain
+seasons of the year, but he neglects to mention what these seasons are.
+The people of New Britain, according to Weisser (as quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels), carefully guard their young girls from the young men. At certain
+times, however, a loud trumpet is blown in the evening, and the girls are
+then allowed to go away into the bush to mix freely with the young men. In
+ancient Peru (according to an account derived from a pastoral letter of
+Archbishop Villagomez of Lima), in December, when the fruit of the
+<i>paltay</i> is ripe, a festival was held, preceded by a five days' fast.
+During the festival, which lasted six days and six nights, men and women
+met together in a state of complete nudity at a certain spot among the
+gardens, and all raced toward a certain hill. Every man who caught up with
+a woman in the race was bound at once to have intercourse with her.</p>
+
+<p>Very instructive, from our present point of view, is the account given by
+Dalton, of the festivals of the various Bengal races. Thus the Hos (a
+Kolarian tribe), of Bengal, are a purely agricultural people, and the
+chief festival of the year with them is the <i>m&aacute;gh parah</i>. It is held in
+the month of January, &quot;when the granaries are full of grain, and the
+people, to use their own <a name='1_Page_129'></a>expression, full of devilry.&quot; It is the festival
+of the harvest-home, the termination of the year's toil, and is always
+held at full moon. The festival is a <i>saturnalia</i>, when all rules of duty
+and decorum are forgotten, and the utmost liberty is allowed to women and
+girls, who become like bacchantes. The people believe that at this time
+both men and women become overcharged with vitality, and that a safety
+valve is absolutely necessary. The festival begins with a religious
+sacrifice made by the village priest or elders, and with prayers for the
+departed and for the vouchsafing of seasonable rain and good crops. The
+religious ceremonies over, the people give themselves up to feasting and
+to drinking the home-made beer, the preparation of which from fermented
+rice is one of a girl's chief accomplishments. &quot;The Ho population,&quot; wrote
+Dalton, &quot;are at other seasons quiet and reserved in manner, and in their
+demeanor toward women gentle and decorous; even in their flirtations they
+never transcend the bounds of decency. The girls, though full of spirits
+and somewhat saucy, have innate notions of propriety that make them modest
+in demeanor, though devoid of all prudery, and of the obscene abuse, so
+frequently heard from the lips of common women in Bengal, they appear to
+have no knowledge. They are delicately sensitive under harsh language of
+any kind, and never use it to others; and since their adoption of clothing
+they are careful to drape themselves decently, as well as gracefully; but
+they throw all this aside during the <i>m&aacute;gh</i> feast. Their nature appears to
+undergo a temporary change. Sons and daughters revile their parents in
+gross language, and parents their children; men and women become almost
+like animals in the indulgence of their amorous propensities. They enact
+all that was ever portrayed by prurient artists in a bacchanalian festival
+or pandean orgy; and as the light of the sun they adore, and the presence
+of numerous spectators, seems to be no restraint on their indulgence, it
+cannot be expected that chastity is preserved when the shades of night
+fall on such a scene of licentiousness and debauchery.&quot; While, however,
+thus representing the festival as a mere debauch, Dalton adds that
+relationships formed at this time generally end in marriage. There is also
+a flower festival in April and May, <a name='1_Page_130'></a>of religious nature, but the dances
+at this festival are quieter in character.<a name='1_FNanchor_133'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_133'><sup>[133]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In Burmah the great festival of the year is the full moon of October,
+following the Buddhist Lent season (which is also the wet season), during
+which there is no sexual intercourse. The other great festival is the New
+Year in March.<a name='1_FNanchor_134'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_134'><sup>[134]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In classical times the great festivals were held at the same time as in
+northern and modern Europe. The <i>brumalia</i> took place in midwinter, when
+the days were shortest, and the <i>rosalia</i>, according to early custom in
+May or June, and at a later time about Easter. After the establishment of
+Christianity the Church made constant efforts to suppress this latter
+festival, and it was referred to by an eighth century council as &quot;a wicked
+and reprehensible holiday-making.&quot; These festivals appear to be intimately
+associated with Dionysus worship, and the flower-festival of Dionysus, as
+well as the Roman Liberales in honor of Bacchus, was celebrated in March
+with worship of Priapus. The festivals of the Delian Apollo and of
+Artemis, both took place during the first week in May and the Roman
+Bacchanales in October.<a name='1_FNanchor_135'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_135'><sup>[135]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val Feast of Fools was to a large extent a seasonal orgy licensed
+by the Church. It may be traced directly back through the barbatories of
+the lower empire to the Roman <i>saturnalia</i>, and at Sens, the ancient
+ecclesiastical metropolis of France, it was held at about the same time as
+the <i>saturnalia</i>, on <a name='1_Page_131'></a>the Feast of the Circumcision, <i>i.e.</i>, New Year's
+Day. It was not, however, always held at this time; thus at Evreux it took
+place on the 1st of May.<a name='1_FNanchor_136'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_136'><sup>[136]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The Easter bonfires of northern-central Europe, the Midsummer (St. John's
+Eve) fires of southern-central Europe, still bear witness to the ancient
+festivals.<a name='1_FNanchor_137'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_137'><sup>[137]</sup></a> There is certainly a connection between these bonfires and
+erotic festivals; it is noteworthy that they occur chiefly at the period
+of spring and early summer, which, on other grounds, is widely regarded as
+the time for the increase of the sexual instinct, while the less frequent
+period for the bonfires is that of the minor sexual climax. Mannhardt was
+perhaps the first to show how intimately these spring and early summer
+festivals&mdash;held with bonfires and dances and the music of violin&mdash;have
+been associated with love-making and the choice of a mate.<a name='1_FNanchor_138'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_138'><sup>[138]</sup></a> In spring,
+the first Monday in Lent (Quadrigesima) and Easter Eve were frequent days
+for such bonfires. In May, among the Franks of the Main, the unmarried
+women, naked and adorned with flowers, danced on the Blocksberg before the
+men, as described by Herbels in the tenth century.<a name='1_FNanchor_139'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_139'><sup>[139]</sup></a> In the central
+highlands of Scotland the Beltane fires were kindled on the 1st of May.
+Bonfires sometimes took place on<a name='1_Page_132'></a> Halloween (October 31st) and Christmas.
+But the great season all over Europe for these bonfires, then often held
+with erotic ceremonial, is the summer solstice, the 23d of June, the eve
+of Midsummer, or St. John's Day.<a name='1_FNanchor_140'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_140'><sup>[140]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The Bohemians and other Slavonic races formerly had meetings with sexual
+license. This was so up to the beginning of the sixteenth century on the
+banks of rivers near Novgorod. The meetings took place, as a rule, the day
+before the Festival of John the Baptist, which, in pagan times, was that
+of a divinity known by the name of Jarilo (equivalent to Priapus). Half a
+century later, a new ecclesiastical code sought to abolish every vestige
+of the early festivals held on Christmas Day, on the Day of the Baptism,
+of Our Lord, and on John the Baptist's Day. A general feature of all these
+festivals (says Kowalewsky) was the prevalence of the promiscuous
+intercourse of the sexes. Among the Ehstonians, at the end of the
+eighteenth century, thousands of persons would gather around an old ruined
+church (in the Fellinschen) on the Eve of St. John, light a bonfire, and
+throw sacrificial gifts into it. Sterile women danced naked among the
+ruins; much eating and drinking went on, while the young men and maidens
+disappeared into the woods to do what they would. Festivals of this
+character still take place at the end of June in <a name='1_Page_133'></a>some districts. Young
+unmarried couples jump barefoot over large fires, usually near rivers or
+ponds. Licentiousness is rare.<a name='1_FNanchor_141'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_141'><sup>[141]</sup></a> But in many parts of Russia the
+peasants still attach little value to virginity, and even prefer women who
+have been mothers. The population of the Grisons in the sixteenth century
+held regular meetings not less licentious than those of the Cossacks.
+These were abolished by law. Kowalewsky regards all such customs as a
+survival of early forms of promiscuity.<a name='1_FNanchor_142'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_142'><sup>[142]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, 2d ed., 1900, vol. iii, pp. 236-350)
+    fully describes and discusses the dances, bonfires and festivals
+    of spring and summer, of Halloween (October 31), and Christmas.
+    He also explains the sexual character of these festivals. &quot;There
+    are clear indications,&quot; he observes (p. 305), &quot;that even human
+    fecundity is supposed to be promoted by the genial heat of the
+    fires. It is an Irish belief that a girl who jumps thrice over
+    the midsummer bonfire will soon marry and become the mother of
+    many children; and in various parts of France they think that if
+    a girl dances round nine fires she will be sure to marry within a
+    year. On the other hand, in Lechrain, people say that if a young
+    man and woman, leaping over the midsummer fire together, escape
+    unsmirched, the young woman will not become a mother within
+    twelve months&mdash;the flames have not touched and fertilized her.
+    The rule observed in some parts of France and Belgium, that the
+    bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent should be kindled by the
+    person who was last married, seems to belong to the same class of
+    ideas, whether it be that such a person is supposed to receive
+    from, or impart to, the fire a generative and fertilizing
+    influence. The common practice of lovers leaping over the fires
+    hand-in-hand may very well have originated in a notion that
+    thereby their marriage would be more likely to be blessed with
+    offspring. And the scenes of profligacy which appear to have
+    marked the midsummer celebration among the Ehstonians, as they
+    once marked the celebration of May Day among ourselves, may <a name='1_Page_134'></a>have
+    sprung, not from the mere license of holiday-makers, but from a
+    crude notion that such orgies were justified, if not required, by
+    some mysterious bond which linked the life of man, to the courses
+    of the heavens at the turning-point of the year.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>As regards these primitive festivals, although the evidence is scattered
+and sometimes obscure, certain main conclusions clearly emerge. In early
+Europe there were, according to Grimm, only two seasons, sometimes
+regarded as spring and winter, sometimes as spring and autumn, and for
+mythical purposes these seasons were alone available.<a name='1_FNanchor_143'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_143'><sup>[143]</sup></a> The appearance
+of each of these two seasons was inaugurated by festivals which were
+religious and often erotic in character. The Slavonic year began in March,
+at which time there was formerly, it is believed, a great festival, not
+only in Slavonic but also in Teutonic countries. In Northern Germany there
+were Easter bonfires always associated with mountains or hills. The Celtic
+bonfires were held at the beginning of May, while the Teutonic May-day, or
+<i>Walpurgisnacht</i>, is a very ancient sacred festival, associated with
+erotic ceremonial, and regarded by Grimm as having a common origin with
+the Roman <i>floralia</i> and the Greek <i>dionysia</i>. Thus, in Europe, Grimm
+concludes: &quot;there are four different ways of welcoming summer. In Sweden
+and Gothland a battle of winter and summer, a triumphal entry of the
+latter. In Schonen, Denmark, Lower Saxony, and England, simply May-riding,
+or fetching of the May-wagon. On the Rhine merely a battle of winter and
+summer, without immersion, without the pomp of an entry. In Franconia,
+Thuringia, Meissen, Silesia, and Bohemia only the carrying out of wintry
+death; no battle, no formal introduction of summer. Of these festivals the
+first and second fall in May, the third and fourth in March. In the first
+two, the whole population take part with unabated enthusiasm; in the last
+two only the lower poorer class.... Everything goes to prove that the
+approach of summer was to our forefathers a holy tide, welcomed <a name='1_Page_135'></a>by
+sacrifice, feast, and dance, and largely governing and brightening the
+people's life.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_144'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_144'><sup>[144]</sup></a> The early spring festival of March, the festival of
+Ostara, the goddess of spring, has become identified with the Christian
+festival of Resurrection (just as the summer solstice festival has been
+placed beneath the patronage of St. John the Baptist); but there has been
+only an amalgamation of closely-allied rites, for the Christian festival
+also may be traced back to a similar origin. Among the early Arabians the
+great <i>ragab</i> feast, identified by Ewald and Robertson Smith with the
+Jewish <i>paschal</i> feast, fell in the spring or early summer, when the
+camels and other domestic animals brought forth their young and the
+shepherds offered their sacrifices.<a name='1_FNanchor_145'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_145'><sup>[145]</sup></a> Babylonia, the supreme early
+centre of religious and cosmological culture, presents a more decisive
+example of the sex festival. The festival of Tammuz is precisely analogous
+to the European festival of St. John's Day. Tammuz was the solar god of
+spring vegetation, and closely associated with Ishtar, also an
+agricultural deity of fertility. The Tammuz festival was, in the earliest
+times, held toward the summer solstice, at the time of the first wheat and
+barley harvest. In Babylonia, as in primitive Europe, there were only two
+seasons; the festival of Tammuz, coming at the end of winter and the
+beginning of summer, was a fast followed by a feast, a time of mourning
+for winter, of rejoicing for summer. It is part of the primitive function
+of sacred ritual to be symbolical of natural processes, a mysterious
+representation of natural processes with the object of bringing them
+about.<a name='1_FNanchor_146'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_146'><sup>[146]</sup></a> The Tammuz festival was an appeal to the powers of Nature to
+exhibit their generative functions; its erotic character is indicated not
+only by the well-known fact that the priestesses of Ishtar (the Kadishtu,
+or &quot;holy ones&quot;) were prostitutes, but by the statements in Babylonian
+legends concerning the state of the earth during Ishtar's winter absence,
+when the bull, the ass, and man <a name='1_Page_136'></a>ceased to reproduce. It is evident that
+the return of spring, coincident with the Tammuz festival, was regarded as
+the period for the return of the reproductive instinct even in man.<a name='1_FNanchor_147'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_147'><sup>[147]</sup></a>
+So that along this line also we are led back to a great procreative
+festival.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the great spring festivals were held between March and June,
+frequently culminating in a great orgy on Midsummer's Eve. The next great
+season of festivals in Europe was in autumn. The beginning of August was a
+great festival in Celtic lands, and the echoes of it, Rhys remarks, have
+not yet died out in Wales.<a name='1_FNanchor_148'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_148'><sup>[148]</sup></a> The beginning of November, both in Celtic
+and Teutonic countries, was a period of bonfires.<a name='1_FNanchor_149'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_149'><sup>[149]</sup></a> In Germanic
+countries especially there was a great festival at the time. The Germanic
+year began at Martinmas (November 11th), and the great festival of the
+year was then held. It is the oldest Germanic festival on record, and
+retained its importance even in the Middle Ages. There was feasting all
+night, and the cattle that were to be killed were devoted to the gods; the
+goose was associated with this festival.<a name='1_FNanchor_150'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_150'><sup>[150]</sup></a> These autumn festivals
+culminated in the great festival of the winter solstice which we have
+perpetuated <a name='1_Page_137'></a>in the celebrations of Christmas and New Year. Thus, while
+the two great primitive culminating festivals of spring and autumn
+correspond exactly (as we shall see) with the seasons of maximum
+fecundation, even in the Europe of to-day, the earlier spring (March)
+and&mdash;though less closely&mdash;autumn (November) festivals correspond with the
+periods of maximum spontaneous sexual disturbance, as far as I have been
+able to obtain precise evidence of such disturbance. That the maximum of
+physiological sexual excitement should tend to appear earlier than the
+maximum of fecundation is a result that might be expected.</p>
+
+<p>The considerations so far brought forward clearly indicate that among
+primitive races there are frequently one or two seasons in the
+year&mdash;especially spring and autumn&mdash;during which sexual intercourse is
+chiefly or even exclusively carried on, and they further indicate that
+these primitive customs persist to some extent even in Europe to-day. It
+would still remain, to determine whether any such influence affects the
+whole mass of the civilized population and determines the times at which
+intercourse, or fecundation, most frequently takes place.</p>
+
+<p>This question can be most conveniently answered by studying the seasonal
+variation in the birthrate, calculating back to the time of conception.
+Wargentin, in Sweden, first called attention to the periodicity of the
+birthrate in 1767.<a name='1_FNanchor_151'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_151'><sup>[151]</sup></a> The matter seems to have attracted little further
+attention until Quetelet, who instinctively scented unreclaimed fields of
+statistical investigation, showed that in Belgium and Holland there is a
+maximum of births in February, and, consequently, of conceptions in May,
+and a minimum of births about July, with consequent minimum of conceptions
+in October. Quetelet considered that the spring maximum of conceptions
+corresponded to an increase of vitality after the winter cold. He pointed
+out that this sexual climax was better marked in the country than in
+towns, and accounted <a name='1_Page_138'></a>for this by the consideration that in the country
+the winter cold is more keenly felt. Later, Wapp&auml;us investigated the
+matter in various parts of northern and southern Europe as well as in
+Chile, and found that there was a maximum of conceptions in May and June
+attributable to season, and in Catholic countries strengthened by customs
+connected with ecclesiastical seasons. This maximum was, he found,
+followed by a minimum in September, October, and November, due to
+gradually increasing exhaustion, and the influence of epidemic diseases,
+as well as the strain of harvest-work. The minimum is reached in the south
+earlier than in the north. About November conceptions again become more
+frequent, and reach the second maximum at about Christmas and New Year.
+This second maximum is very slightly marked in southern countries, but
+strongly marked in northern countries (in Sweden the absolute maximum of
+conceptions is reached in December), and is due, in the opinion of
+Wapp&auml;us, solely to social causes. Villerm&eacute; reached somewhat similar
+results. Founding his study on 17,000,000 births, he showed that in France
+it was in April, May, and June, or from the spring equinox to the summer
+solstice, and nearer to the solstice than the equinox, that the maximum of
+fecundations takes place; while the minimum of births is normally in July,
+but is retarded by a wet and cold summer in such a manner that in August
+there are scarcely more births than in July, and, on the other hand, a
+very hot summer, accelerating the minimum of births, causes it to fall in
+June instead of in July.<a name='1_FNanchor_152'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_152'><sup>[152]</sup></a> He also showed that in Buenos Ayres, where
+the seasons are reversed, the conception-rate follows the reversed
+seasons, and is also raised by epochs of repose, of plentiful food, and of
+increased social life. Sormani studied the periodicity of conception in
+Italy, and found that the spring maximum in the southern provinces occurs
+in May, and gradually falls later as one proceeds northward, until, in the
+extreme north of the peninsula, it occurs in July. In southern Italy there
+is only one maximum and one minimum; in the north there are two. The
+minimum which follows the spring or summer <a name='1_Page_139'></a>maximum increases as we
+approach the south, while the minimum associated with the winter cold
+increases as we approach the north.<a name='1_FNanchor_153'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_153'><sup>[153]</sup></a> Beukemann, who studied the matter
+in various parts of Germany, found that seasonal influence was specially
+marked in the case of illegitimate births. The maximum of conceptions of
+illegitimate children takes place in the spring and summer of Europe
+generally; in Russia it takes place in the autumn and winter, when the
+harvest-working months for the population are over, and the period of
+rest, and also of minimum deathrate (September, October, and November),
+comes round. In Russia the general conception-rate has been studied by
+various investigators. Here the maximum number of conceptions is in
+winter, the minimum varying among different elements of the population.
+Looked at more closely, there are maxima of conceptions in Russia in
+January and in April. (In Russian towns, however, the maximum number of
+conceptions occurs in the autumn.) The special characteristics of the
+Russian conception-rate are held to be due to the prevalence of marriages
+in autumn and winter,<a name='1_FNanchor_154'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_154'><sup>[154]</sup></a> to the severely observed fasts of spring, and
+to the exhausting harvest-work of summer.</p>
+
+<p>It is instructive to compare the conception-rate of Europe with that of a
+non-European country. Such a comparison has been made by S. A. Hill for the
+Northwest Provinces of India. Here the Holi and other erotic festivals
+take place in spring; but spring is not the period when conceptions
+chiefly take place; indeed, the prevalence of erotic festivals in spring
+appears to Hill an argument in favor of those festivals having originated
+in a colder climate. The conceptions show a rise through October and
+November to a maximum in December and January, followed by a steady and
+prolonged fall to a minimum in September. This curve can be accounted for
+by climatic and economic conditions. September is near the end of the long
+and depressing hot season, <a name='1_Page_140'></a>when malarial influences are rapidly
+increasing to a maximum, the food-supply is nearly exhausted, and there is
+the greatest tendency to suicide. With October it forms the period of
+greatest mortality. December, on the other hand, is the month when food is
+most abundant, and it is also a very healthy month.<a name='1_FNanchor_155'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_155'><sup>[155]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>For a summary of the chief researches into this question, see
+    Ploss and Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>; also, Rosenstadt, &quot;Zur Frage nach
+    den Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc,&quot;
+    <i>Mittheilungen aus den embryologischen Institute Universit&auml;t
+    Wien</i>, second series, fasc. 4, 1890. Rosenstadt concludes that
+    man has inherited from animal ancestors a &quot;physiological custom&quot;
+    which has probably been further favored by climatic and social
+    conditions. &quot;Primitive man,&quot; he proceeds, &quot;had inherited from his
+    ancestors the faculty of only reproducing himself at determined
+    epochs. On the arrival of this period of rut, fecundation took
+    place on a large scale, this being very easy, thanks to the
+    promiscuity in which primitive man lived. With the development of
+    civilization, men give themselves up to sexual relations all the
+    year around, but the 'physiological custom' of procreating at a
+    certain epoch has not completely disappeared; it remains as a
+    survival of the animal condition, and manifests itself in the
+    recrudescence of the number of conceptions during certain months
+    of the year.&quot; O. Rosenbach (&quot;Bemerkungen &uuml;ber das Problem einer
+    Brunstzeit beim Menschen,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Rassen und
+    Gesellschafts-Biologie</i>, Bd. III, Heft 5) has also argued in
+    favor of a chief sexual period in the year in man, with secondary
+    and even tertiary climaxes, in March, August, and December. He
+    finds that in some families, for several generations, birthdays
+    tend to fall in the same months, but his paper is, on the whole,
+    inconclusive.</p>
+
+<p>    Some years ago, Prof. J. B. Haycraft argued, on the basis of data
+    furnished by Scotland, that the conception-rate corresponds to
+    the temperature-curve (Haycraft, &quot;Physiological Results of
+    Temperature Variation,&quot; <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of
+    Edinburgh</i>, vol. xxix, 1880). &quot;Temperature,&quot; he concluded, &quot;is
+    the main factor regulating the variations in the number of
+    conceptions which occur during the year. It increases their
+    number with its elevation, and this on an average of 0.5 per
+    cent, for an elevation of 1&deg; F.&quot; Whether or not this theory may
+    fit the facts as regards Scotland, it is certainly altogether
+    untenable when we take a broader view of the phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>    Recently Dr. Paul Gaedeken of Copenhagen has argued in a detailed
+    statistical study (&quot;La R&eacute;action de l'Organisme sous l'Influence
+    Physico-Chimiques des Agents M&eacute;t&eacute;orologiques,&quot; <i>Archives
+    d'Anthropologie<a name='1_Page_141'></a> Criminelle</i>, Feb., 1909) that the
+    conception-rate, as well as the periodicity of suicide and allied
+    phenomena, is due to the action of the chemical rays on the
+    unpigmented skin in early spring, this action being
+    physiologically similar to that of alcohol. He seeks thus to
+    account for the marked and early occurrence of such periodic
+    phenomena in Greenland and other northern countries where there
+    is much chemical action (owing to the clear air) in early spring,
+    but little heat. This explanation would not cover an autumnal
+    climax, the existence of which Gaedeken denies. </p></div>
+
+<p>In order to obtain a fairly typical conception-curve for Europe, and to
+allow the variations of local habit and custom to some extent to
+annihilate each other, I have summated the figures given by Mayr for about
+a quarter of a million births in Germany, France, and Italy,<a name='1_FNanchor_156'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_156'><sup>[156]</sup></a>
+obtaining a curve (<a href='#1_CHART_II'>Chart II</a>) of the conception-rate which may be said
+roughly to be that of Europe generally. If we begin at September as the
+lowest point, we find an autumn rise culminating in the lesser maximum of
+Christmas, followed by a minor depression in January and February. Then
+comes the great spring rise, culminating in May, and followed after June
+by a rapid descent to the minimum.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Canada (see <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Report of the Registrar General of the
+    Province of Ontario</i> for 1904), the maximum and minimum of
+    conceptions alike fall later than in Europe; the months of
+    maximum conception are June, July, and August; of minimum
+    conception, January, February, and March. June is the favorite
+    month for marriage.</p>
+
+<p>    It would be of some interest to know the conception-curve for the
+    well-to-do classes, who are largely free from the industrial and
+    social influences which evidently, to a great extent, control the
+    conception-rate. It seems probable that the seasonal influence
+    would here be specially well shown. The only attempt I have made
+    in this direction is to examine a well-filled birthday-book. The
+    entries show a very high and equally maintained maximum of
+    conceptions throughout April, May and June, followed by a marked
+    minimum during the next three months, and an autumn rise very
+    strongly marked, in November. There is no December rise. As will
+    be seen, there is here a fairly exact resemblance to the yearly
+    ecbolic curve of people of the same class. The inquiry needs,
+    however, to be extended to a very much larger number of cases.</p><a name='1_Page_142'></a>
+
+<p>    Mr. John Douglass Brown, of Philadelphia, has kindly prepared and
+    sent me, since the above was written, a series of curves showing
+    the, annual periodicity of births among the educated classes in
+    the State of Pennsylvania, using the statistics as to 4,066
+    births contained in the Biographical Catalogue of Matriculates of
+    the College of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Brown prepared
+    four curves: the first, covering the earliest period, 1757-1859;
+    the second, the period 1860-1876; the third, 1877-1893; while the
+    fourth presented the summated results for the whole period. (The
+    dates named are those of the entry to classes, and not of actual
+    occurrence of birth.) A very definite and well-marked curve is
+    shown, and the average number of births (not conceptions) per
+    day, for the whole period, is as follows:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='center'>&nbsp;Jan.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Feb.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Mar.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Apr.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;May&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;June&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;July&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Aug.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Sept.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Oct.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Nov.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Dec.&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>10.5</td><td align='center'>11.4</td><td align='center'>11</td><td align='center'>8.3</td><td align='center'>10.2</td><td align='center'>10.5</td><td align='center'>11.5</td><td align='center'>12.6</td><td align='center'>12.3</td><td align='center'>11.6</td><td align='center'>12</td><td align='center'>11.7</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There is thus a well-marked minimum of conceptions (a depression
+    appearing here in each of the three periods, separately) about
+    the month of July. (In the second period, however, which contains
+    the smallest number of births, the minimum occurs in September.)
+    From that low minimum there is steady and unbroken rise up to the
+    chief maximum in November. (In the first period, however, the
+    maximum is delayed till January, and in the second period it is
+    somewhat diffused.) There is a tendency to a minor maximum in
+    February, specially well marked in the third and most important
+    period, and in the first period delayed until March. </p></div>
+
+<p>A very curious and perhaps not accidental coincidence might be briefly
+pointed out before we leave this part of the subject. It is found<a name='1_FNanchor_157'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_157'><sup>[157]</sup></a> by
+taking 3000 cases of children dying under one year that, among the general
+population, children born in February and September (and therefore
+conceived in May and December) appear to possess the greatest vitality,
+and those born in June, and, therefore, conceived in September, the least
+vitality.<a name='1_FNanchor_158'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_158'><sup>[158]</sup></a> As we have seen, May and December are precisely the periods
+<a name='1_Page_143'></a>when conceptions in Europe generally are at a maximum, and September is
+precisely the period when they are at a minimum, so that, if this
+coincidence is not accidental, the strongest children are conceived when
+there is the strongest tendency to procreate, and the feeblest children
+when that tendency is feeblest.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson, in his study of dreams and their relation to seasonal ecbolic
+manifestations, does not present any yearly ecbolic curve, as the two
+years and a half over which his observations extend scarcely supply a
+sufficient basis. On examining his figures, however, I find there is a
+certain amount of evidence of a yearly rhythm. There are spring and autumn
+climaxes throughout (in February and in November); there is no December
+rise. During one year there is a marked minimum from May to September,
+though it is but slightly traceable in the succeeding year. These figures
+are too uncertain to prove anything, but, as far as they go, they are in
+fair agreement with the much more extensive record, that of W. K. (<i>ante</i>
+p. 113), which I have already made use of in discussing the question of a
+monthly rhythm. This record, covering nearly twelve years, shows a general
+tendency, when the year is divided into four periods (November-January,
+February-April, May-July, August-October) and the results summated, to
+rise steadily throughout, from the minimum in the winter period to the
+maximum in the autumn period. This steady upward progress is not seen in
+each year taken separately. In three years there is a fall in passing from
+the November-January to the February-April quarter (always followed by a
+rise in the subsequent quarter); in three cases there is a fall in passing
+from the second to the third quarter (again always followed by a rise in
+the following quarter), and in two successive years there is a fall in
+passing from the third to the fourth quarter. If, however, beginning at
+the second year, we summate the results for each year with those for all
+previous years, a steady rise from season to season is seen throughout. If
+we analyze the data according to the months of the year, still more
+precise and interesting results (as shown in the curve, <a href='#1_CHART_III'>Chart III</a>) are
+obtained; two maximum points are seen, one in spring (March), one in
+autumn (October, or, rather, August-October), <a name='1_Page_144'></a>and each of these maximum
+points is followed by; a steep and sudden descent to the minimum points in
+April and in December. If we compare this result with Perry-Coste's also
+extending over a long series of years, we find a marked similarity. In
+both alike there are spring and autumn maxima, in both the autumn maximum
+is the highest, and in both also there is an intervening fall. In both
+cases, again, the maxima are followed by steep descents, but while in both
+the spring maximum occurs in March, in Perry-Coste's case the second
+maximum, though of precisely similar shape, occurs earlier, in
+June-September instead of August-October. In Perry-Coste's case, also,
+there is an apparently abnormal tendency, only shown in the more recent
+years of the record, to an additional maximum in January. The records
+certainly show far more points of agreement than of discrepancy, and by
+their harmony, as well with each other as with themselves, when the years
+are taken separately, certainly go far to prove that there is a very
+marked annual rhythm in the phenomena of seminal emissions during sleep,
+or, as Nelson has termed it, the ecbolic curve. We see, also, that the
+great yearly organic climax of sexual effervescence corresponds with the
+period following harvest, which, throughout the primitive world, has been
+a season of sexual erethism and orgy; though those customs have died out
+of our waking lives, they are still imprinted on our nervous texture, and
+become manifest during sleep.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The fresh records that have reached me since the first edition of
+    this book was published show well-marked annual curves, though
+    each curve always has some slight personal peculiarities of its
+    own. The most interesting and significant is that of E. M. (see
+    <i>ante</i> p. 116), covering four years. It is indicated by the
+    following monthly frequencies, summated for the four years:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='center'>&nbsp;Jan.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Feb.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Mar.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Apr.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;May&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;June&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;July&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Aug.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Sept.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Oct.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Nov.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;Dec.&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>16&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>13&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>14&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>22&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>19&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>19&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>12&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>12&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>14&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>14&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>12&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>24</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>E. M. lives in India. April, May, and June, are hot months, but
+    not unhealthy, and during this season, moreover, he lives in the
+    hills, under favorable conditions, getting plenty of outdoor
+    exercise. July, August, and September, are nearly as hot, but
+    much damper, and more trying; during these months, E. M. is living
+    in the city, and his work is then, <a name='1_Page_145'></a>also, more exacting than at
+    other times, September is the worst month of all; he has a short
+    holiday at the end of it. During December, January, and February,
+    the climate is very fine, and E. M.'s work is easier. It will be
+    seen that his ecbolic curve corresponds to his circumstances and
+    environment, although until he analyzed the record he had no idea
+    that any such relationship existed. Unfavorable climatic
+    conditions and hard work, favorable conditions and lighter work,
+    happen to coincide in his life, and the former depress the
+    frequency of seminal emissions; the latter increase their
+    frequency. At the same time, the curve is not out of harmony with
+    the northern curves. There is what corresponds to a late spring
+    (April) climax, and another still higher, late autumn (December)
+    climax. A very interesting point is the general resemblance of
+    the ecbolic curves to the Indian conception-curves as set forth
+    by Hill (<i>ante</i> p. 140). The conception-curve is at its lowest
+    point in September, and at its highest point in December-January,
+    and this ecbolic curve follows it, except that both the minimum
+    and the maximum are reached a little earlier. When compared with
+    the English annual ecbolic curves (W. K. and Perry-Coste), both
+    spring and autumn maxima fall rather later, but all agree in
+    representing the autumn rise as the chief climax.</p>
+
+<p>    The annual curve of A. N. (<i>ante</i> p. 117), who lives in Indiana,
+    U.S.A., also covers four years. It presents the usual spring
+    (May-June, in this case) and autumn (September-October) climaxes.
+    The exact monthly results, summated for the four years, are given
+    below; in order to allow for the irregular lengths of the months,
+    I have reduced them to daily averages, for convenience treating
+    the four years as one year:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='center'>Jan.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Feb.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Mar.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Apr.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>May&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>June&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>July&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Aug.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Sept.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Oct.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Nov.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Dec.&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>13&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>9&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>13&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>20&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>23&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>22&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>20&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>20&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>21&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>23&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>9&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>16&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>.42&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.32&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.42&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.66&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.74&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.73&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.64&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.64&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.70&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.74&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.30&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.52&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In his book on <i>Adolescence</i>, Stanley Hall refers to three
+    ecbolic records in his possession, all made by men who were
+    doctors of philosophy, and all considering themselves normal. The
+    best of these records made by &quot;a virtuous, active and able man,&quot;
+    covered nearly eight years. Stanley Hall thus summarizes the
+    records, which are not presented in detail: &quot;The best of these
+    records averages about three and a half such experiences per
+    month, the most frequent being 5.14 for July, and the least
+    frequent 2.28, for September, for all the years taken together.
+    There appears also a slight rise in April, and another in
+    November, with a fall in December.&quot; The frequency varies in the
+    different individuals. There was no tendency to a monthly cycle.
+    In the best case, the minimum number for the year was
+    thirty-seven, and the maximum, fifty. Fifty-nine per cent. of all
+    were at an interval of a week or less; <a name='1_Page_146'></a>forty per cent. at an
+    interval of from one to four days; thirty-four per cent, at an
+    interval of from eight to seventeen days, the longest being
+    forty-two days. Poor condition, overwork, and undersleep, led to
+    infrequency. Early morning was the most common time. Normally
+    there was a sense of distinct relief, but in low conditions, or
+    with over-frequency, depression. (G. S. Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, vol.
+    i, p. 453.) I may add that an anonymous article on &quot;Nocturnal
+    Emissions&quot; (<i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, Jan., 1904) is
+    evidently a fuller presentation of the first of Stanley Hall's
+    three cases. It is the history of a healthy, unmarried, chaste
+    man, who kept a record of his nocturnal emissions (and their
+    accompanying dreams) from the age of thirty to thirty-eight. In
+    what American State he lived is not mentioned. He was ignorant of
+    the existence of any previous records. The yearly average was 37
+    to 50, remaining fairly constant; the monthly average was 3.43. I
+    reproduce the total results summated for the months, separately,
+    and I have worked out the daily average for each month, for
+    convenience counting the summated eight years as one year:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='center'>Jan.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Feb.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Mar.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Apr.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>May&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>June&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>July&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Aug.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Sept.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Oct.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Nov.&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Dec.&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>27&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>27&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>27&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>31&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>29&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>28&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>36&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>25&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>18&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>27&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>30&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>24&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>.87&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.94&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.87&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>1.03&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.93&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.93&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>1.16&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.81&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.60&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.87&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>1.00&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>.77&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Here, as in all the other curves we have been able to consider,
+    we may see the usual two points of climax in spring and in
+    autumn; the major climax covers April, May, June, and July, the
+    minor autumnal climax is confined to November. In the light of
+    the evidence which has thus accumulated, we may conclude that the
+    existence of an annual ecbolic curve, with its spring and autumn
+    climaxes, as described in the first edition of this book, is now
+    definitely established. </p></div>
+
+<p>If we are to believe, as these records tend to show, that the nocturnal
+and involuntary voice of the sexual impulse usually speaks at least as
+loudly in autumn as in spring, we are confronted by a certain divergence
+of the sleeping sexual impulse from the waking sexual instinct, as
+witnessed by the conception-curve, and also, it may be added, by the
+general voice of tradition, and, indeed, of individual feeling, which
+concur, on the whole, in placing the chief epoch of sexual activity in
+spring and early summer, more especially as regards women.<a name='1_FNanchor_159'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_159'><sup>[159]</sup></a> It is not
+impossible to reconcile the contradiction, assuming it to be real, but I
+will <a name='1_Page_147'></a>refrain here from suggesting the various explanations which arise.
+We need a broader basis of facts.</p>
+
+<p>There are many facts to show that early spring and, to a certain extent,
+autumn are periods of visible excitement, mainly sexual in character. We
+have already seen that among the Eskimo menstruation and sexual desire
+occur chiefly in spring, but cases are known of healthy women in temperate
+climes who only menstruate twice a year, and in such cases the menstrual
+epochs appear to be usually in spring and autumn. Such, at all events, was
+the case in a girl of 20, whose history has been recorded by Dr. Mary
+Wenck, of Philadelphia.<a name='1_FNanchor_160'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_160'><sup>[160]</sup></a> She menstruated first when 15 years old. Six
+months later the flow again appeared for the second time, and lasted three
+weeks, without cessation. Since then, for five years, she menstruated
+during March and September only, each time for three weeks, the flow being
+profuse, but not exhaustingly so, without pain or systemic disturbance.
+Examination revealed perfectly normal uterus and ovarian organs.
+Treatment, accompanied by sitz-baths during the time of month the flow
+should appear, accomplished nothing. The semi-annual flow continued and
+the girl seemed in excellent health.</p>
+
+<p>It is a remarkable fact that, as noted by Dr. Hamilton Wey at Elmira,
+sexual outbursts among prisoners appear to occur at about March and
+October. &quot;Beginning with the middle of February,&quot; writes Dr. Wey in a
+private letter, &quot;and continuing for about two months, is a season of
+ascending sexual wave; also the latter half of September and the month of
+October. We are now (March 30th) in the midst of a wave.&quot;</p>
+
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>According to Chinese medicine, it is the spring which awakens
+    human passions. In early Greek tradition, spring and summer were
+    noted as the time of greatest wantonness. &quot;In the season of
+    toilsome summer,&quot; says Hesiod (<i>Works and Days</i>, xi, 569-90),
+    &quot;the goats are fattest, wine is best, women most wanton, and men
+    weakest.&quot; It was so, also, in the experience of the Romans. Pliny
+    (<i>Natural History</i>, Bk. XII, Ch. XLIII) states that when the
+    asparagus blooms and the cicada sings loudest, is the season when
+    women are most amorous, but <a name='1_Page_148'></a>men least inclined to pleasure.
+    Paulus &AElig;gineta said that hysteria specially abounds during spring
+    and autumn in lascivious girls and sterile women, while more
+    recent observers have believed that hysteria is particularly
+    difficult to treat in autumn. Oribasius (<i>Synopsis</i>, lib. i, cap.
+    6) quotes from Rufus to the effect that sexual feeling is most
+    strong in spring, and least so in summer. Rabelais said that it
+    was in March that the sexual impulse is strongest, referring this
+    to the early warmth of spring, and that August is the month least
+    favorable to sexual activity (<i>Pantagruel</i>, liv. v, Ch. XXIX).
+    Nipho, in his book on love dedicated to Joan of Aragon, discussed
+    the reasons why &quot;women are more lustful and amorous in summer,
+    and men in winter.&quot; Venette, in his <i>G&eacute;n&eacute;ration de l'homme</i>,
+    harmonized somewhat conflicting statements with the observation
+    that spring is the season of love for both men and women; in
+    summer, women are more amorous than men; in autumn, men revive to
+    some extent, but are still oppressed by the heat, which,
+    sexually, has a less depressing effect on women. There is
+    probably a real element of truth in this view, and both extremes
+    of heat and cold may be regarded as unfavorable to masculine
+    virility. It is highly probable that the well-recognized tendency
+    of piles to become troublesome in spring and in autumn, is due to
+    increased sexual activity. Piles are favored by congestion, and
+    sexual excitement is the most powerful cause of sudden congestion
+    in the genito-anal region. Erasmus Darwin called attention to the
+    tendency of piles to recur about the equinoxes (<i>Zo&ouml;nomia</i>,
+    Section XXXVI), and since his days Gant, Bonavia, and Cullimore
+    have correlated this periodicity with sexual activity.</p>
+
+<p>    Laycock, quoting the opinions of some earlier authorities as to
+    the prevalence of sexual feeling in spring, stated that that
+    popular opinion &quot;appears to be founded on fact&quot; (<i>Nervous
+    Diseases of Women</i>, p. 69). I find that many people, and perhaps
+    especially women, confirm from their own experience, the
+    statement that sexual feeling is strongest in spring and summer.
+    Wichmann states that pollutions are most common in spring (being
+    perhaps the first to make that statement), and also nymphomania.
+    (In the eighteenth century, Schurig recorded a case of extreme
+    and life-long sexual desire in a woman whose salacity was always
+    at its height towards the festival of St. John, <i>Gyn&aelig;cologia</i>, p.
+    16.) A correspondent in the Argentine Republic writes to me that
+    &quot;on big estancias, where we have a good many shepherds, nearly
+    always married, or, rather, I should say, living with some woman
+    (for our standard of morality is not very high in these parts),
+    we always look out for trouble in springtime, as it is a very
+    common thing at this season for wives to leave their husbands and
+    go and live with some other man.&quot; A corresponding tendency has
+    been noted even among children. Thus, Sanford Bell (&quot;The Emotion
+    of Love Between the Sexes,&quot; <i>American Journal Psychology</i>, July,
+    1902) remarks: &quot;The season of the year <a name='1_Page_149'></a>seems to have its effect
+    upon the intensity of the emotion of sex-love among children. One
+    teacher, from Texas, who furnished me with seventy-six cases,
+    said that he had noticed that in the matter of love children
+    seemed 'fairly to break out in the springtime.' Many of the
+    others who reported, incidentally mentioned the love affairs as
+    beginning in the spring. This also agrees with my own
+    observations.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>Crichton-Browne remarks that children in springtime exhibit restlessness,
+excitability, perversity, and indisposition to exertion that are not
+displayed at other times. This condition, sometimes known as &quot;spring
+fever,&quot; has been studied in over a hundred cases, both children and
+adults, by Kline. The majority of these report a feeling of tiredness,
+languor, lassitude, sometimes restlessness, sometimes drowsiness. There is
+often a feeling of suffocation, and a longing for Nature and fresh air and
+day-dreams, while work seems distasteful and unsatisfactory. Change is
+felt to be necessary at all costs, and sometimes there is a desire to
+begin some new plan of life.<a name='1_FNanchor_161'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_161'><sup>[161]</sup></a> In both sexes there is frequently a wave
+of sexual emotion, a longing for love. Kline also found by examination of
+a very large number of cases that between the ages of four and seventeen
+it is in spring that running away from home most often occurs. He suggests
+that this whole group of phenomena may be due to the shifting of the
+metabolic processes from the ordinary grooves into reproductive channels,
+and seeks to bring it into connection with the migrations of animals for
+reproductive purposes.<a name='1_FNanchor_162'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_162'><sup>[162]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It has long been known that the occurrence of insanity follows an annual
+curve,<a name='1_FNanchor_163'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_163'><sup>[163]</sup></a> and though our knowledge of this curve, being founded on the
+date of admissions to asylums, cannot be said to be quite precise, it
+fairly corresponds to the outbreaks of <a name='1_Page_150'></a>acute insanity. The curve
+presented in <a href='#1_CHART_IV'>Chart IV</a> shows the admissions to the London County Council
+Lunatic Asylums during the years 1893 to 1897 inclusive; I have arranged
+it in two-month periods, to neutralize unimportant oscillations. In order
+to show that this curve is not due to local or accidental circumstances,
+we may turn to France and take a special and chronic form of mental
+disease: Garnier, in his <i>Folie &agrave; Paris</i>, presents an almost exactly
+similar curve of the admissions of cases of general paralysis to the
+Infirmerie Sp&eacute;ciale at Paris during the years 1886-88 (<a href='#1_CHART_V'>Chart V</a>). Both
+curves alike show a major climax in spring and a minor climax in autumn.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Crime in general in temperate climates tends to reach its maximum
+    at the beginning of the hot season, usually in June. Thus, in
+    Belgium, the minimum is in February; the maximum in June, thence
+    gradually diminishing (Lentz, <i>Bulletin Soci&eacute;t&eacute; M&eacute;decine Mentale
+    Belgique</i>, March, 1901). In France, Lacassagne has summated the
+    data extending over more than 40 years, and finds that for all
+    crimes June is the maximum month, the minimum being reached in
+    November. He also gives the figures for each class of crime
+    separately, and every crime is found to have its own yearly
+    curve. Poisonings show a chief maximum in May, with slow fall and
+    a minor climax in December; assassinations have a February and a
+    November climax. Parricides culminate in May-June, and in October
+    (Lacassagne's tables are given by Laurent, <i>Les Habitu&eacute;s des
+    Prisons de Paris</i>, Ch. 1).</p>
+
+<p>    Notwithstanding the general tendency for crime to reach its
+    maximum in the first hot month (a tendency not necessarily due to
+    the direct influence of heat), we also find, when we consider the
+    statistics of crime generally (including sexual crime), that
+    there is another tendency for minor climaxes in spring and
+    autumn. Thus, in Italy, Penta, taking the statistics of nearly
+    four thousand crimes (murder, highway robbery, and sexual
+    offences), found the maximum in the first summer months, but
+    there were also minor climaxes in spring and in August and
+    September (Penta, <i>Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria</i>, 1899). In
+    nearly all Europe (as is shown by a diagram given by Lombroso and
+    Laschi, at the end of the first volume of <i>Le Crime Politique</i>),
+    while the chief climaxes occur about July, there is, in most
+    countries, a distinct tendency to spring (usually about March)
+    and autumn (September and November) climaxes, though they rarely
+    rise as high as the July climax.</p>
+
+<p>    If we consider the separate periodicity of sexual offences, we
+    find that they follow the rule for crimes generally, and usually
+    show a <a name='1_Page_151'></a>chief maximum in early summer. Aschaffenburg finds that
+    the annual periodicity of the sexual impulse appears more
+    strongly marked the more abnormal its manifestations, which he
+    places in the following order of increasing periodicity:
+    conceptions in marriage, conceptions out of marriage, offences
+    against decency, rape, assaults on children (<i>Centralblatt f&uuml;r
+    Nervenheilkunde</i>, January, 1903). In France, rapes and offences
+    against modesty are most numerous in May, June, and July, as
+    Villerm&eacute;, Lacassagne, and others have shown. Villerm&eacute;,
+    investigating 1,000 such cases, found a gradual ascent in
+    frequency (only slightly broken in March) to a maximum in June
+    (oscillating between May and July, when the years are considered
+    separately), and then a gradual descent to a minimum in December.
+    Legludic gives, for the 159 cases he had investigated, a table
+    showing a small February-March climax, and a large June-August
+    maximum, the minimum being reached in November-January.
+    (Legludic, <i>Attentats aux M&oelig;urs</i>, 1896, p. 16.) In
+    Germany, Aschaffenburg finds that sexual offences begin to
+    increase in March and April, reach a maximum in June or July, and
+    fall to a minimum in winter (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>,
+    1903, Heft 2). In Italy, Penta shows that sexual offences reach a
+    minor climax in May (corresponding, in his experience, with the
+    maximum for crimes generally, as well as with the maximum for
+    conceptions), and a more marked climax in August-September
+    (Penta, <i>I Pervertimenti Sessuali</i>, 1893, p. 115; <i>id.</i> <i>Rivista
+    Mensile di Psichiatria</i>, 1899).</p>
+
+<p>    Corre, in his <i>Crime en Pays Cr&eacute;ole</i>, presents charts of the
+    seasonal distribution of crime in Guadeloupe, with relation to
+    temperature, which show that while, in a mild temperature like
+    that of France and England, crime attains its maximum in the hot
+    season, it is not so in a more tropical climate; in July, when in
+    Guadeloupe the heat attains its maximum degree, crime of all
+    kinds falls suddenly to a very low minimum. Even in the United
+    States, where the summer heat is often excessive, it tends to
+    produce a diminution of crime.</p>
+
+<p>    Dexter, in an elaborate study of the relationship of conduct to
+    the weather, shows that in the United States assaults present the
+    maximum of frequency in April and October, with a decrease during
+    the summer and the winter. &quot;The unusual and interesting fact
+    demonstrated here with a certainty that cannot be doubted is,&quot; he
+    concludes, &quot;that the unseasonably hot days of spring and autumn
+    are the pugnacious ones, even though the actual heat be much less
+    than for summer. We might infer from this that conditions of
+    heat, up to a certain extent, are vitalizing, while, at the same
+    time, irritating, but above that limit, heat is so devitalizing
+    in its effects as to leave hardly energy enough to carry on a
+    fight.&quot; (E. G. Dexter, <i>Conduct and the Weather</i>, 1899, pp. 63 <i>et
+    seq.</i>)</p><a name='1_Page_152'></a>
+
+<p>    It is not impossible that the phenomena of seasonal periodicity
+    in crimes may possess a real significance in relation to sexual
+    periodicity. If, as is possible, the occurrence of spring and
+    autumn climaxes of criminal activity is due less to any special
+    exciting causes at these seasons than to the depressing
+    influences of heat and cold in summer and winter, it may appear
+    reasonable to ask whether the spring and autumn climaxes of
+    sexual activity are not really also largely due to a like
+    depressing influence of extreme temperatures at the other two
+    seasons. </p></div>
+
+<p>Not only is there periodicity in criminal conduct, but even within the
+normal range of good and bad conduct seasonal periodicity may still be
+traced. In his <i>Physical and Industrial Training of Criminals</i>, H. D. Wey
+gives charts of the conduct of seven prisoners during several years, as
+shown by the marks received. These charts show that there is a very
+decided tendency to good behavior during summer and winter, while in
+spring (February, March, and April) and in autumn (August, September and
+October) there are very marked falls to bad conduct, each individual
+tending to adhere to a conduct-curve of his own. Wey does not himself
+appear to have noticed this seasonal periodicity. Marro, however, has
+investigated this question in Turin on a large scale and reaches results
+not very dissimilar from those shown by Wey's figures in New York. He
+noted the months in which over 4,000 punishments were inflicted on
+prisoners for assaults, insults, threatening language, etc., and shows the
+annual curve in Tavola VI of his <i>Caratteri dei Delinquenti</i>. There is a
+marked and isolated climax in May; a still more sudden rise leads to the
+chief maximum of punishment in August; and from the minimum in October
+there is rapid ascent during the two following months to a climax much
+inferior to that of May.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The seasonal periodicity of bad conduct in prisons is of interest
+    as showing that we cannot account for psychic periodicity by
+    invoking exclusively social causes. This theory of psychic
+    periodicity has been seriously put forward, but has been
+    investigated and dismissed, so far as crime in Holland is
+    concerned, by J. R. B. de Roos, in the Transactions of the sixth
+    Congress of Criminal Anthropology, at Turin, in 1906 (<i>Archivio
+    di Psichiatria</i> fasc. 3, 1906). </p></div><a name='1_Page_153'></a>
+
+<p>The general statistics of suicides in Continental Europe show a very
+regular and unbroken curve, attaining a maximum in June and a minimum in
+December, the curve rising steadily through the first six months, sinking
+steadily through the last six months, but always reaching a somewhat
+greater height in May than in July.<a name='1_FNanchor_164'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_164'><sup>[164]</sup></a> Morselli shows that in various
+European countries there is always a rise in spring and in autumn (October
+or November).<a name='1_FNanchor_165'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_165'><sup>[165]</sup></a> Morselli attributes these spring and autumn rises to
+the influence of the strain of the early heat and the early cold.<a name='1_FNanchor_166'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_166'><sup>[166]</sup></a> In
+England, also, if we take a very large number of statistics, for instance,
+the figures for London during the twenty years between 1865 and 1884, as
+given by Ogle (in a paper read before the Statistical Society in 1886), we
+find that, although the general curve has the same maximum and minimum
+points, it is interrupted by a break on each side of the maximum, and
+these two breaks occur precisely at about March and October.<a name='1_FNanchor_167'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_167'><sup>[167]</sup></a> This is
+shown in the curve in <a href='#1_CHART_VI'>Chart VI</a>, which presents the daily average for the
+different months.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of children follows an annual rhythm. Wahl, the director of an
+educational establishment for homeless girls in Denmark, who investigated
+this question, found that the increase of weight for all the ages
+investigated was constantly about 33 per cent. greater in the summer
+half-year than in the winter half-year. It was noteworthy that even the
+children who had <a name='1_Page_154'></a>not reached school-age, and therefore could not be
+influenced by school-life, showed a similar, though slighter, difference
+in the same direction. It is, however, Malling-Hansen, the director of an
+institution for deaf-mutes in Copenhagen, who has most thoroughly
+investigated this matter over a great many years. He finds that there are
+three periods of growth throughout the year, marked off in a fairly sharp
+manner, and that during each of these periods the growth in weight and
+height shows constant characteristics. From about the end of November up
+to about the end of March is a period when growth, both in height and
+weight, proceeds at a medium rate, reaching neither a maximum nor a
+minimum; increase in weight is slight, the increase in height, although
+trifling, preponderating. After this follows a period during which the
+children show a marked increase in height, while increase in weight is
+reduced to a minimum. The children constantly lose in weight during this
+period of growth in height almost as much as they gain in the preceding
+period. This period lasts from March and April to July and August. Then
+follows the third period, which continues until November and December.
+During this period increase in height is very slight, being at its early
+minimum; increase in weight, on the other hand, at the beginning of the
+period (in September and October), is rapid and to the middle of December
+very considerable, daily increase in weight being three times as great as
+during the winter months. Thus it may be said that the spring sexual
+climax corresponds, roughly, with growth in height and arrest of growth in
+weight, while the autumn climax corresponds roughly with a period of
+growth in weight and arrest of growth in height. Malling-Hansen found that
+slight variations in the growth of the children were often dependent on
+changes in temperature, in such a way that a rise of temperature, even
+lasting for only a few days, caused an increase of growth, and a fall of
+temperature a decrease in growth. At Halle, Schmid-Monnard found that
+nearly all growth in weight took place in the second half of the year, and
+that the holidays made little difference. In America, Peckham has shown
+that increase of growth is chiefly from the 1st of May <a name='1_Page_155'></a>to the 1st of
+September.<a name='1_FNanchor_168'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_168'><sup>[168]</sup></a> Among young girls in St. Petersburg, Jenjko found that
+increase in weight takes place in summer. Goepel found that increase in
+height takes place mostly during the first eight months of the year,
+reaching a maximum in August, declining during the autumn and winter, in
+February being <i>nil</i>, while in March there is sometimes loss in weight
+even in healthy children.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of a study as to the consumption of bread in Normal schools
+during each month of the year, as illustrating the relationship between
+intellectual work and nutrition, Binet presents a number of curves which
+bring out results to which he makes no allusion, as they are outside his
+own investigation. Almost without exception, these curves show that there
+is an increase in the consumption of bread in spring and in autumn, the
+spring rise being in February, March, and April; the autumn rise in
+October or November. There are, however, certain fallacies in dealing with
+institutions like Normal schools, where the conditions are not perfectly
+regular throughout the year, owing to vacations, etc. It is, therefore,
+instructive to find that under the monotonous conditions of prison-life
+precisely the same spring and autumn rises are found. Binet takes the
+consumption of bread in the women's prison at Clermont, where some four
+hundred prisoners, chiefly between the ages of thirty and forty, are
+confined, and he presents two curves for the years 1895 and 1896. The
+curves for these two years show certain marked disagreements with each
+other, but both unite in presenting a distinct rise in April, preceded and
+followed by a fall, and both present a still more marked autumn rise, in
+one case in September and November, in the other case in October.<a name='1_FNanchor_169'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_169'><sup>[169]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Some years ago, Sir J. Crichton-Browne stated that a
+    manifestation of the sexual stimulus of spring is to be found in
+    the large number of novels read during the month of March
+    (&quot;Address in Psychology&quot; at the annual meeting of the British
+    Medical Association, Leeds, 1889;<a name='1_Page_156'></a> <i>Lancet</i>, August 14, 1889).
+    The statement was supported by figures furnished by lending
+    libraries, and has since been widely copied. It would certainly
+    be interesting if we could so simply show the connection between
+    love and season, by proving that when the birds began to sing
+    their notes, the young person's fancy naturally turns to brood
+    over the pictures of mating in novels. I accordingly applied to
+    Mr. Capel Shaw, Chief Librarian of the Birmingham Free Libraries
+    (specially referred to by Sir J. Crichton-Browne), who furnished
+    me with the Reports for 1896 and 1897-98 (this latter report is
+    carried on to the end of March, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>    The readers who use the Birmingham Free Lending Libraries are
+    about 30,000 in number; they consist very largely of young people
+    between the ages of 14 and 25; somewhat less than half are women.
+    Certainly we seem to have here a good field for the determination
+    of this question. The monthly figures for each of the ten
+    Birmingham libraries are given separately, and it is clear at a
+    glance that without exception the maximum number of readers of
+    prose-fiction at all the libraries during 1897-98 is found in the
+    month of March. (I have chiefly taken into consideration the
+    figures for 1897-98; the figures for 1896 are somewhat abnormal
+    and irregular, probably owing to a decrease in readers,
+    attributed to increased activity in trade, and partly to a
+    disturbing influence caused by the opening of a large new library
+    in the course of the year, suddenly increasing the number of
+    readers, and drafting off borrowers from some of the other
+    libraries.) Not only so, but there is a second, or autumnal
+    climax, almost equaling the spring climax, and occuring with
+    equal certainty, appearing during 1897-98 either in October or
+    November, and during 1896, constantly in October. Thus, the
+    periodicity of the rate of consumption of prose-fiction
+    corresponds with the periodicity which is found to occur in the
+    conception rate and in sexual ecbolic manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>    It is necessary, however, to examine somewhat more closely the
+    tables presented in these reports, and to compare the rate of the
+    consumption of novels with that of other classes of literature.
+    In the first place, if, instead of merely considering the
+    consumption of novels per month, we make allowance for the
+    varying length of the months, and consider the average <i>daily</i>
+    consumption per month, the supremacy of March at once vanishes.
+    February is really the month during which most novels were read
+    during the first quarter of 1898, except at two libraries, where
+    February and March are equal. The result is similar if we
+    ascertain the daily averages for the first quarter in 1897,
+    while, in 1896 (which, however, as I have already remarked, is a
+    rather abnormal year), the daily average for March in many of the
+    libraries falls below that for January, as well as for February.
+    Again, when we turn to the other classes of books, we find that
+    this predominance which February <a name='1_Page_157'></a>possesses, and to some extent
+    shares with March and January, by no means exclusively applies to
+    novels. It is not only shared by both music and poetry,&mdash;which
+    would fit in well with the assumption of a sexual <i>nisus</i>,&mdash;but
+    the department of &quot;history, biography, voyages, and travels&quot;
+    shares it also with considerable regularity; so, also, does that
+    of &quot;arts, sciences, and natural history,&quot; and it is quite well
+    marked in &quot;theology, moral philosophy, etc.,&quot; and in &quot;juvenile
+    literature.&quot; We even have to admit that the promptings of the
+    sexual instinct bring an increased body of visitors to the
+    reference library (where there are no novels), for here, also,
+    both the spring and autumnal climaxes are quite distinct.
+    Certainly this theory carries us a little too far.</p>
+
+<p>    The main factor in producing this very marked annual periodicity
+    seems to me to be wholly unconnected with the sexual impulse. The
+    winter half of the year (from the beginning of October to the end
+    of March), when outdoor life has lost its attractions, and much
+    time must be spent in the house, is naturally the season for
+    reading. But during the two central months of winter, December
+    and January, the attraction of reading meets with a powerful
+    counter-attraction in the excitement produced by the approach of
+    Christmas, and the increased activity of social life which
+    accompanies and for several weeks follows Christmas. In this way
+    the other four winter months&mdash;October and November at the
+    autumnal end, and February and March at the spring end&mdash;must
+    inevitably present the two chief reading climaxes of the year;
+    and so the reports of lending libraries present us with figures
+    which show a striking, but fallacious, resemblance to the curves
+    which are probably produced by more organic causes.</p>
+
+<p>    I am far from wishing to deny that the impulse which draws young
+    men and women to imaginative literature is unconnected with the
+    obscure promptings of the sexual instinct. But, until the
+    disturbing influence I have just pointed out is eliminated, I see
+    no evidence here for any true seasonal periodicity. Possibly in
+    prisons&mdash;the value of which, as laboratories of experimental
+    psychology we have scarcely yet begun to realize&mdash;more reliable
+    evidence might be obtained; and those French and other prisons
+    where novels are freely allowed to the prisoners might yield
+    evidence as regards the consumption of fiction as instructive as
+    that yielded at Clermont concerning the consumption of bread. </p></div>
+
+<p>Certain diseases show a very regular annual curve. This is notably the
+case with scarlet fever. Caiger found in a London fever hospital a marked
+seasonal prevalence: there was a minor climax in May (repeated in July),
+and a great autumnal climax in October, falling to a minimum in December
+and January.<a name='1_Page_158'></a> This curve corresponds closely to that usually observed in
+London.<a name='1_FNanchor_170'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_170'><sup>[170]</sup></a> It is not peculiar to London, or to urban districts, for in
+rural districts we find nearly the same spring minor maximum and major
+autumnal maximum. In Russia it is precisely the same. Many other epidemic
+diseases show very similar curves.</p>
+
+<p>An annual curve may be found in the expulsive force of the bladder as
+measured by the distance to which the urinary stream can be projected.
+This curve, as ascertained for one case, is interesting on account of the
+close relationship between sexual and vesical activity. After a minimum
+point in autumn there is a rise through the early part of the year to a
+height maintained through spring and summer, and reaching its maximum in
+August.<a name='1_FNanchor_171'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_171'><sup>[171]</sup></a> This may be said to correspond with the general tendency
+found in some cases of nocturnal seminal emissions from a winter minimum
+to an autumn maximum.</p>
+
+<p>There is an annual curve in voluntary muscle strength. Thus in Antwerp,
+where the scientific study of children is systematically carried out by a
+Pedological Bureau, Schuyten found that, measured by the dynamometer, both
+at the ages of 8 and 9, both boys and girls showed a gradual increase of
+strength from October to January, a fall from January to March and a rise
+to June or July. March was the weakest month, June and July the
+strongest.<a name='1_FNanchor_172'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_172'><sup>[172]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Schuyten also found an annual curve for mental ability, as tested by power
+of attention, which for much of the year corresponded to the curve of
+muscular strength, being high during the cold winter months. Lobsien, at
+Kiel, seeking to test Schuyten's results and adopting a different method
+so as to gauge memory as well as attention, came to conclusions which
+confirmed those of Schuyten. He found a very marked increase of ability in
+December and January, with a fall in April; April and May were <a name='1_Page_159'></a>the
+minimum months, while July and October also stood low.<a name='1_FNanchor_173'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_173'><sup>[173]</sup></a> The inquiries
+of Schuyten and Lobsien thus seem to indicate that the voluntary aptitudes
+of muscular and mental force in children reach their maximum at a time of
+the year when most of the more or less involuntary activities we have been
+considering show a minimum of energy. If this conclusion should be
+confirmed by more extended investigations, it would scarcely be matter for
+surprise and would involve no true contradiction. It would, indeed, be
+natural to suppose that the voluntary and regulated activities of the
+nervous system should work most efficiently at those periods when they are
+least exposed to organic and emotional disturbance.</p>
+
+<p>So persistent a disturbing element in spring and autumn suggests that some
+physiological conditions underlie it, and that there is a real metabolic
+disturbance at these times of the year. So few continuous observations
+have yet been made on the metabolic processes of the body that it is not
+easy to verify such a surmise with absolute precision. Edward Smith's
+investigations, so far as they go, support it, and Perry-Coste's
+long-continued observations of pulse-frequency seem to show with fair
+regularity a maximum in early spring and another maximum in late
+autumn.<a name='1_FNanchor_174'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_174'><sup>[174]</sup></a> I may also note that Haig, who has devoted many years of
+observations to the phenomena of uric-acid excretion, finds that uric acid
+tends to be highest in the spring months, (March, April, May) and lowest
+at the first onset of cold in October.<a name='1_FNanchor_175'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_175'><sup>[175]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Thus, while the sexual climaxes of spring and autumn are rooted in animal
+procreative cycles which in man have found expression in primitive
+festivals&mdash;these, again, perhaps, strengthening and developing the sexual
+rhythm&mdash;they yet have a wider significance. They constitute one among many
+manifestations of spring and autumn physiological disturbance
+corresponding with <a name='1_Page_160'></a>fair precision to the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
+They resemble those periods of atmospheric tension, of storm and wind,
+which accompany the spring and autumn phases in the earth's rhythm, and
+they may fairly be regarded as ultimately a physiological reaction to
+those cosmic influences.</p><a name='1_Page_161'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_128'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_128'>[128]</a><div class='note'><p> F. Smith, <i>Veterinary Physiology</i>; Dalziel, <i>The Collie</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_129'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_129'>[129]</a><div class='note'><p> Mondi&egrave;re, Art &quot;Cambodgiens,&quot; <i>Dictionnaire des Sciences
+Anthropologiques</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_130'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_130'>[130]</a><div class='note'><p> This primitive aspect of the festival is well shown by the
+human sacrifices which the ancient Mexicans offered at this time, in order
+to enable the sun to recuperate his strength. The custom survives in a
+symbolical form among the Mokis, who observe the festivals of the winter
+solstice and the vernal equinox. (&quot;Aspects of Sun-worship among the Moki
+Indians,&quot; <i>Nature</i>, July 28, 1898.) The Walpi, a Tusayan people, hold a
+similar great sun-festival at the winter solstice, and December is with
+them a sacred month, in which there is no work and little play. This
+festival, in which there is a dance dramatizing the fructification of the
+earth and the imparting of virility to the seeds of corn, is fully
+described by J. Walter Fewkes (<i>American Anthropologist</i>, March, 1898).
+That these solemn annual dances and festivals of North America frequently
+merge into &quot;a lecherous <i>saturnalia</i>&quot; when &quot;all is joy and happiness,&quot; is
+stated by H. H. Bancroft (<i>Native Races of Pacific States</i>, vol. i, p.
+352).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_131'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_131'>[131]</a><div class='note'><p> As regards the northern tribes of Central Australia,
+Spencer and Gillen state that, during the performance of certain
+ceremonies which bring together a large number of natives from different
+parts, the ordinary marital rules are more or less set aside (<i>Northern
+Tribes of Central Australia</i>, p. 136). Just in the same way, among the
+Siberian Yakuts, according to Sieroshevski, during weddings and at the
+great festivals of the year, the usual oversight of maidens is largely
+removed. (<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, Jan.-June, 1901, p.
+96.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_132'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_132'>[132]</a><div class='note'><p> R. E. Guise, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>,
+1899, pp. 214-216.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_133'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_133'>[133]</a><div class='note'><p> Dalton, <i>Ethnology of Bengal</i>, pp. 196 <i>et seq.</i> W. Crooke
+(<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, p. 243, 1899) also refers to
+the annual harvest-tree dance and <i>saturnalia</i>, and its association with
+the seasonal period for marriage. We find a similar phenomenon in the
+Malay Peninsula: &quot;In former days, at harvest-time, the Jakuns kept an
+annual festival, at which, the entire settlement having been called
+together, fermented liquor, brewed from jungle fruits, was drunk; and to
+the accompaniments of strains of their rude and incondite music, both
+sexes, crowning themselves with fragrant leaves and flowers, indulged in
+bouts of singing and dancing, which grew gradually wilder throughout the
+night, and terminated in a strange kind of sexual orgie.&quot; (W. W. Skeat,
+&quot;The Wild Tribes of the Malay Peninsula,&quot; <i>Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute</i>, 1902, p. 133.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_134'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_134'>[134]</a><div class='note'><p> Fielding Hall, <i>The Soul of a People</i>, 1898, Chapter XIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_135'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_135'>[135]</a><div class='note'><p> See <i>e.g.</i>, L. Dyer, <i>Studies of the Gods in Greece</i>, 1891,
+pp. 86-89, 375, etc.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_136'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_136'>[136]</a><div class='note'><p> For a popular account of the Feast of Fools, see Loli&eacute;e,
+&quot;La F&ecirc;te des Fous,&quot; <i>Revue des Revues</i>, May 15, 1898; also, J. G. Bourke,
+<i>Scatologic Rites of all Nations</i>, pp. 11-23.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_137'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_137'>[137]</a><div class='note'><p> J. Grimm (<i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, p. 615) points out that the
+observance of the spring or Easter bonfires marks off the Saxon from the
+Franconian peoples. The Easter bonfires are held in Lower Saxony,
+Westphalia, Lower Hesse, Geldern, Holland, Friesland, Jutland, and
+Zealand. The Midsummer bonfires are held on the Rhine, in Franconia,
+Thuringia, Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and Silesia. Schwartz (<i>Zeitschrift
+f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1896, p. 151) shows that at Lauterberg, in the Harz
+Mountains, the line of demarcation between these two primitive districts
+may still be clearly traced.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_138'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_138'>[138]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Wald und Feldkulte</i>, 1875, vol. i, pp. 422 <i>et seq.</i> He
+also mentions (p. 458) that St. Valentine's Day (14th of February),&mdash;or
+Ember Day, or the last day of February,&mdash;when the pairing of birds was
+supposed to take place, was associated, especially in England, with
+love-making and the choice of a mate. In Lorraine, it may be added, on the
+1st of May, the young girls chose young men as their valentines, a custom
+known by this name to Rabelais.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_139'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_139'>[139]</a><div class='note'><p> Rochholz, <i>Drei gaug&ouml;ttinnen</i>, p, 37.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_140'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_140'>[140]</a><div class='note'><p> Mannhardt, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 466 <i>et seq.</i> Also J. G. Frazer,
+<i>Golden Bough</i>, vol ii, Chapter IV. For further facts and references, see
+K. Pearson (<i>The Chances of Death</i>, 1897, vol, ii, &quot;Woman as Witch,&quot;
+&quot;Kindred Group-marriage,&quot; and Appendix on &quot;The '<i>Mailehn</i>' and
+'<i>Kiltgang</i>,'&quot;) who incidentally brings together some of the evidence
+concerning primitive sex-festivals in Europe. Also, E. Hahn, <i>Demeter und
+Baubo</i>, 1896, pp. 38-40; and for some modern survivals, see Deniker,
+<i>Races of Man</i>, 1900, Chapter III. On a lofty tumulus near the megalithic
+remains at Carnac, in Brittany, the custom still prevails of lighting a
+large bonfire at the time of the summer solstice; it is called Tan Heol,
+or Tan St. Jean. In Ireland, the bonfires also take place on St. John's
+Eve, and a correspondent, who has often witnessed them in County
+Waterford, writes that &quot;women, with garments raised, jump through these
+fires, and conduct which, on ordinary occasions would be reprobated, is
+regarded as excusable and harmless.&quot; Outside Europe, the Berbers of
+Morocco still maintain this midsummer festival, and in the Rif they light
+bonfires; here the fires seem to be now regarded as mainly purificatory,
+but they are associated with eating ceremonies which are still regarded as
+multiplicative. (Westermarck, &quot;Midsummer Customs in Morocco,&quot; <i>Folk-Lore</i>,
+March, 1905.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_141'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_141'>[141]</a><div class='note'><p> Mannhardt (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 469) quotes a description of an
+Ehstonian festival in the Island of Moon, when the girls dance in a circle
+round the fire, and one of them,&mdash;to the envy of the rest, and the pride
+of her own family,&mdash;is chosen by the young men, borne away so violently
+that her clothes are often torn, and thrown down by a youth, who places
+one leg over her body in a kind of symbolical coitus, and lies quietly by
+her side till morning. The spring festivals of the young people of
+Ukrainia, in which, also, there is singing, dancing, and sleeping
+together, are described in &quot;Folk-Lore de l'Ukrainie.&quot; &#922;&#961;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#8049;&#948;&#953;&#945;,
+vol. v, pp. 2-6, and vol. viii, pp. 303 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_142'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_142'>[142]</a><div class='note'><p> M. Kowalewsky, &quot;Marriage Among the Early Slavs,&quot;
+<i>Folk-Lore</i>, December, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_143'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_143'>[143]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Tille, however (<i>Yule and Christmas</i>, 1899), while
+admitting that the general Aryan division of the year was dual, follows
+Tacitus in asserting that the Germanic division of the year (like the
+Egyptian) was tripartite: winter, spring, and summer.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_144'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_144'>[144]</a><div class='note'><p> Grimm, <i>Teutonic Mythology</i> (English translation by
+Stallybrass), pp. 612-630, 779, 788.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_145'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_145'>[145]</a><div class='note'><p> Wellhausen, <i>Reste Arabischen Heidentums</i>, 1897, p. 98.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_146'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_146'>[146]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, the chapter on ritual in G&eacute;rard-Varet's
+interesting book, <i>L'Ignorance et l'Irreflexion</i>, 1899, for a popular
+account of this and allied primitive conceptions.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_147'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_147'>[147]</a><div class='note'><p> Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia</i>, especially pp. 485, 571;
+regarding the priestesses, Jastrow remarks: &quot;Among many nations, the
+mysterious aspects of woman's fertility lead to rites that, by a
+perversion of their original import, appear to be obscene. The prostitutes
+were priestesses attached to the Ishtar cult, and who took part in
+ceremonies intended to symbolize fertility.&quot; Whether there is any
+significance in the fact that the first two months of the Babylonian year
+(roughly corresponding to our March and April), when we should expect
+births to be at a maximum, were dedicated to Ea and Bel, who, according to
+varying legends, were the creators of man, and that New Year's Day was the
+festival of Bau, regarded as the mother of mankind, I cannot say, but the
+suggestion may be put forward.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_148'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_148'>[148]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>, p. 421.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_149'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_149'>[149]</a><div class='note'><p> Grimm, <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, p. 1465. In England, the
+November, bonfires have become merged into the Guy Fawkes celebrations. In
+the East, the great primitive autumn festivals seem to have fallen
+somewhat earlier. In Babylonia, the seventh month (roughly corresponding
+to September) was specially sacred, though nothing is known of its
+festivals, and this also was the sacred festival month of the Hebrews, and
+originally of the Arabs. In Europe, among the southern Slavs, the Reigen,
+or Kolo&mdash;wild dances by girls, adorned with flowers, and with skirts girt
+high, followed by sexual intercourse&mdash;take place in autumn, during the
+nights following harvest time.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_150'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_150'>[150]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Tille, <i>Yule and Christmas</i>, p. 21, etc.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_151'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_151'>[151]</a><div class='note'><p> Long before Wargentin, however, Rabelais had shown some
+interest in this question, and had found that there were most christenings
+in October and November, this showing, he pointed out, that the early
+warmth of spring influenced the number of conceptions (<i>Pantagruel</i>, liv.
+v, Ch. XXIX). The spring maximum of conceptions is not now so early in
+France.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_152'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_152'>[152]</a><div class='note'><p> Villerm&eacute;, &quot;De la Distribution par mois des conceptions,&quot;
+<i>Annales d'Hygi&egrave;ne Publique</i>, tome v, 1831, pp. 55-155.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_153'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_153'>[153]</a><div class='note'><p> Sormani, <i>Giornale di Medicina Militare</i>, 1870.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_154'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_154'>[154]</a><div class='note'><p> Throughout Europe, it may be said, marriages tend to take
+place either in spring or autumn (Oettinger <i>Moralstatistik</i>, p. 181,
+gives details). That is to say, that there is a tendency for marriages to
+take place at the season of the great public festivals, during which
+sexual intercourse was prevalent in more primitive times.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_155'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_155'>[155]</a><div class='note'><p> Hill, <i>Nature</i>, July 12, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_156'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_156'>[156]</a><div class='note'><p> G. Mayr, <i>Die Gesetzm&auml;ssigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben</i>,
+1877, p. 240.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_157'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_157'>[157]</a><div class='note'><p> Edward Smith (<i>Health and Disease</i>), who attributes this to
+the lessened vitality of offspring at that season. Beukemann also states
+that children born in September have most vitality.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_158'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_158'>[158]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck has even suggested that the December maximum of
+conceptions may be due to better chance of survival for September
+offspring (<i>Human Marriage</i>, Chapter II). It may be noted that though the
+maximum of conceptions is in May, relatively the smallest proportion of
+boys is conceived at that time. (Rauber, <i>Der Ueberschuss an
+Knabengeburten</i>, p. 39.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_159'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_159'>[159]</a><div class='note'><p> Krieger found that the great majority of German women
+investigated by him menstruated for the first time in September, October,
+or November. In America, Bowditch states that the first menstruation of
+country girls more often occurs in spring than at any other season.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_160'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_160'>[160]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Women's Medical Journal</i>, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_161'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_161'>[161]</a><div class='note'><p> It is, perhaps, worth while noting that the wisdom of the
+medi&aelig;val Church found an outlet for this &quot;spring fever&quot; in pilgrimages to
+remote shrines. As Chaucer wrote, in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>:&mdash;</p>
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span>&quot;Whan&eacute; that Aprille with his showers sote<br /></span>
+<span>The droughts of March hath pierc&egrave;d to the root,<br /></span>
+<span>Thaen longen folk to gon on pilgrimages,<br /></span>
+<span>And palmers for to seeken strang&eacute; stronds.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_162'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_162'>[162]</a><div class='note'><p> L. W. Kline, &quot;The Migratory Impulse,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+Psychology</i>, 1898, vol. x, especially pp. 21-24.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_163'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_163'>[163]</a><div class='note'><p> Mania comes to a crisis in spring, said the old physician,
+Aret&aelig;us (Bk. 1, Ch. V).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_164'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_164'>[164]</a><div class='note'><p> This is, at all events, the case in France, Prussia, and
+Italy. See, for instance, Durkheim's discussion of the cosmic factors of
+suicide, <i>Le Suicide</i>, 1897, Chapter III. In Spain, as Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s
+shows (<i>Criminologia</i>, p. 69), there is a slight irregular rise in
+December, but otherwise the curve is perfectly regular, with maximum in
+June, and minimum in January.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_165'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_165'>[165]</a><div class='note'><p> This holds good of a south European country, taken
+separately. A chart of the annual incidence of suicide by hanging, in
+Roumania, presented by Minovici (<i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>,
+1905, p. 587), shows climaxes of equal height in May and September.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_166'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_166'>[166]</a><div class='note'><p> Morselli, <i>Suicide</i>, pp. 55-72.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_167'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_167'>[167]</a><div class='note'><p> Ogle himself was inclined to think that these breaks were
+accidental, being unaware of the allied phenomena with which they may be
+brought into line. It is true that (as Gaedeken objects to me) the
+autumnal break is very slight, but it is probably real when we are dealing
+with so large a mass of data.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_168'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_168'>[168]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1891, p. 298. For a very full
+summary and bibliography of investigations regarding growth, see F. Burk,
+&quot;Growth of Children in Height and Weight,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+Psychology</i>, April, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_169'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_169'>[169]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</i>, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_170'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_170'>[170]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Lancet</i>, June 6, 1891. Edward Smith had pointed out many
+years earlier that scarlet fever is most fatal in periods of increasing
+vitality.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_171'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_171'>[171]</a><div class='note'><p> Havelock Ellis, &quot;The Bladder as a Dynamometer,&quot; <i>American
+Journal of Dermatology</i>, May, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_172'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_172'>[172]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, summary in <i>Internationales Centrablatt f&uuml;r
+Anthropologie</i>, 1902, Heft 4, p. 207.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_173'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_173'>[173]</a><div class='note'><p> Summarized in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychologie der
+Sinnesorgane</i>, 1903, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_174'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_174'>[174]</a><div class='note'><p> Camerer found that from September to November is the period
+of greatest metabolic activity.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_175'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_175'>[175]</a><div class='note'><p> Haig, <i>Uric Acid</i>, 6th edition, 1903, p. 33.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_AUTO_EROTISM_A_STUDY_OF_THE_SPONTANEOUS_MANIFESTATIONS_OF_THE_SEXUAL'></a><h2>AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL IMPULSE.</h2>
+
+<a name='1_I-E'></a><h3>I.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Definition of Auto-erotism&mdash;Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field&mdash;The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day&mdash;Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals&mdash;Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races&mdash;The Japanese <i>rin-no-tama</i> and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification&mdash;Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life&mdash;The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder&mdash;The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling&mdash;The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle&mdash;Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement&mdash;<i>Delectatio
+Morosa</i>&mdash;Day-dreaming&mdash;<i>Pollutio</i>&mdash;Sexual Excitement During Sleep&mdash;Erotic
+Dreams&mdash;The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis&mdash;Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women&mdash;The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical&mdash;Their Frequently Painful Character.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>By &quot;auto-erotism&quot; I mean the phenomena of spontaneous sexual emotion
+generated in the absence of an external stimulus proceeding, directly or
+indirectly, from another person. In a wide sense, which cannot be wholly
+ignored here, auto-erotism may be said to include those transformations of
+repressed sexual activity which are a factor of some morbid conditions as
+well as of the normal manifestation of art and poetry, and, indeed, more
+or less color the whole of life.</p>
+
+<p>Such a definition excludes the normal sexual excitement aroused by the
+presence of a beloved person of the opposite sex; it also excludes the
+perverted sexuality associated with an attraction to a person of the same
+sex; it further excludes the manifold forms of erotic fetichism, in which
+the normal focus of sexual attraction is displaced, and voluptuous
+emotions are only aroused by some object&mdash;hair, shoes, garments,
+etc.&mdash;which, to the ordinary lover, are of subordinate&mdash;though still,
+indeed, <a name='1_Page_162'></a>considerable&mdash;importance.<a name='1_FNanchor_176'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_176'><sup>[176]</sup></a> The auto-erotic field remains
+extensive; it ranges from occasional voluptuous day-dreams, in which the
+subject is entirely passive, to the perpetual unashamed efforts at sexual
+self-manipulation witnessed among the insane. It also includes, though
+chiefly as curiosities, those cases in which individuals fall in love with
+themselves. Among auto-erotic phenomena, or on the borderland, we must
+further include those religious sexual manifestations for an ideal object,
+of which we may find evidence in the lives of saints and ecstatics.<a name='1_FNanchor_177'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_177'><sup>[177]</sup></a>
+The typical form of auto-erotism is the occurrence of the sexual orgasm
+during sleep.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know that any apology is needful for the invention of the term
+&quot;auto-erotism.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_178'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_178'><sup>[178]</sup></a> There is no existing word in current use to indicate
+the whole range of phenomena I am here concerned with. We are familiar
+with &quot;masturbation,&quot; but that, strictly speaking, only covers a special
+and arbitrary subdivision of the field, although, it is true, the
+subdivision with which physicians and alienists have chiefly occupied
+themselves. &quot;Self-abuse&quot; is somewhat wider, but by no means covers the
+whole ground, while for various reasons it is an unsatisfactory term.
+&quot;Onanism&quot; is largely used, especially in France, and some writers even
+include all forms of homosexual connection under this name; it may be
+convenient to do so from a physiological point of view, <a name='1_Page_163'></a>but it is a
+confusing and antiquated mode of procedure, and from the psychological
+standpoint altogether illegitimate; &quot;onanism&quot; ought never to be used in
+this connection, if only on the ground that Onan's device was not
+auto-erotic, but was an early example of withdrawal before emission, or
+<i>coitus interruptus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>While the name that I have chosen may possibly not be the best, there
+should be no question as to the importance of grouping all these phenomena
+together. It seems to me that this field has rarely been viewed in a
+scientifically sound and morally sane light, simply because it has not
+been viewed as a whole. We have made it difficult so to view it by
+directing our attention on the special group of auto-erotic facts&mdash;that
+group included under masturbation&mdash;which was most easy to observe and
+which in an extreme form came plainly under medical observation in
+insanity and allied conditions, and we have wilfully torn this group of
+facts away from the larger group to which it naturally belongs. The
+questions which have been so widely, so diversely, and&mdash;it must
+unfortunately be added&mdash;often so mischievously discussed, concerning the
+nature and evils of masturbation are not seen in their true light and
+proportions until we realize that masturbation is but a specialized form
+of a tendency which in some form or in some degree normally affects not
+only man, but all the higher animals. From a medical point of view it is
+often convenient to regard masturbation as an isolated fact; but in order
+to understand it we must bear in mind its relationships. In this study of
+auto-erotism I shall frequently have occasion to refer to the old entity
+of &quot;masturbation,&quot; because it has been more carefully studied than any
+other part of the auto-erotic field; but I hope it will always be borne in
+mind that the psychological significance and even the medical diagnostic
+value of masturbation cannot be appreciated unless we realize that it is
+an artificial subdivision of a great group of natural facts.</p>
+
+<p>The study of auto-erotism is far from being an unimportant or merely
+curious study. Yet psychologists, medical and non-medical, almost without
+exception, treat its manifestations&mdash;when they refer to them at all&mdash;in a
+dogmatic and off-hand manner which is far from scientific. It is not
+surprising, therefore, <a name='1_Page_164'></a>that the most widely divergent opinions are
+expressed. Nor is it surprising that ignorant and chaotic notions among
+the general population should lead to results that would be ludicrous if
+they were not pathetic. To mention one instance known to me: a married
+lady who is a leader in social-purity movements and an enthusiast for
+sexual chastity, discovered, through reading some pamphlet against
+solitary vice, that she had herself been practicing masturbation for years
+without knowing it. The profound anguish and hopeless despair of this
+woman in face of what she believed to be the moral ruin of her whole life
+cannot well be described. It would be easy to give further examples,
+though scarcely a more striking one, to show the utter confusion into
+which we are thrown by leaving this matter in the hands of blind leaders
+of the blind. Moreover, the conditions of modern civilization render
+auto-erotism a matter of increasing social significance. As our
+marriage-rate declines, and as illicit sexual relationships continue to be
+openly discouraged, it is absolutely inevitable that auto-erotic phenomena
+of one kind or another, not only among women but also among men, should
+increase among us both in amount and intensity. It becomes, therefore, a
+matter of some importance, both to the moralist and the physician, to
+investigate the psychological nature of these phenomena and to decide
+precisely what their attitude should be toward them.</p>
+
+<p>I do not purpose to enter into a thorough discussion of all the aspects of
+auto-erotism. That would involve a very extensive study indeed. I wish to
+consider briefly certain salient points concerning auto-erotic phenomena,
+especially their prevalence, their nature, and their moral, physical, and
+other effects. I base my study partly on the facts and opinions which
+during the last thirty years have been scattered through the periodical
+and other medical literature of Europe and America, and partly on the
+experience of individuals, especially of fairly normal individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Among animals in isolation, and sometimes in freedom&mdash;though this can less
+often be observed&mdash;it is well known that various forms of spontaneous
+solitary sexual excitement occur. Horses when leading a lazy life may be
+observed flapping the <a name='1_Page_165'></a>penis until some degree of emission takes place.
+Welsh ponies, I learn from a man who has had much experience with these
+animals, habitually produce erections and emissions in their stalls; they
+do not bring their hind quarters up during this process, and they close
+their eyes, which does not take place when they have congress with mares.
+The same informant observed that bulls and goats produce emissions by
+using their forelegs as a stimulus, bringing up their hind quarters, and
+mares rub themselves against objects. I am informed by a gentleman who is
+a recognized authority on goats, that they sometimes take the penis into
+the mouth and produce actual orgasm, thus practicing auto-fellatio. As
+regards ferrets, the Rev. H. Northcote states: &quot;I am informed by a
+gentleman who has had considerable experience of ferrets, that if the
+bitch, when in heat, cannot obtain a dog she pines and becomes ill. If a
+smooth pebble is introduced into the hutch, she will masturbate upon it,
+thus preserving her normal health for one season. But if this artificial
+substitute is given to her a second season, she will not, as formerly, be
+content with it.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_179'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_179'><sup>[179]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Stags in the rutting season, when they have no partners, rub themselves
+against trees to produce ejaculation. Sheep masturbate; as also do camels,
+pressing themselves down against convenient objects; and elephants
+compress the penis between the hind legs to obtain emissions.<a name='1_FNanchor_180'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_180'><sup>[180]</sup></a>
+Blumenbach observed a bear act somewhat similarly on seeing other bears
+coupling, and hyenas, according to Ploss and Bartels, have been seen
+practicing mutual masturbation by licking each other's genitals. Mammary
+masturbation, remarks F&eacute;r&eacute;, is found in certain female and even male
+animals, like the dog and the cat.<a name='1_FNanchor_181'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_181'><sup>[181]</sup></a> Apes are much given to
+masturbation, even in freedom, according to the evidence of good
+observers; for while no female apes are celibates, many of <a name='1_Page_166'></a>the males are
+obliged to lead a life of celibacy.<a name='1_FNanchor_182'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_182'><sup>[182]</sup></a> Male monkeys use the hand in
+masturbation, to rub and shake the penis.<a name='1_FNanchor_183'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_183'><sup>[183]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In the human species these phenomena are by no means found in civilization
+alone. To whatever extent masturbation may have been developed by the
+conditions of European life, which carry to the utmost extreme the
+concomitant stimulation, and repression of the sexual emotions, it is far
+from being, as Mantegazza has declared it to be, one of the moral
+characteristics of Europeans.<a name='1_FNanchor_184'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_184'><sup>[184]</sup></a> It is found among the people of nearly
+every race of which we have any intimate knowledge, however natural the
+conditions under which men and women may live.<a name='1_FNanchor_185'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_185'><sup>[185]</sup></a> Thus, <a name='1_Page_167'></a>among the Nama
+Hottentots, among the young women at all events, Gustav Fritsch found that
+masturbation is so common that it is regarded as a custom of the country;
+no secret is made of it, and in the stories and legends of the race it is
+treated as one of the most ordinary facts of life. It is so also among the
+Basutos, and the Kaffirs are addicted to the same habit.<a name='1_FNanchor_186'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_186'><sup>[186]</sup></a> The Fuegians
+have a word for masturbation, and a special word for masturbation by
+women.<a name='1_FNanchor_187'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_187'><sup>[187]</sup></a> When the Spaniards first arrived at Vizcaya, in the
+Philippines, they found that masturbation was universal, and that it was
+customary for the women to use an artificial penis and other abnormal
+methods of sexual gratification. Among the Balinese, according to Jacobs
+(as quoted by Ploss and Bartels), masturbation is general; in the boudoir
+of many a Bali beauty, he adds, and certainly in every harem, may be found
+a wax penis to which many hours of solitude are devoted. Throughout the
+East, as Eram, speaking from a long medical experience, has declared,
+masturbation is very prevalent, especially among young girls. In Egypt,
+according to Sonnini, it is prevalent in harems. In India, a medical
+correspondent tells me, he once treated the widow of a wealthy Mohammedan,
+who informed him that she began masturbation at an early age, &quot;just like
+all other women.&quot; The same informant tells me that on the <i>fa&ccedil;ade</i> of a
+large temple in Orissa are bas-reliefs, representing both men and women,
+alone, masturbating, and also women masturbating men. Among the Tamils of
+Ceylon masturbation is said to be common. In Cochin China, Lorion remarks,
+it is practiced by both sexes, but especially by the married women.<a name='1_FNanchor_188'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_188'><sup>[188]</sup></a>
+Japanese women have probably carried the mechanical arts of auto-erotism
+to the highest degree of perfection. They use two hollow balls about the
+size of a pigeon's egg (sometimes <a name='1_Page_168'></a>one alone is used), which, as described
+by Joest, Christian, and others,<a name='1_FNanchor_189'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_189'><sup>[189]</sup></a> are made of very thin leaf of brass;
+one is empty, the other (called the little man) contains a small heavy
+metal ball, or else some quicksilver, and sometimes metal tongues which
+vibrate when set in movement; so that if the balls are held in the hand
+side by side there is a continuous movement. The empty one is first
+introduced into the vagina in contact with the uterus, then the other; the
+slightest movement of the pelvis or thighs, or even spontaneous movement
+of the organs, causes the metal ball (or the quicksilver) to roll, and the
+resulting vibration produces a prolonged voluptuous titillation, a gentle
+shock as from a weak electric inductive apparatus; the balls are called
+<i>rin-no-tama</i>, and are held in the vagina by a paper tampon. The women who
+use these balls delight to swing themselves in a hammock or rocking-chair,
+the delicate vibration of the balls slowly producing the highest degree of
+sexual excitement. Joest mentions that this apparatus, though well known
+by name to ordinary girls, is chiefly used by the more fashionable
+<i>geishas</i>, as well as by prostitutes. Its use has now spread to China,
+Annam, and India. Japanese women also, it is said, frequently use an
+artificial penis of paper or clay, called <i>engi</i>. Among the Atjeh, again,
+according to Jacobs (as quoted by Ploss), the young of both sexes
+masturbate and the elder girls use an artificial penis of wax. In China,
+also, the artificial penis&mdash;made of rosin, supple and (like the classical
+instrument described by Herondas) rose-colored&mdash;is publicly sold and
+widely used by women.<a name='1_FNanchor_190'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_190'><sup>[190]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_169'></a>
+
+<p>It may be noticed that among non-European races it is among women, and
+especially among those who are subjected to the excitement of a life
+professionally devoted to some form of pleasure, that the use of the
+artificial instruments of auto-erotism is chiefly practiced. The same is
+markedly true in Europe. The use of an artificial penis in solitary sexual
+gratification may be traced down from classic times, and doubtless
+prevailed in the very earliest human civilization, for such an instrument
+is said to be represented in old Babylonian sculptures, and it is referred
+to by Ezekiel (Ch. XVI. v. 17). The Lesbian women are said to have used
+such instruments, made of ivory or gold with silken stuffs and linen.
+Aristophanes (<i>Lysistrata</i>, v. 109) speaks of the manufacture by the
+Milesian women of a leather artificial penis, or olisbos. In the British
+Museum is a vase representing a <i>hetaira</i> holding such instruments, which,
+as found at Pompeii, may be seen in the museum at Naples. One of the best
+of Herondas's mimes, &quot;The Private Conversation,&quot; presents a dialogue
+between two ladies concerning a certain olisbos (or &#957;&#946;&#8061;&#957;), which
+one of them vaunts as a dream of delight. Through the Middle Ages (when
+from time to time the clergy reprobated the use of such instruments<a name='1_FNanchor_191'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_191'><sup>[191]</sup></a>)
+they continued to be known, and after the fifteenth century the references
+to them became more precise. Thus Fortini, the Siennese novelist of the
+sixteenth century, refers in his <i>Novelle dei Novizi</i> (7th Day, Novella
+XXXIX) to &quot;the glass object filled with warm water which nuns use to calm
+the sting of the flesh and to satisfy themselves as well as they can&quot;; he
+adds that widows and other women anxious to avoid pregnancy availed
+themselves of it. In Elizabethan England, at the same time, it appears to
+have been of similar character and Marston in his satires tells how Lucea
+prefers &quot;a glassy instrument&quot;<a name='1_Page_170'></a> to &quot;her husband's lukewarm bed.&quot; In
+sixteenth century France, also, such instruments were sometimes made of
+glass, and Brant&ocirc;me refers to the godemiche; in eighteenth century Germany
+they were called <i>Samthanse</i>, and their use, according to Heinse, as
+quoted by D&uuml;hren, was common among aristocratic women. In England by that
+time the dildo appears to have become common. Archemholtz states that
+while in Paris they are only sold secretly, in London a certain Mrs.
+Philips sold them openly on a large scale in her shop in Leicester Square.
+John Bee in 1835, stating that the name was originally dil-dol, remarks
+that their use was formerly commoner than it was in his day. In France,
+Madame Gourdan, the most notorious brothel-keeper of the eighteenth
+century, carried on a wholesale trade in <i>consolateurs</i>, as they were
+called, and &quot;at her death numberless letters from abbesses and simple nuns
+were found among her papers, asking for a 'consolateur' to be sent.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_192'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_192'><sup>[192]</sup></a>
+The modern French instrument is described by Gamier as of hardened red
+rubber, exactly imitating the penis and capable of holding warm milk or
+other fluid for injection at the moment of orgasm; the compressible
+scrotum is said to have been first added in the eighteenth century.<a name='1_FNanchor_193'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_193'><sup>[193]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In Islam the artificial penis has reached nearly as high a development as
+in Christendom. Turkish women use it and it is said to be openly sold in
+Smyrna. In the harems of Zanzibar, according to Baumann, it is of
+considerable size, carved out of ebony or ivory, and commonly bored
+through so that warm water may be injected. It is here regarded as an Arab
+invention.<a name='1_FNanchor_194'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_194'><sup>[194]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Somewhat similar appliances may be traced in all centres of civilization.
+But throughout they appear to be frequently confined to the world of
+prostitutes and to those women who live on the fashionable or
+semi-artistic verge of that world. Ignorance and delicacy combine with a
+less versatile and perverted concentration on the sexual impulse to
+prevent any general recourse to such highly specialized methods of
+solitary gratification.</p><a name='1_Page_171'></a>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the use, or rather abuse, of the ordinary objects and
+implements of daily life in obtaining auto-erotic gratification, among the
+ordinary population in civilized modern lands, has reached an
+extraordinary degree of extent and variety we can only feebly estimate by
+the occasional resulting mischances which come under the surgeon's hands,
+because only a certain proportion of such instruments are dangerous. Thus
+the banana seems to be widely used for masturbation by women, and appears
+to be marked out for the purpose by its size and shape<a name='1_FNanchor_195'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_195'><sup>[195]</sup></a>; it is,
+however, innocuous, and never comes under the surgeon's notice; the same
+may probably be said of the cucumbers and other vegetables more especially
+used by country and factory girls in masturbation; a lady living near
+Vichy told Pouillet that she had often heard (and had herself been able to
+verify the fact) that the young peasant women commonly used turnips,
+carrots, and beet-roots. In the eighteenth century Mirabeau, in his
+<i>Erotikca Biblion</i> gave a list of the various objects used in convents
+(which he describes as &quot;vast theatres&quot; of such practices) to obtain
+solitary sexual excitement. In more recent years the following are a few
+of the objects found in the vagina or bladder whence they could only be
+removed by surgical interference<a name='1_FNanchor_196'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_196'><sup>[196]</sup></a>:<a name='1_Page_172'></a> Pencils, sticks of sealing-wax,
+cotton-reels, hair-pins (and in Italy very commonly the bone-pins used in
+the hair), bodkins, knitting-needles, crochet-needles, needle-cases,
+compasses, glass stoppers, candles, corks, tumblers, forks, tooth-picks,
+toothbrushes, pomade-pots (in a case recorded by Schroeder with a
+cockchafer inside, a makeshift substitute for the Japanese <i>rin-no-tama</i>),
+while in one recent English case a full-sized hen's egg was removed from
+the vagina of a middle-aged married woman. More than nine-tenths of the
+foreign bodies found in the female bladder or urethra are due to
+masturbation. The age of the individuals in whom such objects have been
+found is usually from 17 to 30, but in a few cases they have been found in
+girls below 14, infrequently in women between 40 and 50; the large
+objects, naturally, are found chiefly in the vagina, and in married
+women.<a name='1_FNanchor_197'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_197'><sup>[197]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Hair-pins have, above all, been found in the female bladder with special
+frequency; this point is worth some consideration as an illustration of
+the enormous frequency of this form of auto-erotism. The female urethra is
+undoubtedly a normal centre of sexual feeling, as Pouillet pointed out
+many years ago; a woman medical correspondent, also, writes that in some
+women the maximum of voluptuous sensation is at the vesical sphincter or
+orifice, though not always so limited. E. H. Smith, indeed, considers that
+&quot;the urethra is the part in which the orgasm occurs,&quot; and remarks that in
+sexual excitement mucus always flows largely from the urethra.<a name='1_FNanchor_198'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_198'><sup>[198]</sup></a> It
+should be added that when once introduced the physiological mechanism of
+the bladder apparently causes the organ to tend to &quot;swallow&quot; the foreign
+object. Yet for every case in which the hair-pin disappears and <a name='1_Page_173'></a>is lost
+in the bladder, from carelessness or the oblivion of the sexual spasm,
+there must be a vast number of cases in which the instrument is used
+without any such unfortunate result. There is thus great significance in
+the frequency with which cases of hair-pin in the bladder are strewn
+through the medical literature of all countries.</p>
+
+<p>In 1862, a German surgeon found the accident so common that he invented a
+special instrument for extracting hair-pins from the female bladder, as,
+indeed, Italian and French surgeons have also done. In France, Denuc&eacute;, of
+Bordeaux, came to the conclusion that hair-pin in the bladder is the
+commonest result of masturbation as known to the surgeon. In England cases
+are constantly being recorded. Lawson Tait, stating that most cases of
+stone in the bladder in women are due to the introduction of a foreign
+body, very often a hair-pin, adds: &quot;I have removed hair-pins encrusted
+with phosphates from ten different female bladders, and not one of the
+owners of these bladders would give any account of the incident.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_199'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_199'><sup>[199]</sup></a>
+Stokes, again, records that during four years he had four cases of
+hair-pin in the female urethra.<a name='1_FNanchor_200'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_200'><sup>[200]</sup></a> In New York one physician met with
+four cases in a short experience.<a name='1_FNanchor_201'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_201'><sup>[201]</sup></a> In Switzerland Professor Reverdin
+had a precisely similar experience.<a name='1_FNanchor_202'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_202'><sup>[202]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another class of material objects, widely employed for
+producing physical auto-erotism, which in the <a name='1_Page_174'></a>nature of things never
+reaches the surgeon. I refer to the effects that, naturally or
+unnaturally, may be produced by many of the objects and implements of
+daily life that do not normally come in direct contact with the sexual
+organs. Children sometimes, even when scarcely more than infants, produce
+sexual excitement by friction against the corner of a chair or other piece
+of furniture, and women sometimes do the same.<a name='1_FNanchor_203'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_203'><sup>[203]</sup></a> Guttceit, in Russia,
+knew women who made a large knot in their chemises to rub against, and
+mentions a woman who would sit on her naked heel and rub it against her.
+Girls in France, I am informed, are fond of riding on the
+<i>chevaux-de-bois</i>, or hobby-horses, because of the sexual excitement thus
+aroused; and that the sexual emotions play a part in the fascination
+exerted by this form of amusement everywhere is indicated by the ecstatic
+faces of its devotees.<a name='1_FNanchor_204'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_204'><sup>[204]</sup></a> At the temples in some parts of Central India,
+I am told, swings are hung up in pairs, men and women swinging in these
+until sexually excited; during the months when the men in these districts
+have to be away from home the girls put up swings to console themselves
+for the loss of their husbands.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is interesting to observe the very wide prevalence of
+    swinging, often of a religious or magic character, and the
+    evident sexual significance underlying it, although this is not
+    always clearly brought out. Groos, discussing the frequency of
+    swinging (<i>Die Spiele der Menschen</i>, p. 114) refers, for
+    instance, to the custom of the Gilbert Islanders for a young man
+    to swing a girl from a coco palm, and then to cling on and swing
+    with her. In ancient Greece, women and grown-up girls were fond
+    of see-saws and swings. The Athenians had, indeed, a swinging
+    festival (Athen&aelig;us, Bk. XIV, Ch. X). Songs of a voluptuous
+    character, we gather from Athen&aelig;us, were sung by the women at
+    this festival.<a name='1_Page_175'></a> J. G. Frazer (<i>The Golden Bough</i>, vol. ii, note A,
+    &quot;Swinging as a Magical Rite&quot;) discusses the question, and brings
+    forward instances in which men, or, especially, women swing. &quot;The
+    notion seems to be,&quot; he states, &quot;that the ceremony promotes
+    fertility, whether in the vegetable or in the animal kingdom;
+    though why it should be supposed to do so, I confess myself
+    unable to explain&quot; (<i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 450). The explanation seems,
+    however, not far to seek, in view of the facts quoted above, and
+    Frazer himself refers to the voluptuous character of the songs
+    sometimes sung.</p>
+
+<p>    Even apart from actual swinging of the whole body, a swinging
+    movement may suffice to arouse sexual excitement, and may,&mdash;at
+    all events, in women,&mdash;constitute an essential part of methods of
+    attaining solitary sexual gratification. Kiernan thus describes
+    the habitual auto-erotic procedure of a young American woman:
+    &quot;The patient knelt before a chair, let her elbows drop on its
+    seat, grasping the arms with a firm grip, then commenced a
+    swinging, writhing motion, seeming to fix her pelvis, and moving
+    her trunk and limbs. The muscles were rigid, the face took on a
+    passionate expression; the features were contorted, the eyes
+    rolled, the teeth were set, and the lips compressed, while the
+    cheeks were purple. The condition bore a striking resemblance to
+    the passional stage of grand hysteria. The reveling took only a
+    moment to commence, but lasted a long time. Swaying induced a
+    pleasurable sensation, accompanied with a feeling of suction upon
+    the clitoris. Almost immediately after, a sensation of bursting,
+    caused by discharge from the vulvo-vaginal glands, occurs,
+    followed by a rapture prolonged for an indefinite time.&quot; The
+    accompanying sexual imagery is so vivid as almost to become
+    hallucinatory. (J. G. Kiernan, &quot;Sex Transformation and Psychic
+    Impotence,&quot; <i>American Journal of Dermatology</i>, vol. ix, No. 2.) </p></div>
+
+<p>Somewhat similarly sensations of sexual character are sometimes
+experienced by boys when climbing up a pole. It is not even necessary that
+there should be direct external contact with the sexual organs, and Howe
+states that gymnastic swinging poles around which boys swing while
+supporting the whole weight on the hands, may suffice to produce sexual
+excitement.</p>
+
+<p>Several writers have pointed out that riding, especially in women, may
+produce sexual excitement and orgasm.<a name='1_FNanchor_205'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_205'><sup>[205]</sup></a> It is well-known, <a name='1_Page_176'></a>also, that
+both in men and women the vibratory motion of a railway-train frequently
+produces a certain degree of sexual excitement, especially when sitting
+forward. Such excitement may remain latent and not become specifically
+sexual.<a name='1_FNanchor_206'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_206'><sup>[206]</sup></a> I am not aware that this quality of railway traveling has
+ever been fostered as a sexual perversion, but the sewing-machine has
+attracted considerable attention on account of its influence in exciting
+auto-erotic manifestations. The early type of sewing-machine, especially,
+was of very heavy character and involved much up and down movement of the
+legs; Langdon Down pointed out many years ago that this frequently
+produced great sexual erethism which led to masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_207'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_207'><sup>[207]</sup></a> According
+to one French authority, it is a well-recognized fact that to work a
+sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual
+excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is
+indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds
+with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in
+large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents
+of the rooms to make the girls sit properly.<a name='1_FNanchor_208'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_208'><sup>[208]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;During a visit which I once paid to a manufactory of military
+    clothing,&quot; Pouillet writes, &quot;I witnessed the following scene. In
+    the midst of the uniform sound produced by some thirty
+    sewing-machines, I suddenly heard one of the machines working
+    with much more velocity than the others. I looked at the person
+    who was working it, a brunette of 18 or 20. While she was
+    automatically occupied with the trousers she was making on the
+    machine, her face became animated, her mouth opened slightly, her
+    nostrils dilated, her feet moved the pedals with constantly
+    increasing rapidity. Soon I saw a convulsive look in her <a name='1_Page_177'></a>eyes,
+    her eyelids were lowered, her face turned pale and was thrown
+    backward; hands and legs stopped and became extended; a
+    suffocated cry, followed by a long sigh, was lost in the noise of
+    the workroom. The girl remained motionless a few seconds, drew
+    out her handkerchief to wipe away the pearls of sweat from her
+    forehead, and, after casting a timid and ashamed glance at her
+    companions, resumed her work. The forewoman, who acted as my
+    guide, having observed the direction of my gaze, took me up to
+    the girl, who blushed, lowered her face, and murmured some
+    incoherent words before the forewoman had opened her mouth, to
+    advise her to sit fully on the chair, and not on its edge.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;As I was leaving, I heard another machine at another part of the
+    room in accelerated movement. The forewoman smiled at me, and
+    remarked that that was so frequent that it attracted no notice.
+    It was specially observed, she told me, in the case of young
+    work-girls, apprentices, and those who sat on the edge of their
+    seats, thus much facilitating friction of the labia.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>In cases where the sewing-machine does not lead to direct self-excitement
+it has been held, as by Fothergill,<a name='1_FNanchor_209'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_209'><sup>[209]</sup></a> to predispose to frequency of
+involuntary sexual orgasm during sleep, from the irritation set up by the
+movement of the feet in the sitting posture during the day. The essential
+movement in working the sewing-machine is the flexion and extension of the
+ankle, but the muscles of the thighs are used to maintain the feet firmly
+on the treadle, the thighs are held together, and there is a considerable
+degree of flexion or extension of the thighs on the trunk; by a special
+adjustment of the body, and sometimes perhaps merely in the presence of
+sexual hyper&aelig;sthesia, it is thus possible to act upon the sexual organs;
+but this is by no means a necessary result of using the sewing-machine,
+and inquiry of various women, with well-developed sexual feelings, who are
+accustomed to work the treadle, has not shown the presence of any tendency
+in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual irritation may also be produced by the bicycle in women. Thus,
+Moll<a name='1_FNanchor_210'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_210'><sup>[210]</sup></a> remarks that he knows many married women, and some unmarried,
+who experience sexual excitement when cycling; in several cases he has
+ascertained that the excitement is carried as far as complete orgasm. This
+result cannot, <a name='1_Page_178'></a>however, easily happen unless the seat is too high, the
+peak in contact with the organs, and a rolling movement is adopted; in the
+absence of marked hyper&aelig;sthesia these results are only effected by a bad
+seat or an improper attitude, the body during cycling resting under proper
+conditions on the buttocks, and the work being mainly done by the muscles
+of the thighs and legs which control the ankles, flexion of the thigh on
+the pelvis being very small. Most medical authorities on cycling are of
+opinion that when cycling leads to sexual excitement the fault lies more
+with the woman than with the machine. This conclusion does not appear to
+me to be absolutely correct. I find on inquiry that with the old-fashioned
+saddle, with an elevated peak rising toward the pubes, a certain degree of
+sexual excitement, not usually producing the orgasm (but, as one lady
+expressed it, making one feel quite ready for it), is fairly common among
+women. Lydston finds that irritation of the genital organs may
+unquestionably be produced in both males and females by cycling. The
+aggravation of h&aelig;morrhoids sometimes produced by cycling indicates also
+the tendency to local congestion. With the improved flat saddles, however,
+constructed with more definite adjustment to the anatomical formation of
+the parts, this general tendency is reduced to a negligible minimum.</p>
+
+<p>Reference may be made at this point to the influence of tight-lacing. This
+has been recognized by gyn&aelig;cologists as a factor of sexual excitement and
+a method of masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_211'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_211'><sup>[211]</sup></a> Women who have never worn corsets sometimes
+find that, on first putting them on, sexual feeling is so intensified that
+it is necessary to abandon their use.<a name='1_FNanchor_212'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_212'><sup>[212]</sup></a> The reason of this (as Siebert
+points out in his <i>Buch f&uuml;r Eltern</i>) seems to be that the corset both
+favors pelvic congestion and at the same time exerts a pressure on the
+abdominal muscles which brings them into the state produced during coitus.
+It is doubtless for the same <a name='1_Page_179'></a>reason that, as some women have found, more
+distension of the bladder is possible without corsets than with them.</p>
+
+<p>In a further class of cases no external object whatever is used to procure
+the sexual orgasm, but the more or less voluntary pressure of the thighs
+alone is brought to bear upon the sexual regions. It is done either when
+sitting or standing, the thighs being placed together and firmly crossed,
+and the pelvis rocked so that the sexual organs are pressed against the
+inner and posterior parts of the thighs.<a name='1_FNanchor_213'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_213'><sup>[213]</sup></a> This is sometimes done by
+men, and is fairly common among women, especially, according to
+Martineau,<a name='1_FNanchor_214'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_214'><sup>[214]</sup></a> among those who sit much, such as dressmakers and
+milliners, those who use the sewing-machine, and those who ride. Vedeler
+remarks that in his experience in Scandinavia, thigh-friction is the
+commonest form of masturbation in women. The practice is widespread, and a
+medical correspondent in India tells me of a Brahmin widow who confessed
+to this form of masturbation. I am told that in London Board Schools, at
+the present time, thigh-rubbing is not infrequent among the girl scholars;
+the proportion mentioned in one school was about ten per cent, of the
+girls over eleven; the thigh-rubbing is done more or less openly and is
+interpreted by the uninitiated as due merely to a desire to relieve the
+bladder. It is found in female infants. Thus, Townsend records the case of
+an infant, 8 months old, who would cross her right thigh over the left,
+close her eyes and clench her fists; after a minute or two there would be
+complete relaxation, with sweating and redness of face; this would occur
+about once a week or oftener; the child was quite healthy, with no
+abnormal condition of the genital organs.<a name='1_FNanchor_215'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_215'><sup>[215]</sup></a> The frequency of
+<a name='1_Page_180'></a>thigh-friction among women as a form of masturbation is due to the fact
+that it is usually acquired innocently and it involves no indecorum. Thus
+Soutzo reports the case of a girl of 12 who at school, when having to wait
+her turn at the water-closet, for fear of wetting herself would put her
+clothes between her legs and press her thighs together, moving them
+backwards and forwards in the effort to control the bladder; she
+discovered that a pleasurable sensation was thus produced and acquired the
+habit of practicing the man&oelig;uvre for its own sake; at the age of
+17 she began to vary it in different ways; thus she would hang from a tree
+with her legs swinging and her chemise pressed between her thighs which
+she would rub together.<a name='1_FNanchor_216'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_216'><sup>[216]</sup></a> Thigh-friction in some of its forms is so
+comparatively decorous a form of masturbation that it may even be
+performed in public places; thus, a few years ago, while waiting for a
+train at a station on the outskirts of a provincial town, I became aware
+of the presence of a young woman, sitting alone on a seat at a little
+distance, whom I could observe unnoticed. She was leaning back with legs
+crossed, swinging the crossed foot vigorously and continuously; this
+continued without interruption for some ten minutes after I first observed
+her; then the swinging movement reached a climax; she leant still further
+back, thus bringing the sexual region still more closely in contact with
+the edge of the bench and straightened and stiffened her body and legs in
+what appeared to be a momentary spasm; there could be little doubt as to
+what had taken place. A few moments later she slowly walked from her
+solitary seat into the waiting-room and sat down among the other waiting
+passengers, quite still now and with uncrossed legs, a pale quiet young
+woman, possibly a farmer's daughter, serenely unconscious that her
+man&oelig;uvre had been detected, and very possibly herself ignorant of
+its true nature.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other forms in which the impulse of auto-erotism presents
+itself. Dancing is often a powerful method of sexual excitement, not only
+among civilized but among savage peoples, and Zache describes the erotic
+dances of Swaheli women <a name='1_Page_181'></a>as having a masturbatory object.<a name='1_FNanchor_217'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_217'><sup>[217]</sup></a> Stimulation
+of the nates is a potent adjuvant to the production of self-excitement,
+and self-flagellation with rods, etc., is practiced by some individuals,
+especially young women.<a name='1_FNanchor_218'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_218'><sup>[218]</sup></a> Urtication is another form of this
+stimulation; Reverdin knew a young woman who obtained sexual gratification
+by flogging herself with chestnut burrs, and it is stated that in some
+parts of France (departments of the Ain and C&ocirc;te d'Or) it is not uncommon
+for young girls to masturbate by rubbing the leaves of the <i>Linaria
+cymbalaria</i> (here called &quot;pinton&quot; or &quot;timbarde&quot;) on to the sexual parts,
+thus producing a burning sensation.<a name='1_FNanchor_219'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_219'><sup>[219]</sup></a> Stimulation of the mamma,
+normally an erogenous centre in women, may occasionally serve as a method
+for obtaining auto-erotic satisfaction, including the orgasm, in both
+sexes. I have been told of a case in a man, and a medical correspondent in
+India informs me that he knows a Eurasian woman, addicted to masturbation,
+who can only obtain the orgasm by rubbing the genitals with one hand while
+with the other she rubs and finally squeezes her breasts. The tactile
+stimulation even of regions of the body which are not normally erogenous
+zones in either sex may sometimes lead on to sexual excitement;
+Hirschsprung, as well as Freud, believes that this is often the case as
+regards finger-sucking and toe-sucking in infancy. Even stroking the chin,
+remarks Debreyne, may produce a pollution.<a name='1_FNanchor_220'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_220'><sup>[220]</sup></a> Taylor refers to the case
+of a young woman of 22, who was liable to attacks of choreic movements of
+the hands which would terminate in alternately pressing the middle finger
+on the tip of the nose and the tragus of the ear, when a &quot;far-away,
+pleased expression&quot; would appear on her face; she thus produced sexual
+excitement and satisfaction. She had no <a name='1_Page_182'></a>idea of wrong-doing and was
+surprised and ashamed when she realized the nature of her act.<a name='1_FNanchor_221'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_221'><sup>[221]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Most of the foregoing examples of auto-erotism, are commonly included, by
+no means correctly, under the heading of &quot;masturbation.&quot; There are,
+however, a vast number of people, possessing strong sexual emotions and
+living a solitary life, who experience, sometimes by instinct and
+sometimes on moral grounds, a strong repugnance for these manifestations
+of auto-erotism. As one highly intelligent lady writes: &quot;I have sometimes
+wondered whether I could produce it (complete sexual excitement)
+mechanically, but I have a curious unreasonable repugnance to trying the
+experiment. It would materialize it too much.&quot; The same repugnance may be
+traced in the tendency to avoid, so far as possible, the use of the hands.
+It is quite common to find this instinctive unreasoning repugnance among
+women, a healthy repugnance, not founded on any moral ground. In men the
+same repugnance exists, more often combined with, or replaced by, a very
+strong moral and &aelig;sthetic objection to such practices. But the presence of
+such a repugnance, however invincible, is very far from carrying us
+outside the auto-erotic field. The production of the sexual orgasm is not
+necessarily dependent on any external contact or voluntary mechanical
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>As an example, though not of specifically auto-erotic manifestations, I
+may mention the case of a man of 57, a somewhat eccentric preacher, etc.,
+who writes: &quot;My whole nature goes out so to some persons, and they thrill
+and stir me so that I have an emission while sitting by them with no
+thought of sex, only the gladness of soul found its way out thus, and a
+glow of health suffused the whole body. There was no spasmodic conclusion,
+but a pleasing gentle sensation as the few drops of semen passed.&quot; (In
+reality, no doubt, not semen, but urethral fluid.) This man's condition
+may certainly be considered somewhat morbid; he is attracted to both men
+and women, and the sexual impulse seems to be irritable and weak; but a
+similar state of things exists so often in women, no doubt due to sexual
+repression, and in individuals <a name='1_Page_183'></a>who are in a general state of normal and
+good health, that in these it can scarcely be called morbid. Brooding on
+sexual images, which the theologians termed <i>delectatio morosa</i>, may lead
+to spontaneous orgasm in either sex, even in perfectly normal persons.
+Hammond described as a not uncommon form of &quot;psychic coitus,&quot; a condition
+in which the simple act of imagination alone, in the presence of the
+desired object, suffices to produce orgasm. In some public conveyance,
+theatre, or elsewhere, the man sees a desirable woman and by concentrating
+his attention on her person and imagining all the stages of intimacy he
+quickly succeeds in producing orgasm.<a name='1_FNanchor_222'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_222'><sup>[222]</sup></a> Niceforo refers to an Italian
+work-girl of 14 who could obtain ejaculation of mucus four times a day, in
+the workroom in the presence of the other girls, without touching herself
+or moving her body, by simply thinking of sexual things.<a name='1_FNanchor_223'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_223'><sup>[223]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>If the orgasm occurs spontaneously, without the aid of mental impressions,
+or any manipulations <i>ad hoc</i>, though under such conditions it ceases to
+be sinful from the theological standpoint, it certainly ceases also to be
+normal. S&eacute;rieux records the case of a somewhat neurotic woman of 50, who
+had been separated from her husband for ten years, and since lived a
+chaste life; at this age, however, she became subject to violent crises of
+sexual orgasm, which would come on without any accompaniment of voluptuous
+thoughts. MacGillicuddy records three cases of spontaneous orgasm in women
+coming under his notice.<a name='1_FNanchor_224'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_224'><sup>[224]</sup></a> Such crises are frequently found in both men
+and women, who, from moral reasons, ignorance, or on other grounds are
+restrained from attaining the complete sexual orgasm, but whose sexual
+emotions are, literally, continually dribbling from them. Schrenck-Notzing
+knows a lady who is spontaneously sexually excited on hearing music or
+seeing pictures without anything lascivious in them; she knows nothing of
+sexual relationships. Another lady is sexually excited on seeing beautiful
+and natural scenes, like the sea; sexual ideas are mixed up in her mind
+with <a name='1_Page_184'></a>these things, and the contemplation of a specially strong and
+sympathetic man brings the orgasm on in about a minute. Both these ladies
+&quot;masturbate&quot; in the streets, restaurants, railways, theatres, without
+anyone perceiving it.<a name='1_FNanchor_225'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_225'><sup>[225]</sup></a> A Brahmin woman informed a medical
+correspondent in India that she had distinct though feeble orgasm, with
+copious outflow of mucus, if she stayed long near a man whose face she
+liked, and this is not uncommon among European women. Evidently under such
+conditions there is a state of hyper&aelig;sthetic weakness. Here, however, we
+are passing the frontiers of strictly auto-erotic phenomena.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p><i>Delectatio morosa</i>, as understood by the theologians, is
+    distinct from desire, and also distinct from the definite
+    intention of effecting the sexual act, although it may lead to
+    those things. It is the voluntary and complacent dallying in
+    imagination with voluptuous thoughts, when no effort is made to
+    repel them. It is, as Aquinas and others point out, constituted
+    by this act of complacent dallying, and has no reference to the
+    duration of the imaginative process. Debreyne, in his
+    <i>M&oelig;chialogie</i> (pp. 149-163), deals fully with this
+    question, and quotes the opinions of theologians. I may add that
+    in the early Penitentials, before the elaboration of Catholic
+    theology, the voluntary emission of semen through the influence
+    of evil thoughts, was recognized as a sin, though usually only if
+    it occurred in church. In Egbert's Penitential of the eighth or
+    ninth century (cap. IX, 12), the penance assigned for this
+    offence in the case of a deacon, is 25 days; in the case of a
+    monk, 30 days; a priest, 40 days; a bishop, 50. (Haddon and
+    Stubbs, <i>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents</i>, vol. iii, p.
+    426.)</p>
+
+<p>    The frequency of spontaneous orgasm in women seems to have been
+    recognized in the seventeenth century. Thus, Schurig
+    (<i>Syllepsilogia</i>, p. 4), apparently quoting Riolan, states that
+    some women are so wanton that the sight of a handsome man, or of
+    their lover, or speech with such a one, will cause them to
+    ejaculate their semen. </p></div>
+
+<p>There is, however, a closely allied, and, indeed, overlapping form of
+auto-erotism which may be considered here: I mean that associated with
+revery, or day-dreaming. Although this is a <a name='1_Page_185'></a>very common and important
+form of auto-erotism, besides being in a large proportion of cases the
+early stage of masturbation, it appears to have attracted little
+attention.<a name='1_FNanchor_226'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_226'><sup>[226]</sup></a> The day-dream has, indeed, been studied in its chief form,
+in the &quot;continued story,&quot; by Mabel Learoyd, of Wellesley College. The
+continued story is an imagined narrative, more or less peculiar to the
+individual, by whom it is cherished with fondness, and regarded as an
+especially sacred mental possession, to be shared only, if at all, with
+very sympathizing friends. It is commoner among girls and young women than
+among boys and young men; among 352 persons of both sexes, 47 per cent.
+among the women and only 14 per cent. among the men, have any continued
+story. The starting-point is an incident from a book, or, more usually,
+some actual experience, which the subject develops; the subject is nearly
+always the hero or the heroine of the story. The growth of the story is
+favored by solitude, and lying in bed before going to sleep is the time
+specially sacred to its cultivation.<a name='1_FNanchor_227'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_227'><sup>[227]</sup></a> No distinct reference, perhaps
+naturally enough, is made by Miss Learoyd to the element of sexual emotion
+with which these stories are often strongly tinged, and which is
+frequently their real motive. Though by no means easy to detect, these
+elaborate <a name='1_Page_186'></a>and more or less erotic day-dreams are not uncommon in young
+men and especially in young women. Each individual has his own particular
+dream, which is always varying or developing, but, except in very
+imaginative persons, to no great extent. Such a day-dream is often founded
+on a basis of pleasurable personal experience, and develops on that basis.
+It may involve an element of perversity, even though that element finds no
+expression in real life. It is, of course, fostered by sexual abstinence;
+hence its frequency in young women. Most usually there is little attempt
+to realize it. It does not necessarily lead to masturbation, though it
+often causes some sexual congestion or even spontaneous sexual orgasm. The
+day-dream is a strictly private and intimate experience, not only from its
+very nature, but also because it occurs in images which the subject finds
+great difficulty in translating into language, even when willing to do so.
+In other cases it is elaborately dramatic or romantic in character, the
+hero or heroine passing through many experiences before attaining the
+erotic climax of the story. This climax tends to develop in harmony with
+the subject's growing knowledge or experience; at first, merely a kiss, it
+may develop into any refinement of voluptuous gratification. The day-dream
+may occur either in normal or abnormal persons. Rousseau, in his
+<i>Confessions</i>, describes such dreams, in his case combined with masochism
+and masturbation. A distinguished American novelist, Hamlin Garland, has
+admirably described in <i>Rose of Dutcher's Coolly</i> the part played in the
+erotic day-dreams of a healthy normal girl at adolescence by a
+circus-rider, seen on the first visit to a circus, and becoming a majestic
+ideal to dominate the girl's thoughts for many years.<a name='1_FNanchor_228'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_228'><sup>[228]</sup></a>
+Raffalovich<a name='1_FNanchor_229'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_229'><sup>[229]</sup></a> describes the process by which in sexual inverts the
+vision of a person of the same sex, perhaps seen in the streets or the
+theatre, is evoked in <a name='1_Page_187'></a>solitary reveries, producing a kind of &quot;psychic
+onanism,&quot; whether or not it leads on to physical manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>Although day-dreaming of this kind has at present been very little
+studied, since it loves solitude and secrecy, and has never been counted
+of sufficient interest for scientific inquisition, it is really a process
+of considerable importance, and occupies a large part of the auto-erotic
+field. It is frequently cultivated by refined and imaginative young men
+and women who lead a chaste life and would often be repelled by
+masturbation. In such persons, under such circumstances, it must be
+considered as strictly normal, the inevitable outcome of the play of the
+sexual impulse. No doubt it may often become morbid, and is never a
+healthy process when indulged in to excess, as it is liable to be by
+refined young people with artistic impulses, to whom it is in the highest
+degree seductive and insidious.<a name='1_FNanchor_230'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_230'><sup>[230]</sup></a> As we have seen, however,
+day-dreaming is far from always colored by sexual emotion; yet it is a
+significant indication of its really sexual origin that, as I have been
+informed by persons of both sexes, even in these apparently non-sexual
+cases it frequently ceases altogether on marriage.</p>
+
+<p>Even when we have eliminated all these forms of auto-erotic activity,
+however refined, in which the subject takes a voluntary part, we have
+still left unexplored an important portion of the auto-erotic field, a
+portion which many people are alone inclined to consider normal: sexual
+orgasm during sleep. That under conditions of sexual abstinence in healthy
+individuals there must inevitably be some auto-erotic manifestations
+during waking life, a careful study of the facts compels us to believe.
+There can be no doubt, also, that, under the same conditions, the
+occurrence <a name='1_Page_188'></a>of the complete orgasm during sleep with, in men, seminal
+emissions, is altogether normal. Even Zeus himself, as Pausanias has
+recorded, was liable to such accidents: a statement which, at all events,
+shows that to the Greek mind there was nothing derogatory in such an
+occurrence.<a name='1_FNanchor_231'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_231'><sup>[231]</sup></a> The Jews, however,
+regarded it as an impurity,<a name='1_FNanchor_232'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_232'><sup>[232]</sup></a> and
+the same idea was transmitted to the Christian church and embodied in the
+word <i>pollutio</i>, by which the phenomenon was designated in ecclesiastical
+phraseology.<a name='1_FNanchor_233'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_233'><sup>[233]</sup></a> According to Billuart and other theologians, pollution
+in sleep is not sin, unless voluntarily caused; if, however, it begins in
+sleep, and is completed in the half-waking state, with a sense of
+pleasure, it is a venial sin. But it seems allowable to permit a nocturnal
+pollution to complete itself on awaking, if it occurs without intention;
+and St. Thomas even says &quot;<i>Si pollutio placeat ut natur&aelig; exoneratio vel
+alleviatio peccatum non creditur</i>.&quot; </p><a name='1_Page_189'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Notwithstanding the fair and logical position of the more
+    distinguished Latin theologians, there has certainly been a
+    widely prevalent belief in Catholic countries that pollution
+    during sleep is a sin. In the &quot;Parson's Tale,&quot; Chaucer makes the
+    parson say: &quot;Another sin appertaineth to lechery that cometh in
+    sleeping; and the sin cometh oft to them that be maidens, and eke
+    to them that be corrupt; and this sin men clepe pollution, that
+    cometh in four manners;&quot; these four manners being (1) languishing
+    of body from rank and abundant humors, (2) infirmity, (3) surfeit
+    of meat and drink, and (4) villainous thoughts. Four hundred
+    years later, Madame Roland, in her <i>M&eacute;moires Particuli&egrave;res</i>,
+    presented a vivid picture of the anguish produced in an innocent
+    girl's mind by the notion of the sinfulness of erotic dreams. She
+    menstruated first at the age of 14. &quot;Before this,&quot; she writes, &quot;I
+    had sometimes been awakened from the deepest sleep in a
+    surprising manner. Imagination played no part; I exercised it on
+    too many serious subjects, and my timorous conscience preserved
+    it from amusement with other subjects, so that it could not
+    represent what I would not allow it to seek to understand. But an
+    extraordinary effervescence aroused my senses in the heat of
+    repose, and, by virtue of my excellent constitution, operated by
+    itself a purification which was as strange to me as its cause.
+    The first feeling which resulted was, I know not why, a sort of
+    fear. I had observed in my <i>Philot&eacute;e</i>, that we are not allowed to
+    obtain any pleasure from our bodies except in lawful marriage.
+    What I had experienced could be called a pleasure. I was then
+    guilty, and in a class of offences which caused me the most shame
+    and sorrow, since it was that which was most displeasing to the
+    Spotless Lamb. There was great agitation in my poor heart,
+    prayers and mortifications. How could I avoid it? For, indeed, I
+    had not foreseen it, but at the instant when I experienced it, I
+    had not taken the trouble to prevent it. My watchfulness became
+    extreme. I scrupulously avoided positions which I found specially
+    exposed me to the accident. My restlessness became so great that,
+    at last I was able to awake before the catastrophe. When I was
+    not in time to prevent it, I would jump out of bed, with naked
+    feet on to the polished floor, and with crossed arms pray to the
+    Saviour to preserve me from the wiles of the devil. I would then
+    impose some penance on myself, and I have carried out to the
+    letter what the prophet King probably only transmitted to us as a
+    figure of Oriental speech, mixing ashes with my bread and
+    watering it with my tears.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>To the early Protestant mind, as illustrated by Luther, there was
+something diseased, though not impure, in sexual excitement during sleep;
+thus, in his <i>Table Talk</i> Luther remarks that girls who have such dreams
+should be married at once, &quot;taking the <a name='1_Page_190'></a>medicine which God has given.&quot; It
+is only of comparatively recent years that medical science has obtained
+currency for the belief that this auto-erotic process is entirely normal.
+Blumenbach stated that nocturnal emissions are normal.<a name='1_FNanchor_234'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_234'><sup>[234]</sup></a> Sir James
+Paget declared that he had never known celibate men who had not such
+emissions from once or twice a week to twice every three months, both
+extremes being within the limits of good health, while Sir Lauder Brunton
+considers once a fortnight or once a month about the usual frequency, at
+these periods the emissions often following two nights in succession.
+Rohleder believes that they may normally follow for several nights in
+succession. Hammond considers that they occur about once a fortnight.<a name='1_FNanchor_235'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_235'><sup>[235]</sup></a>
+Ribbing regards ten to fourteen days as the normal interval.<a name='1_FNanchor_236'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_236'><sup>[236]</sup></a>
+L&ouml;wenfeld puts the normal frequency at about once a week;<a name='1_FNanchor_237'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_237'><sup>[237]</sup></a> this seems
+to be nearer the truth as regards most fairly healthy young men. In proof
+of this it is only necessary to refer to the exact records of healthy
+young adults summarized in the study of periodicity in the present volume.
+It occasionally happens, however, that nocturnal emissions are entirely
+absent. I am acquainted with some cases. In other fairly healthy young men
+they seldom occur except at times of intellectual activity or of anxiety
+and worry.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Lately there has been some tendency for medical opinion to revert
+    to the view of Luther, and to regard sexual excitement during
+    sleep as a somewhat unhealthy phenomenon. Moll is a distinguished
+    advocate of this view. Sexual excitement during sleep is the
+    normal result of celibacy, but it is another thing to say that it
+    is, on that account, satisfactory. We might, then, Moll remarks,
+    maintain that nocturnal incontinence of urine is satisfactory,
+    since the bladder is thus emptied. Yet, we take every precaution
+    against this by insisting that the bladder shall be emptied
+    before going to sleep. (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, p. 552.) This
+    remark is supported by the fact, to which I find that both men
+    and women can bear witness, that sexual excitement during sleep
+    is more fatiguing than in the waking state, though this is not an
+    invariable <a name='1_Page_191'></a>rule, and it is sometimes found to be refreshing. In
+    a similar way, Eulenburg (<i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 55) states
+    that nocturnal emissions are no more normal than coughing or
+    vomiting. </p></div>
+
+<p>Nocturnal emissions are usually, though not invariably, accompanied by
+dreams of a voluptuous character in which the dreamer becomes conscious in
+a more or less fantastic manner of the more or less intimate presence or
+contact of a person of the opposite sex. It would seem, as a general rule,
+that the more vivid and voluptuous the dream, the greater is the physical
+excitement and the greater also the relief experienced on awakening.
+Sometimes the erotic dream occurs without any emission, and not
+infrequently the emission takes place after the dreamer has awakened.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The widest and most comprehensive investigation of erotic dreams
+    is that carried out by Gualino, in northern Italy, and based on
+    inquiries among 100 normal men&mdash;doctors, teachers, lawyers,
+    etc.&mdash;who had all had experience of the phenomenon. (L. Gualino,
+    &quot;Il Sogno Erotico nell' Uomo Normale,&quot; <i>Rivista di Psicologia</i>,
+    Jan.-Feb., 1907.) Gualino shows that erotic dreams, with
+    emissions (whether or not seminal), began somewhat earlier than
+    the period of physical development as ascertained by Marro for
+    youths of the same part of northern Italy. Gualino found that all
+    his cases had had erotic dreams at the age of seventeen; Marro
+    found 8 per cent, of youths still sexually undeveloped at that
+    age, and while sexual development began at thirteen years, erotic
+    dreams began at twelve. Their appearance was preceded, in most
+    cases for some months, by erections. In 37 per cent, of the cases
+    there had been no actual sexual experiences (either masturbation
+    or intercourse); in 23 per cent, there had been masturbation; in
+    the rest, some form of sexual contact. The dreams are mainly
+    visual, tactual elements coming second, and the <i>dramatis
+    persona</i> is either an unknown woman (27 per cent, cases), or only
+    known by sight (56 per cent.), and in the majority is, at all
+    events in the beginning, an ugly or fantastic figure, becoming
+    more attractive later in life, but never identical with the woman
+    loved during waking life. This, as Gualino points out, accords
+    with the general tendency for the emotions of the day to be
+    latent in sleep. Masturbation only formed the subject of the
+    dream in four cases. The emotional state in the pubertal stage,
+    apart from pleasure, was anxiety (37 per cent.), desire (17 per
+    cent.), fear (14 per cent.). In the adult stage, anxiety and fear
+    receded to 7 per cent, and 6 per cent., respectively.
+    Thirty-three of the subjects, as a result of sexual or general
+    disturbances, had had nocturnal emissions <a name='1_Page_192'></a>without dreams; these
+    were always found exhausting. Normally (in more than 90 per
+    cent.) erotic dreams are the most vivid of all dreams. In no case
+    was there knowledge of any monthly or other cyclic periodicity in
+    the occurrence of the manifestations. In 34 per cent, of cases,
+    they tended to occur very soon after sexual intercourse. In
+    numerous cases they were peculiarly frequent (even three in one
+    night) during courtship, when the young man was in the habit of
+    kissing and caressing his betrothed, but ceased after marriage.
+    It was not noted that position in bed or a full bladder exerted
+    any marked influence in the occurrence of erotic dreams;
+    repletion of the seminal vesicles is regarded as the main factor.</p>
+
+<p>    In Germany erotic dreams have been discussed by Volkelt (<i>Die
+    Traum-Phantasie</i>, 1875, pp. 78-82), and especially by L&ouml;wenfeld
+    (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Oct., 1908), while in America, Stanley Hall
+    thus summarizes the general characteristics of erotic dreams in
+    men: &quot;In by far the most cases, consciousness, even when the act
+    causes full awakening from sleep, finds only scattered images,
+    single words, gestures, and acts, many of which would perhaps
+    normally constitute no provocation. Many times the mental
+    activity seems to be remote and incidental, and the mind retains
+    in the morning nothing except, perhaps, a peculiar dress pattern,
+    the shape of a finger-nail, the back of a neck, the toss of a
+    head, the movement of a foot, or the dressing of the hair. In
+    such cases, these images stand out for a time with the
+    distinctness of a cameo, and suggest that the origin of erotic
+    fetichisms is largely to be found in sexual dreams. Very rarely
+    is there any imagery of the organs themselves, but the tendency
+    to irradiation is so strong as to re-enforce the suggestion of so
+    many other phenomena in this field, that nature designs this
+    experience to be long circuited, and that it may give a peculiar
+    ictus to almost any experience. When waking occurs just
+    afterward, it seems at least possible that there may be much
+    imagery that existed, but failed to be recalled to memory,
+    possibly because the flow of psychic impressions was over very
+    familiar fields, and this, therefore, was forgotten, while any
+    eruption into new or unwonted channels, stood out with
+    distinctness. All these psychic phenomena, although very
+    characteristic of man in his prime, are not so of the dreams of
+    dawning puberty, which are far more vivid.&quot; (G. Stanley Hall,
+    <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 455.)</p>
+
+<p>    I may, further, quote the experience of an anonymous
+    contributor&mdash;a healthy and chaste man between 30 and 38 years of
+    age&mdash;to the <i>American Journal of Psychology</i> (&quot;Nocturnal
+    Emissions,&quot; Jan., 1904): &quot;Legs and breasts often figured
+    prominently in these dreams, the other sexual parts, however,
+    very seldom, and then they turned out to be male organs in most
+    cases. There were but two instances of copulation dreamt. Girls
+    and young women were the, usual <i>dramatis person&aelig;</i>, <a name='1_Page_193'></a>and,
+    curiously enough, often the aggressors. Sometimes the face or
+    faces were well known; sometimes, only once seen; sometimes,
+    entirely unknown. The orgasm occurs at the most erotic part of
+    the dream, the physical and psychical running parallel. This most
+    erotic or suggestive part of the dream was very often quite an
+    innocent looking incident enough. As, for example: while passing
+    a strange young woman, overtaken on the street, she calls after
+    me some question. At first, I pay no heed, but when she calls
+    again, I hesitate whether to turn back and answer or
+    not&mdash;emission. Again, walking beside a young woman, she said,
+    'Shall I take your arm?' I offered it, and she took it, entwining
+    her arm around it, and raising it high&mdash;emission. I could feel
+    stronger erection as she asked the question. Sometimes, a word
+    was enough; sometimes, a gesture. Once emission took place on my
+    noticing the young woman's diminished finger-nails. Another
+    example of fetichism was my being curiously attracted in a dream
+    by the pretty embroidered figure on a little girl's dress. As an
+    illustration of the strange metamorphoses that occur in dreams, I
+    one night, in my dream (I had been observing partridges in the
+    summer) fell in love with a partridge, which changed under my
+    caresses to a beautiful girl, who yet retained an indescribable
+    wild-bird innocence, grace, and charm&mdash;a sort of Undina!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    These experiences may be regarded as fairly typical of the erotic
+    dreams of healthy and chaste young men. The bird, for instance,
+    that changes into a woman while retaining some elements of the
+    bird, has been encountered in erotic dreams by other young men.
+    It is indeed remarkable that, as De Gubernatis observes, &quot;the
+    bird is a well-known phallic symbol,&quot; while Maeder finds
+    (&quot;Interpr&eacute;tations de Quelques R&ecirc;ves,&quot; <i>Archives de Psychologie</i>,
+    April, 1907) that birds have a sexual significance both in life
+    and in dreams. The appearance of male organs in the dream-woman
+    is doubtless due to the dreamer's greater familiarity with those
+    organs; but, though it occurs occasionally, it can scarcely be
+    said to be the rule in erotic dreams. Even men who have never had
+    connection with a woman, are quite commonly aware of the presence
+    of a woman's sexual organs in their erotic dreams.</p>
+
+<p>    Moll's comparison of nocturnal emissions of semen with nocturnal
+    incontinence of urine suggests an interesting resemblance, and at
+    the same time seeming contrast. In both cases we are concerned
+    with viscera which, when overfilled or unduly irritable,
+    spasmodically eject their contents during sleep. There is a
+    further resemblance which usually becomes clear when, as
+    occasionally happens, nocturnal incontinence of urine persists on
+    to late childhood or adolescence: both phenomena are frequently
+    accompanied by vivid dreams of appropriate character. (See <i>e.g.</i>
+    Ries, &quot;Ueber Enuresis Nocturna,&quot; <i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene</i>, 1904; A. P. Buchan, nearly
+    <a name='1_Page_194'></a>a century ago, pointed out the psychic element in the
+    experiences of young persons who wetted the bed, <i>Venus sine
+    Concubitu</i>, 1816, p. 47.) Thus, in one case known to me, a child
+    of seven, who occasionally wetted the bed, usually dreamed at the
+    same time that she wanted to make water, and was out of doors,
+    running to find a suitable spot, which she at last found, and, on
+    awaking, discovered that she had wetted the bed; fifteen years
+    later she still sometimes had similar dreams, which caused her
+    much alarm until, when thoroughly awake, she realized that no
+    accident had happened; these later dreams were not the result of
+    any actual strong desire to urinate. In another case with which I
+    am acquainted, a little girl of eight, after mental excitement or
+    indigestible meals, occasionally wetted the bed, dreaming that
+    she was frightened by some one running after her, and wetted
+    herself in consequence, after the manner of the Ganymede in the
+    eagle's clutch, as depicted by Rembrandt. These two cases, it may
+    be noted, belong to two quite different types. In the first case,
+    the full bladder suggests to imagination the appropriate actions
+    for relief, and the bladder actually accepts the imaginative
+    solution offered; it is, according to Fiorani's phrase,
+    &quot;somnambulism of the bladder.&quot; In the other case, there is no
+    such somnambulism, but a psychic and nervous disturbance, not
+    arising in the bladder at all, irradiates convulsively, and
+    whether or not the bladder is overfull, attacks a vesical nervous
+    system which is not yet sufficiently well-balanced to withstand
+    the inflow of excitement. In children of somewhat nervous
+    temperament, manifestations of this kind may occur as an
+    occasional accident, up to about the age of seven or eight; and
+    thereafter, the nervous control of the bladder having become
+    firmly established, they cease to happen, the nervous energy
+    required to affect the bladder sufficing to awake the dreamer. In
+    very rare cases, however, the phenomenon may still occasionally
+    happen, even in adolescence or later, in individuals who are
+    otherwise quite free from it. This is most apt to occur in young
+    women even in waking life. In men it is probably extremely rare.</p>
+
+<p>    The erotic dream seems to differ flagrantly from the vesical
+    dream, in that it occurs in adult life, and is with difficulty
+    brought under control. The contrast is, however, very
+    superficial. When we remember that sexual activity only begins
+    normally at puberty, we realize that the youth of twenty is, in
+    the matter of sexual control, scarcely much older than in the
+    matter of vesical control he was at the age of six. Moreover, if
+    we were habitually, from our earliest years, to go to bed with a
+    full bladder, as the chaste man goes to bed with unrelieved
+    sexual system, it would be fully as difficult to gain vesical
+    control during sleep as it now is to gain sexual control.
+    Ultimately, such sexual control is attained; after the age of
+    forty, it seems that erotic dreams with emission become more and
+    more rare; either the dream occurs without <a name='1_Page_195'></a>actual emission,
+    exactly as dreams of urination occur in adults with full bladder,
+    or else the organic stress, with or without dreams, serves to
+    awaken the sleeper before any emission has occurred. But this
+    stage is not easily or completely attained. St. Augustine, even
+    at the period when he wrote his <i>Confessions</i>, mentions, as a
+    matter of course, that sexual dreams &quot;not merely arouse pleasure,
+    but gain the consent of the will.&quot; (X. 41.) Not infrequently
+    there is a struggle in sleep, just as the hypnotic subject may
+    resist suggestions; thus, a lady of thirty-five dreamed a sexual
+    dream, and awoke without excitement; again she fell asleep, and
+    had another dream of sexual character, but resisted the tendency
+    to excitement, and again awoke; finally, she fell asleep and had
+    a third sexual dream, which was this time accompanied by the
+    orgasm. (This has recently been described also by N&auml;cke, who
+    terms it <i>pollutio interrupta, Neurologisches Centralblatt</i>, Oct.
+    16, 1909; the corresponding voluntary process in the waking state
+    is described by Rohleder and termed <i>masturbatio interrupta,
+    Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Aug., 1908.) The factors
+    involved in the acquirement of vesical and sexual control during
+    sleep are the same, but the conditions are somewhat different.</p>
+
+<p>    There is a very intimate connection between the vesical and the
+    sexual spheres, as I have elsewhere pointed out (see <i>e.g.</i> in
+    the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;Analysis of the Sexual
+    Impulse&quot;). This connection is psychic as well as organic. Both in
+    men and women, a full bladder tends to develop erotic dreams.
+    (See <i>e.g.</i> K. A. Scherner, <i>Das Leben des Traums</i>, 1861, pp. 187
+    <i>et seq.</i>; Spitta also points out the connection between vesical
+    and erotic dreams, <i>Die Schlaf und Traumzust&auml;nde</i>, 2d ed., 1882,
+    pp. 250 <i>et seq.</i>) Raymond and Janet state (<i>Les Obscessions</i>,
+    vol. ii, p. 135) that nocturnal incontinence of urine,
+    accompanied by dreams of urination, may be replaced at puberty by
+    masturbation. In the reverse direction, Freud believes
+    (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, Bd. XVIII, p. 433) that
+    masturbation plays a large part in causing the bed-wetting of
+    children who have passed the age when that usually ceases, and he
+    even finds that children are themselves aware of the connection.</p>
+
+<p>    The diagnostic value of sexual dreams, as an indication of the
+    sexual nature of the subject when awake, has been emphasized by
+    various writers. (<i>E.g.</i>, Moll, <i>Die Kontr&auml;re Sexualempfindung</i>,
+    Ch. IX; N&auml;cke, &quot;Der Traum als feinstes Reagens f&uuml;r die Art des
+    sexuellen Empfindens,&quot; <i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Kriminalpsychologie</i>,
+    1905, p. 500.) Sexual dreams tend to reproduce, and even to
+    accentuate, those characteristics which make the strongest sexual
+    appeal to the subject when awake.</p>
+
+<p>    At the same time, this general statement has to be qualified,
+    more especially as regards inverted dreams. In the first place, a
+    young man, however normal, who is not familiar with the feminine
+    body when <a name='1_Page_196'></a>awake, is not likely to see it when asleep, even in
+    dreams of women; in the second place, the confusions and
+    combinations of dream imagery often tend to obliterate sexual
+    distinctions, however free from perversions the subjects may be.
+    Thus, a correspondent tells me of a healthy man, of very pure
+    character, totally inexperienced in sexual matters, and never
+    having seen a woman naked, who, in his sexual dreams, always sees
+    the woman with male organs, though he has never had any sexual
+    inclinations for men, and is much in love with a lady. The
+    confusions and associations of dream imagery, leading to abnormal
+    combinations, may be illustrated by a dream which once occurred
+    to me after reading Joest's account of how a young negress, whose
+    tattoo-marks he was sketching, having become bored, suddenly
+    pressed her hands to her breasts, spirting two streams of
+    lukewarm milk into his face, and ran away laughing; I dreamed of
+    a woman performing a similar action, not from her breasts,
+    however, but from a penis with which she was furnished. Again, by
+    another kind of confusion, a man dreams sexually that he is with
+    a man, although the figure of the partner revealed in the dream
+    is a woman. The following dream, in a normal man who had never
+    been, or wished to be, in the position shown by the dream, may be
+    quoted: &quot;I dreamed that I was a big boy, and that a younger boy
+    lay close beside me, and that we (or, certainly, he) had seminal
+    emissions; I was complacently passive, and had a feeling of shame
+    when the boy was discovered. On awaking I found I had had no
+    emission, but was lying very close to my wife. The day before, I
+    had seen boys in a swimming-match.&quot; This was, it seems to me, an
+    example of dream confusion, and not an erotic inverted dream.
+    (N&auml;cke also brings forward inverted dreams by normal persons; see
+    <i>e.g.</i> his &quot;Beitr&auml;ge zu den sexuellen Tr&auml;umen,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>, Bd. XX, 1908, p. 366.) </p></div>
+
+<p>So far as I have been able to ascertain, there seem to be, generally
+speaking, certain differences in the manifestations of auto-erotism during
+sleep in men and women which I believe to be not without psychological
+significance. In men the phenomenon is fairly simple; it usually appears
+about puberty continues at intervals of varying duration during sexual
+life provided the individual is living chastely, and is generally, though
+not always, accompanied by erotic dreams which lead up to the climax, its
+occurrence being, to some extent, influenced by a variety of
+circumstances: physical, mental, or emotional excitement, alcohol taken
+before retiring, position in bed (as lying on the back), the state of the
+bladder, sometimes the mere fact of <a name='1_Page_197'></a>being in a strange bed, and to some
+extent apparently by the existence of monthly and yearly rhythms. On the
+whole, it is a fairly definite and regular phenomenon which usually leaves
+little conscious trace on awaking, beyond probably some sense of fatigue
+and, occasionally, a headache. In women, however, the phenomena of
+auto-erotism during sleep seem to be much more irregular, varied, and
+diffused. So far as I have been able to make inquiries, it is the
+exception rather than the rule for girls to experience definitely erotic
+dreams about the period of puberty or adolescence.<a name='1_FNanchor_238'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_238'><sup>[238]</sup></a> Auto-erotic
+phenomena during sleep in women who have never experienced the orgasm when
+awake are usually of a very vague kind; while it is the rule in a chaste
+youth for the orgasm thus to manifest itself, it is the exception in a
+chaste girl. It is not, as a rule, until the orgasm has been definitely
+produced in the waking state&mdash;under whatever conditions it may have been
+produced&mdash;that it begins to occur during sleep, and even in a strongly
+sexual woman living a repressed life it is often comparatively
+infrequent.<a name='1_FNanchor_239'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_239'><sup>[239]</sup></a> Thus, a young medical woman who endeavors to deal
+strenuously with her physical sexual emotions writes: &quot;I sleep soundly,
+and do not dream at all. Occasionally, but very rarely, I have had
+sensations which awakened me suddenly. They can scarcely be called dreams,
+for they are mere impulses, nothing connected or coherent, yet prompted, I
+know, by sexual feeling. This is probably an experience common to all.&quot;
+Another lady (with a restrained psycho-sexual tendency to be attracted to
+both sexes), states that her first sexual sensations with orgasm were felt
+in dreams at the age of 16, but these dreams, which she has now forgotten,
+were not agreeable and not erotic; two or three years later spontaneous
+orgasm began to <a name='1_Page_198'></a>occur occasionally when awake, and after this, orgasm
+took place regularly once or twice a week in sleep, but still without
+erotic dreams; she merely dreamt that the orgasm was occurring and awoke
+as it took place.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that to the comparative rarity in chaste women of complete
+orgasm during sleep, we may in part attribute the violence with which
+repressed sexual emotion in women often manifests itself.<a name='1_FNanchor_240'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_240'><sup>[240]</sup></a> There is
+thus a difference here between men and women which is of some significance
+when we are considering the natural satisfaction of the sexual impulse in
+chaste women.</p>
+
+<p>In women, who have become accustomed to sexual intercourse, erotic dreams
+of fully developed character occur, with complete orgasm and accompanying
+relief&mdash;as may occasionally be the case in women who are not acquainted
+with actual intercourse;<a name='1_FNanchor_241'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_241'><sup>[241]</sup></a> some women, however, even when familiar with
+actual coitus, find that sexual dreams, though accompanied by emissions,
+are only the symptoms of desire and do not produce actual relief.</p>
+
+<p>Some interest attaches to cases in which young women, even girls at
+puberty, experience dreams of erotic character, or at all events dream
+concerning coitus or men in erection, although they <a name='1_Page_199'></a>profess, and almost
+certainly with truth, to be quite ignorant of sexual phenomena. Several
+such dreams of remarkable character have been communicated to me. One can
+imagine that the psychologists of some schools would see in these dreams
+the spontaneous eruption of the experiences of the race. I am inclined to
+regard them as forgotten memories, such as we know to occur sometimes in
+sleep. The child has somehow seen or heard of sexual phenomena and felt no
+interest, and the memory may subsequently be aroused in sleep, under the
+stimulation of new-born sexual sensations.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is a curious proof of the ignorance which has prevailed in
+    recent times concerning the psychic sexual nature of women that,
+    although in earlier ages the fact that women are normally liable
+    to erotic dreams was fully recognized, in recent times it has
+    been denied, even by writers who have made a special study of the
+    sexual impulse in women. Eulenburg (<i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, 1895,
+    pp. 31, 79) appears to regard the appearances of sexual phenomena
+    during sleep, in women, as the result of masturbation. Adler, in
+    what is in many respects an extremely careful study of sexual
+    phenomena in women (<i>Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes</i>, 1904, p. 130), boldly states that they do not have
+    erotic dreams. In 1847, E. Guibout (&quot;Des Pollutions Involontaires
+    chez la Femme,&quot; <i>Union M&eacute;dicale</i>, p. 260) presented the case of a
+    married lady who masturbated from the age of ten, and continued
+    the practice, even after her marriage at twenty-four, and at
+    twenty-nine began to have erotic dreams with emissions every few
+    nights, and later sometimes even several times a night, though
+    they ceased to be voluptuous; he believed the case to be the
+    first ever reported of such a condition in a woman. Yet,
+    thousands of years ago, the Indian of Vedic days recognized
+    erotic dreams in women as an ordinary and normal occurrence.
+    (L&ouml;wenfeld quotes a passage to this effect from the Oupnek'hat,
+    <i>Sexualleben und Nervenleiden</i>, 2d ed., p. 114.) Even savages
+    recognize the occurrence of erotic dreams in women as normal, for
+    the Papuans, for instance, believe that a young girl's first
+    menstruation is due to intercourse with the moon in the shape of
+    a man, the girl dreaming that a man is embracing her. (<i>Reports
+    Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, vol. v., p. 206.) In the
+    seventeenth century, Rolfincius, in a well-informed study (<i>De
+    Pollutione Nocturna</i>, a Jena Inaugural Dissertation, 1667),
+    concluded that women experience such manifestations, and quotes
+    Aristotle, Galen, and Fernelius, in the same sense. Sir Thomas
+    Overbury, in his <i>Characters</i>, written in the early part of the
+    same century, describing the ideal milkmaid, says that &quot;her
+    <a name='1_Page_200'></a>dreams are so chaste that she dare tell them,&quot; clearly implying
+    that It was not so with most women. The notion that women are not
+    subject to erotic dreams thus appears to be of comparatively
+    recent origin. </p></div>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting and important characters by which the erotic
+dreams of women&mdash;and, indeed, their dreams generally&mdash;differ from those of
+men is in the tendency to evoke a repercussion on the waking life, a
+tendency more rarely noted in men's erotic dreams, and then only to a
+minor extent. This is very common, even in healthy and normal women, and
+is exaggerated to a high degree in neurotic subjects, by whom the dream
+may even be interpreted as a reality, and so declared on oath, a fact of
+practical importance.</p>
+
+<p>Hersman&mdash;having met with a case in which a school-girl with chorea, after
+having dreamed of an assault, accused the principal of a school of
+assault, securing his conviction&mdash;obtained the opinions of various
+American alienists as to the frequency with which such dreams in unstable
+mental subjects lead to delusions and criminal accusations. Dercum, H. C.
+Wood, and Roh&eacute; had not personally met with such cases; Burr believed that
+there was strong evidence &quot;that a sexual dream may be so vivid as to make
+the subject believe she has had sexual congress&quot;; Kiernan knew of such
+cases; C. H. Hughes, in persons with every appearance of sanity, had known
+the erotic dreams of the night to become the erotic delusions of the day,
+the patient protesting violently the truth of her story; while Hersman
+reports the case<a name='1_FNanchor_242'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_242'><sup>[242]</sup></a> of a young lady in an asylum who had nightly
+delusions that a medical officer visited her every night, and had to do
+with her, <a name='1_Page_201'></a>coming up the hot-air flue. I am acquainted with a similar case
+in a clever, but highly neurotic, young woman, who writes: &quot;For years I
+have been trying to stamp out my passional nature, and was beginning to
+succeed when a strange thing happened to me last autumn. One night, as I
+lay in bed, I felt an influence so powerful that a man seemed present with
+me. I crimsoned with shame and wonder. I remember that I lay upon my back,
+and marveled when the spell had passed. The influence, I was assured, came
+from a priest whom I believed in and admired above everyone in the world.
+I had never dreamed of love in connection with him, because I always
+thought him so far above me. The influence has been upon me ever
+since&mdash;sometimes by day and nearly always by night; from it I generally go
+into a deep sleep, which lasts until morning. I am always much refreshed
+when I awake. This influence has the best effect upon my life that
+anything has ever had as regards health and mind. It is the knowledge that
+I am loved <i>fittingly</i> that makes me so indifferent to my future. What
+worries me is that I sometimes wonder if I suffer from a nervous disorder
+merely.&quot; The subject thus seemed to regard these occurrences as
+objectively caused, but was sufficiently sane to wonder whether her
+experiences were not due to mental disorder.<a name='1_FNanchor_243'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_243'><sup>[243]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The tendency of the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep to be manifested with
+such energy as to flow over into the waking life and influence conscious
+emotion and action, while very well marked in normal and healthy women, is
+seen to an exaggerated extent in hysterical women, in whom it has,
+therefore, chiefly been studied. Sante de Sanctis, who has investigated
+the dreams of many classes of people, remarks on the frequently sexual
+character of the dreams of hysterical women, and the repercussion of <a name='1_Page_202'></a>such
+dreams on the waking life of the following day; he gives a typical case of
+hysterical erotic dreaming in an uneducated servant-girl of 23, in whom
+such dreams occur usually a few days before the menstrual period; her
+dreams, especially if erotic, make an enormous impression on her; in the
+morning she is bad-tempered if they were unpleasant, while she feels
+lascivious and gives herself up to masturbation if she has had erotic
+dreams of men; she then has a feeling of pleasure throughout the day, and
+her sexual organs are bathed with moisture.<a name='1_FNanchor_244'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_244'><sup>[244]</sup></a> Pitres and Gilles de la
+Tourette, two of Charcot's most distinguished pupils, in their elaborate
+works on hysteria, both consider that dreams generally have a great
+influence on the waking life of the hysterical, and they deal with the
+special influence of erotic dreams, to which, doubtless, we must refer
+those conceptions of <i>incubi</i> and <i>succubi</i> which played so vast and so
+important a part in the demonology of the Middle Ages, and while not
+unknown in men were most frequent in women. Such erotic dreams&mdash;as these
+observers, confirming the experience of old writers, have found among the
+hysterical to-day&mdash;are by no means always, or even usually, of a
+pleasurable character. &quot;It is very rare,&quot; Pitres remarks, when insisting
+on the sexual character of the hallucinations of the hysterical, &quot;for
+these erotic hallucinations to be accompanied by agreeable voluptuous
+sensations. In most cases the illusion of sexual intercourse even provokes
+acute pain. The witches of old times nearly all affirmed that in their
+relations with the devil they suffered greatly.<a name='1_FNanchor_245'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_245'><sup>[245]</sup></a> They said that his
+organ was long and rough and pointed, with scales which lifted on
+withdrawal <a name='1_Page_203'></a>and tore the vagina.&quot; (It seems probable, I may remark, that
+the witches' representations, both of the devil and of sexual intercourse,
+were largely influenced by familiarity with the coupling of animals). As
+Gilles de la Tourette is careful to warn his readers, we must not too
+hastily assume, from the prevalence of nocturnal auto-erotic phenomena in
+hysterical women, that such women are necessarily sexual and libidinous in
+excess; the disorder is in them psychic, he points out, and not physical,
+and they usually receive sexual approaches with indifference and
+repugnance, because their sexual centres are an&aelig;sthetic or hyper&aelig;sthetic.
+&quot;During the period of sexual activity they seek much more the care and
+delicate attention of men than the genital act, which they often only
+tolerate. Many households, begun under the happiest auspices&mdash;the bride
+all the more apt to believe that she loves her betrothed in virtue of her
+suggestibility, easily exalted, perhaps at the expense of the
+senses&mdash;become hells on earth. The sexual act has for the hysterical woman
+more than one disillusion; she cannot understand it; it inspires her with
+insurmountable repugnance.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_246'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_246'><sup>[246]</sup></a> I refer to these hysterical phenomena
+because they present to us, in an extreme form, facts which are common
+among women whom, under the artificial conditions of civilized life, we
+are compelled to regard as ordinarily healthy and normal. The frequent
+painfulness of auto-erotic phenomena is by no means an exclusively
+hysterical phenomenon, although often seen in a heightened form in
+hysterical conditions. It is probably to some extent simply the result of
+a conflict in consciousness with a merely physical impulse which is strong
+enough to assert itself in spite of the emotional and intellectual
+abhorrence of the subject. It is thus but an extreme <a name='1_Page_204'></a>form of the disgust
+which all sexual physical manifestations tend to inspire in a person who
+is not inclined to respond to them. Somewhat similar psychic disgust and
+physical pain are produced in the attempts to stimulate the sexual
+emotions and organs when these are exhausted by exercise. In the detailed
+history which Moll presents, of the sexual experiences of a sister in an
+American nursing guild,&mdash;a most instructive history of a woman fairly
+normal except for the results of repressed sexual emotion, and with strong
+moral tendencies,&mdash;various episodes are narrated well illustrating the way
+in which sexual excitement becomes unpleasant or even painful when it
+takes place as a physical reflex which the emotions and intellect are all
+the time struggling against.<a name='1_FNanchor_247'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_247'><sup>[247]</sup></a> It is quite probable, however, that
+there is a physiological, as well as a psychic, factor in this phenomenon,
+and Sollier, in his elaborate study of the nature and genesis of hysteria,
+by insisting on the capital importance of the disturbance of sensibility
+in hysteria, and the definite character of the phenomena produced in the
+passage between an&aelig;sthesia and normal sensation, has greatly helped to
+reveal the mechanism of this feature of auto-erotic excitement in the
+hysterical.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt there has been a tendency to exaggerate the unpleasant character
+of the auto-erotic phenomena of hysteria. That tendency was an inevitable
+reaction against an earlier view, according to which hysteria was little
+more than an unconscious expression of the sexual emotions and as such was
+unscientifically dismissed without any careful investigation. I agree with
+Breuer and Freud that the sexual needs of the hysterical are just as
+individual and various as those of normal women, but that they suffer from
+them more, largely through a moral struggle with <a name='1_Page_205'></a>their own instincts, and
+the attempt to put them into the background of consciousness.<a name='1_FNanchor_248'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_248'><sup>[248]</sup></a> In many
+hysterical and psychically abnormal women, auto-erotic phenomena, and
+sexual phenomena generally, are highly pleasurable, though such persons
+may be quite innocent of any knowledge of the erotic character of the
+experience. I have come across interesting and extreme examples of this in
+the published experiences of the women followers of the American religious
+leader, T. L. Harris, founder of the &quot;Brotherhood of the New Life.&quot; Thus,
+in a pamphlet entitled &quot;Internal Respiration,&quot; by Respiro, a letter is
+quoted from a lady physician, who writes: &quot;One morning I awoke with a
+strange new feeling in the womb, which lasted for a day or two; I was so
+very happy, but the joy was in my womb, not in my heart.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_249'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_249'><sup>[249]</sup></a> &quot;At last,&quot;
+writes a lady quoted in the same pamphlet, &quot;I fell into a slumber, lying
+on my back with arms and feet folded, a position I almost always find
+myself in when I awake, no matter in which position I may go to sleep.
+Very soon I awoke from this slumber with a most delightful sensation,
+every fibre tingling with an exquisite glow of warmth. I was lying on my
+left side (something I am never able to do), and was folded in the arms of
+my counterpart. Unless you have seen it, I cannot give you an idea of the
+beauty of his flesh, and with what joy I beheld and felt it. Think of it,
+luminous flesh; and Oh! such tints, you never could imagine without
+seeing. He folded me so closely in his arms,&quot; etc. In such cases there is
+no conflict between the physical and the psychic, and therefore the
+resulting excitement is pleasurable and not painful.</p>
+
+<p>At this point our study of auto-erotism brings us into the sphere of
+mysticism. Leuba, in a penetrating and suggestive essay on Christian
+mysticism, after quoting the present <i>Study</i>, refers to the famous
+passages in which St. Theresa describes how a beautiful little angel
+inserted a flame-tipped dart into her <a name='1_Page_206'></a>heart until it descended into her
+bowels and left her inflamed with divine love. &quot;What physiological
+difference,&quot; he asks, &quot;is there between this voluptuous sensation and that
+enjoyed by the disciple of the Brotherhood of New Life? St. Theresa says
+'bowels,' the woman doctor says 'womb,' that is all.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_250'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_250'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The extreme form of auto-erotism is the tendency for the sexual
+    emotion to be absorbed and often entirely lost in
+    self-admiration. This Narcissus-like tendency, of which the
+    normal germ in women is symbolized by the mirror, is found in a
+    minor degree in some men, and is sometimes well marked in women,
+    usually in association with an attraction for other persons, to
+    which attraction it is, of course, normally subservient. &quot;The
+    mirror,&quot; remarks Bloch (<i>Beitr&auml;ge</i> 1, p. 201), &quot;plays an
+    important part in the genesis of sexual aberration.... It cannot
+    be doubted that many a boy and girl have first experienced sexual
+    excitement at the sight of their own bodies in a mirror.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Valera, the Spanish novelist, very well described this impulse in
+    his <i>Genio y Figura</i>. Rafaela, the heroine of this novel, says
+    that, after her bath: &quot;I fall into a puerility which may be
+    innocent or vicious, I cannot decide. I only know that it is a
+    purely contemplative act, a disinterested admiration of beauty.
+    It is not coarse sensuality, but &aelig;sthetic platonism. I imitate
+    Narcissus; and I apply my lips to the cold surface of the mirror
+    and kiss my image. It is the love of beauty, the expression of
+    tenderness and affection for what God has made manifest, in an
+    ingenuous kiss imprinted on the empty and incorporeal
+    reflection.&quot; In the same spirit the real heroine of the <i>Tagebuch
+    einer Verlorenen</i> (p. 114), at the point when she was about to
+    become a prostitute, wrote: &quot;I am pretty. It gives me pleasure to
+    throw off my clothes, one by one, before the mirror, and to look
+    at myself, just as I am, white as snow and straight as a fir,
+    with my long, fine, hair, like a cloak of black silk. When I
+    spread abroad the black stream of it, with both hands, I am like
+    a white swan with black wings.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    A typical case known to me is that of a lady of 28, brought up on
+    a farm. She is a handsome woman, of very large and fine
+    proportions, active and healthy and intelligent, with, however,
+    no marked sexual attraction to the opposite sex; at the same time
+    she is not inverted, though she would like to be a man, and has a
+    considerable degree of contempt for women. She has an intense
+    admiration for her own <a name='1_Page_207'></a>person, especially her limbs; she is
+    never so happy as when alone and naked in her own bedroom, and,
+    so far as possible, she cultivates nakedness. She knows by heart
+    the various measurements of her body, is proud of the fact that
+    they are strictly in accordance with the canons of proportion,
+    and she laughs proudly at the thought that her thigh is larger
+    than many a woman's waist. She is frank and assured in her
+    manners, without sexual shyness, and, while willing to receive
+    the attention and admiration of others, she makes no attempt to
+    gain it, and seems never to have experienced any emotions
+    stronger than her own pleasure in herself. I should add that I
+    have had no opportunity of detailed examination, and cannot speak
+    positively as to the absence of masturbation.</p>
+
+<p>    In the extreme form in which alone the name of Narcissus may
+    properly be invoked, there is comparative indifference to sexual
+    intercourse or even the admiration of the opposite sex. Such a
+    condition seems to be rare, except, perhaps, in insanity. Since I
+    called attention to this form of auto-erotism (<i>Alienist and
+    Neurologist</i>, April, 1898), several writers have discussed the
+    condition, especially N&auml;cke, who, following out the suggestion,
+    terms the condition Narcissism. Among 1,500 insane persons, N&auml;cke
+    has found it in four men and one woman (<i>Psychiatrische en
+    Neurologische Bladen</i>, No. 2, 1899), Dr. C. H. Hughes writes (in a
+    private letter) that he is acquainted with such cases, in which
+    men have been absorbed in admiration of their own manly forms,
+    and of their sexual organs, and women, likewise, absorbed in
+    admiration of their own mamm&aelig; and physical proportions,
+    especially of limbs. &quot;The whole subject,&quot; he adds, &quot;is a singular
+    phase of psychology, and it is not all morbid psychology, either.
+    It is closely allied to that &aelig;sthetic sense which admires the
+    nude in art.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    F&eacute;r&eacute; (<i>L'Instinct Sexuel</i>, 2d ed., p. 271) mentions a woman who
+    experienced sexual excitement in kissing her own hand. N&auml;cke knew
+    a woman in an asylum who, during periodical fits of excitement,
+    would kiss her own arms and hands, at the same time looking like
+    a person in love. He also knew a young man with dementia pr&aelig;cox?
+    who would kiss his own image (&quot;Der Kuss bei Geisteskranken,&quot;
+    <i>Allgemeine Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, Bd. LXIII, p. 127).
+    Moll refers to a young homosexual lawyer, who experienced great
+    pleasure in gazing at himself in a mirror (<i>Kontr&auml;re
+    Sexualempfindung</i>, 3d ed., p. 228), and mentions another inverted
+    man, an admirer of the nates of men, who, chancing to observe his
+    own nates in a mirror, when changing his shirt, was struck by
+    their beauty, and subsequently found pleasure in admiring them
+    (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, Theil I, p. 60). Krafft-Ebing knew a
+    man who masturbated before a mirror, imagining, at the same time,
+    how much better a real lover would be.</p><a name='1_Page_208'></a>
+
+<p>    The best-observed cases of Narcissism have, however, been
+    recorded by Rohleder, who confers upon this condition the
+    ponderous name of automonosexualism, and believes that it has not
+    been previously observed (H. Rohleder, <i>Der Automonosexualismus</i>,
+    being Heft 225 of <i>Berliner Klinik</i>, March, 1907). In the two
+    cases investigated by Rohleder, both men, there was sexual
+    excitement in the contemplation of the individual's own body,
+    actually or in a mirror, with little or no sexual attraction to
+    other persons. Rohleder is inclined to regard the condition as
+    due to a congenital defect in the &quot;sexual centre&quot; of the brain. </p></div><a name='1_Page_209'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_176'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_176'>[176]</a><div class='note'><p> All the above groups of phenomena are dealt with in other
+volumes of these <i>Studies</i>: the manifestations of normal sexual
+excitement, in vols. iii, iv, and v; homosexuality, in vol. ii, and erotic
+fetichism, in vol. v.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_177'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_177'>[177]</a><div class='note'><p> See Appendix C.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_178'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_178'>[178]</a><div class='note'><p> Letamendi, of Madrid, has suggested &quot;<i>auto-erastia</i>&quot; to
+cover what is probably much the same field. In the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, Hufeland, in his <i>Makrobiotic</i>, invented the term
+&quot;<i>geistige Onanie</i>,&quot; to express the filling and heating of the imagination
+with voluptuous images, without unchastity of body; and in 1844, Kaan, in
+his <i>Psychopathia Sexualis</i>, used, but did not invent, the term &quot;<i>onania
+psychica</i>.&quot; Gustav Jaeger, in his <i>Entdeckung der Seele</i>, proposed
+&quot;monosexual idiosyncrasy,&quot; to indicate the most animal forms of
+masturbation taking place without any correlative imaginative element, a
+condition illustrated by cases given in Moll's <i>Untersuchungen &uuml;ber die
+Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, pp. 13 <i>et seq.</i> Dr. Laupts (a pseudonym for the
+accomplished psychologist, Dr. Saint-Paul) uses the term <i>autophilie</i>, for
+solitary vice. (<i>Perversion et Perversit&eacute; Sexuelles</i>, 1896, p. 337.) But
+all these terms only cover a portion of the field.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_179'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_179'>[179]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Northcote, <i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, p. 231.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_180'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_180'>[180]</a><div class='note'><p> Rosse observed two elephants procuring erection by
+entwining their proboscides, the act being completed by one elephant
+opening his mouth and allowing the other to tickle the roof of it. (I.
+Rosse, <i>Virginia Medical Monthly</i>, October, 1892.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_181'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_181'>[181]</a><div class='note'><p> F&eacute;r&eacute;, &quot;Perversions sexuelles chez les animaux,&quot; <i>Revue
+Philosophique</i>, May, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_182'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_182'>[182]</a><div class='note'><p> Tillier, <i>L'Instinct Sexuel</i>, 1889, p. 270.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_183'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_183'>[183]</a><div class='note'><p> Moll, <i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, p. 76. The same author
+mentions (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 373) that parrots living in solitary confinement
+masturbate by rubbing the posterior part of the body against some object
+until ejaculation occurs. Edmund Selous (&quot;Habits of the Peewit,&quot;
+<i>Zo&ouml;logist</i>, April, 1902) suggests that the peewit, when rolling on the
+ground, and exerting pressure on the anal region, is moved by a sexual
+impulse to satisfy desire; he adds that actual orgasm appears eventually
+to take place, a spasm of energy passing through the bird.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_184'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_184'>[184]</a><div class='note'><p> Dr. J. W. Howe (<i>Excessive Venery, Masturbation, and
+Continence</i>, London and New York, 1883, p. 62) writes of masturbation: &quot;In
+savage lands it is of rare occurrence. Savages live in a state of Nature.
+No moral obligations exist which compel them to abstain from a natural
+gratification of their passions. There is no social law which prevents
+them from following the dictates of their lower nature. Hence, they have
+no reason for adopting onanism as an outlet for passions. The moral
+trammels of civilized society, and ignorance of physiological laws, give
+origin to the vice.&quot; Every one of these six sentences is incorrect or
+misleading. They are worth quoting as a statement of the popular view of
+savage life.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_185'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_185'>[185]</a><div class='note'><p> I can recall little evidence of its existence among the
+Australian aborigines, though there is, in the Wiradyuri language, spoken
+over a large part of New South Wales, a word (whether ancient or not, I do
+not know) meaning masturbation (<i>Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute</i>, July-Dec., 1904, p. 303). Dr. W. Roth (<i>Ethnological Studies
+Among the Northwest-Central Queensland Aborigines</i>, p. 184), who has
+carefully studied the blacks of his district, remarks that he has no
+evidence as to the practice of either masturbation or sodomy among them.
+More recently (1906) Roth has stated that married men in North Queensland
+and elsewhere masturbate during their wives' absence. As regards the Maori
+of New Zealand, Northcote adds, there is a rare word for masturbation (as
+also at Rarotonga), but according to a distinguished Maori scholar there
+are no allusions to the practice in Maori literature, and it was probably
+not practiced in primitive times. The Maori and the Polynesians of the
+Cook Islands, Northcote remarks, consider the act unmanly, applying to it
+a phrase meaning &quot;to make women of themselves.&quot; (Northcote, <i>loc. cit.</i>,
+p. 232.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_186'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_186'>[186]</a><div class='note'><p> Greenlees, <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, July, 1895. A
+gentleman long resident among the Kaffirs of South Natal, told Northcote,
+however, that he had met with no word for masturbation, and did not
+believe the practice prevailed there.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_187'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_187'>[187]</a><div class='note'><p> Hyades and Deniker, <i>Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn</i>,
+vol. vii, p. 295.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_188'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_188'>[188]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>La Criminalit&eacute; en Cochin-Chine</i>, 1887, p. 116; also
+Mondi&egrave;re, &quot;Monographie de la Femme Annamite,&quot; <i>M&eacute;moires Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+d'Anthropologie</i>, tome ii, p. 465.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_189'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_189'>[189]</a><div class='note'><p> Christian, article on &quot;Onanisme,&quot; <i>Dictionnaire
+Encyclop&eacute;dique des Sciences M&eacute;dicales</i>; Ploss and Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>;
+Moraglia, &quot;Die Onanie beim normalen Weibe,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Criminal-Anthropologie</i>, 1897; Dartigues, <i>De la Procr&eacute;ation Volontaire
+des Sexes</i>, p. 32. In the eighteenth century, the <i>rin-no-tama</i> was known
+in France, sometimes as &quot;pommes d'amour.&quot; Thus Bachaumont, in his Journal
+(under date July 31, 1773), refers to &quot;a very extraordinary instrument of
+amorous mystery,&quot; brought by a traveler from India; he describes this
+&quot;boule erotique&quot; as the size of a pigeon's egg, covered with soft skin,
+and gilded. <i>Cf.</i> F. S. Krauss, <i>Geschlechtsleben in Brauch und Sitte der
+Japaner</i>, Leipzig, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_190'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_190'>[190]</a><div class='note'><p> It may be worth mentioning that the Salish Indians of
+British Columbia have a myth of an old woman having intercourse with young
+women, by means of a horn worn as a penis (<i>Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute</i>, July-Dec., 1904, p. 342).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_191'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_191'>[191]</a><div class='note'><p> In Burchard's Penitential (cap. 142-3), penalties are
+assigned to the woman who makes a phallus for use on herself or other
+women. (Wasserschleben, <i>Bussordnungen der abendl&auml;ndlichen Kirche</i>, p.
+658.) The <i>penis succedaneus</i>, the Latin <i>phallus</i> or <i>fascinum</i>, is in
+France called <i>godemiche</i>; in Italy, <i>passatempo</i>, and also <i>diletto</i>,
+whence <i>dildo</i>, by which it is most commonly known in England. For men,
+the corresponding <i>cunnus succedaneus</i> is, in England, called <i>merkin</i>,
+which meant originally (as defined in old editions of Bailey's
+<i>Dictionary</i>) &quot;counterfeit hair for women's privy parts.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_192'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_192'>[192]</a><div class='note'><p> D&uuml;hren, <i>Der Marquis de Sade und Seine Zeit</i>, 3d ed., pp.
+130, 232; <i>id.</i> <i>Geschlechtsleben in England</i>, Bd. II, pp. 284 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_193'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_193'>[193]</a><div class='note'><p> Gamier, <i>Onanisme</i>, p. 378.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_194'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_194'>[194]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899, p. 669.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_195'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_195'>[195]</a><div class='note'><p> The mythology of Hawaii, one may note, tells of goddesses
+who were impregnated by bananas they had placed beneath their garments. B.
+Stern mentions (<i>Medizin in der T&uuml;rkei</i>, Bd. II, p. 24) that the women of
+Turkey and Egypt use the banana, as well as the cucumber, etc., for
+masturbation. In a poem in the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, also (&quot;History of the
+Young Nour with the Frank&quot;), we read: &quot;O bananas, of soft and smooth
+skins, which dilate the eyes of young girls ... you, alone among fruits
+are endowed with a pitying heart, O consolers of widows and divorced
+women.&quot; In France and England they are not uncommonly used for the same
+purpose.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_196'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_196'>[196]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Winckel, <i>Die Krankheiten der weiblichen
+Harnrohre und Blase</i>, 1885, p. 211; and &quot;Lehrbuch der Frauenkrankheiten,&quot;
+1886, p. 210; also, Hyrtl, <i>Handbuch du Topographischen Anatomie</i>, 7th
+ed., Bd. II, pp. 212-214. Gr&uuml;nfeld (<i>Wiener medizinische Bl&auml;tter</i>,
+November 26, 1896), collected 115 cases of foreign body in the bladder&mdash;68
+in men, 47 in women; but while those found in men were usually the result
+of a surgical accident, those found in women were mostly introduced by the
+patients themselves. The patient usually professes profound ignorance as
+to how the object came there; or she explains that she accidentally sat
+down upon it, or that she used it to produce freer urination. The earliest
+surgical case of this kind I happen to have met with, was recorded by
+Plazzon, in Italy, in 1621 (<i>De Partibus Generationi Inservientibus</i>, lib.
+ii, Ch. XIII); it was that of a certain honorable maiden with a large
+clitoris, who, seeking to lull sexual excitement with the aid of a bone
+needle, inserted it in the bladder, whence it was removed by
+Aquapendente.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_197'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_197'>[197]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Poulet, <i>Trait&eacute; des Corps &eacute;trangers en Chirurgie</i>, 1879.
+English translation, 1881, vol. ii, pp. 209, 230. Rohleder (<i>Die
+Masturbation</i>, 1899, pp. 24-31) also gives examples of strange objects
+found in the sexual organs.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_198'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_198'>[198]</a><div class='note'><p> E. H. Smith, &quot;Signs of Masturbation in the Female,&quot; <i>Pacific
+Medical Journal</i>, February, 1903, quoted by R. W. Taylor, <i>Practical
+Treatise on Sexual Disorders</i>, 3d ed., p. 418.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_199'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_199'>[199]</a><div class='note'><p> L. Tait, <i>Diseases of Women</i>, 1889, vol. i, p. 100.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_200'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_200'>[200]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Obstetric Journal</i>, vol. i, 1873, p. 558. <i>Cf.</i> G. J.
+Arnold, <i>British, Medical Journal</i>, January 6, 1906, p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_201'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_201'>[201]</a><div class='note'><p> Dudley, <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, July, 1889, p.
+758.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_202'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_202'>[202]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Reverdin, &quot;Epingles &agrave; Cheveux dans la Vessie,&quot; <i>Revue
+M&eacute;dicale de la Suisse Romande</i>, January 20, 1888. His cases are fully
+recorded, and his paper is an able and interesting contribution to this
+by-way of sexual psychology. The first case was a school-master's wife,
+aged 22, who confessed in her husband's presence, without embarrassment or
+hesitation, that the man&oelig;uvre was habitual, learned from a
+school-companion, and continued after marriage. The second was a single
+woman of 42, a <i>cur&eacute;'s</i> servant, who attempted to elude confession, but on
+leaving the doctor's house remarked to the house-maid, &quot;Never go to bed
+without taking out your hair-pins; accidents happen so easily.&quot; The third
+was an English girl of 17 who finally acknowledged that she had lost two
+hair-pins in this way. The fourth was a child of 12, driven by the pain to
+confess that the practice had become a habit with her.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_203'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_203'>[203]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;One of my patients,&quot; remarks Dr. R. T. Morris, of New York,
+(<i>Transactions of the American Association of Obstetricians</i>, for 1892,
+Philadelphia, vol. v), &quot;who is a devout church-member, had never allowed
+herself to entertain sexual thoughts referring to men, but she masturbated
+every morning, when standing before the mirror, by rubbing against a key
+in the bureau-drawer. A man never excited her passions, but the sight of a
+key in any bureau-drawer aroused erotic desires.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_204'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_204'>[204]</a><div class='note'><p> Freud (<i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, p. 118)
+refers to the sexual pleasure of swinging. Swinging another person may be
+a source of voluptuous excitement, and one of the 600 forms of sexual
+pleasure enumerated in De Sade's <i>Les 120 Journ&eacute;es de Sodome</i> is
+(according to D&uuml;hren) to propel a girl vigorously in a swing.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_205'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_205'>[205]</a><div class='note'><p> The fact that horse exercise may produce pollutions was
+well recognized by Catholic theologians, and Sanchez states that this fact
+need not be made a reason for traveling on foot. Rolfincius, in 1667,
+pointed out that horse-riding, in those unaccustomed to it, may lead to
+nocturnal pollutions. Rohleder (<i>Die Masturbation</i>, pp. 133-134) brings
+together evidence regarding the influence of horse exercise in producing
+sexual excitement.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_206'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_206'>[206]</a><div class='note'><p> A correspondent, to whom the idea was presented for the
+first time, wrote: &quot;Henceforward I shall know to what I must attribute the
+bliss&mdash;almost the beatitude&mdash;I so often have experienced after traveling
+for four or five hours in a train.&quot; Penta mentions the case of a young
+girl who first experienced sexual desire at the age of twelve, after a
+railway journey.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_207'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_207'>[207]</a><div class='note'><p> Langdon Down, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, January 12, 1867.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_208'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_208'>[208]</a><div class='note'><p> Pouillet, <i>L'Onanisme chez la Femme</i>, Paris, 1880;
+Fournier, <i>De l'Onanisme</i>, 1885; Rohleder, <i>Die Masturbation</i>, p. 132.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_209'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_209'>[209]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>West-Riding Asylum Reports</i>, 1876, vol. vi.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_210'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_210'>[210]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Das Nerv&ouml;se Weib</i>, 1898, p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_211'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_211'>[211]</a><div class='note'><p> In the Appendix to volume iii of these <i>Studies</i>, I have
+recorded the experience of a lady who found sexual gratification in this
+manner.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_212'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_212'>[212]</a><div class='note'><p> Dr. J. G. Kiernan, to whom I am indebted for a note on this
+point, calls my attention also to the case of a homosexual and masochistic
+man (<i>Medical Record</i>, vol. xix) whose feelings were intensified by
+tight-lacing.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_213'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_213'>[213]</a><div class='note'><p> Some women are also able to produce the orgasm, when in a
+state of sexual excitement, by placing a cushion between the knees and
+pressing the thighs firmly together.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_214'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_214'>[214]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Le&ccedil;ons sur les D&eacute;formations Vulvaires</i>, p. 64. Martineau
+was informed by a dressmaker that it is very frequent in workrooms and can
+usually be done without attracting attention. An ironer informed him that
+while standing at her work, she crossed her legs, slightly bending the
+trunk forward and supporting herself on the table by the hands; then a few
+movements of contraction of the adductor muscles of the thigh would
+suffice to produce the orgasm.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_215'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_215'>[215]</a><div class='note'><p> C. W. Townsend, &quot;Thigh-friction in Children under one Year,&quot;
+Annual Meeting of the American Pediatric Society, Montreal, 1896. Five
+cases are recorded by this writer, all in female infants.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_216'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_216'>[216]</a><div class='note'><p> Soutzo, <i>Archives de Neurologie</i>, February, 1903, p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_217'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_217'>[217]</a><div class='note'><p> Zache, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899, p. 72. I have
+discussed what may be regarded as the normally sexual influence of
+dancing, in the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;The Analysis of the
+Sexual Impulse.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_218'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_218'>[218]</a><div class='note'><p> The case has been recorded of a Russian who had the
+spontaneous impulse to self-flagellation on the nates with a rod, for the
+sake of sexual excitement, from the age of 6. (<i>Rivista Mensile di
+Psichiatria</i> April, 1900, p. 102.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_219'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_219'>[219]</a><div class='note'><p> &#922;&#961;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#8049;&#948;&#953;&#945;, vol. v, p. 358. As regards the use of
+nettles, see D&uuml;hren, <i>Geschlechtsleben in England</i>, Bd. II, p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_220'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_220'>[220]</a><div class='note'><p> Debreyne, <i>M&oelig;chialogie</i>, p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_221'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_221'>[221]</a><div class='note'><p> R. W. Taylor, <i>A Practical Treatise on Sexual Disorders</i>,
+3rd ed., Ch. XXX.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_222'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_222'>[222]</a><div class='note'><p> Hammond, <i>Sexual Impotence</i>, pp. 70 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_223'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_223'>[223]</a><div class='note'><p> Niceforo, <i>Il Gergo</i>, p. 98.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_224'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_224'>[224]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Functional Disorders of the Nervous System in Women</i>, p.
+114.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_225'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_225'>[225]</a><div class='note'><p> Schrenck-Notzing, <i>Suggestions-therapie</i>, p. 13. A. Kind
+(<i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Sexuelle Zwischenstufen</i>, Jahrgang ix, 1908, p. 58) gives
+the case of a young homosexual woman, a trick cyclist at the music halls,
+who often, when excited by the sight of her colleague in tights, would
+experience the orgasm while cycling before the public.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_226'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_226'>[226]</a><div class='note'><p> Janet has, however, used day-dreaming&mdash;which he calls
+&quot;<i>reveries subconscients</i>&quot;&mdash;to explain a remarkable case of
+demon-possession, which he investigated and cured. (<i>N&eacute;vroses et Id&eacute;es
+fixes</i>, vol. i, pp. 390 <i>et seq.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_227'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_227'>[227]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of
+Wellesley College,&quot; <i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. vii, No. 1.
+G. E. Partridge (&quot;Reverie,&quot; <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, April, 1898) well
+describes the physical accompaniments of day-dreaming, especially in
+Normal School girls between sixteen and twenty-two. Pick (&quot;Clinical
+Studies in Pathological Dreaming,&quot; <i>Journal of Mental Sciences</i>, July,
+1901) records three more or less morbid cases of day-dreaming, usually
+with an erotic basis, all in apparently hysterical men. An important study
+of day-dreaming, based on the experiences of nearly 1,500 young people
+(more than two-thirds girls and women), has been published by Theodate L.
+Smith (&quot;The Psychology of Day Dreams,&quot; <i>American Journal Psychology</i>,
+October, 1904). Continued stories were found to be rare&mdash;only one per
+cent. Healthy boys, before fifteen, had day-dreams in which sports,
+athletics, and adventure had a large part; girls put themselves in the
+place of their favorite heroines in novels. After seventeen, and earlier
+in the case of girls, day-dreams of love and marriage were found to be
+frequent. A typical confession is that of a girl of nineteen: &quot;I seldom
+have time to build castles in Spain, but when I do, I am not different
+from most Southern girls; <i>i.e.</i>, my dreams are usually about a pretty
+fair specimen of a six-foot three-inch biped.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_228'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_228'>[228]</a><div class='note'><p> The case has been recorded of a married woman, in love with
+her doctor, who kept a day-dream diary, at last filling three bulky
+volumes, when it was discovered by her husband, and led to an action for
+divorce; it was shown that the doctor knew nothing of the romance in which
+he played the part of hero. Kiernan, in referring to this case (as
+recorded in John Paget's <i>Judicial Puzzles</i>), mentions a similar case in
+Chicago.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_229'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_229'>[229]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Uranisme</i>, p. 125.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_230'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_230'>[230]</a><div class='note'><p> The acute Anstie remarked, more than thirty years ago, in
+his work on <i>Neuralgia</i>: &quot;It is a comparatively frequent thing to see an
+unsocial, solitary life (leading to the habit of masturbation) joined with
+the bad influence of an unhealthy ambition, prompting to premature and
+false work in literature and art.&quot; From the literary side, M. L&eacute;on
+Bazalgette has dealt with the tendency of much modern literature to devote
+itself to what he calls &quot;mental onanism,&quot; of which the probable
+counterpart, he seems to hint, is a physical process of auto-erotism.
+(L&eacute;on Bazalgette, &quot;L'onanisme consid&eacute;r&eacute; comme principe createur en art,&quot;
+<i>L'Esprit Nouveau</i>, 1898.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_231'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_231'>[231]</a><div class='note'><p> Pausanias, <i>Achaia</i>, Chapter XVII. The ancient Babylonians
+believed in a certain &quot;maid of the night,&quot; who appeared to men in sleep
+and roused without satisfying their passions. (Jastrow, <i>Religion of
+Babylonia</i>, p. 262.) This succubus was the Assyrian Liler, connected with
+the Hebrew Lilith. There was a corresponding incubus, &quot;the little night
+man,&quot; who had nocturnal intercourse with women. (<i>Cf.</i> Ploss, <i>Das Weib</i>,
+7th ed., pp. 521 <i>et seq.</i>) The succubus and the incubus (the latter being
+more common) were adopted by Christendom; St. Augustine (<i>De Civitate
+Dei</i>, Bk. XV, Ch. XXIII) said that the wicked assaults of sylvans and
+fauns, otherwise called incubi, on women, are so generally affirmed that
+it would be impudent to deny them. Incubi flourished in medi&aelig;val belief,
+and can scarcely, indeed, be said to be extinct even to-day. They have
+been studied by many authors; see, <i>e.g.</i>, Dufour, <i>Histoire de la
+Prostitution</i>, vol. v, Ch. XXV, Saint-Andr&eacute;, physician-in-ordinary to the
+French King, pointed out in 1725 that the incubus was a dream. It may be
+added that the belief in the succubus and incubus appears to be
+widespread. Thus, the West African Yorubas (according to A. B. Ellis)
+believe that erotic dreams are due to the god Elegbra, who, either as a
+male or a female, consorts with men and women in sleep.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_232'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_232'>[232]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;If any man's seed of copulation go out from him, then he
+shall bathe all his flesh in water and be unclean until the even. And
+every garment, and every skin, whereon is the seed of copulation, shall be
+washed with water and be unclean until the even.&quot; Leviticus, XV, v.
+16-17.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_233'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_233'>[233]</a><div class='note'><p> It should be added that the term <i>pollutio</i> also covers
+voluntary effusion of semen outside copulation. (Debreyne, <i>M&oelig;chialogie</i>,
+p. 8; for a full discussion of the opinions of theologians
+concerning nocturnal and diurnal pollutions, see the same author's <i>Essai
+sur la Th&eacute;ologie Morale</i>, pp. 100-149.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_234'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_234'>[234]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Memoirs</i>, translated by Bendyshe, p. 182.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_235'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_235'>[235]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sexual Impotence</i>, p. 137.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_236'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_236'>[236]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne Sexuelle</i>, p. 169.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_237'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_237'>[237]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sexualleben und Nervenleiden</i>, p. 164.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_238'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_238'>[238]</a><div class='note'><p> I may here refer to the curious opinion expressed by Dr.
+Elizabeth Blackwell, that, while the sexual impulse in man is usually
+relieved by seminal emissions during sleep, in women it is relieved by the
+occurrence of menstruation. This latter statement is flagrantly at
+variance with the facts; but it may perhaps be quoted in support of the
+view expressed above as to the comparative rarity of sexual excitement
+during sleep in young girls.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_239'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_239'>[239]</a><div class='note'><p> L&ouml;wenfeld has recently expressed the same opinion. Rohleder
+believes that pollutions are physically impossible in a <i>real</i> virgin, but
+that opinion is too extreme.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_240'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_240'>[240]</a><div class='note'><p> It may be added that in more or less neurotic women and
+girls, erotic dreams may be very frequent and depressing. Thus, J. M.
+Fothergill (<i>West-Riding Asylum Report</i>, 1876, vol. vi) remarks: &quot;These
+dreams are much more frequent than is ordinarily thought, and are the
+cause of a great deal of nervous depression among women. Women of a
+highly-nervous diathesis suffer much more from these drains than robust
+women. Not only are these involuntary orgasms more frequent among such
+women, but they cause more disturbance of the general health in them than
+in other women.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_241'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_241'>[241]</a><div class='note'><p> I may remark here that a Russian correspondent considers
+that I have greatly underestimated the frequency of erotic manifestations
+during sleep in young girls. &quot;All the women I have interrogated on this
+point,&quot; he informs me, &quot;say that they have had such pollutions from the
+time of puberty, or even earlier, accompanied by erotic dreams. I have put
+the question to some twenty or thirty women. It is true that they were of
+southern race (Italian, Spanish, and French), and I believe that
+Southerners are, in this matter, franker than northern women, who consider
+the activity of the flesh as shameful, and seek to conceal it.&quot; My
+correspondent makes no reference to the chief point of sexual difference,
+so far as my observation goes, which is that erotic dreams are
+comparatively rare in those women &quot;<i>who have yet had no sort of sexual
+experience in waking life</i>.&quot; Whether or not this is correct, I do not
+question the frequency of erotic dreams in girls who have had such
+experience.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_242'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_242'>[242]</a><div class='note'><p> C. C. Hersman, &quot;Medico-legal Aspects of Eroto-Choreic
+Insanities,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, July, 1897. I may mention that
+Pitres (<i>Le&ccedil;ons cliniques sur l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>, vol. ii, p. 34) records the
+almost identical case of a hysterical girl in one of his wards, who was at
+first grateful to the clinical clerk to whom her case was intrusted, but
+afterward changed her behavior, accused him of coming nightly through the
+window, lying beside her, caressing her, and then exerting violent coitus
+three or four times in succession, until she was utterly exhausted. I may
+here refer to the tendency to erotic excitement in women under the
+influence of chloroform and nitrous oxide, a tendency rarely or never
+noted in men, and of the frequency with which the phenomenon is attributed
+by the subject to actual assault. See H. Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, pp.
+269-274.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_243'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_243'>[243]</a><div class='note'><p> In Australia, some years ago, a man was charged with rape,
+found guilty of &quot;attempt,&quot; and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment,
+on the accusation of a girl of 13, who subsequently confessed that the
+charge was imaginary; in this case, the jury found it impossible to
+believe that so young a girl could have been lying, or hallucinated,
+because she narrated the details of the alleged offence with such
+circumstantial detail. Such cases are not uncommon, and in some measure,
+no doubt, they may be accounted for by auto-erotic nocturnal
+hallucinations.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_244'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_244'>[244]</a><div class='note'><p> Sante de Sanctis, <i>I sogni e il sonno nell'isterismo e
+nella epilessia</i>, Rome, 1896, p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_245'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_245'>[245]</a><div class='note'><p> Pitres, <i>Le&ccedil;ons cliniques sur l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>, vol. ii, pp. 37
+<i>et seq.</i> The Lorraine inquisitor, Nicolas Remy, very carefully
+investigated the question of the feelings of witches when having
+intercourse with the Devil, questioning them minutely, and ascertained
+that such intercourse was usually extremely painful, filling them with icy
+horror (See, <i>e.g.</i>, Dufour, <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>, vol. v, p.
+127; the same author presents an interesting summary of the phenomena of
+the Witches' Sabbath). But intercourse with the Devil was by no means
+always painful. Isabel Gowdie, a Scotch witch, bore clear testimony to
+this point: &quot;The youngest and lustiest women,&quot; she stated, &quot;will have very
+great pleasure in their carnal copulation with him, yea, much more than
+with their own husbands.... He is abler for us than any man can be.
+(Alack! that I should compare him to a man!)&quot; Yet her description scarcely
+sounds attractive; he was a &quot;large, black, hairy man, very cold, and I
+found his nature as cold within me as spring well-water.&quot; His foot was
+forked and cloven; he was sometimes like a deer, or a roe; and he would
+hold up his tail while the witches kissed that region (Pitcairn, <i>Criminal
+Trials in Scotland</i>, vol. iii, Appendix VII; see, also, the illustrations
+at the end of Dr. A. Marie's <i>Folie et Mysticisme</i>, 1907).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_246'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_246'>[246]</a><div class='note'><p> Gilles de la Tourette, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 518. Erotic
+hallucinations have also been studied by Bellamy, in a Bordeaux thesis,
+<i>Hallucinations Erotiques</i>, 1900-1901.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_247'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_247'>[247]</a><div class='note'><p> On one occasion, when still a girl, whenever an artist whom
+she admired touched her hand she felt erection and moisture of the sexual
+parts, but without any sensation of pleasure; a little later, when an
+uncle's knee casually came in contact with her thigh, ejaculation of mucus
+took place, though she disliked the uncle; again, when a nurse, on
+casually seeing a man's sexual organs, an electric shock went through her,
+though the sight was disgusting to her; and when she had once to assist a
+man to urinate, she became in the highest degree excited, though without
+pleasure, and lay down on a couch in the next room, while a conclusive
+ejaculation took place. (Moll, <i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, p. 354.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_248'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_248'>[248]</a><div class='note'><p> Breuer and Freud, <i>Studien &uuml;ber Hysterie</i>, 1895, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_249'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_249'>[249]</a><div class='note'><p> Calmeil (<i>De la Folie</i>, vol. i, p. 252) called attention to
+the large part played by uterine sensations in the hallucinations of some
+famous women ascetics, and added: &quot;It is well recognized that the
+narrative of such sensations nearly always occupies the first place in the
+divagations of hysterical virgins.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_250'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_250'>[250]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Leuba, &quot;Les Tendances Religieuses chez les Mystiques
+Chr&eacute;tiens,&quot; <i>Revue Philosophique</i>, November, 1902, p. 465. St. Theresa
+herself states that physical sensations played a considerable part in this
+experience.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_II-E'></a><h3>II.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions&mdash;The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation&mdash;The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views&mdash;Charcot&mdash;The Revolt Against Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions&mdash;Fallacies Involved&mdash;Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament&mdash;Breuer and Freud&mdash;Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's&mdash;At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria&mdash;But They Must Not be Regarded as Final&mdash;The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons&mdash;The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria&mdash;True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The nocturnal hallucinations of hysteria, as all careful students of this
+condition now seem to agree, are closely allied to the hysterical attack
+proper. Sollier, indeed, one of the ablest of the more recent
+investigators of hysteria, has argued with much force that the subjects of
+hysteria really live in a state of pathological sleep, of
+vigilambulism.<a name='1_FNanchor_251'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_251'><sup>[251]</sup></a> He regards all the various accidents of hysteria as
+having a common basis in disturbances of sensibility, in the widest sense
+of the word &quot;sensibility,&quot;&mdash;as the very foundation of personality,&mdash;while
+an&aelig;sthesia is &quot;the real <i>sigillum hysteri&aelig;</i>.&quot; Whatever the form of
+hysteria, we are thus only concerned with a more or less profound state of
+vigilambulism: a state in which the subject seems, often even to himself,
+to be more or less always asleep, whether the sleep may be regarded as
+local or general. Sollier agrees with F&eacute;r&eacute; that the disorder of
+sensibility may be regarded as due to an exhaustion of the sensory centres
+of the brain, whether as the <a name='1_Page_210'></a>result of constitutional cerebral weakness,
+of the shock of a violent emotion, or of some toxic influence on the
+cerebral cells.</p>
+
+<p>We may, therefore, fitly turn from the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep
+which in women generally, and especially in hysterical women, seem to
+possess so much importance and significance, to the question&mdash;which has
+been so divergently answered at different periods and by different
+investigators&mdash;concerning the causation of hysteria, and especially
+concerning its alleged connection with conscious or unconscious sexual
+emotion.<a name='1_FNanchor_252'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_252'><sup>[252]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It was the belief of the ancient Greeks that hysteria came from the womb;
+hence its name. We first find that statement in Plato's <i>Tim&aelig;us</i>: &quot;In men
+the organ of generation&mdash;becoming rebellious and masterful, like an animal
+disobedient to reason, and maddened with the sting of lust&mdash;seeks to gain
+absolute sway; and the same is the case with the so-called womb, or
+uterus, of women; the animal within them is desirous of procreating
+children, and, when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time, gets
+discontented and angry, and, wandering in every direction through the
+body, closes up the passages of the breath, and, by obstructing
+respiration,<a name='1_FNanchor_253'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_253'><sup>[253]</sup></a> drives them to extremity, causing all varieties of
+disease.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Plato, it is true, cannot be said to reveal anywhere a very scientific
+attitude toward Nature. Yet he was here probably only giving expression to
+the current medical doctrine of his day. We find precisely the same
+doctrine attributed to Hippocrates, <a name='1_Page_211'></a>though without a clear distinction
+between hysteria and epilepsy.<a name='1_FNanchor_254'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_254'><sup>[254]</sup></a> If we turn to the best Roman
+physicians we find again that Aret&aelig;us, &quot;the Esquirol of antiquity,&quot; has
+set forth the same view, adding to his description of the movements of the
+womb in hysteria: &quot;It delights, also, in fragrant smells, and advances
+toward them; and it has an aversion to f&oelig;tid smells, and flies
+from them; and, on the whole, the womb is like an animal within an
+animal.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_255'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_255'><sup>[255]</sup></a> Consequently, the treatment was by applying f&oelig;tid
+smells to the nose and rubbing fragrant ointments around the sexual
+parts.<a name='1_FNanchor_256'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_256'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The Arab physicians, who carried on the traditions of Greek medicine,
+appear to have said nothing new about hysteria, and possibly had little
+knowledge of it. In Christian medi&aelig;val Europe, also, nothing new was added
+to the theory of hysteria; it was, indeed, less known medically than it
+had ever been, and, in part it may be as a result of this ignorance, in
+part as a result of general wretchedness (the hysterical phenomena of
+witchcraft reaching their height, Michelet points out, in the fourteenth
+century, which was a period of special misery for the poor), it flourished
+more vigorously. Not alone have we the records of nervous epidemics, but
+illuminated manuscripts, ivories, miniatures, bas-reliefs, frescoes, and
+engravings furnish the most vivid iconographic evidence of the prevalence
+of hysteria in its most violent forms during the Middle Ages. Much of this
+evidence is <a name='1_Page_212'></a>brought to the service of science in the fascinating works of
+Dr. P. Richer, one of Charcot's pupils.<a name='1_FNanchor_257'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_257'><sup>[257]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century Ambroise Par&eacute; was still talking, like
+Hippocrates, about &quot;suffocation of the womb&quot;; Forestus was still, like
+Aret&aelig;us, applying friction to the vulva; Fernel was still reproaching
+Galen, who had denied that the movements of the womb produced hysteria.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the seventeenth century (1618) that a French physician, Charles
+Lepois (Carolus Piso), physician to Henry II, trusting, as he said, to
+experience and reason, overthrew at one stroke the doctrine of hysteria
+that had ruled almost unquestioned for two thousand years, and showed that
+the malady occurred at all ages and in both sexes, that its seat was not
+in the womb, but in the brain, and that it must be considered a nervous
+disease.<a name='1_FNanchor_258'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_258'><sup>[258]</sup></a> So revolutionary a doctrine could not fail to meet with
+violent opposition, but it was confirmed by Willis, and in 1681, we owe to
+the genius of Sydenham a picture of hysteria which for lucidity,
+precision, and comprehensiveness has only been excelled in our own times.</p>
+
+<p>It was not possible any longer to maintain the womb theory of Hippocrates
+in its crude form, but in modified forms, and especially with the object
+of preserving the connection which many observers continued to find
+between hysteria and the sexual emotions, it still found supporters in the
+eighteenth and even the nineteenth centuries. James, in the middle of the
+eighteenth century, returned to the classical view, and in his <i>Dictionary
+of Medicine</i> maintained that the womb is the seat of hysteria. Louyer
+Villermay in 1816 asserted that the most frequent causes of hysteria are
+deprivation of the pleasures of love, griefs connected with this passion,
+and disorders of menstruation. Foville in 1833 and Landouzy in 1846
+advocated somewhat similar views. The acute Laycock in 1840 quoted as
+&quot;almost a medical proverb&quot;<a name='1_Page_213'></a> the saying, &quot;<i>Salacitas major, major ad
+hysteriam proclivitas</i>,&quot; fully indorsing it. More recently still Clouston
+has defined hysteria as &quot;the loss of the inhibitory influence exercised on
+the reproductive and sexual instincts of women by the higher mental and
+moral functions&quot; (a position evidently requiring some modification in view
+of the fact that hysteria is by no means confined to women), while the
+same authority remarks that more or less concealed sexual phenomena are
+the chief symptoms of &quot;hysterical insanity.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_259'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_259'><sup>[259]</sup></a> Two gyn&aelig;cologists of
+high position in different parts of the world, Hegar in Germany and
+Balls-Headley in Australia, attribute hysteria, as well as an&aelig;mia, largely
+to unsatisfied sexual desire, including the non-satisfaction of the &quot;ideal
+feelings.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_260'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_260'><sup>[260]</sup></a> Lombroso and Ferrero, again, while admitting that the
+sexual feelings might be either heightened or depressed in hysteria,
+referred to the frequency of what they termed &quot;a paradoxical sexual
+instinct&quot; in the hysterical, by which, for instance, sexual frigidity is
+combined with intense sexual pre-occupations; and they also pointed out
+the significant fact that the crimes of the hysterical nearly always
+revolve around the sexual sphere.<a name='1_FNanchor_261'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_261'><sup>[261]</sup></a> Thus, even up to the time when the
+conception of hysteria which absolutely ignored and excluded any sexual
+relationship whatever had reached its height, independent views favoring
+such a relationship still found expression.</p>
+
+<p>Of recent years, however, such views usually aroused violent antagonism.
+The main current of opinion was with Briquet (1859), who, treating the
+matter with considerable ability and a wide induction of facts,
+indignantly repelled the idea that there is any connection between
+hysteria and the sexual facts of life, physical or psychic. As he himself
+admitted, Briquet was moved to deny a sexual causation of hysteria by the
+thought that such <a name='1_Page_214'></a>an origin would be degrading for women (&quot;<i>a quelque
+chose de d&eacute;gradant pour les femmes</i>&quot;).</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, the genius of Charcot, and the influence of his able
+pupils, which finally secured the overthrow of the sexual theory of
+hysteria. Charcot emphatically anathematized the visceral origin of
+hysteria; he declared that it is a psychic disorder, and to leave no
+loop-hole of escape for those who maintained a sexual causation he
+asserted that there are no varieties of hysteria, that the disease is one
+and indivisible. Charcot recognized no primordial cause of hysteria beyond
+heredity, which here plays a more important part than in any other
+neuropathic condition. Such heredity is either direct or more occasionally
+by transformation, any deviation of nutrition found in the ancestors
+(gout, diabetes, arthritis) being a possible cause of hysteria in the
+descendants. &quot;We do not know anything about the nature of hysteria,&quot;
+Charcot wrote in 1892; &quot;we must make it objective in order to recognize
+it. The dominant idea for us in the etiology of hysteria is, in the widest
+sense, its hereditary predisposition. The greater number of those
+suffering from this affection are simply born <i>hyst&eacute;risables</i>, and on them
+the occasional causes act directly, either through autosuggestion or by
+causing derangement of general nutrition, and more particularly of the
+nutrition of the nervous system.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_262'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_262'><sup>[262]</sup></a> These views were ably and
+decisively stated in Gilles de la Tourette's <i>Trait&eacute; de l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>,
+written under the inspiration of Charcot.</p>
+
+<p>While Charcot's doctrine was thus being affirmed and generally accepted,
+there were at the same time workers in these fields who, though they by no
+means ignored this doctrine of hysteria or even rejected it, were inclined
+to think that it was too absolutely stated. Writing in the <i>Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine</i> at the same time as Charcot, Donkin, while
+deprecating any exclusive emphasis on the sexual causation, pointed out
+the enormous part played by the emotions in the production of hysteria,
+and the great influence of puberty in women due to the greater extent of
+the sexual organs, and the <a name='1_Page_215'></a>consequently large area of central innervation
+involved, and thus rendered liable to fall into a state of unstable
+equilibrium. Enforced abstinence from the gratification of any of the
+inherent and primitive desires, he pointed out, may be an adequate
+exciting cause. Such a view as this indicated that to set aside the
+ancient doctrine of a physical sexual cause of hysteria was by no means to
+exclude a psychic sexual cause. Ten years earlier Axenfeld and Huchard had
+pointed out that the reaction against the sexual origin of hysteria was
+becoming excessive, and they referred to the evidence brought forward by
+veterinary surgeons showing that unsatisfied sexual desire in animals may
+produce nervous symptoms very similar to hysteria.<a name='1_FNanchor_263'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_263'><sup>[263]</sup></a> The present
+writer, when in 1894 briefly discussing hysteria as an element in
+secondary sexual characterization, ventured to reflect the view, confirmed
+by his own observation, that there was a tendency to unduly minimize the
+sexual factor in hysteria, and further pointed out that the old error of a
+special connection between hysteria and the female sexual organs, probably
+arose from the fact that in woman the organic sexual sphere is larger than
+in man.<a name='1_FNanchor_264'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_264'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>When, indeed, we analyze the foundation of the once predominant opinions
+of Charcot and his school regarding the sexual relationships of hysteria,
+it becomes clear that many fallacies and misunderstandings were involved.
+Briquet, Charcot's chief predecessor, acknowledged that his own view was
+that a sexual origin of hysteria would be &quot;degrading to women&quot;; that is to
+say, he admitted that he was influenced by a foolish and improper
+prejudice, for the belief that the unconscious and involuntary morbid
+reaction of the nervous system to any disturbance of a great <a name='1_Page_216'></a>primary
+instinct can have &quot;<i>quelque chose de d&eacute;gradant</i>&quot; is itself an immoral
+belief; such disturbance of the nervous system might or might not be
+caused, but in any case the alleged &quot;degradation&quot; could only be the
+fiction of a distorted imagination. Again, confusion had been caused by
+the ancient error of making the physical sexual organs responsible for
+hysteria, first the womb, more recently the ovaries; the outcome of this
+belief was the extirpation of the sexual organs for the cure of hysteria.
+Charcot condemned absolutely all such operations as unscientific and
+dangerous, declaring that there is no such thing as hysteria of menstrual
+origin.<a name='1_FNanchor_265'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_265'><sup>[265]</sup></a> Subsequently, Angelucci and Pierracini carried out an
+international inquiry into the results of the surgical treatment of
+hysteria, and condemned it in the most unqualified manner.<a name='1_FNanchor_266'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_266'><sup>[266]</sup></a> It is
+clearly demonstrated that the physical sexual organs are not the seat of
+hysteria. It does not, however, follow that even physical sexual desire,
+when repressed, is not a cause of hysteria. The opinion that it was so
+formed an essential part of the early doctrine of hysteria, and was
+embodied in the ancient maxim: &quot;<i>Nubat illa et morbus effugiet</i>.&quot; The
+womb, it seemed to the ancients, was crying out for satisfaction, and when
+that was received the disease vanished.<a name='1_FNanchor_267'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_267'><sup>[267]</sup></a> But when it became clear that
+sexual desire, though ultimately founded on the sexual apparatus, is a
+nervous and psychic fact, to put the sexual organs out of count was not
+sufficient; for the sexual emotions may exist before puberty, and persist
+after complete removal of the sexual organs. Thus it has been the object
+of many writers to repel the idea that unsatisfied sexual desire can be a
+cause of hysteria. Briquet pointed out that hysteria is rare among nuns
+and frequent among prostitutes. Krafft-Ebing <a name='1_Page_217'></a>believed that most
+hysterical women are not anxious for sexual satisfaction, and declared
+that &quot;hysteria caused through the non-satisfaction of the coarse sensual
+sexual impulse I have never seen,&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_268'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_268'><sup>[268]</sup></a> while Pitres and others refer to
+the frequently painful nature of sexual hallucinations in the hysterical.
+But it soon becomes obvious that the psychic sexual sphere is not confined
+to the gratification of conscious physical sexual desire. It is not true
+that hysteria is rare among nuns, some of the most tremendous epidemics of
+hysteria, and the most carefully studied, having occurred in
+convents,<a name='1_FNanchor_269'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_269'><sup>[269]</sup></a> while the hysterical phenomena sometimes associated with
+revivals are well known. The supposed prevalence among prostitutes would
+not be evidence against the sexual relationships of hysteria; it has,
+however, been denied, even by so great an authority as Parent-Duch&acirc;telet
+who found it very rare, even in prostitutes in hospitals, when it was
+often associated with masturbation; in prostitutes, however, who returned
+to a respectable life, giving up their old habits, he found hysteria
+common and severe.<a name='1_FNanchor_270'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_270'><sup>[270]</sup></a> The frequent absence of physical sexual feeling,
+again, may quite reasonably be taken as evidence of a disorder of the
+sexual emotions, while the undoubted fact that sexual intercourse usually
+has little beneficial effect on pronounced hysteria, and that sexual
+excitement during sleep and <a name='1_Page_218'></a>sexual hallucinations are often painful in
+the same condition, is far from showing that injury or repression of the
+sexual emotions had nothing to do with the production of the hysteria. It
+would be as reasonable to argue that the evil effect of a heavy meal on a
+starving man must be taken as evidence that he was not suffering from
+starvation. The fact, indeed, on which Gilles de la Tourette and others
+have remarked, that the hysterical often desire not so much sexual
+intercourse as simple affection, would tend to show that there is here a
+real analogy, and that starvation or lesion of the sexual emotions may
+produce, like bodily starvation, a rejection of those satisfactions which
+are demanded in health. Thus, even a mainly <i>a priori</i> examination of the
+matter may lead us to see that many arguments brought forward in favor of
+Charcot's position on this point fall to the ground when we realize that
+the sexual emotions may constitute a highly complex sphere, often hidden
+from observation, sometimes not conscious at all, and liable to many
+lesions besides that due to the non-satisfaction of sexual desire. At the
+same time we are not thus enabled to overthrow any of the positive results
+attained by Charcot and his school.</p>
+
+<p>It may, however, be pointed out that Charcot's attitude toward hysteria
+was the outcome of his own temperament. He was primarily a neurologist,
+the bent of his genius was toward the investigation of facts that could be
+objectively demonstrated. His first interest in hysteria, dating from as
+far back as 1862, was in hystero-epileptic convulsive attacks, and to the
+last he remained indifferent to all facts which could not be objectively
+demonstrated. That was the secret of the advances he was enabled to make
+in neurology. For purely psychological investigation he had no liking, and
+probably no aptitude. Anyone who was privileged to observe his methods of
+work at the Salp&ecirc;tri&egrave;re will easily recall the great master's towering
+figure; the disdainful expression, sometimes, even, it seemed, a little
+sour; the lofty bearing which enthusiastic admirers called Napoleonic. The
+questions addressed to the patient were cold, distant, sometimes
+impatient. Charcot clearly had little faith in the value of any results so
+attained. One may well believe, also, that a man whose <a name='1_Page_219'></a>superficial
+personality was so haughty and awe-inspiring to strangers would, in any
+case, have had the greatest difficulty in penetrating the mysteries of a
+psychic world so obscure and elusive as that presented by the
+hysterical.<a name='1_FNanchor_271'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_271'><sup>[271]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The way was thus opened for further investigations on the psychic side.
+Charcot had affirmed the power, not only of physical traumatism, but even
+of psychic lesions&mdash;of moral shocks&mdash;to provoke its manifestations, but
+his sole contribution to the psychology of this psychic malady,&mdash;and this
+was borrowed from the Nancy school,&mdash;lay in the one word &quot;suggestibility&quot;;
+the nature and mechanism of this psychic process he left wholly
+unexplained. This step has been taken by others, in part by Janet, who,
+from 1889 onward, has not only insisted that the emotions stand in the
+first line among the causes of hysteria, but has also pointed out some
+portion of the mechanism of this process; thus, he saw the significance of
+the fact, already recognized, that strong emotions tend to produce
+an&aelig;sthesia and to lead to a condition of mental disaggregation, favorable
+to abulia, or abolition of will-power. It remained to show in detail the
+mechanism by which the most potent of all the emotions effects its
+influence, and, by attempting to do this, the Viennese investigators,
+Breuer and especially Freud, have greatly aided the study of
+hysteria.<a name='1_FNanchor_272'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_272'><sup>[272]</sup></a> They have not, it is important to remark, overturned the
+positive elements in their great forerunner's work. Freud began as a
+disciple of Charcot, and he himself remarks that, in his earlier
+investigations of hysteria, he had no thought <a name='1_Page_220'></a>of finding any sexual
+etiology for that malady; he would have regarded any such suggestion as an
+insult to his patient. The results reached by these workers were the
+outcome of long and detailed investigation. Freud has investigated many
+cases of hysteria in minute detail, often devoting to a single case over a
+hundred hours of work. The patients, unlike those on whom the results of
+the French school have been mainly founded, all belonged to the educated
+classes, and it was thus possible to carry out an elaborate psychic
+investigation which would be impossible among the uneducated. Breuer and
+Freud insist on the fine qualities of mind and character frequently found
+among the hysterical. They cannot accept suggestibility as an invariable
+characteristic of hysteria, only abnormal excitability; they are far from
+agreeing with Janet (although on many points at one with him), that
+psychic weakness marks hysteria; there is merely an appearance of mental
+weakness, they say, because the mental activity of the hysterical is split
+up, and only a part of it is conscious.<a name='1_FNanchor_273'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_273'><sup>[273]</sup></a> The superiority of character
+of the hysterical is indicated by the fact that the conflict between their
+ideas of right and the bent of their inclinations is often an element in
+the constitution of the hysterical state. Breuer and Freud are prepared to
+assert that the hysterical are among &quot;the flower of humanity,&quot; and they
+refer to those qualities of combined imaginative genius and practical
+energy which characterized St. Theresa, &quot;the patron saint of the
+hysterical.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To understand the position of Breuer and Freud we may start from the
+phenomenon of &quot;nervous shock&quot; produced by physical traumatism, often of a
+very slight character. Charcot had shown that such &quot;nervous shock,&quot; with
+the chain of resulting symptoms, is nothing more or less than hysteria.
+Breuer and Freud may be linked on to Charcot at this point. They began by
+regarding the most typical hysteria as really a <i>psychic traumatism</i>; that
+is to say, that it starts in a lesion, or rather in <a name='1_Page_221'></a>repeated lesions, of
+the emotional organism. It is true that the school of Charcot admitted the
+influence of moral shock, especially of the emotion of fear, but that
+merely as an &quot;<i>agent provocateur</i>,&quot; and with a curious perversity Gilles
+de la Tourette, certainly reflecting the attitude of Charcot, in his
+elaborate treatise on hysteria fails to refer to the sphere of the sexual
+emotions even when enumerating the &quot;<i>agents provocateurs</i>.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_274'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_274'><sup>[274]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The influence of fear is not denied by Breuer and Freud, but they have
+found that careful psychic analysis frequently shows that the shock of a
+commonplace &quot;fear&quot; is really rooted in a lesion of the sexual emotions. A
+typical and very simple illustration is furnished in a case, recorded by
+Breuer, in which a young girl of seventeen had her first hysterical attack
+after a cat sprang on her shoulders as she was going downstairs. Careful
+investigation showed that this girl had been the object of somewhat ardent
+attentions from a young man whose advances she had resisted, although her
+own sexual emotions had been aroused. A few days before, she had been
+surprised by this young man on these same dark stairs, and had forcibly
+escaped from his hands. Here was the real psychic traumatism, the
+operation of which merely became manifest in the cat. &quot;But in how many
+cases,&quot; asks Breuer, &quot;is a cat thus reckoned as a completely sufficient
+<i>causa efficiens</i>?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In every case that they have investigated Breuer and Freud have found some
+similar secret lesion of the psychic sexual sphere. In one case a
+governess, whose training has been severely upright, is, in spite of
+herself and without any encouragement, led to experience for the father of
+the children under her care an affection which she refuses to acknowledge
+even to herself; in another, a young woman finds herself falling in love
+with her brother-in-law; again, an innocent girl suddenly discovers <a name='1_Page_222'></a>her
+uncle in the act of sexual intercourse with her playmate, and a boy on his
+way home from school is subjected to the coarse advances of a sexual
+invert. In nearly every case, as Freud eventually found reason to believe,
+a primary lesion of the sexual emotions dates from the period of puberty
+and frequently of childhood, and in nearly every case the intimately
+private nature of the lesion causes it to be carefully hidden from
+everyone, and even to be unacknowledged by the subject of it. In the
+earlier cases Breuer and Freud found that a slight degree of hypnosis is
+necessary to bring the lesion into consciousness, and the accuracy of the
+revelations thus obtained has been tested by independent witness. Freud
+has, however, long abandoned the induction of any degree of hypnosis; he
+simply tries to arrange that the patient shall feel absolutely free to
+tell her own story, and so proceeds from the surface downwards, slowly
+finding and piecing together such essential fragments of the history as
+may be recovered, in the same way he remarks, as the arch&aelig;ologist
+excavates below the surface and recovers and puts together the fragments
+of an antique statue. Much of the material found, however, has only a
+symbolic value requiring interpretation and is sometimes pure fantasy.
+Freud now attaches great importance to dreams as symbolically representing
+much in the subject's mental history which is otherwise difficult to
+reach.<a name='1_FNanchor_275'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_275'><sup>[275]</sup></a> The subtle and slender clues which Freud frequently follows in
+interpreting dreams cannot fail sometimes to arouse doubt in his readers'
+minds, but he certainly seems to have been often successful in thus
+reaching latent facts in consciousness. The primary lesion may thus act as
+&quot;a foreign body in consciousness.&quot; Something is introduced into psychic
+life which refuses to merge in the general flow of consciousness. It
+cannot be accepted simply as other facts of life are accepted; it cannot
+even be talked about, and so submitted to the slow usure by which our
+experiences are worn down and gradually transformed. Breuer illustrates
+what happens by reference to the sneezing reflex. &quot;When an irritation to
+the nasal mucous membrane for some reason fails to liberate <a name='1_Page_223'></a>this reflex,
+a feeling of excitement and tension arises. This excitement, being unable
+to stream out along motor channels, now spreads itself over the brain,
+inhibiting other activities.... <i>In the highest spheres of human activity
+we may watch the same process</i>.&quot; It is a result of this process that, as
+Breuer and Freud found, the mere act of confession may greatly relieve the
+hysterical symptoms produced by this psychic mechanism, and in some cases
+may wholly and permanently remove them. It is on this fact that they
+founded their method of treatment, devised by Breuer and by him termed the
+cathartic method, though Freud prefers to call it the &quot;analytic&quot; method.
+It is, as Freud points out, the reverse of the hypnotic method of
+suggestive treatment; there is the same difference, Freud remarks, between
+the two methods as Leonardo da Vinci found for the two technical methods
+of art, <i>per via di porre</i> and <i>per via di levare</i>; the hypnotic method,
+like painting, works by putting in, the cathartic or analytic method, like
+sculpture, works by taking out.<a name='1_FNanchor_276'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_276'><sup>[276]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is part of the mechanism of this process, as understood by these
+authors, that the physical symptoms of hysteria are constituted, by a
+process of conversion, out of the injured emotions, which then sink into
+the background or altogether out of consciousness. Thus, they found the
+prolonged tension of nursing a near and dear relative to be a very
+frequent factor in the production of hysteria. For instance, an originally
+rheumatic pain experienced by a daughter when nursing her father becomes
+the symbol in memory of her painful psychic excitement, and this perhaps
+for several reasons, but chiefly because <i>its presence in consciousness
+almost exactly coincided with that excitement</i>. In another way, again,
+nausea and vomiting may become a symbol through the profound sense of
+disgust with which some emotional shock was associated. Then the symbol
+begins to have a life of its own, and draws hidden strength from the
+emotion with which it is correlated. Breuer and Freud have found by
+careful investigation that the pains and physical troubles of hysteria are
+far from being capricious, but may be traced in a varying manner <a name='1_Page_224'></a>to an
+origin in some incident, some pain, some action, which was associated with
+a moment of acute psychic agony. The process of conversion was an
+involuntary escape from an intolerable emotion, comparable to the physical
+pain sometimes sought in intense mental grief, and the patient wins some
+relief from the tortured emotions, though at the cost of psychic
+abnormality, of a more or less divided state of consciousness and of
+physical pain, or else an&aelig;sthesia. In Charcot's third stage of the
+hysterical convulsion, that of &quot;<i>attitudes passionnelles</i>,&quot; Breuer and
+Freud see the hallucinatory reproduction of a recollection which is full
+of significance for the origin of the hysterical manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>The final result reached by these workers is clearly stated by each
+writer. &quot;The main observation of our predecessors,&quot; states Breuer,<a name='1_FNanchor_277'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_277'><sup>[277]</sup></a>
+&quot;still preserved in the word 'hysteria,' is nearer to the truth than the
+more recent view which puts sexuality almost in the last line, with the
+object of protecting the patient from moral reproaches. Certainly the
+sexual needs of the hysterical are just as individual and as various in
+force as those of the healthy. But they suffer from them, and in large
+measure, indeed, they suffer precisely through the struggle with them,
+through the effort to thrust sexuality aside.&quot; &quot;The weightiest fact,&quot;
+concludes Freud,<a name='1_FNanchor_278'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_278'><sup>[278]</sup></a> &quot;on which we strike in a thorough pursuit of the
+analysis is this: From whatever side and from whatever symptoms we start,
+we always unfailingly reach the region of the sexual life. Here, first of
+all, an etiological condition of hysterical states is revealed.... At the
+bottom of every case of hysteria&mdash;and reproducible by an analytical effort
+after even an interval of long years&mdash;may be found one or more facts of
+precocious sexual experience belonging to earliest youth. I regard this as
+an important result, as the discovery of a <i>caput Nili</i> of
+neuropathology.&quot; Ten years later, enlarging rather than restricting his
+conception, Freud remarks: &quot;Sexuality is not a mere <i>deus ex machina</i>
+which intervenes but once in the hysterical process; it is the motive
+force of every separate symptom and every expression of a symptom. The
+morbid phenomena constitute, to speak <a name='1_Page_225'></a>plainly, the patient's sexual
+activity.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_279'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_279'><sup>[279]</sup></a> The actual hysterical fit, Freud now states, may be
+regarded as &quot;the substitute for a once practiced and then abandoned
+<i>auto-erotic</i> satisfaction,&quot; and similarly it may be regarded as an
+equivalent of coitus.<a name='1_FNanchor_280'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_280'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is natural to ask how this conception affects that elaborate picture of
+hysteria laboriously achieved by Charcot and his school. It cannot be said
+that it abolishes any of the positive results reached by Charcot, but it
+certainly alters their significance and value; it presents them in a new
+light and changes the whole perspective. With his passion for getting at
+tangible definite physical facts, Charcot was on very safe ground. But he
+was content to neglect the psychic analysis of hysteria, while yet
+proclaiming that hysteria is a purely psychic disorder. He had no cause of
+hysteria to present save only heredity. Freud certainly admits heredity,
+but, as he points out, the part it plays has been overrated. It is too
+vague and general to carry us far, and when a specific and definite cause
+can be found, the part played by heredity recedes to become merely a
+condition, the soil on which the &quot;specific etiology&quot; works. Here probably
+Freud's enthusiasm at first carried him too far and the most important
+modification he has made in his views occurs at this point: he now
+attaches a preponderant influence to heredity. He has realized that sexual
+activity in one form or another is far too common in childhood to make it
+possible to lay very great emphasis on &quot;traumatic lesions&quot; of this
+character, and he has also realized that an outcrop of fantasies may
+somewhat later develop on these childish activities, intervening between
+them and the subsequent morbid symptoms. He is thus led to emphasize anew
+the significance of heredity, not, however, in Charcot's sense, as general
+neuropathic disposition but as &quot;sexual constitution.&quot; The significance of
+&quot;infantile sexual lesions&quot; has also tended to give place to that of
+&quot;infantilism of sexuality.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_281'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_281'><sup>[281]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The real merit of Freud's subtle investigations is that&mdash;while <a name='1_Page_226'></a>possibly
+furnishing a justification of the imperfectly-understood idea that had
+floated in the mind of observers ever since the name &quot;hysteria&quot; was first
+invented&mdash;he has certainly supplied a definite psychic explanation of a
+psychic malady. He has succeeded in presenting clearly, at the expense of
+much labor, insight, and sympathy, a dynamic view of the psychic processes
+involved in the constitution of the hysterical state, and such a view
+seems to show that the physical symptoms laboriously brought to light by
+Charcot are largely but epiphenomena and by-products of an emotional
+process, often of tragic significance to the subject, which is taking
+place in the most sensitive recess of the psychic organism. That the
+picture of the mechanism involved, presented to us by Professor Freud,
+cannot be regarded as a final and complete account of the matter, may
+readily be admitted. It has developed in Freud's own hands, and some of
+the developments will require very considerable confirmation before they
+can be accepted as generally true.<a name='1_FNanchor_282'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_282'><sup>[282]</sup></a> But these investigations have at
+least served to open the door, which Charcot had inconsistently held
+closed, into the deeper mysteries of hysteria, and have shown that here,
+if anywhere, further research will be profitable. They have also served to
+show that hysteria may be definitely regarded as, in very many cases at
+least, a manifestation of the sexual emotions and their lesions; in other
+words, a transformation of auto-erotism.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of hysteria so vigorously enforced by Charcot and his
+school is thus now beginning to appear incomplete. But we have to
+recognize that that incompleteness was right and necessary. A strong
+reaction was needed against a widespread view of hysteria that was in
+large measure scientifically false. It was necessary to show clearly that
+hysteria is a definite disorder, even when the sexual organs and emotions
+are swept wholly out of consideration; and it was also necessary to show
+that the lying and dissimulation so widely attributed to the hysterical
+<a name='1_Page_227'></a>were merely the result of an ignorant and unscientific misinterpretation
+of psychic elements of the disease. This was finally and triumphantly
+achieved by Charcot's school.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one other point in the explanation of hysteria which I will
+here refer to, and that because it is usually ignored, and because it has
+relationship to the general psychology of the sexual emotions. I refer to
+that physiological hysteria which is the normal counterpart of the
+pathological hysteria which has been described in its physical details by
+Charcot, and to which alone the term should strictly be applied. Even
+though hysteria as a disease may be described as one and indivisible,
+there are yet to be found, among the ordinary and fairly healthy
+population, vague and diffused hysteroid symptoms which are dissipated in
+a healthy environment, or pass nearly unnoted, only to develop in a small
+proportion of cases, under the influence of a more pronounced heredity, or
+a severe physical or psychic lesion, into that definite morbid state which
+is properly called hysteria.</p>
+
+<p>This diffused hysteroid condition may be illustrated by the results of a
+psychological investigation carried on in America by Miss Gertrude Stein
+among the ordinary male and female students of Harvard University and
+Radcliffe College. The object of the investigation was to study, with the
+aid of a planchette, the varying liability to automatic movements among
+normal individuals. Nearly one hundred students were submitted to
+experiment. It was found that automatic responses could be obtained in two
+sittings from all but a small proportion of the students of both sexes,
+but that there were two types of individual who showed a special aptitude.
+One type (probably showing the embryonic form of neurasthenia) was a
+nervous, high-strung, imaginative type, not easily influenced from
+without, and not so much suggestible as autosuggestible. The other type,
+which is significant from our present point of view, is thus described by
+Miss Stein: &quot;In general the individuals, often blonde and pale, are
+distinctly phlegmatic. If emotional, decidedly of the weakest, sentimental
+order. They may be either large, healthy, rather heavy, and lacking in
+vigor or they may be what we call an&aelig;mic and phlegmatic. Their power of
+concentrated <a name='1_Page_228'></a>attention is very small. They describe themselves as never
+being held by their work; they say that their minds wander easily; that
+they work on after they are tired, and just keep pegging away. They are
+very apt to have premonitory conversations, they anticipate the words of
+their friends, they imagine whole conversations that afterward come true.
+The feeling of having been there is very common with them; that is, they
+feel under given circumstances that they have had that identical
+experience before in all its details. They are often fatalistic in their
+ideas. They indulge in day-dreams. As a rule, they are highly
+suggestible.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_283'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_283'><sup>[283]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There we have a picture of the physical constitution and psychic
+temperament on which the classical symptoms of hysteria might easily be
+built up.<a name='1_FNanchor_284'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_284'><sup>[284]</sup></a> But these persons were ordinary students, and while a few
+of their characteristics are what is commonly and vaguely called &quot;morbid,&quot;
+on the whole they must be regarded as ordinarily healthy individuals. They
+have the congenital constitution and predisposition on which some severe
+psychic lesion at the &quot;psychological moment&quot; might develop the most
+definite and obstinate symptoms of hysteria, but under favorable
+circumstances they will be ordinary men and women, of no more than
+ordinary abnormality or ordinary power. They are among the many who have
+been called to hysteria at birth; they may never be among the few who are
+chosen.</p>
+
+<p>We may have to recognize that on the side of the sexual emotions, as well
+as in general constitution, a condition may be traced among normal persons
+that is hysteroid in character, and serves as the healthy counterpart of a
+condition which in hysteria <a name='1_Page_229'></a>is morbid. In women such a condition Has been
+traced (though misnamed) by Dr. King.<a name='1_FNanchor_285'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_285'><sup>[285]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Dr. King describes what he calls &quot;sexual hysteria in women,&quot;
+    which he considers a chief variety of hysteria. He adds, however,
+    that it is not strictly a disease, but simply an automatic
+    reaction of the reproductive system, which tends to become
+    abnormal under conditions of civilization, and to be perpetuated
+    in a morbid form. In this condition he finds twelve characters:
+    1. Time of life, usually between puberty and climacteric. 2.
+    Attacks rarely occur when subject is alone. 3. Subject appears
+    unconscious, but is not really so. 4. She is instinctively
+    ashamed afterward. 5. It occurs usually in single women, or in
+    those, single or married, whose sexual needs are unsatisfied. 6.
+    No external evidence of disease, and (as Aitken pointed out) the
+    nates are not flattened; the woman's physical condition is not
+    impaired, and she may be specially attractive to men. 7. Warmth
+    of climate and the season of spring and summer are conducive to
+    the condition. 8. The paroxysm in short and temporary. 9. While
+    light touches are painful, firm pressure and rough handling give
+    relief. 10. It may occur in the occupied, but an idle,
+    purposeless life is conducive. 11. The subject delights in
+    exciting sympathy and in being fondled and caressed. 12. There is
+    defect of will and a strong stimulus is required to lead to
+    action.</p>
+
+<p>    Among civilized women, the author proceeds, this condition does
+    not appear to subserve any useful purpose. &quot;Let us, however, go
+    back to aboriginal woman&mdash;to woman of the woods and the fields.
+    Let us picture ourselves a young aboriginal Venus in one of her
+    earliest hysterical paroxysms. In doing so, let us not forget
+    some of the twelve characteristics previously mentioned. She will
+    not be 'acting her part' alone, or, if alone, it will be in a
+    place where someone else is likely soon to discover her. Let this
+    Venus be now discovered by a youthful Apollo of the woods, a man
+    with fully developed animal instincts. He and she, like any other
+    animals, are in the free field of Nature. He cannot but observe
+    to himself: 'This woman is not dead; she breathes and is warm;
+    she does not look ill; she is plump and rosy.' He speaks to her;
+    she neither hears (apparently) nor responds. Her eyes are closed.
+    He touches, moves, and handles her at his pleasure. She makes no
+    resistance. What will this primitive Apollo do next? He will cure
+    the fit, and bring the woman back to consciousness, satisfy her
+    emotions, and restore her volition&mdash;not by delicate touches that
+    might be 'agonizing' to her hyperesthetic skin, but by vigorous
+    massage, passive motions, and succussion that would be painless.
+    The emotional process on the <a name='1_Page_230'></a>part of the woman would end,
+    perhaps, with mingled laughter, tears, and shame; and when
+    accused afterward of the part which the ancestrally acquired
+    properties of her nervous system had compelled her to act, as a
+    preliminary to the event, what woman would not deny it and be
+    angry? But the course of Nature having been followed, the natural
+    purpose of the hysterical paroxysm accomplished, there would
+    remain as a result of the treatment&mdash;instead of one discontented
+    woman&mdash;two happy people, and the possible beginning of a third.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Natural, primary sexual hysteria in woman,&quot; King concludes, &quot;is
+    a temporary modification of the nervous government of the body
+    and the distribution of nerve-force (occurring for the most part,
+    as we see it to-day, in prudish women of strong moral principle,
+    whose volition has disposed them to resist every sort of liberty
+    or approach from the other sex), consisting in a transient
+    abdication of the general, volitional, and self-preservational
+    ego, while the reins of government are temporarily assigned to
+    the usurping power of the reproductive ego, so that the
+    reproductive government overrules the government by volition, and
+    thus, as it were, forcibly compels the woman's organism to so
+    dispose itself, at a suitable time and place, as to allow,
+    invite, and secure the approach of the other sex, whether she
+    will or not, to the end that Nature's imperious demand for
+    reproduction shall be obeyed.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>This perhaps rather fantastic description is not a presentation of
+hysteria in the technical sense, but we may admit that it presents a state
+which, if not the real physiological counterpart of the hysterical
+convulsion, is yet distinctly analogous to the latter. The sexual orgasm
+has this correspondence with the hysterical fit, that they both serve to
+discharge the nervous centres and relieve emotional tension. It may even
+happen, especially in the less severe forms of hysteria, that the sexual
+orgasm takes place during the hysterical fit; this was found by Rosenthal,
+of Vienna, to be always the case in the semiconscious paroxysms of a young
+girl whose condition was easily cured;<a name='1_FNanchor_286'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_286'><sup>[286]</sup></a> no doubt such cases would be
+more frequently found if they were sought for. In severe forms of
+hysteria, however, it frequently happens, as so many observers have noted,
+that normal sexual excitement has <a name='1_Page_231'></a>ceased to give satisfaction, has become
+painful, perverted, paradoxical. Freud has enabled us to see how a shock
+to the sexual emotions, injuring the emotional life at its source, can
+scarcely fail sometimes to produce such a result. But the necessity for
+nervous explosion still persists.<a name='1_FNanchor_287'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_287'><sup>[287]</sup></a> It may, indeed, persist, even in an
+abnormally strong degree, in consequence of the inhibition of normal
+activities generally. The convulsive fit is the only form of relief open
+to the tension. &quot;A lady whom I long attended,&quot; remarks Ashwell, &quot;always
+rejoiced when the fit was over, since it relieved her system generally,
+and especially her brain, from painful irritation which had existed for
+several previous days.&quot; That the fit mostly fails to give real
+satisfaction, and that it fails to cure the disease, is due to the fact
+that it is a morbid form of relief. The same character of hysteria is
+seen, with more satisfactory results for the most part, in the influence
+of external nervous shock. It was the misunderstood influence of such
+shocks in removing hysteria which in former times led to the refusal to
+regard hysteria as a serious disease. During the Rebellion of 1745-46 in
+Scotland, Cullen remarks that there was little hysteria. The same was true
+of the French Revolution and of the Irish Rebellion, while Rush (in a
+study <i>On the Influence of the American Revolution on the Human Body</i>)
+observed that many hysterical women were &quot;restored to perfect health by
+the events of the time.&quot; In such cases the emotional tension is given an
+opportunity of explosion in new and impersonal channels, and the chain of
+morbid personal emotions is broken.</p>
+
+<p>It has been urged by some that the fact that the sexual orgasm usually
+fails to remove the disorder in true hysteria excludes a sexual factor of
+hysteria. It is really, one may point out, an argument in favor of such an
+element as one of the factors of hysteria. If there were no initial lesion
+of the sexual emotions, if the natural healthy sexual channel still
+remained free for the passage of the emotional overflow, then we should
+expect that it <a name='1_Page_232'></a>would much oftener come into play in the removal of
+hysteria. In the more healthy, merely hysteroid condition, the psychic
+sexual organism is not injured, and still responds normally, removing the
+abnormal symptoms when allowed to do so. It is the confusion between this
+almost natural condition and the truly morbid condition, alone properly
+called hysteria, which led to the ancient opinion, inaugurated by Plato
+and Hippocrates, that hysteria may be cured by marriage.<a name='1_FNanchor_288'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_288'><sup>[288]</sup></a> The
+difference may be illustrated by the difference between a distended
+bladder which is still able to contract normally on its contents when at
+last an opportunity of doing so is afforded and the bladder in which
+distension has been so prolonged that nervous control had been lost and
+spontaneous expulsion has become impossible. The first condition
+corresponds to the constitution, which, while simulating the hysterical
+condition, is healthy enough to react normally in spite of psychic
+lesions; the second corresponds to a state in which, owing to the
+prolonged stress of psychic traumatism,&mdash;sexual or not,&mdash;a definite
+condition of hysteria has arisen. The one state is healthy, though
+abnormal; the other is one of pronounced morbidity.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of true hysteria is thus linked on to almost healthy states,
+and especially to a condition which may be described as one of sex-hunger.
+Such a suggestion may help us <a name='1_Page_233'></a>to see these puzzling phenomena in their
+true nature and perspective.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>At this point I may refer to the interesting parallel, and
+    probable real relationship, between hysteria and chlorosis. As
+    Luzet has said, hysteria and chlorosis are sisters. We have seen
+    that there is some ground for regarding hysteria as an
+    exaggerated form of a normal process which is really an
+    auto-erotic phenomenon. There is some ground, also, for regarding
+    chlorosis as the exaggeration of a physiological state connected
+    with sexual conditions, more specifically with the preparation
+    for maternity. Hysteria is so frequently associated with an&aelig;mic
+    conditions that Biernacki has argued that such conditions really
+    constitute the primary and fundamental cause of hysteria
+    (<i>Neurologisches Centralblatt</i>, March, 1898). And, centuries
+    before Biernacki, Sydenham had stated his belief that poverty of
+    the blood is the chief cause of hysteria.</p>
+
+<p>    It would be some confirmation of this position if we could
+    believe that chlorosis, like hysteria, is in some degree a
+    congenital condition. This was the view of Virchow, who regarded
+    chlorosis as essentially dependent on a congenital hyoplasia of
+    the arterial system. Stieda, on the basis of an elaborate study
+    of twenty-three cases, has endeavored to prove that chlorosis is
+    due to a congenital defect of development (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Geburtsh&uuml;lfe und Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, vol. xxxii, Part I, 1895). His
+    facts tend to prove that in chlorosis there are signs of general
+    ill-development, and that, in particular, there is imperfect
+    development of the breasts and sexual organs, with a tendency to
+    contracted pelvis. Charrin, again, regards utero-ovarian
+    inadequacy as at least one of the factors of chlorosis.
+    Chlorosis, in its extreme form, may thus be regarded as a
+    disorder of development, a sign of physical degeneracy. Even if
+    not strictly a cause, a congenital condition may, as Stockman
+    believes (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, December 14, 1895), be a
+    predisposing influence.</p>
+
+<p>    However it may be in extreme cases, there is very considerable
+    evidence to indicate that the ordinary an&aelig;mia of young women may
+    be due to a storing up of iron in the system, and is so far
+    normal, being a preparation for the function of reproduction.
+    Some observations of Bunge's seem to throw much light on the real
+    cause of what may be termed physiological chlorosis. He found by
+    a series of experiments on animals of different ages that young
+    animals contain a much greater amount of iron in their tissues
+    than adult animals; that, for instance, the body of a rabbit an
+    hour after birth contains more than four times as much iron as
+    that of a rabbit two and a half months old. It thus appears
+    probable that at the period of puberty, and later, there is a
+    storage of iron in the system preparatory to the exercise of the
+    maternal <a name='1_Page_234'></a>functions. It is precisely between the ages of fifteen
+    and twenty-three, as Stockman found by an analysis of his own
+    cases (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, December 14, 1895), that the
+    majority of cases occur; there was, indeed, he found, no case in
+    which the first onset was later than the age of twenty-three. A
+    similar result is revealed by the charts of Lloyd Jones, which
+    cover a vastly greater number of cases.</p>
+
+<p>    We owe to Lloyd Jones an important contribution to the knowledge
+    of chlorosis in its physiological or normal relationships. He has
+    shown that chlorosis is but the exaggeration of a condition that
+    is normal at puberty (and, in many women, at each menstrual
+    period), and which, there is good reason to believe, even has a
+    favorable influence on fertility. He found that
+    light-complexioned persons are more fertile than the
+    dark-complexioned, and that at the same time the blood of the
+    latter is of less specific gravity, containing less h&aelig;moglobin.
+    Lloyd Jones also reached the generalization that girls who have
+    had chlorosis are often remarkably pretty, so that the tendency
+    to chlorosis is associated with all the sexual and reproductive
+    aptitudes that make a woman attractive to a man. His conclusion
+    is that the normal condition of which chlorosis is the extreme
+    and pathological condition, is a preparation for motherhood (E.
+    Lloyd Jones, &quot;Chlorosis: The Special An&aelig;mia of Young Women,&quot;
+    1897; also numerous reports to the British Medical Association,
+    published in the <i>British Medical Journal</i>. There was an
+    interesting discussion of the theories of chlorosis at the Moscow
+    International Medical Congress, in 1898; see proceedings of the
+    congress, volume in, section v, pp. 224 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    We may thus, perhaps, understand why it is that hysteria and
+    an&aelig;mia are often combined, and why they are both most frequently
+    found in adolescent young women who have yet had no sexual
+    experiences. Chlorosis is a physical phenomenon; hysteria,
+    largely a psychic phenomenon; yet, both alike may, to some extent
+    at least, be regarded as sexual aptitude showing itself in
+    extreme and pathological forms. </p></div><a name='1_Page_235'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_251'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_251'>[251]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Gen&egrave;se et Nature de l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>, 1898; and, for Sollier's
+latest statement, see &quot;Hyst&eacute;rie et Sommeil,&quot; <i>Archives de Neurologie</i>, May
+and June, 1907. Lombroso (<i>L'Uomo Delinquente</i>, 1889, vol. ii, p. 329),
+referring to the diminished metabolism of the hysterical, had already
+compared them to hibernating animals, while Babinsky states that the
+hysterical are in a state of subconsciousness, a state, as Metchnikoff
+remarks (<i>Essais optimistes</i>, p. 270), reminiscent of our prehistoric
+past.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_252'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_252'>[252]</a><div class='note'><p> Professor Freud, while welcoming the introduction of the
+term &quot;auto-erotism,&quot; remarks that it should not be made to include the
+whole of hysteria. This I fully admit, and have never questioned. Hysteria
+is far too large and complex a phenomenon to be classed as entirely a
+manifestation of auto-erotism, but certain aspects of it are admirable
+illustrations of auto-erotic transformation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_253'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_253'>[253]</a><div class='note'><p> The hysterical phenomenon of <i>globus hystericus</i> was long
+afterward attributed to obstruction of respiration by the womb. The
+interesting case has been recorded by E. Bloch (<i>Wiener Klinische
+Wochenschrift</i>, 1907, p. 1649) of a lady who had the feeling of a ball
+rising from her stomach to her throat, and then sinking. This feeling was
+associated with thoughts of her husband's rising and falling penis, and
+was always most liable to occur when she wished for coitus.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_254'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_254'>[254]</a><div class='note'><p> As Gilles de la Tourette points out, it is not difficult to
+show that epilepsy, the <i>morbus sacer</i> of the ancients, owed much of its
+sacred character to this confusion with hysteria. Those priestesses who,
+struck by the <i>morbus sacer</i>, gave forth their oracles amid convulsions,
+were certainly not the victims of epilepsy, but of hysteria (<i>Trait&eacute; de
+l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>, vol. i, p. 3).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_255'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_255'>[255]</a><div class='note'><p> Aret&aelig;us, <i>On the Causes and Symptoms of Acute Diseases</i>,
+Book ii, Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_256'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_256'>[256]</a><div class='note'><p> It may be noted that this treatment furnishes another
+instance of the continuity of therapeutic methods, through all changes of
+theory, from the earliest to the latest times. Drugs of unpleasant odor,
+like asaf&oelig;tida, have always been used in hysteria, and scientific
+medicine to-day still finds that asaf&oelig;tida is a powerful sedative
+to the uterus, controlling nervous conditions during pregnancy and
+arresting uterine irritation when abortion is threatened (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+Warman, <i>Der Frauenarzt</i>, August, 1895). Again, the rubbing of fragrant
+ointments into the sexual regions is but a form of that massage which is
+one of the modern methods of treating the sexual disorders of women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_257'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_257'>[257]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Les D&eacute;moniaques dans l'Art</i>, 1887; <i>Les Malades et les
+Difformes dans l'Art</i>, 1889.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_258'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_258'>[258]</a><div class='note'><p> Glafira Abricosoff, of Moscow, in her Paris thesis,
+<i>L'Hyst&eacute;rie aux xvii et xviii si&eacute;cles</i>, 1897, presents a summary of the
+various views held at this time; as also Gilles de la Tourette, <i>Trait&eacute; de
+l'Hyst&eacute;rie</i>, vol. i, Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_259'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_259'>[259]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Edinburgh Medical Journal</i>, June, 1883, p. 1123, and
+<i>Mental Diseases</i>, 1887, p. 488.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_260'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_260'>[260]</a><div class='note'><p> Hegar, <i>Zusammenhang der Geschlechtskrankheiten mit
+nerv&ouml;sen Leiden</i>, Stuttgart, 1885. (Hegar, however, went much further than
+this, and was largely responsible for the surgical treatment of hysteria
+now generally recognized as worse than futile.) Balls-Headley, &quot;Etiology
+of Nervous Diseases of the Female Genital Organs,&quot; Allbutt and Playfair,
+<i>System of Gynecology</i>, 1896, p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_261'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_261'>[261]</a><div class='note'><p> Lombroso and Ferrero, <i>La Donna Delinquente</i>, 1893, pp.
+613-14.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_262'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_262'>[262]</a><div class='note'><p> Charcot and Marie, article on &quot;Hysteria,&quot; Tuke's
+<i>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_263'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_263'>[263]</a><div class='note'><p> Axenfeld and Huchard, <i>Trait&eacute; des N&eacute;vroses</i>, 1883, pp.
+1092-94. Icard (<i>La Femme pendant la P&eacute;riode Menstruelle</i>, pp. 120-21) has
+also referred to recorded cases of hysteria in animals (Coste's and
+Peter's cases), as has Gilles de la Tourette (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 123).
+See also, for references, F&eacute;r&eacute;, <i>L'Instinct Sexuel</i>, p. 59.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_264'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_264'>[264]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Man and Woman</i>, 4th ed., p. 326. A distinguished
+gyn&aelig;cologist, Matthews Duncan, had remarked some years earlier (<i>Lancet</i>,
+May 18, 1889) that hysteria, though not a womb disease, &quot;especially
+attaches itself to the generative system, because the genital system, more
+than any other, exerts emotional power over the individual, power also in
+morals, power in social questions.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_265'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_265'>[265]</a><div class='note'><p> Gilles de la Tourette, <i>Archives de Tocologie et de
+Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, June, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_266'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_266'>[266]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria</i>, 1897, p. 290;
+summarized in the <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, January, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_267'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_267'>[267]</a><div class='note'><p> From the earliest times it was held that menstruation
+favors hysteria; more recently, Landouzy recorded a number of observations
+showing that hysterical attacks coincide with perfectly healthy
+menstruation; while Ball has maintained that it is only during
+menstruation that hysteria appears in its true color. See the opinions
+collected by Icard, <i>La Femme pendant la P&eacute;riode Menstruelle</i>, pp. 75-81.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_268'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_268'>[268]</a><div class='note'><p> Krafft-Ebing, &quot;Ueber Neurosen und Psychosen durch Sexuelle
+Abstinenz,&quot; <i>Jahrb&uuml;cher f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, vol. iii, 1888. It must,
+however, be added that the relief of hysteria by sexual satisfaction is
+not rare, and that Rosenthal finds that the convulsions are thus
+diminished. (<i>Allgemeine Wiener Medizinal-Zeitung</i>, Nos. 46 and 47, 1887.)
+So they are also, in simple and uncomplicated cases, according to Mongeri,
+by pregnancy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_269'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_269'>[269]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;All doctors who have patients in convents,&quot; remarks Marro
+(<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p. 338), &quot;know how hysteria dominates among them;&quot; he adds
+that his own experience confirms that of Raciborski, who found that nuns
+devoted to the contemplative life are more liable to hysteria than those
+who are occupied in teaching or in nursing. It must be added, however,
+that there is not unanimity as to the prevalence of hysteria in convents.
+Brachet was of the same opinion as Briquet, and so considered it rare.
+Imbert-Goubeyre, also (<i>La Stigmatisation</i>, p. 436) states that during
+more than forty years of medical life, though he has been connected with a
+number of religious communities, he has not found in them a single
+hysterical subject, the reason being, he remarks, that the unbalanced and
+extravagant are refused admission to the cloister.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_270'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_270'>[270]</a><div class='note'><p> Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <i>De la Prostitution</i>, vol. i, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_271'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_271'>[271]</a><div class='note'><p> It may not be unnecessary to point out that here and
+throughout, in speaking of the psychic mechanism of hysteria, I do not
+admit that any process can be <i>purely</i> psychic. As F&eacute;r&eacute; puts it in an
+admirable study of hysteria (<i>Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine</i>,
+1897, vol. x, p. 556): &quot;In the genesis of hysterical troubles everything
+takes place as if the psychical and the somatic phenomena were two aspects
+of the same biological fact.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_272'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_272'>[272]</a><div class='note'><p> Pierre Janet, <i>L'Automatisme Psychologique</i>, 1889; <i>L'Etat
+mental des Hyst&eacute;riques</i>, 1894; <i>N&eacute;vroses et Id&eacute;es fixes</i>, 1898; Breuer und
+Freud, <i>Studien &uuml;ber Hysterie</i>, Vienna, 1895; the best introduction to
+Freud's work is, however, to be found in the two series of his <i>Sammlung
+Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, published in a collected form in
+1906 and 1909. It may be added that a useful selection of Freud's papers
+has lately (1909) been published in English.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_273'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_273'>[273]</a><div class='note'><p> We might, perhaps, even say that in hysteria the so-called
+higher centres have an abnormally strong inhibitory influence over the
+lower centres. Gioffredi (<i>Gazzetta degli Ospedali</i>, October 1, 1895) has
+shown that some hysterical symptoms, such as mutism, can be cured by
+etherization, thus loosening the control of the higher centres.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_274'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_274'>[274]</a><div class='note'><p> Charcot's school could not fail to recognize the erotic
+tone which often dominates hysterical hallucinations. Gilles de la
+Tourette seeks to minimize it by the remark that &quot;it is more mental than
+real.&quot; He means to say that it is more psychic than physical, but he
+implies that the physical element in sex is alone &quot;real,&quot; a strange
+assumption in any case, as well as destructive of Gilles de la Tourette's
+own fundamental assertion that hysteria is a real disease and yet purely
+psychic.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_275'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_275'>[275]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, his substantial volume, <i>Die Traumdeutung</i>,
+1900, 2d ed. 1909.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_276'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_276'>[276]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sammlung</i>, first series, p. 208.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_277'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_277'>[277]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Studien &uuml;ber Hysterie</i>, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_278'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_278'>[278]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sammlung</i>, first series, p. 162.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_279'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_279'>[279]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sammlung</i>, second series, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_280'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_280'>[280]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Ib.</i> p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_281'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_281'>[281]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Sammlung</i>, first series, p. 229. Freud has developed his
+conception of sexual constitution in <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur
+Sexualtheorie</i>, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_282'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_282'>[282]</a><div class='note'><p> As Moll remarks, Freud's conceptions are still somewhat
+subjective, and in need of objective demonstration; but whatever may be
+thought of their theories, he adds, there can be no doubt that Breuer and
+Freud have done a great service by calling attention to the important
+action of the sexual life on the nervous system.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_283'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_283'>[283]</a><div class='note'><p> Gertrude Stein, &quot;Cultivated Motor Automatism,&quot;
+<i>Psychological Review</i>, May, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_284'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_284'>[284]</a><div class='note'><p> Charcot's most faithful followers refuse to recognize a
+&quot;hysteric temperament,&quot; and are quite right, if such a conception is used
+to destroy the conception of hysteria as a definite disease. We cannot,
+however, fail to recognize a diathesis which, while still apparently
+healthy, is predisposed to hysteria. So distinguished a disciple of
+Charcot as Janet thoroughly recognizes this, and argues (<i>L'Etat mental</i>,
+etc., p. 298) that &quot;we may find in the habits, the passions, the psychic
+automatism of the normal man, the germ of all hysterical phenomena.&quot; F&eacute;r&eacute;
+held a somewhat similar view.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_285'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_285'>[285]</a><div class='note'><p> A. F. A. King, &quot;Hysteria,&quot; <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>,
+May 18, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_286'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_286'>[286]</a><div class='note'><p> M. Rosenthal, <i>Diseases of the Nervous System</i>, vol. ii, p.
+44. F&eacute;r&eacute; notes similar cases (<i>Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine</i>,
+vol. x, p. 551). Long previously, Gall had recorded the case of a young
+widow of ardent temperament who had convulsive attacks, apparently of
+hysterical nature, which always terminated in sexual orgasm (<i>Fonctions du
+Cerveau</i>, 1825, vol. iii, p. 245).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_287'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_287'>[287]</a><div class='note'><p> There seems to be a greater necessity for such explosive
+manifestations in women than in men, whatever the reason may be. I have
+brought together some of the evidence pointing in this direction in <i>Man
+and Woman</i>, 4th ed., revised and enlarged, Chapters xii and xiii.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_288'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_288'>[288]</a><div class='note'><p> There is no doubt an element of real truth in this ancient
+belief, though it mainly holds good of minor cases of hysteria. Many
+excellent authorities accept it. &quot;Hysteria is certainly common in the
+single,&quot; Herman remarks (<i>Diseases of Women</i>, 1898, p. 33), &quot;and is
+generally cured by a happy marriage.&quot; L&ouml;wenfeld (<i>Sexualleben und
+Nervenleiden</i>, p. 153) says that &quot;it cannot be denied that marriage
+produces a beneficial change in the general condition of many hysterical
+patients,&quot; though, he adds, it will not remove the hysterical temperament.
+The advantage of marriage for the hysterical is not necessarily due,
+solely or at all, to the exercise of sexual functions. This is pointed out
+by Mongeri, who observes (<i>Allgemeine Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, 1901,
+Heft 5, p. 917): &quot;I have known and treated several hysterical girls who
+are now married, and do not show the least neuropathic indications. Some
+of these no longer have any wish for sexual gratification, and even fulfil
+their marital duties unwillingly, though loving their husbands and living
+with them in an extremely happy way. In my opinion, marriage is a
+sovereign remedy for neuropathic women, who need to find a support in
+another personality, able to share with them the battle of life.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_III-E'></a><h3>III.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Prevalence of Masturbation&mdash;Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood&mdash;Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?&mdash;After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women&mdash;Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation&mdash;The Alleged Evils of Masturbation&mdash;Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point&mdash;The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation&mdash;Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders&mdash;Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders&mdash;The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System&mdash;Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation&mdash;Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus&mdash;Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation&mdash;Masturbation in Men of Genius&mdash;Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative&mdash;Typical Cases&mdash;The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation&mdash;Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians&mdash;The Mohammedan Attitude&mdash;The Modern
+Scientific Attitude&mdash;In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?&mdash;The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The foregoing sketch will serve to show how vast is the field of life&mdash;of
+normal and not merely abnormal life&mdash;more or less infused by auto-erotic
+phenomena. If, however, we proceed to investigate precisely the exact
+extent, degree, and significance of such phenomena, we are met by many
+difficulties. We find, indeed, that no attempts have been made to study
+auto-erotic phenomena, except as regards the group&mdash;a somewhat artificial
+group, as I have already tried to show&mdash;collected under the term
+&quot;masturbation&quot; while even here such attempts have only been made among
+abnormal classes of people, or have been conducted in a manner scarcely
+likely to yield reliable results.<a name='1_FNanchor_289'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_289'><sup>[289]</sup></a> Still there is a certain
+significance in the more careful investigations which have been made to
+ascertain the precise frequency of masturbation.</p>
+
+<p>Berger, an experienced specialist in nervous diseases, concluded, in his
+<i>Vorlesungen</i>, that 99 per cent. of young men and <a name='1_Page_236'></a>women masturbate
+occasionally, while the hundredth conceals the truth;<a name='1_FNanchor_290'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_290'><sup>[290]</sup></a> and Hermann
+Cohn appears to accept this statement as generally true in Germany. So
+high an estimate has, of course, been called in question, and, since it
+appears to rest on no basis of careful investigation, we need not
+seriously consider it. It is useless to argue on suppositions; we must
+cling to our definite evidence, even though it yields figures which are
+probably below the mark. Rohleder considers that during adolescence at
+least 95 per cent. of both sexes masturbate, but his figures are not
+founded on precise investigation.<a name='1_FNanchor_291'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_291'><sup>[291]</sup></a> Julian Marcuse, on the basis of his
+own statistics, concludes that 92 per cent. male individuals have to some
+extent masturbated in youth. Perhaps, also, weight attaches to the opinion
+of Dukes, physician to Rugby School, who states that from 90 to 95 per
+cent. of all boys at boarding school masturbate.<a name='1_FNanchor_292'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_292'><sup>[292]</sup></a> Seerley, of
+Springfield, Mass., found that of 125 academic students only 8 assured him
+they had never masturbated; while of 347, who answered his questions, 71
+denied that they practiced masturbation, which seems to imply that 79 per
+cent. admitted that they practiced it.<a name='1_FNanchor_293'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_293'><sup>[293]</sup></a> Brockman, also in America,
+among 232 theological students, of the average age of 23&frac12; years and coming
+from various parts of the United States, found that 132 spontaneously
+admitted that masturbation was their most serious temptation and all but
+one of these admitted that he yielded, 69 of them to a considerable
+extent. This is a proportion of at least 56 per cent., the real proportion
+being doubtless larger, since no question had been asked as to sexual
+offenses; 75 practiced masturbation after conversion, and 24 after they
+had decided to become ministers; only 66 mentioned sexual intercourse as
+their chief temptation; but altogether sexual temptations outnumbered all
+others together.<a name='1_FNanchor_294'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_294'><sup>[294]</sup></a> Moraglia, who made inquiry of 200 women of the lower
+class in Italy, <a name='1_Page_237'></a>found that 120 acknowledged either that they still
+masturbate or that they had done so during a long period.<a name='1_FNanchor_295'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_295'><sup>[295]</sup></a> Gualino
+found that 23 per cent. men of the professional classes in North Italy
+masturbate about puberty; no account was taken of those who began later.
+&quot;Here in Switzerland,&quot; a correspondent writes, &quot;I have had occasion to
+learn from adult men, whom I can trust, that they have reached the age of
+twenty-five, or over, without sexual congress. '<i>Wir haben nicht dieses
+Bed&uuml;rfniss</i>,' is what they say. But I believe that, in the case of the
+Swiss mountaineers, moderate onanism is practiced, as a rule.&quot; In hot
+countries the same habits are found at a more precocious age. In
+Venezuela, for instance, among the Spanish creoles, Ernst found that in
+all classes boys and girls are infested with the vice of onanism. They
+learn it early, in the very beginning of life, from their wet-nurses,
+generally low Mulatto women, and many reasons help to foster the habit;
+the young men are often dissipated and the young women often remain
+single.<a name='1_FNanchor_296'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_296'><sup>[296]</sup></a> Niceforo, who shows a special knowledge of the working-girl
+class at Rome, states that in many milliners' and dressmakers' workrooms,
+where young girls are employed, it frequently happens that during the
+hottest hours of the day, between twelve and two, when the mistress or
+forewoman is asleep, all the girls without exception give themselves up to
+masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_297'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_297'><sup>[297]</sup></a> In France a country <i>cur&eacute;</i> assured Debreyne that among
+the little girls who come up for their first communion, 11 out of 12 were
+given to masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_298'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_298'><sup>[298]</sup></a> The medical officer of a Prussian reformatory
+told Rohleder that nearly all the inmates over the age of puberty
+masturbated. Stanley Hall knew a reform school in America where
+masturbation was practiced without exception, and he who could <a name='1_Page_238'></a>practice
+it oftenest was regarded with hero-worship.<a name='1_FNanchor_299'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_299'><sup>[299]</sup></a> Ferriani, who has made an
+elaborate study of youthful criminality in Italy, states that even if all
+boys and girls among the general population do not masturbate, it is
+certainly so among those who have a tendency to crime. Among 458 adult
+male criminals, Marro (as he states in his <i>Caratteri dei Delinquenti</i>)
+found that only 72 denied masturbation, while 386 had practiced it from an
+early age, 140 of them before the age of thirteen. Among 30 criminal women
+Moraglia found that 24 acknowledged the practice, at all events in early
+youth (8 of them before the age of 10, a precocity accompanied by average
+precocity in menstruation), while he suspected that most of the remainder
+were not unfamiliar with the practice. Among prostitutes of whatever class
+or position Moraglia found masturbation (though it must be pointed out
+that he does not appear to distinguish masturbation very clearly from
+homosexual practices) to be universal; in one group of 50 prostitutes
+everyone had practiced masturbation at some period; 28 began between the
+ages of 6 and 11; 19, between 12 and 14, the most usual period&mdash;a
+precocious one&mdash;of commencing puberty; the remaining 3 at 15 and 16; the
+average age of commencing masturbation, it may be added, was 11, while
+that of the first sexual intercourse was 15.<a name='1_FNanchor_300'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_300'><sup>[300]</sup></a> In a larger group of 180
+prostitutes, belonging to Genoa, Turin, Venice, etc., and among 23
+&quot;elegant cocottes,&quot; of Italian and foreign origin, Moraglia obtained the
+same results; everyone admitted masturbation, and not less than 113
+preferred masturbation, either solitary or mutual, to normal coitus. Among
+the insane, as among idiots, masturbation is somewhat more common among
+males, according to Blandford, in England, as also it is in Germany,
+according to N&auml;cke,<a name='1_FNanchor_301'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_301'><sup>[301]</sup></a> while Venturi, in Italy, has found it more common
+among females.<a name='1_FNanchor_302'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_302'><sup>[302]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no limit to the age at which spontaneous masturbation
+may begin to appear. I have already referred to <a name='1_Page_239'></a>the practice of
+thigh-rubbing in infants under one year of age. J. P. West has reported in
+detail 3 cases of masturbation in very early childhood&mdash;2 in girls, 1 in a
+boy&mdash;in which the practice had been acquired spontaneously, and could only
+be traced to some source of irritation in pressure from clothing,
+etc.<a name='1_FNanchor_303'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_303'><sup>[303]</sup></a> Probably there is often in such cases some hereditary lack of
+nervous stability. Block has recorded the case of a girl&mdash;very bright for
+her age, though excessively shy and taciturn&mdash;who began masturbating
+spontaneously at the age of two; in this case the mother had masturbated
+all her life, even continuing the practice after marriage, and, though she
+succeeded in refraining during pregnancy, her thoughts still dwelt upon
+it, while the maternal grandmother had died in an asylum from
+&quot;masturbatory insanity.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Freud considers that auto-erotic manifestations are common in infancy, and
+that the rhythmic function of any sensitive spot, primarily the lips, may
+easily pass into masturbation. He regards the infantile manifestations of
+which thumb-sucking is the most familiar example (L&uuml;deln or Lutschen in
+German) as auto-erotic, the germ arising in sucking the breasts since the
+lips are an erogenous zone which may easily be excited by the warm stream
+of milk. But this only occurs, he points out, in subjects in whom the
+sensitivity of the lip zone is heightened and especially in those who at a
+later age are liable to become hysterical.<a name='1_FNanchor_304'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_304'><sup>[304]</sup></a> Shuttleworth also points
+out that the mere fidgetiness of a neurotic infant, even when only a few
+months old, sometimes leads to the spontaneous and accidental discovery of
+pleasurable sexual sensations, which for a time appease the restlessness
+of nervous instability, though a vicious circle is thus established. He
+has found that, especially among quite young girls of neurotic heredity,
+self-induced excitement, often in the form of thigh-friction, is more
+common than is usually supposed.<a name='1_FNanchor_305'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_305'><sup>[305]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Normally there appears to be a varying aptitude to experience <a name='1_Page_240'></a>the sexual
+organism, or any voluptuous sensations before puberty. I find, on
+eliciting the recollections of normal persons, that in some cases there
+have been voluptuous sensations from casual contact with the sexual organs
+at a very early age; in other cases there has been occasional slight
+excitement from early years; in yet other cases complete sexual an&aelig;sthesia
+until the age of puberty. That the latter condition is not due to mere
+absence of peripheral irritation is shown by a case I am acquainted with,
+in which a boy of 7, incited by a companion, innocently attempted, at
+intervals during several weeks, to produce erection by friction of the
+penis; no result of any kind followed, although erections occurred
+spontaneously at puberty, with normal sexual feelings.<a name='1_FNanchor_306'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_306'><sup>[306]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>I am indebted to a correspondent for the following notes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;From my observation during five years at a boarding-school, it
+    <i>seems</i> that eight out of ten boys were more or less addicted to
+    the practice. But I would not state <i>positively</i> that such was
+    the proportion of masturbators among an average of thirty pupils,
+    though the habit was very common. I know that in one bedroom,
+    sleeping seven boys, the whole number masturbated frequently. The
+    act was performed in bed, in the closets, and sometimes in the
+    classrooms during lessons. Inquiry among my friends as to onanism
+    in the boarding-schools to which they were sent, elicited
+    somewhat contradictory answers concerning the frequency of the
+    habit. Dr. &mdash;&mdash;, who went to a French school, told me that <i>all</i>
+    the older boys had younger accomplices in mutual masturbation. He
+    also spoke with experience of the prevalence of the practice in a
+    well-known public school in the west of England. B. said <i>all</i>
+    the boys at his school masturbated; G. stated that <i>most</i> of his
+    schoolmates were onanists; L. said 'more than half' was the
+    proportion.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;At my school, manual masturbation was both solitary and mutual;
+    and sometimes younger boys, who had not acquired the habit, were
+    induced to manipulate bigger boys. One very precocious boy of
+    fifteen always chose a companion of ten 'because his hand was
+    like a woman's.' Sometimes boys entered their friend's bed for
+    mutual excitement. In after-life they showed no signs of
+    inversion. Another boy, aged about fourteen, who had been seduced
+    by a servant-girl, embraced the bolster; the pleasurable
+    sensations, according to his statement, were heightened by
+    imagining that the bolster was a woman. He said that the
+    enjoyment <a name='1_Page_241'></a>of the act was greatly increased during the holidays,
+    when he was able to spread a pair of his sister's drawers upon
+    the pillow, and so intensify the illusion.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Before puberty the boys appeared to be more continent than
+    afterward. A few of the older and more intelligent masturbators
+    regulated the habit, as some married men regulate intercourse.
+    The big boy referred to, who chose always the same manipulator,
+    professed to indulge only once in twenty days, his reason being
+    that more frequent repetition of the act would injure his health.
+    About twice a week for boys who had reached puberty, and once a
+    week for younger boys, was, I think, about the average
+    indulgence. I have never met with a parallel of one of those
+    cases of excessive masturbation recorded by many doctors. There
+    may have been such cases at this school; but, if so, the boys
+    concealed the frequency of their gratifications.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;My experience proved that many of the lads regarded masturbation
+    as reprehensible; but their plea was 'everyone does it.' Some,
+    often those who indulged inordinately and more secretly than
+    their companions, gravely condemned the practice as sinful. A few
+    seemed to think there was 'no harm in it,' but that the habit
+    might stunt the growth and weaken the body if practiced very
+    frequently. The greater number made no attempt to conceal the
+    habit, they enlarged upon the pleasure of it; it was 'ever so
+    much nicer than eating tarts,' etc.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The chief cause I believe to be initiation by an older
+    schoolmate. But I have known accidental causes, such as the
+    discovery that swarming up a pole pleasurably excited the organ,
+    rubbing to allay irritation, and simple, curious handling of the
+    erect penis in the early morning before rising from bed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    I quote the foregoing communication as perhaps a fairly typical
+    experience in a British school, though I am myself inclined to
+    think that the prevalence of masturbation in schools is often
+    much overrated, for, while in some schools the practice is
+    doubtless rampant, in others it is practically unknown, or, at
+    all events, only practiced by a few individuals in secret. My own
+    early recollections of (private) school-life fail to yield any
+    reminiscences of any kind connected with either masturbation or
+    homosexuality; and, while such happy ignorance may be the
+    exception rather than the rule, I am certainly inclined to
+    believe that&mdash;owing to race and climate, and healthier conditions
+    of life&mdash;the sexual impulse is less precocious and less
+    prominently developed during the school-age in England than in
+    some Continental countries. It is probably to this delayed
+    development that we should attribute the contrast that Ferrero
+    finds (<i>L'Europa Giovane</i>, pp. 151-56), and certainly states too
+    absolutely, between the sexual reserve of young Englishmen and
+    the sexual immodesty of his own countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>    In Germany, N&auml;cke has also stated (&quot;Kritisches zum Kapitel der<a name='1_Page_242'></a>
+    Sexualit&auml;t,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, pp. 354-56, 1899) that he
+    heard nothing at school either of masturbation or homosexuality,
+    and he records the experience of medical friends who stated that
+    such phenomena were only rare exceptions, and regarded by the
+    majority of the boys as exhibitions of &quot;<i>Schweinerei</i>.&quot; At other
+    German schools, as Hoche has shown, sexual practices are very
+    prevalent. It is evident that at different schools, and even at
+    the same school at different times, these manifestations vary in
+    frequency within wide limits.</p>
+
+<p>    Such variations, it seems to me, are due to two causes. In the
+    first place, they largely depend upon the character of the more
+    influential elder boys. In the second place, they depend upon the
+    attitude of the head-master. With reference to this point I may
+    quote from a letter written by an experienced master in one of
+    the most famous English public schools: &quot;When I first came to
+    &mdash;&mdash;, a quarter of a century ago, Dr. &mdash;&mdash; was making a crusade
+    against this failing; boys were sent away wholesale; the school
+    was summoned and lectured solemnly; and the more the severities,
+    the more rampant the disease. I thought to myself that the remedy
+    was creating the malady, and I heard afterward, from an old boy,
+    that in those days they used to talk things over by the fireside,
+    and think there must be something very choice in a sin that
+    braved so much. Dr. &mdash;&mdash; went, and, under &mdash;&mdash;, we never spoke of
+    such things. Curiosity died down, and the thing itself, I
+    believe, was lessened. We were told to warn new boys of the
+    dangers to health and morals of such offences, lest the innocent
+    should be caught in ignorance. I have only spoken to a few; I
+    think the great thing is not to put it in boys' heads. I have
+    noticed solitary faults most commonly, and then I tell the boy
+    how he is physically weakening himself. If you notice, it is
+    puppies that seem to go against Nature, but grown dogs, never.
+    So, if two small boys acted thus, I should think it merely an
+    instinctive feeling after Nature, which would amend itself. Many
+    here would consider it a heinous sin, but those who think such
+    things sins make them sins. I have seen, in the old days, most
+    delightful little children sent away, branded with infamy, and
+    scarce knowing why&mdash;you might as well expel a boy for scratching
+    his head when it itched. I am sure the soundest way is to treat
+    it as a doctor would, and explain to the boy the physical effects
+    of over-indulgence of any sort. When it is combated from the
+    monkish standpoint, the evil becomes an epidemic.&quot; I am, however,
+    far from anxious to indorse the policy of ignoring the sexual
+    phenomena of youth. It is not the speaking about such things that
+    should be called in question, but the wisdom and good sense of
+    the speaker. We ought to expect a head-master to possess both an
+    adequate acquaintance with the nature of the phenomena of
+    auto-erotism and homosexuality, and a reasonable amount of tact
+    in dealing with boys; he may then fairly be trusted to exercise
+    his own judgment.<a name='1_Page_243'></a> It may be doubted whether boys should be made
+    too alive to the existence of sexual phenomena; there can be no
+    doubt about their teachers. The same is, of course, true as
+    regards girls, among whom the same phenomena, though less
+    obtrusive, are not less liable to occur. </p></div>
+
+<p>As to whether masturbation is more common in one sex than the other, there
+have been considerable differences of opinion. Tissot considered it more
+prevalent among women; Christian believed it commoner among men; Deslandes
+and Iwan Bloch hold that there are no sexual differences, and Garnier was
+doubtful. Lawson Tait, in his <i>Diseases of Women</i>, stated his opinion that
+in England, while very common among boys, it is relatively rare among
+women, and then usually taught. Spitzka, in America, also found it
+relatively rare among women, and Dana considers it commoner in boys than
+in girls or adults.<a name='1_FNanchor_307'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_307'><sup>[307]</sup></a> Moll is inclined to think that masturbation is
+less common in women and girls than in the male sex. Rohleder believes
+that after puberty, when it is equally common in both sexes, it is more
+frequently found in men, but that women masturbate with more passion and
+imaginative fervor.<a name='1_FNanchor_308'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_308'><sup>[308]</sup></a> Kellogg, in America, says it is equally prevalent
+in both sexes, but that women are more secretive. Morris, also in America,
+considers, on the other hand, that persistent masturbation is commoner in
+women, and accounts for this by the healthier life and traditions of boys.
+Pouillet, who studied the matter with considerable thoroughness in France,
+came to the conclusion that masturbation is commoner among <a name='1_Page_244'></a>women, among
+whom he found it to be equally prevalent in rich and poor, and especially
+so in the great centres of civilization. In Russia, Guttceit states in his
+<i>Dreissig Jahre Praxis</i>, that from the ages of 10 to 16 boys masturbate
+more than girls, who know less about the practice which has not for them
+the charm of the forbidden, but after 16 he finds the practice more
+frequent in girls and women than in youths and men. N&auml;cke, in Germany,
+believes that there is much evidence pointing in the same direction, and
+Adler considers masturbation very common in women. Moraglia is decidedly
+of the opinion, on the ground of his own observations already alluded to,
+that masturbation is more frequent among women; he refers to the fact&mdash;a
+very significant fact, as I shall elsewhere have to point out&mdash;that, while
+in man there is only one sexual centre, the penis, in woman there are
+several centres,&mdash;the clitoris, the vagina, the uterus, the
+breasts,<a name='1_FNanchor_309'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_309'><sup>[309]</sup></a>&mdash;and he mentions that he knew a prostitute, a well-developed
+brunette of somewhat nervous temperament, who boasted that she knew
+fourteen ways of masturbating herself.</p>
+
+<p>My own opinion is that the question of the sexual distribution of
+masturbation has been somewhat obscured by that harmful tendency, to which
+I have already alluded, to concentrate attention on a particular set of
+auto-erotic phenomena. We must group and divide our facts rationally if we
+wish to command them. If we confine our attention to very young children,
+the available evidence shows that the practice is much more common in
+females,<a name='1_FNanchor_310'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_310'><sup>[310]</sup></a> and such a result is in harmony with the fact that
+precocious puberty is most often found in female children.<a name='1_FNanchor_311'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_311'><sup>[311]</sup></a> At
+<a name='1_Page_245'></a>puberty and adolescence occasional or frequent masturbation is common in
+both boys and girls, though, I believe, less common than is sometimes
+supposed; it is difficult to say whether it is more prevalent among boys
+or girls; one is inclined to conclude that it prevails more widely among
+boys. The sexual impulse, and consequently the tendency to masturbation,
+tend to be aroused later, and less easily in girls than in youths, though
+it must also be remembered that boys' traditions and their more active
+life keep the tendency in abeyance, while in girls there is much less
+frequently any restraining influence of corresponding character.<a name='1_FNanchor_312'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_312'><sup>[312]</sup></a> In
+my study of inversion I have found that ignorance and the same absence of
+tradition are probably factors in the prevalence of homosexual tendencies
+among women.<a name='1_FNanchor_313'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_313'><sup>[313]</sup></a> After adolescence I think there can be no doubt that
+masturbation is more common in women than in men. Men have, by this time,
+mostly adopted some method of sexual gratification with the opposite sex;
+women are to a much larger extent shut out from such gratification;
+moreover, while in rare cases women are sexually precocious, it more often
+happens that their sexual impulses only gain strength and
+self-consciousness after adolescence has passed. I have been much
+impressed by the frequency with which masturbation is occasionally
+(especially about the period of menstruation) practiced by active,
+intelligent, and <a name='1_Page_246'></a>healthy women who otherwise lead a chaste life. This
+experience is confirmed by others who are in a position to ascertain the
+facts among normal people; thus a lady, who has received the confidence of
+many women, told me that she believes that all women who remain unmarried
+masturbate, as she found so much evidence pointing in this direction.<a name='1_FNanchor_314'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_314'><sup>[314]</sup></a>
+This statement certainly needs some qualification, though I believe it is
+not far from the truth as regards young and healthy women who, after
+having normal sexual relationships, have been compelled for some reason or
+other to break them off and lead a lonely life.<a name='1_FNanchor_315'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_315'><sup>[315]</sup></a> But we have to
+remember that there are some women, evidently with a considerable degree
+of congenital sexual an&aelig;sthesia (no doubt, in some respect or another
+below the standard of normal health), in whom the sexual instinct has
+never been aroused, and who not only do not masturbate, but do not show
+any desire for normal gratification; while in a large proportion of other
+cases the impulse is gratified passively in ways I have already referred
+to. The auto-erotic phenomena which take place in this way, spontaneously,
+by yielding to revery, with little or no active interference, certainly
+occur much more frequently in women than in men. On the other hand,
+contrary to what one might be led to expect, the closely-related
+auto-erotic phenomena during sleep seem to take place more frequently in
+men, although in women, as we have found ground for concluding, they
+reverberate much more widely and impressively on the waking psychical
+life.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>We owe to Restif de la Bretonne what is perhaps the earliest
+    precise description of a woman masturbating. In 1755 he knew a
+    dark young woman, plain but well-made, and of warm temperament,
+    educated in a convent. She was observed one day, when gazing from
+    her window at a young man in whom she was tenderly interested, to
+    become much excited. &quot;Her movements became agitated; I approached
+    her, and really believe that she was uttering affectionate
+    expressions; she had become red. Then she sighed deeply, and
+    became motionless, <a name='1_Page_247'></a>stretching out her legs, which she stiffened,
+    as if she felt pain.&quot; It is further hinted that her hands took
+    part in this man&oelig;uvre (<i>Monsieur Nicolas</i>, vol. vi, p.
+    143).</p>
+
+<p>    Pictorial representations of a woman masturbating also occur in
+    eighteenth century engravings. Thus, in France, Baudouin's &quot;Le
+    Midi&quot; (reproduced in Fuchs's <i>Das Erotische Element in der
+    Karikatur</i>, Fig. 92), represents an elegant young lady in a
+    rococo garden-bower; she has been reading a book she has now just
+    dropped, together with her sunshade; she leans languorously back,
+    and her hand begins to find its way through her placket-hole.</p>
+
+<p>    Adler, who has studied masturbation in women with more care than
+    any previous writer, has recorded in detail the auto-erotic
+    manifestations involved in the case of an intelligent and
+    unprejudiced woman, aged 30, who had begun masturbating when
+    twenty, and practiced it at intervals of a few weeks. She
+    experienced the desire for sexual gratification under the
+    following circumstances: (1) spontaneously, directly before or
+    after menstruation; (2) as a method to cure sleeplessness; (3)
+    after washing the parts with warm (but not cold) water; (4) after
+    erotic dreams; (5) quite suddenly, without definite cause. The
+    phenomena of the masturbatory process fell into two stages: (1)
+    incomplete excitement, (2) the highest pleasurable gratification.
+    It only took place in the evening, or at night, and a special
+    position was necessary, with the right knee bent, and the right
+    foot against the knee of the extended left leg. The bent index
+    and middle fingers of the right hand were then applied firmly to
+    the lower third of the left labium minus, which was rubbed
+    against the underlying parts. At this stage, the manifestations
+    sometimes stopped, either from an effort of self-control or from
+    fatigue of the arm. There was no emission of mucus, or general
+    perspiration, but some degree of satisfaction and of fatigue,
+    followed by sleep. If, however, the manipulation was continued,
+    the second stage was reached, and the middle finger sank into the
+    vagina, while the index finger remained on the labium, the rest
+    of the hand holding and compressing the whole of the vulva, from
+    pubes to anus, against the symphysis, with a backwards and
+    forwards movement, the left hand also being frequently used to
+    support and assist the right. The parts now gave a mushroom-like
+    feeling to the touch, and in a few seconds, or after a longer
+    interval, the complete feeling of pleasurable satisfaction was
+    attained. At the same moment there was (but only after she had
+    had experience of coitus) an involuntary elevation of the pelvis,
+    together with emission of mucus, making the hand wet, this mucus
+    having an odor, and being quite distinct from the ordinary
+    odorless mucus of the vagina; at the same time, the finger in the
+    vagina felt slight contractions of the whole vaginal wall. The
+    climax of sexual pleasure lasted a few seconds, with its
+    concomitant <a name='1_Page_248'></a>vaginal contractions, then slowly subsided with a
+    feeling of general well-being, the finger at the same time
+    slipping out of the vagina, and she was left in a state of
+    general perspiration, and sleep would immediately follow; when
+    this was not the case, she was frequently conscious of some
+    degree of sensibility in the sacrum, lasting for several hours,
+    and especially felt when sitting. When masturbation was the
+    result of an erotic dream (which occurred but seldom), the first
+    stage was already reached in sleep, and the second was more
+    quickly obtained. During the act it was only occasionally that
+    any thoughts of men or of coitus were present, the attention
+    being fixed on the coming climax. The psychic state afterwards
+    was usually one of self-reproach. (O. Adler, <i>Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>, 1904, pp. 26-29.) The
+    phenomena in this case may be regarded as fairly typical, but
+    there are many individual variations; mucus emissions and vaginal
+    contractions frequently occur before actual orgasm, and there is
+    not usually any insertion of the finger into the vagina in women
+    who have never experienced coitus, or, indeed, even in those who
+    have. </p></div>
+
+<p>We must now turn to that aspect of our subject which in the past has
+always seemed the only aspect of auto-erotic phenomena meriting attention:
+the symptoms and results of chronic masturbation. It appears to have been
+an Englishman who, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, first
+called popular attention to the supposed evils of masturbation. His book
+was published in London, and entitled: <i>Onania, or the Heinous Sin of
+Self-pollution, and all its Frightful Consequences in both Sexes,
+Considered, with Spiritual and Physical Advice</i>, etc. It is not a serious
+medical treatise, but an early and certainly superior example of a kind of
+literature which we have since become familiar with through the daily
+newspapers. A large part of the book, which is cleverly written, is
+devoted in the later editions to the letters of nervous and
+hypochondriacal young men and women, who are too shy to visit the author,
+but request him to send a bottle of his &quot;Strengthening Tincture,&quot; and
+mention that they are inclosing half a guinea, a guinea, or still larger
+sum. Concerning the composition of the &quot;Strengthening Tincture&quot; we are not
+informed.<a name='1_FNanchor_316'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_316'><sup>[316]</sup></a> This work, which was subsequently attributed <a name='1_Page_249'></a>to a writer
+named Bekkers, is said to have passed through no less than eighty
+editions, and it was translated into German. Tissot, a physician of
+Lausanne, followed with his <i>Trait&eacute; de l'Onanisme: Dissertation sur les
+Maladies produites par la Masturbation</i>, first published in Latin (1760),
+then in French (1764), and afterward in nearly all European languages. He
+regarded masturbation as a crime, and as &quot;an act of suicide.&quot; His book is
+a production of amusing exaggeration and rhetoric, zealously setting forth
+the prodigious evils of masturbation in a style which combines, as
+Christian remarks, the strains of Rousseau with a vein of religious piety.
+Tissot included only manual self-abuse under the term &quot;onanism;&quot; shortly
+afterward, Voltaire, in his <i>Dictionnaire Philosophique</i>, took up the
+subject, giving it a wider meaning and still further popularizing it.
+Finally Lallemand, at a somewhat later period (1836), wrote a book which
+was, indeed, more scientific in character, but which still sought to
+represent masturbation as the source of all evils. These four writers&mdash;the
+author of <i>Onania</i>, Tissot, Voltaire, Lallemand&mdash;are certainly responsible
+for much. The mistaken notions of many medical authorities, carried on by
+tradition, even down to our own time; the powerful lever which has been
+put into the hand of unscrupulous quacks; the suffering, dread, and
+remorse experienced in silence by many thousands of ignorant and often
+innocent young people may all be traced in large measure back to these
+four well-meaning, but (on this question) misguided, authors.</p>
+
+<p>There is really no end to the list of real or supposed symptoms and
+results of masturbation, as given by various medical writers during the
+last century. Insanity, epilepsy, numerous forms of eye disease,
+supra-orbital headache, occipital headache (Spitzka), strange sensations
+at the top of the head (Savage), various forms of neuralgia (Anstie, J.
+Chapman), tenderness of the skin in the lower dorsal region (Chapman),
+mammary tenderness in young girls (Lacassagne), mammary hypertrophy
+(Ossendovsky), asthma (Peyer), cardiac murmurs (Seerley), the appearance
+of vesicles on wounds (Baraduc), acne and other forms of cutaneous
+eruptions (the author of <i>Onania</i>, Clipson), <a name='1_Page_250'></a>dilated pupils (Skene,
+Lewis, Moraglia), eyes directed upward and sideways (Pouillet), dark rings
+around the eyes, intermittent functional deafness (Bonnier), painful
+menstruation (J. Chapman), catarrh of uterus and vagina (Winckel,
+Pouillet), ovarian disease (Jessett), pale and discolored skin (Lewis,
+Moraglia), redness of nose (Gruner), epistaxis (Joal, J. N. Mackenzie),
+morbid changes in nose (Fliess), convulsive cough of puberty (Gowers),
+acidity of vagina (R. W. Shufeldt), incontinence of urine in young women
+(Girandeau), warts on the hands in women (Durr, Kreichmar, von Oye),
+hallucinations of smell and hearing, (Griesinger, Lewis), intermittent
+functional deafness (Bonnier), indican in the urine (Herter), an
+indescribable odor of the skin in women (Skene), these are but a few of
+the signs and consequences of masturbation given by various prominent
+authorities.<a name='1_FNanchor_317'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_317'><sup>[317]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>That many of these manifestations do occur in connection with masturbation
+is unquestionable; there is also good reason to believe that some of them
+may be the results of masturbation acting on an imperfectly healthy
+organism. But in all such cases we must speak with great caution, for
+there appears to be little reliable evidence to show that simple
+masturbation, in a well-born and healthy individual, can produce any evil
+results beyond slight functional disturbances, and these only when it is
+practiced in excess. To illustrate the real pathological relationships of
+masturbation, a few typical and important disorders may be briefly
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>The delicate mechanism of the eye is one of the first portions of the
+nervous apparatus to be disturbed by any undue strain on the system; it is
+not surprising that masturbation should be widely incriminated as a cause
+of eye troubles. If, however, we inquire into the results obtained by the
+most cautious and experienced ophthalmological observers, it grows evident
+that masturbation, as a cause of disease of the eye, becomes merged into
+wider causes. In Germany, Hermann Cohn, the distinguished ophthalmic
+surgeon of Breslau, has dealt fully with the <a name='1_Page_251'></a>question.<a name='1_FNanchor_318'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_318'><sup>[318]</sup></a> Cohn, who
+believes that all young men and women masturbate to some extent, finds
+that masturbation must be excessive for eye trouble to become apparent. In
+most of his cases there was masturbation several times daily during from
+five to seven years, in many during ten years, and in one during
+twenty-three years. In such cases we are obviously dealing with abnormal
+persons, and no one will dispute the possibility of harmful results; in
+some of the cases, when masturbation was stopped, the eye trouble
+improved. Even in these cases, however, the troubles were but slight, the
+chief being, apparently, photopsia (a subjective sensation of light) with
+otherwise normal conditions of pupil, vision, color-sense, and retina. In
+some cases there was photophobia, and he has also found paralysis of
+accommodation and conjunctivitis. At a later date Salmo Cohn, in his
+comprehensive monograph on the relationship between the eye and the sexual
+organs in women, brought together numerous cases of eye troubles in young
+women associated with masturbation, but in most of these cases
+masturbation had been practiced with great frequency for a long period and
+the ocular affections were usually not serious.<a name='1_FNanchor_319'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_319'><sup>[319]</sup></a> In England, Power has
+investigated the relations of the sexual system to eye disease. He is
+inclined to think that the effects of masturbation have been exaggerated,
+but he believes that it may produce such for the most part trivial
+complaints as photopsis&aelig;, muscs&aelig;, muscular asthenopia, possibly
+blepharospasm, and perhaps conjunctivitis. He goes on, however, to point
+out that more serious complaints of the eye are caused by excess in normal
+coitus, by sexual abstinence, and especially by disordered menstruation.
+Thus we see that even when we are considering a mechanism so delicately
+poised and one so easily disturbed by any jar of the system as vision,
+masturbation produces no effect except when carried to an extent which
+argues a hereditarily imperfect organism, while even in these cases the
+effects are usually but slight, moreover, in no respect specific, but <a name='1_Page_252'></a>are
+paralleled and even exceeded by the results of other disturbances of the
+sexual system.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn to the supposed influence of masturbation in causing insanity
+and nervous diseases. Here we may chiefly realize the immense influence
+exerted on medical science by Tissot and his followers during a hundred
+years. Mental weakness is the cause and not the result of excessive
+masturbation, Gall declared,<a name='1_FNanchor_320'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_320'><sup>[320]</sup></a> but he was a man of genius, in
+isolation. Sir William Ellis, an alienist of considerable reputation at
+the beginning of the last century, could write with scientific equanimity:
+&quot;I have no hesitation in saying that, in a very large number of patients
+in all public asylums, the disease may be attributed to that cause.&quot; He
+does, indeed, admit that it may be only a symptom sometimes, but goes on
+to assert that masturbation &quot;has not hitherto been exhibited in the awful
+light in which it deserves to be shown,&quot; and that &quot;in by far the greater
+number of cases&quot; it is the true cause of dementia.<a name='1_FNanchor_321'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_321'><sup>[321]</sup></a> Esquirol lent his
+name and influence to a similar view of the pernicious influence of
+masturbation. Throughout the century, even down to the present day, this
+point of view has been traditionally preserved in a modified form. In
+apparent ignorance of the enormous prevalence of masturbation, and
+without, so far as can be seen, any attempt to distinguish between cause
+and effect or to eliminate the hereditary neuropathic element, many
+alienists have set down a large proportion of cases of insanity, idiocy,
+epilepsy, and disease of the spinal cord to uncomplicated masturbation.
+Thus, at the Matteawan State Hospital (New York) for criminal lunatics and
+insane prisoners, from 1875 to 1907, masturbation was the sole assigned
+cause of insanity in 160 men (out of 2,595); while, according to Dr. Clara
+Barrus, among 121 cases of insanity in young women, masturbation is the
+cause in ten cases.<a name='1_FNanchor_322'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_322'><sup>[322]</sup></a> It is unnecessary to multiply examples, for this
+traditional tendency is familiar to all. </p><a name='1_Page_253'></a>
+
+<p>It appears to have been largely due to Griesinger, in the middle of the
+last century, that we owe the first authoritative appearance of a saner,
+more discriminating view regarding the results of masturbation. Although
+still to some extent fettered by the traditions prevalent in his day,
+Griesinger saw that it was not so much masturbation itself as the feelings
+aroused in sensitive minds by the social attitude toward masturbation
+which produced evil effects. &quot;That constant struggle,&quot; he wrote, &quot;against
+a desire which is even overpowering, and to which the individual always in
+the end succumbs, that hidden strife between shame, repentance, good
+intentions, and the irritation which impels to the act, this, after not a
+little acquaintance with onanists, we consider to be far more important
+than the primary direct physical effect.&quot; He added that there are no
+specific signs of masturbation, and concluded that it is oftener a symptom
+than a cause. The general progress of educated opinions since that date
+has, in the main, confirmed and carried forward the results cautiously
+stated by Griesinger. This distinguished alienist thought that, when
+practiced in childhood, masturbation might lead to insanity. Berkhan, in
+his investigation of the psychoses of childhood, found that in no single
+case was masturbation a cause. Vogel, Uffelmann, and Emminghaus, in the
+course of similar studies, have all come to almost similar
+conclusions.<a name='1_FNanchor_323'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_323'><sup>[323]</sup></a> It is only on a congenitally morbid nervous system,
+Emminghaus insists, that masturbation can produce any serious results.
+&quot;Most of the cases charged to masturbation,&quot; writes Kiernan (in a private
+letter), basing his opinion on wide clinical experience, &quot;are either
+hebephrenia or hysteria in which an effect is taken for the cause.&quot;
+Christian, during twenty years' experience in hospitals, asylums, and
+private practice in town and country, has not found any seriously evil
+effects from masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_324'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_324'><sup>[324]</sup></a> He thinks, indeed, that it may be a more
+serious evil in women than in men. But Yellowlees considers that in women<a name='1_Page_254'></a>
+&quot;it is possibly less exhausting and injurious than in the other sex,&quot;
+which was also the opinion of Hammond, as well as of Guttceit, though he
+found that women pushed the practice much further than men, and N&auml;cke, who
+has given special attention to this point, could not find that
+masturbation is a definite cause of insanity in women in a single
+case.<a name='1_FNanchor_325'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_325'><sup>[325]</sup></a> Koch also reaches a similar conclusion, as regards both sexes,
+though he admits that masturbation may cause some degree of psychopathic
+deterioration. Even in this respect, however, he points out that &quot;when
+practiced in moderation it is not injurious in the certain and
+exceptionless way in which it is believed to be in many circles. It is the
+people whose nervous systems are already injured who masturbate most
+easily and practice it more immoderately than others&quot;; the chief source of
+its evil is self-reproach and the struggle with the impulse.<a name='1_FNanchor_326'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_326'><sup>[326]</sup></a>
+Kahlbaum, it is true, under the influence of the older tradition, when he
+erected katatonia into a separate disorder (not always accepted in later
+times), regarded prolonged and excessive masturbation as a chief cause,
+but I am not aware that he ever asserted that it was a sole and sufficient
+cause in a healthy organism. Kiernan, one of the earliest writers on
+katatonia, was careful to point out that masturbation was probably as much
+effect as cause of the morbid nervous condition.<a name='1_FNanchor_327'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_327'><sup>[327]</sup></a> Maudsley (in <i>Body
+and Mind</i>) recognized masturbation as a special exciting cause of a
+characteristic form of insanity; but he cautiously added: &quot;Nevertheless, I
+think that self-abuse seldom, if ever, produces it without the
+co-operation of the insane neurosis.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_328'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_328'><sup>[328]</sup></a> Sch&uuml;le also recognized a
+specific masturbatory insanity, but the general tendency to reject any
+such nosological form is becoming marked; Krafft-Ebing long since rejected
+it and N&auml;cke decidedly opposes it. Kraepelin states that excessive
+masturbation can only occur in a dangerous degree in predisposed
+<a name='1_Page_255'></a>subjects; so, also, Forel and L&ouml;wenfeld, as at an earlier period,
+Trousseau.<a name='1_FNanchor_329'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_329'><sup>[329]</sup></a> It is true that Marro, in his admirable and detailed study
+of the normal and abnormal aspects of puberty, accepts a form of
+masturbatory insanity; but the only illustrative case he brings forward is
+a young man possessing various stigmata of degeneracy and the son of an
+alcoholic father; such a case tells us nothing regarding the results of
+simple masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_330'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_330'><sup>[330]</sup></a> Even Spitzka, who maintained several years ago
+the traditional views as to the terrible results of masturbation, and
+recognized a special &quot;insanity of masturbation,&quot; stated his conclusions
+with a caution that undermined his position: &quot;Self-abuse,&quot; he concluded,
+&quot;to become a sole cause of insanity, must be begun early and carried very
+far. In persons of sound antecedents it rarely, under these circumstances,
+suffices to produce an actual vesania.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_331'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_331'><sup>[331]</sup></a> When we remember that there
+is no convincing evidence to show that masturbation is &quot;begun early and
+carried very far&quot; by &quot;persons of sound antecedents,&quot; the significance of
+Spitzka's &quot;typical psychosis of masturbation&quot; is somewhat annulled. It is
+evident that these distinguished investigators, Marro and Spitzka, have
+been induced by tradition to take up a position which their own scientific
+consciences have compelled them practically to evacuate.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Recent authorities are almost unanimous in rejecting masturbation
+    as a cause of insanity. Thus, Rohleder, in his comprehensive
+    monograph (<i>Die Masturbation</i>, 1899, pp. 185-92), although taking
+    a very serious view of the evil results of masturbation, points
+    out the unanimity which is now tending to prevail on this point,
+    and lays it down that &quot;masturbation is never the direct cause of
+    insanity.&quot; Sexual excesses of any kind, he adds (following
+    Curschmann), can, at the most, merely give an impetus to a latent
+    form of insanity. On the whole, he concludes, the best
+    authorities are unanimous in agreeing that masturbation may
+    certainly injure mental capacity, by weakening memory and
+    depressing intellectual energy; that, further, in hereditarily
+    neurotic subjects, it may produce slight psychoses like <i>folie du
+    doute</i>, <a name='1_Page_256'></a>hypochondria, hysteria; that, finally, under no
+    circumstances can it produce severe psychoses like paranoia or
+    general paralysis. &quot;If it caused insanity, as often as some
+    claim,&quot; as Kellogg remarks, &quot;the whole race would long since have
+    passed into masturbatic degeneracy of mind.... It is especially
+    injurious in the very young, and in all who have weak nervous
+    systems,&quot; but &quot;the physical traits attributed to the habit are
+    common to thousands of neurasthenic and neurotic individuals.&quot;
+    (Kellogg, <i>A Text-book of Mental Diseases</i>, 1897, pp. 94-95.)
+    Again, at the outset of the article on &quot;Masturbation,&quot; in Tuke's
+    <i>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine</i>, Yellowlees states that,
+    on account of the mischief formerly done by reckless statements,
+    it is necessary to state plainly that &quot;unless the practice has
+    been long and greatly indulged, no permanent evil effects may be
+    observed to follow.&quot; N&auml;cke, again, has declared (&quot;Kritisches zum
+    Kapitel der Sexualit&auml;t,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, 1899): &quot;There
+    are neither somatic nor psychic symptoms peculiar on onanism. Nor
+    is there any specific onanistic psychosis. I am prepared to deny
+    that onanism ever produces any psychoses in those who are not
+    already predisposed.&quot; That such a view is now becoming widely
+    prevalent is illustrated by the cautious and temperate discussion
+    of masturbation in a recent work by a non-medical writer,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer (<i>Chapters on Human Love</i>, pp. 199-205). </p></div>
+
+<p>The testimony of expert witnesses with regard to the influence of
+masturbation in producing other forms of psychoses and neuroses is
+becoming equally decisive; and here, also, the traditions of Tissot are
+being slowly effaced. &quot;I have not, in the whole of my practice,&quot; wrote
+West, forty years ago, &quot;out of a large experience among children and
+women, seen convulsions, epilepsy, or idiocy <i>induced</i> by masturbation in
+any child of either sex. Neither have I seen any instance in which
+hysteria, epilepsy, or insanity in women after puberty was <i>due</i> to
+masturbation, as its efficient cause.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_332'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_332'><sup>[332]</sup></a> Gowers speaks somewhat less
+positively, but regards masturbation as not so much a cause of true
+epilepsy as of atypical attacks, sometimes of a character intermediate
+between the hysteroid and the epileptoid form; this relationship he has
+frequently seen in boys.<a name='1_FNanchor_333'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_333'><sup>[333]</sup></a> Leyden, among the causes of diseases of the
+spinal cord, does not include any form <a name='1_Page_257'></a>of sexual excess. &quot;In moderation,&quot;
+Erb remarks, &quot;masturbation is not more dangerous to the spinal cord than
+natural coitus, and has no bad effects&quot;;<a name='1_FNanchor_334'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_334'><sup>[334]</sup></a> it makes no difference, Erb
+considers, whether the orgasm is effected normally or in solitude. This is
+also the opinion of Toulouse, of F&uuml;rbringer, and of Curschmann, as at an
+earlier period it was of Roubaud.</p>
+
+<p>While these authorities are doubtless justified in refusing to ascribe to
+masturbation any part in the production of psychic or nervous diseases, it
+seems to me that they are going somewhat beyond their province when they
+assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than coitus. If
+sexual coitus were a purely physiological phenomenon, this position would
+be sound. But the sexual orgasm is normally bound up with a mass of
+powerful emotions aroused by a person of the opposite sex. It is in the
+joy caused by the play of these emotions, as well as in the discharge of
+the sexual orgasm, that the satisfaction of coitus resides. In the absence
+of the desired partner the orgasm, whatever relief it may give, must be
+followed by a sense of dissatisfaction, perhaps of depression, even of
+exhaustion, often of shame and remorse. The same remark has since been
+made by Stanley Hall.<a name='1_FNanchor_335'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_335'><sup>[335]</sup></a> Practically, also, as John Hunter pointed out,
+there is more probability of excess in masturbation than in coitus.
+Whether, as some have asserted, masturbation involves a greater nervous
+effort than coitus is more doubtful.<a name='1_FNanchor_336'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_336'><sup>[336]</sup></a> It thus seems somewhat
+misleading to assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than
+coitus.<a name='1_FNanchor_337'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_337'><sup>[337]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Reviewing the general question of the supposed grave symptoms <a name='1_Page_258'></a>and signs
+of masturbation, and its pernicious results, we may reach the conclusion
+that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born
+individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow.<a name='1_FNanchor_338'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_338'><sup>[338]</sup></a> With
+regard to the general signs, we may accept, as concerns both sexes, what
+the Obstetrical and Gynecological Society of Berlin decided in 1861, in a
+discussion of it in women, that there are none which can be regarded as
+reliable.<a name='1_FNanchor_339'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_339'><sup>[339]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>We may conclude finally, with Clouston, that the opposing views on the
+subject may be simply explained by the fact that the writers on both sides
+have ignored or insufficiently recognized the influence of heredity and
+temperament. They have done precisely what so many unscientific writers on
+inebriety have continued to do unto the present day, when describing the
+terrible results of alcohol without pointing out that the chief factor in
+such cases has not been the alcohol, but the organization on which the
+alcohol acted. Excess may act, according to the familiar old-fashioned
+adage, like the lighted match. But we must always remember the obvious
+truth, that it makes a considerable <a name='1_Page_259'></a>difference whether you threw your
+lighted match into a powder magazine or into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>While we may thus dismiss the extravagant views widely held during the
+past century, concerning the awful results of masturbation, as due to
+ignorance and false tradition, it must be pointed out that, even in
+healthy or moderately healthy individuals, any excess in solitary
+self-excitement may still produce results which, though slight, are yet
+harmful. The skin, digestion, and circulation may all be disordered;
+headache and neuralgia may occur; and, as in normal sexual excess or in
+undue frequency of sexual excitement during sleep, there is a certain
+general lowering of nervous tone. Probably the most important of the
+comparatively frequent results&mdash;though this also arises usually on a
+somewhat morbid soil&mdash;is neurasthenia with its manifold symptoms. There
+can be little doubt that the ancient belief, dating from the time of
+Hippocrates, that sexual excesses produce spinal disease, as well as the
+belief that masturbation causes insanity, are largely due to the failure
+to diagnose neurasthenia.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The following case of neurasthenia, recorded by Eulenburg, may be
+    given as a classical picture of the nervous disturbances which
+    may be associated with masturbation, and are frequently regarded
+    as solely caused by habits of masturbation: Miss H. H., 28 years
+    of age, a robust brunette, with fully developed figure, without
+    any trace of an&aelig;mia or chlorosis, but with an apathetic
+    expression, bluish rings around the eyes, with hypochondriacal
+    and melancholy feelings. She complains of pressure on the head
+    (&quot;as if head would burst&quot;), giddiness, ringing in the ears,
+    photopsia, hemicrania, pains in the back and at sacrum, and
+    symptoms of spinal adynamia, with a sense of fatigue on the least
+    exertion in walking or standing; she sways when standing with
+    closed eyes, tendon-reflexes exaggerated; there is a sense of
+    oppression, intercostal neuralgia, and all the signs of
+    neurasthenic dyspepsia; and cardialgia, nausea, flatulence,
+    meteorism, and alternate constipation and diarrh&oelig;a. She
+    chiefly complains of a feeling of weight and pain in the abdomen,
+    caused by the slightest movement, and of a form of pollution
+    (with clitoridian spasms), especially near menstruation, with
+    copious flow of mucus, characteristic pains, and
+    hyperexcitability. Menstruation was irregular and profuse.
+    Examination showed tumid and elongated nymph&aelig;, with brown
+    pigmentation; rather large vagina, with rudimentary <a name='1_Page_260'></a>hymen; and
+    retroflexion of uterus. After much persuasion the patient
+    confessed that, when a girl of 12, and as the result of repeated
+    attempts at coitus by a boy of 16, she had been impelled to
+    frequent masturbation. This had caused great shame and remorse,
+    which, however, had not sufficed to restrain the habit. Her
+    mother having died, she lived alone with her invalid father, and
+    had no one in whom to confide. Regarding herself as no longer a
+    virgin, she had refused several offers of marriage, and thus
+    still further aggravated her mental condition. (Eulenburg,
+    <i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 31.)</p>
+
+<p>    Since Beard first described neurasthenia, many diverse opinions
+    have been expressed concerning the relationships of sexual
+    irregularities to neurasthenia. Gilles de la Tourette, in his
+    little monograph on neurasthenia, following the traditions of
+    Charcot's school, dismisses the question of any sexual causation
+    without discussion. Binswanger (<i>Die Pathologie und Therapie der
+    Neurasthenie</i>), while admitting that nearly all neurasthenic
+    persons acknowledge masturbation at some period, considers it is
+    not an important cause of neurasthenia, only differing from
+    coitus by the fact that the opportunities for it are more
+    frequent, and that the sexual disturbances of neurasthenia are,
+    in the majority of cases, secondary. Rohleder, on the other hand,
+    who takes a very grave view of the importance of masturbation,
+    considers that its most serious results are a question of
+    neurasthenia. Krafft-Ebing has declared his opinion that
+    masturbation is a cause of neurasthenia. Christian, Leyden, Erb,
+    Rosenthal, Beard, Hummel, Hammond, Hermann Cohn, Curschmann,
+    Savill, Herman, F&uuml;rbringer, all attach chief importance to
+    neurasthenia as a result of masturbation. Collins and Phillip
+    (<i>Medical Record</i>, March 25, 1899), in an analysis of 333 cases
+    of neurasthenia, found that 123 cases were apparently due to
+    overwork or masturbation. Freud concludes that neurasthenia
+    proper can nearly always be traced to excessive masturbation, or
+    to spontaneous pollutions. (<i>E.g.</i>, <i>Sammlung Kleiner Schriften
+    zur Neurosenlehre</i>, first series, p. 187.) This view is confirmed
+    by Gattel's careful study (<i>Ueber die Sexuellen Ursachen der
+    Neurasthenie und Angstneurose</i>, 1898). Gattel investigated 100
+    consecutive cases of severe functional nervous disorder in
+    Krafft-Ebing's clinic at Vienna, and found that in every case of
+    neurasthenia in a male (28 in all) there was masturbation, while
+    of the 15 women with neurasthenia, only one is recorded as not
+    masturbating, and she practiced <i>coitus reservatus</i>. Irrespective
+    of the particular form of the nervous disorder, Gattel found that
+    18 women out of 42, and 36 men out of 58, acknowledged
+    masturbation. (This shows a slightly larger proportion among the
+    men, but the men were mostly young, while the women were mostly
+    of more mature age.) It must, however, always be remembered that
+    we have no equally careful statistics of masturbation in
+    perfectly healthy persons. We must also remember that we have to
+    distinguish <a name='1_Page_261'></a>between the <i>post</i> and the <i>propter</i>, and that it is
+    quite possible that neurasthenic persons are specially
+    predisposed to masturbation. Bloch is of this opinion, and
+    remarks that a vicious circle may thus be formed.</p>
+
+<p>    On the whole, there can be little doubt that neurasthenia is
+    liable to be associated with masturbation carried to an excessive
+    extent. But, while neurasthenia is probably the severest
+    affection that is liable to result from, or accompany,
+    masturbation, we are scarcely yet entitled to accept the
+    conclusion of Gattel that in such cases there is no hereditary
+    neurotic predisposition. We must steer clearly between the
+    opposite errors of those, on the one hand, who assert that
+    heredity is the sole cause of functional nervous disorders, and
+    those, on the other hand, who consider that the incident that may
+    call out the disorder is itself a sole sufficient cause. </p></div>
+
+<p>In many cases it has seemed to me that masturbation, when practiced in
+excess, especially if begun before the age of puberty, leads to inaptitude
+for coitus, as well as to indifference to it, and sometimes to undue
+sexual irritability, involving premature emission and practical impotence.
+This is, however, the exception, especially if the practice has not been
+begun until after puberty. In women I attach considerable importance, as a
+result of masturbation, to an aversion for normal coitus in later life. In
+such cases some peripheral irritation or abnormal mental stimulus trains
+the physical sexual orgasm to respond to an appeal which has nothing
+whatever to do with the fascination normally exerted by the opposite sex.
+At puberty, however, the claim of passion and the real charm of sex begin
+to make themselves felt, but, owing to the physical sexual feelings having
+been trained into a foreign channel, these new and more normal sex
+associations remain of a purely ideal and emotional character, without the
+strong sensual impulses with which under healthy conditions they tend to
+be more and more associated as puberty passes on into adolescence or
+mature adult life. I am fairly certain that in many women, often highly
+intellectual women, the precocious excess in masturbation has been a main
+cause, not necessarily the sole efficient cause, in producing a divorce in
+later life between the physical sensuous impulses and the ideal emotions.
+The sensuous impulse having been evolved and perverted <a name='1_Page_262'></a>before the
+manifestation of the higher emotion, the two groups of feelings have
+become divorced for the whole of life. This is a common source of much
+personal misery and family unhappiness, though at the same time the clash
+of contending impulses may lead to a high development of moral character.
+When early masturbation is a factor in producing sexual inversion it
+usually operates in the manner I have here indicated, the repulsion for
+normal coitus helping to furnish a soil on which the inverted impulse may
+develop unimpeded.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>This point has not wholly escaped previous observers, though they
+    do not seem to have noted its psychological mechanism. Tissot
+    stated that masturbation causes an aversion to marriage. More
+    recently, Loiman (&quot;Ueber Onanismus beim Weibe,&quot; <i>Therapeutische
+    Monatshefte</i>, April, 1890) considered that masturbation in women,
+    leading to a perversion of sexual feeling, including inability to
+    find satisfaction in coitus, affects the associated centres.
+    Smith Baker, again (&quot;The Neuropsychical Element in Conjugal
+    Aversion,&quot; <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, September,
+    1892), finds that a &quot;source of marital aversion seems to lie in
+    the fact that substitution of mechanical and iniquitous
+    excitations affords more thorough satisfaction than the mutual
+    legitimate ones do,&quot; and gives cases in point. Savill, also, who
+    believes that masturbation is more common in women than is
+    usually supposed, regards dyspareunia, or pain in coition, as one
+    of the signs of the habit.</p>
+
+<p>    Masturbation in women thus becomes, as Raymond and Janet point
+    out (<i>Les Obsessions</i>, vol. ii, p. 307) a frequent cause of
+    sexual frigidity in marriage. These authors illustrate the train
+    of evils which may thus be set up, by the case of a lady, 26
+    years of age, a normal woman, of healthy family, who, at the age
+    of 15, was taught by a servant to masturbate. At the age of 18
+    she married. She loved her husband, but she had no sexual
+    feelings in coitus, and she continued to masturbate, sometimes
+    several times a day, without evil consequences. At 24 she had to
+    go into a hospital for floating kidney, and was so obliged to
+    stop masturbating. She here accidentally learnt of the evil
+    results attributed to the habit. She resolved not to do it again,
+    and she kept her resolution. But while still in hospital she fell
+    wildly in love with a man. To escape from the constant thought of
+    this man, she sought relations with her husband, and at times
+    masturbated, but now it no longer gave her pleasure. She wished
+    to give up sexual things altogether. But that was easier said
+    than done. She became subject to nervous crises, often brought on
+    by the sight of a man, and accompanied by sexual excitement. They
+    disappeared under treatment, and <a name='1_Page_263'></a>she thereupon became entirely
+    frigid sexually. But, far from being happy, she has lost all
+    energy and interest in life, and it is her sole desire to attain
+    the sexual feelings she has lost. Adler considers that even when
+    masturbation in women becomes an overmastering passion, so far as
+    organic effects are concerned it is usually harmless, its effects
+    being primarily psychic, and he attaches especial significance to
+    it as a cause of sexual an&aelig;sthesia in normal coitus, being,
+    perhaps, the most frequent cause of such an&aelig;sthesia. He devotes
+    an important chapter to this matter, and brings forward numerous
+    cases in illustration (Adler, <i>Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>, pp. 93-119, also 21-23). Adler
+    considers that the frequency of masturbation in women is largely
+    due to the fact that women experience greater difficulties than
+    men in obtaining sexual satisfaction, and so are impelled by
+    unsatisfying coitus to continue masturbation after marriage. He
+    adds that partly from natural shyness, partly from shame of
+    acknowledging what is commonly accounted a sin, and partly from
+    the fear of seeming disgusting or unworthy of sympathy in the
+    doctor's eyes, women are usually silent on this matter, and very
+    great tact and patience may be necessary before a confession is
+    obtained. </p></div>
+
+<p>On the psychic side, no doubt, the most frequent and the most
+characteristic result of persistent and excessive masturbation is a morbid
+heightening of self-consciousness without any co-ordinated heightening of
+self-esteem.<a name='1_FNanchor_340'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_340'><sup>[340]</sup></a> The man or woman who is kissed by a desirable and
+desired person of the opposite sex feels a satisfying sense of pride and
+elation, which must always be absent from the manifestations of
+auto-erotic activity.<a name='1_FNanchor_341'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_341'><sup>[341]</sup></a> This must be so, even apart from the
+masturbator's consciousness of the general social attitude toward his
+practices and his dread <a name='1_Page_264'></a>of detection, for that may also exist as regards
+normal coitus without any corresponding psychic effects. The masturbator,
+if his practice is habitual, is thus compelled to cultivate an artificial
+consciousness of self-esteem, and may show a tendency to mental arrogance.
+Self-righteousness and religiosity constitute, as it were, a protection
+against the tendency to remorse. A morbid mental soil is, of course,
+required for the full development of these characteristics. The habitual
+male masturbator, it must be remembered, is often a shy and solitary
+person; individuals of this temperament are especially predisposed to
+excesses in all the manifestations of auto-erotism, while the yielding to
+such tendencies increases the reserve and the horror of society, at the
+same time producing a certain suspicion of others. In some extreme cases
+there is, no doubt, as Kraepelin believes, some decrease of psychic
+capacity, an inability to grasp and co-ordinate external impressions,
+weakness of memory, deadening of emotions, or else the general phenomena
+of increased irritability, leading on to neurasthenia.</p>
+
+<p>I find good reason to believe that in many cases the psychic influence of
+masturbation on women is different from its effect on men. As Spitzka
+observed, although it may sometimes render women self-reproachful and
+hesitant, it often seems to make them bold. Boys, as we have seen, early
+assimilate the tradition that self-abuse is &quot;unmanly&quot; and injurious, but
+girls have seldom any corresponding tradition that it is &quot;unwomanly,&quot; and
+thus, whether or not they are reticent on the matter, before the forum of
+their own conscience they are often less ashamed of it than men are and
+less troubled by remorse.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Eulenburg considers that the comparative absence of bad effects
+    from masturbation in girls is largely due to the fact that,
+    unlike boys, they are not terrorized by exaggerated warnings and
+    quack literature concerning the awful results of the practice.
+    Forel, who has also remarked that women are often comparatively
+    little troubled by qualms of conscience after masturbation,
+    denies that this is due to a lower moral tone than men possess
+    (Forel, <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, p. 247). In this connection, I may
+    refer to History IV, recorded in the Appendix to the fifth volume
+    of these <i>Studies</i>, in which it is stated that of 55 prostitutes
+    of various nationalities, with whom the subject had had
+    relations,<a name='1_Page_265'></a> 18 spontaneously told him that they were habitual
+    masturbators, while of 26 normal women, 13 made the same
+    confession, unasked. Guttceit, in Russia, after stating that
+    women of good constitution had told him that they masturbated as
+    much as six or ten times a day or night (until they fell asleep,
+    tired), without bad results, adds that, according to his
+    observations, &quot;masturbation, when not excessive, is, on the
+    whole, a quite innocent matter, which exerts little or no
+    permanent effect,&quot; and adds that it never, in any case, leads to
+    <i>hypochondria onanica</i> in women, because they have not been
+    taught to expect bad results (<i>Dreissig Jahre Praxis</i>, p. 306).
+    There is, I think, some truth&mdash;though the exceptions are
+    doubtless many&mdash;in the distinction drawn by W. C. Krauss
+    (&quot;Masturbational Neuroses,&quot; <i>Medical News</i>, July 13, 1901): &quot;From
+    my experience it [masturbation] seems to have an opposite effect
+    upon the two sexes, dulling the mental and making clumsy the
+    physical exertions of the male, while in the female it quickens
+    and excites the physical and psychical movements. The man is
+    rendered hypoesthetic, the woman hyperesthetic.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>In either sex auto-erotic excesses during adolescence in young men and
+women of intelligence&mdash;whatever absence of gross injury there may
+be&mdash;still often produce a certain degree of psychic perversion, and tend
+to foster false and high-strung ideals of life. Kraepelin refers to the
+frequency of exalted enthusiasms in masturbators, and I have already
+quoted Anstie's remarks on the connection between masturbation and
+premature false work in literature and art. It may be added that excess in
+masturbation has often occurred in men and women whose work in literature
+and art cannot be described as premature and false. K. P. Moritz, in early
+adult life, gave himself up to excess in masturbation, and up to the age
+of thirty had no relations with women. Lenau is said&mdash;though the statement
+is sometimes denied&mdash;to have been a masturbator from early life, the habit
+profoundly effecting his life and work. Rousseau, in his <i>Confessions</i>,
+admirably describes how his own solitary, timid, and imaginative life
+found its chief sexual satisfaction in masturbation.<a name='1_FNanchor_342'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_342'><sup>[342]</sup></a> Gogol, <a name='1_Page_266'></a>the
+great Russian novelist, masturbated to excess, and it has been suggested
+that the dreamy melancholy thus induced was a factor in his success as a
+novelist. Goethe, it has been asserted, at one time masturbated to excess;
+I am not certain on what authority the statement is made, probably on a
+passage in the seventh book of <i>Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, in which,
+describing his student-life at Leipzig, and his loss of Aennchen owing to
+his neglect of her, he tells how he revenged that neglect on his own
+physical nature by foolish practices from which he thinks he suffered for
+a considerable period.<a name='1_FNanchor_343'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_343'><sup>[343]</sup></a> The great Scandinavian philosopher, S&ouml;ren
+Kierkegaard, suffered severely, according to Rasmussen, from excessive
+masturbation. That, at the present day, eminence in art, literature, and
+other fields may be combined with the excessive practice of masturbation
+is a fact of which I have unquestionable evidence.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>I have the detailed history of a man of 30, of high ability in a
+    scientific direction, who, except during periods of mental
+    strain, has practiced masturbation nightly (though seldom more
+    than once a night) from early childhood, without any traceable
+    evil results, so far as his general health and energy are
+    concerned. In another case, a schoolteacher, age 30, a hard
+    worker and accomplished musician, has masturbated every night,
+    sometimes more than once a night, ever since he was at school,
+    without, so far as he knows, any bad results; he has never had
+    connection with a woman, and seldom touches wine or tobacco.
+    Curschmann knew a young and able author who, from the age of 11
+    had masturbated excessively, but who retained physical and mental
+    freshness. It would be very easy to refer to other examples, and
+    I may remark that, as regards the histories recorded in various
+    volumes of these <i>Studies</i>, a notable proportion of those in
+    which excessive masturbation is admitted, are of persons of
+    eminent and recognized ability. </p></div><a name='1_Page_267'></a>
+
+<p>It is often possible to trace the precise mechanism of the relationship
+between auto-erotic excitement and intellectual activity. Brown-S&eacute;quard,
+in old age, considered that to induce a certain amount of sexual
+excitement, not proceeding to emission, was an aid to mental work. Raymond
+and Janet knew a man considering himself a poet, who, in order to attain
+the excitation necessary to compose his ideal verses, would write with one
+hand while with the other he caressed his penis, though not to the extent
+of producing ejaculation.<a name='1_FNanchor_344'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_344'><sup>[344]</sup></a> We must not believe, however, that this is
+by any means the method of workers who deserve to be accepted seriously;
+it would be felt, to say the least, as unworthy. It is indeed a method
+that would only appeal to a person of feeble or failing mental power. What
+more usually happens is that the auto-erotic excitement develops, <i>pari
+passu</i> and spontaneously, with the mental activity and at the climax of
+the latter the auto-erotic excitement also culminates, almost or even
+quite spontaneously, in an explosion of detumescence which relieves the
+mental tension. I am acquainted with such cases in both young men and
+women of intellectual ability, and they probably occur much more
+frequently than we usually suspect.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In illustration of the foregoing observations, I may quote the
+    following narrative, written by a man of letters: &quot;From puberty
+    to the age of 30 (when I married), I lived in virgin continence,
+    in accord with my principle. During these years I worked
+    exceedingly hard&mdash;chiefly at art (music and poetry). My days
+    being spent earning my livelihood, these art studies fell into my
+    evening time. I noticed that productive power came in
+    periods&mdash;periods of irregular length, and which certainly, to a
+    partial extent, could be controlled by the will. Such a period of
+    vital power began usually with a sensation of melancholy, and it
+    quickened my normal revolt against the narrowness of conventional
+    life into a red-hot detestation of the paltriness and pettiness
+    with which so many mortals seem to content themselves. As the
+    mood grew in intensity, this scorn of the lower things mixed with
+    and gave place to a vivid insight into higher truths. The
+    oppression began to give place to a realization of the eternity
+    of the heroic things; the fatuities were seen as mere fashions;
+    love was seen as the true lord of life; the eternal romance was
+    evident in its glory; the naked strength and beauty <a name='1_Page_268'></a>of men were
+    known despite their clothes. In such mood my work was produced;
+    bitter protest and keen-sighted passion mingled in its building.
+    The arising vitality had certainly deep relation to the
+    periodicity of the sex-force of manhood. At the height of the
+    power of the art-creative mood would come those natural emissions
+    with which Nature calmly disposes of the unused force of the
+    male. Such emissions were natural and healthy, and not exhaustive
+    or hysterical. The process is undoubtedly sane and protective,
+    unless the subject be unhealthy. The period of creative art power
+    extended a little beyond the end of the period of natural seed
+    emission&mdash;the art work of this last stage being less vibrant, and
+    of a gentler force. Then followed a time of calm natural rest,
+    which gradually led up to the next sequence of melancholy and
+    power. The periods certainly varied in length of time, controlled
+    somewhat by the force of the mind and the mental will to create;
+    that is to say, I could somewhat delay the natural emission, by
+    which I gained an extension of the period of power.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>How far masturbation in moderately healthy persons living without normal
+sexual relationships may be considered normal is a difficult question only
+to be decided with reference to individual cases. As a general rule, when
+only practiced at rare intervals, and <i>faute de mieux</i>, in order to obtain
+relief for physical oppression and mental obsession, it may be regarded as
+the often inevitable result of the unnatural circumstances of our
+civilized social life. When, as often happens in mental degeneracy,&mdash;and
+as in shy and imaginative persons, perhaps of neurotic temperament, may
+also sometimes become the case,&mdash;it is practiced in preference to sexual
+relationships, it at once becomes abnormal and may possibly lead to a
+variety of harmful results, mental and physical.<a name='1_FNanchor_345'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_345'><sup>[345]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered, however, that, while the practice of
+masturbation may be harmful in its consequences, it is also, in the
+absence of normal sexual relationships, frequently not without good
+results. In the medical literature of the last hundred years a number of
+cases have been incidentally recorded <a name='1_Page_269'></a>in which the patients found
+masturbation beneficial, and such cases might certainly have been
+enormously increased if there had been any open-eyed desire to discover
+them. My own observations agree with those of Sudduth, who asserts that
+&quot;masturbation is, in the main, practiced for its sedative effect on the
+nervous system. The relaxation that follows the act constitutes its real
+attraction.... Both masturbation and sexual intercourse should be classed
+as typical sedatives.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_346'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_346'><sup>[346]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Gall (<i>Fonctions du Cerveau</i>, 1825, vol. iii, p. 235) mentioned a
+    woman who was tormented by strong sexual desire, which she
+    satisfied by masturbation ten or twelve times a day; this caused
+    no bad results, and led to the immediate disappearance of a
+    severe pain in the back of the neck, from which she often
+    suffered. Clouston (<i>Mental Diseases</i>, 1887, p. 496) quotes as
+    follows from a letter written by a youth of 22: &quot;I am sure I
+    cannot explain myself, nor give account of such conduct.
+    Sometimes I felt so uneasy at my work that I would go to the
+    water-closet to do it, and it seemed to give me ease, and then I
+    would work like a hatter for a whole week, till the sensation
+    overpowered me again. I have been the most filthy scoundrel in
+    existence,&quot; etc. Garnier presents the case of a monk, aged 33,
+    living a chaste life, who wrote the following account of his
+    experiences: &quot;For the past three years, at least, I have felt,
+    every two or three weeks, a kind of fatigue in the penis, or,
+    rather, slight shooting pains, increasing during several days,
+    and then I feel a strong desire to expel the semen. When no
+    nocturnal pollution follows, the retention of the semen causes
+    general disturbance, headache, and sleeplessness. I must confess
+    that, occasionally, to free myself from the general and local
+    oppression, I lie on my stomach and obtain ejaculation. I am at
+    once relieved; a weight seems to be lifted from my chest, and
+    sleep returns.&quot; This patient consulted Gamier as to whether this
+    artificial relief was not more dangerous than the sufferings it
+    relieved. Gamier advised that if the ordinary <i>r&eacute;gime</i> of a
+    well-ordered monastry, together with anaphrodisiac sedatives,
+    proved <a name='1_Page_270'></a>inefficacious, the man&oelig;uvre might be continued
+    when necessary (P. Garnier, <i>C&eacute;libat et C&eacute;libataires</i>, 1887, p.
+    320). H. C. Coe (<i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, p. 766, July,
+    1889) gives the case of a married lady who was deeply sensitive
+    of the wrong nature of masturbation, but found in it the only
+    means of relieving the severe ovarian pain, associated with
+    intense sexual excitement, which attended menstruation. During
+    the intermenstrual period the temptation was absent. Turnbull
+    knew a youth who found that masturbation gave great relief to
+    feelings of heaviness and confusion which came on him
+    periodically; and Wigglesworth has frequently seen masturbation
+    after epileptic fits in patients who never masturbated at other
+    times. Moll (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. I, p. 13) refers to a woman
+    of 28, an artist of nervous and excitable temperament, who could
+    not find sexual satisfaction with her lover, but only when
+    masturbating, which she did once or twice a day, or oftener;
+    without masturbation, she said, she would be in a much more
+    nervous state. A friend tells me of a married lady of 40,
+    separated from her husband on account of incompatibility, who
+    suffered from irregular menstruation; she tried masturbation,
+    and, in her own words, &quot;became normal again;&quot; she had never
+    masturbated previously. I have also been informed of the case of
+    a young unmarried woman, intellectual, athletic, and well
+    developed, who, from the age of seven or eight, has masturbated
+    nearly every night before going to sleep, and would be restless
+    and unable to sleep if she did not. </p></div>
+
+<p>Judging from my own observations among both sexes, I should say that in
+normal persons, well past the age of puberty, and otherwise leading a
+chaste life, masturbation would be little practiced except for the
+physical and mental relief it brings. Many vigorous and healthy unmarried
+women or married women apart from their husbands, living a life of sexual
+abstinence, have asserted emphatically that only by sexually exciting
+themselves, at intervals, could they escape from a condition of nervous
+oppression and sexual obsession which they felt to be a state of hysteria.
+In most cases this happens about the menstrual period, and, whether
+accomplished as a purely physical act&mdash;in the same way as they would
+soothe a baby to sleep by rocking it or patting it&mdash;or by the co-operation
+of voluptuous mental imagery, the practice is not cultivated for its own
+sake during the rest of the month.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In illustration of the foregoing statements I will here record a
+    few typical observations of experiences with regard to
+    masturbation. The <a name='1_Page_271'></a>cases selected are all women, and are all in a
+    fairly normal, and, for the most part, excellent, state of
+    health; some of them, however, belong to somewhat neurotic
+    families, and these are persons of unusual mental ability and
+    intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION I.&mdash;</b>Unmarried, aged 38. She is very vigorous and
+    healthy, of a strongly passionate nature, but never masturbated
+    until a few years ago, when she was made love to by a man who
+    used to kiss her, etc. Although she did not respond to these
+    advances, she was thrown into a state of restless sexual
+    excitement; on one occasion, when in bed in this restless state,
+    she accidentally found, on passing her hand over her body, that,
+    by playing with &quot;a round thing&quot; [clitoris] a pleasurable feeling
+    was produced. She found herself greatly relieved and quieted by
+    these manipulations, though there remained a feeling of tiredness
+    afterward. She has sometimes masturbated six times in a night,
+    especially before and after the menstrual period, until she was
+    unable to produce the orgasm or any feeling of pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION II.&mdash;</b>Unmarried, aged 45, of rather nervous
+    temperament. She has for many years been accustomed, usually
+    about a week before the appearance of the menses, to obtain
+    sexual relief by kicking out her legs when lying down. In this
+    way, she says, she obtains complete satisfaction. She never
+    touches herself. On the following day she frequently has pains
+    over the lower part of the abdomen, such pains being apparently
+    muscular and due to the exertion.</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION III.&mdash;</b>Aged 29, recently married, belonging to a
+    neurotic and morbid family, herself healthy, and living usually
+    in the country; vivacious, passionate, enthusiastic,
+    intellectual, and taking a prominent part in philanthropic
+    schemes and municipal affairs; at the same time, fond of society,
+    and very attractive to men. For many years she had been
+    accustomed to excite herself, though she felt it was not good for
+    her. The habit was merely practiced <i>faute de mieux</i>. &quot;I used to
+    sit on the edge of the bed sometimes,&quot; she said, &quot;and it came
+    over me so strongly that I simply couldn't resist it. I felt that
+    I should go mad, and I thought it was better to touch myself than
+    be insane.... I used to press my clitoris in.... It made me very
+    tired afterward&mdash;not like being with my husband.&quot; The confession
+    was made from a conviction of the importance of the subject, and
+    with the hope that some way might be found out of the
+    difficulties which so often beset women.</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION IV.&mdash;</b>Unmarried, aged 27; possesses much force of
+    character and high intelligence; is actively engaged in a
+    professional career. As a child of seven or eight she began to
+    experience what she describes as lightning-like sensations,
+    &quot;mere, vague, uneasy feelings or momentary twitches, which took
+    place alike in the vulva or the vagina or the uterus, not
+    amounting to an orgasm and nothing like it.&quot; These <a name='1_Page_272'></a>sensations,
+    it should be added, have continued into adult life. &quot;I always
+    experience them just before menstruation, and afterward for a few
+    days, and, occasionally, though it seems to me not so often,
+    during the period itself. I may have the sensation four or five
+    times during the day; it is not dependent at all upon external
+    impressions, or my own thoughts, and is sometimes absent for days
+    together. It is just one flash, as if you would snap your
+    fingers, and it is over.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    As a child, she was, of course, quite unconscious that there was
+    anything sexual in these sensations. They were then usually
+    associated with various imaginary scenes. The one usually
+    indulged in was that a black bear was waiting for her up in a
+    tree, and that she was slowly raised up toward the bear by means
+    of ropes and then lowered again, and raised, feeling afraid of
+    being caught by the bear, and yet having a morbid desire to be
+    caught. In after years she realized that there was a physical
+    sexual cause underlying these imaginations, and that what she
+    liked was a feeling of resistance to the bear giving rise to the
+    physical sensation.</p>
+
+<p>    At a somewhat later age, though while still a child, she
+    cherished an ideal passion for a person very much older than
+    herself, this passion absorbing her thoughts for a period of two
+    years, during which, however, there was no progress made in
+    physical sensation. It was when she was nearly thirteen years of
+    age, soon after the appearance of menstruation, and under the
+    influence of this ideal passion, that she first learned to
+    experience conscious orgasm, which was not associated with the
+    thought of any person. &quot;I did not associate it with anything high
+    or beautiful, owing to the fact that I had imbibed our current
+    ideas in regard to sexual feelings, and viewed them in a very
+    poor light indeed.&quot; She considers that her sexual feelings were
+    stronger at this period than at any other time in her life. She
+    could, however, often deny herself physical satisfaction for
+    weeks at a time, in order that she might not feel unworthy of the
+    object of her ideal passion. &quot;As for the sexual satisfaction,&quot;
+    she writes, &quot;it was experimental. I had heard older girls speak
+    of the pleasure of such feelings, but I was not taught anything
+    by example, or otherwise. I merely rubbed myself with the
+    wash-rag while bathing, waiting for a result, and having the same
+    peculiar feeling I had so often experienced. I am not aware of
+    any ill effects having resulted, but I felt degraded, and tried
+    hard to overcome the habit. No one had spoken to me of the habit,
+    but from the secrecy of grown people, and passages I had heard
+    from the Bible, I conceived the idea that it was a reprehensible
+    practice. And, while this did not curb my desire, it taught me
+    self-control, and I vowed that each time should be the last. I
+    was often able to keep the resolution for two or three weeks.&quot;
+    Some four years later she gradually succeeded in breaking herself
+    of the practice in so far as it had become a habit; she has,
+    however, acquired a fuller <a name='1_Page_273'></a>knowledge of sexual matters, and,
+    though she has still a great dread of masturbation as a vice, she
+    does not hesitate to relieve her physical feelings when it seems
+    best to her to do so. &quot;I am usually able to direct my thoughts
+    from these sensations,&quot; she writes, &quot;but if they seem to make me
+    irritable or wakeful, I relieve myself. It is a physical act,
+    unassociated with deep feeling of any kind. I have always felt
+    that it was a rather unpleasant compromise with my physical
+    nature, but certainly necessary in my case. Yet, I have abstained
+    from gratification for very long periods. If the feeling is not
+    strong at the menstrual period, I go on very well without either
+    the sensation or the gratification until the next period. And,
+    strange as it may seem, the best antidote I have found and the
+    best preventive is to think about spiritual things or someone
+    whom I love. It is simply a matter of training, I suppose,&mdash;a
+    sort of mental gymnastics,&mdash;which draws the attention away from
+    the physical feelings.&quot; This lady has never had any sexual
+    relationships, and, since she is ambitious, and believes that the
+    sexual emotions may be transformed so as to become a source of
+    motive power throughout the whole of life, she wishes to avoid
+    such relationships.</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION V.&mdash;</b>Unmarried, aged 31, in good health, with,
+    however, a somewhat hysterical excess of energy. &quot;When I was
+    about 26 years of age,&quot; she writes, &quot;a friend came to me with the
+    confession that for several years she had masturbated, and had
+    become such a slave to the habit that she severely suffered from
+    its ill effects. At that time I had never heard of self-abuse by
+    women. I listened to her story with much sympathy and interest,
+    but some skepticism, and determined to try experiments upon
+    myself, with the idea of getting to understand the matter in
+    order to assist my friend. After some manipulation, I succeeded
+    in awakening what had before been unconscious and unknown. I
+    purposely allowed the habit to grow upon me, and one night&mdash;for I
+    always operated upon myself before going to sleep, never in the
+    morning&mdash;I obtained considerable pleasurable satisfaction, but
+    the following day my conscience awoke; I also felt pain located
+    at the back of my head and down the spinal column. I ceased my
+    operations for a time, and then began again somewhat regularly,
+    once a month, a few days after menstruation. During those months
+    in which I exercised moderation, I think I obtained much local
+    relief with comparatively little injury, but, later on, finding
+    myself in robust health, I increased my experiments, the habit
+    grew upon me, and it was only with an almost superhuman effort
+    that I broke myself free. Needless to say that I gave no
+    assistance to my suffering friend, nor did I ever refer to the
+    subject after her confession to me.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Some two years later I heard of sexual practices between women
+    as a frequent habit in certain quarters. I again interested
+    myself in masturbation, for I had been told something that led me
+    to believe that <a name='1_Page_274'></a>there was much more for me to discover. Not
+    knowing the most elementary physiology, I questioned some of my
+    friends, and then commenced again. I restricted myself to relief
+    from local congestion and irritation by calling forth the
+    emission of mucus, rather than by seeking pleasure. At the same
+    time, I sought to discover what manipulation of the clitoris
+    would lead to. The habit grew upon me with startling rapidity,
+    and I became more or less its slave, but I suffered from no very
+    great ill effects until I started in search of more discoveries.
+    I found that I was a complete ignoramus as to the formation of a
+    woman's body, and by experiments upon myself sought to discover
+    the vagina. I continued my operations until I obtained an
+    entrance. I think the rough handling of myself during this final
+    stage disturbed my nervous system, and caused me considerable
+    pain and exhaustion at the back of my head, the spinal column,
+    the back of my eyes, and a general feeling of languor, etc.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;I could not bear to be the slave of a habit, and after much
+    suffering and efforts, which only led to falls to lower depths of
+    conscious failure, my better self rebelled, until, by a great
+    effort and much prayer, I kept myself pure for a whole week. This
+    partial recovery gave me hope, but then I again fell a victim to
+    the habit, much to my chagrin, and became hopeless of ever
+    retracing my steps toward my ideal of virtue. For some days I
+    lost energy, spirit, and hope; my nervous system appeared to be
+    ruined, but I did not really despair of victory in the end. I
+    thought of all the drunkards chained by their intemperate habits,
+    of inveterate smokers who could not exist without tobacco, and of
+    all the various methods by which men were slaves, and the longing
+    to be freed of what had, in my case, proved to be a painful and
+    unnecessary habit, increased daily until, after one night when I
+    struggled with myself for hours, I believed I had finally
+    succeeded.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;At times, when I reached a high degree of sexual excitement, I
+    felt that I was at least one step removed from those of morbid
+    and repressed sex, who had not the slightest suspicion of the
+    latent joys of womanhood within them. For a little while the
+    habit took the shape of an exalted passion, but I rapidly tired
+    it out by rough, thoughtless, and too impatient handling.
+    Revulsion set in with the pain of an exhausted and badly used
+    nervous system, and finding myself the slave of a passion, I
+    determined to endeavor to be its master.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;In conclusion, I should say that masturbation has proved itself
+    to be to me one of the blind turnings of my life's history, from
+    which I have gained much valuable experience.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The practice was, however, by no means thus dismissed. Some time
+    later the subject writes: &quot;I have again restarted masturbation
+    for the relief of localized feelings. One morning I was engaged
+    in reading a very heavy volume which, for convenience sake, I
+    held in my lap, <a name='1_Page_275'></a>leaning back on my chair. I had become deep in
+    my study for an hour or so when I became aware of certain
+    feelings roused by the weight of the book. Being tempted to see
+    what would happen by such conduct, I shifted so that the edge of
+    the volume came in closer contact. The pleasurable feelings
+    increased, so I gave myself up to my emotions for some thirty
+    minutes.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Notwithstanding the intense pleasure I enjoyed for so long a
+    period, I maintain that it is wiser to refrain, and, although I
+    admit in the same breath that, by gentle treatment, such pleasure
+    may be harmless to the general health, it does lead to a desire
+    for solitude, which is not conducive to a happy frame of mind.
+    There is an accompanying reticence of speech concerning the
+    pleasure, which, therefore, appears to be unnatural, like the
+    eating of stolen fruit. After such an event, one seems to require
+    to fly to the woods, and to listen to the song of the birds, so
+    as to shake off after-effects.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In a letter dated some months later, she writes: &quot;I think I have
+    risen above the masturbation habit.&quot; In the same letter the
+    writer remarks: &quot;If I had consciously abnormal or unsatisfied
+    appetites I would satisfy them in the easiest and least harmful
+    way.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Again, eighteen months later, she writes: &quot;It is curious to note
+    that for months this habit is forgotten, but awakens sometimes to
+    self-assertion. If a feeling of pressure is felt in the head, and
+    a slight irritation elsewhere, and experience shows that the time
+    has come for pacification, exquisite pleasure can be enjoyed,
+    never more than twice a month, and sometimes less often.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    <b>OBSERVATION VI.&mdash;</b>Unmarried, actively engaged in the practice of
+    her profession. Well-developed, feminine in contour, but boyish
+    in manner and movements; strong, though muscles small, and
+    healthy, with sound nervous system; never had an&aelig;mia. Thick brown
+    hair; pubic hair thick, and hair on toes and legs up to
+    umbilicus; it began to appear at the age of 10 (before pubic
+    hair) and continued until 18. A few stray hairs round nipples,
+    and much dark down on upper lip, as well as light down on arms
+    and hands. Hips, normal; nates, small; labia minora, large; and
+    clitoris, deeply hooded. Hymen thick, vagina, probably small.
+    Considerable pigmentation of parts. Menstruation began at 15, but
+    not regular till 17; is painless and scanty; the better the state
+    of health, the less it is. No change of sexual or other feelings
+    connected with it; it lasts one to three days.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;I believe,&quot; she writes, &quot;my first experience of physical sex
+    sensations was when I was about 16, and in sleep. But I did not
+    then recognize it, and seldom, indeed, gave the subject of sex a
+    thought. I was a child far beyond the age of childhood. The
+    accompanying dreams were disagreeable, but I cannot remember what
+    they were about. It was not until I was nearly 19 that I knew the
+    sexual orgasm in my <a name='1_Page_276'></a>waking state. It surprised me completely,
+    but I knew that I had known it before in my sleep.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The knowledge came one summer when I was leading a rather
+    isolated life, and my mind was far from sex subjects, being deep
+    in books, Carlyle, Ruskin, Huxley, Darwin, Scott, etc. I noticed
+    that when I got up in the morning I felt very hot and
+    uncomfortable. The clitoris and the parts around were swollen and
+    erect, and often tender and painful. I had no idea what it was,
+    but found I was unable to pass my water for an hour or two. One
+    day, when I was straining a little to pass water, the full orgasm
+    occurred. The next time it happened, I tried to check it by
+    holding myself firmly, of course, with the opposite result. I do
+    not know that I found it highly pleasurable, but it was a very
+    great relief. I allowed myself a good many experiments, to come
+    to a conclusion in the matter, and I thought about it. I was much
+    too shy to speak to any one, and thought it was probably a sin. I
+    tried not to do it, and not to think about it, saying to myself
+    that surely I was lord of my body. But I found that the matter
+    was not entirely under my control. However unwilling or passive I
+    might be, there were times when the involuntary discomfort was
+    not in my keeping. My touching myself or not did not save me from
+    it. Because it sometimes gave me pleasure, I thought it might be
+    a form of self-indulgence, and did not do it until it could
+    scarcely be helped. Soon the orgasm began to occur fairly
+    frequently in my sleep, perhaps once or twice a week. I had no
+    erotic dreams, then or at any other time, but I had nights of
+    restless sleep, and woke as it occurred, dreaming that it was
+    happening, as, in fact, it was. At times I hardly awoke, but went
+    to sleep again in a moment. I continued for two or three years to
+    be sorely tried by day at frequent intervals. I acquired a
+    remarkable degree of control, so that, though one touch or
+    steadily directed thought would have caused the orgasm, I could
+    keep it off, and go to sleep without 'wrong doing.' Of course,
+    when I fell asleep, my control ended. All this gave me a good
+    deal of physical worry, and kept my attention unwillingly fixed
+    upon the matter. I do not think my body was readily irritable,
+    but I had unquestionably very strong sexual impulses.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;After a year or two, when I was working hard, I could not afford
+    the attention the control cost me, or the prolonged mitigated
+    sexual excitement it caused. I took drugs for a time, but they
+    lost effect, produced lassitude, and agreed with me badly. I
+    therefore put away my scruples and determined to try the effect
+    of giving myself an instant and business-like relief. Instead of
+    allowing my feelings to gather strength, I satisfied them out of
+    hand. Instead of five hours of heat and discomfort, I did not
+    allow myself five minutes, if I could help it.</p><a name='1_Page_277'></a>
+
+<p>    &quot;The effect was marvelous. I practically had no more trouble. The
+    thing rarely came to me at all by day, and though it continued at
+    times by night, it became less frequent and less strong; often it
+    did not wake me. The erotic images and speculations that had
+    begun to come to me died down. I left off being afraid of my
+    feelings, or, indeed, thinking about them. I may say that I had
+    decided that I should be obliged to lead a single life, and that
+    the less I thought about matters of sex, the more easy I should
+    find life. Later on I had religious ideas which helped me
+    considerably in my ideals of a decent, orderly, self-contained
+    life. I do not lay stress on these; they were not at all
+    emotional, and my physical and psychical development do not
+    appear to have run much on parallel lines. I had a strong moral
+    sense before I had a religious one, and a 'common-sense' which I
+    perhaps trusted more than either.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;When I was about 28 I thought I might perhaps leave off the
+    habit of regular relief I had got into. (It was not regular as
+    regards time, being anything from one day to six weeks.) The
+    change was probably made easier by a severe illness I had had. I
+    gave this abstinence a fair trial for several years (until I was
+    about 34), but my nocturnal manifestations certainly gathered
+    strength, especially when I got much better in health, and,
+    finally, as at puberty, began to worry my waking life. I reasoned
+    that by my attempt at abstinence I had only exchanged control for
+    uncontrol, and reverted to my old habits of relief, with the same
+    good results as before. The whole trouble subsided and I got
+    better at once. (The orgasm during sleep continued, and occurs
+    about once a fortnight; it is increased by change of air,
+    especially at the seaside, when it may occur on two or three
+    nights running.) I decided that, for the proper control of my
+    single life, relief was normal and right. It would be very
+    difficult for anyone to demonstrate the contrary to me. My aim
+    has always been to keep myself in the best condition of physical
+    and mental balance that a single person is capable of.&quot; </p></div>
+
+<p>There is some interest in briefly reviewing the remarkable transformations
+in the attitude toward masturbation from Greek times down to our own day.
+The Greeks treated masturbation with little opprobrium. At the worst they
+regarded it as unmanly, and Aristophanes, in various passages, connects
+the practice with women, children, slaves, and feeble old men. &AElig;schines
+seems to have publicly brought it as a charge against Demosthenes that he
+had practiced masturbation, though, on the other hand, Plutarch tells us
+that Diogenes&mdash;described by Zeller, the <a name='1_Page_278'></a>historian of Greek philosophy, as
+&quot;the most typical figure of ancient Greece&quot;&mdash;was praised by Chrysippus,
+the famous philosopher, for masturbating in the market-place. The more
+strenuous Romans, at all events as exemplified by Juvenal and Martial,
+condemned masturbation more vigorously.<a name='1_FNanchor_347'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_347'><sup>[347]</sup></a> Aret&aelig;us, without alluding to
+masturbation, dwells on the tonic effects of retaining the semen; but, on
+the other hand, Galen regarded the retention of semen as injurious, and
+advocated its frequent expulsion, a point of view which tended to justify
+masturbation. In classical days, doubtless, masturbation and all other
+forms of the auto-erotic impulse were comparatively rare. So much scope
+was allowed in early adult age for homosexual and later for heterosexual
+relationships that any excessive or morbid development of solitary
+self-indulgence could seldom occur. The case was altered when Christian
+ideals became prominent. Christian morality strongly proscribed sexual
+relationships except under certain specified conditions. It is true that
+Christianity discouraged all sexual manifestations, and that therefore its
+ban fell equally on masturbation, but, obviously, masturbation lay at the
+weakest line of defence against the assaults of the flesh; it was there
+that resistance would most readily yield. Christianity thus probably led
+to a considerable increase of masturbation. The attention which the
+theologians devoted to its manifestations clearly bears witness to their
+magnitude. It is noteworthy that Mohammedan theologians regarded
+masturbation as a Christian vice. In Islam both doctrine and practice
+tended to encourage sexual relationships, and not much attention was paid
+to masturbation, nor even any severe reprobation directed against it. Omer
+Haleby remarks that certain theologians of Islam are inclined to consider
+the practice of masturbation in vogue among Christians as allowable to
+devout Mussulmans when alone on a journey; he himself regards this as a
+practice good neither for soul nor body (seminal emissions during sleep
+providing all necessary relief); should, however, a Mussulman fall into
+this error, God is merciful!<a name='1_FNanchor_348'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_348'><sup>[348]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_279'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Theodore's Penitential of the seventh century, forty days'
+    penance is prescribed for masturbation. Aquinas condemned
+    masturbation as worse than fornication, though less heinous than
+    other sexual offences against Nature; in opposition, also, to
+    those who believed that <i>distillatio</i> usually takes place without
+    pleasure, he observed that it was often caused by sexual emotion,
+    and should, therefore, always be mentioned to the confessor.
+    Liguori also regarded masturbation as a graver sin than
+    fornication, and even said that <i>distillatio</i>, if voluntary and
+    with notable physical commotion, is without doubt a mortal sin,
+    for in such a case it is the beginning of a pollution. On the
+    other hand, some theologians have thought that <i>distillatio</i> may
+    be permitted, even if there is some commotion, so long as it has
+    not been voluntarily procured, and Caramuel, who has been
+    described as a theological <i>enfant terrible</i>, declared that
+    &quot;natural law does not forbid masturbation,&quot; but that proposition
+    was condemned by Innocent XI. The most enlightened modern
+    Catholic view is probably represented by Debreyne, who, after
+    remarking that he has known pious and intelligent persons who had
+    an irresistible impulse to masturbate, continues: &quot;Must we
+    excuse, or condemn, these people? Neither the one nor the other.
+    If you condemn and repulse absolutely these persons as altogether
+    guilty, against their own convictions, you will perhaps throw
+    them into despair; if, on the contrary, you completely excuse
+    them, you maintain them in a disorder from which they may,
+    perhaps, never emerge. Adopt a wise middle course, and, perhaps,
+    with God's aid, you may often cure them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Under certain circumstances some Catholic theologians have
+    permitted a married woman to masturbate. Thus, the Jesuit
+    theologian, Gury, asserts that the wife does not sin &quot;<i>qu&aelig; se
+    ipsam tactibus excitat ad seminationem statim post copulam in qu&acirc;
+    vir solus seminavit</i>.&quot; This teaching seems to have been
+    misunderstood, since ethical and even medical writers have
+    expended a certain amount of moral indignation on the Church
+    whose theologians committed themselves to this statement. As a
+    matter of fact, this qualified permission to masturbate merely
+    rests on a false theory of procreation, which is clearly
+    expressed in the word <i>seminatio</i>. It was believed that
+    ejaculation in the woman is as necessary to fecundation as
+    ejaculation in the man. Galen, Avicenna, and Aquinas recognized,
+    indeed, that such feminine semination was not necessary; Sanchez,
+    however, was doubtful, while Suarez and Zacchia, following
+    Hippocrates, regarded it as necessary. As sexual intercourse
+    without fecundation is not approved by the Catholic Church, it
+    thus became logically necessary to permit women to masturbate
+    whenever the ejaculation of mucus had not occurred at or before
+    coitus.</p>
+
+<p>    The belief that the emission of vaginal mucus, under the
+    influence of sexual excitement in women, corresponded to
+    spermatic emission, has led to the practice of masturbation on
+    hygienic grounds. Garnier<a name='1_Page_280'></a> (<i>C&eacute;libat</i>, p. 255) mentions that
+    Mesu&eacute;, in the eighteenth century, invented a special pessary to
+    take the place of the penis, and, as he stated, effect the due
+    expulsion of the feminine sperm. </p></div>
+
+<p>Protestantism, no doubt, in the main accepted the general Catholic,
+tradition, but the tendency of Protestantism, in reaction against the
+minute inquisition of the earlier theologians, has always been to exercise
+a certain degree of what it regarded as wholesome indifference toward the
+less obvious manifestations of the flesh. Thus in Protestant countries
+masturbation seems to have been almost ignored until Tissot, combining
+with his reputation as a physician the fanaticism of a devout believer,
+raised masturbation to the position of a colossal bogy which during a
+hundred years has not only had an unfortunate influence on medical opinion
+in these matters, but has been productive of incalculable harm to ignorant
+youth and tender consciences. During the past forty years the efforts of
+many distinguished physicians&mdash;a few of whose opinions I have already
+quoted&mdash;have gradually dragged the bogy down from its pedestal, and now,
+as I have ventured to suggest, there is a tendency for the reaction to be
+excessive. There is even a tendency to-day to regard masturbation, with
+various qualifications, as normal. Remy de Gourmont, for instance,
+considers that masturbation is natural because it is the method by which
+fishes procreate: &quot;All things considered, it must be accepted that
+masturbation is part of the doings of Nature. A different conclusion might
+be agreeable, but in every ocean and under the reeds of every river,
+myriads of beings would protest.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_349'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_349'><sup>[349]</sup></a> Tillier remarks that since
+masturbation appears to be universal among the higher animals we are not
+entitled to regard it as a vice; it has only been so considered because
+studied exclusively by physicians under abnormal conditions.<a name='1_FNanchor_350'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_350'><sup>[350]</sup></a> Hirth,
+while asserting that masturbation must be strongly repressed in the young,
+regards it as a desirable method of relief for adults, and especially,
+under some circumstances, for women.<a name='1_FNanchor_351'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_351'><sup>[351]</sup></a> Venturi, a well-known Italian
+alienist, on the other <a name='1_Page_281'></a>hand, regards masturbation as strictly
+physiological in youth; it is the normal and natural passage toward the
+generous and healthy passion of early manhood; it only becomes abnormal
+and vicious, he holds, when continued into adult life.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The appearance of masturbation at puberty, Venturi considers, &quot;is
+    a moment in the course of the development of the function of that
+    organ which is the necessary instrument of sexuality.&quot; It finds
+    its motive in the satisfaction of an organic need having much
+    analogy with that which arises from the tickling of a very
+    sensitive cutaneous surface. In this masturbation of early
+    adolescence lies, according to Venturi, the germ of what will
+    later be love: a pleasure of the body and of the spirit,
+    following the relief of a satisfied need. &quot;As the youth develops,
+    onanism becomes a sexual act comparable to coitus as a dream is
+    comparable to reality, imagery forming in correspondence with the
+    desires. In its fully developed form in adolescence,&quot; Venturi
+    continues, &quot;masturbation has an almost hallucinatory character;
+    onanism at this period psychically approximates to the true
+    sexual act, and passes insensibly into it. If, however, continued
+    on into adult age, it becomes morbid, passing into erotic
+    fetichism; what in the inexperienced youth is the natural
+    auxiliary and stimulus to imagination, in the degenerate onanist
+    of adult age is a sign of arrested development. Thus, onanism,&quot;
+    the author concludes, &quot;is not always a vice such as is fiercely
+    combated by educators and moralists. It is the natural transition
+    by which we reach the warm and generous love of youth, and, in
+    natural succession to this, the tranquil, positive, matrimonial
+    love of the mature man.&quot; (Silvio Venturi, <i>Le Degenerazioni
+    Psico-sessuale</i>, 1892, pp. 6-9.)</p>
+
+<p>    It may be questioned whether this view is acceptable even for the
+    warm climate of the south of Europe, where the impulses of
+    sexuality are undoubtedly precocious. It is certainly not in
+    harmony with general experience and opinion in the north; this is
+    well expressed in the following passage by Edward Carpenter
+    (<i>International Journal of Ethics</i>, July, 1899): &quot;After all,
+    purity (in the sense of continence) <i>is</i> of the first importance
+    to boyhood. To prolong the period of continence in a boy's life
+    is to prolong the period of <i>growth</i>. This is a simple
+    physiological law, and a very obvious one; and, whatever other
+    things may be said in favor of purity, it remains, perhaps, the
+    most weighty. To introduce sensual and sexual habits&mdash;and one of
+    the worst of them is self-abuse&mdash;at an early age, is to arrest
+    growth, both physical and mental. And what is even more, it means
+    to arrest the capacity for affection. All experience shows that
+    the early outlet toward sex cheapens and weakens affectional
+    capacity.&quot; </p></div><a name='1_Page_282'></a>
+
+<p>I do not consider that we can decide the precise degree in which
+masturbation may fairly be called normal so long as we take masturbation
+by itself. We are thus, in conclusion, brought back to the point which I
+sought to emphasize at the outset: masturbation belongs to a group of
+auto-erotic phenomena. From one point of view it may be said that all
+auto-erotic phenomena are unnatural, since the natural aim of the sexual
+impulse is sexual conjunction, and all exercise of that impulse outside
+such conjunction is away from the end of Nature. But we do not live in a
+state of Nature which answers to such demands; all our life is
+&quot;unnatural.&quot; And as soon as we begin to restrain the free play of sexual
+impulse toward sexual ends, at once auto-erotic phenomena inevitably
+spring up on every side. There is no end to them; it is impossible to say
+what finest elements in art, in morals, in civilization generally, may not
+really be rooted in an auto-erotic impulse. &quot;Without a certain overheating
+of the sexual system,&quot; said Nietzsche, &quot;we could not have a Raphael.&quot;
+Auto-erotic phenomena are inevitable. It is our wisest course to recognize
+this inevitableness of sexual and transmuted sexual manifestations under
+the perpetual restraints of civilized life, and, while avoiding any
+attitude of excessive indulgence or indifference,<a name='1_FNanchor_352'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_352'><sup>[352]</sup></a> to avoid also any
+attitude of excessive horror, for our horror not only leads to the facts
+being effectually veiled from our sight, but itself serves to manufacture
+artificially a greater evil than that which we seek to combat.</p>
+
+<p>The sexual impulse is not, as some have imagined, the sole root of the
+most massive human emotions, the most brilliant human aptitudes,&mdash;of
+sympathy, of art, of religion. In the complex human organism, where all
+the parts are so many-fibred and so closely interwoven, no great
+manifestation can be reduced to one single source. But it largely enters
+into and molds all of these emotions and aptitudes, and that by virtue of
+its two most peculiar characteristics: it is, in the first place, the
+deepest and <a name='1_Page_283'></a>most volcanic of human impulses, and, in the second
+place,&mdash;unlike the only other human impulse with which it can be compared,
+the nutritive impulse,&mdash;it can, to a large extent, be transmuted into a
+new force capable of the strangest and most various uses. So that in the
+presence of all these manifestations we may assert that in a real sense,
+though subtly mingled with very diverse elements, auto-erotism everywhere
+plays its part. In the phenomena of auto-erotism, when we take a broad
+view of those phenomena, we are concerned, not with a form of insanity,
+not necessarily with a form of depravity, but with the inevitable
+by-products of that mighty process on which the animal creation rests.</p><a name='1_Page_284'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_289'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_289'>[289]</a><div class='note'><p> For a bibliography of masturbation, see Rohleder, <i>Die
+Masturbation</i>, pp. 11-18; also, Arthur MacDonald, <i>Le Criminel Type</i>, pp.
+227 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>cf.</i> G. Stanley Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, pp. 432 <i>et
+seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_290'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_290'>[290]</a><div class='note'><p> Oskar Berger, <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, Bd. 6, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_291'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_291'>[291]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Die Masturbation</i>, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_292'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_292'>[292]</a><div class='note'><p> Dukes, <i>Preservation of Health</i>, 1884, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_293'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_293'>[293]</a><div class='note'><p> G. Stanley Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 434.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_294'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_294'>[294]</a><div class='note'><p> F. S. Brockman, &quot;A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of
+Students in the United States,&quot; <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, September, 1902.
+Many pitiful narratives are reproduced.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_295'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_295'>[295]</a><div class='note'><p> Moraglia, &quot;Die Onanie beim normalen Weibe und bei den
+Prostituten,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Criminal-Anthropologie</i>, 1897, p. 489. It
+should be added that Moraglia is not a very critical investigator. It is
+probable, however, that on this point his results are an approximation to
+the truth.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_296'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_296'>[296]</a><div class='note'><p> Ernst, &quot;Anthropological Researches on the Population of
+Venezuela,&quot; <i>Memoirs of the Anthropological Society</i>, vol. iii, 1870, p.
+277.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_297'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_297'>[297]</a><div class='note'><p> Niceforo, <i>Il Gergo nei Normali</i>, etc., 1897, cap. V.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_298'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_298'>[298]</a><div class='note'><p> Debreyne, <i>M&oelig;chialogie</i>, p. 64. Yet theologians
+and casuists, Debreyne remarks, frequently never refer to masturbation in
+women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_299'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_299'>[299]</a><div class='note'><p> Stanley Hall, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 34. Hall mentions,
+also, that masturbation is specially common among the blind.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_300'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_300'>[300]</a><div class='note'><p> Moraglia, <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, vol. xvi, fasc. 4 and
+5, p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_301'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_301'>[301]</a><div class='note'><p> See his careful study, &quot;Die Sexuellen Perversit&auml;ten in der
+Irrenanstalt,&quot; <i>Psychiatrische Bladen</i>, No. 2. 1899.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_302'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_302'>[302]</a><div class='note'><p> Venturi, <i>Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali</i>, pp. 105, 133, 148,
+152.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_303'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_303'>[303]</a><div class='note'><p> J. P. West, <i>Transactions of the Ohio Pediatric Society</i>,
+1895. <i>Abstract in Medical Standard</i>, November, 1895; cases are also
+recorded by J. T. Winter, &quot;Self-abuse in Infancy and Childhood,&quot; <i>American
+Journal Obstetrics</i>, June, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_304'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_304'>[304]</a><div class='note'><p> Freud, <i>Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, pp. 36 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_305'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_305'>[305]</a><div class='note'><p> G. E. Shuttleworth, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, October 3,
+1903.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_306'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_306'>[306]</a><div class='note'><p> See for a detailed study of sexuality in childhood, Moll's
+valuable book, <i>Das Sexualleben des Kindes</i>; <i>cf.</i> vol. vi of these
+<i>Studies</i>, Ch. II.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_307'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_307'>[307]</a><div class='note'><p> This is, no doubt, the most common opinion, and it is
+frequently repeated in text-books. It is scarcely necessary, however, to
+point out that only the opinions of those who have given special attention
+to the matter can carry any weight. R. W. Shufeldt (&quot;On a Case of Female
+Impotency,&quot; pp. 5-7) quotes the opinions of various cautious observers as
+to the difficulty of detecting masturbation in women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_308'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_308'>[308]</a><div class='note'><p> This latter opinion is confirmed by N&auml;cke so far as the
+insane are concerned. In a careful study of sexual perversity in a large
+asylum, N&auml;cke found that, while moderate masturbation could be more easily
+traced among men than among women, excessive masturbation was more common
+among women. And, while among the men masturbation was most frequent in
+the lowest grades of mental development (idiocy and imbecility), and least
+frequent in the highest grades (general paralysis), in the women it was
+the reverse. (P. N&auml;cke, &quot;Die Sexuellen Perversit&auml;ten in der Irrenanstalt,&quot;
+<i>Psychiatrische en Neurologische Bladen</i>, No. 2, 1899.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_309'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_309'>[309]</a><div class='note'><p> Mammary masturbation sometimes occurs; see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+Rohleder, <i>Die Masturbation</i> (pp. 32-33); it is, however, rare.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_310'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_310'>[310]</a><div class='note'><p> Hirschsprung pointed out this, indeed, many years ago, on
+the ground of his own experience. And see Rohleder, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp.
+44-47.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_311'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_311'>[311]</a><div class='note'><p> In many cases, of course, the physical precocity is
+associated with precocity in sexual habits. An instructive case is
+reported (<i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, October, 1895) of a girl of 7, a
+beautiful child, of healthy family, and very intelligent, who, from the
+age of three, was perpetually masturbating, when not watched. The clitoris
+and mons veneris were those of a fully-grown woman, and the child was as
+well informed upon most subjects as an average woman. She was cured by
+care and hygienic attention, and when seen last was in excellent
+condition. A medical friend tells me of a little girl of two, whose
+external genital organs are greatly developed, and who is always rubbing
+herself.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_312'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_312'>[312]</a><div class='note'><p> R. T. Morris, of New York, has also pointed out the
+influence of traditions in this respect. &quot;Among boys,&quot; he remarks, &quot;there
+are traditions to the effect that self-abuse is harmful. Among girls,
+however, there are no such saving traditions.&quot; Dr. Kiernan writes in a
+private letter: &quot;It has been by experience, that from ignorance or
+otherwise, there are young women who do not look upon sexual manipulation
+with the same fear that men do.&quot; Guttceit, similarly, remarks that men
+have been warned of masturbation, and fear its evil results, while girls,
+even if warned, attach little importance to the warning; he adds that in
+healthy women, masturbation, even in excess, has little bad results. The
+attitude of many women in this matter may be illustrated by the following
+passage from a letter written by a medical friend in India: &quot;The other day
+one of my English women patients gave me the following reason for having
+taught the 17-year-old daughter of a retired Colonel to masturbate: 'Poor
+girl, she was troubled with dreams of men, and in case she should be
+tempted with one, and become pregnant, I taught her to bring the feeling
+on herself&mdash;as it is safer, and, after all, nearly as nice as with a
+man.'&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_313'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_313'>[313]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Ellis, <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, volume ii,
+&quot;Sexual Inversion,&quot; Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_314'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_314'>[314]</a><div class='note'><p> See, also, the Appendix to the third volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>, in which I have brought forward sexual histories of normal
+persons.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_315'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_315'>[315]</a><div class='note'><p> E. H. Smith, also, states that from 25 to 35 is the age when
+most women come under the physician's eye with manifest and pronounced
+habits of masturbation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_316'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_316'>[316]</a><div class='note'><p> It may, however, be instructive to observe that at the end
+of the volume we find an advertisement of &quot;Dr. Robinson's Treatise on the
+Virtues and Efficacy of a Crust of Bread, Eat Early in the Morning
+Fasting.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_317'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_317'>[317]</a><div class='note'><p> Pouillet alone enumerates and apparently accepts
+considerably over one hundred different morbid conditions as signs and
+results of masturbation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_318'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_318'>[318]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Augenkrankheiten bei Masturbanten,&quot; Knapp-Schweigger's
+<i>Archiv f&uuml;r Augenheitkunde</i>, Bd. II, 1882, p. 198.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_319'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_319'>[319]</a><div class='note'><p> Salmo Cohn, <i>Uterus und Auge</i>, 1890, pp. 63-66.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_320'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_320'>[320]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Fonctions du Cerveau</i>, 1825, vol. iii, p. 337.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_321'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_321'>[321]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Ellis, <i>Treatise on Insanity</i>, 1838, pp. 335, 340.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_322'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_322'>[322]</a><div class='note'><p> Clara Barrus, &quot;Insanity in Young Women,&quot; <i>Journal of
+Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, June, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_323'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_323'>[323]</a><div class='note'><p> See, for instance, H. Emminghaus, &quot;Die Psychosen des
+Kindesalters,&quot; Gerlandt's <i>Handbuch der Kinder-Krankheiten</i>, Nachtrag II,
+pp. 61-63.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_324'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_324'>[324]</a><div class='note'><p> Christian, article &quot;Onanisme,&quot; <i>Dictionnaire Encyclop&eacute;dique
+des Sciences M&eacute;dicales</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_325'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_325'>[325]</a><div class='note'><p> N&auml;cke, <i>Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe</i>, 1894, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_326'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_326'>[326]</a><div class='note'><p> J. L. A. Koch, <i>Die Psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten</i>,
+1892, p. 273 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_327'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_327'>[327]</a><div class='note'><p> J. G. Kiernan, <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, July, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_328'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_328'>[328]</a><div class='note'><p> Maudsley dealt, in his vigorous, picturesque manner, with
+the more extreme morbid mental conditions sometimes found associated with
+masturbation, in &quot;Illustrations of a Variety of Insanity,&quot; <i>Journal of
+Mental Science</i>, July, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_329'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_329'>[329]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, L&ouml;wenfeld, <i>Sexualleben und Nervenleiden</i>, 2d.
+ed., Ch. VIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_330'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_330'>[330]</a><div class='note'><p> Marro, <i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, Turin, 1898, p. 174.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_331'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_331'>[331]</a><div class='note'><p> E. C. Spitzka, &quot;Cases of Masturbation,&quot; <i>Journal of Mental
+Science</i>, July, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_332'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_332'>[332]</a><div class='note'><p> Charles West, <i>Lancet</i>, November 17, 1866.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_333'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_333'>[333]</a><div class='note'><p> Gowers, <i>Epilepsy</i>, 1881, p. 31. L&ouml;wenfeld believes that
+epileptic attacks are certainly caused by masturbation. F&eacute;r&eacute; thought that
+both epilepsy and hysteria may be caused by masturbation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_334'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_334'>[334]</a><div class='note'><p> Ziemssen's <i>Handbuch</i>, Bd. XI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_335'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_335'>[335]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 441.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_336'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_336'>[336]</a><div class='note'><p> See a discussion of these points by Rohleder, <i>Die
+Masturbation</i>, pp. 168-175.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_337'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_337'>[337]</a><div class='note'><p> The surgeons, it may be remarked, have especially stated
+the harmlessness of masturbation in too absolute a manner. Thus, John
+Hunter (<i>Treatise on the Venereal Disease</i>, 1786, p. 200), after pointing
+out that &quot;the books on this subject have done more harm than good,&quot; adds,
+&quot;I think I may affirm that this act does less harm to the constitution in
+general than the natural.&quot; And Sir James Paget, in his lecture on &quot;Sexual
+Hypochondriasis,&quot; said: &quot;Masturbation does neither more nor less harm than
+sexual intercourse practiced with the same frequency, in the same
+conditions of general health and age and circumstances.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_338'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_338'>[338]</a><div class='note'><p> It is interesting to note that an analogous result seems to
+hold with animals. Among highly-bred horses excessive masturbation is
+liable to occur with injurious results. It is scarcely necessary to point
+out that highly-bred horses are apt to be abnormal.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_339'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_339'>[339]</a><div class='note'><p> With regard to the physical signs, the same conclusion is
+reached by Legludic (in opposition to Martineau) on the basis of a large
+experience. He has repeatedly found, in young girls who acknowledged
+frequent masturbation, that the organs were perfectly healthy and normal,
+and his convictions are the more noteworthy, since he speaks as a pupil of
+Tardieu, who attached very grave significance to the local signs of sexual
+perversity and excess. (Legludic, <i>Notes et Observations de M&eacute;decine
+L&eacute;gale</i>, 1896, p. 95.) Matthews Duncan (<i>Goulstonian Lectures on Sterility
+in Women</i>, 1884, p. 97) was often struck by the smallness, and even
+imperfect development, of the external genitals of women who masturbate.
+Clara Barrus considers that there is no necessary connection between
+hypertrophy of the external female genital organs and masturbation, though
+in six cases of prolonged masturbation she found such a condition in three
+(<i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, April, 1895, p. 479). Bachterew denies
+that masturbation produces enlargement of the penis, and Hammond considers
+there is no evidence to show that it enlarges the clitoris, while Guttceit
+states that it does not enlarge the nymph&aelig;; this, however, is doubtful. It
+would not suffice in many cases to show that large sexual organs are
+correlated with masturbation; it would still be necessary to show whether
+the size of the organs stood to masturbation in the relation of effect or
+of cause.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_340'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_340'>[340]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, Bechterew (&quot;La Phobie du Regard,&quot; <i>Archives de
+Neurologie</i>, July, 1905) considers that masturbation plays a large part in
+producing the morbid fear of the eyes of others.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_341'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_341'>[341]</a><div class='note'><p> It is especially an undesirable tendency of masturbation,
+that it deadens the need for affection, and merely eludes, instead of
+satisfying, the sexual impulse. &quot;Masturbation,&quot; as Godfrey well says (<i>The
+Science of Sex</i>, p. 178), &quot;though a manifestation of sexual activity, is
+not a sexual act in the higher, or even in the real fundamental sense. For
+sex implies duality, a characteristic to which masturbation can plainly
+lay no claim. The physical, moral, and mental reciprocity which gives
+stability and beauty to a normal sexual intimacy, are as foreign to the
+masturbator as to the celibate. In a sense, therefore, masturbation is as
+complete a negative of the sexual life as chastity itself. It is,
+therefore, an evasion of, not an answer to, the sexual problem; and it
+will ever remain so, no matter how surely we may be convinced of its
+physical harmlessness.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_342'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_342'>[342]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;I learnt that dangerous supplement,&quot; Rousseau tells us
+(Part I, Bk. III), &quot;which deceives Nature. This vice, which bashfulness
+and timidity find so convenient, has, moreover, a great attraction for
+lively imaginations, for it enables them to do what they will, so to
+speak, with the whole fair sex, and to enjoy at pleasure the beauty who
+attracts them, without having obtained her consent.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_343'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_343'>[343]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Ich hatte sie wirklich verloren, und die Tollheit, mit der
+ich meinen Fehler an mir selbst r&auml;chte, indem ich auf mancherlei unsinnige
+Weise in meine physische Natur sturmte, um der sittlichen etwas zu Leide
+zu thun, hat sehr viel zu den k&ouml;rperlichen Uebeln beigetragen, unter denen
+ich einige der besten Jahre meines Lebens verlor; ja ich w&auml;re vielleicht
+an diesem Verlust vollig zu Grunde gegangen, h&auml;tte sich hier nicht das
+poetische Talent mit seinen Heilkraften besonders h&uuml;lfreich erwiesen.&quot;
+This is scarcely conclusive, and it may be added that there were many
+reasons why Goethe should have suffered physically at this time, quite
+apart from masturbation. See, <i>e.g.</i>, Bielschowsky, <i>Life of Goethe</i>, vol.
+i, p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_344'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_344'>[344]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Les Obsessions</i>, vol. ii, p. 136.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_345'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_345'>[345]</a><div class='note'><p> A somewhat similar classification has already been made by
+Max Dessoir, who points out that we must distinguish between onanists <i>aus
+Noth</i>, and onanists <i>aus Leidenschaft</i>, the latter group alone being of
+really serious importance. The classification of Dallemagne is also
+somewhat similar; he distinguishes <i>onanie par impulsion</i>, occurring in
+mental degeneration and in persons of inferior intelligence, from <i>onanie
+par evocation ou obsession</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_346'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_346'>[346]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Xavier Sudduth, &quot;A Study in the Psycho-physics of
+Masturbation,&quot; <i>Chicago Medical Recorder</i>, March, 1898. Haig, who reaches
+a similar conclusion, has sought to find its precise mechanism in the
+blood-pressure. &quot;As the sexual act produces lower and falling
+blood-pressure,&quot; he remarks, &quot;it will of necessity relieve conditions
+which are due to high and rising blood-pressure, such, for instance, as
+mental depression and bad temper; and, unless my observation deceives me,
+we have here a connection between conditions of high blood-pressure with
+mental and bodily depression and acts of masturbation, for this act will
+relieve these conditions and tend to be practiced for this purpose.&quot;
+(<i>Uric Acid</i>, 6th edition, p. 154.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_347'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_347'>[347]</a><div class='note'><p> Northcote discusses the classic attitude towards
+masturbation, <i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, p. 233.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_348'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_348'>[348]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>El Ktab</i>, traduction de Paul de R&eacute;gla, Paris, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_349'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_349'>[349]</a><div class='note'><p> Remy de Gourmont, <i>Physique de l'Amour</i>, p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_350'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_350'>[350]</a><div class='note'><p> Tillier, <i>L'Instinct Sexuel</i>, Paris, 1889, p. 270.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_351'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_351'>[351]</a><div class='note'><p> G. Hirth, <i>Wege zur Heimat</i>, p. 648.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_352'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_352'>[352]</a><div class='note'><p> F&eacute;r&eacute;, in the course of his valuable work, <i>L'Instinct
+Sexuel</i>, stated that my conclusion is that masturbation is normal, and
+that &quot;<i>l'indulgence s'impose</i>.&quot; I had, however, already guarded myself
+against this misinterpretation.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_APPENDIX_A'></a><h2>APPENDIX A.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE INFLUENCE OF MENSTRUATION ON THE POSITION OF WOMEN.</h3>
+
+<p>A question of historical psychology which, so far as I know, has never
+been fully investigated is the influence of menstruation in constituting
+the emotional atmosphere through which men habitually view women.<a name='1_FNanchor_353'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_353'><sup>[353]</sup></a> I
+do not purpose to deal fully with this question, because it is one which
+may be more properly dealt with at length by the student of culture and by
+the historian, rather than from the standpoint of empirical psychology. It
+is, moreover, a question full of complexities in regard to which it is
+impossible to speak with certainty. But we here strike on a factor of such
+importance, such neglected importance, for the proper understanding of the
+sexual relations of men and women, that it cannot be wholly ignored.</p>
+
+<p>Among the negroes of Surinam a woman must live in solitude during the time
+of her period; it is dangerous for any man or woman to approach her, and
+when she sees a person coming near she cries out anxiously: &quot;<i>Mi kay! Mi
+kay!</i>&quot;&mdash;I am unclean! I am unclean! Throughout the world we find traces of
+the custom of which this is a typical example, but we must not too hastily
+assume that this custom is evidence of the inferior position occupied by
+semi-civilized women. It is necessary to take a broad view, not only of
+the beliefs of semi-civilized man regarding menstruation, but of his
+general beliefs regarding the supernatural forces of the world.</p>
+
+<p>There is no fragment of folk-lore so familiar to the European world as
+that which connects woman with the serpent. It is, <a name='1_Page_285'></a>indeed, one of the
+foundation stones of Christian theology.<a name='1_FNanchor_354'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_354'><sup>[354]</sup></a> Yet there is no fragment of
+folk-lore which remains more obscure. How has it happened that in all
+parts of the world the snake or his congeners, the lizard and the
+crocodile, have been credited with some design, sinister or erotic, on
+women?</p>
+
+<p>Of the wide prevalence of the belief there can be no doubt. Among the Port
+Lincoln tribe of South Australia a lizard is said to have divided man from
+woman.<a name='1_FNanchor_355'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_355'><sup>[355]</sup></a> Among the Chiriguanos of Bolivia, on the appearance of
+menstruation, old women ran about with sticks to hunt the snake that had
+wounded the girl. Frazer, who quotes this example from the &quot;<i>Lettres
+&eacute;difiantes et curieuses</i>,&quot; also refers to a modern Greek folk-tale,
+according to which a princess at puberty must not let the sun shine upon
+her, or she would be turned into a lizard.<a name='1_FNanchor_356'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_356'><sup>[356]</sup></a> The lizard was a sexual
+symbol among the Mexicans. In some parts of Brazil at the onset of puberty
+a girl must not go into the woods for fear of the amorous attacks of
+snakes, and so it is also among the Macusi Indians of British Guiana,
+according to Schomburgk. Among the Basutos of South Africa the young girls
+must dance around the clay image of a snake. In Polynesian mythology the
+lizard is a very sacred animal, and legends represent women as often
+giving birth to lizards.<a name='1_FNanchor_357'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_357'><sup>[357]</sup></a> At a widely remote spot, in Bengal, if you
+<a name='1_Page_286'></a>dream of a snake a child will be born to you, reports Sarat Chandra
+Mitra.<a name='1_FNanchor_358'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_358'><sup>[358]</sup></a> In the Berlin Museum f&uuml;r Volkerkunde there is a carved wooden
+figure from New Guinea of a woman into whose vulva a crocodile is
+inserting its snout, while the same museum contains another figure of a
+snake-like crocodile crawling out of a woman's vulva, and a third figure
+shows a small round snake with a small head, and closely resembling a
+penis, at the mouth of the vagina. All these figures are reproduced by
+Ploss and Bartels. Even in modern Europe the same ideas prevail. In
+Portugal, according to Reys, it is believed that during menstruation women
+are liable to be bitten by lizards, and to guard against this risk they
+wear drawers during the period. In Germany, again, it was believed, up to
+the eighteenth century at least, that the hair of a menstruating woman, if
+buried, would turn into a snake. It may be added that in various parts of
+the world virgin priestesses are dedicated to a snake-god and are married
+to the god.<a name='1_FNanchor_359'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_359'><sup>[359]</sup></a> At Rome, it is interesting to note, the serpent was the
+symbol of fecundation, and as such often figures at Pompeii as the <i>genius
+patrisfamilias</i>, the generative power of the family.<a name='1_FNanchor_360'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_360'><sup>[360]</sup></a> In Rabbinical
+tradition, also, the serpent is the symbol of sexual desire.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that&mdash;as Ploss and Bartels, from whom some of these
+examples have been taken, point out&mdash;in widely different parts of the
+world menstruation is believed to have been originally caused by a snake,
+and that this conception is frequently associated with an erotic and
+mystic idea.<a name='1_FNanchor_361'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_361'><sup>[361]</sup></a> How the connection arose Ploss and Bartels are unable to
+say. It can <a name='1_Page_287'></a>only be suggested that its shape and appearance, as well as
+its venomous nature, may have contributed to the mystery everywhere
+associated with the snake&mdash;a mystery itself fortified by the association
+with women&mdash;to build up this world-wide belief regarding the origin of
+menstruation.</p>
+
+<p>This primitive theory of the origin of menstruation probably brings before
+us in its earliest shape the special and intimate bond which has ever been
+held to connect women, by virtue of the menstrual process, with the
+natural or supernatural powers of the world. Everywhere menstruating women
+are supposed to be possessed by spirits and charged with mysterious
+forces. It is at this point that a serious misconception, due to ignorance
+of primitive religious ideas, has constantly intruded. It is stated that
+the menstruating woman is &quot;unclean&quot; and possessed by an evil spirit. As a
+matter of fact, however, the savage rarely discriminates between bad and
+good spirits. Every spirit may have either a beneficial or malignant
+influence. An interesting instance of this is given in Colenso's <i>Maori
+Lexicon</i> as illustrated by the meaning of the Maori word <i>atua</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of recognizing the special sense in which the word
+&quot;unclean&quot; is used in this connection was clearly pointed out by Robertson
+Smith in the case of the Semites. &quot;The Hebrew word <i>tame</i> (unclean),&quot; he
+remarked, &quot;is not the ordinary word for things physically foul; it is a
+ritual term, and corresponds exactly to the idea of <i>taboo</i>. The ideas
+'unclean' and 'holy' seem to us to stand in polar opposition to one
+another, but it was not so with the Semites. Among the later Jews the Holy
+Books 'defiled the hands' of the reader as contact with an impure thing
+did; among Lucian's Syrians the dove was so holy that he who touched it
+was unclean for a day; and the <i>taboo</i> attaching to the swine was
+explained by some, and beyond question correctly explained, in the same
+way. Among the heathen Semites,<a name='1_FNanchor_362'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_362'><sup>[362]</sup></a> therefore, unclean animals, which it
+was pollution to eat, were simply <a name='1_Page_288'></a>holy animals.&quot; Robertson Smith here
+made no reference to menstruation, but he exactly described the primitive
+attitude toward menstruation. Wellhausen, however, dealing with the early
+Arabians, expressly mentions that in pre-Islamic days, &quot;clean&quot; and
+&quot;unclean&quot; were used solely with reference to women in and out of the
+menstrual state. At a later date Frazer developed this aspect of the
+conception of taboo, and showed how it occurs among savage races
+generally. He pointed out that the conceptions of holiness and pollution
+not having yet been differentiated, women at childbirth and during
+menstruation are on the same level as divine kings, chiefs, and priests,
+and must observe the same rules of ceremonial purity. To seclude such
+persons from the rest of the world, so that the dreaded spiritual danger
+shall not spread, is the object of the taboo, which Frazer compares to &quot;an
+electrical insulator to preserve the spiritual force with which these
+persons are charged from suffering or inflicting, harm by contact with the
+outer world.&quot; After describing the phenomena (especially the prohibition
+to touch the ground or see the sun) found among various races, Frazer
+concludes: &quot;The object of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralize
+the dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such
+times. The general effect of these rules is to keep the girl suspended, so
+to say, between heaven and earth. Whether enveloped in her hammock and
+slung up to the roof, as in South America, or elevated above the ground in
+a dark and narrow cage, as in New Zealand, she may be considered to be out
+of the way of doing mischief, since, being shut off both from the earth
+and from the sun, she can poison neither of these great sources of life by
+her deadly contagion. The precautions thus taken to isolate or insulate
+the girl are dictated by regard for her own safety as well as for the
+safety of others.... In short, the girl is viewed as charged with a
+powerful force which, if not kept within bounds, may prove the destruction
+both of the girl herself and of all with whom she comes in contact. To
+<a name='1_Page_289'></a>repress this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all
+concerned is the object of the taboos in question. The same explanation
+applies to the observance of the same rules by divine kings and priests.
+The uncleanliness, as it is called, of girls at puberty and the sanctity
+of holy men do not, to the primitive mind, differ from each other. They
+are only different manifestations of the same supernatural energy, which,
+like energy in general, is in itself neither good nor bad, but becomes
+beneficent or malignant according to its application.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_363'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_363'><sup>[363]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>More recently this view of the matter has been further extended by the
+distinguished French sociologist, Durkheim. Investigating the origins of
+the prohibition of incest, and arguing that it proceeds from the custom of
+exogamy (or marriage outside the clan), and that this rests on certain
+ideas about blood, which, again, are traceable to totemism,&mdash;a theory
+which we need not here discuss,&mdash;Durkheim is brought face to face with the
+group of conceptions that now concern us. He insists on the extreme
+ambiguity found in primitive culture concerning the notion of the divine,
+and the close connection between aversion and veneration, and points out
+that it is not only at puberty and each recurrence of the menstrual epoch
+that women have aroused these emotions, but also at childbirth. &quot;A
+sentiment of religious horror,&quot; he continues, &quot;which can reach such a
+degree of intensity, which can be called forth by so many circumstances,
+and reappears regularly every month to last for a week at least, cannot
+fail to extend its influence beyond the periods to which it was originally
+confined, and to affect the whole course of life. A being who must be
+secluded or avoided for weeks, months, or years preserves something of the
+characteristics to which the isolation was due, even outside those special
+periods. And, in fact, in these communities, the separation of the sexes
+is not merely intermittent; it has become chronic. The two elements of the
+population live separately.&quot; Durkheim proceeds to argue that the origin of
+the occult powers attributed to the feminine organism is to be found in
+primitive ideas concerning blood. Not only menstrual blood but any kind of
+blood is the object of <a name='1_Page_290'></a>such feelings among savage and barbarous peoples.
+All sorts of precautions must be observed with regard to blood; in it
+resides a divine principle, or as Romans, Jews, and Arabs believed, life
+itself. The prohibition to drink wine, the blood of the grape, found among
+some peoples, is traced to its resemblance to blood, and to its
+sacrificial employment (as among the ancient Arabians and still in the
+Christian sacrament) as a substitute for drinking blood. Throughout, blood
+is generally taboo, and it taboos everything that comes in contact with
+it. Now woman is chronically &quot;the theatre of bloody manifestations,&quot; and
+therefore she tends to become chronically taboo for the other members of
+the community. &quot;A more or less conscious anxiety, a certain religious
+fear, cannot fail to enter into all the relations of her companions with
+her, and that is why all such relations are reduced to a minimum.
+Relations of a sexual character are specially excluded. In the first
+place, such relations are so intimate that they are incompatible with the
+sort of repulsion which the sexes must experience for each other; the
+barrier between them does not permit of such a close union. In the second
+place, the organs of the body here specially concerned are precisely the
+source of the dreaded manifestations. Thus it is natural that the feelings
+of aversion inspired by women attain their greatest intensity at this
+point. Thus it is, also, that of all parts of the feminine organization it
+is this region which is most severely shut out from commerce.&quot; So that,
+while the primitive emotion is mainly one of veneration, and is allied to
+that experienced for kings and priests, there is an element of fear in
+such veneration, and what men fear is to some extent odious to them.<a name='1_FNanchor_364'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_364'><sup>[364]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>These conceptions necessarily mingled at a very early period with men's
+ideas of sexual intercourse with women and especially with menstruating
+women. Contact with women, as Crawley shows by abundant illustration, is
+dangerous. In any case, indeed, the same ideas being transferred to women
+also, <a name='1_Page_291'></a>coitus produces weakness, and it prevents the acquisition of
+supernatural powers. Thus, among the western tribes of Canada, Boas
+states: &quot;Only a youth who has never touched a woman, or a virgin, both
+being called <i>te 'e 'its</i>, can become shamans. After having had sexual
+intercourse men as well as women, become <i>t 'k-e 'el</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, weak,
+incapable of gaining supernatural powers. The faculty cannot be regained
+by subsequent fasting and abstinence.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_365'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_365'><sup>[365]</sup></a> The mysterious effects of
+sexual intercourse in general are intensified in the case of intercourse
+with a menstruating woman. Thus the ancient Indian legislator declares
+that &quot;the wisdom, the energy, the strength, the sight, and the vitality of
+a man who approaches a woman covered with menstrual excretions utterly
+perish.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_366'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_366'><sup>[366]</sup></a> It will be seen that these ideas are impartially spread over
+the most widely separated parts of the globe. They equally affected the
+Christian Church, and the Penitentials ordained forty or fifty days
+penance for sexual intercourse during menstruation.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the twofold influence of the menstruating woman remains clear when we
+review the whole group of influences which in this state she is supposed
+to exert. She by no means acts only by paralyzing social activities and
+destroying the powers of life, by causing flowers to fade, fruit to fall
+from the trees, grains to lose their germinative power, and grafts to die.
+She is not accurately summed up in the old lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span>&quot;Oh! menstruating woman, thou'rt a fiend<br /></span>
+<span>From whom all nature should be closely screened.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Her powers are also beneficial. A woman at this time, as &AElig;lian expressed
+it, is in regular communication with the starry bodies. Even at other
+times a woman when led naked around the orchard protected it from
+caterpillars, said Pliny, and this belief is acted upon (according to
+Bastanzi) even in the Italy of to-day.<a name='1_FNanchor_367'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_367'><sup>[367]</sup></a> A garment stained with a
+virgin's menstrual blood, it <a name='1_Page_292'></a>is said in Bavaria, is a certain safeguard
+against cuts and stabs. It will also extinguish fire. It was valuable as a
+love-philter; as a medicine its uses have been endless.<a name='1_FNanchor_368'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_368'><sup>[368]</sup></a> A sect of
+Valentinians even attributed sacramental virtues to menstrual blood, and
+partook of it as the blood of Christ. The Church soon, however, acquired a
+horror of menstruating women; they were frequently not allowed to take the
+sacrament or to enter sacred places, and it was sometimes thought best to
+prohibit the presence of women altogether.<a name='1_FNanchor_369'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_369'><sup>[369]</sup></a> The Anglo-Saxon
+Penitentials declared that menstruating women must not enter a church. It
+appears to have been Gregory II who overturned this doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>In our own time the slow disintegration of primitive animistic
+conceptions, aided certainly by the degraded conception of sexual
+phenomena taught by medi&aelig;val monks&mdash;for whom woman was &quot;<i>templum
+&aelig;dificatum super cloacam</i>&quot;&mdash;has led to a disbelief in the more salutary
+influences of the menstruating woman. A fairly widespread faith in her
+pernicious influence alone survives. It may be traced even in practical
+and commercial&mdash;one might add, medical&mdash;quarters. In the great
+sugar-refineries in the North of France the regulations strictly forbid a
+woman to enter the factory while the sugar is boiling or cooling, the
+reason given being that, if a woman were to enter during her period, the
+sugar would blacken. For the same reason&mdash;to turn to the East&mdash;no woman is
+employed in the opium manufactory at Saigon, it being said that the opium
+would turn and <a name='1_Page_293'></a>become bitter, while Annamite women say that it is very
+difficult for them to prepare opium-pipes during the catamenial
+period.<a name='1_FNanchor_370'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_370'><sup>[370]</sup></a> In India, again, when a native in charge of a limekiln which
+had gone wrong, declared that one of the women workers must be
+menstruating, all the women&mdash;Hindus, Mahometans, aboriginal Gonds,
+etc.,&mdash;showed by their energetic denials that they understood this
+superstition.<a name='1_FNanchor_371'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_371'><sup>[371]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1878 a member of the British Medical Association wrote to the <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, asking whether it was true that if a woman cured hams
+while menstruating the hams would be spoiled. He had known this to happen
+twice. Another medical man wrote that if so, what would happen to the
+patients of menstruating lady doctors? A third wrote (in the <i>Journal</i> for
+April 27, 1878): &quot;I thought the fact was so generally known to every
+housewife and cook that meat would spoil if salted at the menstrual
+period, that I am surprised to see so many letters on the subject in the
+<i>Journal</i>. If I am not mistaken, the question was mooted many years ago in
+the periodicals. It is undoubtedly the fact that meat will be tainted if
+cured by women at the catamenial period. Whatever the rationale may be, I
+can speak positively as to the fact.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is probably the influence of these primitive ideas which has caused
+surgeons and gyn&aelig;cologists to dread operations during the catamenial
+period. Such, at all events, is the opinion of a distinguished authority,
+Dr. William Goodell, who wrote in 1891<a name='1_FNanchor_372'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_372'><sup>[372]</sup></a>: &quot;I have learned to unlearn
+the teaching that women must not be subjected to a surgical operation
+during the monthly flux. Our forefathers, from time immemorial, have
+thought and taught that the presence of a menstruating woman would pollute
+solemn religious rites, would sour milk, spoil the fermentation in
+wine-vats, and much other mischief in a general way. Influenced <a name='1_Page_294'></a>by hoary
+tradition, modern physicians very generally postpone all operative
+treatment until the flow has ceased. But why this delay, if time is
+precious, and it enters as an important factor in the case? I have found
+menstruation to be the very best time to curette away fungous vegetations
+of the endometrium, for, being swollen then by the afflux of blood, they
+are larger than at any other time, and can the more readily be removed.
+There is, indeed, no surer way of checking or of stopping a metrorrhagia
+than by curetting the womb during the very flow. While I do not select
+this period for the removal of ovarian cysts, or for other abdominal work,
+such as the extirpation of the ovaries, or a kidney, or breaking up
+intestinal adhesions, etc., yet I have not hesitated to perform these
+operations at such a time, and have never had reason to regret the course.
+The only operations that I should dislike to perform during menstruation
+would be those involving the womb itself.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It must be added to this that we still have to take into consideration not
+merely the surviving influence of ancient primitive beliefs, but the
+possible existence of actual nervous conditions during the menstrual
+period, producing what may be described as an abnormal nervous tension. In
+this way, we are doubtless concerned with a tissue of phenomena,
+inextricably woven of folk-lore, autosuggestion, false observation, and
+real mental and nervous abnormality. Laurent (<i>loc. cit.</i>) has brought
+forward several cases which may illustrate this point. Thus, he speaks of
+two young girls of about 16 and 17, slightly neuropathic, but without
+definite hysterical symptoms, who, during the menstrual period, feel
+themselves in a sort of electrical state, &quot;with tingling and prickling
+sensations and feelings of attraction or repulsion at the contact of
+various objects.&quot; These girls believe their garments stick to their skin
+during the periods; it was only with difficulty that they could remove
+their slippers, though fitting easily; stockings had to be drawn off
+violently by another person, and they had given up changing their chemises
+during the period because the linen became so glued to the skin. An
+orchestral performer on the double-bass informed Laurent that whenever he
+left a tuned double-bass in his lodgings during <a name='1_Page_295'></a>his wife's period a
+string snapped; consequently he always removed his instrument at this time
+to a friend's house. He added that the same thing happened two years
+earlier with a mistress, a <i>caf&eacute;-concert</i> singer, who had, indeed, warned
+him beforehand. A harpist also informed Laurent that she had been obliged
+to give up her profession because during her periods several strings of
+her harp, always the same strings, broke, especially when she was playing.
+A friend of Laurent's, an official in Cochin China, also told him that the
+strings of his violin often snapped during the menstrual periods of his
+Annamite mistress, who informed him that Annamite women are familiar with
+the phenomenon, and are careful not to play on their instruments at this
+time. Two young ladies, both good violinists, also affirmed that ever
+since their first menstruation they had noted a tendency for the strings
+to snap at this period; one, a genuine artist, who often performed at
+charity concerts, systematically refused to play at these times, and was
+often embarrassed to find a pretext; the other, who admitted that she was
+nervous and irritable at such times, had given up playing on account of
+the trouble of changing the strings so frequently. Laurent also refers to
+the frequency with which women break things during the menstrual periods,
+and considers that this is not simply due to the awkwardness caused by
+nervous exhaustion or hysterical tremors, but that there is spontaneous
+breakage. Most usually it happens that a glass breaks when it is being
+dried with a cloth; needles also break with unusual facility at this time;
+clocks are stopped by merely placing the hand upon them.</p>
+
+<p>I do not here attempt to estimate critically the validity of these alleged
+manifestations (some of which may certainly be explained by the
+unconscious muscular action which forms the basis of the phenomena of
+table-turning and thought-reading); such a task may best be undertaken
+through the minute study of isolated cases, and in this place I am merely
+concerned with the general influence of the menstrual state in affecting
+the social position of women, without reference to the analysis of the
+elements that go to make up that influence.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one further point to which attention may be <a name='1_Page_296'></a>called. I
+allude to the way in which the more favorable side of the primitive
+conception of the menstruating woman&mdash;as priestess, sibyl, prophetess, an
+almost miraculous agent for good, an angel, the peculiar home of the
+divine element&mdash;was slowly and continuously carried on side by side with
+the less favorable view, through the beginnings of European civilization
+until our own times. The actual physical phenomena of menstruation, with
+the ideas of taboo associated with that state, sank into the background as
+culture evolved; but, on the other hand, the ideas of the angelic position
+and spiritual mission of women, based on the primitive conception of the
+mystery associated with menstruation, still in some degree persisted.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, however, that, while, in one form or another, the more
+favorable aspect of the primitive view of women's magic function has never
+quite died out, the gradual decay and degradation of the primitive view
+has, on the whole, involved a lower estimate of women's nature and
+position. Woman has always been the witch; she was so even in ancient
+Babylonia; but she has ceased to be the priestess. The early Teutons saw
+&quot;<i>sanctum aliquid et providum</i>&quot; in women who, for the medi&aelig;val German
+preacher, were only &quot;<i>besti&aelig; bipedales</i>&quot;; and Schopenhauer and even
+Nietzsche have been more inclined to side with the preacher than with the
+half-naked philosophers of Tacitus's day. But both views alike are but the
+extremes of the same primitive conception; and the gradual evolution from
+one extreme of the magical doctrine to the other was inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>In an advanced civilization, as we see, these ideas having their ultimate
+basis on the old story of the serpent, and on a special and mysterious
+connection between the menstruating woman and the occult forces of magic,
+tend to die out. The separation of the sexes they involve becomes
+unnecessary. Living in greater community with men, women are seen to
+possess something, it may well be, but less than before, of the
+angel-devil of early theories. Menstruation is no longer a monstrific
+state requiring spiritual taboo, but a normal physiological process, not
+without its psychic influences on the woman herself and on those who live
+with her.</p><a name='1_Page_297'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_353'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_353'>[353]</a><div class='note'><p> Several recent works, however, notably Frazer's <i>Golden
+Bough</i> and Crawley's <i>Mystic Rose</i>, throw light directly or indirectly on
+this question.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_354'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_354'>[354]</a><div class='note'><p> Robertson Smith points out that since snakes are the last
+noxious animals which man is able to exterminate, they are the last to be
+associated with demons. They were ultimately the only animals directly and
+constantly associated with the Arabian <i>jinn</i>, or demon, and the serpent
+of Eden was a demon, and not a temporary disguise of Satan (<i>Religion of
+Semites</i>, pp. 129 and 442). Perhaps it was, in part, because the snake was
+thus the last embodiment of demonic power that women were associated with
+it, women being always connected with the most ancient religious beliefs.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_355'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_355'>[355]</a><div class='note'><p> In the northern territory of the same colony menstruation
+is said to be due to a bandicoot scratching the vagina and causing blood
+to flow (<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, p. 177, November,
+1894). At Glenelg, and near Portland, in Victoria, the head of a snake was
+inserted into a virgin's vagina, when not considered large enough for
+intercourse (Brough Smyth, <i>Aborigines of Victoria</i>, vol. ii, p. 319).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_356'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_356'>[356]</a><div class='note'><p> Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. ii, p. 231. Crawley (<i>The
+Mystic Rose</i>, p. 192) also brings together various cases of primitive
+peoples who believe the bite of a snake to be the cause of menstruation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_357'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_357'>[357]</a><div class='note'><p> Meyners d'Estrez, &quot;Etude ethnographique sur le l&eacute;zard chez
+les peuples malais et polyn&eacute;siens,&quot; <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1892; see also, as
+regards the lizard in Samoan folk-lore, <i>Globus</i>, vol. lxxiv, No. 16.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_358'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_358'>[358]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay</i>, 1890, p. 589.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_359'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_359'>[359]</a><div class='note'><p> Boudin (<i>Etude Anthropologique: Culte du Serpent</i>, Paris,
+1864, pp. 66-70) brings forward examples of this aspect of snake-worship.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_360'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_360'>[360]</a><div class='note'><p> Attilio de Marchi, <i>Il Culto privato di Roma</i>, p. 74. The
+association of the power of generation with a god in the form of a serpent
+is, indeed, common; see, <i>e.g.</i> Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Cities of Phrygia</i>, vol.
+i, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_361'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_361'>[361]</a><div class='note'><p> It is noteworthy that one of the names for the penis used
+by the Swahili women of German East Africa, in a kind of private language
+of their own, is &quot;the snake&quot; (Zache, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, p. 73,
+1899). It may be added that Maeder (&quot;Interpr&eacute;tation de Quelques R&ecirc;ves,&quot;
+<i>Archives de Psychologie</i>, April, 1907) brings forward various items of
+folk-lore showing the phallic significance of the serpent, as well as
+evidence indicating that, in the dreams of women of to-day, the snake
+sometimes has a sexual significance.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_362'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_362'>[362]</a><div class='note'><p> W. R. Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>, 1885,
+p. 307. The point is elaborated in the same author's <i>Religion of
+Semites</i>, second edition, Appendix on &quot;Holiness, Uncleanness, and Taboo,&quot;
+pp. 446-54. See also Wellhausen, <i>Reste Arabischen Heidentums</i>, second
+edition, pp. 167-77. Even to the early Arabians, Wellhausen remarks (p.
+168), &quot;clean&quot; meant &quot;profane and allowed,&quot; while &quot;unclean&quot; meant &quot;sacred
+and forbidden.&quot; It was the same, as Jastrow remarks (<i>Religion of
+Babylonia</i>, p. 662), among the Babylonian Semites.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_363'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_363'>[363]</a><div class='note'><p> J. C. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_364'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_364'>[364]</a><div class='note'><p> E. Durkheim, &quot;La Prohibition de l'Inceste et ses Origines,&quot;
+<i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, Premi&egrave;re Ann&eacute;e, 1898, esp. pp. 44, 46-47, 48,
+50-57. Crawley (<i>Mystic Rose</i>, p. 212) opposes Durkheim's view as to the
+significance of blood in relation to the attitude towards women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_365'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_365'>[365]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>British Association Report on North Western Tribes of
+Canada</i>, 1890, p. 581.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_366'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_366'>[366]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Laws of Manu</i>, iv, 41.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_367'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_367'>[367]</a><div class='note'><p> Pliny, who, in Book VII, Chapter XIII, and Book XXVIII,
+Chapter XXIII, of his <i>Natural History</i>, gives long lists of the various
+good and evil influences attributed to menstruation, writes in the latter
+place: &quot;Hailstorms, they say, whirlwinds, and lightnings, even, will be
+scared away by a woman uncovering her body while her monthly courses are
+upon her. The same, too, with all other kinds of tempestuous weather; and
+out at sea, a storm may be stilled by a woman uncovering her body merely,
+even though not menstruating at the time. At any other time, also, if a
+woman strips herself naked while she is menstruating, and walks round a
+field of wheat, the caterpillars, worms, beetles, and other vermin will
+fall from off the ears of corn.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_368'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_368'>[368]</a><div class='note'><p> See Bourke, <i>Scatologic Rites of all Nations</i>, 1891, pp.
+217-219, 250 and 254; Ploss and Max Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>, vol. i; H. L.
+Strack, <i>Der Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit</i>, fourth edition, 1892, pp.
+14-18. The last mentioned refers to the efficacy frequently attributed to
+menstrual blood in the Middle Ages in curing leprosy, and gives instances,
+occurring even in Germany to-day, of girls who have administered drops of
+menstrual blood in coffee to their sweethearts, to make sure of retaining
+their affections.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_369'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_369'>[369]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Dufour, <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>, vol.
+iii, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_370'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_370'>[370]</a><div class='note'><p> Dr. L. Laurent gives these instances, &quot;De Quelques
+Phenom&egrave;nes M&eacute;caniques produits au moment de la Menstruation,&quot; <i>Annales des
+Sciences Psychiques</i>, September and October, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_371'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_371'>[371]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay</i>, 1890, p. 403.
+Even the glance of a menstruating woman is widely believed to have serious
+results. See Tuchmann, &quot;La Fascination,&quot; <i>M&eacute;lasine</i>, 1888, pp. 347 <i>et
+seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_372'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_372'>[372]</a><div class='note'><p> As quoted in the <i>Provincial Medical Journal</i>, April,
+1891.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_APPENDIX_B'></a><h2>APPENDIX B.</h2>
+
+<h3>SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEN.</h3>
+
+<h4>BY F. H. PERRY-COSTE, B. Sc. (LOND.).</h4>
+
+<p>In a recent <i>brochure</i> on the &quot;Rhythm of the Pulse&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_373'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_373'><sup>[373]</sup></a> I showed <i>inter
+alia</i> that the readings of the pulse, in both man and woman, if arranged
+in lunar monthly periods, and averaged over several years, displayed a
+clear, and sometimes very strongly marked and symmetrical, rhythm.<a name='1_FNanchor_374'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_374'><sup>[374]</sup></a>
+After pointing out that, in at any rate some cases, the male and female
+pulse-curves, both monthly and annual, seemed to be converse to one
+another, I added: &quot;It is difficult to ignore the suggestion that in this
+tracing of the monthly rhythm of the pulse we have a history of the
+monthly function in women; and that, if so, the tracing of the male pulse
+may eventually afford us some help in discovering a corresponding monthly
+period in men: the existence of which has been suggested by Mr. Havelock
+Ellis and Professor Stanley Hall, among other writers. Certainly the mere
+fact that we can trace a clear monthly rhythm in man's pulse seems to
+point strongly to the existence of a monthly physiological period in him
+also.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, however, it is only indirectly and by inference that we can
+argue from a monthly rhythm of the pulse in men to a male sexual
+periodicity; but I am now able to adduce more direct evidence that will
+fairly demonstrate the existence of a sexual periodicity in men.</p><a name='1_Page_298'></a>
+
+<p>We will start from the fact that celibacy is profoundly unnatural, and is,
+therefore, a physical&mdash;as well as an emotional and
+intellectual&mdash;abnormality. This being so, it is entirety in accord with
+all that we know of physiology that, when relief to the sexual secretory
+system by Nature's means is denied, and when, in consequence, a certain
+degree of tension or pressure has been attained, the system should relieve
+itself by a spontaneous discharge&mdash;such discharge being, of course, in the
+strict sense of the term, pathological, since it would never occur in any
+animal that followed the strict law of its physical being without any
+regard to other and higher laws of concern for its fellows.</p>
+
+<p>Notoriously, that which we should have anticipated <i>a priori</i> actually
+occurs; for any unmarried man, who lives in strict chastity, periodically
+experiences, while sleeping, a loss of seminal fluid&mdash;such phenomena being
+popularly referred to as <i>wet dreams</i>.<a name='1_FNanchor_375'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_375'><sup>[375]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>During some eight or ten years I have carefully recorded the occurrence of
+such discharges as I have experienced myself, and I have now accumulated
+sufficient data to justify an attempt to formulate some provisional
+conclusions.<a name='1_FNanchor_376'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_376'><sup>[376]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In order to render these observations as serviceable as may be to students
+of periodicity, I here repeat (at the request of Mr. Havelock Ellis) the
+statement which was subjoined, for the same reasons, to my &quot;Rhythm of the
+Pulse.&quot; These observations upon myself were made between the ages of 20
+and 33. I am about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, broad-shouldered, and weigh
+about 10 stone 3 lbs. <i>net</i>&mdash;this weight being, I believe, about 7 lbs.
+below the normal for my height. Also I have green-brown eyes, very
+dark-brown hair, and a complexion that leads strangers frequently to
+<a name='1_Page_299'></a>mistake me for a foreigner&mdash;this complexion being, perhaps, attributable
+to some Huguenot blood, although on the maternal side I am, so far as all
+information goes, pure English. I can stand a good deal of heat, enjoy
+relaxing climates, am at once upset by &quot;bracing&quot; sea-air, hate the cold,
+and sweat profusely after exercise. To this it will suffice to add that my
+temperament is of a decidedly nervous and emotional type.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to remark upon the various rhythms that I have
+discovered, I will tabulate the data on which my conclusions are founded.
+The numbers of discharges recorded in the years in question are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1886,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;30.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;(Records commenced in April.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1887,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;40.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1888,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;37.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1889,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;18.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;(Pretty certainly not fully recorded.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1890,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;0</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;(No records kept this year.<a name='1_FNanchor_377'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_377'><sup>[377]</sup></a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1891,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;19.</td><td align='left'>(Records recommenced in June.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1892,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;35.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1893,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;40.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1894,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;38.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1895,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;36.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1896,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;36.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In 1897,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;35.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Average,&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;37.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;(Omitting 1886, 1889, and 1891.)</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>Thus I have complete records for eight years, and incomplete records for
+three more; and the remarkable concord between the respective annual
+numbers of observations in these eight years not only affords us intrinsic
+evidence of the accuracy of my records, but, also, at once proves that
+there is an undeniable regularity in the occurrence of these sexual
+discharges, and, therefore, gives us reason for expecting to find this
+regularity <a name='1_Page_300'></a>rhythmical. Moreover, since it seemed reasonable to expect
+that there might be more than one rhythm, I have examined my data with a
+view to discovering (1) an annual, (2) a lunar-monthly, and (3) a weekly
+rhythm, and I now proceed to show that all three such rhythms exist.</p>
+
+<h4>THE ANNUAL RHYTHM.</h4>
+
+<p>It is obvious that, in searching for an annual rhythm, we must ignore the
+records of the three incomplete years; but those of the remaining eight
+are graphically depicted upon <a href='#1_CHART_VIII'>Chart VIII</a>. The curves speak so plainly for
+themselves that any comment were almost superfluous, and the concord
+between the various curves, although, of course, not perfect, is far
+greater than the scantiness of the data would have justified us in
+expecting. The curves all agree in pointing to the existence of three
+well-defined maxima,&mdash;viz., in March, June, and September,&mdash;these being,
+therefore, the months in which the sexual instinct is most active; and the
+later curves show that there is also often a fourth maximum in January. In
+the earlier years the March and June maxima are more strikingly marked
+than the September one; but the uppermost curve shows that on the average
+of all eight years the September maximum is the highest, the June and
+January maxima occupying the second place, and the March maximum being the
+least strongly marked of all.</p>
+
+<p>Now, remembering that, in calculating the curves of the annual rhythm of
+the pulse, I had found it necessary to average two months' records
+together, in order to bring out the full significance of the rhythm, I
+thought it well to try the effect upon these curves also of similarly
+averaging two months together. At first my results were fairly
+satisfactory; but, as my data increased year by year, I found that these
+curves were contradicting one another, and therefore concluded that I had
+selected unnatural periods for my averaging. My first attempted remedy was
+to arrange the months in the pairs December-January, February-March, etc.,
+instead of in January-February, March-April, etc.; but with these pairs I
+fared no better than with the former. I then arranged the months in the
+triplets,<a name='1_Page_301'></a> January-February-March, etc.; and the results are graphically
+recorded on <a href='#1_CHART_VII'>Chart VII</a>. Here, again, comment would be quite futile, but I
+need only point out that, <i>on the whole</i>, the sexual activity rises
+steadily during the first nine months in the year to its maximum in
+September, and then sinks rapidly and abruptly during the next three to
+its minimum in December.</p>
+
+<p>The study of these curves suggests two interesting questions, to neither
+of which, however, do the data afford us an answer.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, are the alterations, in my case, of the maximum of the
+discharges from March and June in the earlier years to September in the
+later, and the interpolation of a new secondary maximum in January,
+correlated with the increase in age; or is the discrepancy due simply to a
+temporary irregularity that would have been equally averaged out had I
+recorded the discharges of 1881-89 instead of those from 1887 to 1897?</p>
+
+<p>The second question is one of very great importance&mdash;socially, ethically,
+and physically. How often, in this climate, should a man have sexual
+connection with his wife in order to maintain himself in perfect
+physiological equilibrium? My results enable us to state definitely the
+minimum limits, and to reply that 37 embraces annually would be too few;
+but, unfortunately, they give us no clue to the maximum limit. It is
+obvious that the necessary frequency should be greater than 37 times
+annually,&mdash;possibly very considerably in excess thereof,&mdash;seeing that the
+spontaneous discharges, with which we are dealing, are due to
+over-pressure, and occur only when the system, being denied natural
+relief, can no longer retain its secretions; and, therefore, it seems very
+reasonable to suggest that the frequency of natural relief should be some
+multiple of 37. I do not perceive, however, that the data in hand afford
+us any clue to this multiple, or enable us to suggest either 2, 3, 4, or 5
+as the required multiple of 37. It is true that other observations upon
+myself have afforded me what I believe to be a fairly satisfactory and
+reliable answer so far as concerns myself; but these observations are of
+such a nature that they cannot be discussed here, and I have no
+inclination to offer as a counsel to others an opinion<a name='1_Page_302'></a> which I am unable
+to justify by the citation of facts and statistics. Moreover, I am quite
+unable to opine whether, given 37 as the annual frequency of spontaneous
+discharges in a number of men, the multiple required for the frequency of
+natural relief should be the same in every case. For aught I know to the
+contrary, the physiological idiosyncrasies of men may be so varied that,
+given two men with an annual frequency of 37 spontaneous discharges, the
+desired multiple may be in one case X and in the other 2X.<a name='1_FNanchor_378'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_378'><sup>[378]</sup></a> Our data,
+however, do clearly denote that the frequency in the six or eight summer
+months should bear to the frequency of the six or four winter months the
+proportion of three or four to two.<a name='1_FNanchor_379'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_379'><sup>[379]</sup></a> It should never be forgotten,
+however, that, under all conditions, both man and wife should exercise
+prudence, both <i>selfward</i> and <i>otherward</i>, and that each should utterly
+refuse to gratify self by accepting a sacrifice, however willingly
+offered, that may be gravely prejudicial to the health of the other; for
+only experience can show whether, in any <a name='1_Page_303'></a>union, the receptivity of the
+woman be greater or less than, or equal to, the <i>physical</i> desire of the
+man. To those, of course, who regard marriage from the old-fashioned and
+grossly immoral standpoint of Melancthon and other theologians, and who
+consider a wife as the divinely ordained vehicle for the chartered
+intemperance of her husband, it will seem grotesque in the highest degree
+that a physiological inquirer should attempt to advise them how often to
+seek the embraces of their wives; but those who regard woman from the
+standpoint of a higher ethics, who abhor the notion that she should be
+only the vehicle for her husband's passions, and who demand that she shall
+be mistress of her own body, will not be ungrateful for any guidance that
+physiology can afford them. It will be seen presently, moreover, that the
+study of the weekly rhythm does afford us some less inexact clue to the
+desired solution.</p>
+
+<p>One curious fact may be mentioned before we quit this interesting
+question. It is stated that &quot;Solon required [of the husband] three
+<i>payments</i> per month. By the Misna a daily debt was imposed upon an idle
+vigorous young husband; <i>twice a week</i> on a citizen; once in thirty days
+on a camel-driver; once in six months on a seaman.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_380'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_380'><sup>[380]</sup></a> Now it is
+certainly striking that Solon's &quot;three payments per month&quot; exactly
+correspond with my records of 37 discharges annually. Had Solon similarly
+recorded a series of observations upon himself?</p>
+
+<h4>THE LUNAR-MONTHLY RHYTHM.</h4>
+
+<p>We now come to that division of the inquiry which is of the greatest
+physiological interest, although of little social import. Is there a
+monthly period in man as well as in woman? My records indicate clearly
+that there is.</p>
+
+<p>In searching for this monthly rhythm I have utilized not only the data of
+the eight completely-recorded years, but also those of the three years of
+1886, 1889, and 1891, for, although it would obviously have been
+inaccurate to utilize these incomplete <a name='1_Page_304'></a>records when calculating the
+yearly rhythm, there seems no objection to making use of them in the
+present section of the inquiry. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
+terms &quot;first day of the month,&quot; &quot;second day,&quot; &quot;third day,&quot; etc., are to be
+understood as denoting &quot;new-moon day,&quot; &quot;day after new moon,&quot; &quot;third lunar
+day,&quot; and so on; but it should be explained that, since these discharges
+occur at night, I have adopted the astronomical, instead of the civil,
+day; so that a new moon occurring between noon yesterday and noon to-day
+is reckoned as occurring yesterday, and yesterday is regarded as the first
+lunar day: thus, a discharge occurring in the night between December 31st
+and January 1st is tabulated as occurring on December 31st, and, in the
+present discussion, is assigned to the lunar day comprised between noon of
+December 31st and noon of January 1st.</p>
+
+<p>Since it is obvious that the number of discharges in any one
+year&mdash;averaging, as they do, only 1.25 per day&mdash;are far too few to yield a
+curve of any value, I have combined my data in two series. The dotted
+curve on <a href='#1_CHART_IX'>Chart IX</a> is obtained by combining the results of the years
+1886-92: two of these years are incompletely recorded, and there are no
+records for 1890; the total number of observations was 179. The broken
+curve is obtained by combining those of the years 1893-97, the total
+number of observations being 185. Even so, the data are far too scanty to
+yield a really characteristic curve; but the <i>continuous</i> curve, which
+sums up the results of the eleven years, is more reliable, and obviously
+more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>If the two former curves be compared, it will be seen that, on the whole,
+they display a general concordance, such differences as exist being
+attributable chiefly to two facts: (1) that the second curve is more even
+throughout, neither maximum nor minimum being so strongly marked as in the
+first; and (2) that the main maximum occurs in the middle of the month
+instead of on the second lunar day, and the absence of the marked initial
+maximum alters the character of the first week or so of this curve. It is,
+however, scarcely fair to lay any great stress on the characters of curves
+obtained from such scanty data, and <a name='1_Page_305'></a>we will, therefore, pass to the
+continuous curve, the study of which will prove more valuable.<a name='1_FNanchor_381'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_381'><sup>[381]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Now, even a cursory examination of this continuous curve will yield the
+following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The discharges occur most frequently on the second lunar day.</p>
+
+<p>2. The days of the next most frequent discharges are the 22d; the 13th;
+the 7th, 20th, and 26th; the 11th and 16th; so that, if we regard only the
+first six of these, we find that the discharges occur most frequently on
+the 2d, 7th, 13th, 20th, 22d, and 26th lunar days&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, the discharges
+occur most frequently on days separated, on the average, by four-day
+intervals; but actually the period between the 20th and 22d days is that
+characterized by the most frequent discharges.</p>
+
+<p>3. The days of minimum of discharge are the 1st, 5th, 15th, 18th, and
+21st.</p>
+
+<p>4. The curve is characterized by a continual see-sawing; so that every
+notable maximum is immediately followed by a notable minimum. Thus, the
+curve is of an entirely different character from that representing the
+monthly rhythm of the pulse,<a name='1_FNanchor_382'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_382'><sup>[382]</sup></a> and this is only what one might have
+expected; for, whereas the <i>mean</i> pulsations vary only very slightly from
+day to day,&mdash;thus giving rise to a gradually rising or sinking curve,&mdash;a
+discharge from the sexual system relieves the tension by exhausting the
+stored-up secretion, and is necessarily followed by some days of rest and
+inactivity. In the very nature of the case, therefore, a curve of this
+kind could not possibly be otherwise than most irregular if the discharges
+tended to occur most frequently upon definite days of the month; and thus
+the very irregularity of the curve affords us proof that there is a
+regular male periodicity, such that on certain days of the month there is
+greater probability of a spontaneous discharge than on any other days. </p><a name='1_Page_306'></a>
+
+<p>5. Gratifying, however, though this irregularity of the curve may be, yet
+it entails a corresponding disadvantage, for we are precluded thereby from
+readily perceiving the characteristics of the monthly rhythm as a whole. I
+thought that perhaps this aspect of the rhythm might be rendered plainer
+if I calculated the data into two-day averages; and the result, as shown
+in <a href='#1_CHART_X'>Chart X</a>, is extremely satisfactory. Here we can at once perceive the
+wonderful and almost geometric symmetry of the monthly rhythm; indeed, if
+the third maximum were one unit higher, if the first minimum were one unit
+lower, and if the lines joining the second minimum and third maximum, and
+the fourth maximum and fourth minimum, were straight instead of being
+slightly broken, then the curve would, in its chief features, be
+geometrically symmetrical; and this symmetry appears to me to afford a
+convincing proof of the representative accuracy of the curve. We see that
+the month is divided into five periods; that the maxima occur on the
+following pairs of days: the 19th-20th, 13th-14th, 25th-26th, 1st-2d,
+7th-8th; and that the minima occur at the beginning, end, and exact middle
+of the month. There have been many idle superstitions as to the influence
+of the moon upon the earth and its inhabitants, and some beliefs
+that&mdash;once deemed equally idle&mdash;have now been re-instated in the regard of
+science; but it would certainly seem to be a very fascinating and very
+curious fact if the influence of the moon upon men should be such as to
+regulate the spontaneous discharges of their sexual system. Certainly the
+lovers of all ages would then have &quot;builded better than they knew,&quot; when
+they reared altars of devotional verse to that chaste goddess Artemis.</p>
+
+<h4>THE WEEKLY RHYTHM.</h4>
+
+<p>We now come to the third branch of our inquiry, and have to ask whether
+there be any weekly rhythm of the sexual activity. <i>A priori</i> it might be
+answered that to expect any such weekly rhythm were absurd, seeing that
+our week&mdash;unlike the lunar month of the year&mdash;is a purely artificial and
+conventional period; while, on the other hand, it might be retorted that
+the existence of an <i>induced</i> weekly periodicity is quite conceivable,
+such <a name='1_Page_307'></a>periodicity being induced by the habitual difference between our
+occupation, or mode of life, on one or two days of the week and that on
+the remaining days. In such an inquiry, however, <i>a priori</i> argument is
+futile, as the question can be answered only by an induction from
+observations, and the curves on Chart XI (<i><a href='#1_CHART_XIa'>Chart XIa</a></i> and <i><a href='#1_CHART_XIb'>Chart XIb</a></i>) prove conclusively
+that there is a notable weekly rhythm. The existence of this weekly rhythm
+being granted, it would naturally be assumed that either the maximum or
+the minimum would regularly occur on Saturday or Sunday; but an
+examination of the curves discloses the unexpected result that the day of
+maximum discharge varies from year to year. Thus it is<a name='1_FNanchor_383'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_383'><sup>[383]</sup></a></p>
+
+
+<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sunday in</td><td align='left'>1888, 1892, 1896.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tuesday in</td><td align='left'>1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Thursday in</td><td align='left'>1886, 1897.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Friday in</td><td align='left'>1887.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Saturday in</td><td align='left'>1893 and 1895.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>Since, in Chart XI, the curves are drawn from Sunday to Sunday, it is
+obvious that the real symmetry of the curve is brought out in those years
+only which are characterized by a Sunday maximum; and, accordingly, in
+Chart 12 I have depicted the curves in a more suitable form.</p>
+
+<p><a href='#1_CHART_XII'>Chart XII</a> <i>A</i> is obtained by combining the data of 1888, 1892, and 1896:
+the years of a Sunday maximum. Curve 12 <i>B</i> represents the results of
+1894, the year of a Tuesday maximum&mdash;multiplied throughout by three in
+order to render the curve strictly comparable with the former. Curve 12
+<i>C</i> represents 1886 and 1897&mdash;the years of a Thursday maximum&mdash;similarly
+multiplied by 1.5. In Curve 12 <i>D</i> we have the results of 1887&mdash;the year
+of a Friday maximum&mdash;again multiplied by three; and in Curve 12 <i>E</i> those
+of 1893 and 1895&mdash;the years of a Saturday maximum&mdash;multiplied by 1.5.
+Finally, Curve 12 <i>F</i> represents the combined results of all nine years
+plus (the latter half of)<a name='1_Page_308'></a> 1891; and this curve shows that, on the whole
+period, there is a very strongly marked Sunday maximum.</p>
+
+<p>I hardly think that these curves call for much comment. In their general
+character they display a notable concord among themselves; and it is
+significant that the most regular of the five curves are <i>A</i> and <i>E</i>,
+representing the combinations of three years and of two years,
+respectively, while the least regular is <i>B</i>, which is based upon the
+records of one year only. In every case we find that the maximum which
+opens the week is rapidly succeeded by a minimum, which is itself
+succeeded by a secondary maximum,&mdash;usually very secondary, although in
+1894 it nearly equals the primary maximum,&mdash;followed again by a second
+minimum&mdash;usually nearly identical with the first minimum,&mdash;after which
+there is a rapid rise to the original maximum. The study of these curves
+fortunately amplifies the conclusion drawn from our study of the annual
+rhythm, and suggests that, in at least part of the year, the physiological
+condition of man requires sexual union at least twice a week.</p>
+
+<p>As to Curve 12<i>F</i>, its remarkable symmetry speaks for itself. The
+existence of two secondary maxima, however, has not the same significance
+as had that of our secondary maximum in the preceding curves; for one of
+these secondary maxima is due to the influence of the 1894 curve with its
+primary Tuesday maximum, and the other to the similar influence of Curve
+<i>C</i> with its primary Thursday maximum. Similarly, the veiled third
+secondary maximum is due to the influence of Curve <i>E</i>. Probably, any
+student of curves will concede that, on a still larger average, the two
+secondary maxima of Curve <i>F</i> would be replaced by a single one on
+Wednesday or Thursday.</p>
+
+<p>One more question remains for consideration in connection with this weekly
+rhythm. Is it possible to trace any connection between the weekly and
+yearly rhythms of such a character that the weekly day of maximum
+discharge should vary from month to month in the year; in other words,
+does the greater frequency of a Sunday discharge characterize one part of
+the year, that of a Tuesday another, and so on? In order to answer this
+question I have re-calculated all my data, with results that are
+graphically <a name='1_Page_309'></a>represented in <a href='#1_CHART_XIII'>Chart XIII</a>. These curves prove that the Sunday
+maxima discharges occur in March and September, and the minima in June;
+that the Monday maxima discharges occur in September, Friday in July, and
+so on. Thus, there is a regular rhythm, according to which the days of
+maximum discharge vary from one month of the year to another; and the
+existence of this final rhythm appears to me very remarkable. I would
+especially direct attention to the almost geometric symmetry of the Sunday
+curve, and to the only less complete symmetry of the Thursday and Friday
+curves. Certainly in these rhythms we have an ample field for farther
+study and speculation.</p>
+
+<p>I have now concluded my study of this fascinating inquiry; a study that is
+necessarily incomplete, since it is based upon records furnished by one
+individual only. The fact, however, that, even with so few observations,
+and notwithstanding the consequently exaggerated disturbing influence of
+minor irregularities, such remarkable and unexpected symmetry is evidenced
+by these curves, only increases one's desire to have the opportunity of
+handling a series of observations sufficiently numerous to render the
+generalizations induced from them absolutely conclusive. I would again
+appeal<a name='1_FNanchor_384'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_384'><sup>[384]</sup></a> to heads of colleges to assist this inquiry by enlisting in
+its aid a band of students. If only one hundred students, living under
+similar conditions, could be induced to keep such records with scrupulous
+regularity for only twelve months, the results induced from such a series
+of observations would be more than ten times as valuable as those which
+have only been reached after ten years' observations on my part; and, if
+other centuries of students in foreign and colonial colleges&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, in
+Italy, India, Australia, and America&mdash;could be similarly enlisted in this
+work, we should quickly obtain a series of results exhibiting the sexual
+needs and sexual peculiarities of the male human animal in various
+climates. Obviously, however, the records of any such students would be
+worse than useless unless their care and accuracy, on the one hand, and
+their habitual chastity, on the other, could be implicitly guaranteed. </p><a name='1_Page_310'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_373'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_373'>[373]</a><div class='note'><p> First published in the <i>University Magazine and Free
+Review</i> of February, 1898, and since reprinted as a pamphlet. A
+preliminary communication appeared in <i>Nature</i>, May 14, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_374'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_374'>[374]</a><div class='note'><p> [Later study (1906) has convinced me that my attempt to
+find a lunar-monthly period in the female pulse was vitiated by a hopeless
+error: for any monthly rhythm in a woman must be sought by arranging her
+records according to her own menstrual month; and this menstrual month may
+vary in different women, from considerably less than a lunar month to
+thirty days or more.]</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_375'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_375'>[375]</a><div class='note'><p> I may add, however, that in my own case these discharges
+are&mdash;so far as I can trust my waking consciousness&mdash;frequently, if not
+usually, dreamless; and that strictly sexual dreams are extremely rare,
+notwithstanding the possession of a strongly emotional temperament.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_376'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_376'>[376]</a><div class='note'><p> If I can trust my memory, I first experienced this
+discharge when a few months under fifteen years of age, and, if so, within
+a few weeks of the time when I was, in an instant, suddenly struck with
+the thought that possibly the religion in which I had been educated might
+be false. It is curiously interesting that the advent of puberty should
+have been heralded by this intellectual crisis.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_377'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_377'>[377]</a><div class='note'><p> This unfortunate breach in the records was due to the fact
+that, failing to discover any regularity in, or law of, the occurrences of
+the discharges, I became discouraged and abandoned my records. In June,
+1891, a re-examination of my pulse-records having led to my discovery of a
+lunar-monthly rhythm of the pulse, my interest in other physiological
+periodicities was reawakened, and I recommenced my records of these
+discharges.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_378'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_378'>[378]</a><div class='note'><p> As a matter of fact, I take it that we may safely assert
+that no man who is content to be guided by his own instinctive cravings,
+and who neither suppresses these, on the one hand, nor endeavors to force
+himself, on the other hand, will be in any danger of erring by either
+excess or the contrary.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_379'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_379'>[379]</a><div class='note'><p> [It is obvious that the opportunity of continuing such an
+inquiry as that described in this Appendix, ceases with marriage; but I
+may add (1906) that certain notes that I have kept with scrupulous
+exactness during eight years of married life, lend almost no support to
+the suggestion made in the text&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, that sexual desire is greater at
+one season of the year than at another. The nature of these notes I cannot
+discuss; but, they clearly indicate that, although there is a slight
+degree more of sexual desire in the second and third quarters of the year,
+than in the first and fourth, yet, this difference is so slight as to be
+almost negligible. Even if the months be rearranged in the
+triplets&mdash;November-December-January, etc.,&mdash;so as to bring the maximum
+months of May, June, and July together, the difference between the highest
+quarter and the lowest amounts to an increase of only ten per cent, upon
+the latter&mdash;after allowing, of course, for the abnormal shortness of
+February; and, neglecting February, the increase in the maximum months
+(June and July) over the minimum (November) is equal to an increase of
+under 14 per cent, upon the latter. These differences are so vastly less
+than those shown on <a href='#1_CHART_VII'>Chart VII</a> that they possess almost no significance: but,
+lest too much stress be laid upon the apparently <i>equalizing</i> influence of
+married life, it must be added that the records discussed in the text were
+obtained during residence in London, whereas, since my marriage, I have
+lived in South Cornwall, where the climate is both milder and more
+equable.]</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_380'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_380'>[380]</a><div class='note'><p> Selden's <i>Uxor Hebraica</i> as quoted in Gibbon's <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, vol. v, p. 52, of Bonn's edition.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_381'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_381'>[381]</a><div class='note'><p> I may add that the curve yielded by 1896-97 is remarkably
+parallel with that yielded by the preceding nine years, but I have not
+thought it worth while to chart these two additional curves.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_382'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_382'>[382]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;Rhythm of the Pulse,&quot; <a href='#1_CHART_IV'>Chart IV</a>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_383'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_383'>[383]</a><div class='note'><p> As will be observed, I have omitted the results of the
+incompletely recorded years of 1889 and 1891. The apparent explanation of
+this curious oscillation will be given directly.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_384'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_384'>[384]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;Rhythm of the Pulse,&quot; p. 21.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_APPENDIX_C'></a><h2>APPENDIX C.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AUTO-EROTIC FACTOR IN RELIGION.</h3>
+
+<p>The intimate association between the emotions of love and religion is well
+known to all those who are habitually brought into close contact with the
+phenomena of the religious life. Love and religion are the two most
+volcanic emotions to which the human organism is liable, and it is not
+surprising that, when there is a disturbance in one of these spheres, the
+vibrations should readily extend to the other. Nor is it surprising that
+the two emotions should have a dynamic relation to each other, and that
+the auto-erotic impulse, being the more primitive and fundamental of the
+two impulses, should be able to pass its unexpended energy over to the
+religious emotion, there to find the expansion hitherto denied it, the
+love of the human becoming the love of the divine.</p>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span>&quot;I was not good enough for man,<br /></span>
+<span>And so am given to God.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Even when there is absolute physical suppression on the sexual side, it
+seems probable that thereby a greater intensity of spiritual fervor is
+caused. Many eminent thinkers seem to have been without sexual desire.</p>
+
+<p>It is a noteworthy and significant fact that the age of love is also the
+age of conversion. Starbuck, for instance, in his very elaborate study of
+the psychology of conversion shows that the majority of conversions take
+place during the period of adolescence; that is, from the age of puberty
+to about 24 or 25.<a name='1_FNanchor_385'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_385'><sup>[385]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It would be easy to bring forward a long series of observations, from the
+most various points of view, to show the wide <a name='1_Page_311'></a>recognition of this close
+affinity between the sexual and the religious emotions. It is probable, as
+Hahn points out, that the connection between sexual suppression and
+religious rites, which we may trace at the very beginning of culture, was
+due to an instinctive impulse to heighten rather than abolish the sexual
+element. Early religious rites were largely sexual and orgiastic because
+they were largely an appeal to the generative forces of Nature to exhibit
+a beneficial productiveness. Among happily married people, as Hahn
+remarks, the sexual emotions rapidly give place to the cares and anxieties
+involved in supporting children; but when the exercise of the sexual
+function is prevented by celibacy, or even by castration, the most
+complete form of celibacy, the sexual emotions may pass into the psychical
+sphere to take on a more pronounced shape.<a name='1_FNanchor_386'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_386'><sup>[386]</sup></a> The early Christians
+adopted the traditional Eastern association between religion and celibacy,
+and, as the writings of the Fathers amply show, they expended on sexual
+matters a concentrated fervor of thought rarely known to the Greek and
+Roman writers of the best period.<a name='1_FNanchor_387'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_387'><sup>[387]</sup></a> As Christian theology developed,
+the minute inquisition into sexual things sometimes became almost an
+obsession. So far as I am aware, however (I cannot profess to have made
+any special investigation), it was not until the late Middle Ages that
+there is any clear recognition of the fact that, between the religious
+emotions and the sexual emotions, there is not only a superficial
+antagonism, but an underlying relationship. At this time so great a
+theologian and philosopher as Aquinas said that it is especially on the
+days when a man is seeking to make himself pleasing to God that the Devil
+troubles him by polluting him with seminal emissions. With somewhat more
+psychological insight, the wise old Knight of the Tower, Landry, in the
+fourteenth century, tells his daughters that &quot;no young woman, in <a name='1_Page_312'></a>love,
+can ever serve her God with that unfeignedness which she did aforetime.
+For I have heard it argued by many who, in their young days, had been in
+love that, when they were in the church, the condition and the pleasing
+melancholy in which they found themselves would infallibly set them
+brooding over all their tender love-sick longings and all their amorous
+passages, when they should have been attending to the service which was
+going on at the time. And such is the property of this mystery of love
+that it is ever at the moment when the priest is holding our Saviour upon
+the altar that the most enticing emotions come.&quot; After narrating the
+history of two queens beyond the seas who indulged in amours even on Holy
+Thursday and Good Friday, at midnight in their oratories, when the lights
+were put out, he concludes: &quot;Every woman in love is more liable to fall in
+church or at her devotion than at any other time.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The connection between religious emotion and sexual emotion was very
+clearly set forth by Swift about the end of the seventeenth century, in a
+passage which it may be worth while to quote from his &quot;Discourse
+Concerning the Mechanical Operation of the Spirit.&quot; After mentioning that
+he was informed by a very eminent physician that when the Quakers first
+appeared he was seldom without female Quaker patients affected with
+nymphomania, Swift continues: &quot;Persons of a visionary devotion, either men
+or women, are, in their complexion, of all others the most amorous. For
+zeal is frequently kindled from the same spark with other fires, and from
+inflaming brotherly love will proceed to raise that of a gallant. If we
+inspect into the usual process of modern courtship, we shall find it to
+consist in a devout turn of the eyes, called <i>ogling</i>; an artificial form
+of canting and whining, by rote, every interval, for want of other matter,
+made up with a shrug, or a hum; a sigh or a groan; the style compact of
+insignificant words, incoherences, and repetitions. These I take to be the
+most accomplished rules of address to a mistress; and where are these
+performed with more dexterity than by the <i>saints</i>? Nay, to bring this
+argument yet closer, I have been informed by certain sanguine brethren of
+the first class, that in the height and <i>orgasmus</i> of their spiritual
+exercise, it has been <a name='1_Page_313'></a>frequent with them<a name='1_FNanchor_388'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_388'><sup>[388]</sup></a>; ... immediately after
+which, they found the <i>spirit</i> to relax and flag of a sudden with the
+nerves, and they were forced to hasten to a conclusion. This may be
+farther strengthened by observing with wonder how unaccountably all
+females are attracted by visionary or enthusiastic preachers, though never
+so contemptible in their <i>outward mien</i>; which is usually supposed to be
+done upon considerations purely spiritual, without any carnal regards at
+all. But I have reason to think, the sex hath certain characteristics, by
+which they form a truer judgment of human abilities and performings than
+we ourselves can possibly do of each other. Let that be as it will, thus
+much is certain, that however spiritual intrigues begin, they generally
+conclude like all others; they may branch upwards toward heaven, but the
+root is in the earth. Too intense a contemplation is not the business of
+flesh and blood; it must, by the necessary course of things, in a little
+time let go its hold, and fall into <i>matter</i>. Lovers for the sake of
+celestial converse, are but another sort of Platonics, who pretend to see
+stars and heaven in ladies' eyes, and to look or think no lower; but the
+same <i>pit</i> is provided for both.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To come down to recent times, in the last century the head-master of
+Clifton College, when discussing the sexual vices of boyhood, remarked
+that the boys whose temperament exposes them to these faults are usually
+far from destitute of religious feelings; that there is, and always has
+been, an undoubted co-existence of religion and animalism; that emotional
+appeals and revivals are far from rooting out carnal sin; and that in some
+places, as is well known, they seem actually to stimulate, even at the
+present day, to increased licentiousness.<a name='1_FNanchor_389'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_389'><sup>[389]</sup></a> </p><a name='1_Page_314'></a>
+
+<p>It is not difficult to see how, even in technique, the method of the
+revivalist is a quasi-sexual method, and resembles the attempt of the male
+to overcome the sexual shyness of the female. &quot;In each case,&quot; as W. Thomas
+remarks, &quot;the will has to be set aside, and strong suggestive means are
+used; and in both cases the appeal is not of the conflict type, but of an
+intimate, sympathetic and pleading kind. In the effort to make a moral
+adjustment it consequently turns out that a technique is used which was
+derived originally from sexual life, and the use, so to speak, of the
+sexual machinery for a moral adjustment involves, in some cases, the
+carrying over into the general process of some sexual
+manifestations.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_390'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_390'><sup>[390]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The relationship of the sexual and the religious emotions&mdash;like so many
+other of the essential characters of human nature&mdash;is seen in its nakedest
+shape by the alienist. Esquirol referred to this relationship, and, many
+years ago, J. B. Friedreich, a German alienist of wide outlook and
+considerable insight, emphasized the connection between the sexual and the
+religious emotions, and brought forward illustrative cases.<a name='1_FNanchor_391'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_391'><sup>[391]</sup></a> Schroeder
+van der Kolk also remarked: &quot;I venture to express my conviction that we
+should rarely err if, in a case of religious melancholy, we assumed the
+sexual apparatus to be implicated.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_392'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_392'><sup>[392]</sup></a> R&eacute;gis, in France, lays it down
+that &quot;there exists a close connection between mystic ideas and erotic
+ideas, and most often these two orders of conception are associated in
+insanity.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_393'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_393'><sup>[393]</sup></a> Berthier considered that erotic forms of insanity are
+those most frequently found in convents. Bevan-Lewis points out how
+frequently religious exaltation occurs at puberty in women, and religious
+depression at the climacteric, the period of sexual decline.<a name='1_FNanchor_394'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_394'><sup>[394]</sup></a>
+&quot;Religion is very closely allied to love,&quot; remarks Savage, &quot;and the <a name='1_Page_315'></a>love
+of woman and the worship of God are constantly sources of trouble in
+unstable youth; it is very interesting to note the frequency with which
+these two deep feelings are associated.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_395'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_395'><sup>[395]</sup></a> &quot;Closely connected with
+salacity, particularly in women,&quot; remarks Conolly Norman, when discussing
+mania (Tuke's <i>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine</i>), &quot;is religious
+excitement.... Ecstasy, as we see in cases of acute mental disease, is
+probably always connected with sexual excitement, if not with sexual
+depravity. The same association is constantly seen in less extreme cases,
+and one of the commonest features in the conversation of an acutely
+maniacal woman is the intermingling of erotic and religious ideas.&quot;
+&quot;Patients who believe,&quot; remarks Clara Barrus, &quot;that they are the Virgin
+Mary, the bride of Christ, the Church, 'God's wife,' and 'Raphael's
+consort,' are sure, sooner or later, to disclose symptoms which show that
+they are some way or other sexually depraved.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_396'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_396'><sup>[396]</sup></a> Forel, who devotes a
+chapter of his book <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, to the subject, argues that the
+strongest feelings of religious emotion are often unconsciously rooted in
+erotic emotion or represent a transformation of such emotion; and, in an
+interesting discussion (Ch. VI) of this question in his <i>Sexualleben
+unserer Zeit</i>, Bloch states that &quot;in a certain sense we may describe the
+history of religions as the history of a special manifestation of the
+human sexual instinct.&quot; Ball, Brouardel, Morselli, Vallon and Marie,<a name='1_FNanchor_397'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_397'><sup>[397]</sup></a>
+C. H. Hughes,<a name='1_FNanchor_398'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_398'><sup>[398]</sup></a> to mention but a few names among many, have emphasized
+the same point.<a name='1_FNanchor_399'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_399'><sup>[399]</sup></a> Krafft-Ebing deals briefly with the connection
+between holiness and the sexual emotion, and the special liability of the
+saints to sexual temptations; he thus states his own conclusions:
+&quot;Religious and sexual emotional states at the height of their development
+exhibit a harmony in quantity and quality of excitement, and can thus in
+certain circumstances act vicariously.<a name='1_Page_316'></a> Both,&quot; he adds, &quot;can be converted
+into cruelty under pathological conditions.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_400'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_400'><sup>[400]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>After quoting these opinions it is, perhaps, not unnecessary to point out
+that, while sexual emotion constitutes the main reservoir of energy on
+which religion can draw, it is far from constituting either the whole
+content of religion or its root. Murisier, in an able study of the
+psychology of religious ecstasy, justly protests against too crude an
+explanation of its nature, though at the same time he admits that &quot;the
+passion of the religious ecstatic lacks nothing of what goes to make up
+sexual love, not even jealousy.&quot;<a name='1_FNanchor_401'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_401'><sup>[401]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>S&eacute;rieux, in his little work, <i>Recherches Cliniques sur les Anomalies de
+l'Instinct Sexuel</i>, valuable on account of its instructive cases, records
+in detail a case which so admirably illustrates this phase of auto-erotism
+on the borderland between ordinary erotic day-dreaming and religious
+mysticism, the phenomena for a time reaching an insane degree of
+intensity, that I summarize it. &quot;Th&eacute;r&egrave;se M., aged 24, shows physical
+stigmata of degeneration. The heredity is also bad; the father is a man of
+reckless and irregular conduct; the mother was at one time in a lunatic
+asylum. The patient was brought up in an orphanage, and was a troublesome,
+volatile child; she treated household occupations with contempt, but was
+fond of study. Even at an early age her lively imagination attracted
+attention, and the pleasure which she took in building castles in the air.
+From the age of seven to ten she masturbated. At her first communion she
+felt that Jesus would for ever be the one master of her heart. At
+thirteen, after the death of her mother, she seemed to see her, and to
+hear her say that she was watching over her child. Shortly <a name='1_Page_317'></a>afterward she
+was overwhelmed by a new grief, the death of a teacher for whom she
+cherished great affection on account of her pure character. On the
+following day she seemed to see and hear this teacher, and would not leave
+the house where the body lay. Tendencies to melancholy appeared. Saddened
+by the funeral ceremonies, exhorted by nuns, fed on mystic revery, she
+passed from the orphanage to a convent. She devoted herself solely to the
+worship of Jesus; to be like Jesus, to be near Jesus, became her constant
+pre-occupations. The Virgin's name was rarely seen in her writings, God's
+name never. 'I wanted', she said, 'to love Jesus more than any of the nuns
+I saw, and I even thought that he had a partiality for me.' She was also
+haunted by the idea of preserving her purity. She avoided frivolous
+conversation, and left the room when marriage was discussed, such a union
+being incompatible with a pure life; 'it was my fixed idea for two years
+to make my soul ever more pure in order to be agreeable to Him; the
+Beloved is well pleased among the lilies.'</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Already, however, in a rudimentary form appeared contrary tendencies
+[strictly speaking they were not contrary, but related, tendencies].
+Beneath the mystic passion which concealed it sexual desire was sometimes
+felt. At sixteen she experienced emotions which she could not master, when
+thinking of a priest who, she said, loved her. In spite of all remorse she
+would have been willing to have relations with him. Notwithstanding these
+passing weaknesses, the idea of purity always possessed her. The nuns,
+however, were concerned about her exaltation. She was sent away from the
+convent, became discouraged, and took a place as a servant, but her fervor
+continued. Her confessor inspired her with great affection; she sends him
+tender letters. She would be willing to have relations with him, even
+though she considers the desire a temptation of the devil. The ground was
+now prepared for the manifestation of hallucinations. 'One evening in
+May', she writes, 'after being absorbed in thoughts of my confessor, and
+feeling discouraged, as I thought that Jesus, whom I loved so much, would
+have nothing to do with me, &quot;Mother,&quot; I cried out, &quot;what must I do to win
+your son?&quot; My eyes were fixed on the sky, and I remained in <a name='1_Page_318'></a>a state of
+mad expectation. It was absurd. I to become the mother of the World! My
+heart went on repeating: &quot;Yes, he is coming; Jesus is coming!&quot;' The
+psychic erethism, reverberating on the sensorial and sensory centres, led
+to genital, auditory, and visual hallucinations, which produced the
+sensation of sexual connection. 'For the first time I went to bed and was
+not alone. As soon as I felt that touch, I heard the words: &quot;Fear not, it
+is I.&quot; I was lost in Him whom I loved. For many days I was cradled in a
+world of pleasure; I saw Him everywhere, overwhelming me with His chaste
+caresses.' On the following day at mass she seemed to see Calvary before
+her. 'Jesus was naked and surrounded by a thousand voluptuous
+imaginations; His arms were loosened from the cross, and he said to me:
+&quot;Come!&quot; I longed to fly to Him with my body, but could not make up my mind
+to show myself naked. However, I was carried away by a force I could not
+control, I threw myself on my Saviour's neck, and felt that all was over
+between the world and me.' From that day, 'by sheer reasoning,' she has
+understood everything. Previously she thought that the religious life was
+a renunciation of the joys of marriage and enjoyment generally; now she
+understands its object. Jesus Christ desires that she should have
+relations with a priest; he is himself incarnated in priests; just as St.
+Joseph was the guardian of the Virgin, so are priests the guardians of
+nuns. She has been impregnated by Jesus, and this imaginary pregnancy
+pre-occupies her in the highest degree. From this time she masturbated
+daily. She cannot even go to communion without experiencing voluptuous
+sensations. Her delusions having thus become systematized, nothing shakes
+her tenacity in seeking to carry them out; she attempts at all costs to
+have relations with her confessor, embraces him, throws herself at his
+knees, pursues him, and so becomes a cause of scandal. When brought to the
+asylum, there is intense sexual excitement, and she masturbates a dozen
+times a day, even when talking to the doctor. The sexual organs are
+normal, the vulva moist and red, the vagina is painful to touch; the
+contact of the finger causes erectile turgescence. She has had no rest,
+she says, since she has <a name='1_Page_319'></a>learned to love her Jesus. He desires her to have
+sexual relations with someone, and she cannot succeed; 'all my soul's
+strength is arrested by this constant endeavor.' Her new surroundings
+modify her behavior, and now it is the doctor whom she pursues with her
+obsessions. 'I expected everything from the charity of the priests I have
+known; I have not deserved what I wanted from them. But is not a doctor
+free to do everything for the good of the patients intrusted to him by
+Providence? Cannot a doctor thus devote himself? Since I have tasted the
+tree of life I am tormented by the desire to share it with a loving
+friend.' Then she falls in love with an employee, and makes the crudest
+advances to him, believing that she is thus executing the will of Jesus.
+'Necessity makes laws,' she exclaims to him, 'the moments are pressing, I
+have been waiting too long.' She still speaks of her religious vocation
+which might be compromised by so long a delay. 'I do not want to get
+married.' Gradually a transformation took place; the love of God was
+effaced and earthly love became more intense than ever. 'Quitting the
+heights in which I wished to soar, I am coming so near to earth that I
+shall soon fix my desires there.' In a last letter Th&eacute;r&egrave;se recognizes with
+terror the insanity to which the exaltation of her imagination had led
+her. 'Now I only believe in God and in suffering; I feel that it is
+necessary for me to get married.'&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Mariani<a name='1_FNanchor_402'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_402'><sup>[402]</sup></a> has very fully described a case of erotico-religious insanity
+(climacteric paranoia on an hysterical basis) in a married woman of 44.
+During the early stages of her disorder she inflicted all sorts of
+penances upon herself (fasting, constant prayer, drinking her own urine,
+cleaning dirty plates with her tongue, etc.). Finally she felt that by her
+penances she had obtained forgiveness of her sins, and then began a stage
+of joy and satisfaction during which she believed that she had entered
+into a state of the most intimate personal relationship with Jesus. She
+finally recovered. Mariani shows how closely this history corresponds with
+the histories of the saints, and that all the acts <a name='1_Page_320'></a>and emotions of this
+woman can be exactly paralleled in the lives of famous saints.<a name='1_FNanchor_403'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_403'><sup>[403]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The justice of these comparisons becomes manifest when we turn to the
+records that have been left by holy persons. A most instructive record
+from this point of view is the autobiography of S&oelig;ur Jeanne des
+Anges, superior of the Ursulines of Loudun in the seventeenth
+century.<a name='1_FNanchor_404'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_404'><sup>[404]</sup></a> She was clever, beautiful, ambitious, fond of pleasure,
+still more of power. With this, as sometimes happens, she was highly
+hysterical, and in the early years of her religious life was possessed by
+various demons of unchastity and blasphemy with whom for many years she
+was in constant struggle. She fell in love with a priest of Loudun,
+Grandier, a man whom she had never even seen, only knowing of him as a
+powerful and fascinating personality at whose feet all women fell, and she
+imagined that she and the other nuns of her convent were possessed through
+his influence. She was thus the cause of the trial and execution of
+Grandier, a famous case in the annals of witchcraft. In her autobiography
+S&oelig;ur Jeanne describes in detail how the demons assailed her at
+night, appearing in lascivious attitudes, making indecent proposals,
+raising the bed-clothes, touching all parts of her body, imploring her to
+yield to them, and she tells how strong her temptation was to yield. On
+one night, for instance, she writes: &quot;I seemed to feel someone's breath,
+and I heard a voice saying: 'The time for resistance has gone by, you must
+no longer rebel; by putting off your consent to what has been proposed you
+will be injured; you cannot persist in this resistance; God has subjected
+you to the demands of a nature which you must satisfy on occasions so
+urgent.' Then I felt impure impressions in my imagination and disordered
+movements in my body. I persisted in saying at the bottom of my heart that
+I would do nothing. I turned to God and asked Him for strength in this
+extraordinary struggle. Then there was a loud noise in my room, and I felt
+as if someone had <a name='1_Page_321'></a>approached me and put his hand into my bed and touched
+me; and having perceived this I rose, in a state of restlessness, which
+lasted for a long time afterward. Some days later, at midnight, I began to
+tremble all over my body as I lay in bed, and to experience much mental
+anxiety without knowing the cause. After this had lasted for some time I
+heard noises in various parts of my room; the sheet was twice pulled
+without entirely uncovering me; the oratory close to my bed was upset. I
+heard a voice on the left side, toward which I was lying. I was asked if I
+had thought over the advantageous offer that had been made to me. It was
+added: 'I have come to know your reply; I will keep my promise if you will
+give your consent; if, on the contrary, you refuse, you will be the most
+miserable girl in the world, and all sorts of mischances will happen to
+you.' I replied: 'If there were no God I would fear those threats; I am
+consecrated to Him.' It was replied to me: 'You will not get much help
+from God; He will abandon you.' I replied: 'God is my father; He will take
+care of me; I have resolved to be faithful to Him.' He said: 'I will give
+you three days to think over it.' I rose and went to the Holy Sacrament
+with an anxious mind. Having returned to my room, and being seated on a
+chair, it was drawn from under me so that I fell on the floor. Then the
+same things happened again. I heard a man's voice saying lascivious and
+pleasant things to seduce me; he pressed me to give him room in my bed; he
+tried to touch me in an indecent way; I resisted and prevented him,
+calling the nuns who were near my room; the window had been open, it was
+closed; I felt strong movements of love for a certain person, and improper
+desire for dishonorable things.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>She writes again, at a later period: &quot;These impurities and the fire of
+concupiscence which the evil spirit caused me to feel, beyond all that I
+can say, forced me to throw myself on to braziers of hot coal, where I
+would remain for half an hour at a time, in order to extinguish that other
+fire, so that half my body was quite burnt. At other times, in the depth
+of winter, I have sometimes passed part of the night entirely naked in the
+snow, or in tubs of icy water. I have besides often gone among thorns so
+that I <a name='1_Page_322'></a>have been torn by them; at other times I have rolled in nettles,
+and I have passed whole nights defying my enemies to attack me, and
+assuring them that I was resolved to defend myself with the grace of God.&quot;
+With her confessor's permission, she also had an iron girdle made, with
+spikes, and wore this day and night for nearly six months until the spikes
+so entered her flesh that the girdle could only be removed with
+difficulty. By means of these austerities she succeeded in almost
+exorcising the demons of unchastity, and a little later, after a severe
+illness, of which she believed that she was miraculously cured by St.
+Joseph, she appeared before the world almost as a saint, herself
+possessing a miraculous power of healing; she traveled through France,
+bringing healing wherever she went; the king, the queen, and Cardinal
+Richelieu were at her feet, and so great became the fame of her holiness
+that her tomb was a shrine for pilgrims for more than a century after her
+death. It was not until late in life, and after her autobiography
+terminates, that sexual desire in S&oelig;ur Jeanne (though its sting
+seems never to have quite disappeared) became transformed into passionate
+love of Jesus, and it is only in her later letters that we catch glimpses
+of the complete transmutation. Thus, in one of her later letters we read:
+&quot;I cried with ardor, 'Lord! join me to Thyself, transform Thyself into
+me!' It seemed to me that that lovable Spouse was reposing in my heart as
+on His throne. What makes me almost swoon with love and admiration is a
+certain pleasure which it seems to me that He takes when all my being
+flows into His, restoring to Him with respect and love all that He has
+given to me. Sometimes I have permission to speak to our Lord with more
+familiarity, calling Him my Love, interesting Him in all that I ask of
+Him, as well for myself as for others.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The lives of all the great saints and mystics bear witness to operations
+similar to those so vividly described by S&oelig;ur Jeanne des Anges,
+though it is very rarely that any saint has so frankly presented the
+dynamic mechanism of the auto-erotic process. The indications they give
+us, however, are sufficiently clear. It is enough to refer to the special
+affection which the <a name='1_Page_323'></a>mystics have ever borne toward the Song of
+Songs,<a name='1_FNanchor_405'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_405'><sup>[405]</sup></a> and to note how the most earthly expressions of love in that
+poem enter as a perpetual refrain into their writings.<a name='1_FNanchor_406'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_406'><sup>[406]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The courage of the early Christian martyrs, it is abundantly evident, was
+in part supported by an exaltation which they frankly drew from the sexual
+impulse. Felicula, we are told in the acts of Achilles and Nereus,<a name='1_FNanchor_407'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_407'><sup>[407]</sup></a>
+preferred imprisonment, torture, and death to marriage or pagan
+sacrifices. When on the rack she was bidden to deny Christianity, she
+exclaimed: &quot;<i>Ego non nego amatorem meum!</i>&quot;&mdash;I will not deny my lover who
+for my sake has eaten gall and drunk vinegar, crowned with thorns, and
+fastened to the cross.</p>
+
+<p>Christian mysticism and its sexual coloring was absorbed by the Islamic
+world at a very early period and intensified. In the thirteenth century it
+was reintroduced into Christendom in this intensified form by the genius
+of Raymond Lull who had himself been born on the confines of Islam, and
+his &quot;Book of the Lover and the Friend&quot; is a typical manifestation of
+sexual mysticism which inspired the great Spanish school of mystics a few
+centuries later. The &quot;delicious agony&quot; the &quot;sweet martyrdom,&quot; the strongly
+combined pleasure and pain experienced by St. Theresa were certainly
+associated with physical sexual sensations.<a name='1_FNanchor_408'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_408'><sup>[408]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The case of Marguerite-Marie Alacoque is typical. Jesus, as her
+autobiography shows, was always her lover, her husband, <a name='1_Page_324'></a>her dear master;
+she is betrothed to Him, He is the most passionate of lovers, nothing can
+be sweeter than His caresses, they are so excessive she is beside herself
+with the delight of them. The central imagination of the mystic consists
+essentially, as Ribot remarks, in a love romance.<a name='1_FNanchor_409'></a><a href='#1_Footnote_409'><sup>[409]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>If we turn to the most popular devotional work that was ever written, <i>The
+Imitation of Christ</i>, we shall find that the &quot;love&quot; there expressed is
+precisely and exactly the love that finds its motive power in the emotions
+aroused by a person of the other sex. (A very intellectual woman once
+remarked to me that the book seemed to her &quot;a sort of religious
+aphrodisiac.&quot;) If we read, for instance, Book III, Chapter V, of this work
+(&quot;De Mirabili affectu Divini amoris&quot;), we shall find in the eloquence of
+this solitary monk in the Low Countries neither more nor less than the
+emotions of every human lover at their highest limit of exaltation.
+&quot;Nothing is sweeter than love, nothing stronger, nothing higher, nothing
+broader, nothing pleasanter, nothing fuller nor better in heaven or in
+earth. He who loves, flies, runs, and rejoices; he is free and cannot be
+held. He gives all in exchange for all, and possesses all in all. He looks
+not at gifts, but turns to the giver above all good things. Love knows no
+measure, but is fervent beyond all measure. Love feels no burden, thinks
+nothing of labor, strives beyond its force, reckons not of impossibility,
+for it judges that all things are possible. Therefore it attempts all
+things, and therefore it effects much when he who is not a lover fails and
+falls.... My Love! thou all mine, and I all thine.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>There is a certain natural disinclination in many quarters to recognize
+any special connection between the sexual emotions and the religious
+emotions. But this attitude is not reasonable. A man who is swayed by
+religious emotions cannot be held responsible for the indirect emotional
+results of his condition; he can be held responsible for their control.
+Nothing is gained by refusing to face the possibility that such control
+may be necessary, and much is lost. There is certainly, as I have tried to
+<a name='1_Page_325'></a>indicate, good reason to think that the action and interaction between
+the spheres of sexual and religious emotion are very intimate. The obscure
+promptings of the organism at puberty frequently assume on the psychic
+side a wholly religious character; the activity of the religious emotions
+sometimes tends to pass over into the sexual region; the suppression of
+the sexual emotions often furnishes a powerful reservoir of energy to the
+religious emotions; occasionally the suppressed sexual emotions break
+through all obstacles.</p><a name='1_Page_326'></a>
+<br />
+<a name='1_Page_327'></a>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_385'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_385'>[385]</a><div class='note'><p> Starbuck, <i>The Psychology of Religion</i>, 1899. Also, A. H.
+Daniels, &quot;The New Life,&quot; <i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. vi, 1893.
+<i>Cf.</i> William James, <i>The Varieties of Religious Experience</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_386'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_386'>[386]</a><div class='note'><p> Ed. Hahn, <i>Demeter und Baubo</i>, 1896, pp. 50-51. Hahn is
+arguing for the religious origin of the plough, as a generative implement,
+drawn by a sacred and castrated animal, the ox. G. Herman, in his
+<i>Genesis</i>, develops the idea that modern religious rites have arisen out
+of sexual feasts and mysteries.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_387'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_387'>[387]</a><div class='note'><p> Bloch (<i>Beitr&auml;ge zur &AElig;tiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis</i>,
+Bd. I, p. 98) points out the great interest taken by the saints and
+ascetics in sex matters.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_388'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_388'>[388]</a><div class='note'><p> This omission was made by the original publisher of the
+&quot;Discourse;&quot; several of the most important passages throughout have been
+similarly cut out.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_389'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_389'>[389]</a><div class='note'><p> Rev. J. M. Wilson, <i>Journal of Education</i>, 1881. At about
+the same period (1882) Spurgeon pointed out in one of his sermons that by
+a strange, yet natural law, excess of spirituality is next door to
+sensuality. Theodore Schroeder has recently brought together a number of
+opinions of religious teachers, from Henry More the Platonist to Baring
+Gould, concerning the close relationship between sexual passion and
+religious passion, <i>American Journal of Religious Psychology</i>, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_390'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_390'>[390]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Thomas, &quot;The Sexual Element in Sensibility,&quot;
+<i>Psychological Review</i>, Jan., 1904.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_391'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_391'>[391]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>System der gerichtlichen Psychologie</i>, second edition,
+1842, pp. 266-68; and more at length in his <i>Allgemeine Diagnostik der
+psychischen Krankheiten</i>, second edition, 1832, pp. 247-51.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_392'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_392'>[392]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Handboek van de Pathologie en Therapie der
+Krankzinnigheid</i>, 1863, p. 139 of English edition.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_393'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_393'>[393]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Manuel pratique de M&eacute;decine mentale</i>, 1892, p. 31.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_394'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_394'>[394]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Text-book of Mental Diseases</i>, p. 393.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_395'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_395'>[395]</a><div class='note'><p> G. H. Savage, <i>Insanity</i>, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_396'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_396'>[396]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, April, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_397'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_397'>[397]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Des Psychoses Religieuses,&quot; <i>Archives de Neurologie</i>,
+1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_398'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_398'>[398]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Erotopathia,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, October, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_399'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_399'>[399]</a><div class='note'><p> Reference may be specially made to the interesting chapter
+on &quot;D&eacute;lire Religieux&quot; in Icard's <i>La Femme pendant la P&eacute;riode
+Menstruelle</i>, pp. 211-234.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_400'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_400'>[400]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Psychopathia Sexualis</i>, eighth edition, pp. 8 and 11.
+Gannouchkine (&quot;La Volupt&eacute;, la Cruant&eacute; et la Religion,&quot; <i>Annales
+Medico-Psychologique</i>, 1901, No. 3) has further emphasized this
+convertibility.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_401'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_401'>[401]</a><div class='note'><p> E. Murisier, &quot;Le Sentiment Religieux dans l'Extase,&quot; <i>Revue
+Philosophique</i>, November, 1898. Starbuck, again (<i>Psychology of Religion</i>,
+Chapter XXX), in a brief discussion of this point, concludes that &quot;the
+sexual life, although it has left its impress on fully developed religion,
+seems to have originally given the psychic impulse which called out the
+latent possibilities of developments, rather than to have furnished the
+raw material out of which religion was constructed.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_402'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_402'>[402]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Una Santa,&quot; <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, vol. xix, pp.
+438-47, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_403'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_403'>[403]</a><div class='note'><p> With regard to the sexual element in the worship of the
+Virgin, see &quot;Ueber den Mariencultus,&quot; L. Feuerbach's <i>Sammtliche Werke</i>,
+Bd. I, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_404'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_404'>[404]</a><div class='note'><p> Published for the first time (with a Preface by Charcot) in
+a volume of the <i>Biblioth&egrave;que Diabolique</i>, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_405'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_405'>[405]</a><div class='note'><p> The Hebrews, themselves, used the same word for the love of
+woman and for the Divine love (Northcote, <i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>,
+p. 140).</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_406'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_406'>[406]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, in St. Theresa's <i>Conceptos del Amor de Dios</i>, the
+words &quot;<i>Beseme con el beso de su boca</i>,&quot;&mdash;Let him kiss me with the kisses
+of his mouth&mdash;constantly recur.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_407'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_407'>[407]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, May 12th.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_408'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_408'>[408]</a><div class='note'><p> Leuba and Montmorand, in their valuable and detailed
+studies of Christian mysticism, though differing from each other in some
+points, are agreed on this; H. Leuba, &quot;Les Tendances Religieuses chez les
+Mystiques Chr&eacute;tiens,&quot; <i>Revue Philosophique</i>, July and Nov., 1902; B. de
+Montmorand, &quot;L'Erotomanie des Mystiques Chr&eacute;tiens,&quot; <i>id.</i>, Oct., 1903.
+Montmorand points out that physical sexual manifestations were sometimes
+recognized and frankly accepted by mystics. He quotes from Molinos, a
+passage in which the famous Spanish quietist states that there is no
+reason to be disquieted even at the occurrence of pollutions or
+masturbation, <i>et etiam pejora</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='1_Footnote_409'></a><a href='#1_FNanchor_409'>[409]</a><div class='note'><p> Ribot, <i>La Logique des Sentiments</i>, p. 174.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<a name='1_INDEX_OF_AUTHORS'></a><h2>INDEX OF AUTHORS.</h2>
+
+<ul><li>Abricosoff, G., <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Addinsell, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Adler, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#1_Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#1_Page_263'>263</a>.</li>
+<li>&AElig;lian, <a href='#1_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>&AElig;schines, <a href='#1_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>A&euml;tius, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+<li>Alacoque, M., <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Albrecht, <a href='#1_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Allin, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>.</li>
+<li>Anagnos, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Angelucci, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+<li>Anges, S&oelig;ur Jeanne des, <a href='#1_Page_320'>320</a>.</li>
+<li>Angus, H. C., <a href='#1_Page_17'>17</a>.</li>
+<li>Anstie, <a href='#1_Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Apuleius, <a href='#1_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Aquinas, St. Thomas, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+<li>Archemholtz, <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+<li>Aret&aelig;us, <a href='#1_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Aretino, <a href='#1_Page_71'>71</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristophanes, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#1_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristotle, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>.</li>
+<li>Arnold, G. J., <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>.</li>
+<li>Aschaffenburg, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+<li>Ashe, T., <a href='#1_Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+<li>Ashwell, <a href='#1_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Athen&aelig;us, <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>Augustine, St., <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#1_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>Avicenna, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Axenfeld, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>.</li>
+<li>Azara, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Babinsky, <a href='#1_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>Bachaumont, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Baelz, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#1_Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Baker, Smith, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Baldwin, J. M., <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Ball, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Ballantyne, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>.</li>
+<li>Ballion, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+<li>Balls-Headley, <a href='#1_Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+<li>Bancroft, H. H., <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Baraduc, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Bargagli, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Barnes, K., <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Barrus, Clara, <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Bartels, Max, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Bastanzi, <a href='#1_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Bastian, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+<li>Batut, <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>Bauer, Max, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Baumann, <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+<li>Bazalgette, <a href='#1_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+<li>Beard, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Beard, J., <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#1_Page_113'>113</a>.</li>
+<li>Bechterew, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#1_Page_263'>263</a>.</li>
+<li>Bee, J., <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+<li>Bekkers, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Bell, Blair, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>Bell, Sanford, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Berger, <a href='#1_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Bellamy, <a href='#1_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>Berkhan, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+<li>Berthier, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Beukemann, <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#1_Page_142'>142</a>.</li>
+<li>Beuttner, <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>Bevan-Lewis, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Biernacki, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Billuart, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>Binet, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Binswanger, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Bishop, Mrs., <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Blackwell, Elizabeth, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#1_Page_197'>197</a>.</li>
+<li>Blandford, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>Bloch, Iwan, <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#1_Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#1_Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Block, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Blumenbach, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+<li>Boas, F., <a href='#1_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Boethius, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li>
+<li>Bohnius, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Bolton, T. L., <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonavia, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Bond, C. H., <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonnier, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Bossi, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Boudin, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourke, J. G., <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#1_Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+<li>Brachet, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.<a name='1_Page_328'></a></li>
+<li>Brant&ocirc;me, <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+<li>Breuer, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#1_Page_219'>219</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Briquet, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+<li>Brockman, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>.</li>
+<li>Brouardel, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, J. D., <a href='#1_Page_142'>142</a>.</li>
+<li>Brown-S&eacute;quard, <a href='#1_Page_267'>267</a>.</li>
+<li>Brunton, Sir Lauder, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+<li>Bryce, T., <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Buchan, A. P., <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+<li>B&uuml;chler, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>B&uuml;chner, <a href='#1_Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+<li>Buffon, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+<li>Bunge, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Burchard, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Burdach, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Burk, F., <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Burnet, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>Burns, J., <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Burr, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>Burton, Robert, <a href='#1_Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Buxton, D. W., <a href='#1_Page_102'>102</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Caiger, <a href='#1_Page_157'>157</a>.</li>
+<li>Callari, <a href='#1_Page_71'>71</a>.</li>
+<li>Calmeil, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>.</li>
+<li>Camerer, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>.</li>
+<li>Cameron, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>.</li>
+<li>Campbell, H., <a href='#1_Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#1_Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>Caramuel, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Carmichael, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Carpenter, E., <a href='#1_Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+<li>Carrara, <a href='#1_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Casanova, <a href='#1_Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>Chamberlain, A. F., <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Chapman, J., <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Charcot, <a href='#1_Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#1_Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#1_Page_320'>320</a>.</li>
+<li>Charrin, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Chaucer, <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#1_Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+<li>Christian, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Chrysostom, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Cicero, <a href='#1_Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+<li>Clark, Campbell, <a href='#1_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Clement of Alexandria, <a href='#1_Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>Clement of Rome, <a href='#1_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Clipson, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Clouston, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#1_Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+<li>Coe, H. C., <a href='#1_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>Cohn, Hermann, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Cohn, Salmo, <a href='#1_Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+<li>Cohnstein, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+<li>Colenso, W., <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Cook, Capt., <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#1_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>.</li>
+<li>Cook, Dr. F., <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+<li>Corre, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+<li>Coryat, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Crawley, A. E., <a href='#1_Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#1_Page_290'>290</a>.</li>
+<li>Crichton-Browne, Sir J., <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Crooke, W., <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>Croom, Sir J. Halliday, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Cullen, <a href='#1_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Cullingworth, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Curr, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Curschmann, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#1_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Cuvier, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Cyprian, <a href='#1_Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Dallemagne, <a href='#1_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Dalton, E. T., <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Dalziel, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+<li>Dana, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>Dandinus, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Daniels, <a href='#1_Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+<li>Dartigues, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Darwin, C., <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#1_Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+<li>Darwin, Erasmus, <a href='#1_Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Davidsohn, <a href='#1_Page_21'>21</a>.</li>
+<li>Debreyne, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+<li>Deniker, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Dennis, <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>.</li>
+<li>Denuc&eacute;, <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>.</li>
+<li>Depaul, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>D'Epinay, Mme., <a href='#1_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Dercum, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>Deslandes, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>Dessoir, Max, <a href='#1_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Dexter, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+<li>Diday, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>.</li>
+<li>Diderot, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Distant, W. L., <a href='#1_Page_93'>93</a>.</li>
+<li>Donkin, <a href='#1_Page_214'>214</a>.</li>
+<li>Down, Langdon, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+<li>Dudley, <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>.</li>
+<li>Dufour, P., <a href='#1_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_202'>202</a>.</li>
+<li>Dugas, <a href='#1_Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#1_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#1_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>D&uuml;hren, <i>see</i> Bloch, Iwan.</li>
+<li>Dukes, C., <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>.</li>
+<li>Dulaure, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Du Maurier, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>Duncan, Matthews, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+<li>Durr, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Duval, A., <a href='#1_Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+<li>Duveyrier, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Dyer, L., <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li></ul><a name='1_Page_329'></a>
+
+<ul><li>Ellenberger, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, Sir A. B., <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, Havelock, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#1_Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, Sir W., <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, W. G., <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>.</li>
+<li>Emin, Pasha, <a href='#1_Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>Emminghaus, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+<li>Epicharmus, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Eram, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Erb, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Ernst, <a href='#1_Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+<li>Esquirol, <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Eulenburg, <a href='#1_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#1_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#1_Page_264'>264</a>.</li>
+<li>Evans, M. M., <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>.</li>
+<li>Ezekiel, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Fahne, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Fasbender, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Fehling, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Felkin, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#1_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#1_Page_282'>282</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernel, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferrero, <a href='#1_Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#1_Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#1_Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#1_Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferriani, <a href='#1_Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>Fewkes, J. W., <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Findley, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Fleischmann, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>Fliess, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#1_Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Forel, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#1_Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Forestus, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Forster, J. R., <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>Fortini, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Fothergill, J. M., <a href='#1_Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#1_Page_198'>198</a>.</li>
+<li>Fournier, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+<li>Foville, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Franklin, A., <a href='#1_Page_38'>38</a>.</li>
+<li>Frazer, J. G., <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#1_Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#1_Page_289'>289</a>.</li>
+<li>Freeman, R. A., <a href='#1_Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+<li>French-Sheldon, Mrs., <a href='#1_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Freud, <a href='#1_Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#1_Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#1_Page_219'>219</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Friedreich, J. B., <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Fritsch, G., <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuchs, <a href='#1_Page_247'>247</a>.</li>
+<li>F&uuml;rbringer, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Gaedeken, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Galen, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Gall, <a href='#1_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+<li>Gant, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Gardiner, J. S., <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+<li>Garland, Hamlin, <a href='#1_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Gamier, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#1_Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Gason, <a href='#1_Page_87'>87</a>.</li>
+<li>Gattel, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Gehrung, <a href='#1_Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+<li>Gennep, A. von, <a href='#1_Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+<li>G&eacute;rard-Varet, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Gerland, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Gibbon, <a href='#1_Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+<li>Giessler, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Giles, A. E., <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Gillen, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Gilles de la Tourette, <a href='#1_Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#1_Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#1_Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#1_Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Gioffredi, <a href='#1_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>Girandeau, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Godfrey, <a href='#1_Page_263'>263</a>.</li>
+<li>Goepel, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Goethe, <a href='#1_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Goncourt, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Goodell, W., <a href='#1_Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+<li>Goodman, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Gould, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Gourmont, Remy de, <a href='#1_Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+<li>Gowers, Sir W. R., <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>Grashoff, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Greenlees, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Griesinger, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+<li>Grimaldi, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+<li>Grimm, J., <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#1_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>Groos, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#1_Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>Grosse, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+<li>Gruner, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Gr&uuml;nfeld, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+<li>Gualino, <a href='#1_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#1_Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+<li>Gubernatis, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+<li>Gu&eacute;niot, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Guerry, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>Guibout, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>.</li>
+<li>Guise, R. E., <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Gury, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Guttceit, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Guyau, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+<li>Guyot, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Haddon, A. C., <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Hahn, E., <a href='#1_Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+<li>Haig, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+<li>Hall, Fielding, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>Hall, G. Stanley, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#1_Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#1_Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#1_Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#1_Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#1_Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#1_Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a>.</li>
+<li>Haller, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Hammond, W., <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.<a name='1_Page_330'></a></li>
+<li>Harris, D. F., <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>Hartmann, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>Hawkesworth, J., <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#1_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>.</li>
+<li>Haycraft, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+<li>Heape, W., <a href='#1_Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+<li>Hegar, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+<li>Helbigius, O., <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Heifer, J. W., <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>Henle, <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+<li>Herman, <a href='#1_Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+<li>Herodotus, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>Herondas, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Herrick, <a href='#1_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>Hersman, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>Herter, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Hesiod, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#1_Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+<li>Hick, P., <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>Hill, S. A., <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+<li>Hinton, James, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>Hippocrates, <a href='#1_Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#1_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Hirschsprung, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>.</li>
+<li>Hirth, G., <a href='#1_Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+<li>Hoche, <a href='#1_Page_242'>242</a>.</li>
+<li>Hohenemser, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#1_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#1_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Holder, A. B., <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>Holm, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>Homer, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Hopkins, H. R., <a href='#1_Page_32'>32</a>.</li>
+<li>Houssay, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+<li>Howe, J. W., <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+<li>Huchard, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>.</li>
+<li>Hufeland, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Hughes, C. H., <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Hummel, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Hunter, John, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>Hutchinson, Sir J., <a href='#1_Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyades, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyrtl, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Icard, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#1_Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#1_Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Imbert-Goubeyre, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Jacobi, M. P., <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>.</li>
+<li>Jacobs, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Jaeger, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>James, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>James, W., <a href='#1_Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+<li>Janet, Pierre, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#1_Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#1_Page_267'>267</a>.</li>
+<li>Jastrow, Morris, <a href='#1_Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#1_Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_288'>288</a>.</li>
+<li>Jenjko, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Jerome, St., <a href='#1_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>Jessett, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Joal, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Joest, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Johnston, Sir H. H., <a href='#1_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#1_Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Johnstone, A. W., <a href='#1_Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+<li>Jolly, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Jones, Lloyd, <a href='#1_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>Jortin, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Juvenal, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Kaan, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Kahlbaum, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+<li>Keill, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Keith, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>Keller, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Kellogg, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>Kemble, Fanny, <a href='#1_Page_81'>81</a>.</li>
+<li>Kemsoes, <a href='#1_Page_116'>116</a>.</li>
+<li>Kiernan, J. G., <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#1_Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#1_Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#1_Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+<li>Kind, A., <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>King, A. F. A., <a href='#1_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Kleinpaul, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>.</li>
+<li>Klemm, K., <a href='#1_Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+<li>Kline, L. W., <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>.</li>
+<li>Koch, J. L. A., <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+<li>Koster, <a href='#1_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Kossmann, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>.</li>
+<li>Kowalewsky, M., <a href='#1_Page_133'>133</a>.</li>
+<li>Kraepelin, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#1_Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Krafft-Ebing, <a href='#1_Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Krauss, F. S., <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Krauss, W. C., <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Krieger, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_146'>146</a>.</li>
+<li>Kreichmar, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Kroner, <a href='#1_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>Kulischer, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Lacassagne, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Lactantius, <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>.</li>
+<li>Lallemand, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Landouzy, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+<li>Landry, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+<li>Lane, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>.</li>
+<li>Laschi, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+<li>Laupts, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Laurent, L., <a href='#1_Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#1_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Laycock, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#1_Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Learoyd, Mabel, <a href='#1_Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+<li>Lecky, <a href='#1_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>Legludic, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+<li>Lentz, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.<a name='1_Page_331'></a></li>
+<li>Lepois, C., <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Letamendi, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Letourneau, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Leuba, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Leyden, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Liguori, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Lippert, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+<li>Lipps, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+<li>Lobsien, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>Loiman, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Loli&eacute;e, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Lombroso, C., <a href='#1_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#1_Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#1_Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#1_Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#1_Page_213'>213</a>.</li>
+<li>Lombroso, P., <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+<li>Lorion, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>L&ouml;wenfeld, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#1_Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#1_Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#1_Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>Lucretius, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+<li>Lull, Raymond, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Luther, <a href='#1_Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+<li>Luzet, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Lydston, <a href='#1_Page_178'>178</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>MacDonald, A., <a href='#1_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>MacGillicuddy, <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+<li>Mackenzie, J. N., <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>MacLean, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>MacMurchy, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Maeder, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Malins, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Malling-Hansen, <a href='#1_Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+<li>Man, E. H., <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Mandeville, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Mannhardt, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#1_Page_133'>133</a>.</li>
+<li>Mantegazza, <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#1_Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#1_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>Marchi, Attilio de, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Marcuse, J., <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>.</li>
+<li>Mariani, <a href='#1_Page_319'>319</a>.</li>
+<li>Marie, A., <a href='#1_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>Marie, P., <a href='#1_Page_214'>214</a>.</li>
+<li>Marro, <a href='#1_Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#1_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+<li>Marsh, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Marshall, F., <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>Marston, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Martial, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Martineau, <a href='#1_Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+<li>Mason, Otis, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+<li>Matignon, <a href='#1_Page_20'>20</a>.</li>
+<li>Maudsley, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+<li>Mayr, G., <a href='#1_Page_141'>141</a>.</li>
+<li>Melinaud, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#1_Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+<li>Menjago, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>.</li>
+<li>Mercier, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>.</li>
+<li>Metchnikoff, <a href='#1_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>Meteyard, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+<li>Meyners, d'Estrez, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>.</li>
+<li>Michelet, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+<li>Miklucho-Macleay, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Minovici, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Mirabeau, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+<li>Mitchell, H. W., <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>Mitford, <a href='#1_Page_21'>21</a>.</li>
+<li>Modigliani, <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Moli&egrave;re, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+<li>Moll, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#1_Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#1_Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#1_Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>Mondi&egrave;re, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Mongeri, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#1_Page_232'>232</a>.</li>
+<li>Montague, Lady M. W., <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+<li>Montaigne, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>Montmorand, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Moraglia, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Morris, R. T., <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_245'>245</a>.</li>
+<li>Morselli, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Mortimer, G., <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>Moryson, Fynes, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Moses, Julius, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>M&uuml;ller, R., <a href='#1_Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+<li>Murisier, <a href='#1_Page_316'>316</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>N&auml;cke, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#1_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>Nansen, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>N&eacute;grier, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>.</li>
+<li>Nelson, J., <a href='#1_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#1_Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#1_Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#1_Page_144'>144</a>.</li>
+<li>Neugebauer, <a href='#1_Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+<li>Niceforo, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#1_Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+<li>Nicolas of Cusa, <a href='#1_Page_106'>106</a>.</li>
+<li>Niebuhr, C., <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>Nietzsche, <a href='#1_Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#1_Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+<li>Nipho, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Norman, Conolly, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Northcote, H., <a href='#1_Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Oettinger, <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+<li>Ogle, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Oldfield, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Oliver, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Omer, Haleby, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Oribasius, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Osier, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>Ossendovsky, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Osterloh, <a href='#1_Page_87'>87</a>.</li>
+<li>Ostwald, Hans, <a href='#1_Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+<li>Ott, von, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.<a name='1_Page_332'></a></li>
+<li>Overbury, Sir T., <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovid, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Paget, Sir J., <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>Paget, John, <a href='#1_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Par&eacute;, A., <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+<li>Parke, T. H., <a href='#1_Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+<li>Partridge, <a href='#1_Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#1_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#1_Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+<li>Passek, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Paulus, &AElig;gineta, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Pausanias, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>Pearson, K., <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>.</li>
+<li>Pechuel-Loesche, <a href='#1_Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+<li>Peckham, <a href='#1_Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+<li>Penta, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+<li>Pepys, S., <a href='#1_Page_32'>32</a>.</li>
+<li>Perez, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>Perry-Coste, <a href='#1_Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#1_Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#1_Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#1_Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#1_Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Peschel, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Peyer, A., <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Peyer, J., <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Pick, <a href='#1_Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+<li>Pierracini, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+<li>Pilcz, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitcairn, <a href='#1_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitres, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#1_Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+<li>Plant, <a href='#1_Page_97'>97</a>.</li>
+<li>Plato, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#1_Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+<li>Plazzon, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny the Elder, <a href='#1_Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#1_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Ploss, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Plutarch, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#1_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#1_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Pouchet, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>Pouillet, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Poulet, <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a>.</li>
+<li>Power, <a href='#1_Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+<li>Prat, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>.</li>
+<li>Priestley, Sir W., <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Procopius, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Pyle, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Quetelet, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+<li>Quir&oacute;s, Bernaldo de, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Rabelais, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Raciborski, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#1_Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>.</li>
+<li>Raffalovich, <a href='#1_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramsay, Sir W. M., <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Rasmussen, <a href='#1_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Ratzel, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Rauber, <a href='#1_Page_142'>142</a>.</li>
+<li>Raymond, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#1_Page_267'>267</a>.</li>
+<li>R&eacute;gis, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Reinach, S., <a href='#1_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#1_Page_99'>99</a>.</li>
+<li>Reinl, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Rengger, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Renooz, Mine. C&eacute;line, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+<li>Renouvier, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>.</li>
+<li>Restif de la Bretonne, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#1_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#1_Page_246'>246</a>.</li>
+<li>Reuss, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Reverdin, <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>.</li>
+<li>Reys, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Rhys, Sir J., <a href='#1_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribbing, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribot, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#1_Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+<li>Richelet, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Richer, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Richet, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#1_Page_82'>82</a>.</li>
+<li>Riedel, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>Ries, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+<li>Riolan, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Ritter, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Rochholz, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Roh&eacute;, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>Rohleder, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#1_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#1_Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#1_Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#1_Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Roland, Mme., <a href='#1_Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+<li>Rolfincius, <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>.</li>
+<li>R&ouml;mer, L. S. A. M. von, <a href='#1_Page_120'>120</a>.</li>
+<li>Roos, J. de, <a href='#1_Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosenbach, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosenstadt, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosenthal, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#1_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosner, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosse, Irving, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li>
+<li>Roth, H. Ling, <a href='#1_Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+<li>Roth, W., <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>Roubaud, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>Rousseau, <a href='#1_Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Routh, A., <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Rudeck, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>.</li>
+<li>Rush, <a href='#1_Page_231'>231</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Sade, De, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Andr&eacute;, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Hilaire, J. G., <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Paul, Dr., <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Salerni, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanchez, T., <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanctis, Sante de, <a href='#1_Page_202'>202</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanctorius, <a href='#1_Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Savage, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Savill, <a href='#1_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Schemer, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.<a name='1_Page_333'></a></li>
+<li>Schmid-Monnard, <a href='#1_Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+<li>Schrenck-Notzing, <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+<li>Schroeder, T., <a href='#1_Page_313'>313</a>.</li>
+<li>Schroeder, van der Kolk, <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Sch&uuml;le, <a href='#1_Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+<li>Schultz, Alwyn, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>.</li>
+<li>Schulz, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>.</li>
+<li>Schurig, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Schurtz, <a href='#1_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Schuyten, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>Schwartz, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Schweinfurth, <a href='#1_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Scott, Colin, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#1_Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+<li>Seerley, <a href='#1_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Selden, <a href='#1_Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+<li>Seler, <a href='#1_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Selous, E., <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>Semon, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+<li>Semper, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;nancour, <a href='#1_Page_82'>82</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;rieux, <a href='#1_Page_316'>316</a>.</li>
+<li>Sergi, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+<li>Shakespeare, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaw, Capel, <a href='#1_Page_156'>156</a>.</li>
+<li>Shufeldt, R. W., <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Shuttleworth, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Siebert, <a href='#1_Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+<li>Sieroshevski, <a href='#1_Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Skeat, W. W., <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>Skene, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, E., <a href='#1_Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#1_Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#1_Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, E. H., <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#1_Page_246'>246</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, F., <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, Robertson, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, Theodate, <a href='#1_Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#1_Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+<li>Smyth, Brough, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>.</li>
+<li>Sollier, <a href='#1_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>Solon, <a href='#1_Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+<li>Somerville, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+<li>Sonnini, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>Sorel, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Sormani, <a href='#1_Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+<li>Soutzo, <a href='#1_Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+<li>Spencer, Baldwin, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Spitta, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>Spitzka, E. C., <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+<li>Spurgeon, <a href='#1_Page_313'>313</a>.</li>
+<li>Starbuck, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#1_Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+<li>Stein, G., <a href='#1_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Steinen, Karl von den, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#1_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>Stendhal, <a href='#1_Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+<li>Stephenson, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Stern, B., <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+<li>Sterne, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+<li>Stevens, H. V., <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_52'>52</a>.</li>
+<li>Stieda, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Stirling, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Stockman, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Stokes, <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>.</li>
+<li>Storer, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Strack, <a href='#1_Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+<li>Stratz, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#1_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Stubbs, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Sudduth, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+<li>Sumner, W. G., <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Susruta, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Sutton, Bland, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#1_Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+<li>Swift, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#1_Page_312'>312</a>.</li>
+<li>Sydenham, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Tacitus, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>Tait, Lawson, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#1_Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>Tallemont des R&eacute;aux, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+<li>Tardieu, <a href='#1_Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+<li>Taylor, R. W., <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>.</li>
+<li>Teacher, J., <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>Tertullian, <a href='#1_Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Theresa, St., <a href='#1_Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, W., <a href='#1_Page_314'>314</a>.</li>
+<li>Thucydides, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>.</li>
+<li>Thurn, Sir E. im, <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+<li>Tille, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#1_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>Tillier, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>Tilt, <a href='#1_Page_32'>32</a>.</li>
+<li>Tissot, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#1_Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+<li>Toulouse, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>Tout, Hill, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#1_Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+<li>Townsend, C. W., <a href='#1_Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+<li>Treutler, <a href='#1_Page_81'>81</a>.</li>
+<li>Trousseau, <a href='#1_Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+<li>Tuchmann, <a href='#1_Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+<li>Turner, <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Uffelmann, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Vahness, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Valera, <a href='#1_Page_206'>206</a>.</li>
+<li>Valleix, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Vallon, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a>.</li>
+<li>Vedeler, <a href='#1_Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+<li>Velde, van de, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Velpeau, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>Venette, <a href='#1_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Venturi, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+<li>Viazzi, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+<li>Villagomez, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.<a name='1_Page_334'></a></li>
+<li>Villermay, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Villerm&eacute;, <a href='#1_Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#1_Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+<li>Virchow, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Vogel, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+<li>Volkelt, <a href='#1_Page_192'>192</a>.</li>
+<li>Voltaire, <a href='#1_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>Voornveld, van, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Wade, Sir W. F., <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Wahl, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Waitz, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#1_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>Walker, A., <a href='#1_Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+<li>Wapp&auml;us, <a href='#1_Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+<li>Ward, H., <a href='#1_Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+<li>Wargentin, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+<li>Warman, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+<li>Wasserschleben, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Wedge wood, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+<li>Weismann, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+<li>Weisser, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Wellhausen, <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Wenck, <a href='#1_Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+<li>West, C., <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>West, J. P., <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Westcott, Wynn, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Westermarck, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#1_Page_142'>142</a>.</li>
+<li>Wey, H. D., <a href='#1_Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#1_Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+<li>Wichmann, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>Wiel, Van der, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Willis, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Wilson, J. M., <a href='#1_Page_313'>313</a>.</li>
+<li>Wiltshire, A., <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+<li>Winckel, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+<li>Winkler, G., <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Winter, J. T., <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Witkowski, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Wollstonecraft, M., <a href='#1_Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li>
+<li>Wood, H. C., <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>Wraxall, Sir N., <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Yellowlees, <a href='#1_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Zacchia, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Zache, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#1_Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Zeller, <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#1_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS'></a><a name='1_Page_335'></a><h2>INDEX OF SUBJECTS.</h2>
+
+
+<ul><li>Africa,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_15'>15</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ainu,
+<ul><li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>American Indians,
+<ul><li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>An&aelig;mia and hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Andamanese modesty, <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Animals,
+<ul><li>  breeding season of, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+<li>  hysteria in, <a href='#1_Page_215'>215</a>.</li>
+<li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_164'>164</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>  their dislike of dirt, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Annual sexual rhythm, <a href='#1_Page_122'>122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_300'>300</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Anus as a centre of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_52'>52</a>.</li>
+<li>Apes,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li>
+<li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>Arabian festivals, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Arabs,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a>.</li>
+<li>  their ancient conception of uncleanness, <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Art and auto-erotism, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#1_Page_282'>282</a>.</li>
+<li>Asaf&oelig;tida in hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Attitudes passionnelles</i>, <a href='#1_Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+<li>Australia,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual festivals in, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Autumn festivals, <a href='#1_Page_136'>136</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Baboon,
+<ul><li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_93'>93</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Babylonian festivals, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Bashfulness, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Bathing,
+<ul><li>  promiscuous, <a href='#1_Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#1_Page_34'>34</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Beltane fires, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Bengal,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Birds,
+<ul><li>  dreams of, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Birthrate,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Bladder,
+<ul><li>  as a source of dreams, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li>
+<li>  foreign bodies in, <a href='#1_Page_171'>171</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  periodicity in expulsive force of, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Blindness in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Blood,
+<ul><li>  primitive ideas about, <a href='#1_Page_289'>289</a>.</li>
+<li>  supposed virtues of menstrual, <a href='#1_Page_292'>292</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Blood-pressure, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Blushing,
+<ul><li>  the significance of, <a href='#1_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#1_Page_72'>72</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Bonfire festivals, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Borneo,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_15'>15</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bosom in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_38'>38</a>.</li>
+<li>Brazil,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bread,
+<ul><li>  periodicity in consumption of, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Breeding season, <a href='#1_Page_123'>123</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Brumalia</i>, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Camargo, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>.</li>
+<li>Catholic theologians,
+<ul><li>  on <i>delectatio morosa</i>, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>  on erotic dreams, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>  on masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Celibacy and religion, <a href='#1_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceremonial element in religion, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Chastity in Polynesia, <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Chemical rays and sexual periodicity, <a href='#1_Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+<li>Childbirth,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Children,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>  periodicity of growth in, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>  spring fever in, <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>.</li>
+<li>  their lack of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Chimpanzee, menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese modesty, <a href='#1_Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#1_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>Chivalry and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>Chlorosis and hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Christianity,
+<ul><li>  in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_25'>25</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+<li>  its attitude towards masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Christmas festivals, <a href='#1_Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+<li>Clothing and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_58'>58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cod-piece, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>.<a name='1_Page_336'></a></li>
+<li>Coitus,
+<ul><li>  and ceremonial ritual, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>  as a sedative, <a href='#1_Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_40'>40</a>.</li>
+<li>  often painful in hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_203'>203</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Conception rate, <a href='#1_Page_137'>137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Conduct,
+<ul><li>  periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_152'>152</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Continence,
+<ul><li>  importance of, <a href='#1_Page_282'>282</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Convents,
+<ul><li>  hysteria in, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Coquetry,
+<ul><li>  function of, <a href='#1_Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#1_Page_59'>59</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Courtship,
+<ul><li>  the essential element in, <a href='#1_Page_41'>41</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Crime,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Criminals,
+<ul><li>  masturbation among, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual outbursts in, <a href='#1_Page_147'>147</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Crow,
+<ul><li>  breeding habits of, <a href='#1_Page_125'>125</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Cycling in relation to sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_177'>177</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Dancing,
+<ul><li>  auto-erotic aspects of, <a href='#1_Page_180'>180</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Dancing and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>.</li>
+<li>Darkness in relation to blushing, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Day-dreaming, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Deer,
+<ul><li>  breeding habits of, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li><i>Delectatio morosa</i>, <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Denmark,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_29'>29</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Diogenes, <a href='#1_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Dionysian festivals, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>Disgust as a factor of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_82'>82</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Distillatio</i>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+<li>Dog,
+<ul><li>  breeding season of, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Drawers,
+<ul><li>  origin of feminine, <a href='#1_Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#1_Page_32'>32</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Dreams,
+<ul><li>  and sexual periodicity, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>  day, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  erotic, <a href='#1_Page_191'>191</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  Freud on, <a href='#1_Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+<li>  inverted, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>  vesical, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Easter festivals, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Eating,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ecbolic curve, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Economic factor of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephants,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Enuresis,
+<ul><li>  nocturnal, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Epilepsy,
+<ul><li>  anciently confused with hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Erotic dreams, <a href='#1_Page_191'>191</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  festivals, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  hallucinations, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Eskimo,
+<ul><li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual habits of, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Etruscans,
+<ul><li>  modesty among, <a href='#1_Page_23'>23</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Evil eye and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Excretory customs and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_52'>52</a>.</li>
+<li>Eye disorders and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_250'>250</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Face as a centre of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>Fear,
+<ul><li>  modesty based on, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#1_Page_47'>47</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ferrets,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Festivals,
+<ul><li>  erotic, <a href='#1_Page_127'>127</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Fools,
+<ul><li>  Feast of, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Foot and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_20'>20</a>.</li>
+<li>Frigidity caused by masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuegians,
+<ul><li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_13'>13</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>General paralysis,
+<ul><li>  annual curve of, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li><i>Globus hystericus</i>, <a href='#1_Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+<li>Goethe, <a href='#1_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Gogol, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Greeks,
+<ul><li>  festivals of, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty among, <a href='#1_Page_22'>22</a>.</li>
+<li>  their attitude towards masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Growth, periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Hair-pin used in masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_172'>172</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Hallucinations,
+<ul><li>  erotic, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Head,
+<ul><li>  covering the, <a href='#1_Page_56'>56</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Heart disease,
+<ul><li>  monthly rhythm in, <a href='#1_Page_111'>111</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>&quot;Heat&quot; in animals, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>.
+<ul><li>  its relation to menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Hemicrania,
+<ul><li>  periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Horse exercise and sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+<li>Horses,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Hottentots,
+<ul><li>  masturbation among, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Hymen in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_39'>39</a>.<a name='1_Page_337'></a></li>
+<li>Hysteria,
+<ul><li>  alleged seasonal prevalence of, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>  and chlorosis, <a href='#1_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>  and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+<li>  Breuer and Freud on, <a href='#1_Page_219'>219</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  Charcot and, <a href='#1_Page_214'>214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  coitus often painful in, <a href='#1_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to sexual emotion, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  nocturnal hallucinations of, <a href='#1_Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+<li>  physiological, <a href='#1_Page_227'>227</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  the theory of, <a href='#1_Page_209'>209</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Iceland,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Illegitimate births,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Incubus, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>India,
+<ul><li>  conception rate in, <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+<li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Infants,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Insane,
+<ul><li>  masturbation in the, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty in the, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Insanity and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#1_Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#1_Page_149'>149</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Inversion,
+<ul><li>  dreams in, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ireland,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ishtar, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Italy,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Japanese,
+<ul><li>  masturbation among, <a href='#1_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Jealousy in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Kadishtu, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Kierkegaard, <a href='#1_Page_266'>266</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Lapps,
+<ul><li>  menstruation among, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li> modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_20'>20</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Lizard and women in folk-lore, <a href='#1_Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Love largely based on modesty, <a href='#1_Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#1_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#1_Page_82'>82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Macaque,
+<ul><li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_93'>93</a>.</li>
+<li>Malay festivals, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Maori,
+<ul><li>  modesty, <a href='#1_Page_11'>11</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Marriage caused by masturbation,
+<ul><li>  aversion to, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Marriage and the hysterical, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#1_Page_232'>232</a>.</li>
+<li>Masturbation among animals, <a href='#1_Page_164'>164</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  among lower human races, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>  among higher human races, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>  as a sedative, <a href='#1_Page_268'>268</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  combined with religious emotions, <a href='#1_Page_312'>312</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in men of genius, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>  interrupted, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>  in the insane, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>  methods of, <a href='#1_Page_166'>166</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>  prevalence of, <a href='#1_Page_235'>235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  symptoms and results of, <a href='#1_Page_248'>248</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>May-day festivals, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Medi&aelig;val modesty, <a href='#1_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Medicean Venus,
+<ul><li>  attitude of, <a href='#1_Page_38'>38</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Menstrual blood,
+<ul><li>  supposed virtues of, <a href='#1_Page_292'>292</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Menstrual cycle in men, <a href='#1_Page_106'>106</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Menstruation,
+<ul><li>  among primitive peoples, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>  and hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+<li>  and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li>
+<li>  and pregnancy, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+<li>  and social position of women, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  as a continuous process, <a href='#1_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>  as a process of purification, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li>
+<li>  cause doubtful, <a href='#1_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>  euphemisms for, <a href='#1_Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+<li>  in animals, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a> <i>et seq</i>.</li>
+<li>  occasional absence in health, <a href='#1_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>  origin of, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+<li>  precocity in, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>  primitive theory of, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>  relation to &quot;heat,&quot; <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>  relation to ovulation, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>  relation to sexual desire, <a href='#1_Page_98'>98</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Mental energy, periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>Metabolism,
+<ul><li>  seasonal influences on, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li><i>Mittelschmerz</i>, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Mohammedans,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li>
+<li>  mysticism among, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Midsummer festivals, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>.</li>
+<li>Monkeys,
+<ul><li>  breeding season of, <a href='#1_Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#1_Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+<li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_165'>165</a>.</li>
+<li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Moon and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#1_Page_199'>199</a>.<a name='1_Page_338'></a></li>
+<li>Moral element in modesty, <a href='#1_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Moritz, K. P., <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Muscular force,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_158'>158</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mysticism and sexual emotion, <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#1_Page_315'>315</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Nakedness,
+<ul><li>  chaste in its effects, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_75'>75</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Narcissism, <a href='#1_Page_206'>206</a>.</li>
+<li>Nates as a centre of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+<li>Negroes,
+<ul><li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_15'>15</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Nervous diseases and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_252'>252</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Neurasthenia and masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_259'>259</a>.</li>
+<li>New England,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>New Georgians,
+<ul><li>  modesty among, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>New Guinea,
+<ul><li>  folk-lore of menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>New Hebrides,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_8'>8</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>New Zealand,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_11'>11</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Nicobarese modesty, <a href='#1_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Night-inspiration, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Novel-reading,
+<ul><li>  alleged sexual periodicity in, <a href='#1_Page_155'>155</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Obscenity,
+<ul><li>  Roman horror of, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>&OElig;strus, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#1_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>&quot;Onanism,&quot;
+<ul><li>  the term, <a href='#1_Page_162'>162</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Orang-utan,
+<ul><li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_92'>92</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Orgasm,
+<ul><li>  spontaneous, <a href='#1_Page_182'>182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Ornament as a sexual lure, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovaries with hysteria,
+<ul><li>  alleged association of, <a href='#1_Page_216'>216</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ovulation and menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_95'>95</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Papuans,
+<ul><li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual periodicity among, <a href='#1_Page_128'>128</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li><i>Penis suecedaneus</i>, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pollutio</i>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pollutio interruptus</i>, <a href='#1_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>Polynesian modesty, <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#1_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>Precocity,
+<ul><li>  sexual, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#1_Page_244'>244</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pregnancy,
+<ul><li>  menstrual cycle during, <a href='#1_Page_109'>109</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Prostitutes,
+<ul><li>  hysteria among, <a href='#1_Page_217'>217</a>.</li>
+<li>  masturbation in, <a href='#1_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_70'>70</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Prudery, <a href='#1_Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#1_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Prurience based on modesty, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+<li>Psychic coitus, <a href='#1_Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+<li>Psychic traumatism, <a href='#1_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulse,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of the, <a href='#1_Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Railway travelling as cause of sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+<li>Rapes,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_150'>150</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Religion and sexual emotions, <a href='#1_Page_310'>310</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Revery, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Rhythm, <a href='#1_Page_85'>85</a>.</li>
+<li>Riding as a cause of sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+<li>Ritual factor of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#1_Page_65'>65</a>.</li>
+<li>Roland, Mme., <a href='#1_Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+<li>Romans,
+<ul><li>  modesty of, <a href='#1_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#1_Page_67'>67</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Rosalia, <a href='#1_Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+<li>Rousseau, <a href='#1_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+<li>Russia,
+<ul><li>  conception rate in, <a href='#1_Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+<li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Rest, <a href='#1_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#1_Page_100'>100</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Sacro-pubic region as a centre of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_51'>51</a>.</li>
+<li>St. John's Eve,
+<ul><li>  festival of, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Samoa, <a href='#1_Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+<li>Samoyeds,
+<ul><li>  menstruation among, <a href='#1_Page_89'>89</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Saturnalia, <a href='#1_Page_132'>132</a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet fever,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_157'>157</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Schools,
+<ul><li>  auto-erotic phenomena in, <a href='#1_Page_240'>240</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Seasonal periodicity of sexual impulse, <a href='#1_Page_112'>112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Seduction and menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_103'>103</a>.</li>
+<li>Seminal emissions during sleep, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Serpent in folk-lore, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sewing-machine as a cause of sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+<li>Sexual an&aelig;sthesia induced by masturbation, <a href='#1_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Sexual factor of modesty, <a href='#1_Page_37'>37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sexual desire,
+<ul><li>  in relation to blushing, <a href='#1_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in relation to menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_100'>100</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_42'>42</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to season, <a href='#1_Page_122'>122</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in women, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_100'>100</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul><a name='1_Page_339'></a></li>
+<li>Sexual periodicity in men, <a href='#1_Page_107'>107</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_297'>297</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  what we owe to irradiations of, <a href='#1_Page_5'>5</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sexual organs viewed differently by savage and civilized peoples, <a href='#1_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>Shame,
+<ul><li>  definition and nature of, <a href='#1_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#1_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#1_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#1_Page_83'>83</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Short sight and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Shyness, <a href='#1_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Slang,
+<ul><li>  private, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sleep in relation to sexual activity, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Snake and women in folk-lore, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Somnambulism of bladder, <a href='#1_Page_194'>194</a>.</li>
+<li>Speech,
+<ul><li>  modesty in, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Spring,
+<ul><li>  as season of sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>  festivals of, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Swinging,
+<ul><li>  auto-erotic aspects of, <a href='#1_Page_174'>174</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Succubus, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>Suicide,
+<ul><li>  periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#1_Page_153'>153</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Taboo and menstruation, <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a>.
+<ul><li>  and modesty, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Tahiti, <a href='#1_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Tammuz festival, <a href='#1_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Theologians,
+<ul><li>  opinions of, <a href='#1_Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#1_Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#1_Page_279'>279</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Theresa, St., <a href='#1_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#1_Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#1_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Thigh-friction, <a href='#1_Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Thumb-sucking, <a href='#1_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Timidity, <a href='#1_Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+<li>Tight-lacing as a cause of sexual excitement, <a href='#1_Page_178'>178</a>.</li>
+<li>Torres Straits,
+<ul><li>  modesty at, <a href='#1_Page_9'>9</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Turkish modesty, <a href='#1_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#1_Page_31'>31</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Uncleanness,
+<ul><li>  primitive conception of, <a href='#1_Page_287'>287</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Uric acid,
+<ul><li>  excretion, periodicity of, <a href='#1_Page_159'>159</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Urine,
+<ul><li>  incontinence of, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Urtication,
+<ul><li>  as a form of auto-erotism, <a href='#1_Page_181'>181</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Valentine's Day, <a href='#1_Page_131'>131</a>.</li>
+<li>Veil,
+<ul><li>  origin of the, <a href='#1_Page_55'>55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Vesical dreams, <a href='#1_Page_193'>193</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Vocabularies,
+<ul><li>  private, <a href='#1_Page_66'>66</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li><i>Walpurgisnacht</i>, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>Weekly sexual rhythm, <a href='#1_Page_115'>115</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_306'>306</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Witches,
+<ul><li>  erotic hallucinations of, <a href='#1_Page_202'>202</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Womb anciently thought source of hysteria, <a href='#1_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>Women,
+<ul><li>  as property in relation to modesty, <a href='#1_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>  masturbation among, <a href='#1_Page_169'>169</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_243'>243</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_264'>264</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  menstruation in, <a href='#1_Page_86'>86</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#1_Page_284'>284</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  sexual impulse in, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>.</li>
+<li>  their auto-erotic manifestations in sleep, <a href='#1_Page_196'>196</a>.</li>
+<li>  their night-inspiration, <a href='#1_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>  whether more modest than men, <a href='#1_Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#1_Page_75'>75</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Year,
+<ul><li>  primitive divisions of, <a href='#1_Page_134'>134</a>.</li></ul>
+<br />
+<li>Zeus,
+<ul><li>  auto-erotic manifestations in, <a href='#1_Page_188'>188</a>.</li></ul>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<a name='1_Page_340'></a>
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='1_DIAGRAMS'></a><h2><a name='1_Page_341'></a>DIAGRAMS</h2>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_I'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/1.png"><img src="./vol1-images/1_th.jpg" alt="CHART I.&mdash;The Monthly Ecbolic Curve."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART I.&mdash;The Monthly Ecbolic Curve.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_II'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/2.png"><img src="./vol1-images/2_th.jpg" alt="CHART II.&mdash;The Annual Curve of the Conception-rate in Europe."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART II.&mdash;The Annual Curve of the Conception-rate in Europe.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_III'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/3.png"><img src="./vol1-images/3_th.jpg" alt="CHART III.&mdash;The Annual Ecbolic Curve."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART III.&mdash;The Annual Ecbolic Curve.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_IV'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/4.png"><img src="./vol1-images/4_th.jpg" alt="CHART IV.&mdash;Curve of the Annual Incidence of Insanity in London."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART IV.&mdash;Curve of the Annual Incidence of Insanity in London.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_V'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/5.png"><img src="./vol1-images/5_th.jpg" alt="CHART V.&mdash;Curve of the Annual Incidence of General Paralysis in Paris (Garnier)."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART V.&mdash;Curve of the Annual Incidence of General Paralysis in Paris (Garnier).</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_VI'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/6.png"><img src="./vol1-images/6_th.jpg" alt="CHART VI.&mdash;The Suicide-rate in London."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART VI.&mdash;The Suicide-rate in London.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_VII'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/7.png"><img src="./vol1-images/7_th.jpg" alt="CHART VII."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART VII.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_VIII'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/8.png"><img src="./vol1-images/8_th.jpg" alt="CHART VIII."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART VIII.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_IX'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/9.png"><img src="./vol1-images/9_th.jpg" alt="CHART IX.&mdash;Lunar-monthly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART IX.&mdash;Lunar-monthly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_X'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/10.png"><img src="./vol1-images/10_th.jpg" alt="CHART X.&mdash;Curves of Lunar-monthly Rhythm as Smoothed by taking Pairs of Days."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART X.&mdash;Curves of Lunar-monthly Rhythm as Smoothed by taking Pairs of Days.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_XIa'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/11.png"><img src="./vol1-images/11_th.jpg" alt="CHART XIa.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART XIa.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_XIb'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/12.png"><img src="./vol1-images/12_th.jpg" alt="CHART XIb.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART XIb.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_XII'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/13.png"><img src="./vol1-images/13_th.jpg" alt="CHART XII.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART XII.&mdash;Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.</p>
+
+<a name='1_CHART_XIII'></a><p class="ctr"><a href="./vol1-images/14.png"><img src="./vol1-images/14_th.jpg" alt="CHART XIII.&mdash;Joint Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period, years 1886, 1887, 1888, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897 combined."></a></p><p class="ctr">CHART XIII.&mdash;Joint Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period, years 1886, 1887, 1888, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897 combined.</p>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr class="pg" noshade>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME 1 (OF 6)***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 1 (of 6)
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13610]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
+VOLUME 1 (OF 6)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 13610-h.htm or 13610-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/6/1/13610/13610-h/13610-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/6/1/13610/13610-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME I
+
+   The Evolution of Modesty
+   The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity
+   Auto-Erotism
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+1927
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PREFACE.
+
+
+The origin of these _Studies_ dates from many years back. As a youth I was
+faced, as others are, by the problem of sex. Living partly in an
+Australian city where the ways of life were plainly seen, partly in the
+solitude of the bush, I was free both to contemplate and to meditate many
+things. A resolve slowly grew up within me: one main part of my life-work
+should be to make clear the problems of sex.
+
+That was more than twenty years ago. Since then I can honestly say that in
+all that I have done that resolve has never been very far from my
+thoughts. I have always been slowly working up to this central problem;
+and in a book published some three years ago--_Man and Woman: a Study of
+Human Secondary Sexual Characters_--I put forward what was, in my own
+eyes, an introduction to the study of the primary questions of sexual
+psychology.
+
+Now that I have at length reached the time for beginning to publish my
+results, these results scarcely seem to me large. As a youth, I had hoped
+to settle problems for those who came after; now I am quietly content if I
+do little more than state them. For even that, I now think, is much; it is
+at least the half of knowledge. In this particular field the evil of
+ignorance is magnified by our efforts to suppress that which never can be
+suppressed, though in the effort of suppression it may become perverted. I
+have at least tried to find out what are the facts, among normal people as
+well as among abnormal people; for, while it seems to me that the
+physician's training is necessary in order to ascertain the facts, the
+physician for the most part only obtains the abnormal facts, which alone
+bring little light. I have tried to get at the facts, and, having got at
+the facts, to look them simply and squarely in the face. If I cannot
+perhaps turn the lock myself, I bring the key which can alone in the end
+rightly open the door: the key of sincerity. That is my one panacea:
+sincerity.
+
+I know that many of my friends, people on whose side I, too, am to be
+found, retort with another word: reticence. It is a mistake, they say, to
+try to uncover these things; leave the sexual instincts alone, to grow up
+and develop in the shy solitude they love, and they will be sure to grow
+up and develop wholesomely. But, as a matter of fact, that is precisely
+what we can not and will not ever allow them to do. There are very few
+middle-aged men and women who can clearly recall the facts of their lives
+and tell you in all honesty that their sexual instincts have developed
+easily and wholesomely throughout. And it should not be difficult to see
+why this is so. Let my friends try to transfer their feelings and theories
+from the reproductive region to, let us say, the nutritive region, the
+only other which can be compared to it for importance. Suppose that eating
+and drinking was never spoken of openly, save in veiled or poetic
+language, and that no one ever ate food publicly, because it was
+considered immoral and immodest to reveal the mysteries of this natural
+function. We know what would occur. A considerable proportion of the
+community, more especially the more youthful members, possessed by an
+instinctive and legitimate curiosity, would concentrate their thoughts on
+the subject. They would have so many problems to puzzle over: How often
+ought I to eat? What ought I to eat? Is it wrong to eat fruit, which I
+like? Ought I to eat grass, which I don't like? Instinct notwithstanding,
+we may be quite sure that only a small minority would succeed in eating
+reasonably and wholesomely. The sexual secrecy of life is even more
+disastrous than such a nutritive secrecy would be; partly because we
+expend such a wealth of moral energy in directing or misdirecting it,
+partly because the sexual impulse normally develops at the same time as
+the intellectual impulse, not in the early years of life, when wholesome
+instinctive habits might be formed. And there is always some ignorant and
+foolish friend who is prepared still further to muddle things: Eat a meal
+every other day! Eat twelve meals a day! Never eat fruit! Always eat
+grass! The advice emphatically given in sexual matters is usually not less
+absurd than this. When, however, the matter is fully open, the problems of
+food are not indeed wholly solved, but everyone is enabled by the
+experience of his fellows to reach some sort of situation suited to his
+own case. And when the rigid secrecy is once swept away a sane and natural
+reticence becomes for the first time possible.
+
+This secrecy has not always been maintained. When the Catholic Church was
+at the summit of its power and influence it fully realized the magnitude
+of sexual problems and took an active and inquiring interest in all the
+details of normal and abnormal sexuality. Even to the present time there
+are certain phenomena of the sexual life which have scarcely been
+accurately described except in ancient theological treatises. As the type
+of such treatises I will mention the great tome of Sanchez, _De
+Matrimonio_. Here you will find the whole sexual life of men and women
+analyzed in its relationships to sin. Everything is set forth, as clearly
+and as concisely as it can be--without morbid prudery on the one hand, or
+morbid sentimentality on the other--in the coldest scientific language;
+the right course of action is pointed out for all the cases that may
+occur, and we are told what is lawful, what a venial sin, what a mortal
+sin. Now I do not consider that sexual matters concern the theologian
+alone, and I deny altogether that he is competent to deal with them. In
+his hands, also, undoubtedly, they sometimes become prurient, as they can
+scarcely fail to become on the non-natural and unwholesome basis of
+asceticism, and as they with difficulty become in the open-air light of
+science. But we are bound to recognize the thoroughness with which the
+Catholic theologians dealt with these matters, and, from their own point
+of view, indeed, the entire reasonableness; we are bound to recognize the
+admirable spirit in which, successfully or not, they sought to approach
+them. We need to-day the same spirit and temper applied from a different
+standpoint. These things concern everyone; the study of these things
+concerns the physiologist, the psychologist, the moralist. We want to get
+into possession of the actual facts, and from the investigation of the
+facts we want to ascertain what is normal and what is abnormal, from the
+point of view of physiology and of psychology. We want to know what is
+naturally lawful under the various sexual chances that may befall man, not
+as the born child of sin, but as a naturally social animal. What is a
+venial sin against nature, what a mortal sin against nature? The answers
+are less easy to reach than the theologians' answers generally were, but
+we can at least put ourselves in the right attitude; we may succeed in
+asking that question which is sometimes even more than the half of
+knowledge.
+
+It is perhaps a mistake to show so plainly at the outset that I approach
+what may seem only a psychological question not without moral fervour. But
+I do not wish any mistake to be made. I regard sex as the central problem
+of life. And now that the problem of religion has practically been
+settled, and that the problem of labor has at least been placed on a
+practical foundation, the question of sex--with the racial questions that
+rest on it--stands before the coming generations as the chief problem for
+solution. Sex lies at the root of life, and we can never learn to
+reverence life until we know how to understand sex.--So, at least, it
+seems to me.
+
+Having said so much, I will try to present such results as I have to
+record in that cold and dry light through which alone the goal of
+knowledge may truly be seen.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+July, 1897.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
+
+
+The first edition of this volume was published in 1899, following "Sexual
+Inversion," which now forms Volume II. The second edition, issued by the
+present publishers and substantially identical with the first edition,
+appeared in the following year. Ten years have elapsed since then and this
+new edition will be found to reflect the course of that long interval. Not
+only is the volume greatly enlarged, but nearly every page has been partly
+rewritten. This is mainly due to three causes: Much new literature
+required to be taken into account; my own knowledge of the historical and
+ethnographic aspects of the sexual impulse has increased; many fresh
+illustrative cases of a valuable and instructive character have
+accumulated in my hands. It is to these three sources of improvement that
+the book owes its greatly revised and enlarged condition, and not to the
+need for modifying any of its essential conclusions. These, far from
+undergoing any change, have by the new material been greatly strengthened.
+
+It may be added that the General Preface to the whole work, which was
+originally published in 1898 at the beginning of "Sexual Inversion," now
+finds its proper place at the outset of the present volume.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+Carbis Bay,
+
+Cornwall, Eng.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+
+The present volume contains three studies which seem to me to be necessary
+_prolegomena_ to that analysis of the sexual instinct which must form the
+chief part of an investigation into the psychology of sex. The first
+sketches the main outlines of a complex emotional state which is of
+fundamental importance in sexual psychology; the second, by bringing
+together evidence from widely different regions, suggests a tentative
+explanation of facts that are still imperfectly known; the third attempts
+to show that even in fields where we assume our knowledge to be adequate a
+broader view of the phenomena teaches us to suspend judgment and to adopt
+a more cautious attitude. So far as they go, these studies are complete in
+themselves; their special use, as an introduction to a more comprehensive
+analysis of sexual phenomena, is that they bring before us, under varying
+aspects, a characteristic which, though often ignored, is of the first
+importance in obtaining a clear understanding of the facts: the tendency
+of the sexual impulse to appear in a spontaneous and to some extent
+periodic manner, affecting women differently from men. This is a tendency
+which, later, I hope to make still more apparent, for it has practical and
+social, as well as psychological, implications. Here--and more especially
+in the study of those spontaneous solitary manifestations which I call
+auto-erotic--I have attempted to clear the ground, and to indicate the
+main lines along which the progress of our knowledge in these fields may
+best be attained.
+
+It may surprise many medical readers that in the third and longest study I
+have said little, save incidentally, either of treatment or prevention.
+The omission of such considerations at this stage is intentional. It may
+safely be said that in no other field of human activity is so vast an
+amount of strenuous didactic morality founded on so slender a basis of
+facts. In most other departments of life we at least make a pretence of
+learning before we presume to teach; in the field of sex we content
+ourselves with the smallest and vaguest minimum of information, often
+ostentatiously second-hand, usually unreliable. I wish to emphasize the
+fact that before we can safely talk either of curing or preventing these
+manifestations we must know a great deal more than we know at present
+regarding their distribution, etiology, and symptomatology; and we must
+exercise the same coolness and caution as--if our work is to be
+fruitful--we require in any other field of serious study. We must approach
+these facts as physicians, it is true, but also as psychologists,
+primarily concerned to find out the workings of such manifestations in
+fairly healthy and normal people. If we found a divorce-court judge
+writing a treatise on marriage we should smile. But it is equally absurd
+for the physician, so long as his knowledge is confined to disease, to
+write regarding sex at large; valuable as the facts he brings forward may
+be, he can never be in a position to generalize concerning them. And to
+me, at all events, it seems that we have had more than enough pictures of
+gross sexual perversity, whether furnished by the asylum or the brothel.
+They are only really instructive when they are seen in their proper
+perspective as the rare and ultimate extremes of a chain of phenomena
+which we may more profitably study nearer home.
+
+Yet, although we are, on every hand, surrounded by the normal
+manifestations of sex, conscious or unconscious, these manifestations are
+extremely difficult to observe, and, in those cases in which we are best
+able to observe them, it frequently happens that we are unable to make any
+use of our knowledge. Moreover, even when we have obtained our data, the
+difficulties--at all events, for an English investigator--are by no means
+overcome. He may take for granted that any serious and precise study of
+the sexual instinct will not meet with general approval; his work will be
+misunderstood; his motives will be called in question; among those for
+whom he is chiefly working he will find indifference. Indeed, the pioneer
+in this field may well count himself happy if he meets with nothing worse
+than indifference. Hence it is that the present volume will not be
+published in England, but that, availing myself of the generous sympathy
+with which my work has been received in America, I have sought the wider
+medical and scientific audience of the United States. In matters of faith,
+"liberty of prophesying" was centuries since eloquently vindicated for
+Englishmen; the liberty of investigating facts is still called in
+question, under one pretence or another, and to seek out the most vital
+facts of life is still in England a perilous task.
+
+I desire most heartily to thank the numerous friends and correspondents,
+some living in remote parts of the world, who have freely assisted me in
+my work with valuable information and personal histories. To Mr. F.H.
+Perry-Coste I owe an appendix which is by far the most elaborate attempt
+yet made to find evidence of periodicity in the spontaneous sexual
+manifestations of sleep; my debts to various medical and other
+correspondents are duly stated in the text. To many women friends and
+correspondents I may here express my gratitude for the manner in which
+they have furnished me with intimate personal records, and for the
+cross-examination to which they have allowed me to subject them. I may
+already say here, what I shall have occasion to say more emphatically in
+subsequent volumes, that without the assistance I have received from women
+of fine intelligence and high character my work would be impossible. I
+regret that I cannot make my thanks more specific.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.
+
+I.
+
+The Definition of Modesty--The Significance of Modesty--Difficulties in
+the Way of Its Analysis--The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among Different
+Peoples and in Different Ages.
+
+II.
+
+Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears--Children in Relation to
+Modesty--Modesty in Animals--The Attitude of the Medicean Venus--The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship--The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse--The Meaning of Coquetry--The Sexual Charm of Modesty--Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse--The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty--The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others--The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust--The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness--The Custom of Veiling the Face--Ornaments and
+Clothing--Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment--The Economic Factor
+in Modesty--The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty--The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.
+
+III.
+
+The Blush the Sanction of Modesty--The Phenomena of Blushing--Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush--Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.
+
+IV.
+
+Summary of the Factors of Modesty--The Future of Modesty--Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.
+
+
+THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.
+
+I.
+
+The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms--Menstruation--The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon--Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races--Mittelschmerz--Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle--Menstruation among Animals--Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes--What is Menstruation--Its Primary Cause Still Obscure--The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation--The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health--The Relation of Menstruation to "Heat"--The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation--The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period--Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.
+
+II.
+
+The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men--The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men--Periodicity in Disease--Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.--The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle--The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep--Original
+Observations--Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms.
+
+III.
+
+The Annual Sexual Rhythm--In Animals--In Man--Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn--The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals--The Feast of Fools--The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires--The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate--The Causes of those
+Variations--The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe--The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep--Original
+Observations--Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement--The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes--Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners--The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide--The Growth of
+Children According to Season--The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons--Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever--The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena.
+
+
+AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL
+IMPULSE.
+
+I.
+
+Definition of Auto-erotism--Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field--The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day--Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals--Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races--The Japanese _rin-no-tama_ and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification--Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life--The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder--The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling--The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle--Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement--_Delectatio
+Morosa_--Day-dreaming--_Pollutio_--Sexual Excitement During Sleep--Erotic
+Dreams--The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis--Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women--The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical--Their Frequently Painful Character.
+
+II.
+
+Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions--The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation--The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views--Charcot--The Revolt Against Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions--Fallacies Involved--Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament--Breuer and Freud--Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's--At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria--But They Must Not be Regarded as Final--The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons--The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria--True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.
+
+III.
+
+The Prevalence of Masturbation--Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood--Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?--After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women--Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation--The Alleged Evils of Masturbation--Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point--The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation--Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders--Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders--The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System--Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation--Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus--Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation--Masturbation in Men of Genius--Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative--Typical Cases--The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation--Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians--The Mohammedan Attitude--The Modern
+Scientific Attitude--In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?--The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+The Influence of Menstruation on the Position of Women.
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+Sexual Periodicity in Men.
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+The Auto-erotic Factor in Religion.
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+DIAGRAMS.
+
+
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MODESTY.
+
+I.
+
+The Definition of Modesty--The Significance of Modesty--Difficulties in
+the Way of Its Analysis--The Varying Phenomena of Modesty Among Different
+Peoples and in Different Ages.
+
+
+Modesty, which may be provisionally defined as an almost instinctive fear
+prompting to concealment and usually centering around the sexual
+processes, while common to both sexes is more peculiarly feminine, so that
+it may almost be regarded as the chief secondary sexual character of women
+on the psychical side. The woman who is lacking in this kind of fear is
+lacking, also, in sexual attractiveness to the normal and average man. The
+apparent exceptions seem to prove the rule, for it will generally be found
+that the women who are, not immodest (for immodesty is more closely
+related to modesty than mere negative absence of the sense of modesty),
+but without that fear which implies the presence of a complex emotional
+feminine organization to defend, only make a strong sexual appeal to men
+who are themselves lacking in the complementary masculine qualities. As a
+psychical secondary sexual character of the first rank, it is necessary,
+before any psychology of sex can be arranged in order, to obtain a clear
+view of modesty.
+
+    The immense importance of feminine modesty in creating masculine
+    passion must be fairly obvious. I may, however, quote the
+    observations of two writers who have shown evidence of insight
+    and knowledge regarding this matter.
+
+    Casanova describes how, when at Berne, he went to the baths, and
+    was, according to custom, attended by a young girl, whom he
+    selected from a group of bath attendants. She undressed him,
+    proceeded to undress herself, and then entered the bath with him,
+    and rubbed him thoroughly all over, the operation being performed
+    in the most serious manner and without a word being spoken. When
+    all was over, however, he perceived that the girl had expected
+    him to make advances, and he proceeds to describe and discuss his
+    own feelings of indifference under such circumstances. "Though
+    without gazing on the girl's figure, I had seen enough to
+    recognize that she had all that a man can desire to find in a
+    woman: a beautiful face, lively and well-formed eyes, a beautiful
+    mouth, with good teeth, a healthy complexion, well-developed
+    breasts, and everything in harmony. It is true that I had felt
+    that her hands could have been smoother, but I could only
+    attribute this to hard work; moreover, my Swiss girl was only
+    eighteen, and yet I remained entirely cold. What was the cause of
+    this? That was the question that I asked myself."
+
+    "It is clear," wrote Stendhal, "that three parts of modesty are
+    taught. This is, perhaps, the only law born of civilization which
+    produces nothing but happiness. It has been observed that birds
+    of prey hide themselves to drink, because, being obliged to
+    plunge their heads in the water, they are at that moment
+    defenceless. After having considered what passes at Otaheite, I
+    can see no other natural foundation for modesty. Love is the
+    miracle of civilization. Among savage and very barbarous races we
+    find nothing but physical love of a gross character. It is
+    modesty that gives to love the aid of imagination, and in so
+    doing imparts life to it. Modesty is very early taught to little
+    girls by their mothers, and with extreme jealousy, one might say,
+    by _esprit de corps_. They are watching in advance over the
+    happiness of the future lover. To a timid and tender woman there
+    ought to be no greater torture than to allow herself in the
+    presence of a man something which she thinks she ought to blush
+    at. I am convinced that a proud woman would prefer a thousand
+    deaths. A slight liberty taken on the tender side by the man she
+    loves gives a woman a moment of keen pleasure, but if he has the
+    air of blaming her for it, or only of not enjoying it with
+    transport, an awful doubt must be left in her mind. For a woman
+    above the vulgar level there is, then, everything to gain by very
+    reserved manners. The play is not equal. She hazards against a
+    slight pleasure, or against the advantage of appearing a little
+    amiable, the danger of biting remorse, and a feeling of shame
+    which must render even the lover less dear. An evening passed
+    gaily and thoughtlessly, without thinking of what comes after, is
+    dearly paid at this price. The sight of a lover with whom one
+    fears that one has had this kind of wrong must become odious for
+    several days. Can one be surprised at the force of a habit, the
+    slightest infractions of which are punished with such atrocious
+    shame? As to the utility of modesty, it is the mother of love. As
+    to the mechanism of the feeling, nothing is simpler. The mind is
+    absorbed in feeling shame instead of being occupied with desire.
+    Desires are forbidden, and desires lead to actions. It is evident
+    that every tender and proud woman--and these two things, being
+    cause and effect, naturally go together--must contract habits of
+    coldness which the people whom she disconcerts call prudery. The
+    power of modesty is so great that a tender woman betrays herself
+    with her lover rather by deeds than by words. The evil of
+    modesty is that it constantly leads to falsehood." (Stendhal, _De
+    l'Amour_, Chapter XXIV.)
+
+    It thus happens that, as Adler remarks (_Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 133), the sexual impulse in
+    women is fettered by an inhibition which has to be conquered. A
+    thin veil of reticence, shyness, and anxiety is constantly cast
+    anew over a woman's love, and her wooer, in every act of
+    courtship, has the enjoyment of conquering afresh an oft-won
+    woman.
+
+    An interesting testimony to the part played by modesty in
+    effecting the union of the sexes is furnished by the fact--to
+    which attention has often been called--that the special modesty
+    of women usually tends to diminish, though not to disappear, with
+    the complete gratification of the sexual impulses. This may be
+    noted among savage as well as among civilized women. The
+    comparatively evanescent character of modesty has led to the
+    argument (Venturi, _Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali_, pp. 92-93)
+    that modesty (_pudore_) is possessed by women alone, men
+    exhibiting, instead, a sense of decency which remains at about
+    the same level of persistency throughout life. Viazzi ("Pudore
+    nell 'uomo e nella donna," _Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria
+    Forense_, 1898), on the contrary, following Sergi, argues that
+    men are, throughout, more modest than women; but the points he
+    brings forward, though often just, scarcely justify his
+    conclusion. While the young virgin, however, is more modest and
+    shy than the young man of the same age, the experienced married
+    woman is usually less so than her husband, and in a woman who is
+    a mother the shy reticences of virginal modesty would be rightly
+    felt to be ridiculous. ("Les petites pudeurs n'existent pas pour
+    les meres," remarks Goncourt, _Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii,
+    p. 5.) She has put off a sexual livery that has no longer any
+    important part to play in life, and would, indeed, be
+    inconvenient and harmful, just as a bird loses its sexual plumage
+    when the pairing season is over.
+
+    Madame Celine Renooz, in an elaborate study of the psychological
+    sexual differences between men and women (_Psychologie Comparee
+    de l'Homme et de la Femme_, 1898, pp. 85-87), also believes that
+    modesty is not really a feminine characteristic. "Modesty," she
+    argues, "is masculine shame attributed to women for two reasons:
+    first, because man believes that woman is subject to the same
+    laws as himself; secondly, because the course of human evolution
+    has reversed the psychology of the sexes, attributing to women
+    the psychological results of masculine sexuality. This is the
+    origin of the conventional lies which by a sort of social
+    suggestion have intimidated women. They have, in appearance at
+    least, accepted the rule of shame imposed on them by men, but
+    only custom inspires the modesty for which they are praised; it
+    is really an outrage to their sex. This reversal of psychological
+    laws has, however, only been accepted by women with a struggle.
+    Primitive woman, proud of her womanhood, for a long time
+    defended her nakedness which ancient art has always represented.
+    And in the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a moment
+    when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex, the
+    intuition of her moral superiority, and cannot understand why she
+    must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the laws of
+    Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if nakedness
+    should or should not affright her. A sort of confused atavistic
+    memory recalls to her a period before clothing was known, and
+    reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of that human
+    epoch."
+
+    In support of this view the authoress proceeds to point out that
+    the _decollete_ constantly reappears in feminine clothing, never
+    in male; that missionaries experience great difficulty in
+    persuading women to cover themselves; that, while women accept
+    with facility an examination by male doctors, men cannot force
+    themselves to accept examination by a woman doctor, etc. (These
+    and similar points had already been independently brought forward
+    by Sergi, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xiii, 1892.)
+
+    It cannot be said that Madame Renooz's arguments will all bear
+    examination, if only on the ground that nakedness by no means
+    involves absence of modesty, but the point of view which she
+    expresses is one which usually fails to gain recognition, though
+    it probably contains an important element of truth. It is quite
+    true, as Stendhal said, that modesty is very largely taught; from
+    the earliest years, a girl child is trained to show a modesty
+    which she quickly begins really to feel. This fact cannot fail to
+    strike any one who reads the histories of pseudo-hermaphroditic
+    persons, really males, who have from infancy been brought up in
+    the belief that they are girls, and who show, and feel, all the
+    shrinking reticence and blushing modesty of their supposed sex.
+    But when the error is discovered, and they are restored to their
+    proper sex, this is quickly changed, and they exhibit all the
+    boldness of masculinity. (See e.g., Neugebauer, "Beobachtungen
+    aus dem Gebiete des Scheinzwittertumes," _Jahrbuch fuer Sexuelle
+    Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang iv, 1902, esp. p. 92.) At the same time
+    this is only one thread in the tangled skein with which we are
+    here concerned. The mass of facts which meets us when we turn to
+    the study of modesty in women cannot be dismissed as a group of
+    artificially-imposed customs. They gain rather than lose in
+    importance if we have to realize that the organic sexual demands
+    of women, calling for coyness in courtship, lead to the temporary
+    suppression of another feminine instinct of opposite, though
+    doubtless allied, nature.
+
+    But these somewhat conflicting, though not really contradictory,
+    statements serve to bring out the fact that a woman's modesty is
+    often an incalculable element. The woman who, under some
+    circumstances and at some times, is extreme in her reticences,
+    under other circumstances or at other times, may be extreme in
+    her abandonment. Not that her modesty is an artificial garment,
+    which she throws off or on at will. It is organic, but like the
+    snail's shell, it sometimes forms an impenetrable covering, and
+    sometimes glides off almost altogether. A man's modesty is more
+    rigid, with little tendency to deviate toward either extreme.
+    Thus it is, that, when uninstructed, a man is apt to be impatient
+    with a woman's reticences, and yet shocked at her abandonments.
+
+The significance of our inquiry becomes greater when we reflect that to
+the reticences of sexual modesty, in their progression, expansion, and
+complication, we largely owe, not only the refinement and development of
+the sexual emotions,--"_la pudeur_" as Guyau remarked, "_a civilise
+l'amour_"--but the subtle and pervading part which the sexual instinct has
+played in the evolution of all human culture.
+
+    "It is certain that very much of what is best in religion, art,
+    and life," remark Stanley Hall and Allin, "owes its charm to the
+    progressively-widening irradiation of sexual feeling. Perhaps the
+    reluctance of the female first long-circuited the exquisite
+    sensations connected with sexual organs and acts to the antics of
+    animal and human courtship, while restraint had the physiological
+    function of developing the colors, plumes, excessive activity,
+    and exuberant life of the pairing season. To keep certain parts
+    of the body covered, irradiated the sense of beauty to eyes,
+    hair, face, complexion, dress, form, etc., while many savage
+    dances, costumes and postures are irradiations of the sexual act.
+    Thus reticence, concealment, and restraint are among the prime
+    conditions of religion and human culture." (Stanley Hall and
+    Allin, "The Psychology of Tickling," _American Journal of
+    Psychology_, 1897, p. 31.)
+
+    Groos attributes the deepening of the conjugal relation among
+    birds to the circumstance that the male seeks to overcome the
+    reticence of the female by the display of his charms and
+    abilities. "And in the human world," he continues, "it is the
+    same; without the modest reserve of the woman that must, in most
+    cases, be overcome by lovable qualities, the sexual relationship
+    would with difficulty find a singer who would extol in love the
+    highest movements of the human soul." (Groos, _Spiele der
+    Menschen_, p. 341.)
+
+I have not, however, been, able to find that the subject of modesty has
+been treated in any comprehensive way by psychologists. Though valuable
+facts and suggestions bearing on the sexual emotions, on disgust, the
+origins of tatooing, on ornament and clothing, have been, brought forward
+by physiologists, psychologists, and ethnographists, few or no attempts
+appear to have been made to reach a general synthetic statement of these
+facts and suggestions. It is true that a great many unreliable, slight, or
+fragmentary efforts have been made to ascertain the constitution or basis
+of this emotion.[1] Many psychologists have regarded modesty simply as the
+result of clothing. This view is overturned by the well-ascertained fact
+that many races which go absolutely naked possess a highly-developed sense
+of modesty. These writers have not realized that physiological modesty is
+earlier in appearance, and more fundamental, than anatomical modesty. A
+partial contribution to the analysis of modesty has been made by Professor
+James, who, with his usual insight and lucidity, has set forth certain of
+its characteristics, especially the element due to "the application to
+ourselves of judgments primarily passed upon our mates." Guyau, in a very
+brief discussion of modesty, realized its great significance and touched
+on most of its chief elements.[2] Westermarck, again, followed by Grosse,
+has very ably and convincingly set forth certain factors in the origin of
+ornament and clothing, a subject which many writers imagine to cover the
+whole field of modesty. More recently Ribot, in his work on the emotions,
+has vaguely outlined most of the factors of modesty, but has not developed
+a coherent view of their origins and relationships.
+
+    Since the present _Study_ first appeared, Hohenemser, who
+    considers that my analysis of modesty is unsatisfactory, has made
+    a notable attempt to define the psychological mechanism of shame.
+    ("Versuch einer Analyse der Scham," _Archiv fuer die Gesamte
+    Psychologie_, Bd. II, Heft 2-3, 1903.) He regards shame as a
+    general psycho-physical phenomenon, "a definite tension of the
+    whole soul," with an emotion superadded. "The state of shame
+    consists in a certain psychic lameness or inhibition," sometimes
+    accompanied by physical phenomena of paralysis, such as sinking
+    of the head and inability to meet the eye. It is a special case
+    of Lipps's psychic stasis or damming up (_psychische Stauung_),
+    always produced when the psychic activities are at the same time
+    drawn in two or more different directions. In shame there is
+    always something present in consciousness which conflicts with
+    the rest of the personality, and cannot be brought into harmony
+    with it, which cannot be brought, that is, into moral (not
+    logical) relationship with it. A young man in love with a girl is
+    ashamed when told that he is in love, because his reverence for
+    one whom he regards as a higher being cannot be brought into
+    relationship with his own lower personality. A child in the same
+    way feels shame in approaching a big, grown-up person, who seems
+    a higher sort of being. Sometimes, likewise, we feel shame in
+    approaching a stranger, for a new person tends to seem higher and
+    more interesting than ourselves. It is not so in approaching a
+    new natural phenomenon, because we do not compare it with
+    ourselves. Another kind of shame is seen when this mental contest
+    is lower than our personality, and on this account in conflict
+    with it, as when we are ashamed of sexual thoughts. Sexual ideas
+    tend to evoke shame, Hohenemser remarks, because they so easily
+    tend to pass into sexual feelings; when they do not so pass (as
+    in scientific discussions) they do not evoke shame.
+
+    It will be seen that this discussion of modesty is highly
+    generalized and abstracted; it deals simply with the formal
+    mechanism of the process. Hohenemser admits that fear is a form
+    of psychic stasis, and I have sought to show that modesty is a
+    complexus of fears. We may very well accept the conception of
+    psychic stasis at the outset. The analysis of modesty has still
+    to be carried very much further.
+
+The discussion of modesty is complicated by the difficulty, and even
+impossibility, of excluding closely-allied emotions--shame, shyness,
+bashfulness, timidity, etc.--all of which, indeed, however defined, adjoin
+or overlap modesty.[3] It is not, however, impossible to isolate the main
+body of the emotion of modesty, on account of its special connection, on
+the whole, with the consciousness of sex. I here attempt, however
+imperfectly, to sketch out a fairly-complete analysis of its constitution
+and to trace its development.
+
+    In entering upon this investigation a few facts with regard to
+    the various manifestations of modesty may be helpful to us. I
+    have selected these from scattered original sources, and have
+    sought to bring out the variety and complexity of the problems
+    with which we are here concerned.
+
+    The New Georgians of the Solomon Islands, so low a race that they
+    are ignorant both of pottery and weaving, and wear only a loin
+    cloth, "have the same ideas of what is decent with regard to
+    certain acts and exposures that we ourselves have;" so that it is
+    difficult to observe whether they practice circumcision.
+    (Somerville, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1897, p.
+    394.)
+
+    In the New Hebrides "the closest secrecy is adopted with regard
+    to the penis, not at all from a sense of decency, but to avoid
+    Narak, the _sight_ even of that of another man being considered
+    most dangerous. The natives of this savage island, accordingly,
+    wrap the penis around with many yards of calico, and other like
+    materials, winding and folding them until a preposterous bundle
+    18 inches, or 2 feet long, and 2 inches or more in diameter is
+    formed, which is then supported upward by means of a belt, in the
+    extremity decorated with flowering grasses, etc. The testicles
+    are left naked." There is no other body covering. (Somerville,
+    _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1894, p. 368.)
+
+    In the Pelew Islands, says Kubary, as quoted by Bastian, it is
+    said that when the God Irakaderugel and his wife were creating
+    man and woman (he forming man and she forming woman), and were at
+    work on the sexual organs, the god wished to see his consort's
+    handiwork. She, however, was cross, and persisted in concealing
+    what she had made. Ever since then women wear an apron of
+    pandanus-leaves and men go naked. (A. Bastian, _Inselgruppen in
+    Oceanien_, p. 112.)
+
+    In the Pelew Islands, Semper tells us that when approaching a
+    large water-hole he was surprised to hear an affrighted,
+    long-drawn cry from his native friends. "A girl's voice answered
+    out of the bushes, and my people held us back, for there were
+    women bathing there who would not allow us to pass. When I
+    remarked that they were only women, of whom they need not be
+    afraid, they replied that it was not so, that women had an
+    unbounded right to punish men who passed them when bathing
+    without their permission, and could inflict fines or even death.
+    On this account, the women's bathing place is a safe and favorite
+    spot for a secret rendezvous. Fortunately a lady's toilet lasts
+    but a short time in this island." (Carl Semper, _Die
+    Palau-Inseln_, 1873, p. 68.)
+
+    Among the Western Tribes of Torres Strait, Haddon states, "the
+    men were formerly nude, and the women wore only a leaf petticoat,
+    but I gather that they were a decent people; now both sexes are
+    prudish. A man would never go nude before me. The women would
+    never voluntarily expose their breasts to white men's gaze; this
+    applies to quite young girls, less so to old women. Amongst
+    themselves they are, of course, much less particular, but I
+    believe they are becoming more so.... Formerly, I imagine, there
+    was no restraint in speech; now there is a great deal of prudery;
+    for instance, the men were always much ashamed when I asked for
+    the name of the sexual parts of a woman." (A.C. Haddon,
+    "Ethnography of the Western Tribes of Torres Straits," _Journal
+    of the Anthropological Institute_, 1890, p. 336.) After a
+    subsequent expedition to the same region, the author reiterates
+    his observations as to the "ridiculously prudish manner" of the
+    men, attributable to missionary influence during the past thirty
+    years, and notes that even the children are affected by it. "At
+    Mabuiag, some small children were paddling in the water, and a
+    boy of about ten years of age reprimanded a little girl of five
+    or six years because she held up her dress too high." (_Reports
+    of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_,
+    vol. v, p. 272.)
+
+    "Although the women of New Guinea," Vahness says, "are very
+    slightly clothed, they are by no means lacking in a
+    well-developed sense of decorum. If they notice, for instance,
+    that any one is paying special attention to their nakedness, they
+    become ashamed and turn round." When a woman had to climb the
+    fence to enter the wild-pig enclosure, she would never do it in
+    Vahness's presence. (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, Verhdlgen.,
+    1900, Heft 5, p. 415.)
+
+    In Australia "the feeling of decency is decidedly less prevalent
+    among males than females;" the clothed females retire out of
+    sight to bathe. (Curr, _Australian Race_.)
+
+    "Except for waist-bands, forehead-bands, necklets, and armlets,
+    and a conventional pubic tassel, shell, or, in the case of the
+    women, a small apron, the Central Australian native is naked. The
+    pubic tassel is a diminutive structure, about the size of a
+    five-shilling piece, made of a few short strands of fur-strings
+    flattened out into a fan-shape and attached to the pubic hair. As
+    the string, especially at _corrobboree_ times, is covered with
+    white kaolin or gypsum, it serves as a decoration rather than a
+    covering. Among the Arunta and Luritcha the women usually wear
+    nothing, but further north, a small apron is made and worn."
+    (Baldwin Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
+    Australia_, p. 572.)
+
+    Of the Central Australians Stirling says: "No sense of shame of
+    exposure was exhibited by the men on removal of the diminutive
+    articles worn as conventional coverings; they were taken off
+    _coram populo_, and bartered without hesitation. On the other
+    hand, some little persuasion was necessary to allow inspection of
+    the effect of [urethral] sub-incision, assent being given only
+    after dismissal to a distance of the women and young children. As
+    to the women, it was nearly always observed that when in camp
+    without clothing they, especially the younger ones, exhibited by
+    their attitude a keen sense of modesty, if, indeed, a
+    consciousness of their nakedness can be thus considered. When we
+    desired to take a photograph of a group of young women, they were
+    very coy at the proposal to remove their scanty garments, and
+    retired behind a wall to do so; but once in a state of nudity
+    they made no objection to exposure to the camera." (_Report of
+    the Horn Scientific Expedition_, 1896, vol. iv, p. 37.)
+
+    In Northern Queensland "phallocrypts," or "penis-concealers,"
+    only used by the males at _corrobborees_ and other public
+    rejoicings, are either formed of pearl-shell or opossum-string.
+    The _koom-pa-ra_, or opossum-string form of phallocrypt, forms a
+    kind of tassel, and is colored red; it is hung from the
+    waist-belt in the middle line. In both sexes the privates are
+    only covered on special public occasions, or when in close
+    proximity to white settlements. (W. Roth, _Ethnological Studies
+    among the Northwest-Central-Queensland Aborigines_, 1897, pp.
+    114-115.)
+
+    "The principle of chastity," said Forster, of his experiences in
+    the South Sea Islands in their unspoilt state, "we found in many
+    families exceedingly well understood. I have seen many fine women
+    who, with a modesty mixed with politeness, refuse the greatest
+    and most tempting offers made them by our forward youths; often
+    they excuse themselves with a simple _tirra-tano_, 'I am
+    married,' and at other times they smiled and declined it with
+    _epia_, 'no.' ... Virtuous women hear a joke without emotion,
+    which, amongst us, might put some men to the blush. Neither
+    austerity and anger, nor joy and ecstasy is the consequence, but
+    sometimes a modest, dignified, serene smile spreads itself over
+    their face, and seems gently to rebuke the uncouth jester." (J.R.
+    Forster, _Observations made During a Voyage Round the World_,
+    1728, p. 392.)
+
+    Captain Cook, at Tahiti, in 1769, after performing Divine service
+    on Sunday, witnessed "Vespers of a very different kind. A young
+    man, near six feet high, performed the rites of Venus with a
+    little girl about eleven or twelve years of age, before several
+    of our people and a great number of the natives, without the
+    least sense of its being indecent or improper, but, as it
+    appeared, in perfect conformity to the custom of the place. Among
+    the spectators were several women of superior rank, who may
+    properly be said to have assisted at the ceremony; for they gave
+    instructions to the girl how to perform her part, which, young as
+    she was, she did not seem much to stand in need of." (J.
+    Hawkesworth, _Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. i, p.
+    469.)
+
+    At Tahiti, according to Cook, it was customary to "gratify every
+    appetite and passion before witnesses," and it is added, "in the
+    conversation of these people, that which is the principal source
+    of their pleasure is always the principal topic; everything is
+    mentioned without any restraint or emotion, and in the most
+    direct terms, by both sexes." (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol ii, p.
+    45.)
+
+    "I have observed," Captain Cook wrote, "that our friends in the
+    South Seas have not even the idea of indecency, with respect to
+    any object or any action, but this was by no means the case with
+    the inhabitants of New Zealand, in whose carriage and
+    conversation there was as much modest reserve and decorum with
+    respect to actions, which yet in their opinion were not criminal,
+    as are to be found among the politest people in Europe. The women
+    were not impregnable; but the terms and manner of compliance were
+    as decent as those in marriage among us, and according to their
+    notions, the agreement was as innocent. When any of our people
+    made an overture to any of their young women, he was given to
+    understand that the consent of her friends was necessary, and by
+    the influence of a proper present it was generally obtained; but
+    when these preliminaries were settled, it was also necessary to
+    treat the wife for a night with the same delicacy that is here
+    required by the wife for life, and the lover who presumed to take
+    any liberties by which this was violated, was sure to be
+    disappointed." (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 254.)
+
+    Cook found that the people of New Zealand "bring the prepuce over
+    the gland, and to prevent it from being drawn back by contraction
+    of the part, they tie the string which hangs from the girdle
+    round the end of it. The glans, indeed, seemed to be the only
+    part of their body which they were solicitous to conceal, for
+    they frequently threw off all their dress but the belt and
+    string, with the most careless indifference, but showed manifest
+    signs of confusion when, to gratify our curiosity, they were
+    requested to untie the string, and never consented but with the
+    utmost reluctance and shame.... The women's lower garment was
+    always bound fast round them, except when they went into the
+    water to catch lobsters, and then they took great care not to be
+    seen by the men. We surprised several of them at this employment,
+    and the chaste Diana, with her nymphs, could not have discovered
+    more confusion and distress at the sight of Actaeon, than these
+    women expressed upon our approach. Some of them hid themselves
+    among the rocks, and the rest crouched down in the sea till they
+    had made themselves a girdle and apron of such weeds as they
+    could find, and when they came out, even with this veil, we could
+    see that their modesty suffered much pain by our presence."
+    (Hawkesworth, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 257-258.)
+
+    In Rotuma, in Polynesia, where the women enjoy much freedom, but
+    where, at all events in old days, married people were, as a rule,
+    faithful to each other, "the language is not chaste according to
+    our ideas, and there is a great deal of freedom in speaking of
+    immoral vices. In this connection a man and his wife will speak
+    freely to one another before their friends. I am informed,
+    though, by European traders well conversant with the language,
+    that there are grades of language, and that certain coarse
+    phrases would never be used to any decent woman; so that
+    probably, in their way, they have much modesty, only we cannot
+    appreciate it." (J. Stanley Gardiner, "The Natives of Rotuma,"
+    _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, May, 1898, p. 481.)
+
+    The men of Rotuma, says the same writer, are very clean, the
+    women also, bathing twice a day in the sea; but "bathing in
+    public without the _kukuluga_, or _sulu_ [loin-cloth, which is
+    the ordinary dress], around the waist is absolutely unheard of,
+    and would be much looked down upon." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1898, p. 410.)
+
+    In ancient Samoa the only necessary garment for either man or
+    woman was an apron of leaves, but they possessed so "delicate a
+    sense of propriety" that even "while bathing they have a girdle
+    of leaves or some other covering around the waist." (Turner,
+    _Samoa a Hundred Years Ago_, p. 121.)
+
+    After babyhood the Indians of Guiana are never seen naked. When
+    they change their single garment they retire. The women wear a
+    little apron, now generally made of European beads, but the
+    Warraus still make it of the inner bark of a tree, and some of
+    seeds. (Everard im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, 1883.)
+
+    The Mandurucu women of Brazil, according to Tocantins (quoted by
+    Mantegazza), are completely naked, but they are careful to avoid
+    any postures which might be considered indecorous, and they do
+    this so skilfully that it is impossible to tell when they have
+    their menstrual periods. (Mantegazza, _Fisiologia della Donna_,
+    cap 9.)
+
+    The Indians of Central Brazil have no "private parts." In men the
+    little girdle, or string, surrounding the lower part of the
+    abdomen, hides nothing; it is worn after puberty, the penis being
+    often raised and placed beneath it to lengthen the prepuce. The
+    women also use a little strip of bast that goes down the groin
+    and passes between the thighs. Among some tribes (Karibs, Tupis,
+    Nu-Arwaks) a little, triangular, coquettishly-made piece of
+    bark-bast comes just below the mons veneris; it is only a few
+    centimetres in width, and is called the _uluri. In both sexes
+    concealment of the sexual mucous membrane is attained_. These
+    articles cannot be called clothing. "The red thread of the
+    Trumai, the elegant _uluri_, and the variegated flag of the
+    Bororo attract attention, like ornaments, instead of drawing
+    attention away." Von den Steinen thinks this proceeding a
+    necessary protection against the attacks of insects, which are
+    often serious in Brazil. He does think, however, that there is
+    more than this, and that the people are ashamed to show the
+    glans penis. (Karl von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern
+    Zentral-Brasiliens_, 1894, pp. 190 et seq.)
+
+    Other travelers mention that on the Amazon among some tribes the
+    women are clothed and the men naked; among others the women
+    naked, and the men clothed. Thus, among the Guaycurus the men are
+    quite naked, while the women wear a short petticoat; among the
+    Uaupas the men always wear a loin-cloth, while the women are
+    quite naked.
+
+    "The feeling of modesty is very developed among the Fuegians, who
+    are accustomed to live naked. They manifest it in their bearing
+    and in the ease with which they show themselves in a state of
+    nudity, compared with the awkwardness, blushing, and shame which
+    both men and women exhibit if one gazes at certain parts of their
+    bodies. Among themselves this is never done even between husband
+    and wife. There is no Fuegian word for modesty, perhaps because
+    the feeling is universal among them." The women wear a minute
+    triangular garment of skin suspended between the thighs and never
+    removed, being merely raised during conjugal relations. (Hyades
+    and Deniker, _Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn_, vol. vii, pp.
+    239, 307, and 347.)
+
+    Among the Crow Indians of Montana, writes Dr. Holder, who has
+    lived with them for several years, "a sense of modesty forbids
+    the attendance upon the female in labor of any male, white man or
+    Indian, physician or layman. This antipathy to receiving
+    assistance at the hands of the physician is overcome as the
+    tribes progress toward civilization, and it is especially
+    noticeable that half-breeds almost constantly seek the
+    physician's aid." Dr. Holder mentions the case of a young woman
+    who, although brought near the verge of death in a very difficult
+    first confinement, repeatedly refused to allow him to examine
+    her; at last she consented; "her modest preparation was to take
+    bits of quilt and cover thighs and lips of vulva, leaving only
+    the aperture exposed.... Their modesty would not be so striking
+    were it not that, almost to a woman, the females of this tribe
+    are prostitutes, and for a consideration will admit the
+    connection of any man." (A.B. Holder, _American Journal of
+    Obstetrics_, vol. xxv, No. 6, 1892.)
+
+    "In every North American tribe, from the most northern to the
+    most southern, the skirt of the woman is longer than that of the
+    men. In Esquimau land the _parka_ of deerskin and sealskin
+    reaches to the knees. Throughout Central North America the
+    buckskin dress of the women reached quite to the ankles. The
+    West-Coast women, from Oregon to the Gulf of California, wore a
+    petticoat of shredded bark, of plaited grass, or of strings, upon
+    which were strung hundreds of seeds. Even in the most tropical
+    areas the rule was universal, as anyone can see from the codices
+    or in pictures of the natives." (Otis T. Mason, _Woman's Share in
+    Primitive Culture_, p. 237.)
+
+    Describing the loin-cloth worn by Nicobarese men, Man says: "From
+    the clumsy mode in which this garment is worn by the Shom
+    Pen--necessitating frequent readjustment of the folds--one is led
+    to infer that its use is not _de rigueur_, but reserved for
+    special occasions, as when receiving or visiting strangers."
+    (E.H. Man, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1886, p.
+    442.)
+
+    The semi-nude natives of the island of Nias in the Indian Ocean
+    are "modest by nature," paying no attention to their own nudity
+    or that of others, and much scandalized by any attempt to go
+    beyond the limits ordained by custom. When they pass near places
+    where women are bathing they raise their voices in order to warn
+    them of their presence, and even although any bold youth
+    addressed the women, and the latter replied, no attempt would be
+    made to approach them; any such attempt would be severely
+    punished by the head man of the village. (Modigliani, _Un Viaggio
+    a Nias_, p. 460.)
+
+    Man says that the Andamanese in modesty and self-respect compare
+    favorably with many classes among civilized peoples. "Women are
+    so modest that they will not renew their leaf-aprons in the
+    presence of one another, but retire to a secluded spot for this
+    purpose; even when parting with one of their _bod_ appendages
+    [tails of leaves suspended from back of girdle] to a female
+    friend, the delicacy they manifest for the feelings of the
+    bystanders in their mode of removing it amounts to prudishness;
+    yet they wear no clothing in the ordinary sense." (_Journal of
+    the Anthropological Institute_, 1883, pp. 94 and 331.)
+
+    Of the Garo women of Bengal Dalton says: "Their sole garment is a
+    piece of cloth less than a foot in width that just meets around
+    the loins, and in order that it may not restrain the limbs it is
+    only fastened where it meets under the hip at the upper corners.
+    The girls are thus greatly restricted in the positions they may
+    modestly assume, but decorum is, in their opinion, sufficiently
+    preserved if they only keep their legs well together when they
+    sit or kneel." (E.T. Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, 1872, p. 66.)
+
+    Of the Naga women of Assam it is said: "Of clothing there was not
+    much to see; but in spite of this I doubt whether we could excel
+    them in true decency and modesty. Ibn Muhammed Wali had already
+    remarked in his history of the conquest of Assam (1662-63), that
+    the Naga women only cover their breasts. They declare that it is
+    absurd to cover those parts of the body which everyone has been
+    able to see from their births, but that it is different with the
+    breasts, which appeared later, and are, therefore, to be covered.
+    Dalton (_Journal of the Asiatic Society_, Bengal, 41, 1, 84) adds
+    that in the presence of strangers Naga women simply cross their
+    arms over their breasts, without caring much what other charms
+    they may reveal to the observer. As regards some clans of the
+    naked Nagas, to whom the Banpara belong, this may still hold
+    good." (K. Klemm, "Peal's Ausflug nach Banpara," _Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 5, p. 334.)
+
+    "In Ceylon, a woman always bathes in public streams, but she
+    never removes all her clothes. She washes under the cloth, bit by
+    bit, and then slips on the dry, new cloth, and pulls out the wet
+    one from underneath (much in the same sliding way as servant
+    girls and young women in England). This is the common custom in
+    India and the Malay States. The breasts are always bare in their
+    own houses, but in the public roads are covered whenever a
+    European passes. The vulva is never exposed. They say that a
+    devil, imagined as a white and hairy being, might have
+    intercourse with them." (Private communication.)
+
+    In Borneo, "the _sirat_, called _chawal_ by the Malays, is a
+    strip of cloth a yard wide, worn round the loins and in between
+    the thighs, so as to cover the pudenda and perinaeum; it is
+    generally six yards or so in length, but the younger men of the
+    present generation use as much as twelve or fourteen yards
+    (sometimes even more), which they twist and coil with great
+    precision round and round their body, until the waist and stomach
+    are fully enveloped in its folds." (H. Ling Roth, "Low's Natives
+    of Borneo," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1892, p.
+    36.)
+
+    "In their own houses in the depths of the forest the Dwarfs are
+    said to neglect coverings for decency in the men as in the women,
+    but certainly when they emerge from the forest into the villages
+    of the agricultural Negroes, they are always observed to be
+    wearing some small piece of bark-cloth or skin, or a bunch of
+    leaves over the pudenda. Elsewhere in all the regions of Africa
+    visited by the writer, or described by other observers, a neglect
+    of decency in the male has only been recorded among the Efik
+    people of Old Calabar. The nudity of women is another question.
+    In parts of West Africa, between the Niger and the Gaboon
+    (especially on the Cameroon River, at Old Calabar, and in the
+    Niger Delta), it is, or was, customary for young women to go
+    about completely nude before they were married. In Swaziland,
+    until quite recently, unmarried women and very often matrons went
+    stark naked. Even amongst the prudish Baganda, who made it a
+    punishable offense for a man to expose any part of his leg above
+    the knee, the wives of the King would attend at his Court
+    perfectly naked. Among the Kavirondo, all unmarried girls are
+    completely nude, and although women who have become mothers are
+    supposed to wear a tiny covering before and behind, they very
+    often completely neglect to do so when in their own villages.
+    Yet, as a general rule, among the Nile Negroes, and still more
+    markedly among the Hamites and people of Masai stock, the women
+    are particular about concealing the pudenda, whereas the men are
+    ostentatiously naked. The Baganda hold nudity in the male to be
+    such an abhorrent thing that for centuries they have referred
+    with scorn and disgust to the Nile Negroes as the 'naked people.'
+    Male nudity extends northwest to within some 200 miles of
+    Khartum, or, in fact, wherever the Nile Negroes of the
+    Dinka-Acholi stock inhabit the country." (Sir H.H. Johnston,
+    _Uganda Protectorate_, vol. ii, pp. 669-672.)
+
+    Among the Nilotic Ja-luo, Johnston states that "unmarried men go
+    naked. Married men who have children wear a small piece of goat
+    skin, which, though quite inadequate for purposes of decency, is,
+    nevertheless, a very important thing in etiquette, for a married
+    man with a child must on no account call on his mother-in-law
+    without wearing this piece of goat's skin. To call on her in a
+    state of absolute nudity would be regarded as a serious insult,
+    only to be atoned for by the payment of goats. Even if under the
+    new dispensation he wears European trousers, he must have a piece
+    of goat's skin underneath. Married women wear a tail of strings
+    behind." It is very bad manners for a woman to serve food to her
+    husband without putting on this tail. (Sir H.H. Johnston, _Uganda
+    Protectorate_, vol. ii, p. 781.)
+
+    Mrs. French-Sheldon remarks that the Masai and other East African
+    tribes, with regard to menstruation, "observe the greatest
+    delicacy, and are more than modest." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1894, p. 383.)
+
+    At the same time the Masai, among whom the penis is of enormous
+    size, consider it disreputable to conceal that member, and in the
+    highest degree reputable to display it, even ostentatiously. (Sir
+    H.H. Johnston, _Kilima-njaro Expedition_, p. 413.)
+
+    Among the African Dinka, who are scrupulously clean and delicate
+    (smearing themselves with burnt cows' dung, and washing
+    themselves daily with cows' urine), and are exquisite cooks,
+    reaching in many respects a higher stage of civilization, in
+    Schweinfurth's opinion, than is elsewhere attained in Africa,
+    only the women wear aprons. The neighboring tribes of the red
+    soil--Bongo, Mittoo, Niam-Niam, etc.--are called "women" by the
+    Dinka, because among these tribes the men wear an apron, while
+    the women obstinately refuse to wear any clothes whatsoever of
+    skin or stuff, going into the woods every day, however, to get a
+    supple bough for a girdle, with, perhaps, a bundle of fine grass.
+    (Schweinfurth, _Heart of Africa_, vol. i, pp. 152, etc.)
+
+    Lombroso and Carrara, examining some Dinka negroes brought from
+    the White Nile, remark: "As to their psychology, what struck us
+    first was the exaggeration of their modesty; not in a single case
+    would the men allow us to examine their genital organs or the
+    women their breasts; we examined the tattoo-marks on the chest of
+    one of the women, and she remained sad and irritable for two days
+    afterward." They add that in sexual and all other respects these
+    people are highly moral. (Lombroso and Carrara, _Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1896, vol. xvii, fasc. 4.)
+
+    "The negro is very rarely knowingly indecent or addicted to
+    lubricity," says Sir H.H. Johnston. "In this land of nudity,
+    which I have known for seven years, I do not remember once having
+    seen an indecent gesture on the part of either man or woman, and
+    only very rarely (and that not among unspoiled savages) in the
+    case of that most shameless member of the community--the little
+    boy." He adds that the native dances are only an apparent
+    exception, being serious in character, though indecent to our
+    eyes, almost constituting a religious ceremony. The only really
+    indecent dance indigenous to Central Africa "is one which
+    originally represented the act of coition, but it is so altered
+    to a stereotyped formula that its exact purport is not obvious
+    until explained somewhat shyly by the natives.... It may safely
+    be asserted that the negro race in Central Africa is much more
+    truly modest, is much more free from real vice, than are most
+    European nations. Neither boys nor girls wear clothing (unless
+    they are the children of chiefs) until nearing the age of
+    puberty. Among the Wankonda, practically no covering is worn by
+    the men except a ring of brass wire around the stomach. The
+    Wankonda women are likewise almost entirely naked, but generally
+    cover the pudenda with a tiny bead-work apron, often a piece of
+    very beautiful workmanship, and exactly resembling the same
+    article worn by Kaffir women. A like degree of nudity prevails
+    among many of the Awemba, among the A-lungu, the Batumbuka, and
+    the Angoni. Most of the Angoni men, however, adopt the Zulu
+    fashion of covering the glans penis with a small wooden case or
+    the outer shell of a fruit. The Wa-Yao have a strong sense of
+    decency in matters of this kind, which is the more curious since
+    they are more given to obscenity in their rites, ceremonies, and
+    dances than any other tribe. Not only is it extremely rare to see
+    any Yao uncovered, but both men and women have the strongest
+    dislike to exposing their persons even to the inspection of a
+    doctor. The Atonga and many of the A-nyanga people, and all the
+    tribes west of Nyassa (with the exception possibly of the
+    A-lunda) have not the Yao regard for decency, and, although they
+    can seldom or ever be accused of a deliberate intention to expose
+    themselves, the men are relatively indifferent as to whether
+    their nakedness is or is not concealed, though the women are
+    modest and careful in this respect." (H.H. Johnston, _British
+    Central Africa_, 1897, pp. 408-419.)
+
+    In Azimba land, Central Africa, H. Crawford Angus, who has spent
+    many years in this part of Africa, writes: "It has been my
+    experience that the more naked the people, and the more to us
+    obscene and shameless their manners and customs, the more moral
+    and strict they are in the matter of sexual intercourse." He
+    proceeds to give a description of the _chensamwali_, or
+    initiation ceremony of girls at puberty, a season of rejoicing
+    when the girl is initiated into all the secrets of marriage, amid
+    songs and dances referring to the act of coition. "The whole
+    matter is looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing
+    to be ashamed of or to hide, and, being thus openly treated of
+    and no secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the
+    women are very virtuous. They know from the first all that is to
+    be known, and cannot see any reason for secrecy concerning
+    natural laws or the powers and senses that have been given them
+    from birth." (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479.)
+
+    Of the Monbuttu of Central Africa, another observer says: "It is
+    surprising how a Monbuttu woman of birth can, without the aid of
+    dress, impress others with her dignity and modesty." (_British
+    Medical Journal_. June 14, 1890.)
+
+    "The women at Upoto wear no clothes whatever, and came up to us
+    in the most unreserved manner. An interesting gradation in the
+    arrangement of the female costume has been observed by us: as we
+    ascended the Congo, the higher up the river we found ourselves,
+    the higher the dress reached, till it has now, at last,
+    culminated in absolute nudity." (T.H. Parke, _My Personal
+    Experiences in Equatorial Africa_, 1891, p. 61.)
+
+    "There exists throughout the Congo population a marked
+    appreciation of the sentiment of decency and shame as applied to
+    private actions," says Mr. Herbert Ward. In explanation of the
+    nudity of the women at Upoto, a chief remarked to Ward that
+    "concealment is food for the inquisitive." (_Journal of the
+    Anthropological Institute_, 1895, p. 293.)
+
+    In the Gold Coast and surrounding countries complete nudity is
+    extremely rare, except when circumstances make it desirable; on
+    occasion clothing is abandoned with unconcern. "I have on several
+    occasions," says Dr. Freeman, "seen women at Accra walk from the
+    beach, where they have been bathing, across the road to their
+    houses, where they would proceed to dry themselves, and resume
+    their garments; and women may not infrequently be seen bathing in
+    pools by the wayside, conversing quite unconstrainedly with their
+    male acquaintances, who are seated on the bank. The mere
+    unclothed body conveys to their minds no idea of indecency.
+    Immodesty and indelicacy of manner are practically unknown." He
+    adds that the excessive zeal of missionaries in urging their
+    converts to adopt European dress--which they are only too ready
+    to do--is much to be regretted, since the close-fitting, thin
+    garments are really less modest than the loose clothes they
+    replace, besides being much less cleanly. (R.A. Freeman, _Travels
+    and Life in Ashanti and Jaman_, 1898, p. 379.)
+
+    At Loango, says Pechuel-Loesche, "the well-bred negress likes to
+    cover her bosom, and is sensitive to critical male eyes; if she
+    meets a European when without her overgarment, she instinctively,
+    though not without coquetry, takes the attitude of the Medicean
+    Venus." Men and women bathe separately, and hide themselves from
+    each other when naked. The women also exhibit shame when
+    discovered suckling their babies. (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_,
+    1878, pp. 27-31.)
+
+    The Koran (Sura XXIV) forbids showing the pudenda, as well as the
+    face, yet a veiled Mohammedan woman, Stern remarks, even in the
+    streets of Constantinople, will stand still and pull up her
+    clothes to scratch her private parts, and in Beyrout, he saw
+    Turkish prostitutes, still veiled, place themselves in the
+    position for coitus. (B. Stern, _Medizin, etc., in der Tuerkei_,
+    vol. ii, p. 162.)
+
+    "An Englishman surprised a woman while bathing in the Euphrates;
+    she held her hands over her face, without troubling as to what
+    else the stranger might see. In Egypt, I have myself seen quite
+    naked young peasant girls, who hastened to see us, after covering
+    their faces." (C. Niebuhr, _Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien_,
+    1774, vol. i, p. 165.)
+
+    When Helfer was taken to visit the ladies in the palace of the
+    Imam of Muskat, at Buscheir, he found that their faces were
+    covered with black masks, though the rest of the body might be
+    clothed in a transparent sort of crape; to look at a naked face
+    was very painful to the ladies themselves; even a mother never
+    lifts the mask from the face of her daughter after the age of
+    twelve; that is reserved for her lord and husband. "I observed
+    that the ladies looked at me with a certain confusion, and after
+    they had glanced into my face, lowered their eyes, ashamed. On
+    making inquiries, I found that my uncovered face was indecent, as
+    a naked person would be to us. They begged me to assume a mask,
+    and when a waiting-woman had bound a splendidly decorated one
+    round my head, they all exclaimed: 'Tahip! tahip!'--beautiful,
+    beautiful." (J.W. Helfer, _Reisen in Vorderasian und Indien_,
+    vol. ii, p. 12.)
+
+    In Algeria--in the provinces of Constantine, in Biskra, even
+    Aures,--"among the women especially, not one is restrained by any
+    modesty in unfastening her girdle to any comer" (when a search
+    was being made for tattoo-marks on the lower extremities). "In
+    spite of the great licentiousness of the manners," the same
+    writer continues, "the Arab and the Kabyle possess great personal
+    modesty, and with difficulty are persuaded to exhibit the body
+    nude; is it the result of real modesty, or of their inveterate
+    habits of active pederasty? Whatever the cause, they always hide
+    the sexual organs with their hands or their handkerchiefs, and
+    are disagreeably affected even by the slightest touch of the
+    doctor." (Batut, _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, January
+    15, 1893.)
+
+    "Moslem modesty," remarks Wellhausen, "was carried to great
+    lengths, insufficient clothing being forbidden. It was marked
+    even among the heathen Arabs, as among Semites and old
+    civilizations generally; we must not be deceived by the
+    occasional examples of immodesty in individual cases. The Sunna
+    prescribes that a man shall not uncover himself even to himself,
+    and shall not wash naked--from fear of God and of spirits; Job
+    did so, and atoned for it heavily. When in Arab antiquity
+    grown-up persons showed themselves naked, it was only under
+    extraordinary circumstances, and to attain unusual ends.... Women
+    when mourning uncovered not only the face and bosom, but also
+    tore all their garments. The messenger who brought bad news tore
+    his garments. A mother desiring to bring pressure to bear on her
+    son took off her clothes. A man to whom vengeance is forbidden
+    showed his despair and disapproval by uncovering his posterior
+    and strewing earth on his head, or by raising his garment behind
+    and covering his head with it. This was done also in fulfilling
+    natural necessities." (Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_,
+    1897, pp. 173, 195-196.)
+
+    Mantegazza mentions that a Lapland woman refused even for the sum
+    of 150 francs to allow him to photograph her naked, though the
+    men placed themselves before the camera in the costume of Adam
+    for a much smaller sum. In the same book Mantegazza remarks that
+    in the eighteenth century, travelers found it extremely difficult
+    to persuade Samoyed women to show themselves naked. Among the
+    same people, he says, the newly-married wife must conceal her
+    face from her husband for two months after marriage, and only
+    then yield to his embraces. (Mantegazza, _La Donna_, cap. IV.)
+
+    "The beauty of a Chinese woman," says Dr. Matignon, "resides
+    largely in her foot. 'A foot which is not deformed is a
+    dishonor,' says a poet. For the husband the foot is more
+    interesting than the face. Only the husband may see his wife's
+    foot naked. A Chinese woman is as reticent in showing her feet to
+    a man as a European woman her breasts. I have often had to treat
+    Chinese women with ridiculously small feet for wounds and
+    excoriations, the result of tight-bandaging. They exhibited the
+    prudishness of school-girls, blushed, turned their backs to
+    unfasten the bandages, and then concealed the foot in a cloth,
+    leaving only the affected part uncovered. Modesty is a question
+    of convention; Chinese have it for their feet," (J. Matignon, "A
+    propos d'un Pied de Chinoise," _Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, 1898, p. 445.)
+
+    Among the Yakuts of Northeast Siberia, "there was a well-known
+    custom according to which a bride should avoid showing herself or
+    her uncovered body to her father-in-law. In ancient times, they
+    say, a bride concealed herself for seven years from her
+    father-in-law, and from the brothers and other masculine
+    relations of her husband.... The men also tried not to meet her,
+    saying, 'The poor child will be ashamed.' If a meeting could not
+    be avoided the young woman put a mask on her face.... Nowadays,
+    the young wives only avoid showing to their male relatives-in-law
+    the uncovered body. Amongst the rich they avoid going about in
+    the presence of these in the chemise alone. In some places, they
+    lay especial emphasis on the fact that it is a shame for young
+    wives to show their uncovered hair and feet to the male relatives
+    of their husbands. On the other side, the male relatives of the
+    husband ought to avoid showing to the young wife the body
+    uncovered above the elbow or the sole of the foot, and they ought
+    to avoid indecent expressions and vulgar vituperations in her
+    presence.... That these observances are not the result of a
+    specially delicate modesty, is proved by the fact that even young
+    girls constantly twist thread upon the naked thigh, unembarrassed
+    by the presence of men who do not belong to the household; nor do
+    they show any embarrassment if a strange man comes upon them when
+    uncovered to the waist. The one thing which they do not like, and
+    at which they show anger, is that such persons look carefully at
+    their uncovered feet.... The former simplicity, with lack of
+    shame in uncovering the body, is disappearing." (Sieroshevski,
+    "The Yakuts," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
+    Jan.-June, 1901, p. 93.)
+
+    "In Japan (Captain ---- tells me), the bathing-place of the women
+    was perfectly open (the shampooing, indeed, was done by a man),
+    and Englishmen were offered no obstacle, nor excited the least
+    repugnance; indeed, girls after their bath would freely pass,
+    sometimes as if holding out their hair for innocent admiration,
+    and this continued until countrymen of ours, by vile laughter and
+    jests, made them guard themselves from insult by secrecy. So
+    corruption spreads, and heathenism is blacker by our contact."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    "Speaking once with a Japanese gentleman, I observed that we
+    considered it an act of indecency for men and women to wash
+    together. He shrugged his shoulders as he answered: 'But these
+    Westerns have such prurient minds!'" (Mitford, _Tales of Old
+    Japan_, 1871.)
+
+    Dr. Carl Davidsohn, who remarks that he had ample opportunity of
+    noting the great beauty of the Japanese women in a national
+    dance, performed naked, points out that the Japanese have no
+    aesthetic sense for the nude. "This was shown at the Jubilee
+    Exposition at Kyoto. Here, among many rooms full of art objects,
+    one was devoted to oil pictures in the European manner. Among
+    these only one represented a nude figure, a Psyche, or Truth. It
+    was the first time such a picture had been seen. Men and women
+    crowded around it. After they had gazed at it for a time, most
+    began to giggle and laugh; some by their air and gestures clearly
+    showed their disgust; all found that it was not aesthetic to paint
+    a naked woman, though in Nature, nakedness was in no way
+    offensive to them. In the middle of the same city, at a fountain
+    reputed to possess special virtues, men and women will stand
+    together naked and let the water run over them." (Carl
+    Davidsohn, "Das Nackte bei den Japanern," _Globus_, 1896, No.
+    16.)
+
+    "It is very difficult to investigate the hairiness of Ainu
+    women," Baelz remarks, "for they possess a really incredible
+    degree of modesty. Even when in summer they bathe--which happens
+    but seldom--they keep their clothes on." He records that he was
+    once asked to examine a girl at the Mission School, in order to
+    advise as regards the treatment of a diseased spine; although she
+    had been at the school for seven years, she declared that "she
+    would rather die than show her back to a man, even though a
+    doctor." (Baelz, "Die Aino," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1901,
+    Heft 2, p. 178.)
+
+    The Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, appear to have been accustomed
+    to cover the foreskin with the _kynodesme_ (a band), or the
+    _fibula_ (a ring), for custom and modesty demanded that the glans
+    should be concealed. Such covering is represented in persons who
+    were compelled to be naked, and is referred to by Celsus as
+    "decori causa." (L. Stieda, "Anatomisch-archaeologische Studien,"
+    _Anatomische Hefte_, Bd. XIX, Heft 2, 1902.)
+
+    "Among the Lydians, and, indeed, among the barbarians generally,
+    it is considered a deep disgrace, even for a man, to be seen
+    naked." (Herodotus, Book I, Chapter X.)
+
+    "The simple dress which is now common was first worn in Sparta,
+    and there, more than anywhere else, the life of the rich was
+    assimilated to that of the people. The Lacedaemonians, too, were
+    the first who, in their athletic exercises, stripped naked and
+    rubbed themselves over with oil. This was not the ancient custom;
+    athletes formerly, even when they were contending at Olympia,
+    wore girdles about their loins [earlier still, the Mycenaeans had
+    always worn a loin-cloth], a practice which lasted until quite
+    lately, and still persists among barbarians, especially those of
+    Asia, where the combatants at boxing and wrestling matches wear
+    girdles." (Thucydides, _History_, Book I, Chapter VI.)
+
+    "The notion of the women exercising naked in the schools with the
+    men ... at the present day would appear truly ridiculous.... Not
+    long since it was thought discreditable and ridiculous among the
+    Greeks, as it is now among most barbarous nations, for men to be
+    seen naked. And when the Cretans first, and after them the
+    Lacedaemonians, began the practice of gymnastic exercises, the
+    wits of the time had it in their power to make sport of those
+    novelties.... As for the man who laughs at the idea of undressed
+    women going through gymnastic exercises, as a means of revealing
+    what is most perfect, his ridicule is but 'unripe fruit plucked
+    from the tree of wisdom.'" (Plato, _Republic_, Book V.)
+
+    According to Plutarch, however, among the Spartans, at all
+    events, nakedness in women was not ridiculous, since the
+    institutes of Lycurgus ordained that at solemn feasts and
+    sacrifices the young women should dance naked and sing, the young
+    men standing around in a circle to see and hear them. Aristotle
+    says that in his time Spartan girls only wore a very slight
+    garment. As described by Pausanias, and as shown by a statue in
+    the Vatican, the ordinary tunic, which was the sole garment worn
+    by women when running, left bare the right shoulder and breast,
+    and only reached to the upper third of the thighs. (M.M. Evans,
+    _Chapters on Greek Dress_, p. 34.)
+
+    Among the Greeks who were inclined to accept the doctrines of
+    Cynicism, it was held that, while shame is not unreasonable, what
+    is good may be done and discussed before all men. There are a
+    number of authorities who say that Crates and Hipparchia
+    consummated their marriage in the presence of many spectators.
+    Lactantius (_Inst._ iii, 15) says that the practice was common,
+    but this Zeller is inclined to doubt. (Zeller, _Socrates and the
+    Socratic Schools_, translated from the Third German Edition,
+    1897.)
+
+    "Among the Tyrrhenians, who carry their luxury to an
+    extraordinary pitch, Timaeus, in his first book, relates that the
+    female servants wait on the men in a state of nudity. And
+    Theopompus, in the forty-third book of his _History_, states that
+    it is a law among the Tyrrhenians that all their women should be
+    in common; and that the women pay the greatest attention to their
+    persons, and often practice gymnastic exercises, naked, among the
+    men, and sometimes with one another; for that it is not accounted
+    shameful for them to be seen naked.... Nor is it reckoned among
+    the Tyrrhenians at all disgraceful either to do or suffer
+    anything in the open air, or to be seen while it is going on; for
+    it is quite the custom of their country, and they are so far from
+    thinking it disgraceful that they even say, when the master of
+    the house is indulging his appetite, and anyone asks for him,
+    that he is doing so and so, using the coarsest possible words....
+    And they are very beautiful, as is natural for people to be who
+    live delicately, and who take care of their persons." (Athenaeus,
+    _Deipnosophists_, Yonge's translation, vol. iii, p. 829.)
+
+    Dennis throws doubt on the foregoing statement of Athenaeus
+    regarding the Tyrrhenians or Etruscans, and points out that the
+    representations of women in Etruscan tombs shows them as clothed,
+    even the breast being rarely uncovered. Nudity, he remarks, was a
+    Greek, not an Etruscan, characteristic. "To the nudity of the
+    Spartan women I need but refer; the Thessalian women are
+    described by Persaeus dancing at banquets naked, or with a very
+    scanty covering (_apud_ Athenaeus, xiii, c. 86). The maidens of
+    Chios wrestled naked with the youths in the gymnasium, which
+    Athenaeus (xiii, 20) pronounces to be 'a beautiful sight.' And at
+    the marriage feast of Caranus, the Macedonian women tumblers
+    performed naked before the guests (Athenaeus, iv, 3)." (G. Dennis,
+    _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, 1883, vol. i, p. 321.)
+
+    In Rome, "when there was at first much less freedom in this
+    matter than in Greece, the bath became common to both sexes, and
+    though each had its basin and hot room apart, they could see each
+    other, meet, speak, form intrigues, arrange meetings, and
+    multiply adulteries. At first, the baths were so dark that men
+    and women could wash side by side, without recognizing each other
+    except by the voice; but soon the light of day was allowed to
+    enter from every side. 'In the bath of Scipio,' said Seneca,
+    'there were narrow ventholes, rather than windows, hardly
+    admitting enough light to outrage modesty; but nowadays, baths
+    are called caves if they do not receive the sun's rays through
+    large windows.' ... Hadrian severely prohibited this mingling of
+    men and women, and ordained separate lavaera for the sexes.
+    Marcus Aurelius and Alexander Severus renewed this edict, but in
+    the interval, Heliogabalus had authorized the sexes to meet in
+    the baths." (Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. ii, Ch.
+    XVIII; cf. Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,
+    Art. Balneae.)
+
+    In Rome, according to ancient custom, actors were compelled to
+    wear drawers (_subligaculum_) on the stage, in order to safeguard
+    the modesty of Roman matrons. Respectable women, it seems, also
+    always wore some sort of _subligaculum_, even sometimes when
+    bathing. The name was also applied to a leathern girdle laced
+    behind, which they were occasionally made to wear as a girdle of
+    chastity. (Dufour, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 150.) Greek women also
+    wore a cloth round the loins when taking the bath, as did the men
+    who bathed there; and a woman is represented bathing and wearing
+    a sort of thin combinations reaching to the middle of the thigh.
+    (Smith's _Dictionary_, loc. cit.) At a later period, St.
+    Augustine refers to the _compestria_, the drawers or apron worn
+    by young men who stripped for exercise in the _campus_. (_De
+    Civitate Dei_, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII.)
+
+    Lecky (_History of Morals_, vol. ii, p. 318), brings together
+    instances of women, in both Pagan and early Christian times, who
+    showed their modesty by drawing their garments around them, even
+    at the moment that they were being brutally killed. Plutarch, in
+    his essay on the "Virtues of Women,"--moralizing on the
+    well-known story of the young women of Milesia, among whom an
+    epidemic of suicide was only brought to an end by the decree that
+    in future women who hanged themselves should be carried naked
+    through the market-places,--observes: "They, who had no dread of
+    the most terrible things in the world, death and pain, could not
+    abide the imagination of dishonor, and exposure to shame, even
+    after death."
+
+    In the second century the physician Aretaeus, writing at Rome,
+    remarks: "In many cases, owing to involuntary restraint from
+    modesty at assemblies, and at banquets, the bladder becomes
+    distended, and from the consequent loss of its contractile power,
+    it no longer evacuates the urine." (_On the Causes and Symptoms
+    of Acute Diseases_, Book II, Chapter X.)
+
+    Apuleius, writing in the second century, says: "Most women, in
+    order to exhibit their native gracefulness and allurements,
+    divest themselves of all their garments, and long to show their
+    naked beauty, being conscious that they shall please more by the
+    rosy redness of their skin than by the golden splendor of their
+    robes." (Thomas Taylor's translation of _Metamorphosis_, p. 28.)
+
+    Christianity seems to have profoundly affected habits of thought
+    and feeling by uniting together the merely natural emotion of
+    sexual reserve with, on the one hand, the masculine virtue of
+    modesty--_modestia_--and, on the other, the prescription of
+    sexual abstinence. Tertullian admirably illustrates this
+    confusion, and his treatises _De Pudicitia_ and _De Cultu
+    Feminarum_ are instructive from the present point of view. In the
+    latter he remarks (Book II, Chapter I): "Salvation--and not of
+    women only, but likewise of men--consists in the exhibition,
+    principally, of modesty. Since we are all the temple of God,
+    modesty is the sacristan and priestess of that temple, who is to
+    suffer nothing unclean or profane to enter it, for fear that the
+    God who inhabits it should be offended.... Most women, either
+    from simple ignorance or from dissimulation, have the hardihood
+    so to walk as if modesty consisted only in the integrity of the
+    flesh, and in turning away from fornication, and there were no
+    need for anything else,--in dress and ornament, the studied
+    graces of form,--wearing in their gait the self-same appearance
+    as the women of the nations from whom the sense of _true_ modesty
+    is absent."
+
+    The earliest Christian ideal of modesty, not long maintained, is
+    well shown in an epistle which, there is some reason to suppose,
+    was written by Clement of Rome. "And if we see it to be requisite
+    to stand and pray for the sake of the woman, and to speak words
+    of exhortation and edification, we call the brethren and all the
+    holy sisters and maidens, likewise all the other women who are
+    there, with all modesty and becoming behavior, to come and feast
+    on the truth. And those among us who are skilled in speaking,
+    speak to them, and exhort them in those words which God has given
+    us. And then we pray, and salute one another, the men the men.
+    But the women and the maidens will wrap their hands in their
+    garments; we also, with circumspection and with all purity, our
+    eyes looking upward, shall wrap our right hand in our garments;
+    and then they will come and give us the salutation on our right
+    hand, wrapped in our garments. Then we go where God permits us."
+    (_Two Epistles Concerning Virginity_; Second Epistle, Chapter
+    III, vol. xiv. Ante-Nicene Christian Library, p. 384.)
+
+    "Women will scarce strip naked before their own husbands,
+    affecting a plausible pretense of modesty," writes Clement of
+    Alexandria, about the end of the second century, "but any others
+    who wish may see them at home, shut up in their own baths, for
+    they are not ashamed to strip before spectators, as if exposing
+    their persons for sale. The baths are opened promiscuously to men
+    and women; and there they strip for licentious indulgence (for,
+    from looking, men get to loving), as if their modesty had been
+    washed away in the bath. Those who have not become utterly
+    destitute of modesty shut out strangers, but bathe with their own
+    servants, and strip naked before their slaves, and are rubbed by
+    them, giving to the crouching menial liberty to lust, by
+    permitting fearless handling, for those who are introduced before
+    their naked mistresses while in the bath, study to strip
+    themselves in order to show audacity in lust, casting off fear in
+    consequence of the wicked custom. The ancient athletes, ashamed
+    to exhibit a man naked, preserved their modesty by going through
+    the contest in drawers; but these women, divesting themselves of
+    their modesty along with their chemise, wish to appear beautiful,
+    but, contrary to their wish, are simply proved to be wicked."
+    (Clement of Alexandria, _Paedagogus_, Book III, Chapter V. For
+    elucidations of this passage, see Migne's _Patrologiae Cursus
+    Completus_, vol. vii.) Promiscuous bathing was forbidden by the
+    early Apostolical Constitutions, but Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage,
+    found it necessary, in the third century, to upbraid even virgins
+    vowed to chastity for continuing the custom. "What of those," he
+    asks, "who frequent baths, who prostitute to eyes that are
+    curious to lust, bodies that are dedicated to chastity and
+    modesty? They who disgracefully behold naked men, and are seen
+    naked by men? Do they not themselves afford enticement to vice?
+    Do they not solicit and invite the desires of those present to
+    their own corruption and wrong? 'Let every one,' say you, 'look
+    to the disposition with which he comes thither: my care is only
+    that of refreshing and washing my poor body.' That kind of
+    defence does not clear you, nor does it excuse the crime of
+    lasciviousness and wantonness. Such a washing defiles; it does
+    not purify nor cleanse the limbs, but stains them. You behold no
+    one immodestly, but you, yourself, are gazed upon immodestly; you
+    do not pollute your eyes with disgraceful delight, but in
+    delighting others you yourself are polluted; you make a show of
+    the bathing-place; the places where you assemble are fouler than
+    a theatre. There all modesty is put off; together with the
+    clothing of garments, the honor and modesty of the body is laid
+    aside, virginity is exposed, to be pointed at and to be
+    handled.... Let your baths be performed with women, whose
+    behavior is modest towards you." (Cyprian, _De Habitu Virginum_,
+    cap. 19, 21.) The Church carried the same spirit among the
+    barbarians of northern Europe, and several centuries later the
+    promiscuous bathing of men and women was prohibited in some of
+    the Penitentials. (The custom was, however, preserved here and
+    there in Northern Europe, even to the end of the eighteenth
+    century, or later. In Rudeck's _Geschichte der oeffentlichen
+    Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_, an interesting chapter, with
+    contemporary illustrations, is devoted to this custom; also, Max
+    Bauer, _Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen Vergangenheit_, pp.
+    216-265.)
+
+    "Women," says Clement again, "should not seek to be graceful by
+    avoiding broad drinking vessels that oblige them to stretch their
+    mouths, in order to drink from narrow alabastra that cause them
+    indecently to throw back the head, revealing to men their necks
+    and breasts. The mere thought of what she is ought to inspire a
+    woman with modesty.... On no account must a woman be permitted to
+    show to a man any portion of her body naked, for fear lest both
+    fall: the one by gazing eagerly, the other by delighting to
+    attract those eager glances." (_Paedagogus_, Book II, Chapter V.)
+
+    James, Bishop of Nisibis, in the fourth century, was a man of
+    great holiness. We are told by Thedoret that once, when James had
+    newly come into Persia, it was vouchsafed to him to perform a
+    miracle under the following circumstances: He chanced to pass by
+    a fountain where young women were washing their linen, and, his
+    modesty being profoundly shocked by the exposure involved in this
+    occupation, he cursed the fountain, which instantly dried up, and
+    he changed the hair of the girls from black to a sandy color.
+    (Jortin, _Remarks on Ecclesiastical History_, vol. iii, p. 4.)
+
+    Procopius, writing in the sixth century after Christ, and
+    narrating how the Empress Theodora, in early life, would often
+    appear almost naked before the public in the theatre, adds that
+    she would willingly have appeared altogether nude, but that "no
+    woman is allowed to expose herself altogether, unless she wears
+    at least short drawers over the lower part of the abdomen."
+    Chrysostom mentions, at the end of the fourth century, that
+    Arcadius attempted to put down the August festival (Majuma),
+    during which women appeared naked in the theatres, or swimming in
+    large baths.
+
+    In mediaeval days, "ladies, at all events, as represented by the
+    poets, were not, on the whole, very prudish. Meleranz surprised a
+    lady who was taking a bath under a lime tree; the bath was
+    covered with samite, and by it was a magnificent ivory bed,
+    surrounded by tapestries representing the history of Paris and
+    Helen, the destruction of Troy, the adventures of AEneas, etc. As
+    Meleranz rides by, the lady's waiting-maids run away; she
+    herself, however, with quick decision, raises the samite which
+    covers the tub, and orders him to wait on her in place of the
+    maids. He brings her shift and mantle, and shoes, and then stands
+    aside till she is dressed; when she has placed herself on the
+    bed, she calls him back and commands him to drive away the flies
+    while she sleeps. Strange to say, the men are represented as more
+    modest than the women. When two maidens prepared a bath for
+    Parzival, and proposed to bathe him, according to custom, the
+    inexperienced young knight was shy, and would not enter the bath
+    until they had gone; on another occasion, he jumped quickly into
+    bed when the maidens entered the room. When Wolfdieterich was
+    about to undress, he had to ask the ladies who pressed around him
+    to leave him alone for a short time, as he was ashamed they
+    should see him naked. When Amphons of Spain, bewitched by his
+    step-mother into a were-wolf, was at last restored, and stood
+    suddenly naked before her, he was greatly ashamed. The maiden who
+    healed Iwein was tender of his modesty. In his love-madness, the
+    hero wanders for a time naked through the wood; three women find
+    him asleep, and send a waiting-maid to annoint him with salve;
+    when he came to himself, the maiden hid herself. On the whole,
+    however, the ladies were not so delicate; they had no hesitation
+    in bathing with gentlemen, and on these occasions would put their
+    finest ornaments on their heads. I know no pictures of the
+    twelfth and thirteenth centuries representing such a scene, but
+    such baths in common are clearly represented in miniatures of the
+    fifteenth century." (A. Schultz, _Das Hoefische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnesaenger_, vol. i, p. 225.)
+
+    "In the years 1450-70, the use of the cod-piece was introduced,
+    whereby the attributes of manhood were accentuated in the most
+    shameless manner. It was, in fact, the avowed aim at that period
+    to attract attention to these parts. The cod-piece was sometimes
+    colored differently from the rest of the garments, often stuffed
+    out to enlarge it artificially, and decorated with ribbons."
+    (Rudeck, _Geschichte der oeffentlichen Sittlichkeit in
+    Deutschland_, pp. 45-48; Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_,
+    vol. vi, pp. 21-23. Groos refers to the significance of this
+    fashion, _Spiele der Menschen_, p. 337.)
+
+    "The first shirt began to be worn [in Germany] in the sixteenth
+    century. From this fact, as well as from the custom of public
+    bathing, we reach the remarkable result, that for the German
+    people, the sight of complete nakedness was the daily rule up to
+    the sixteenth century. Everyone undressed completely before going
+    to bed, and, in the vapor-baths, no covering was used. Again, the
+    dances, both of the peasants and the townspeople, were
+    characterized by very high leaps into the air. It was the chief
+    delight of the dancers for the male to raise his partner as high
+    as possible in the air, so that her dress flew up. That feminine
+    modesty was in this respect very indifferent, we know from
+    countless references made in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+    centuries. It must not be forgotten that throughout the middle
+    ages women wore no underclothes, and even in the seventeenth
+    century, the wearing of drawers by Italian women was regarded as
+    singular. That with the disappearance of the baths, and the use
+    of body-linen, a powerful influence was exerted on the creation
+    of modesty, there can be little doubt." (Rudeck, op. cit., pp.
+    57, 399, etc.)
+
+    In 1461, when Louis XI entered Paris, three very beautiful
+    maidens, quite naked, represented the Syrens, and declaimed poems
+    before him; they were greatly admired by the public. In 1468,
+    when Charles the Bold entered Lille, he was specially pleased,
+    among the various festivities, with a representation of the
+    Judgment of Paris, in which the three goddesses were nude. When
+    Charles the Fifth entered Antwerp, the most beautiful maidens of
+    the city danced before him, in nothing but gauze, and were
+    closely contemplated by Duerer, as he told his friend, Melancthon.
+    (B. Ritter, "Nuditaeten im Mittelalter," _Jahrbuecher fuer
+    Wissenschaft und Kunst_, 1855, p. 227; this writer shows how
+    luxury, fashion, poverty, and certain festivals, all combined to
+    make nudity familiar; cf. Fahne, _Der Carneval_, p. 249. Dulaure
+    quotes many old writers concerning the important part played by
+    nude persons in ancient festivals, _Des Divinites Generatrices_,
+    Chapter XIV.)
+
+    Passek, a Polish officer who wrote an account of his campaigns,
+    admired the ladies of Denmark in 1658, but considered their
+    customs immodest. "Everyone sleeps naked as at birth, and none
+    consider it shameful to dress or undress before others. No
+    notice, even, is taken of the guest, and in the light one garment
+    is taken off after another, even the chemise is hung on the hook.
+    Then the door is bolted, the light blown out, and one goes to
+    bed. As we blamed their ways, saying that among us a woman would
+    not act so, even in the presence of her husband alone, they
+    replied that they knew nothing of such shame, and that there was
+    no need to be ashamed of limbs which God had created. Moreover,
+    to sleep without a shift was good, because, like the other
+    garments, it sufficiently served the body during the day. Also,
+    why take fleas and other insects to bed with one? Although our
+    men teased them in various ways, they would not change their
+    habits." (Passek, _Denkwuerdigkeiten_, German translation, p. 14.)
+
+    Until late in the seventeenth century, women in England, as well
+    as France, suffered much in childbirth from the ignorance and
+    superstition of incompetent midwives, owing to the prevailing
+    conceptions of modesty, which rendered it impossible (as it is
+    still, to some extent, in some semi-civilized lands) for male
+    physicians to attend them. Dr. Willoughby, of Derby, tells how,
+    in 1658, he had to creep into the chamber of a lying-in woman on
+    his hands and knees, in order to examine her unperceived. In
+    France, Clement was employed secretly to attend the mistresses of
+    Louis XIV in their confinements; to the first he was conducted
+    blindfold, while the King was concealed among the bed-curtains,
+    and the face of the lady was enveloped in a network of lace. (E.
+    Malins, "Midwifery and Midwives," _British Medical Journal_, June
+    22, 1901; Witkowski, _Histoire des Accouchements_, 1887, pp. 689
+    et seq.) Even until the Revolution, the examination of women in
+    France in cases of rape or attempted outrage was left to a jury
+    of matrons. In old English manuals of midwifery, even in the
+    early nineteenth century, we still find much insistence on the
+    demands of modesty. Thus, Dr. John Burns, of Glasgow, in his
+    _Principles of Midwifery_, states that "some women, from motives
+    of false delicacy, are averse from examination until the pains
+    become severe." He adds that "it is usual for the room to be
+    darkened, and the bed-curtains drawn close, during an
+    examination." Many old pictures show the accoucheur groping in
+    the dark, beneath the bed-clothes, to perform operations on women
+    in childbirth. (A. Kind, "Das Weib als Gebaererin in der Kunst,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5, p. 203.)
+
+    In Iceland, Winkler stated in 1861 that he sometimes slept in the
+    same room as a whole family; "it is often the custom for ten or
+    more persons to use the same room for living in and sleeping,
+    young and old, master and servant, male and female, and from
+    motives of economy, all the clothes, without exception, are
+    removed." (G. Winkler, _Island; seine Bewohner_, etc., pp. 107,
+    110.)
+
+    "At Cork," saye Fynes Moryson, in 1617, "I have seen with these
+    eyes young maids stark naked grinding corn with certain stones to
+    make cakes thereof." (Moryson, _Itinerary_, Part 3, Book III,
+    Chapter V.)
+
+    "In the more remote parts of Ireland," Moryson elsewhere says,
+    where the English laws and manners are unknown, "the very chief
+    of the Irish, men as well as women, go naked in very winter-time,
+    only having their privy parts covered with a rag of linen, and
+    their bodies with a loose mantle. This I speak of my own
+    experience." He goes on to tell of a Bohemian baron, just come
+    from the North of Ireland, who "told me in great earnestness that
+    he, coming to the house of Ocane, a great lord among them, was
+    met at the door with sixteen women, all naked, excepting their
+    loose mantles; whereof eight or ten were very fair, and two
+    seemed very nymphs, with which strange sight, his eyes being
+    dazzled, they led him into the house, and then sitting down by
+    the fire with crossed legs, like tailors, and so low as could not
+    but offend chaste eyes, desired him to sit down with them. Soon
+    after, Ocane, the lord of the country, came in, all naked
+    excepting a loose mantle, and shoes, which he put off as soon as
+    he came in, and entertaining the baron after his best manner in
+    the Latin tongue, desired him to put off his apparel, which he
+    thought to be a burthen to him, and to sit naked by the fire with
+    this naked company. But the baron... for shame, durst not put off
+    his apparel." (Ib. Part 3, Book IV, Chapter II.)
+
+    Coryat, when traveling in Italy in the early part of the
+    seventeenth century, found that in Lombardy many of the women
+    and children wore only smocks, or shirts, in the hot weather. At
+    Venice and Padua, he found that wives, widows, and maids, walk
+    with naked breasts, many with backs also naked, almost to the
+    middle. (Coryat, _Crudities_, 1611. The fashion of _decollete_
+    garments, it may be remarked, only began in the fourteenth
+    century; previously, the women of Europe generally covered
+    themselves up to the neck.)
+
+    In Northern Italy, some years ago, a fire occurred at night in a
+    house in which two girls were sleeping, naked, according to the
+    custom. One threw herself out and was saved, the other returned
+    for a garment, and was burnt to death. The narrator of the
+    incident [a man] expressed strong approval of the more modest
+    girl's action. (Private communication.) It may be added that the
+    custom of sleeping naked is still preserved, also (according to
+    Lippert and Stratz), in Jutland, in Iceland, in some parts of
+    Norway, and sometimes even in Berlin.
+
+    Lady Mary Wortley Montague writes in 1717, of the Turkish ladies
+    at the baths at Sophia: "The first sofas were covered with
+    cushions and rich carpets, on which sat the ladies, and on the
+    second, their slaves behind them, but without any distinction of
+    rank in their dress, all being in a state of Nature; that is, in
+    plain English, stark naked, without any beauty or defect
+    concealed. Yet there was not the least wanton smile or immodest
+    gesture among them. They walked and moved with the same majestic
+    grace which Milton describes of our general mother. I am here
+    convinced of the truth of a reflection I had often made, that if
+    it was the fashion to go naked, the face would be hardly
+    observed." (_Letters and Works_, 1866, vol. i, p. 285.)
+
+    At St. Petersburg, in 1774, Sir Nicholas Wraxall observed "the
+    promiscuous bathing of not less than two hundred persons, of both
+    sexes. There are several of these public bagnios," he adds, "in
+    Petersburg, and every one pays a few copecks for admittance.
+    There are, indeed, separate spaces for the men and women, but
+    they seem quite regardless of this distinction, and sit or bathe
+    in a state of absolute nudity among each other." (Sir N. Wraxall,
+    _A Tour Through Some of the Northern Parts of Europe_, 3d ed.,
+    1776, p. 248.) It is still usual for women in the country parts
+    of Russia to bathe naked in the streams.
+
+    In 1790, Wedgwood wrote to Flaxman: "The nude is so general in
+    the work of the ancients, that it will be very difficult to avoid
+    the introduction of naked figures. On the other hand, it is
+    absolutely necessary to do so, or to keep the pieces for our own
+    use; for none, either male or female, of the present generation
+    will take or apply them as furniture if the figures are naked."
+    (Meteyard, _Life of Wedgwood_, vol. ii, p. 589.)
+
+    Mary Wollstonecraft quotes (for reprobation and not for
+    approval) the following remarks: "The lady who asked the
+    question whether women may be instructed in the modern system of
+    botany, was accused of ridiculous prudery; nevertheless, if she
+    had proposed the question to me, I should certainly have
+    answered: 'They cannot!'" She further quotes from an educational
+    book: "It would be needless to caution you against putting your
+    hand, by chance, under your neck-handkerchief; for a modest woman
+    never did so." (Mary Wollstonecraft, _The Rights of Woman_, 1792,
+    pp. 277, 289.)
+
+    At the present time a knowledge of the physiology of plants is
+    not usually considered inconsistent with modesty, but a knowledge
+    of animal physiology is still so considered by many. Dr. H.R.
+    Hopkins, of New York, wrote in 1895, regarding the teaching of
+    physiology: "How can we teach growing girls the functions of the
+    various parts of the human body, and still leave them their
+    modesty? That is the practical question that has puzzled me for
+    years."
+
+    In England, the use of drawers was almost unknown among women
+    half a century ago, and was considered immodest and unfeminine.
+    Tilt, a distinguished gynecologist of that period, advocated such
+    garments, made of fine calico, and not to descend below the knee,
+    on hygienic grounds. "Thus understood," he added, "the adoption
+    of drawers will doubtless become more general in this country,
+    as, being worn without the knowledge of the general observer,
+    they will be robbed of the prejudice usually attached to an
+    appendage deemed masculine." (Tilt, _Elements of Health_, 1852,
+    p. 193.) Drawers came into general use among women during the
+    third quarter of the nineteenth century.
+
+    Drawers are an Oriental garment, and seem to have reached Europe
+    through Venice, the great channel of communication with the East.
+    Like many other refinements of decency and cleanliness, they were
+    at first chiefly cultivated by prostitutes, and, on this account,
+    there was long a prejudice against them. Even at the present day,
+    it is said that in France, a young peasant girl will exclaim, if
+    asked whether she wears drawers: "I wear drawers, Madame? A
+    respectable girl!" Drawers, however, quickly became acclimatized
+    in France, and Dufour (op. cit., vol. vi, p. 28) even regards
+    them as essentially a French garment. They were introduced at the
+    Court towards the end of the fourteenth century, and in the
+    sixteenth century were rendered almost necessary by the new
+    fashion of the _vertugale_, or farthingale. In 1615, a lady's
+    _calecons_ are referred to as apparently an ordinary garment. It
+    is noteworthy that in London, in the middle of the same century,
+    young Mrs. Pepys, who was the daughter of French parents, usually
+    wore drawers, which were seemingly of the closed kind. (_Diary_
+    of S. Pepys, ed. Wheatley, May 15, 1663, vol. iii.) They were
+    probably not worn by Englishwomen, and even in France, with the
+    decay of the farthingale, they seem to have dropped out of use
+    during the seventeenth century. In a technical and very complete
+    book, _L'Art de la Lingerie_, published in 1771, women's drawers
+    are not even mentioned, and Mercier (_Tableau de Paris_, 1783,
+    vol. vii, p. 54) says that, except actresses, Parisian women do
+    not wear drawers. Even by ballet dancers and actresses on the
+    stage, they were not invariably worn. Camargo, the famous dancer,
+    who first shortened the skirt in dancing, early in the eighteenth
+    century, always observed great decorum, never showing the leg
+    above the knee; when appealed to as to whether she wore drawers,
+    she replied that she could not possibly appear without such a
+    "precaution." But they were not necessarily worn by dancers, and
+    in 1727 a young _ballerina_, having had her skirt accidentally
+    torn away by a piece of stage machinery, the police issued an
+    order that in future no actress or dancer should appear on the
+    stage without drawers; this regulation does not appear, however,
+    to have been long strictly maintained, though Schulz (_Ueber
+    Paris und die Pariser_, p. 145) refers to it as in force in 1791.
+    (The obscure origin and history of feminine drawers have been
+    discussed from time to time in the _Intermediaire des Chercheurs
+    et Curieux_, especially vols. xxv, lii, and liii.)
+
+    Prof. Irving Rosse, of Washington, refers to "New England
+    prudishness," and "the colossal modesty of some New York
+    policemen, who in certain cases want to give written, rather than
+    oral testimony." He adds: "I have known this sentiment carried to
+    such an extent in a Massachusetts small town, that a shop-keeper
+    was obliged to drape a small, but innocent, statuette displayed
+    in his window." (Irving Rosse, _Virginia Medical Monthly_,
+    October, 1892.) I am told that popular feeling in South Africa
+    would not permit the exhibition of the nude in the Art
+    Collections of Cape Town. Even in Italy, nude statues are
+    disfigured by the addition of tin fig-leaves, and sporadic
+    manifestations of horror at the presence of nude statues, even
+    when of most classic type, are liable to occur in all parts of
+    Europe, including France and Germany. (Examples of this are
+    recorded from time to time in _Sexual-reform_, published as an
+    appendix to _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_.)
+
+    Some years ago, (1898), it was stated that the Philadelphia
+    _Ladies' Home Journal_ had decided to avoid, in future, all
+    reference to ladies' under-linen, because "the treatment of this
+    subject in print calls for _minutiae_ of detail which is extremely
+    and pardonably offensive to refined and sensitive women."
+
+    "A man, married twenty years, told me that he had never seen his
+    wife entirely nude. Such concealment of the external reproductive
+    organs, by married people, appears to be common. Judging from my
+    own inquiry, very few women care to look upon male nakedness, and
+    many women, though not wanting in esthetic feeling, find no
+    beauty in man's form. Some are positively repelled by the sight
+    of nakedness, even that of a husband or lover. On the contrary,
+    most men delight in gazing upon the uncovered figure of women.
+    It seems that only highly-cultivated and imaginative women enjoy
+    the spectacle of a finely-shaped nude man (especially after
+    attending art classes, and drawing from the nude, as I am told by
+    a lady artist). Or else the majority of women dissemble their
+    curiosity or admiration. A woman of seventy, mother of several
+    children, said to a young wife with whom I am acquainted: 'I have
+    never seen a naked man in my life.' This old lady's sister
+    confessed that she had never looked at _her own_ nakedness in the
+    whole course of her life. She said that it 'frightened' her. She
+    was the mother of three sons. A maiden woman of the same family
+    told her niece that women were 'disgusting, because they have
+    monthly discharges.' The niece suggested that women have no
+    choice in the matter, to which the aunt replied: 'I know that;
+    but it doesn't make them less disgusting,' I have heard of a girl
+    who died from haemorrhage of the womb, refusing, through shame, to
+    make the ailment known to her family. The misery suffered by some
+    women at the anticipation of a medical examination, appears to be
+    very acute. Husbands have told me of brides who sob and tremble
+    with fright on the wedding-night, the hysteria being sometimes
+    alarming. E, aged 25, refused her husband for six weeks after
+    marriage, exhibiting the greatest fear of his approach. Ignorance
+    of the nature of the sexual connection is often the cause of
+    exaggerated alarm. In Jersey, I used to hear of a bride who ran
+    to the window and screamed 'murder,' on the wedding-night."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    At the present day it is not regarded as incompatible with
+    modesty to exhibit the lower part of the thigh when in swimming
+    costume, but it is immodest to exhibit the upper part of the
+    thigh. In swimming competitions, a minimum of clothing must be
+    combined with the demands of modesty. In England, the regulations
+    of the Swimming Clubs affiliated to the Amateur Swimming
+    Association, require that the male swimmer's costume shall extend
+    not less than eight inches from the bifurcation downward, and
+    that the female swimmer's costume shall extend to within not more
+    than three inches from the knee. (A prolonged discussion, we are
+    told, arose as to whether the costume should come to one, two, or
+    three inches from the knee, and the proposal of the youngest lady
+    swimmer present, that the costume ought to be very scanty, met
+    with little approval.) The modesty of women is thus seen to be
+    greater than that of men by, roughly speaking, about two inches.
+    The same difference may be seen in the sleeves; the male sleeve
+    must extend for two inches, the female sleeve four inches, down
+    the arm. (Daily Papers, September 26, 1898.)
+
+    "At ----, bathing in a state of Nature was _de rigueur_ for the
+    _elite_ of the bathers, while our Sunday visitors from the slums
+    frequently made a great point of wearing bathing costumes; it was
+    frequently noticed that those who were most anxious to avoid
+    exposing their persons were distinguished by the foulness of
+    their language. My impression was that their foul-mindedness
+    deprived them of the consciousness of safety from coarse jests.
+    If I were bathing alone among blackguards, I should probably feel
+    uncomfortable myself, if without costume." (Private
+    communication.)
+
+    A lady in a little city of the south of Italy, told Paola
+    Lombroso that young middle-class girls there are not allowed to
+    go out except to Mass, and cannot even show themselves at the
+    window except under their mother's eye; yet they do not think it
+    necessary to have a cabin when sea-bathing, and even dispense
+    with a bathing costume without consciousness of immodesty. (P.
+    Lombroso, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1901, p. 306.)
+
+    "A woman mentioned to me that a man came to her and told her in
+    confidence his distress of mind: he feared he had _corrupted_ his
+    wife because she got into a bath in his presence, with her baby,
+    and enjoyed his looking at her splashing about. He was deeply
+    distressed, thinking he must have done her harm, and destroyed
+    her modesty. The woman to whom this was said felt naturally
+    indignant, but also it gave her the feeling as if every man may
+    secretly despise a woman for the very things he teaches her, and
+    only meets her confiding delight with regret or dislike."
+    (Private communication.)
+
+    "Women will occasionally be found to hide diseases and symptoms
+    from a bashfulness and modesty so great and perverse as to be
+    hardly credible," writes Dr. W. Wynn Westcott, an experienced
+    coroner. "I have known several cases of female deaths, reported
+    as sudden, and of cause unknown, when the medical man called in
+    during the latter hours of life has been quite unaware that his
+    lady patient was dying of gangrene of a strangulated femoral
+    hernia, or was bleeding to death from the bowel, or from ruptured
+    varices of the vulva." (_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 29,
+    1908.)
+
+    The foregoing selection of facts might, of course, be
+    indefinitely enlarged, since I have not generally quoted from any
+    previous collection of facts bearing on the question of modesty.
+    Such collections may be found in Ploss and Max Bartels _Das
+    Weib_, a work that is constantly appearing in new and enlarged
+    editions; Herbert Spencer, _Descriptive Sociology_ (especially
+    under such headings as "Clothing," "Moral Sentiments," and
+    "AEsthetic Products"); W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, Ch. XI;
+    Mantegazza, _Amori degli Uomini_, Chapter II; Westermarck,
+    _Marriage_, Chapter IX; Letourneau, _L'Evolution de la Morale_,
+    pp. 126 et seq.; G. Mortimer, _Chapters on Human Love_, Chapter
+    IV; and in the general anthropological works of Waitz-Gerland,
+    Peschel, Ratzel and others.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The earliest theory I have met with is that of St. Augustine, who
+states (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XIV, Ch. XVII) that erections of the penis
+never occurred until after the Fall of Man. It was the occurrence of this
+"shameless novelty" which made nakedness indecent. This theory fails to
+account for modesty in women.
+
+[2] Guyau, _L'Irreligion de l'Avenir_, Ch. VII.
+
+[3] Timidity, as understood by Dugas, in his interesting essay on that
+subject, is probably most remote. Dr. H. Campbell's "morbid shyness"
+(_British Medical Journal_, September 26, 1896) is, in part, identical
+with timidity, in part, with modesty. The matter is further complicated by
+the fact that modesty itself has in English (like virtue) two distinct
+meanings. In its original form it has no special connection with sex or
+women, but may rather be considered as a masculine virtue. Cicero regards
+"modestia" as the equivalent of the Greek sophrosune. This is the
+"modesty" which Mary Wollstonecraft eulogized in the last century, the
+outcome of knowledge and reflection, "soberness of mind," "the graceful
+calm virtue of maturity." In French, it is possible to avoid the
+confusion, and _modestie_ is entirely distinct from _pudeur_. It is, of
+course, mainly with _pudeur_ that I am here concerned.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Modesty an Agglomeration of Fears--Children in Relation to
+Modesty--Modesty in Animals--The Attitude of the Medicean Venus--The
+Sexual Factor of Modesty Based on Sexual Periodicity and on the Primitive
+Phenomena of Courtship--The Necessity of Seclusion in Primitive Sexual
+Intercourse--The Meaning of Coquetry--The Sexual Charm of Modesty--Modesty
+as an Expression of Feminine Erotic Impulse--The Fear of Causing Disgust
+as a Factor of Modesty--The Modesty of Savages in Regard to Eating in the
+Presence of Others--The Sacro-Pubic Region as a Focus of Disgust--The Idea
+of Ceremonial Uncleanliness--The Custom of Veiling the Face--Ornaments and
+Clothing--Modesty Becomes Concentrated in the Garment--The Economic Factor
+in Modesty--The Contribution of Civilization to Modesty--The Elaboration
+of Social Ritual.
+
+
+That modesty--like all the closely-allied emotions--is based on fear, one
+of the most primitive of the emotions, seems to be fairly evident.[4] The
+association of modesty and fear is even a very ancient observation, and is
+found in the fragments of Epicharmus, while according to one of the most
+recent definitions, "modesty is the timidity of the body." Modesty is,
+indeed, an agglomeration of fears, especially, as I hope to show, of two
+important and distinct fears: one of much earlier than human origin, and
+supplied solely by the female; the other of more distinctly human
+character, and of social, rather than sexual, origin.
+
+A child left to itself, though very bashful, is wholly devoid of
+modesty.[5] Everyone is familiar with the shocking _inconvenances_ of
+children in speech and act, with the charming ways in which they
+innocently disregard the conventions of modesty their elders thrust upon
+them, or, even when anxious to carry them out, wholly miss the point at
+issue: as when a child thinks that to put a little garment round the neck
+satisfies the demands of modesty. Julius Moses states that modesty in the
+uncovering of the sexual parts begins about the age of four. But in cases
+when this occurs it is difficult to exclude teaching and example. Under
+civilized conditions the convention of modesty long precedes its real
+development. Bell has found that in love affairs before the age of nine
+the girl is more aggressive than the boy and that at that age she begins
+to be modest.[6] It may fairly be said that complete development of
+modesty only takes place at the advent of puberty.[7] We may admit, with
+Perez, one of the very few writers who touch on the evolution of this
+emotion, that modesty may appear at a very early age if sexual desire
+appears early.[8] We should not, however, be justified in asserting that
+on this account modesty is a purely sexual phenomenon. The social impulses
+also develop about puberty, and to that coincidence the compound nature of
+the emotion of modesty may well be largely due.
+
+The sexual factor is, however, the simplest and most primitive element of
+modesty, and may, therefore, be mentioned first. Anyone who watches a
+bitch, not in heat, when approached by a dog with tail wagging gallantly,
+may see the beginnings of modesty. When the dog's attentions become a
+little too marked, the bitch squats firmly down on the front legs and hind
+quarters though when the period of oestrus comes her modesty may be flung
+to the air and she eagerly turns her hind quarters to her admirer's nose
+and elevates her tail high in the air. Her attitude of refusal is
+equivalent, that is to say, to that which in the human race is typified by
+the classical example of womanly modesty in the Medicean Venus, who
+withdraws the pelvis, at the same time holding one hand to guard the
+pubes, the other to guard the breasts.[9] The essential expression in each
+case is that of defence of the sexual centers against the undesired
+advances of the male.[10]
+
+    Stratz, who criticizes the above statement, argues (with
+    photographs of nude women in illustration) that the normal type
+    of European surprised modesty is shown by an attitude in which
+    the arms are crossed over the breast, the most sexually
+    attractive region, while the thighs are pressed together, one
+    being placed before the other, the shoulder raised and the back
+    slightly curved; occasionally, he adds, the hands may be used to
+    cover the face, and then the crossed arms conceal the breasts.
+    The Medicean Venus, he remarks, is only a pretty woman coquetting
+    with her body. Canova's Venus in the Pitti (who has drapery in
+    front of her, and presses her arms across her breast) being a
+    more accurate rendering of the attitude of modesty. But Stratz
+    admits that when a surprised woman is gazed at for some time, she
+    turns her head away, sinks or closes her eyes, and covers her
+    pubes (or any other part she thinks is being gazed at) with one
+    hand, while with the other she hides her breast or face. This he
+    terms the secondary expression of modesty. (Stratz, _Die
+    Frauenkleidung_, third ed., p. 23.)
+
+    It is certainly true that the Medicean Venus merely represents an
+    artistic convention, a generalized tradition, not founded on
+    exact and precise observation of the gestures of modesty, and it
+    is equally true that all the instinctive movements noted by
+    Stratz are commonly resorted to by a woman whose nakedness is
+    surprised. But in the absence of any series of carefully recorded
+    observations, one may doubt whether the distinction drawn by
+    Stratz between the primary and the secondary expression of
+    modesty can be upheld as the general rule, while it is most
+    certainly not true for every case. When a young woman is
+    surprised in a state of nakedness by a person of the opposite, or
+    even of the same, sex, it is her instinct to conceal the primary
+    centers of sexual function and attractiveness, in the first
+    place, the pubes, in the second place the breasts. The exact
+    attitude and the particular gestures of the hands in achieving
+    the desired end vary with the individual, and with the
+    circumstances. The hand may not be used at all as a veil, and,
+    indeed, the instinct of modesty itself may inhibit the use of the
+    hand for the protection of modesty (to turn the back towards the
+    beholder is often the chief impulse of blushing modesty, even
+    when clothed), but the application of the hand to this end is
+    primitive and natural. The lowly Fuegian woman, depicted by
+    Hyades and Deniker, who holds her hand to her pubes while being
+    photographed, is one at this point with the Roman Venus described
+    by Ovid (_Ars Amatoria_, Book  II):--
+
+        "Ipsa Venus pubem, quoties velamnia ponit,
+        Protegitur laeva semireducta manus."
+
+    It may be added that young men of the lower social classes, at
+    all events in England, when bathing at the seaside in complete
+    nudity, commonly grasp the sexual organs with one hand, for
+    concealment, as they walk up from the sea.
+
+The sexual modesty of the female animal is rooted in the sexual
+periodicity of the female, and is an involuntary expression of the organic
+fact that the time for love is not now. Inasmuch as this fact is true of
+the greater part of the lives of all female animals below man, the
+expression itself becomes so habitual that it even intrudes at those
+moments when it has ceased to be in place. We may see this again
+illustrated in the bitch, who, when in heat, herself runs after the male,
+and again turns to flee, perhaps only submitting with much persuasion to
+his embrace. Thus, modesty becomes something more than a mere refusal of
+the male; it becomes an invitation to the male, and is mixed up with his
+ideas of what is sexually desirable in the female. This would alone serve
+to account for the existence of modesty as a psychical secondary sexual
+character. In this sense, and in this sense only, we may say, with Colin
+Scott, that "the feeling of shame is made to be overcome," and is thus
+correlated with its physical representative, the hymen, in the rupture of
+which, as Groos remarks, there is, in some degree, a disruption also of
+modesty. The sexual modesty of the female is thus an inevitable by-product
+of the naturally aggressive attitude of the male in sexual relationships,
+and the naturally defensive attitude of the female, this again being
+founded on the fact that, while--in man and the species allied to him--the
+sexual function in the female is periodic, and during most of life a
+function to be guarded from the opposite sex, in the male it rarely or
+never needs to be so guarded.[11]
+
+Both male and female, however, need to guard themselves during the
+exercise of their sexual activities from jealous rivals, as well as from
+enemies who might take advantage of their position to attack them. It is
+highly probable that this is one important sexual factor in the
+constitution of modesty, and it helps to explain how the male, not less
+than the female, cultivates modesty, and shuns publicity, in the exercise
+of sexual functions. Northcote has especially emphasized this element in
+modesty, as originating in the fear of rivals. "That from this seeking
+after secrecy from motives of fear should arise an instinctive feeling
+that the sexual act must always be hidden, is a natural enough sequence.
+And since it is not a long step between thinking of an act as needing
+concealment and thinking of it as wrong, it is easily conceivable that
+sexual intercourse comes to be regarded as a stolen and therefore, in some
+degree, a sinful pleasure."[12]
+
+Animals in a state of nature usually appear to seek seclusion for sexual
+intercourse, although this instinct is lost under domestication. Even the
+lowest savages, also, if uncorrupted by civilized influences, seek the
+solitude of the forest or the protection of their huts for the same
+purpose; the rare cases in which coitus is public seem usually to involve
+a ceremonial or social observance, rather than mere personal
+gratification. At Loango, for instance, it would be highly improper to
+have intercourse in an exposed spot; it must only be performed inside the
+hut, with closed doors, at night, when no one is present.[13]
+
+    It is on the sexual factor of modesty, existing in a well-marked
+    form even among animals, that coquetry is founded. I am glad to
+    find myself on this point in agreement with Professor Groos, who,
+    in his elaborate study of the play-instinct, has reached the same
+    conclusion. So far from being the mere heartless play by which a
+    woman shows her power over a man, Groos points out that coquetry
+    possesses "high biological and psychological significance," being
+    rooted in the antagonism between the sexual instinct and inborn
+    modesty. He refers to the roe, who runs away from the stag--but
+    in a circle. (Groos, _Die Spiele der Menschen_, 1899, p. 339;
+    also the same author's _Die Spiele der Thiere_, pp. 288 _et
+    seq._) Another example of coquetry is furnished by the female
+    kingfisher (_Alcedo ispida_), which will spend all the morning in
+    teasing and flying away from the male, but is careful constantly
+    to look back, and never to let him out of her sight. (Many
+    examples are given by Buechner, in _Liebe und Liebesleben in der
+    Tierwelt_.) Robert Mueller (_Sexualbiologie_, p. 302) emphasizes
+    the importance of coquetry as a lure to the male.
+
+    "It is quite true," a lady writes to me in a private letter,
+    "that 'coquetry is a poor thing,' and that every milkmaid can
+    assume it, but a woman uses it principally in self-defence, while
+    she is finding out what the man himself is like." This is in
+    accordance with the remark of Marro, that modesty enables a woman
+    "to put lovers to the test, in order to select him who is best
+    able to serve the natural ends of love." It is doubtless the
+    necessity for this probationary period, as a test of masculine
+    qualities, which usually leads a woman to repel instinctively a
+    too hasty and impatient suitor, for, as Arthur Macdonald remarks,
+    "It seems to be instinctive in young women to reject the
+    impetuous lover, without the least consideration of his
+    character, ability, and fitness."
+
+This essential element in courtship, this fundamental attitude of pursuer
+and pursued, is clearly to be seen even in animals and savages; it is
+equally pronounced in the most civilized men and women, manifesting itself
+in crude and subtle ways alike. Shakespeare's Angelo, whose virtue had
+always resisted the temptations of vice, discovered at last that
+
+            "modesty may more betray our sense
+    Than woman's lightness."
+
+"What," asked the wise Montaigne, "is the object of that virginal shame,
+that sedate coldness, that severe countenance, that pretence of not
+knowing things which they understand better than we who teach them, except
+to increase in us the desire to conquer and curb, to trample under our
+appetite, all that ceremony and those obstacles? For there is not only
+matter for pleasure, but for pride also, in ruffling and debauching that
+soft sweetness and infantine modesty."[14] The masculine attitude in the
+face of feminine coyness may easily pass into a kind of sadism, but is
+nevertheless in its origin an innocent and instinctive impulse. Restif de
+la Bretonne, describing his own shame and timidity as a pretty boy whom
+the girls would run after and kiss, adds: "It is surprising that at the
+same time I would imagine the pleasure I should have in embracing a girl
+who resisted, in inspiring her with timidity, in making her flee and in
+pursuing her; that was a part which I burned to play."[15] It is the
+instinct of the sophisticated and the unsophisticated alike. The Arabs
+have developed an erotic ideal of sensuality, but they emphasize the
+importance of feminine modesty, and declare that the best woman is "she
+who sees not men and whom they see not."[16] This deep-rooted modesty of
+women towards men in courtship is intimately interwoven with the marriage
+customs and magic rites of even the most primitive peoples, and has
+survived in many civilized practices to-day.[17] The prostitute must be
+able to simulate the modesty she may often be far from feeling, and the
+immense erotic advantage of the innocent over the vicious woman lies
+largely in the fact that in her the exquisite reactions of modesty are
+fresh and vigorous. "I cannot imagine anything that is more sexually
+exciting," remarks Hans Menjago, "than to observe a person of the opposite
+sex, who, by some external or internal force, is compelled to fight
+against her physical modesty. The more modest she is the more sexually
+exciting is the picture she presents."[18] It is notable that even in
+abnormal, as well as in normal, erotic passion the desire is for innocent
+and not for vicious women, and, in association with this, the desired
+favor to be keenly relished must often be gained by sudden surprise and
+not by mutual agreement. A foot fetichist writes to me: "It is the
+_stolen_ glimpse of a pretty foot or ankle which produces the greatest
+effect on me." A urolagnic symbolist was chiefly excited by the act of
+urination when he caught a young woman unawares in the act. A fetichistic
+admirer of the nates only desired to see this region in innocent girls,
+not in prostitutes. The exhibitionist, almost invariably, only exposes
+himself to apparently respectable girls.
+
+    A Russian correspondent, who feels this charm of women in a
+    particularly strong degree, is inclined to think that there is an
+    element of perversity in it. "In the erotic action of the idea of
+    feminine enjoyment," he writes, "I think there are traces of a
+    certain perversity. In fact, owing to the impressions of early
+    youth, woman (even if we feel contempt for her in theory) is
+    placed above us, on a certain pedestal, as an almost sacred
+    being, and the more so because mysterious. Now sensuality and
+    sexual desire are considered as rather vulgar, and a little
+    dirty, even ridiculous and degrading, not to say bestial. The
+    woman who enjoys it, is, therefore, rather like a profaned altar,
+    or, at least, like a divinity who has descended on to the earth.
+    To give enjoyment to a woman is, therefore, like perpetrating a
+    sacrilege, or at least like taking a liberty with a god. The
+    feelings bequeathed to us by a long social civilization maintain
+    themselves in spite of our rational and deliberate opinions.
+    Reason tells us that there is nothing evil in sexual enjoyment,
+    whether in man or woman, but an unconscious feeling directs our
+    emotions, and this feeling (having a germ that was placed in
+    modern men by Christianity, and perhaps by still older religions)
+    says that woman _ought_ to be an absolutely pure being, with
+    ethereal sensations, and that in her sexual enjoyment is out of
+    place, improper, scandalous. To arouse sexual emotions in a
+    woman, if not to profane a sacred host, is, at all events, the
+    staining of an immaculate peplos; if not sacrilege, it is, at
+    least, irreverence or impertinence. For all men, the chaster a
+    woman is, the more agreeable it is to bring her to the orgasm.
+    That is felt as a triumph of the body over the soul, of sin over
+    virtue, of earth over heaven. There is something diabolic in such
+    pleasure, especially when it is felt by a man intoxicated with
+    love, and full of religious respect for the virgin of his
+    election. This feeling is, from a rational point of view, absurd,
+    and in its tendencies, immoral; but it is delicious in its
+    sacredly voluptuous subtlety. Defloration thus has its powerful
+    fascination in the respect consciously or unconsciously felt for
+    woman's chastity. In marriage, the feeling is yet more
+    complicated: in deflowering his bride, the Christian (that is,
+    any man brought up in a Christian civilization) has the feeling
+    of committing a sort of sin (for the 'flesh' is, for him, always
+    connected with sin) which, by a special privilege, has for him
+    become legitimate. He has received a special permit to corrupt
+    innocence. Hence, the peculiar prestige for civilized Christians,
+    of the wedding night, sung by Shelley, in ecstatic  verses:--
+
+        "'Oh, joy! Oh, fear! What will be done
+        In the absence of the sun!'"
+
+    This feeling has, however, its normal range, and is not, _per
+    se_, a perversity, though it may doubtless become so when unduly
+    heightened by Christian sentiment, and especially if it leads, as
+    to some extent it has led in my Russian correspondent, to an
+    abnormal feeling of the sexual attraction of girls who have only
+    or scarcely reached the age of puberty. The sexual charm of this
+    period of girlhood is well illustrated in many of the poems of
+    Thomas Ashe, and it is worthy of note, as perhaps supporting the
+    contention that this attraction is based on Christian feeling,
+    that Ashe had been a clergyman. An attentiveness to the woman's
+    pleasure remains, in itself, very far from a perversion, but
+    increases, as Colin Scott has pointed out, with civilization,
+    while its absence--the indifference to the partner's pleasure--is
+    a perversion of the most degraded kind.
+
+There is no such instinctive demand on the woman's part for innocence in
+the man.[19] In the nature of things that could not be. Such emotion is
+required for properly playing the part of the pursued; it is by no means
+an added attraction on the part of the pursuer. There is, however, an
+allied and corresponding desire which is very often clearly or latently
+present in the woman: a longing for pleasure that is stolen or forbidden.
+It is a mistake to suppose that this is an indication of viciousness or
+perversity. It appears to be an impulse that occurs quite naturally in
+altogether innocent women. The exciting charm of the risky and dangerous
+naturally arises on a background of feminine shyness and timidity. We may
+trace its recognition at a very early stage of history in the story of Eve
+and the forbidden fruit that has so often been the symbol of the masculine
+organs of sex. It is on this ground that many have argued the folly of
+laying external restrictions on women in matters of love. Thus in quoting
+the great Italian writer who afterwards became Pope Pius II, Robert Burton
+remarked: "I am of AEneas Sylvius' mind, 'Those jealous Italians do very
+ill to lock up their wives; for women are of such a disposition they will
+mostly covet that which is denied most, and offend least when they have
+free liberty to trespass.'"[20]
+
+It is the spontaneous and natural instinct of the lover to desire modesty
+in his mistress, and by no means any calculated opinion on his part that
+modesty is the sign of sexual emotion. It remains true, however, that
+modesty is an expression of feminine erotic impulse. We have here one of
+the instances, of which there, are so many, of that curious and
+instinctive harmony by which Nature has sought the more effectively to
+bring about the ends of courtship. As to the fact itself there can be
+little doubt. It constantly forces itself on the notice of careful
+observers, and has long been decided in the affirmative by those who have
+discussed the matter. Venette, one of the earliest writers on the
+psychology of sex, after discussing the question at length, decided that
+the timid woman is a more ardent lover than the bold woman.[21] "It is the
+most pudent girl," remarked Restif de la Bretonne whose experience of
+women was so extensive, "the girl who blushes most, who is most disposed
+to the pleasures of love," he adds that, in girls and boys alike, shyness
+is a premature consciousness of sex.[22] This observation has even become
+embodied in popular proverbs. "Do as the lasses do--say no, but take it,"
+is a Scotch saying, to which corresponds the Welsh saying, "The more
+prudish the more unchaste."[23]
+
+    It is not, at first, quite clear why an excessively shy and
+    modest woman should be the most apt for intimate relationships
+    with a man, and in such a case the woman is often charged with
+    hypocrisy. There is, however, no hypocrisy in the matter. The shy
+    and reserved woman holds herself aloof from intimacy in ordinary
+    friendship, because she is acutely sensitive to the judgments of
+    others, and fears that any seemingly immodest action may make an
+    unfavorable opinion. With a lover, however, in whose eyes she
+    feels assured that her actions can not be viewed unfavorably,
+    these barriers of modesty fall down, and the resulting intimacy
+    becomes all the more fascinating to the woman because of its
+    contrast with the extreme reserve she is impelled to maintain in
+    other relationships. It thus happens that many modest women who,
+    in non-sexual relationships with their own sex, are not able to
+    act with the physical unreserve not uncommon with women among
+    themselves, yet feel no such reserve with a man, when they are
+    once confident of his good opinion. Much the same is true of
+    modest and sensitive men in their relations with women.
+
+This fundamental animal factor of modesty, rooted in the natural facts of
+the sexual life of the higher mammals, and especially man, obviously will
+not explain all the phenomena of modesty. We must turn to the other great
+primary element of modesty, the social factor.
+
+We cannot doubt that one of the most primitive and universal of the social
+characteristics of man is an aptitude for disgust, founded, as it is, on a
+yet more primitive and animal aptitude for disgust, which has little or no
+social significance. In nearly all races, even the most savage, we seem
+to find distinct traces of this aptitude for disgust in the presence of
+certain actions of others, an emotion naturally reflected in the
+individual's own actions, and hence a guide to conduct. Notwithstanding
+our gastric community of disgust with lower animals, it is only in man
+that this disgust seems to become transformed and developed, to possess a
+distinctly social character, and to serve as a guide to social
+conduct.[24] The objects of disgust vary infinitely according to the
+circumstances and habits of particular races, but the reaction of disgust
+is fundamental throughout.
+
+The best study of the phenomena of disgust known to me is, without doubt,
+Professor Richet's.[25] Richet concludes that it is the _dangerous_ and
+the _useless_ which evoke disgust. The digestive and sexual excretions and
+secretions, being either useless or, in accordance with widespread
+primitive ideas, highly dangerous, the genito-anal region became a
+concentrated focus of disgust.[26] It is largely for this reason, no
+doubt, that savage men exhibit modesty, not only toward women, but toward
+their own sex, and that so many of the lowest savages take great
+precautions in obtaining seclusion for the fulfillment of natural
+functions. The statement, now so often made, that the primary object of
+clothes is to accentuate, rather than to conceal, has in it--as I shall
+point out later--a large element of truth, but it is by no means a
+complete account of the matter. It seems difficult not to admit that,
+alongside the impulse to accentuate sexual differences, there is also in
+both men and women a genuine impulse to concealment among the most
+primitive peoples, and the invincible repugnance often felt by savages to
+remove the girdle or apron, is scarcely accounted for by the theory that
+it is solely a sexual lure.
+
+In this connection it seems to me instructive to consider a special form
+of modesty very strongly marked among savages in some parts of the world.
+I refer to the feeling of immodesty in eating. Where this feeling exists,
+modesty is offended when one eats in public; the modest man retires to
+eat. Indecency, said Cook, was utterly unknown among the Tahitians; but
+they would not eat together; even brothers and sisters had their separate
+baskets of provisions, and generally sat some yards apart, with their
+backs to each other, when they ate.[27] The Warrua of Central Africa,
+Cameron found, when offered a drink, put up a cloth before their faces
+while they swallowed it, and would not allow anyone to see them eat or
+drink; so that every man or woman must have his own fire and cook for
+himself.[28] Karl von den Steinen remarks, in his interesting book on
+Brazil, that though the Bakairi of Central Brazil have no feeling of shame
+about nakedness, they are ashamed to eat in public; they retire to eat,
+and hung their heads in shame-faced confusion when they saw him innocently
+eat in public. Hrolf Vaughan Stevens found that, when he gave an Orang
+Laut (Malay) woman anything to eat, she not only would not eat it if her
+husband were present, but if any man were present she would go outside
+before eating or giving her children to eat.[29] Thus among these peoples
+the act of eating in public produces the same feelings as among ourselves
+the indecent exposure of the body in public.[30]
+
+It is quite easy to understand how this arises. Whenever there is any
+pressure on the means of subsistence, as among savages at some time or
+another there nearly always is, it must necessarily arouse a profound and
+mixed emotion of desire and disgust to see another person putting into his
+stomach what one might just as well have put into one's own.[31] The
+special secrecy sometimes observed by women is probably due to the fact
+that women would be less able to resist the emotions that the act of
+eating would arouse in onlookers. As social feeling develops, a man
+desires not only to eat in safety, but also to avoid being an object of
+disgust, and to spare his friends all unpleasant emotions. Hence it
+becomes a requirement of ordinary decency to eat in private. A man who
+eats in public becomes--like the man who in our cities exposes his person
+in public--an object of disgust and contempt.
+
+Long ago, when a hospital student on midwifery duty in London slums, I had
+occasion to observe that among the women of the poor, and more especially
+in those who had lost the first bloom of youth, modesty consisted chiefly
+in the fear of being disgusting. There was an almost pathetic anxiety, in
+the face of pain and discomfort, not to be disgusting in the doctor's
+eyes. This anxiety expressed itself in the ordinary symptoms of modesty.
+But, as soon as the woman realized that I found nothing disgusting in
+whatever was proper and necessary to be done under the circumstances, it
+almost invariably happened that every sign of modesty at once
+disappeared.[32] In the special and elementary conditions of parturition,
+modesty is reduced to this one fear of causing disgust; so that, when that
+is negated, the emotion is non-existent, and the subject becomes, without
+effort, as direct and natural as a little child. A fellow-student on
+similar duty, who also discovered for himself the same character of
+modesty--that if he was careful to guard her modesty the woman was careful
+also, and that if he was not the woman was not--remarked on it to me with
+sadness; it seemed to him derogatory to womanhood that what he had been
+accustomed to consider its supreme grace should be so superficial that he
+could at will set limits to it.[33] I thought then, as I think still, that
+that was rather a perversion of the matter, and that nothing becomes
+degrading because we happen to have learned something about its
+operations. But I am more convinced than ever that the fear of causing
+disgust--a fear quite distinct from that of losing a sexual lure or
+breaking a rule of social etiquette--plays a very large part in the
+modesty of the more modest sex, and in modesty generally. Our Venuses, as
+Lucretius long since remarked and Montaigne after him, are careful to
+conceal from their lovers the _vita postscenia_, and that fantastic fate
+which placed so near together the supreme foci of physical attraction and
+physical repugnance, has immensely contributed to build up all the
+subtlest coquetries of courtship. Whatever stimulates self-confidence and
+lulls the fear of evoking disgust--whether it is the presence of a beloved
+person in whose good opinion complete confidence is felt, or whether it is
+merely the grosser narcotizing influence of a slight degree of
+intoxication--always automatically lulls the emotion of modesty.[34]
+Together with the animal factor of sexual refusal, this social fear of
+evoking disgust seems to me the most fundamental element in modesty.
+
+It is, of course, impossible to argue that the fact of the sacro-pubic
+region of the body being the chief focus of concealment proves the
+importance of this factor of modesty. But it may fairly be argued that it
+owes this position not merely to being the sexual centre, but also as
+being the excretory centre. Even among many lower mammals, as well as
+among birds and insects, there is a well-marked horror of dirt, somewhat
+disguised by the varying ways in which an animal may be said to define
+"dirt." Many animals spend more time and energy in the duties of
+cleanliness than human beings, and they often show well-marked anxiety to
+remove their own excrement, or to keep away from it.[35] Thus this element
+of modesty also may be said to have an animal basis.
+
+It is on this animal basis that the human and social fear of arousing
+disgust has developed. Its probably wide extension is indicated not only
+by the strong feeling attached to the constant presence of clothing on
+this part of the body,--such constant presence being quite uncalled for if
+the garment or ornament is merely a sort of sexual war-paint,--but by the
+repugnance felt by many savages very low down in the scale to the public
+satisfaction of natural needs, and to their more than civilized
+cleanliness in this connection;[36] it is further of interest to note that
+in some parts of the world the covering is not in front, but behind;
+though of this fact there are probably other explanations. Among civilized
+people, also, it may be added, the final and invincible seat of modesty is
+sometimes not around the pubes, but the anus; that is to say, that in such
+cases the fear of arousing disgust is the ultimate and most fundamental
+element of modesty.[37]
+
+    The concentration of modesty around the anus is sometimes very
+    marked. Many women feel so high a degree of shame and reserve
+    with regard to this region, that they are comparatively
+    indifferent to an anterior examination of the sexual organs. A
+    similar feeling is not seldom found in men. "I would permit of an
+    examination of my genitals by a medical man, without any feeling
+    of discomfort," a correspondent writes, "but I think I would
+    rather die than submit to any rectal examination." Even
+    physicians have been known to endure painful rectal disorders for
+    years, rather than undergo examination.
+
+    "Among ordinary English girls," a medical correspondent writes,
+    "I have often noticed that the dislike and shame of allowing a
+    man to have sexual intercourse with them, when newly married, is
+    simply due to the fact that the sexual aperture is so closely
+    apposed to the anus and bladder. If the vulva and vagina were
+    situated between a woman's shoulder blades, and a man had a
+    separate instrument for coitus, not used for any excretory
+    purpose, I do not think women would feel about intercourse as
+    they sometimes do. Again, in their ignorance of anatomy, women
+    often look upon the vagina and womb as part of the bowel and its
+    exit of discharge, and sometimes say, for instance,
+    'inflammation of the _bowel_', when they mean _womb_. Again,
+    many, perhaps most, women believe that they pass water through
+    the vagina, and are ignorant of the existence of the separate
+    urethral orifice. Again, women associate the vulva with the anus,
+    and so feel ashamed of it; even when speaking to their husbands,
+    or to a doctor, or among themselves; they have absolutely no name
+    for the vulva (I mean among the upper classes, and people of
+    gentle birth), but speak of it as 'down below,' 'low down,' etc."
+
+    Even though this feeling is largely based on wrong and ignorant
+    ideas, it must still be recognized that it is to some extent
+    natural and inevitable. "How much is risked," exclaims Dugas, "in
+    the privacies of love! The results may be disillusion, disgust,
+    the consciousness of physical imperfection, of brutality or
+    coldness, of aesthetic disenchantment, of a sentimental shock,
+    seen or divined. To be without modesty, that is to say, to have
+    no fear of the ordeals of love, one must be sure of one's self,
+    of one's grace, of one's physical emotions, of one's feelings,
+    and be sure, moreover, of the effect of all these on the nerves,
+    the imagination, and the heart of another person. Let us suppose
+    modesty reduced to aesthetic discomfort, to a woman's fear of
+    displeasing, or of not seeming beautiful enough. Even thus
+    defined, how can modesty avoid being always awake and restless?
+    What woman could repeat, without risk, the tranquil action of
+    Phryne? And even in that action, who knows how much may not have
+    been due to mere professional insolence!" (Dugas, "La Pudeur,"
+    _Revue Philosophique_, November, 1903.) "Men and Women," Schurtz
+    points out (_Altersklassen und Maennerbuende_, pp. 41-51), "have
+    certainly the capacity mutually to supplement and enrich each
+    other; but when this completion fails, or is not sought, the
+    difference may easily become a strong antipathy;" and he proceeds
+    to develop the wide-reaching significance of this psychic fact.
+
+I have emphasized the proximity of the excretory centres to the sexual
+focus in discussing this important factor of modesty, because, in
+analyzing so complex and elusive an emotion as modesty it is desirable to
+keep as near as possible to the essential and fundamental facts on which
+it is based. It is scarcely necessary to point out that, in ordinary
+civilized society, these fundamental facts are not usually present at the
+surface of consciousness and may even be absent altogether; on the
+foundation of them may arise all sorts of idealized fears, of delicate
+reserves, of aesthetic refinements, as the emotions of love become more
+complex and more subtle, and the crude simplicity of the basis on which
+they finally rest becomes inevitably concealed.
+
+Another factor of modesty, which reaches a high development in savagery,
+is the ritual element, especially the idea of ceremonial uncleanness,
+based on a dread of the supernatural influences which the sexual organs
+and functions are supposed to exert. It may be to some extent rooted in
+the elements already referred to, and it leads us into a much wider field
+than that of modesty, so that it is only necessary to touch slightly on it
+here; it has been exhaustively studied by Frazer and by Crawley. Offences
+against the ritual rendered necessary by this mysterious dread, though
+more serious than offences against sexual reticence or the fear of causing
+disgust, are so obviously allied that they all reinforce one another and
+cannot easily be disentangled.
+
+Nearly everywhere all over the world at a primitive stage of thought, and
+even to some extent in the highest civilization, the sight of the sexual
+organs or of the sexual act, the image or even the names of the sexual
+parts of either man or woman, are believed to have a curiously potent
+influence, sometimes beneficent, but quite as often maleficent. The two
+kinds of influence may even be combined, and Riedel, quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels,[38] states that the Ambon islanders carve a schematic
+representation of the vulva on their fruit trees, in part to promote the
+productiveness of the trees, and in part to scare any unauthorized person
+who might be tempted to steal the fruit. The precautions prescribed as
+regards coitus at Loango[39] are evidently associated with religious
+fears. In Ceylon, again (as a medical correspondent there informs me),
+where the penis is worshipped and held sacred, a native never allows it to
+be seen, except under compulsion, by a doctor, and even a wife must
+neither see it nor touch it nor ask for coitus, though she must grant as
+much as the husband desires. All savage and barbarous peoples who have
+attained any high degree of ceremonialism have included the functions not
+only of sex, but also of excretion, more or less stringently within the
+bounds of that ceremonialism.[40] It is only necessary to refer to the
+Jewish ritual books of the Old Testament, to Hesiod, and to the customs
+prevalent among Mohammedan peoples. Modesty in eating, also, has its roots
+by no means only in the fear of causing disgust, but very largely in this
+kind of ritual, and Crawley has shown how numerous and frequent among
+primitive peoples are the religious implications of eating and
+drinking.[41] So profound is this dread of the sacred mystery of sex, and
+so widespread is the ritual based upon it, that some have imagined that
+here alone we may find the complete explanation of modesty, and Salomon
+Reinach declares that "at the origin of the emotion of modesty lies a
+taboo."[42]
+
+    Durkheim ("La Prohibition de l'Inceste," _L'Annee Sociologique_,
+    1898, p. 50), arguing that whatever sense of repugnance women may
+    inspire must necessarily reach the highest point around the womb,
+    which is hence subjected to the most stringent taboo,
+    incidentally suggests that here is an origin of modesty. "The
+    sexual organs must be veiled at an early period, to prevent the
+    dangerous effluvia which they give off from reaching the
+    environment. The veil is often a method of intercepting magic
+    action. Once constituted, the practice would be maintained and
+    transformed."
+
+    It was doubtless as a secondary and derived significance that the
+    veil became, as Reinach ("Le Voile de l'Oblation," op. cit., pp.
+    299-311) shows it was, alike among the Romans and in the Catholic
+    Church, the sign of consecration to the gods.
+
+At an early stage of culture, again, menstruation is regarded as a process
+of purification, a dangerous expulsion of vitiated humors. Hence the term
+_katharsis_ applied to it by the Greeks. Hence also the mediaeval view of
+women: "_Mulier speciosa templum aedificatum super cloacam_," said
+Boethius. The sacro-pubic region in women, because it includes the source
+of menstruation, thus becomes a specially heightened seat of taboo.
+According to the Mosiac law (Leviticus, Chapter XX, v. 18), if a man
+uncovered a menstruating woman, both were to be cut off.
+
+It is probable that the Mohammedan custom of veiling the face and head
+really has its source solely in another aspect of this ritual factor of
+modesty. It must be remembered that this custom is not Mohammedan in its
+origin, since it existed long previously among the Arabians, and is
+described by Tertullian.[43] In early Arabia very handsome men also veiled
+their faces, in order to preserve themselves from the evil eye, and it has
+been conjectured with much probability that the origin of the custom of
+women veiling their faces may be traced to this magico-religious
+precaution.[44] Among the Jews of the same period, according to
+Buechler,[45] the women had their heads covered and never cut their hair;
+to appear in the streets without such covering would be like a prostitute
+and was adequate ground for divorce; adulterous women were punished by
+uncovering their heads and cutting their hair. It is possible, though not
+certain, that St. Paul's obscure injunction to women to cover their heads
+"because of the angels," may really be based on the ancient reason, that
+when uncovered they would be exposed to the wanton assaults of spirits (1
+Corinthians, Ch. XI, vv. 5-6),[46] exactly as Singhalese women believe
+that they must keep the vulva covered lest demons should have intercourse
+with them. Even at the present day St. Paul's injunction is still observed
+by Christendom, which is, however, far from accepting, or even perhaps
+understanding, the folk-lore ground on which are based such injunctions.
+
+    Crawley thus summarizes some of the evidence concerning the
+    significance of the veil:--
+
+    "Sexual shyness, not only in woman, but in man, is intensified at
+    marriage, and forms a chief feature of the dangerous sexual
+    properties mutually feared. When fully ceremonial, the idea takes
+    on the meaning that satisfaction of these feelings will lead to
+    their neutralization, as, in fact, it does. The bridegroom in
+    ancient Sparta supped on the wedding night at the men's mess, and
+    then visited his bride, leaving her before daybreak. This
+    practice was continued, and sometimes children were born before
+    the pair had ever seen each other's faces by day. At weddings in
+    the Babar Islands, the bridegroom has to hunt for his bride in a
+    darkened room. This lasts a good while if she is shy. In South
+    Africa, the bridegroom may not see his bride till the whole of
+    the marriage ceremonies have been performed. In Persia, a husband
+    never sees his wife till he has consummated the marriage. At
+    marriages in South Arabia, the bride and bridegroom have to sit
+    immovable in the same position from noon till midnight, fasting,
+    in separate rooms. The bride is attended by ladies, and the groom
+    by men. They may not see each other till the night of the fourth
+    day. In Egypt, the groom cannot see the face of his bride, even
+    by a surreptitious glance, till she is in his absolute
+    possession. Then comes the ceremony, which he performs, of
+    uncovering her face. In Egypt, of course, this has been
+    accentuated by the seclusion and veiling of women. In Morocco, at
+    the feast before the marriage, the bride and groom sit together
+    on a sort of throne; all the time, the poor bride's eyes are
+    firmly closed, and she sits amidst the revelry as immovable as a
+    statue. On the next day is the marriage. She is conducted after
+    dark to her future home, accompanied by a crowd with lanterns and
+    candles. She is led with closed eyes along the street by two
+    relatives, each holding one of her hands. The bride's head is
+    held in its proper position by a female relative, who walks
+    behind her. She wears a veil, and is not allowed to open her eyes
+    until she is set on the bridal bed, with a girl friend beside
+    her. Amongst the Zulus, the bridal party proceeds to the house of
+    the groom, having the bride hidden amongst them. They stand
+    facing the groom, while the bride sings a song. Her companions
+    then suddenly break away, and she is discovered standing in the
+    middle, with a fringe of beads covering her face. Amongst the
+    people of Kumaun, the husband sees his wife first after the
+    joining of hands. Amongst the Bedui of North East Africa, the
+    bride is brought on the evening of the wedding-day by her girl
+    friends, to the groom's house. She is closely muffled up. Amongst
+    the Jews of Jerusalem, the bride, at the marriage ceremony,
+    stands under the nuptial canopy, her eyes being closed, that she
+    may not behold the face of her future husband before she reaches
+    the bridal chamber. In Melanesia, the bride is carried to her new
+    home on some one's back, wrapped in many mats, with palm-fans
+    held about her face, because she is supposed to be modest and
+    shy. Among the Damaras, the groom cannot see his bride for four
+    days after marriage. When a Damara woman is asked in marriage,
+    she covers her face for a time with the flap of a headdress made
+    for this purpose. At the Thlinkeet marriage ceremony, the bride
+    must look down, and keep her head bowed all the time; during the
+    wedding-day, she remains hiding in a corner of the house, and the
+    groom is forbidden to enter. At a Yezedee marriage, the bride is
+    covered from head to foot with a thick veil, and when arrived at
+    her new home, she retires behind a curtain in the corner of a
+    darkened room, where she remains for three days before her
+    husband is permitted to see her. In Corea, the bride has to cover
+    her face with her long sleeves, when meeting the bridegroom at
+    the wedding. The Manchurian bride uncovers her face for the first
+    time when she descends from the nuptial couch. It is dangerous
+    even to see dangerous persons. Sight is a method of contagion in
+    primitive science, and the idea coincides with the psychological
+    aversion to see dangerous things, and with sexual shyness and
+    timidity. In the customs noticed, we can distinguish the feeling
+    that it is dangerous to the bride for her husband's eyes to be
+    upon her, and the feeling of bashfulness in her which induces her
+    neither to see him nor to be seen by him. These ideas explain the
+    origin of the bridal veil and similar concealments. The bridal
+    veil is used, to take a few instances, in China, Burmah, Corea,
+    Russia, Bulgaria, Manchuria, and Persia, and in all these cases
+    it conceals the face entirely." (E. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_,
+    pp. 328 et seq.)
+
+    Alexander Walker, writing in 1846, remarks: "Among old-fashioned
+    people, of whom a good example may be found in old country people
+    of the middle class in England, it is indecent to be seen with
+    the head unclothed; such a woman is terrified at the chance of
+    being seen In that condition, and if intruded on at that time,
+    she shrieks with terror, and flies to conceal herself." (A.
+    Walker, _Beauty_, p. 15.) This fear of being seen with the head
+    uncovered exists still, M. Van Gennep informs me, in some regions
+    of France, as in Brittany.
+
+So far it has only been necessary to refer incidentally to the connection
+of modesty with clothing. I have sought to emphasize the unquestionable,
+but often forgotten, fact that modesty is in its origin independent of
+clothing, that physiological modesty takes precedence of anatomical
+modesty, and that the primary factors of modesty were certainly developed
+long before the discovery of either ornament or garments. The rise of
+clothing probably had its first psychical basis on an emotion of modesty
+already compositely formed of the elements we have traced. Both the main
+elementary factors, it must be noted, must naturally tend to develop and
+unite in a more complex, though--it may well be--much less intense,
+emotion. The impulse which leads the female animal, as it leads some
+African women when found without their girdles, to squat firmly down on
+the earth, becomes a more refined and extended play of gesture and
+ornament and garment. A very notable advance, I may remark, is made when
+this primary attitude of defence against the action of the male becomes a
+defence against his eyes. We may thus explain the spread of modesty to
+various parts of the body, even when we exclude the more special influence
+of the evil eye. The breasts very early become a focus of modesty in
+women; this may be observed among many naked, or nearly naked, negro
+races; the tendency of the nates to become the chief seat of modesty in
+many parts of Africa may probably be, in large part, thus explained, since
+the full development of the gluteal regions is often the greatest
+attraction an African woman can possess.[47] The same cause contributes,
+doubtless, to the face becoming, in some races, the centre of modesty. We
+see the influence of this defence against strange eyes in the special
+precautions in gesture or clothing taken by the women in various parts of
+the world, against the more offensive eyes of civilized Europeans.
+
+But in thus becoming directed only against sight, and not against action,
+the gestures of modesty are at once free to become merely those of
+coquetry. When there is no real danger of offensive action, there is no
+need for more than playful defence, and no serious anxiety should that
+defence be taken as a disguised invitation. Thus the road is at once fully
+open toward the most civilized manifestations of the comedy of courtship.
+
+In the same way the social fear of arousing disgust combines easily and
+perfectly with any new development in the invention of ornament or
+clothing as sexual lures. Even among the most civilized races it has often
+been noted that the fashion of feminine garments (as also sometimes the
+use of scents) has the double object of concealing and attracting. It is
+so with the little apron of the young savage belle. The heightening of the
+attraction is, indeed, a logical outcome of the fear of evoking disgust.
+
+It is possible, as some ethnographists have observed,[48] that intercrural
+cords and other primitive garments have a physical ground, inasmuch as
+they protect the most sensitive and unprotected part of the body,
+especially in women. We may note in this connection the significant
+remarks of K. von den Steinen, who argues that among Brazilian tribes the
+object of the _uluri_, etc., is to obtain a maximum of protection for the
+mucous membrane with a minimum of concealment. Among the Eskimo, as Nansen
+noted, the corresponding intercrural cord is so thin as to be often
+practically invisible; this may be noted, I may add, in the excellent
+photographs of Eskimo women given by Holm.
+
+But it is evident that, in the beginning, protection is to little or no
+extent the motive for attaching foreign substances to the body. Thus the
+tribes of Central Australia wear no clothes, although they often suffer
+from the cold. But, in addition to armlets, neck-bands and head-bands,
+they have string or hair girdles, with, for the women, a very small apron
+and, for the men, a pubic tassel. The latter does not conceal the organs,
+being no larger than a coin, and often brilliantly coated with white
+pipeclay, especially during the progress of _corrobborees_, when a large
+number of men and women meet together; it serves the purpose of drawing
+attention to the organs.[49] When Forster visited the unspoilt islanders
+of the Pacific early in the eighteenth century, he tells us that, though
+they wore no clothes, they found it necessary to cover themselves with
+various ornaments, especially on, the sexual parts. "But though their
+males," he remarks, "were to all appearances equally anxious in this
+respect with their females, this part of their dress served only to make
+that more conspicuous which it intended to hide."[50] He adds the
+significant remark that "these ideas of decency and modesty are only
+observed at the age of sexual maturity," just as in Central Australia
+women may only wear aprons after the initiation of puberty.
+
+"There are certain things," said Montaigne, "which are hidden in order to
+be shown;" and there can be no doubt that the contention of Westermarck
+and others, that ornament and clothing were, in the first place, intended,
+not to conceal or even to protect the body, but, in large part, to render
+it sexually attractive, is fully proved.[51] We cannot, in the light of
+all that has gone before, regard ornaments and clothing as the sole cause
+of modesty, but the feelings that are thus gathered around the garment
+constitute a highly important factor of modesty.
+
+    Among some Australian tribes it is said that the sexual organs
+    are only covered during their erotic dances; and it is further
+    said that in some parts of the world only prostitutes are
+    clothed. "The scanty covering," as Westermarck observes, "was
+    found to act as the most powerful obtainable sexual stimulus." It
+    is undoubtedly true that this statement may be made not merely of
+    the savage, but of the most civilized world. All observers agree
+    that the complete nudity of savages, unlike the civilized
+    _decollete_ or _detrousse_, has no suggestion of sexual
+    allurement. (Westermarck quotes numerous testimonies on this
+    point, op. cit., pp. 192 et seq.) Dr. R.W. Felkin remarks
+    concerning Central Africa, that he has never met more indecency
+    than in Uganda, where the penalty of death is inflicted on an
+    adult found naked in the street. (_Edinburgh Medical Journal_,
+    April, 1884.) A study of pictures or statuary will alone serve to
+    demonstrate that nakedness is always chaster in its effects than
+    partial clothing. As a well-known artist, Du Maurier, has
+    remarked (in _Trilby_), it is "a fact well known to all painters
+    and sculptors who have used the nude model (except a few shady
+    pretenders, whose purity, not being of the right sort, has gone
+    rank from too much watching) that nothing is so chaste as nudity.
+    Venus herself, as she drops her garments and steps on to the
+    model-throne, leaves behind her on the floor every weapon in her
+    armory by which she can pierce to the grosser passions of men."
+    Burton, in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (Part III, Sect. II,
+    Subsect. 3), deals at length with the "Allurements of Love," and
+    concludes that "the greatest provocations of lust are from our
+    apparel." The artist's model, as one informs me, is much less
+    exposed to liberties from men when nude than when she is
+    partially clothed, and it may be noted that in Paris studios the
+    model who poses naked undresses behind a screen.
+
+    An admirable poetic rendering of this element in the philosophy
+    of clothing has been given by Herrick, that master of erotic
+    psychology, in "A Lily in Crystal," where he argues that a lily
+    in crystal, and amber in a stream, and strawberries in cream,
+    gain an added delight from semi-concealment; and so, he
+    concludes, we obtain
+
+        "A rule, how far, to teach,
+        Your nakedness must reach."
+
+    In this connection, also, it is worth noting that Stanley Hall,
+    in a report based on returns from nearly a thousand persons,
+    mostly teachers, ("The Early Sense of Self," _American Journal of
+    Psychology_, 1898, p. 366), finds that of the three functions of
+    clothes--protection, ornament, and Lotzean "self-feeling"--the
+    second is by far the most conspicuous in childhood. The attitude
+    of children is testimony to the primitive attitude toward
+    clothing.
+
+    It cannot, however, be said that the use of clothing for the sake
+    of showing the natural forms of the body has everywhere been
+    developed. In Japan, where nakedness is accepted without shame,
+    clothes are worn to cover and conceal, and not to reveal, the
+    body. It is so, also, in China. A distinguished Chinese
+    gentleman, who had long resided in Europe, once told Baelz that
+    he had gradually learnt to grasp the European point of view, but
+    that it would be impossible to persuade his fellow-countrymen
+    that a woman who used her clothes to show off her figure could
+    possibly possess the least trace of modesty. (Baelz, _Zeitschrift
+    fuer Ethnologie_, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.)
+
+The great artistic elaboration often displayed by articles of ornament or
+clothing, even when very small, and the fact--as shown by Karl von den
+Steinen regarding the Brazilian _uluri_--that they may serve as common
+motives in general decoration, sufficiently prove that such objects
+attract rather than avoid attention. And while there is an invincible
+repugnance among some peoples to remove these articles, such repugnance
+being often strongest when the adornment is most minute, others have no
+such repugnance or are quite indifferent whether or not their aprons are
+accurately adjusted. The mere presence or possession of the article gives
+the required sense of self-respect, of human dignity, of sexual
+desirability. Thus it is that to unclothe a person, is to humiliate him;
+this was so even in Homeric times, for we may recall the threat of
+Ulysses to strip Thyestes.[52]
+
+When clothing is once established, another element, this time a
+social-economic element, often comes in to emphasize its importance and
+increase the anatomical modesty of women. I mean the growth of the
+conception of women as property. Waitz, followed by Schurtz and
+Letourneau, has insisted that the jealousy of husbands is the primary
+origin of clothing, and, indirectly, of modesty. Diderot in the eighteenth
+century had already given clear expression to the same view. It is
+undoubtedly true that only married women are among some peoples clothed,
+the unmarried women, though full grown, remaining naked. In many parts of
+the world, also, as Mantegazza and others have shown, where the men are
+naked and the women covered, clothing is regarded as a sort of disgrace,
+and men can only with difficulty be persuaded to adopt it. Before marriage
+a woman was often free, and not bound to chastity, and at the same time
+was often naked; after marriage she was clothed, and no longer free. To
+the husband's mind, the garment appears--illogically, though naturally--a
+moral and physical protection against any attack on his property.[53] Thus
+a new motive was furnished, this time somewhat artificially, for making
+nakedness, in women at all events, disgraceful. As the conception of
+property also extended to the father's right over his daughters, and the
+appreciation of female chastity developed, this motive spread to unmarried
+as well as married women. A woman on the west coast of Africa must always
+be chaste because she is first the property of her parents and afterwards
+of her husband,[54] and even in the seventeenth century of Christendom so
+able a thinker as Bishop Burnet furnished precisely the same reason for
+feminine chastity.[55] This conception probably constituted the chief and
+most persistent element furnished to the complex emotion of modesty by the
+barbarous stages of human civilization.
+
+This economic factor necessarily involved the introduction of a new moral
+element into modesty. If a woman's chastity is the property of another
+person, it is essential that she shall be modest in order that men may not
+be tempted to incur the penalties involved by the infringement of property
+rights. Thus modesty is strictly inculcated on women in order that men may
+be safeguarded from temptation. The fact was overlooked that modesty is
+itself a temptation. Immodesty being, on this ground, disapproved by men,
+a new motive for modesty is furnished to women. In the book which the
+Knight of the Tower, Landry, wrote in the fourteenth century, for the
+instruction of his daughters, this factor of modesty is naively revealed.
+He tells his daughters of the trouble that David got into through the
+thoughtlessness of Bathsheba, and warns them that "every woman ought
+religiously to conceal herself when dressing and washing, and neither out
+of vanity nor yet to attract attention show either her hair, or her neck,
+or her breast, or any part which ought to be covered." Hinton went so far
+as to regard what he termed "body modesty," as entirely a custom imposed
+upon women by men with the object of preserving their own virtue. While
+this motive is far from being the sole source of modesty, it must
+certainly be borne in mind as an inevitable outcome of the economic factor
+of modesty.
+
+In Europe it seems probable that the generally accepted conceptions of
+mediaeval chivalry were not without influence in constituting the forms in
+which modesty shows itself among us. In the early middle ages there seems
+to have been a much greater degree of physical familiarity between the
+sexes than is commonly found among barbarians elsewhere. There was
+certainly considerable promiscuity in bathing and indifference to
+nakedness. It seems probable, as Durkheim points out,[56] that this state
+of things was modified in part by the growing force of the dictates of
+Christian morality, which regarded all intimate approaches between the
+sexes as sinful, and in part by the influence of chivalry with its
+aesthetic and moral ideals of women, as the representative of all the
+delicacies and elegancies of civilization. This ideal was regarded as
+incompatible with the familiarities of the existing social relationships
+between the sexes, and thus a separation, which at first existed only in
+art and literature, began by a curious reaction to exert an influence on
+real life.
+
+The chief new feature--it is scarcely a new element--added to modesty when
+an advanced civilization slowly emerges from barbarism is the elaboration
+of its social ritual.[57] Civilization expands the range of modesty, and
+renders it, at the same time, more changeable. The French seventeenth
+century, and the English eighteenth, represent early stages of modern
+European civilization, and they both devoted special attention to the
+elaboration of the minute details of modesty. The frequenters of the Hotel
+Rambouillet, the _precieuses_ satirized by Moliere, were not only engaged
+in refining the language; they were refining feelings and ideas and
+enlarging the boundaries of modesty.[58] In England such famous and
+popular authors as Swift and Sterne bear witness to a new ardor of modesty
+in the sudden reticences, the dashes, and the asterisks, which are found
+throughout their works. The altogether new quality of literary prurience,
+of which Sterne is still the classical example, could only have arisen on
+the basis of the new modesty which was then overspreading society and
+literature. Idle people, mostly, no doubt, the women in _salons_ and
+drawing-rooms, people more familiar with books than with the realities of
+life, now laid down the rules of modesty, and were ever enlarging it, ever
+inventing new subtleties of gesture and speech, which it would be immodest
+to neglect, and which are ever being rendered vulgar by use and ever
+changing.
+
+    It was at this time, probably, that the custom of inventing an
+    arbitrary private vocabulary of words and phrases for the purpose
+    of disguising references to functions and parts of the body
+    regarded as immodest and indecent, first began to become common.
+    Such private slang, growing up independently in families, and
+    especially among women, as well as between lovers, is now almost
+    universal. It is not confined to any European country, and has
+    been studied in Italy by Niceforo (_Il Gergo_, 1897, cap. 1 and
+    2), who regards it as a weapon of social defence against an
+    inquisitive or hostile environment, since it enables things to be
+    said with a meaning which is unintelligible to all but the
+    initiated person. While it is quite true that the custom is
+    supported by the consciousness of its practical advantages, it
+    has another source in a desire to avoid what is felt to be the
+    vulgar immodesty of direct speech. This is sufficiently shown by
+    the fact that such slang is mostly concerned with the sacro-pubic
+    sphere. It is one of the chief contributions to the phenomena of
+    modesty furnished by civilization. The claims of modesty having
+    effected the clothing of the body, the impulse of modesty finds a
+    further sphere of activity--half-playful, yet wholly
+    imperative--in the clothing of language.
+
+    Modesty of speech has, however, a deep and primitive basis,
+    although in modern Europe it only became conspicuous at the
+    beginning of the eighteenth century. "All over the world," as
+    Dufour put it, "to do is good, to say is bad." Reticences of
+    speech are not adequately accounted for by the statement that
+    modesty tends to irradiate from the action to the words
+    describing the action, for there is a tendency for modesty to be
+    more deeply rooted in the words than in the actions. "Modest
+    women," as Kleinpaul truly remarks, "have a much greater horror
+    of saying immodest things than of doing them; they believe that
+    fig-leaves were especially made for the mouth." (Kleinpaul,
+    _Sprache ohne Worte_, p. 309.) It is a tendency which is linked
+    on to the religious and ritual feeling which we have already
+    found to be a factor of modesty, and which, even when applied to
+    language, appears to have an almost or quite instinctive basis,
+    for it is found among the most primitive savages, who very
+    frequently regard a name as too sacred or dangerous to utter.
+    Among the tribes of Central Australia, in addition to his
+    ordinary name, each individual has his sacred or secret name,
+    only known to the older and fully initiated members of his own
+    totemic group; among the Warramunga, it is not permitted to women
+    to utter even a man's ordinary name, though she knows it.
+    (Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p.
+    581.) In the mysterious region of sex, this feeling easily takes
+    root. In many parts of the world, men use among themselves, and
+    women use among themselves, words and even languages which they
+    may not use without impropriety in speaking to persons of the
+    opposite sex, and it has been shown that exogamy, or the fact
+    that the wife belongs to a different tribe, will not always
+    account for this phenomenon. (Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 46.)
+    A special vocabulary for the generative organs and functions is
+    very widespread. Thus, in northwest Central Queensland, there is
+    both a decent and an indecent vocabulary for the sexual parts; in
+    Mitakoodi language, for instance, _me-ne_ may be used for the
+    vulva in the best aboriginal society, but _koon-ja_ and _pukkil_,
+    which are names for the same parts, are the most blackguardly
+    words known to the natives. (W. Roth, _Ethnological Studies Among
+    the Queensland Aborigines_, p. 184.) Among the Malays, _puki_ is
+    also a name for the vulva which it is very indecent to utter, and
+    it is only used in public by people under the influence of an
+    obsessive nervous disorder. (W. Gilman Ellis, "Latah," _Journal
+    of Mental Science_, Jan., 1897.) The Swahili women of Africa have
+    a private metaphorical language of their own, referring to sexual
+    matters (Zache, _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 2-3, pp.
+    70 et seq.), and in Samoa, again, young girls have a euphemistic
+    name for the penis, _aualuma_, which is not that in common use
+    (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 1, p. 31); exactly the
+    same thing is found in Europe, to-day, and is sometimes more
+    marked among young peasant women than among those of better
+    social class, who often avoid, under all circumstances, the
+    necessity for using any definite name.
+
+    Singular as it may seem, the Romans, who in their literature
+    impress us by their vigorous and naked grip of the most private
+    facts of life, showed in familiar intercourse a dread of obscene
+    language--a dread ultimately founded, it is evident, on religious
+    grounds--far exceeding that which prevails among ourselves to-day
+    in civilization. "It is remarkable," Dufour observes, "that the
+    prostitutes of ancient Rome would have blushed to say an indecent
+    word in public. The little tender words used between lovers and
+    their mistresses were not less correct and innocent when the
+    mistress was a courtesan and the lover an erotic poet. He called
+    her his rose, his queen, his goddess, his dove, his light, his
+    star, and she replied by calling him her jewel, her honey, her
+    bird, her ambrosia, the apple of her eye, and never with any
+    licentious interjection, but only 'I will love!' (_Amabo_), a
+    frequent exclamation, summing up a whole life and vocation. When
+    intimate relations began, they treated each other as 'brother'
+    and 'sister.' These appellations were common among the humblest
+    and the proudest courtesans alike." (Dufour, _Histoire de la
+    Prostitution_, vol. ii, p. 78.) So excessive was the Roman horror
+    of obscenity that even physicians were compelled to use a
+    euphemism for _urina_, and though the _urinal_ or _vas urinarium_
+    was openly used at the dining-table (following a custom
+    introduced by the Sybarites, according to Athenaeus, Book XII,
+    cap. 17), the decorous guest could not ask for it by name, but
+    only by a snap of the fingers (Dufour, op. cit., vol. ii, p.
+    174).
+
+    In modern Europe, as seems fairly evident from the early
+    realistic dramatic literature of various countries, no special
+    horror of speaking plainly regarding the sacro-pubic regions and
+    their functions existed among the general population until the
+    seventeenth century. There is, however, one marked exception.
+    Such a feeling clearly existed as regards menstruation. It is not
+    difficult to see why it should have begun at this function. We
+    have here not only a function confined to one sex and, therefore,
+    easily lending itself to a vocabulary confined to one sex; but,
+    what is even of more importance, the belief which existed among
+    the Romans, as elsewhere throughout the world, concerning the
+    specially dangerous and mysterious properties of menstruation,
+    survived throughout mediaeval times. (See e.g., Ploss and Bartels,
+    _Das Weib_, Bd. I, XIV; also Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_,
+    fourth ed. Ch. XI.) The very name, _menses_ ("monthlies"), is a
+    euphemism, and most of the old scientific names for this function
+    are similarly vague. As regards popular feminine terminology
+    previous to the eighteenth century, Schurig gives us fairly ample
+    information (_Parthenologia_, 1729, pp. 27 et seq.). He remarks
+    that both in Latin and Germanic countries, menstruation was
+    commonly designated by some term equivalent to "flowers,"
+    because, he says, it is a blossoming that indicates the
+    possibility of fruit. German peasant women, he tells us, called
+    it the rose-wreath (Rosenkrantz). Among the other current
+    feminine names for menstruation which he gives, some are purely
+    fanciful; thus, the Italian women dignified the function with the
+    title of "marchese magnifico;" German ladies, again, would use
+    the locution, "I have had a letter," or would say that their
+    cousin or aunt had arrived. These are closely similar to the
+    euphemisms still used by women.
+
+    It should be added that euphemisms for menstruation are not
+    confined to Europe, and are found among savages. According to
+    Hill Tout (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1904, p.
+    320; and 1905, p. 137), one of these euphemisms was "putting on
+    the moccasin," and in another branch of the same people, "putting
+    the knees together," "going outside" (in allusion to the
+    customary seclusion at this period in a solitary hut), and so on.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that this process is an
+intensification of modesty. It is, on the contrary, an attenuation of it.
+The observances of modesty become merely a part of a vast body of rules of
+social etiquette, though a somewhat stringent part on account of the vague
+sense still persisting of a deep-lying natural basis. It is a significant
+coincidence that the eighteenth century, which was marked by this new
+extension of the social ritual of modesty, also saw the first appearance
+of a new philosophic impulse not merely to analyze, but to dissolve the
+conception of modesty. This took place more especially in France.
+
+The swift rise to supremacy, during the seventeenth century, of logical
+and rational methods of thinking, in conjunction with the new development
+of geometrical and mathematical science, led in the eighteenth century to
+a widespread belief in France that human customs and human society ought
+to be founded on a strictly logical and rational basis. It was a belief
+which ignored those legitimate claims of the emotional nature which the
+nineteenth century afterwards investigated and developed, but it was of
+immense service to mankind in clearing away useless prejudices and
+superstitions, and it culminated in the reforms of the great Revolution
+which most other nations have since been painfully struggling to attain.
+Modesty offered a tempting field for the eighteenth century philosophic
+spirit to explore.
+
+The manner in which the most distinguished and adventurous minds of the
+century approached it, can scarcely be better illustrated than by a
+conversation, reported by Madame d'Epinay, which took place in 1750 at the
+table of Mlle. Quinault, the eminent actress. "A fine virtue," Duclos
+remarked, "which one fastens on in the morning with pins." He proceeded to
+argue that "a moral law must hold good always and everywhere, which
+modesty does not." Saint-Lambert, the poet, observed that "it must be
+acknowledged that one can say nothing good about innocence without being a
+little corrupted," and Duclos added "or of modesty without being
+impudent." Saint-Lambert finally held forth with much poetic enthusiasm
+concerning the desirability of consummating marriages in public.[59] This
+view of modesty, combined with the introduction of Greek fashions, gained
+ground to such an extent that towards the end of the century women, to the
+detriment of their health, were sometimes content to dress in transparent
+gauze, and even to walk abroad in the Champs Elysees without any clothing;
+that, however, was too much for the public.[60] The final outcome of the
+eighteenth century spirit in this direction was, as we know, by no means
+the dissolution of modesty. But it led to a clearer realization of what is
+permanent in its organic foundations and what is merely temporary in its
+shifting manifestations. That is a realization which is no mean task to
+achieve, and is difficult for many, even yet. So intelligent a traveler as
+Mrs. Bishop (Miss Bird), on her first visit to Japan came to the
+conclusion that Japanese women had no modesty, because they had no
+objection to being seen naked when bathing. Twenty years later she
+admitted to Dr. Baelz that she had made a mistake, and that "a woman may
+be naked and yet behave like a lady."[61] In civilized countries the
+observances of modesty differ in different regions, and in different
+social classes, but, however various the forms may be, the impulse itself
+remains persistent.[62]
+
+Modesty has thus come to have the force of a tradition, a vague but
+massive force, bearing with special power on those who cannot reason, and
+yet having its root in the instincts of all people of all classes.[63] It
+has become mainly transformed into the allied emotion of decency, which
+has been described as "modesty fossilized into social customs." The
+emotion yields more readily than in its primitive state to any
+sufficiently-strong motive. Even fashion in the more civilized countries
+can easily inhibit anatomical modesty, and rapidly exhibit or accentuate,
+in turn, almost any part of the body, while the savage Indian woman of
+America, the barbarous woman of some Mohammedan countries, can scarcely
+sacrifice her modesty in the pangs of childbirth. Even when, among
+uncivilized races, the focus of modesty may be said to be eccentric and
+arbitrary, it still remains very rigid. In such savage and barbarous
+countries modesty possesses the strength of a genuine and irresistible
+instinct. In civilized countries, however, anyone who places
+considerations of modesty before the claims of some real human need
+excites ridicule and contempt.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] Fliess (_Die Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen
+Geschlechts-Organen_, p. 194) remarks on the fact that, in the Bible
+narrative of Eden, shame and fear are represented as being brought into
+the world together: Adam feared God because he was naked. Melinaud
+("Psychologie de la Pudeur," _La Revue_, Nov. 15, 1901) remarks that shame
+differs from modesty in being, not a fear, but a kind of grief; this
+position seems untenable.
+
+[5] Bashfulness in children has been dealt with by Professor Baldwin; see
+especially his _Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, Chapter VI,
+pp. 146 et seq., and _Social Interpretations in Mental Development_,
+Chapter VI.
+
+[6] Bell, "A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love Between the Sexes,"
+_American Journal Psychology_, July, 1902.
+
+[7] Professor Starbuck (_Psychology of Religion_, Chapter XXX) refers to
+unpublished investigations showing that recognition of the rights of
+others also exhibits a sudden increment at the age of puberty.
+
+[8] Perez, _L'Enfant de Trois a Sept Ans_, 1886, pp. 267-277.
+
+[9] It must be remembered that the Medicean Venus is merely a
+comparatively recent and familiar embodiment of a natural attitude which
+is very ancient, and had impressed sculptors at a far earlier period.
+Reinach, indeed, believes ("La Sculpture en Europe," _L'Anthropologie_,
+No. 5, 1895) that the hand was first brought to the breast to press out
+the milk, and expresses the idea of exuberance, and that the attitude of
+the Venus of Medici as a symbol of modesty came later; he remarks that, as
+regards both hands, this attitude may be found in a figurine of Cyprus,
+2,000 years before Christ. This is, no doubt, correct, and I may add that
+Babylonian figurines of Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, represent her as
+clasping her hands to her breasts or her womb.
+
+[10] When there is no sexual fear the impulse of modesty may be entirely
+inhibited. French ladies under the old Regime (as A. Franklin points out
+in his _Vie Privee d'Autrefois_) sometimes showed no modesty towards their
+valets, not admitting the possibility of any sexual advance, and a lady
+would, for example, stand up in her bath while a valet added hot water by
+pouring it between her separated feet.
+
+[11] I do not hereby mean to deny a certain degree of normal periodicity
+even to the human male; but such periodicity scarcely involves any element
+of sexual fear or attitude of sexual defence, in man because it is too
+slight to involve complete latency of the sexual functions, in other
+species because latency of sexual function in the male is always
+accompanied by corresponding latency in the female.
+
+[12] H. Northcote, _Christianity and the Sex Problem_, p. 8. Crawley had
+previously argued (_The Mystic Rose_, pp. 134, 180) that this same
+necessity for solitude during the performance of nutritive, sexual, and
+excretory functions, is a factor in investing such functions with a
+potential sacredness, so that the concealment of them became a religious
+duty.
+
+[13] _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1878, p. 26.
+
+[14] _Essais_, livre ii, Ch. XV.
+
+[15] _Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. i, p. 89.
+
+[16] Lane, _Arabian Society_, p. 228. The Arab insistence on the value of
+virginal modesty is well brought out in one of the most charming stories
+of the _Arabian Nights_, "The History of the Mirror of Virginity."
+
+[17] This has especially been emphasized by Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_,
+pp. 181, 324 et seq., 353.
+
+[18] _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 8, p. 358.
+
+[19] This, however, is not always or altogether true of experienced women.
+Thus, the Russian correspondent already referred to, who as a youth was
+accustomed, partly out of shyness, to feign complete ignorance of sexual
+matters, informs me that it repeatedly happened to him at this time that
+young married women took pleasure in imposing on themselves, not without
+shyness but with evident pleasure, the task of initiating him, though they
+always hastened to tell him that it was for his good, to preserve him from
+bad women and masturbation. Prostitutes, also, often take pleasure in
+innocent men, and Hans Ostwald tells (_Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908, p.
+357) of a prostitute who fell violently in love with a youth who had never
+known a woman before; she had never met an innocent man before, and it
+excited her greatly. And I have been told of an Italian prostitute who
+spoke of the exciting pleasure which an unspoilt youth gave her by his
+freshness, _tutta questa freschezza_.
+
+[20] _Anatomy of Melancholy_, Part III, Sect. III. Mem. IV. Subs. I.
+
+[21] N. Venette, _La Generation de l'Homme_, Part II, Ch. X.
+
+[22] _Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. i, p. 94.
+
+[23] Kryptadia, vol. ii, p. 26, 31. Ib. vol. iii, p. 162.
+
+[24] "Modesty is, at first," said Renouvier, "a fear which we have of
+displeasing others, and of blushing at our own natural imperfections."
+(Renouvier and Prat, _La Nouvelle Monadologie_, p. 221.)
+
+[25] C. Richet, "Les Causes du Degout," _L'Homme et l'Intelligence_, 1884.
+This eminent physiologist's elaborate study of disgust was not written as
+a contribution to the psychology of modesty, but it forms an admirable
+introduction to the investigation of the social factor of modesty.
+
+[26] It is interesting to note that where, as among the Eskimo, urine, for
+instance, is preserved as a highly-valuable commodity, the act of
+urination, even at table, is not regarded as in the slightest degree
+disgusting or immodest (Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, p. 202).
+
+[27] Hawkesworth, _An Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. ii, p. 52.
+
+[28] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vol. vi, p. 173.
+
+[29] Stevens, "Mittheilungen aus dem Frauenleben der Orang Belendas,"
+_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, Heft 4, p. 167, 1896. Crawley, (_Mystic
+Rose_, Ch. VIII, p. 439) gives numerous other instances, even in Europe,
+with, however, special reference to sexual taboo. I may remark that
+English people of lower class, especially women, are often modest about
+eating in the presence of people of higher class. This feeling is, no
+doubt, due, in part, to the consciousness of defective etiquette, but that
+very consciousness is, in part, a development of the fear of causing
+disgust, which is a component of modesty.
+
+[30] Shame in regard to eating, it may be added, occasionally appears as a
+neurasthenic obsession in civilization, and has been studied as a form of
+psychasthenia by Janet. See e.g., (Raymond and Janet, _Les Obsessions et
+la Psychasthenie_, vol. ii, p. 386) the case of a young girl of 24, who,
+from the age of 12 or 13 (the epoch of puberty) had been ashamed to eat in
+public, thinking it nasty and ugly to do so, and arguing that it ought
+only to be done in private, like urination.
+
+[31] "Desire and disgust are curiously blended," remarks Crawley (_The
+Mystic Rose_, p. 139), "when, with one's own desire unsatisfied, one sees
+the satisfaction of another; and here we may see the altruistic stage
+beginning; this has two sides, the fear of causing desire in others, and
+the fear of causing disgust; in each case, personal isolation is the
+psychological result."
+
+[32] Hohenemser argues that the fear of causing disgust cannot be a part
+of shame. But he also argues that shame is simply psychic stasis, and it
+is quite easy to see, as in the above case, that the fear of causing
+disgust is simply a manifestation of psychic stasis. There is a conflict
+in the woman's mind between the idea of herself which she has already
+given, and the more degraded idea of herself which she fears she is likely
+to give, and this conflict is settled when she is made to feel that the
+first idea may still be maintained under the new circumstances.
+
+[33] We neither of us knew that we had merely made afresh a very ancient
+discovery. Casanova, more than a century ago, quoted the remark of a
+friend of his, that the easiest way to overcome the modesty of a woman is
+to suppose it non-existent; and he adds a saying, which he attributes to
+Clement of Alexandria, that modesty, which seems so deeply rooted in
+women, only resides in the linen that covers them, and vanishes when it
+vanishes. The passage to which Casanova referred occurs in the
+_Paedagogus_, and has already been quoted. The observation seems to have
+appealed strongly to the Fathers, always glad to make a point against
+women, and I have met with it in Cyprian's _De Habitu Feminarum_. It also
+occurs in Jerome's treatise against Jovinian. Jerome, with more scholarly
+instinct, rightly presents the remark as a quotation: "_Scribit Herodotus
+quod mulier cum veste deponat et verecundiam_." In Herodotus the saying is
+attributed to Gyges (Book I, Chapter VIII). We may thus trace very far
+back into antiquity an observation which in English has received its
+classical expression from Chaucer, who, in his "Wife of Bath's Prologue,"
+has:--
+
+    "He sayde, a woman cast hir shame away,
+    When she cast of hir smok."
+
+I need not point out that the analysis of modesty offered above robs this
+venerable saying of any sting it may have possessed as a slur upon women.
+In such a case, modesty is largely a doubt as to the spectator's attitude,
+and necessarily disappears when that doubt is satisfactorily resolved. As
+we have seen, the Central Australian maidens were very modest with regard
+to the removal of their single garment, but when that removal was
+accomplished and accepted, they were fearless.
+
+[34] The same result occurs more markedly under the deadening influence of
+insanity. Grimaldi (_Il Manicomio Moderno_, 1888) found that modesty is
+lacking in 50 per cent, of the insane.
+
+[35] For some facts bearing on this point, see Houssay, _Industries of
+Animals_, Chapter VII. "The Defence and Sanitation of Dwellings;" also P.
+Ballion, _De l'Instinct de Proprete chez les Animaux_.
+
+[36] Thus, Stevens mentions (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, p. 182, 1897)
+that the Dyaks of Malacca always wash the sexual organs, even after
+urination, and are careful to use the left hand in doing so. The left hand
+is also reserved for such uses among the Jekris of the Niger coast
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 122, 1898).
+
+[37] Lombroso and Ferrero--who adopt the derivation of _pudor_ from
+_putere_; i.e., from the repugnance caused by the decomposition of the
+vaginal secretions--consider that the fear of causing disgust to men is
+the sole origin of modesty among savage women, as also it remains the sole
+form of modesty among some prostitutes to-day. (_La Donna Delinquente_, p.
+540.) Important as this factor is in the constitution of the emotion of
+modesty, I need scarcely add that I regard so exclusive a theory as
+altogether untenable.
+
+[38] _Das Weib_, Ch. VI.
+
+[39] For references as to a similar feeling among other savages, see
+Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 152.
+
+[40] See e.g., Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, pp. 141, 145, etc.
+
+[41] Crawley, op. cit., Ch. VII.
+
+[42] S, Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes et Religions_, p. 172.
+
+[43] Tertullian, _De Virginibus Velandis_, cap. 17. Hottentot women, also
+(Fritsch, _Eingeborene Suedafrika's_, p. 311), cover their head with a
+cloth, and will not be persuaded to remove it.
+
+[44] Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, p. 196. The same custom is
+found among Tuareg men though it is not imperative for the women
+(Duveyrier, _Les Touaregs du Nord_, p. 291).
+
+[45] Quoted in _Zentralblatt fuer Anthropologie_, 1906, Heft I, p. 21.
+
+[46] Or rather, perhaps, because the sight of their nakedness might lead
+the angels into sin. See W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, p. 431.
+
+[47] In Moruland, Emin Bey remarked that women are mostly naked, but some
+wear a girdle, with a few leaves hanging behind. The women of some negro
+tribes, who thus cover themselves behind, if deprived of this sole
+covering, immediately throw themselves on the ground on their backs, in
+order to hide their nakedness.
+
+[48] E.g., Letourneau, _L'Evolution de la Morale_, p. 146.
+
+[49] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 683.
+
+[50] J.R. Forster, _Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World_,
+1728, p. 395.
+
+[51] Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, Ch. IX) ably sets forth
+this argument, with his usual wealth of illustration. Crawley (_Mystic
+Rose_, p. 135) seeks to qualify this conclusion by arguing that tattooing,
+etc., of the sex organs is not for ornament but for the purpose of
+magically insulating the organs, and is practically a permanent amulet or
+charm.
+
+[52] _Iliad_, II, 262. Waitz gives instances (_Anthropology_, p. 301)
+showing that nakedness is sometimes a mark of submission.
+
+[53] The Celtic races, in their days of developed barbarism, seem to have
+been relatively free from the idea of proprietorship in women, and it was
+probably among the Irish (as we learn from the seventeenth century
+_Itinerary_ of Fynes Moryson) that the habit of nakedness was longest
+preserved among the upper social class women of Western Europe.
+
+[54] A.B. Ellis, _Tshi-Speaking Peoples_, p. 280.
+
+[55] Burnet, _Life and Death of Rochester_, p. 110.
+
+[56] _L'Annee Sociologique_, seventh year, 1904, p. 439.
+
+[57] Tallemont des Reaux, who began to write his _Historiettes_ in 1657,
+says of the Marquise de Rambouillet: "Elle est un peu trop delicate ... on
+n'oscrait prononcer le mot de _cul_. Cela va dans l'exces." Half a century
+later, in England, Mandeville, in the Remarks appended to his _Fable of
+the Bees_, refers to the almost prudish modesty inculcated on children
+from their earliest years.
+
+[58] In one of its civilized developments, this ritualized modesty becomes
+prudery, which is defined by Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, Fifth ed., p.
+125) as "codified sexual morality." Prudery is fossilized modesty, and no
+longer reacts vitally. True modesty, in an intelligent civilized person,
+is instinctively affected by motives and circumstances, responding
+sensitively to its relationships.
+
+[59] _Memoires de Madame d'Epinay_, Part I, Ch. V. Thirty years earlier,
+Mandeville had written, in England, that "the modesty of women is the
+result of custom and education."
+
+[60] Goncourt, _Histoire de la Societe Francaise pendant le Directoire_,
+p. 422. Clothes became so gauze-like, and receded to such an extent from
+the limbs, that for a time the chemise was discarded as an awkward and
+antiquated garment.
+
+[61] _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1901, Heft 2, p. 179.
+
+[62] In the rural districts of Hanover, Pastor Grashoff states, "even when
+natural necessities are performed with the greatest possible freedom,
+there is no offence to modesty, in rural opinion." But he makes a
+statement which is both contradictory and false, when he adds that
+"modesty is, to the country man in general, a foreign idea."
+(_Geschlechtlich-Sittliche Verhaeltnisse im Deutsche Reiche_, vol. ii, p.
+45.)
+
+[63] It is frequently stated that prostitutes are devoid of modesty, but
+this is incorrect; they possess a partial and diminished modesty which,
+for a considerable period still remains genuine (see e.g., Reuss, _La
+Prostitution_, p. 58). Lombroso and Ferrero (_La Donna_, p. 540) refer to
+the objection of prostitutes to be examined during the monthly periods as
+often greater than that of respectable women. Again, Callari states
+("Prostituzione in Sicilia," _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1903, p. 205),
+that Sicilian prostitutes can only with difficulty be persuaded to expose
+themselves naked in the practice of their profession. Aretino long since
+remarked (in _La Pippa_) that no women so detest gratuitous _decolletage_
+as prostitutes. When prostitutes do not possess modesty, they frequently
+simulate it, and Ferriani remarks (in his _Delinquenti Minorenni_) that of
+ninety-seven minors (mostly females) accused of offences against public
+decency, seventy-five simulated a modesty which, in his opinion, they were
+entirely without.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Blush the Sanction of Modesty--The Phenomena of Blushing--Influences
+Which Modify the Aptitude to Blush--Darkness, Concealment of the Face,
+Etc.
+
+
+It is impossible to contemplate this series of phenomena, so radically
+persistent whatever its changes of form, and so constant throughout every
+stage of civilization, without feeling that, although modesty cannot
+properly be called an instinct, there must be some physiological basis to
+support it. Undoubtedly such a basis is formed by that vasomotor mechanism
+of which the most obvious outward sign is, in human beings, the blush. All
+the allied emotional forms of fear--shame, bashfulness, timidity--are to
+some extent upheld by this mechanism, but such is especially the case with
+the emotion we are now concerned with.[64] The blush is the sanction of
+modesty.
+
+    The blush is, indeed, only a part, almost, perhaps, an accidental
+    part, of the organic turmoil with which it is associated.
+    Partridge, who has studied the phenomena of blushing in one
+    hundred and twenty cases (_Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1897),
+    finds that the following are the general symptoms: tremors near
+    the waist, weakness in the limbs, pressure, trembling, warmth,
+    weight or beating in the chest, warm wave from feet upward,
+    quivering of heart, stoppage and then rapid beating of heart,
+    coldness all over followed by heat, dizziness, tingling of toes
+    and fingers, numbness, something rising in throat, smarting of
+    eyes, singing in ears, prickling sensations of face, and pressure
+    inside head. Partridge considers that the disturbance is
+    primarily central, a change in the cerebral circulation, and that
+    the actual redness of the surface comes late in the nerve storm,
+    and is really but a small part of it.
+
+    There has been some discussion as to why, and indeed how far,
+    blushing is confined to the face. Henle (_Ueber das Erroethen_)
+    thought that we blush in the face because all nervous phenomena
+    produced by mental states appear first in the face, owing to the
+    anatomical arrangement of the nerves of the body. Darwin
+    (_Expression of the Emotions_) argued that attention to a part
+    tends to produce capillary activity in the part, and that the
+    face has been the chief object of attention. It has also been
+    argued, on the other hand, that the blush is the vestigial
+    remains of a general erethism of sex, in which shame originated;
+    that the blush was thus once more widely diffused, and is so
+    still among the women of some lower races, its limitation to the
+    face being due to sexual selection and the enhanced beauty thus
+    achieved. Fere once had occasion to examine, when completely
+    nude, a boy of thirteen whose sexual organs were deformed; when
+    accused of masturbation he became covered by a blush which spread
+    uniformly over his face, neck, body and limbs, before and behind,
+    except only the hands and feet. Fere asks whether such a
+    universal blush is more common than we imagine, or whether the
+    state of nudity favors its manifestation. (_Comptes Rendus,
+    Societe de Biologie_, April 1, 1905.) It may be added that
+    Partridge mentions one case in which the hands blushed.
+
+The sexual relationships of blushing are unquestionable. It occurs chiefly
+in women; it attains its chief intensity at puberty and during
+adolescence; its most common occasion is some more or less sexual
+suggestion; among one hundred and sixty-two occasions of blushing
+enumerated by Partridge, by far the most frequent cause was teasing,
+usually about the other sex. "An erection," it has been said, "is a
+blushing of the penis." Stanley Hall seems to suggest that the sexual
+blush is a vicarious genital flushing of blood, diverted from the genital
+sphere by an inhibition of fear, just as, in girls, giggling is also very
+frequently a vicarious outlet of shame; the sexual blush would thus be the
+outcome of an ancestral sex-fear; it is as an irradiation of sexual
+erethism that the blush may contain an element of pleasure.[65]
+
+    Bloch remarks that the blush is sexual, because reddening of the
+    face, as well as of the genitals, is an accompaniment of sexual
+    emotion (_Beitraege zur AEtiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Teil
+    II, p. 39). "Do you not think," a correspondent writes, "that
+    the sexual blush, at least, really represents a vaso-relaxor
+    effect quite the same as erection? The embarrassment which arises
+    is due to a perception of this fact under circumstances which are
+    felt to be unsuited for such a condition. There may arise the
+    fear of awakening disgust by the exhibition of a state which is
+    out of place. I have noticed that such a blush is produced when a
+    sufficiently young and susceptible woman is pumped full of
+    compliments. This blush seems accompanied by pleasure which does
+    not always change to fear or disgust, but is felt to be
+    attractive. When discomfort arises, most women say that they feel
+    this because 'it looks as if they had no control over
+    themselves.' When they feel that there is no need for control,
+    they no longer feel fear, and the relaxor effect has a wider
+    field of operation, producing a general rosiness, erection of
+    spinal sexual organs, etc. Such a blush would thus be a partial
+    sexual equivalent, and allow of the inhibition of other sexual
+    effects, through the warning it gives, and the fear aroused, as
+    well as being in itself a slight outlet of relaxor energy. When
+    the relationships of the persons concerned allow freedom to the
+    special sexual stimuli, as in marriage, blushing does not occur
+    so often, and when it does it has not so often the consequent of
+    fear."
+
+    There can be no doubt that the blush is sexually attractive. The
+    blush is the expression of an impulse to concealment and flight,
+    which tends automatically to arouse in the beholder the
+    corresponding impulse of pursuit, so that the central situation
+    of courtship is at once presented. Women are more or less
+    conscious of this, as well as men, and this recognition is an
+    added source of embarrassment when it cannot become a source of
+    pleasure. The ancient use of rouge testifies to the beauty of the
+    blush, and Darwin stated that, in Turkish slave-markets, the
+    girls who readily blushed fetched the highest prices. To evoke a
+    blush, even by producing embarrassment, is very commonly a cause
+    of masculine gratification.
+
+    Savages, both men and women, blush even beneath a dusky skin (for
+    the phenomenon of blushing among different races, see Waitz,
+    _Anthropologie der Naturvoelker_, Bd. I, pp. 149-150), and it is
+    possible that natural selection, as well as sexual selection, has
+    been favorable to the development of the blush. It is scarcely an
+    accident that, as has been often observed, criminals, or the
+    antisocial element of the community--whether by the habits of
+    their lives or by congenital abnormality--blush less easily than
+    normal persons. Kroner (_Das koerperliche Gefuehl_, 1887, p. 130)
+    remarks: "The origin of a specific connection between shame and
+    blushing is the work of a _social selection_. It is certainly an
+    immediate advantage for a man not to blush; indirectly, however,
+    it is a disadvantage, because in other ways he will be known as
+    shameless, and on that account, as a rule, he will be shut out
+    from propagation. This social selection will be specially
+    exercised on the female sex, and on this account, women blush to
+    a greater extent, and more readily, than men."
+
+The importance of the blush, and the emotional confusion behind it, as the
+sanction of modesty is shown by the significant fact that, by lulling
+emotional confusion, it is possible to inhibit the sense of modesty. In
+other words, we are here in the presence of a fear--to a large extent a
+sex-fear--impelling to concealment, and dreading self-attention; this fear
+naturally disappears, even though its ostensible cause remains, when it
+becomes apparent that there is no reason for fear.
+
+That is the reason why nakedness in itself has nothing to do with modesty
+or immodesty; it is the conditions under which the nakedness occurs which
+determine whether or not modesty will be roused. If none of the factors of
+modesty are violated, if no embarrassing self-attention is excited, if
+there is a consciousness of perfect propriety alike in the subject and in
+the spectator, nakedness is entirely compatible with the most scrupulous
+modesty. A. Duval, a pupil of Ingres, tells that a female model was once
+quietly posing, completely nude, at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Suddenly she
+screamed and ran to cover herself with her garments. She had seen a
+workman on the roof gazing inquisitively at her through a skylight.[66]
+And Paola Lombroso describes how a lady, a diplomatist's wife, who went to
+a gathering where she found herself the only woman in evening dress, felt,
+to her own surprise, such sudden shame that she could not keep back her
+tears.
+
+It thus comes about that the emotion of modesty necessarily depends on
+the feelings of the people around. The absence of the emotion by no means
+signifies immodesty, provided that the reactions of modesty are at once
+set in motion under the stress of a spectator's eye that is seen to be
+lustful, inquisitive, or reproachful. This is proved to be the case among
+primitive peoples everywhere. The Japanese woman, naked as in daily life
+she sometimes is, remains unconcerned because she excites no disagreeable
+attention, but the inquisitive and unmannerly European's eye at once
+causes her to feel confusion. Stratz, a physician, and one, moreover, who
+had long lived among the Javanese who frequently go naked, found that
+naked Japanese women felt no embarrassment in his presence.
+
+It is doubtless as a cloak to the blush that we must explain the curious
+influence of darkness in restraining the manifestations of modesty, as
+many lovers have discovered, and as we may notice in our cities after
+dark. This influence of darkness in inhibiting modesty is a very ancient
+observation. Burton, in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_, quotes from Dandinus
+the saying "_Nox facit impudentes_," directly associating this with
+blushing, and Bargagli, the Siennese novelist, wrote in the sixteenth
+century that, "it is commonly said of women, that they will do in the dark
+what they would not do in the light." It is true that the immodesty of a
+large city at night is to some extent explained by the irruption of
+prostitutes at that time; prostitutes, being habitually nearer to the
+threshold of immodesty, are more markedly affected by this influence. But
+it is an influence to which the most modest women are, at all events in
+some degree, susceptible. It has, indeed, been said that a woman is always
+more her real self in the dark than in the glare of daylight; this is part
+of what Chamberlain calls her night-inspiration.
+
+    "Traces of the night-inspiration, of the influence of the
+    primitive fire-group, abound in woman. Indeed, it may be said
+    (the life of Southern Europe and of American society of to-day
+    illustrates this point abundantly) that she is, in a sense, a
+    night-being, for the activity, physical and moral, of modern
+    women (revealed e.g. in the dance and the nocturnal
+    intellectualities of society) in this direction is remarkable.
+    Perhaps we may style a good deal of her ordinary day-labor as
+    rest, or the commonplaces and banalities of her existence, her
+    evening and night life being the true side of her activities"
+    (A.F. Chamberlain, "Work and Rest," _Popular Science Monthly_,
+    March, 1902). Giessler, who has studied the general influence of
+    darkness on human psychic life, reaches conclusions which
+    harmonize with these (C.M. Giessler, "Der Einfluss der Dunkelheit
+    auf das Seelenleben des Menschen," _Vierteljahrsschrift fuer
+    wissenschaftliche Philosophie_, 1904, pp. 255-279). I have not
+    been able to see Giessler's paper, but, according to a summary of
+    it, he comes to the result that in the dark the soul's activities
+    are nearer to its motor pole than to its sensitive pole, and that
+    there is a tendency for phenomena belonging to the early period
+    of development to be prominent, motor memory functioning more
+    than representative memory, attention more than apperception,
+    imagination more than logical thinking, egoistic more than
+    altruistic morals.
+
+It is curious to note that short-sightedness, naturally, though
+illogically, tends to exert the same influence as darkness in this
+respect; I am assured by short-sighted persons of both sexes that they are
+much more liable to the emotions of shyness and modesty with their glasses
+than without them; such persons with difficulty realize that they are not
+so dim to others as others are to them. To be in the company of a blind
+person seems also to be a protection against shyness.[67] It is
+interesting to learn that congenitally blind children are as sensitive to
+appearances as normal children, and blush as readily.[68] This would seem
+to be due to the fact that the habitually blind have permanently adjusted
+their mental focus to that of normal persons, and react in the same manner
+as normal persons; blindness is not for them, as it is for the
+short-sighted without their glasses, a temporary and relative, almost
+unconscious refuge from clear vision.
+
+It is, of course, not as the mere cloak of a possible blush that darkness
+gives courage; it is because it lulls detailed self-realization, such
+conscious self-realization being always a source of fears, and the blush
+their definite symbol and visible climax. It is to the blush that we must
+attribute a curious complementary relationship between the face and the
+sacro-pubic region as centres of anatomical modesty. The women of some
+African tribes who go naked, Emin Bey remarked, cover the face with the
+hand under the influence of modesty. Martial long since observed (Lib.
+iii, LXVIII) that when an innocent girl looks at the penis she gazes
+through her fingers. Where, as among many Mohammedan peoples, the face is
+the chief focus of modesty, the exposure of the rest of the body,
+including sometimes even the sacro-pubic region, and certainly the legs
+and thighs, often becomes a matter of indifference.[69]
+
+This concealment of the face is more than a convention; it has a
+psychological basis. We may observe among ourselves the well-marked
+feminine tendency to hide the face in order to cloak a possible blush, and
+to hide the eyes as a method of lulling self-consciousness, a method
+fabulously attributed to the ostrich with the same end of concealment.[70]
+A woman who is shy with her lover will sometimes experience little or no
+difficulty in showing any part of her person provided she may cover her
+face. When, in gynecological practice, examination of the sexual organs is
+necessary, women frequently find evident satisfaction in concealing the
+face with the hands, although not the slightest attention is being
+directed toward the face, and when an unsophisticated woman is betrayed
+into a confession which affects her modesty she is apt to turn her back to
+her interlocutor. "When the face of woman is covered," it has been said,
+"her heart is bared," and the Catholic Church has recognized this
+psychological truth by arranging that in the confessional the penitent's
+face shall not be visible. The gay and innocent freedom of southern women
+during Carnival is due not entirely to the permitted license of the season
+or the concealment of identity, but to the mask that hides the face. In
+England, during Queen Elizabeth's reign and at the Restoration, it was
+possible for respectable women to be present at the theatre, even during
+the performance of the most free-spoken plays, because they wore masks.
+The fan has often subserved a similar end.[71]
+
+All such facts serve to show that, though the forms of modesty may change,
+it is yet a very radical constituent of human nature in all stages of
+civilization, and that it is, to a large extent, maintained by the
+mechanism of blushing.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] Melinaud ("Pourquoi Rougit-on?" _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1 Octobre,
+1893) points out that blushing is always associated with fear, and
+indicates, in the various conditions under which it may arise,--modesty,
+timidity, confusion,--that we have something to conceal which we fear may
+be discovered. "All the evidence," Partridge states, "seems to point to
+the conclusion that the mental state underlying blushing belongs to the
+fear family. The presence of the feeling of dread, the palpitation of the
+heart, the impulse to escape, to hide, the shock, all confirms this view."
+
+[65] G. Stanley Hall, "A Study of Fears," _American Journal Psychology_,
+1897.
+
+[66] Men are also very sensitive to any such inquisitiveness on the part
+of the opposite sex. To this cause, perhaps, and possibly, also, to the
+fear of causing disgust, may be ascribed the objection of men to undress
+before women artists and women doctors. I am told there is often
+difficulty in getting men to pose nude to women artists. Sir Jonathan
+Hutchinson was compelled, some years ago, to exclude lady members of the
+medical profession from the instructive demonstrations at his museum, "on
+account of the unwillingness of male patients to undress before them." A
+similar unwillingness is not found among women patients, but it must be
+remembered that, while women are accustomed to men as doctors, men (in
+England) are not yet accustomed to women as doctors.
+
+[67] "I am acquainted with the case of a shy man," writes Dr. Harry
+Campbell, in his interesting study of "Morbid Shyness" (_British Medical
+Journal_, September 26, 1896), "who will make himself quite at home in the
+house of a blind person, and help himself to wine with the utmost
+confidence, whereas if a member of the family, who can see, comes into the
+room, all his old shyness returns, and he wishes himself far away."
+
+[68] Stanley Hall ("Showing Off and Bashfulness," _Pedagogical Seminary_,
+June, 1903), quotes Dr. Anagnos, of the Perkins Institute for the Blind,
+to this effect.
+
+[69] Thus, Sonnini, in the eighteenth century, noted that the country
+women in Egypt only wore a single garment, open from the armpits to the
+knees on each side, so that it revealed the body at every movement; "but
+this troubles the women little, provided the face is not exposed."
+(_Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypte_, 1779, vol. i, p, 289.) When
+Casanova was at Constantinople, the Comte de Bonneval, a convert to Islam,
+assured him that he was mistaken in trying to see a woman's face when he
+might easily obtain greater favors from her. "The most reserved of Turkish
+women," the Comte assured him, "only carries her modesty in her face, and
+as soon as her veil is on she is sure that she will never blush at
+anything." (_Memoires_, vol. i, p. 429.)
+
+[70] It is worth noting that this impulse is rooted in the natural
+instinctive acts and ideas of childhood. Stanley Hall, dealing with the
+"Early Sense of Self," in the report already mentioned, refers to the eyes
+as perhaps even more than the hands, feet, and mouth, "the centres of that
+kind of self-consciousness which is always mindful of how the self appears
+to others," and proceeds to mention "the very common impression of young
+children that if the eyes are covered or closed they cannot be seen. Some
+think the entire body thus vanishes from sight of others; some, that the
+head also ceases to be visible; and a still higher form of this curious
+psychosis is that, when they are closed, the soul cannot be seen."
+(_American Journal of Psychology_, vol. ix, No. 3, 1898.) The instinctive
+and unreasoned character of this act is further shown by its occurrence in
+idiots. Naecke mentions that he once had occasion to examine the abdomen of
+an idiot, who, thereupon, attempted to draw down his shirt with the left
+hand, while with the right he covered his eyes.
+
+[71] Cf. Stanley Hall and T. Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness,"
+_American Journal of Psychology_, June, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+Summary of the Factors of Modesty--The Future of Modesty--Modesty an
+Essential Element of Love.
+
+
+We have seen that the factors of modesty are numerous. To attempt to
+explain modesty by dismissing it as merely an example of psychic
+paralysis, of _Stauung_, is to elude the problem by the statement of what
+is little more than a truism. Modesty is a complexus of emotions with
+their concomitant ideas which we must unravel to comprehend.
+
+We have found among the factors of modesty: (1) the primitive animal
+gesture of sexual refusal on the part of the female when she is not at
+that moment of her generative life at which she desires the male's
+advances; (2) the fear of arousing disgust, a fear primarily due to the
+close proximity of the sexual centre to the points of exit of those
+excretions which are useless and unpleasant, even in many cases to
+animals; (3) the fear of the magic influence of sexual phenomena, and the
+ceremonial and ritual practices primarily based on this fear, and
+ultimately passing into simple rules of decorum which are signs and
+guardians of modesty; (4) the development of ornament and clothing,
+concomitantly fostering alike the modesty which represses male sexual
+desire and the coquetry which seeks to allure it; (5) the conception of
+women as property, imparting a new and powerful sanction to an emotion
+already based on more natural and primitive facts.
+
+It must always be remembered that these factors do not usually occur
+separately. Very often they are all of them implied in a single impulse of
+modesty. We unravel the cord in order to investigate its construction, but
+in real life the strands are more or less indistinguishably twisted
+together.
+
+It may still be asked finally whether, on the whole, modesty really
+becomes a more prominent emotion as civilization advances. I do not think
+this position can be maintained. It is a great mistake, as we have seen,
+to suppose that in becoming extended modesty also becomes intensified. On
+the contrary, this very extension is a sign of weakness. Among savages,
+modesty is far more radical and invincible than among the civilized. Of
+the Araucanian women of Chile, Treutler has remarked that they are
+distinctly more modest than the Christian white population, and such
+observations might be indefinitely extended. It is, as we have already
+noted, in a new and crude civilization, eager to mark its separation from
+a barbarism it has yet scarcely escaped, that we find an extravagant and
+fantastic anxiety to extend the limits of modesty in life, and art, and
+literature. In older and more mature civilizations--in classical
+antiquity, in old Japan, in France--modesty, while still a very real
+influence, becomes a much less predominant and all-pervading influence. In
+life it becomes subservient to human use, in art to beauty, in literature
+to expression.
+
+Among ourselves we may note that modesty is a much more invincible motive
+among the lower social classes than among the more cultivated classes.
+This is so even when we should expect the influence of occupation to
+induce familiarity. Thus I have been told of a ballet-girl who thinks it
+immodest to bathe in the fashion customary at the seaside, and cannot make
+up her mind to do so, but she appears on the stage every night in tights
+as a matter of course; while Fanny Kemble, in her _Reminiscences_, tells
+of an actress, accustomed to appear in tights, who died a martyr to
+modesty rather than allow a surgeon to see her inflamed knee. Modesty is,
+indeed, a part of self-respect, but in the fully-developed human being
+self-respect itself holds in check any excessive modesty.[72]
+
+We must remember, moreover, that there are more definite grounds for the
+subordination of modesty with the development of civilization. We have
+seen that the factors of modesty are many, and that most of them are based
+on emotions which make little urgent appeal save to races in a savage or
+barbarous condition. Thus, disgust, as Richet has truly pointed out,
+necessarily decreases as knowledge increases.[73] As we analyze and
+understand our experiences better, so they cause us less disgust. A rotten
+egg is disgusting, but the chemist feels no disgust toward sulphuretted
+hydrogen; while a solution of propylamin does not produce the disgusting
+impression of that human physical uncleanliness of which it is an odorous
+constituent. As disgust becomes analyzed, and as self-respect tends to
+increased physical purity, so the factor of disgust in modesty is
+minimized. The factor of ceremonial uncleanness, again, which plays so
+urgent a part in modesty at certain stages of culture, is to-day without
+influence except in so far as it survives in etiquette. In the same way
+the social-economic factor of modesty, based on the conception of women as
+property, belongs to a stage of human development which is wholly alien to
+an advanced civilization. Even the most fundamental impulse of all, the
+gesture of sexual refusal, is normally only imperative among animals and
+savages. Thus civilization tends to subordinate, if not to minimize,
+modesty, to render it a grace of life rather than a fundamental social law
+of life. But an essential grace of life it still remains, and whatever
+delicate variations it may assume we can scarcely conceive of its
+disappearance.
+
+In the art of love, however, it is more than a grace; it must always be
+fundamental. Modesty is not indeed the last word of love, but it is the
+necessary foundation for all love's most exquisite audacities, the
+foundation which alone gives worth and sweetness to what Senancour calls
+its "delicious impudence."[74] Without modesty we could not have, nor
+rightly value at its true worth, that bold and pure candor which is at
+once the final revelation of love and the seal of its sincerity.
+
+    Even Hohenemser--who argues that for the perfect man there could
+    be no shame, because shame rests on an inner conflict in one's
+    own personality, and "the perfect man knows no inner
+    conflict"--believes that, since humanity is imperfect, modesty
+    possesses a high and, indeed, symptomatic value, for "its
+    presence shows that according to the measure of a man's ideal
+    personality, his valuations are established."
+
+    Dugas goes further, and asserts that the ideals of modesty
+    develop with human development, and forever take on new and finer
+    forms. "There is," he declares, "a very close relationship
+    between naturalness, or sincerity, and modesty, for in love,
+    naturalness is the ideal attained, and modesty is only the fear
+    of coming short of that ideal. Naturalness is the sign and the
+    test of perfect love. It is the sign of it, for, when love can
+    show itself natural and true, one may conclude that it is
+    purified of its unavowable imperfections or defects, of its alloy
+    of wretched and petty passions, its grossness, its chimerical
+    notions, that it has become strong and healthy and vigorous. It
+    is the ordeal of it, for to show itself natural, to be always
+    true, without shrinking, it must have all the lovable qualities,
+    and have them without seeking, as a second nature. What we call
+    'natural,' is indeed really acquired; it is the gift of a
+    physical and moral evolution which it is precisely the object of
+    modesty to keep. Modesty is the feeling of the true, that is to
+    say, of the healthy, in love; it long exists as a vision, not yet
+    attained; vague, yet sufficiently clear for all that deviates
+    from it to be repelled as offensive and painful. At first, a
+    remote and seemingly inaccessible ideal, as it comes nearer it
+    grows human and individual, and emerges from the region of dream,
+    ceasing not to be loved as ideal, even when it is possessed as
+    real.
+
+    "At first sight, it seems paradoxical to define modesty as an
+    aspiration towards truth in love; it seems, on the contrary, to
+    be an altogether factitious feeling. But to simplify the problem,
+    we have to suppose modesty reduced to its normal functions,
+    disengaged from its superstitions, its variegated customs and
+    prejudices, the true modesty of simple and healthy natures, as
+    far removed from prudery as from immodesty. And what we term the
+    natural, or the true in love, is the singular mingling of two
+    forms of imaginations, wrongly supposed to be incompatible: ideal
+    aspiration and the sense for the realities of life. Thus defined,
+    modesty not only repudiates that cold and dissolving criticism
+    which deprives love of all poetry, and prepares the way for a
+    brutal realism; it also excludes that light and detached
+    imagination which floats above love, the mere idealism of heroic
+    sentiments, which cherishes poetic illusions, and passes, without
+    seeing it, the love that is real and alive. True modesty implies
+    a love not addressed to the heroes of vain romances, but to
+    living people, with their feet on the earth. But on the other
+    hand, modesty is the respect of love; if it is not shocked by
+    its physical necessities, if it accepts physiological and
+    psychological conditions, it also maintains the ideal of those
+    moral proprieties outside of which, for all of us, love cannot be
+    enjoyed. When love is really felt, and not vainly imagined,
+    modesty is the requirement of an ideal of dignity, conceived as
+    the very condition of that love. Separate modesty from love, that
+    is, from love which is not floating in the air, but crystallized
+    around a real person, and its psychological reality, its poignant
+    and tragic character, disappears." (Dugas, "La Pudeur," _Revue
+    Philosophique_, Nov., 1903.) So conceived, modesty becomes a
+    virtue, almost identical with the Roman _modestia_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[72] Freud remarks that one may often hear, concerning elderly ladies,
+that in their youth in the country, they suffered, almost to collapse,
+from haemorrhages from the genital passage, because they were too modest to
+seek medical advice and examination; he adds that it is extremely rare to
+find such an attitude among our young women to-day. (S. Freud, _Zur
+Neurosenlehre_, 1906, p. 182.) It would be easy to find evidence of the
+disappearance of misplaced signs of modesty formerly prevalent, although
+this mark of increasing civilization has not always penetrated to our laws
+and regulations.
+
+[73] "Disgust," he remarks, "is a sort of synthesis which attaches to the
+total form of objects, and which must diminish and disappear as scientific
+analysis separates into parts what, as a whole, is so repugnant."
+
+[74] Senancour, _De l'Amour_, 1834, vol. i, p. 316. He remarks that a
+useless and false reserve is due to stupidity rather than to modesty.
+
+
+
+
+THE PHENOMENA OF SEXUAL PERIODICITY.
+
+
+I.
+
+The Various Physiological and Psychological Rhythms--Menstruation--The
+Alleged Influence of the Moon--Frequent Suppression of Menstruation among
+Primitive Races--Mittelschmerz--Possible Tendency to a Future
+Intermenstrual Cycle--Menstruation among Animals--Menstruating Monkeys and
+Apes--What is Menstruation--Its Primary Cause Still Obscure--The Relation
+of Menstruation to Ovulation--The Occasional Absence of Menstruation in
+Health--The Relation of Menstruation to "Heat"--The Prohibition of
+Intercourse during Menstruation--The Predominance of Sexual Excitement at
+and around the Menstrual Period--Its Absence during the Period Frequently
+Apparent only.
+
+
+Throughout the vegetable and animal worlds the sexual functions are
+periodic. From the usually annual period of flowering in plants, with its
+play of sperm-cell and germ-cell and consequent seed-production, through
+the varying sexual energies of animals, up to the monthly effervescence of
+the generative organism in woman, seeking not without the shedding of
+blood for the gratification of its reproductive function, from first to
+last we find unfailing evidence of the periodicity of sex. At first the
+sun, and then, as some have thought, the moon, have marked throughout a
+rhythmic impress on the phenomena of sex. To understand these phenomena we
+have not only to recognize the bare existence of that periodic fact, but
+to realize its implications.
+
+Rhythm, it is scarcely necessary to remark, is far from characterizing
+sexual activity alone. It is the character of all biological activity,
+alike on the physical and the psychic sides. All the organs of the body
+appear to be in a perpetual process of rhythmic contraction and expansion.
+The heart is rhythmic, so is the respiration. The spleen is rhythmic, so
+also the bladder. The uterus constantly undergoes regular rhythmic
+contractions at brief intervals. The vascular system, down to the smallest
+capillaries, is acted on by three series of vibrations, and every
+separate fragment of muscular tissue possesses rhythmic contractility.
+Growth itself is rhythmic, and, as Malling-Hansen and subsequent observers
+have found, follows a regular annual course as well as a larger cycle. On
+the psychic sides attention is rhythmic. We are always irresistibly
+compelled to impart a rhythm to every succession of sounds, however
+uniform and monotonous. A familiar example of this is the rhythm we can
+seldom refrain from hearing in the puffing of an engine. A series of
+experiments, by Bolton, on thirty subjects showed that the clicks of an
+electric telephone connected in an induction-apparatus nearly always fell
+into rhythmic groups, usually of two or four, rarely of three or five, the
+rhythmic perception being accompanied by a strong impulse to make
+corresponding muscular movements.[75]
+
+It is, however, with the influence--to some extent real, to some extent,
+perhaps, only apparent--of cosmic rhythm that we are here concerned. The
+general tendency, physical and psychic, of nervous action to fall into
+rhythm is merely interesting from the present point of view as showing a
+biological predisposition to accept any periodicity that is habitually
+imposed upon the organism.[76] Menstruation has always been associated
+with the lunar revolutions.[77] Darwin, without specifically mentioning
+menstruation, has suggested that the explanation of the allied cycle of
+gestation in mammals, as well as incubation in birds, may be found in the
+condition under which ascidians live at high and low water in consequence
+of the phenomena of tidal change.[78] It must, however, be remembered that
+the ascidian origin of the vertebrates has since been contested from many
+sides, and, even if we admit that at all events some such allied
+conditions in the early history of vertebrates and their ancestors tended
+to impress a lunar cycle on the race, it must still be remembered that the
+monthly periodicity of menstruation only becomes well marked in the human
+species.[79] Bearing in mind the influence exerted on both the habits and
+the emotions even of animals by the brightness of moonlight nights, it is
+perhaps not extravagant to suppose that, on organisms already ancestrally
+predisposed to the influence of rhythm in general and of cosmic rhythm in
+particular, the periodically recurring full moon, not merely by its
+stimulation of the nervous system, but possibly by the special
+opportunities which it gave for the exercise of the sexual functions,
+served to implant a lunar rhythm on menstruation. How important such a
+factor may be we have evidence in the fact that the daily life of even the
+most civilized peoples is still regulated by a weekly cycle which is
+apparently a segment of the cosmic lunar cycle.
+
+Mantegazza has suggested that the sexual period became established with
+relation to the lunar period because moonlight nights were favorable to
+courting,[80] and Nelson remarks that in his experience young and robust
+persons are subject to recurrent periods of wakefulness at night which
+they attribute to the action of the full moon. One may perhaps refer also
+to the tendency of bright moonlight to stir the emotions of the young,
+especially at puberty, a tendency which in neurotic persons may become
+almost morbid.[81]
+
+It is interesting to point out that, the farther back we are able to trace
+the beginnings of culture, the more important we find the part played by
+the moon. Next to the alteration of day and night, the moon's changes are
+the most conspicuous and startling phenomena of Nature; they first suggest
+a basis for reckoning time; they are of the greatest use in primitive
+agriculture; and everywhere the moon is held to have vast influence on the
+whole of organic life. Hahn has suggested that the reason why mythological
+systems do not usually present the moon in the supreme position which we
+should expect, is that its immense importance is so ancient a fact that it
+tends, with mythological development, to become overlaid by other
+elements.[82] According to Seler, Quetzalcouatl and Tezeatlipoca, the two
+most considerable figures in the Mexican pantheon, are to be regarded
+mainly as complementary forms of the moon divinity, and the moon was the
+chief Mexican measurer of time.[83] Even in Babylonia, where the sun was
+most specially revered, at the earliest period the moon ranked higher,
+being gradually superseded by the worship of the sun.[84] Although such
+considerations as these will by no means take us as far back as the
+earliest appearance of menstruation, they may serve to indicate that the
+phases of the moon probably played a large part in the earliest evolution
+of man. With that statement we must at present rest content.
+
+It is possible that the monthly character of menstruation, while
+representing a general tendency of the human race, always and everywhere
+prevalent, may be modified in the future. It is a noteworthy fact that
+among many primitive races menstruation only occurs at long intervals.
+Thus among Eskimo women menstruation follows the peculiar cosmic
+conditions to which the people are subjected; Cook, the ethnologist of the
+Peary North Greenland expedition, found that menstruation only began after
+the age of nineteen, and that it was usually suppressed during the winter
+months, when there is no sun, only about one in ten women continuing to
+menstruate during this period.[85] It was stated by Velpeau that Lapland
+and Greenland women usually only menstruate every three months, or even
+only two or three times during the year. On the Faroe Islands it is said
+that menstruation is frequently absent. Among the Samoyeds, Mantegazza
+mentions that menstruation is so slight that some travelers have denied
+its existence. Azara noted among the Guaranis of Paraguay that
+menstruation was not only slight in amount, but the periods were separated
+by long intervals. Among the Indians in North America, again, menstruation
+appears to be scanty. Thus, Holder, speaking of his experience with the
+Crow Indians of Montana, says: "I am quite sure that full-blood Indians in
+this latitude do not menstruate so freely as white women, not usually
+exceeding three days."[86] Among the naked women of Tierra del Fuego, it
+is said that there is often no physical sign of the menses for six months
+at a time. These observations are noteworthy, though they clearly
+indicate, on the whole, that primitiveness in race is a very powerless
+factor without a cold climate. On the other hand, again, there is some
+reason to suppose that in Europe there is a latent tendency in some women
+for the menstrual cycle to split up further into two cycles, by the
+appearance of a latent minor climax in the middle of the monthly interval.
+I allude to the phenomenon usually called _Mittelschmerz_, middle period,
+or intermenstrual pain.
+
+    Since the investigations of Goodman, Stephenson, Van Ott, Reinl,
+    Jacobi, and others, it has been generally recognized that
+    menstruation is a continuous process, the flow being merely the
+    climax of a menstrual cycle, a physiological wave which is in
+    constant flux or reflux. This cycle manifests itself in all a
+    woman's activities, in metabolism, respiration, temperature,
+    etc., as well as on the nervous and psychic side. The healthier
+    the woman is, the less conscious is the cyclic return of her
+    life, but the cycle may be traced (as Hegar has found) even
+    before puberty takes place, while Salerni has found that even in
+    amenorrhoea the menstrual cycle still manifests itself in the
+    temperature and respiration. (_Rivista Sperimentale di
+    Freniatria_, XXX, fasc. 2-3.)
+
+    For a summary of the phenomena of the menstrual cycle, see
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth ed., revised and
+    enlarged, Ch. XI; "The Functional Periodicity of Women." Cf.
+    Keller, _Archives Generales de Medecine_, May, 1897; Hegar,
+    _Allgemeine Zeitschrift fuer Psychiatrie_, 1901, Heft 2 and 3;
+    Helen MacMurchy, _Lancet_, Oct. 5. 1901; A.E. Giles,
+    _Transactions Obstetrical Society London_, vol. xxxix, p. 115,
+    etc.
+
+    _Mittelschmerz_ is a condition of pain occurring about the middle
+    of the intermenstrual period, either alone or accompanied by a
+    slight sanguineous discharge, or, more frequently, a
+    non-sanguineous discharge. (In a case described by Van Voornveld,
+    the manifestation was confined to a regularly occurring rise of
+    temperature.) The phenomenon varies, but seems usually to occur
+    about the fourteenth day, and to last two or three days. Laycock,
+    in 1840 (_Nervous Diseases of Women_, p. 46), gave instances of
+    women with an intermenstrual period. Depaul and Gueniot
+    (_Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales_, Art.,
+    "Menstruation," p. 694) speak of intermenstrual symptoms, and
+    even actual flow, as occurring in women who are in a perfect
+    state of health, and constituting genuine "_regles
+    surnumeraries_." The condition is, however, said to have been
+    first fully described by Valleix; then, in 18725 by Sir William
+    Priestley; and subsequently by Fehling, Fasbender, Sorel,
+    Halliday Croom, Findley, Addinsell, and others. (See, for
+    instance, "Mittelschmerz," by J. Halliday Croom, _Transactions of
+    Edinburgh Obstetrical Society_, vol. xxi, 1896. Also, Krieger,
+    _Menstruation_, pp. 68-69.) Fliess (_Die Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen_, p. 118) goes so far as
+    to assert that an intermenstrual period of menstrual
+    symptoms--which he terms _Nebenmenstruation_--is "a phenomenon
+    well known to most healthy women." Observations are at present
+    too few to allow any definite conclusions, and in some of the
+    cases so far recorded a pathological condition of the sexual
+    organs has been found to exist. Rosner, of Cracow, however, found
+    that only in one case out of twelve was there any disease present
+    (_La Gynecologie_, June, 1905), and Storer, who has met with
+    twenty cases, insists on the remarkable and definite regularity
+    of the manifestations, wholly unlike those of neuralgia (_Boston
+    Medical and Surgical Journal_, April 19, 1900). There is no
+    agreement as to the cause of _Mittelschmerz_. Addinsell
+    attributed it to disease of the Fallopian tubes. This, however,
+    is denied by such competent authorities as Cullingworth and Bland
+    Sutton. Others, like Priestley, and subsequently Marsh (_American
+    Journal of Obstetrics_, July, 1897), have sought to find the
+    explanation in the occurrence of ovulation. This theory is,
+    however, unsupported by facts, and eventually rests on the
+    exploded belief that ovulation is the cause of menstruation.
+    Rosner, following Richelet, vaguely attributes it to the diffused
+    hyperaemia which is generally present. Van de Velde also
+    attributes it to an abnormal fall of vascular tone, causing
+    passive congestion of the pelvic viscera. Others again, like
+    Armand Routh and MacLean, in the course of an interesting
+    discussion on _Mittelschmerz_ at the Obstetric Society of London,
+    on the second day of March, 1898, believe that we may trace here
+    a double menstruation, and would explain the phenomenon by
+    assuming that in certain cases there is an intermenstrual as well
+    as a menstrual cycle. The question is not yet ripe for
+    settlement, though it is fully evident that, looking broadly at
+    the phenomena of rut and menstruation, the main basis of their
+    increasing frequency as we rise toward civilized man is increase
+    of nutrition, heat and sunlight being factors of nutrition. When
+    dealing with civilized man, however, we are probably concerned
+    not merely with general nutrition, but with the nervous direction
+    of that nutrition.
+
+At this stage it is natural to inquire what the corresponding phenomena
+are among animals. Unfortunately, imperfect as is our comprehension of the
+human phenomena, our knowledge of the corresponding phenomena among
+animals is much more fragmentary and incomplete. Among most animals
+menstruation does not exist, being replaced by what is known as heat, or
+oestrus, which usually occurs once or twice a year, in spring and in
+autumn, sometimes affecting the male as well as the female.[87] There is,
+however, a great deal of progression in the upward march of the phenomena,
+as we approach our own and allied zooelogical series. Heat in domesticated
+cows usually occurs every three weeks. The female hippopotamus in the
+Zooelogical Gardens has been observed to exhibit monthly sexual excitement,
+with swelling and secretion from the vulva. Progression is not only toward
+greater frequency with higher evolution or with increased domestication,
+but there is also a change in the character of the flow. As Wiltshire,[88]
+in his remarkable lectures on the "Comparative Physiology of
+Menstruation," asserted as a law, the more highly evolved the animal, the
+more sanguineous the catamenial flow.
+
+It is not until we reach the monkeys that this character of the flow
+becomes well marked. Monthly sanguineous discharges have been observed
+among many monkeys. In the seventeenth century various observers in many
+parts of the world--Bohnius, Peyer, Helbigius, Van der Wiel, and
+others--noted menstruation in monkeys.[89] Buffon observed it among
+various monkeys as well as in the orang-utan. J.G. St. Hilaire and Cuvier,
+many years ago, declared that menstruation exists among a variety of
+monkeys and lower apes. Rengger described a vaginal discharge in a species
+of cebus in Paraguay, while Raciborski observed in the Jardin des Plantes
+that the menstrual haemorrhage in guenons was so abundant that the floor of
+the cage was covered by it to a considerable extent; the same variety of
+monkey was observed at Surinam, by Hill, a surgeon in the Dutch army, who
+noted an abundant sanguineous flow occurring at every new moon, and
+lasting about three days, the animal at this time also showing signs of
+sexual excitement.[90]
+
+The macaque and the baboon appear to be the non-human animals, in which
+menstruation has been most carefully observed. In the former, besides the
+flow, Bland Sutton remarks that "all the naked or pale-colored parts of
+the body, such as the face, neck, and ischial regions, assume a lively
+pink color; in some cases, it is a vivid red."[91] The flow is slight, but
+the coloring lasts several days, and in warm weather the labia are much
+swollen.
+
+Heape[92] has most fully and carefully described menstruation in monkeys.
+He found at Calcutta that the _Macacus cynomolgus_ menstruated regularly
+on the 20th of December, 20th of January, and about the 20th of February.
+The _Cynocephalus porcaria_ and the _Semnopithecus entellus_ both
+menstruated each month for about four days. In the _Macaci rhesus_ and
+_cynomolgus_ at menstruation "the nipples and vulva become swollen and
+deeply congested, and the skin of the buttocks swollen, tense, and of a
+brilliant-red or even purple color. The abdominal wall also, for a short
+space upward, and the inside of the thighs, sometimes as far down as the
+heel, and the under surface of the tail for half its length or more, are
+all colored a vivid red, while the skin of the face, especially about the
+eyes, is flushed or blotched with red." In late gestation the coloring is
+still more vivid. Something similar is to be seen in the males also.
+
+Distant, who kept a female baboon for some time, has recorded the dates of
+menstruation during a year. He found that nine periods occurred during the
+year. The average length between the periods was nearly six weeks, but
+they occurred more frequently in the late autumn and the winter than in
+the summer.[93]
+
+It is an interesting fact, Heape noted, that, notwithstanding
+menstruation, the seasonal influence, or rut, still persisted in the
+monkeys he investigated.
+
+In the anthropoid apes, Hartmann remarks that several observers have
+recorded periodic menstruation in the chimpanzee, with flushing and
+enlargement of the external parts, and protrusion of the external lips,
+which are not usually visible, while there is often excessive enlargement
+and reddening of these parts and of the posterior callosities during
+sexual excitement. Very little, however, appears to be definitely known
+regarding any form of menstruation in the higher apes. M. Deniker, who has
+made a special study of the anthropoid apes, informs me that he has so far
+been unable to make definite observations regarding the existence of
+menstruation. Moll remarks that he received information regarding such a
+phenomenon in the orang-utan. A pair of orang-utans was kept in the Berlin
+Zooelogical Gardens some years ago, and the female was stated to have at
+intervals a menstrual flow resembling that of women, and during this
+period to refrain from sexual congress, which was otherwise usually
+exercised at regular intervals, at least every two or three days; Moll
+adds, however, that, while his informant is a reliable man, the length of
+time that has elapsed may have led him to make mistakes in details. Keith,
+in a paper read before the Zooelogical Society of London, has described
+menstruation in a chimpanzee; it occurred every twenty-third or
+twenty-fourth day, and lasted for three days; the discharge was profuse,
+and first appeared in about the ninth or tenth year.[94]
+
+What is menstruation? It is easy to describe it, by its obvious symptoms,
+as a monthly discharge of blood from the uterus, but nearly as much as
+that was known in the infancy of the world. When we seek to probe more
+intimately into the nature of menstruation we are still baffled, not
+merely as regards its cause, but even as regards its precise mechanism.
+"The primary cause of menstruation remains unexplained"; "the cause of
+menstruation remains as obscure as ever"; so conclude two of the most
+thorough and cautious investigators into this subject.[95] It is, however,
+widely accepted that the main cause of menstruation is a rhythmic
+contraction of the uterus,--the result of a disappointed preparation for
+impregnation,--a kind of miniature childbirth. This seems to be the most
+reasonable view of menstruation; i.e., as an abortion of a decidua.
+Burdach (according to Beard) was the first who described menstruation as
+an abortive parturition. "The hypothesis," Marshall and Jolly conclude,
+"that the entire pro-oestrous process is of the nature of a preparation
+for the lodgment of the ovum is in accordance with the facts."[96]
+Fortunately, since we are here primarily concerned with its psychological
+aspects, the precise biological cause and physiological nature of
+menstruation do not greatly concern us.
+
+There is, however, one point which of late years has been definitely
+determined, and which should not be passed without mention: the relation
+of menstruation to ovulation. It was once supposed that the maturation of
+an ovule in the ovaries was the necessary accompaniment, and even cause,
+of menstruation. We now know that ovulation proceeds throughout the whole
+of life, even before birth, and during gestation,[97] and that removal of
+the ovaries by no means necessarily involves a cessation of menstruation.
+It has been shown that regular and even excessive menstruation may take
+place in the congenital absence of a trace of ovaries or Fallopian
+tubes.[98] On the other hand, a rudimentary state of the uterus, and a
+complete absence of menstruation, may exist with well-developed ovaries
+and normal ovulation.[99] We must regard the uterus as to some extent an
+independent organ, and menstruation as a process which arose, no doubt,
+with the object, teleologically speaking, of cooperating more effectively
+with ovulation, but has become largely independent.[100]
+
+    It is sometimes stated that menstruation may be entirely absent
+    in perfect health. Few cases of this condition have, however,
+    been recorded with the detail necessary to prove the assertion.
+    One such case was investigated by Dr. H.W. Mitchell, and
+    described in a paper read to the New York County Medical Society,
+    February 22, 1892 (to be found in _Medical Reprints_, June,
+    1892). The subject was a young, unmarried woman, 24 years of age.
+    She was born in Ireland, and, until her emigration, lived quietly
+    at home with her parents. Being then twenty years of age, she
+    left home and came to New York. Up to that time no signs of
+    menstruation had appeared, and she had never heard that such a
+    function existed. Soon after her arrival in New York, she
+    obtained a situation as a waiting-maid, and it was noticed, after
+    a time, that she was not unwell at each month. Friends filled her
+    ears with wild stories about the dreadful effects likely to
+    follow the absence of menstruation. This worried her greatly, and
+    as a consequence she became pale and anaemic, with loss of flesh,
+    appetite, and sleep, and a long train of imaginary nervous
+    symptoms. She presented herself for treatment, and insisted upon
+    a uterine examination. This revealed no pathological condition
+    of her uterus. She was assured that she would not die, or become
+    insane, nor a chronic invalid. In consequence she soon forgot
+    that she differed in any way from other girls. A course of
+    chalybeate tonics, generous diet, and proper care of her general
+    health, soon restored her to her normal condition. After close
+    observation for several years, she submitted to a thorough
+    examination, although entirely free from any abnormal symptoms.
+    The examination revealed the following physical condition:
+    Weight, 105 pounds (her weight before leaving Ireland was 130);
+    girth of chest, twenty-nine and a half inches; girth of abdomen,
+    twenty-five inches; girth of pelvis, thirty-four and a half
+    inches; girth of thigh, upper third, twenty inches; heart
+    healthy, sounds and rhythm perfectly normal; pulse, 76; lungs
+    healthy; respiratory murmur clear and distinct over every part;
+    respiration, easy and twenty per minute; the mammae are well
+    developed, firm, and round; nipples, small, no areola; her skin
+    is soft, smooth, and healthy; figure erect, plump, and
+    symmetrical; her bowels are regular; kidneys, healthy. She has a
+    good appetite, sleeps well, and in no particular shows any sign
+    of ill health. The uterine examination reveals a short vagina,
+    and a small, round cervix uteri, rather less in size than the
+    average, and projecting very slightly into the vaginal canal.
+    Depth of uterus from os to fundus, two and a quarter inches, is
+    very nearly normal. No external sign of abnormal ovaries. She is
+    a well-developed, healthy young woman, performing all her
+    physiological functions naturally and regularly, except the
+    single function of menstruation. No vicarious menstruation takes
+    the place of the natural function, though she has been watched
+    very closely during the past two years, nor the least periodical
+    excitement. It is added that, though the clitoris is normal, the
+    mons veneris is almost destitute of hair, and the labia rather
+    undeveloped, while, "as far as is known," sexual instincts and
+    desire are entirely absent. These latter facts, I may add, would
+    seem to suggest that, in spite of the health of the subject,
+    there is yet some concealed lack of development of the sexual
+    system, of congenital character. In a case recorded by Plant
+    (_Centralblatt fuer Gynaekologie_, No. 9, 1896, summarized in the
+    _British Medical Journal_, April 4, 1896), in which the internal
+    sexual organs were almost wholly undeveloped, and menstruation
+    absent, the labia were similarly undeveloped, and the pubic hair
+    scanty, while the axillary hair was wholly absent, though that of
+    the head was long and strong.
+
+We may now regard as purely academic the discussion formerly carried on as
+to whether menstruation is to be regarded as analogous to heat in female
+animals. For many centuries at least the resemblance has been sufficiently
+obvious. Raciborski and Pouchet, who first established the regular
+periodicity of ovulation in mammals, identified heat and
+menstruation.[101] During the past century there was, notwithstanding, an
+occasional tendency to deny any real connection. No satisfactory grounds
+for this denial have, however, been brought forward. Lawson Tait, indeed,
+and more recently Beard, have stated that menstruation cannot be the
+period of heat, because women have a disinclination to the approach of the
+male at that time.[102] But, as we shall see later, this statement is
+unfounded. An argument which might, indeed, be brought forward is the very
+remarkable fact that, while in animals the period of heat is the only
+period for sexual intercourse, among all human races, from the very
+lowest, the period of menstruation is the one period during which sexual
+intercourse is strictly prohibited, sometimes under severe penalties, even
+life itself. This, however, is a social, not a physiological, fact.
+
+    Ploss and Bartels call attention to the curious contrast, in this
+    respect, between heat and menstruation. The same authors also
+    mention that in the Middle Ages, however, preachers found it
+    necessary to warn their hearers against the sin of intercourse
+    during the menstrual period. It may be added that Aquinas and
+    many other early theologians held, not only that such intercourse
+    was a deadly sin, but that it engendered leprous and monstrous
+    children. Some later theologians, however, like Sanchez, argued
+    that the Mosaic enactments (such as Leviticus, Ch. XX, v. 18) no
+    longer hold good. Modern theologians--in part influenced by the
+    tolerant traditions of Liguori, and, in part, like Debreyne
+    (_Moechialogie_, pp. 275 et seq.) informed by medical science--no
+    longer prohibit intercourse during menstruation, or regard it as
+    only a venial sin.
+
+We have here a remarkable, but not an isolated, example of the tendency of
+the human mind in its development to rebel against the claims of primitive
+nature. The whole of religion is a similar remolding of nature, a
+repression of natural impulses, an effort to turn them into new channels.
+Prohibition of intercourse during menstruation is a fundamental element of
+savage ritual, an element which is universal merely because the conditions
+which caused it are universal, and because--as is now beginning to be
+generally recognized--the causes of human psychic evolution are everywhere
+the same. A strictly analogous phenomenon, in the sexual sphere itself, is
+the opposed attitude in barbarism and civilization toward the sexual
+organs. Under barbaric conditions and among savages, when no
+magico-religious ideas intervene, the sexual organs are beautiful and
+pleasurable objects. Under modern conditions this is not so. This
+difference of attitude is reflected in sculpture. In savage and barbaric
+carvings of human beings, the sexual organs of both sexes are often
+enormously exaggerated. This is true of the archaic European figures on
+which Salomon Reinach has thrown so much light, but in modern sculpture,
+from the time when it reached its perfection in Greece onward, the sexual
+regions in both men and women are systematically minimized.[103]
+
+With advancing culture--as again we shall see later--there is a conflict
+of claims, and certain considerations are regarded as "higher" and more
+potent than merely "natural" claims. Nakedness is more natural than
+clothing, and on many grounds more desirable under the average
+circumstances of life, yet, everywhere, under the stress of what are
+regarded as higher considerations, there is a tendency for all races to
+add more and more to the burden of clothes. In the same way it happens
+that the tendency of the female to sexual intercourse during
+menstruation[104] has everywhere been overlaid by the ideas of a culture
+which has insisted on regarding menstruation as a supernatural phenomenon
+which, for the protection of everybody, must be strictly tabooed.[105]
+This tendency is reinforced, and in high civilization replaced, by the
+claims of an aesthetic regard for concealment and reserve during this
+period. Such facts are significant for the early history of culture, but
+they must not blind us to the real analogy between heat and menstruation,
+an analogy or even identity which may be said to be accepted now by most
+careful investigators.[106]
+
+If it is, perhaps, somewhat excessive to declare, with Johnstone, that
+"woman is the only animal in which rut is omnipresent," we must admit that
+the two groups of phenomena merge into or replace each other, that their
+object is identical, that they involve similar psychic conditions. Here,
+also, we see a striking example of the way in which women preserve a
+primitive phenomenon which earlier in the zooelogical series was common to
+both sexes, but which man has now lost. Heat and menstruation, with
+whatever difference of detail, are practically the same phenomenon. We
+cannot understand menstruation unless we bear this in mind.
+
+On the psychic side the chief normal and primitive characteristic of the
+menstrual state is the more predominant presence of the sexual impulse.
+There are other mental and emotional signs of irritability and instability
+which tend to slightly impair complete mental integrity, and to render, in
+some unbalanced individuals explosions of anger or depression, in rarer
+cases crime, more common;[107] but the heightening of the sexual impulse,
+languor, shyness, and caprice are the more human manifestations of an
+emotional state which in some of the lower female animals during heat may
+produce a state of fury.
+
+The actual period of the menstrual flow, at all events the first two or
+three days, does not, among European women, usually appear to show any
+heightening of sexual emotion.[108] This heightening occurs usually a few
+days before, and especially during, the latter part of the flow, and
+immediately after it ceases.[109] I have, however, convinced myself by
+inquiry that this absence of sexual feeling during the height of the flow
+is, in large part, apparent only. No doubt, the onset of the flow, often
+producing a general depression of vitality, may tend directly to depress
+the emotions, which are heightened by the general emotional state and
+local congestion of the days immediately preceding; but among some women,
+at all events, who are normal and in good health, I find that the period
+of menstruation itself is covered by the period of the climax of sexual
+feeling. Thus, a married lady writes: "My feelings are always very strong,
+not only just before and after, but during the period; very unfortunately,
+as, of course, they cannot then be gratified"; while a refined girl of 19,
+living a chaste life, without either coitus or masturbation, which she has
+never practiced, habitually feels very strong sexual excitement about the
+time of menstruation, and more especially during the period; this desire
+torments her life, prevents her from sleeping at these times, and she
+looks upon it as a kind of illness.[110] I could quote many other similar
+and equally emphatic statements, and the fact that so cardinal a
+relationship of the sexual life of women should be ignored or denied by
+most writers on this matter, is a curious proof of the prevailing
+ignorance.[111]
+
+This ignorance has been fostered by the fact that women, often disguise
+even to themselves the real state of their feelings. One lady remarks that
+while she would be very ready for coitus during menstruation, the thought
+that it is impossible during that time makes her put the idea of it out of
+her mind. I have reason to think that this statement may be taken to
+represent the real feelings of very many women. The aversion to coitus is
+real, but it is often due, not to failure of sexual desire, but to the
+inhibitory action of powerful extraneous causes. The absence of active
+sexual desire in women during the height of the flow may thus be regarded
+as, in part, a physiological fact, following from the correspondence of
+the actual menstrual flow to the period of _pro-oestrum_, and in part, a
+psychological fact due to the aesthetic repugnance to union when in such a
+condition, and to the unquestioned acceptance of the general belief that
+at such a period intercourse is out of the question. Some of the strongest
+factors of modesty, especially the fear of causing disgust and the sense
+of the demands of ceremonial ritual, would thus help to hold in check the
+sexual emotions during this period, and when, under the influence of
+insanity, these motives are in abeyance, the coincidence of sexual desire
+with the menstrual flow often becomes more obvious.[112]
+
+It must be added that, especially among the lower social classes, the
+primitive belief of the savage that coitus during menstruation is bad for
+the man still persists. Ploss and Bartels mention that among the peasants
+in some parts of Germany, where it is believed that impregnation is
+impossible during menstruation, coitus at that time would be frequent were
+it not thought dangerous for the man.[113] It has also been a common
+belief both in ancient and modern times that coitus during menstruation
+engenders monsters.[114]
+
+Notwithstanding all the obstacles that are thus placed in the way of
+coitus during menstruation, there is nevertheless good reason to believe
+that the first coitus very frequently takes place at this point of least
+psychic resistance. When still a student I was struck by the occurrence of
+cases in which seduction took place during the menstrual flow, though at
+that time they seemed to me inexplicable, except as evidencing brutality
+on the part of the seducer. Negrier,[115] in the lying-in wards of the
+Hotel-Dieu at Angers, constantly found that the women from the country who
+came there pregnant as the result of a single coitus had been impregnated
+at or near the menstrual epoch, more especially when the period coincided
+with a feast-day, as St. John's Day or Christmas.
+
+Whatever doubt may exist as to the most frequent state of the sexual
+emotions during the period of menstruation, there can be no doubt whatever
+that immediately before and immediately after, very commonly at both
+times,--this varying slightly in different women,--there is usually a
+marked heightening of actual desire. It is at this period (and sometimes
+during the menstrual flow) that masturbation may take place in women who
+at other times have no strong auto-erotic impulse. The only women who do
+not show this heightening of sexual emotion seem to be those in whom
+sexual feelings have not yet been definitely called into consciousness, or
+the small minority, usually suffering from some disorder of sexual or
+general health, in whom there is a high degree of sexual anaesthesia.[116]
+
+    The majority of authorities admit a heightening of sexual emotion
+    before or after the menstrual crisis. See e.g., Krafft-Ebing, who
+    places it at the post-menstrual period (_Psychopathia Sexualis_,
+    Eng. translation of tenth edition, p. 27). Adler states that
+    sexual feeling is increased before, during and after menstruation
+    (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, 1904, p.
+    88). Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, I, 249), advises intercourse just after
+    menstruation, or even during the latter days of the flow, as the
+    period when it is most needed. Guyot says that the eight days
+    after menstruation are the period of sexual desire in women
+    (_Breviaire de l'Amour Experimentale_, p. 144). Harry Campbell
+    investigated the periodicity of sexual desire in healthy women of
+    the working classes, in a series of cases, by inquiries made of
+    their husbands who were patients at a London hospital. People of
+    this class are not always skilful in observation, and the method
+    adopted would permit many facts to pass unrecorded; it is,
+    therefore, noteworthy that only in one-third of the cases had no
+    connection between menstruation and sexual feeling been observed;
+    in the other two-thirds, sexual feeling was increased, either
+    before, after, or during the flow, or at all of these times; the
+    proportion of cases in which sexual feeling was increased before
+    the flow, to those in which it was increased after, was as three
+    to two. (H. Campbell, _Nervous Organization of Men and Women_, p.
+    203.)
+
+    Even this elementary fact of the sexual life has, however, been
+    denied, and, strange to say, by two women doctors. Dr. Mary
+    Putnam Jacobi, of New York, who furnished valuable contributions
+    to the physiology of menstruation, wrote some years ago, in a
+    paper on "The Theory of Menstruation," in reference to the
+    question of the connection between oestrus and menstruation:
+    "Neither can any such rhythmical alternation of sexual instinct
+    be demonstrated in women as would lead to the inference that the
+    menstrual crisis was an expression of this," i.e., of oestrus.
+    Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, again, in her book on _The Human Element
+    in Sex_, asserts that the menstrual flow itself affords complete
+    relief for the sexual feelings in women (like sexual emissions
+    during sleep in men), and thus practically denies the prevalence
+    of sexual desire in the immediately post-menstrual period, when,
+    on such a theory, sexual feeling should be at its minimum. It is
+    fair to add that Dr. Blackwell's opinion is merely the survival
+    of a view which was widely held a century ago, when various
+    writers (Bordeu, Roussel, Duffieux, J. Arnould, etc.), as Icard
+    has pointed out, regarded menstruation as a device of Providence
+    for safeguarding the virginity of women.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] Thaddeus L. Bolton, "Rhythm," _American Journal of Psychology_,
+January, 1894.
+
+[76] It is scarcely necessary to warn the reader that this statement does
+not prejudge the question of the inheritance of acquired characters,
+although it fits in with Semon's Mnemic theory. We can, however, very well
+suppose that the organism became adjusted to the rhythms of its
+environment by a series of congenital variations. Or it might be held, on
+the basis of Weismann's doctrine, that the germ-plasm has been directly
+modified by the environment.
+
+[77] Thus, the Papuans, in some districts, believe that the first
+menstruation is due to an actual connection, during sleep, with the moon
+in the shape of a man, the girl dreaming that a real man is embracing her.
+(_Reports Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, p. 206.)
+
+[78] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 164.
+
+[79] While in the majority of women the menstrual cycle is regular for the
+individual, and corresponds to the lunar month of 28 days, it must be
+added that in a considerable minority it is rather longer, or, more
+usually, shorter than this, and in many individuals is not constant.
+Osterloh found a regular type of menstruation in 68 per cent, healthy
+women, four weeks being the most usual length of the cycle; in 21 per
+cent, the cycle was always irregular. See Naecke, "Die Menstruation und ihr
+Einfluss bei chronischen Psychosen," _Archiv fuer Psychiatrie_, 1896, Bd,
+28, Heft 1.
+
+[80] Among the Duala and allied negro peoples of Bantu stock dances of
+markedly erotic character take place at full moon. Gason describes the
+dances and sexual festivals of the South Australian blacks, generally
+followed by promiscuous intercourse, as taking place at full moon.
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, November, 1894, p. 174.) In
+all parts of the world, indeed, including Christendom, festivals are
+frequently regulated by the phases of the moon.
+
+[81] It has often been held that the course of insanity is influenced by
+the moon. Of comparatively recent years, this thesis has been maintained
+by Koster (_Ueber die Gesetze des periodischen Irreseins und verwandter
+Nervenzustaende_, Bonn, 1882), who argues in detail that periodic insanity
+tends to fall into periods of seven days or multiples of seven.
+
+[82] Ed. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, p. 23.
+
+[83] E. Seler, _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1907, Heft I, p. 39. And as
+regards the primitive importance of the moon, see also Frazer, _Adonis,
+Attis, Osiris_, Ch. VIII.
+
+[84] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, 1898, pp. 68, 75-79, 461.
+
+[85] Even in England, Barnes has known women of feeble sexual constitution
+who menstruated only in summer (R. Barnes, _Diseases of Women_, 1878, p.
+192).
+
+[86] A.B. Holder, "Gynecic Notes among American Indians," _American
+Journal of Obstetrics_, No. 6, 1892.
+
+[87] In the male, the phenomenon is termed rut, and is most familiar in
+the stag. I quote from Marshall and Jolly some remarks on the infrequency
+of rut: "'The male wild Cat,' Mr. Cocks informs us, (like the stag), 'has
+a rutting season, calls loudly, almost day and night, making far more
+noise than the female.' This information is of interest, inasmuch as the
+males of most carnivores, although they undoubtedly show signs of
+increased sexual activity at some times more than at others, are not known
+to have anything of the nature of a regularly recurrent rutting season.
+Nothing of the kind is known in the Dog, nor, so far as we are aware, in
+the males of the domestic Cat, or the Ferret, all of which seem to be
+capable of copulation at any time of the year. On the other hand, the
+males of Seals appear to have a rutting season at the same time as the
+sexual season of the female." (Marshall and Jolly, "Contributions to the
+Physiology of Mammalian Reproduction," _Philosophical Transactions_, 1905,
+B. 198.)
+
+[88] A. Wiltshire, _British Medical Journal_, March, 1883. The best
+account of heat known to me is contained in Ellenberger's _Vergleichende
+Physiologie der Haussauegethiere_, 1892, Band 4, Theil 2, pp. 276-284.
+
+[89] Schurig (_Parthenologia_, 1729, p. 125), gives numerous references
+and quotations.
+
+[90] Quoted by Icard, _La Femme_, etc., p. 63.
+
+[91] Bland Sutton, _Surgical Diseases of the Ovaries_, and _British
+Gynecological Journal_, vol. ii.
+
+[92] W. Heape, "The Menstruation of _Semnopithecus Entellus_,"
+_Philosophical Transactions_, 1894; "Menstruation and Ovulation of
+_Macacus Rhesus_," _Philosophical Transactions_, 1897.
+
+[93] W.L. Distant, "Notes on the Chacma Baboon," _Zooelogist_, January,
+1897, p, 29.
+
+[94] _Nature_, March 23, 1899.
+
+[95] W. Heape, "The Menstruation of _Semnopithecus Entellus_,"
+_Philosophical Transactions_, 1894, p. 483; Bland Sutton, _Surgical
+Diseases of the Ovaries_, 1896.
+
+[96] T. Bryce and J. Teacher (_Contributions to the Study of the Early
+Development of the Human Ovum_, 1908), putting the matter somewhat
+differently, regard menstruation as a cyclical process, providing for the
+maintenance of the endometrium in a suitable condition of immaturity for
+the production of the decidua of pregnancy, which they believe may take
+place at any time of the month, though most favorably shortly before or
+after a menstrual period which has been accompanied by ovulation.
+
+[97] Robinson, _American Gynecological and Obstetrical Journal_, August,
+1905.
+
+[98] Bossi, _Annali di Ostetrica e Ginecologia_, September, 1896;
+summarized in the _British Medical Journal_, October 31, 1896. As regards
+the more normal influence of the ovaries over the uterus, see e.g.
+Carmichael and F.H.A. Marshall, "Correlation of the Ovarian and Uterine
+Functions," _Proceedings Royal Society_, vol. 79, Series B, 1907.
+
+[99] Beuttner, _Centralblatt fuer Gynaekologie_, No. 49, 1893; summarized in
+_British Medical Journal_, December, 1893. Many cases show that pregnancy
+may occur in the absence of menstruation. See, e.g., _Nouvelles Archives
+d'Obstetrique et de Gynecologie_, 25 Janvier, 1894, supplement, p. 9.
+
+[100] It is still possible, and even probable, that the primordial cause
+of both phenomena is the same. Heape (_Transactions Obstetrical Society of
+London_, 1898, vol. xl, p. 161) argues that both menstruation and
+ovulation are closely connected with and influenced by congestion, and
+that in the primitive condition they are largely due to the same cause.
+This primary cause he is inclined to regard as a ferment, due to a change
+in the constitution of the blood brought about by climatic influences and
+food, which he proposes to call gonadin. (W. Heape, _Proceedings of Royal
+Society_, 1905, vol. B. 76, p. 266.) Marshall, who has found that in the
+ferret and other animals, ovulation may be dependent upon copulation, also
+considers that ovulation and menstruation, though connected and able to
+react on each other, may both be dependent upon a common cause; he finds
+that in bitches and rats heat can be produced by injection of extract from
+ovaries in the oestrous state (F.H.A. Marshall, _Philosophical
+Transactions_, 1903, vol. B. 196; also Marshall and Jolly, id., 1905, B.
+198). Cf. C.J. Bond, "An Inquiry Into Some Points in Uterine and Ovarian
+Physiology and Pathology in Rabbits," _British Medical Journal_, July 21,
+1906.
+
+[101] Pouchet, _Theorie de l'Ovulation Spontanee_, 1847. As Blair Bell and
+Pontland Hick remark ("Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March 6,
+1909), the repeated oestrus of unimpregnated animals (once a fortnight in
+rabbits) is surely comparable to menstruation.
+
+[102] Tait, _Provincial Medical Journal_, May, 1891; J. Beard, _The Span
+of Gestation_, 1897, p. 69. Lawson Tait is reduced to the assertion that
+ovulation and menstruation are identical.
+
+[103] As Moll points out, even the secondary sexual characters have
+undergone a somewhat similar change. The beard was once an important
+sexual attraction, but men can now afford to dispense with it without fear
+of loss in attractiveness. (_Libido Sexualis_, Band I, p. 387.) These
+points are discussed at greater length in the fourth volume of these
+_Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man."
+
+[104] It is not absolutely established that in menstruating animals the
+period of menstruation is always a period of sexual congress; probably
+not, the influence of menstruation being diminished by the more
+fundamental influence of breeding seasons, which affect the male also;
+monkeys have a breeding season, though they menstruate regularly all the
+year round.
+
+[105] See Appendix A.
+
+[106] Bland Sutton, loc. cit., p. 896.
+
+[107] See H. Ellis, _Man and Woman_, Chapter XI.
+
+[108] This is by no means true of European women only. Thus, we read in an
+Arabic book, _The Perfumed Garden_, that women have an aversion to coitus
+during menstruation. On the other hand, the old Hindoo physician, Susruta,
+appears to have stated that a tendency to run after men is one of the
+signs of menstruation.
+
+[109] The actual period of the menstrual flow corresponds, in Heape's
+terminology, to the congestive stage, or _pro-oestrum_, in female animals;
+the _oestrus_, or period of sexual desire, immediately follows the
+_pro-oestrum_, and is the direct result of it. See Heape, "The 'Sexual
+Season' of Mammals," _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_, 1900,
+vol. xliv, Part I.
+
+[110] It may be noted that (as Barnes, Oliver, and others have pointed
+out) there is heightened blood-pressure during menstruation. Haig remarks
+that he has found a tendency for high pressure to be accompanied by
+increased sexual appetite (_Uric Acid_, 6th edition, p. 155).
+
+[111] Sir W.F. Wade, however, remarked, some years ago, in his Ingleby
+Lectures (_Lancet_, June 5, 1886): "It is far from exceptional to find
+that there is an extreme enhancement of concupiscence in the immediate
+precatamenial period," and adds, "I am satisfied that evidence is
+obtainable that in some instances, ardor is at its maximum during the
+actual period, and suspect that cases occur in which it is almost, if not
+entirely, limited to that time." Long ago, however, the genius of Haller
+had noted the same fact. More recently, Icard (_La Femme_, Chapter VI and
+elsewhere, e.g., p. 125) has brought forward much evidence in confirmation
+of this view. It may be added that there is considerable significance in
+the fact that the erotic hallucinations, which are not infrequently
+experienced by women under the influence of nitrous oxide gas, are more
+likely to appear at the monthly period than at any other time. (D.W.
+Buxton, _Anesthetics_, 1892, p. 61.)
+
+[112] Gehrung considers that in healthy young girls amorous sensations are
+normal during menstruation, and in some women persist, during this period,
+throughout life. More usually, however, as menstrual period after
+menstrual period recurs, without the natural interruption of pregnancy,
+the feeling abates, and gives place to sensations of discomfort or pain.
+He ascribes this to the vital tissues being sapped of more blood than can
+be replaced in the intervals. "The vital powers, being thus kept in
+abeyance, the amative sensations are either not developed, or destroyed.
+This, superadded by the usual moral and religious teachings, is amply
+sufficient, by degrees, to extinguish or prevent such feelings with the
+great majority. The sequestration as 'unclean,' of women during their
+catamenial period, as practiced in olden times, had the same tendency."
+(E.C. Gehrung, "The Status of Menstruation," _Transactions American
+Gynecology Society_, 1901, p. 48.)
+
+[113] It is possible there may be an element of truth in this belief.
+Diday, of Lyons, found that chronic urethorrhoea is an occasional result
+of intercourse during menstruation. Raciborski (_Traite de la
+Menstruation_, 1868, p. 12), who also paid attention to this point, while
+confirming Diday, came to the conclusion that some special conditions must
+be present on one or both sides.
+
+[114] See, e.g., Ballantyne, "Teratogenesis," _Transactions of the
+Edinburgh Obstetrical Society_, 1896, vol. xxi, pp. 324-25.
+
+[115] As quoted by Icard, _La Femme_, etc., p. 194. I have not been able
+to see Negrier's work.
+
+[116] I deal with the question of sexual anaesthesia in women in the third
+volume of these _Studies_: "The Sexual Impulse in Women."
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+The Question of a Monthly Sexual Cycle in Men--The Earliest Suggestions of
+a General Physiological Cycle in Men--Periodicity in Disease--Insanity,
+Heart Disease, etc.--The Alleged Twenty-three Days' Cycle--The
+Physiological Periodicity of Seminal Emissions during Sleep--Original
+Observations--Fortnightly and Weekly Rhythms.
+
+
+For some centuries, at least, inquisitive observers here and there have
+thought they found reason to believe that men, as well as women, present
+various signs of a menstrual physiological cycle. It would be possible to
+collect a number of opinions in favor of such a monthly physiological
+periodicity in men. Precise evidence, however, is, for the most part,
+lacking. Men have expended infinite ingenuity in establishing the remote
+rhythms of the solar system and the periodicity of comets. They have
+disdained to trouble about the simpler task of proving or disproving the
+cycles of their own organisms.[117] It is over half a century since
+Laycock wrote that "the _scientific_ observation and treatment of disease
+are impossible without a knowledge of the mysterious revolutions
+continually taking place in the system"; yet the task of summarizing the
+whole of our knowledge regarding these "mysterious revolutions" is even
+to-day no heavy one. As to the existence of a monthly cycle in the sexual
+instincts of men, with a single exception, I am not aware that any attempt
+has been made to bring forward definite evidence.[118] A certain interest
+and novelty attaches, therefore, to the evidence I am able to produce,
+although that evidence will not suffice to settle the question finally.
+
+The great Italian physician, Sanctorius, who was in so many ways the
+precursor of our modern methods of physiological research by the means of
+instruments of precision, was the first, so far as I am aware, to suggest
+a monthly cycle of the organism in men. He had carefully studied the
+weight of the body with reference to the amount of excretions, and
+believed that a monthly increase in weight to the amount of one or two
+pounds occurred in men, followed by a critical discharge of urine, this
+crisis being preceded by feelings of heaviness and lassitude.[119] Gall,
+another great initiator of modern views, likewise asserted a monthly cycle
+in men. He insisted that there is a monthly critical period, more marked
+in nervous people than in others, and that at this time the complexion
+becomes dull, the breath stronger, digestion more laborious, while there
+is sometimes disturbance of the urine, together with general _malaise_, in
+which the temper takes part; ideas are formed with more difficulty, and
+there is a tendency to melancholy, with unusual irascibility and mental
+inertia, lasting a few days. More recently Stephenson, who established the
+cyclical wave-theory of menstruation, argued that it exists in men also,
+and is really "a general law of vital energy."[120]
+
+    Sanctorius does not appear to have published the data on which
+    his belief was founded. Keill, an English, follower of
+    Sanctorius, in his _Medicina Statica Britannica_ (1718),
+    published a series of daily (morning and evening) body-weights
+    for the year, without referring to the question of a monthly
+    cycle. A period of maximum weight is shown usually, by Keill's
+    figures, to occur about once a month, but it is generally
+    irregular, and cannot usually be shown to occur at definite
+    intervals. Monthly discharges of blood from the sexual organs and
+    other parts of the body in men have been recorded in ancient and
+    modern times, and were treated of by the older medical writers as
+    an affliction peculiar to men with a feminine system. (Laycock,
+    _Nervous Diseases of Women_, p. 79.) A summary of such cases will
+    be found in Gould and Pyle (_Anomalies and Curiosities of
+    Medicine_, 1897, pp. 27-28). Laycock (_Lancet_, 1842-43, vols. i
+    and ii) brought forward cases of monthly and fortnightly cycles
+    in disease, and asserted "the general principle that there are
+    greater and less cycles of movements going on in the system,
+    involving each other, and closely connected with the organization
+    of the individual." He was inclined to accept lunar influence,
+    and believed that the physiological cycle is made up of definite
+    fractions and multiples of a period of seven days, especially a
+    unit of three and a half days. Albrecht, a somewhat erratic
+    zooelogist, put forth the view a few years ago that there are
+    menstrual periods in men, giving the following reasons: (1) males
+    are rudimentary females, (2) in all males of mammals, a
+    rudimentary masculine uterus (Mueller's ducts) still persists, (3)
+    totally hypospadic male individuals menstruate; and believed that
+    he had shown that in man there is a rudimentary menstruation
+    consisting in an almost monthly periodic appearance, lasting for
+    three or four days, of white corpuscles in the urine (_Anomalo_,
+    February, 1890). Dr. Campbell Clark, some years since, made
+    observations on asylum attendants in regard to the temperature,
+    during five weeks, which tended to show that the normal male
+    temperature varies considerably within certain limits, and that
+    "so far as I have been able to observe, there is one marked and
+    prolonged rise every month or five weeks, averaging three days,
+    occasional lesser rises appearing irregularly and of shorter
+    duration. These observations are only made in three cases, and I
+    have no proof that they refer to the sexual appetite" (Campbell
+    Clark, "The Sexual Reproductive Functions," Psychological
+    Section, British Medical Association, Glasgow, 1888; also,
+    private letters). Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 114) says:
+    "I have certainly noted in some of my friends, the tendency to
+    some monthly periodic abnormal manifestations. This may be in the
+    form of a headache, or a nasal haemorrhage, or diarrhoea, or
+    abundant discharge of uric acid, or some other unusual
+    occurrence. I think," he adds, "this is much more common than is
+    ordinarily supposed, and a careful examination or inquiry will
+    generally, if not invariably, establish the existence of a
+    periodicity of the character referred to."
+
+    Dr. Harry Campbell, in his book on _Differences in the Nervous
+    Organization of Men and Women_, deals fully with the monthly
+    rhythm (pp. 270 et seq.), and devotes a short chapter to the
+    question, "Is the Menstrual Rhythm peculiar to the Female Sex?"
+    He brings forward a few pathological cases indicating such a
+    rhythm, but although he had written a letter to the _Lancet_,
+    asking medical men to supply him with evidence bearing on this
+    question, it can scarcely be said that he has brought forward
+    much evidence of a convincing kind, and such as he has brought
+    forward is purely pathological. He believes, however, that we may
+    accept a monthly cycle in men. "We may," he concludes, "regard
+    the human being--both male and female--as the subject of a
+    monthly pulsation which begins with the beginning of life, and
+    continues till death," menstruation being regarded as a function
+    accidentally ingrafted upon this primordial rhythm.
+
+    It is not unreasonable to argue that the possibility of such a
+    menstrual cycle is increased, if we can believe that in women,
+    also, the menstrual cycle persists even when its outward
+    manifestations no longer occur. Aetius said that menstrual
+    changes take place during gestation; in more modern times, Buffon
+    was of the same opinion. Laycock also maintained that menstrual
+    changes take place during pregnancy (_Nervous Diseases of Women_,
+    p. 47). Fliess considers that it is certainly incorrect to assert
+    that the menstrual process is arrested during pregnancy, and he
+    refers to the frequency of monthly epistaxis and other nasal
+    symptoms throughout this period (W. Fliess, _Beziehungen zwischen
+    Nase und Geschlechts-Organen_, pp. 44 et seq.). Beard, who
+    attaches importance to the persistence of a cyclical period in
+    gestation, calls it the muffled striking of the clock. Harry
+    Campbell (_Causation of Disease_, p. 54) has found
+    post-climacteric menstrual rhythm in a fair sprinkling of cases
+    up to the age of sixty.
+
+It is somewhat remarkable that, so far as I have observed, none of these
+authors refer to the possibility of any heightening of the sexual appetite
+at the monthly crisis which they believe to exist in men. This omission
+indicates that, as is suggested by the absence of definite statements on
+the matter of increase of sexual desire at menstruation, it was an ignored
+or unknown fact. Of recent years, however, many writers, especially
+alienists, have stated their conviction that sexual desire in men tends to
+be heightened at approximately monthly intervals, though they have not
+always been able to give definite evidence in support of their statements.
+
+    Clouston, for instance, has frequently asserted this monthly
+    periodic sexual heightening in men. In the article,
+    "Developmental Insanity," in Tuke's _Psychological Dictionary_,
+    he refers to the periodic physiological heightening of the
+    reproductive _nisus_; and, again, in an article on "Alternation,
+    Periodicity, and Relapse in Mental Diseases" (_Edinburgh Medical
+    Journal_, July, 1882), he records the case of "an insane
+    gentleman, aged 49, who, for the past twenty-six years, has been
+    subject to the most regularly occurring brain-exaltation every
+    four weeks, almost to a day. It sometimes passes off without
+    becoming acutely maniacal, or even showing itself in outward
+    acts; at other times it becomes so, and lasts for periods of from
+    one to four weeks. It is always preceded by an uncomfortable
+    feeling in the head, and pain in the back, mental hebetude, and
+    slight depression. The _nisus generativus_ is greatly increased,
+    and he says that, if in that condition, he has full and free
+    seminal emissions during sleep, the excitement passes off; if
+    not, it goes on. A full dose of bromide or iodide of potassium
+    often, but not always, has the effect of stopping the excitement,
+    and a very long walk sometimes does the same. When the
+    excitement gets to a height, it is always followed by about a
+    week of stupid depression." In the same article Clouston remarks:
+    "I have for a long time been impressed with the relationship of
+    the mental and bodily alternations and periodicities in insanity
+    to the great physiological alternations and periodicities, and I
+    have generally been led to the conclusion that they are the same
+    in all essential respects, and only differ in degree of intensity
+    or duration. By far the majority of the cases in women follow the
+    law of the menstrual and sexual periodicity; the majority of the
+    cases in men follow the law of the more irregular periodicities
+    of the _nisus generativus_ in that sex. Many of the cases in both
+    sexes follow the seasonal periodicity which perhaps in man is
+    merely a reversion to the seasonal generative activities of the
+    majority of the lower animals." He found that among 338 cases of
+    insanity, chiefly mania and melancholia, 46 per cent, of females
+    and 40 per cent, of males showed periodicity,--diurnal, monthly,
+    seasonal, or annual, and more marked in women than in men, and in
+    mania than in melancholia,--and adds: "I found that the younger
+    the patient, the greater is the tendency to periodic remission
+    and relapse. The phenomenon finds its acme in the cases of
+    pubescent and adolescent insanity."
+
+    Conolly Norman, in the article "Mania, Hysterical" (Tuke's
+    _Psychological Dictionary_), states that "the activity of the
+    sexual organs is probably in both sexes fundamentally periodic."
+
+    Krafft-Ebing records the case of a neurasthenic Russian, aged 24,
+    who experienced sexual desires of urologinic character, with fair
+    regularity, every four weeks (_Psychopathia Sexualis_), and Naecke
+    mentions the case of a man who had nocturnal emissions at
+    intervals of four weeks (_Archiv fuer Kriminal-Anthropologie_,
+    1908, p. 363), while Moll (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, pp. 621-623)
+    recorded the case of a man, otherwise normal, who had attacks of
+    homosexual feeling every four weeks, and Rohleder (_Zeitschrift
+    fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Nov., 1908) gives the case of an
+    unmarried slightly neuropathic physician who for several days
+    every three to five weeks has attacks of almost satyriacal sexual
+    excitement.
+
+    Fere, whose attention was called to this point, from time to time
+    noted the existence of sexual periodicity. Thus, in a case of
+    general paralysis, attacks of continuous sexual excitement, with
+    sleeplessness, occurred every twenty-eight days; at other times,
+    the patient, a man of 42, in the stage of dementia, slept well,
+    and showed no signs of sexual excitation (_Societe de Biologie_,
+    October 6, 1900). In another case, of a man of sound heredity and
+    good health till middle life, periodic sexual manifestations
+    began from puberty, with localized genital congestion, erotic
+    ideas, and copious urination, lasting for two or three days.
+    These manifestations became menstrual, with a period of
+    intermenstrual excitement appearing regularly, but never became
+    intense. Between the age of 36 and 42, the intermenstrual crises
+    gradually ceased; at about 45, the menstrual crises ceased; the
+    periodic crises continued, however, with the sole manifestation
+    of increased frequency of urination (_Societe de Biologie_, July
+    23, 1904). In a third case, of sexual neurasthenia, Fere found
+    that from puberty, onwards to middle life, there appeared, every
+    twenty-five to twenty-eight days, tenderness and swelling below
+    the nipple, accompanied by slight sexual excitation and erotic
+    dreams, lasting for one or two days (_Revue de Medecine_, March,
+    1905).
+
+It is in the domain of disease that the most strenuous and, on the whole,
+the most successful efforts have been made to discover a menstrual cycle
+in men. Such a field seems promising at the outset, for many morbid
+exaggerations or defects of the nervous system might be expected to
+emphasize, or to free from inhibition, fundamental rhythmical processes of
+the organism which in health, and under the varying conditions of social
+existence, are overlaid by the higher mental activities and the pressure
+of external stimuli. In the eighteenth century Erasmus Darwin wrote a
+remarkable and interesting chapter on "The Periods of Disease," dealing
+with solar and lunar influence on biological processes.[121] Since then,
+many writers have brought forward evidence, especially in the domain of
+nervous and mental disease, which seems to justify a belief that, under
+pathological conditions, a tendency to a male menstrual rhythm may be
+clearly laid bare.
+
+We should expect an organ so primitive in character as the heart, and with
+so powerful a rhythm already stamped upon its nervous organization, to be
+peculiarly apt to display a menstrual rhythm under the stress of abnormal
+conditions. This expectation might be strengthened by the menstrual rhythm
+which Mr. Perry-Coste has found reason to suspect in pulse-frequency
+during health. I am able to present a case in which such a periodicity
+seems to be indicated. It is that of a gentleman who suffered severely for
+some years before his death from valvular disease of the heart, with a
+tendency to pulmonary congestion, and attacks of "cardiac asthma." His
+wife, a lady of great intelligence, kept notes of her husband's
+condition,[122] and at last observed that there was a certain periodicity
+in the occurrence of the exacerbations. The periods were not quite
+regular, but show a curious tendency to recur at about thirty days'
+interval, a few days before the end of every month; it was during one of
+these attacks that he finally died. There was also a tendency to minor
+attacks about ten days after the major attacks. It is noteworthy that the
+subject showed a tendency to periodicity when in health, and once remarked
+laughingly before his illness: "I am just like a woman, always most
+excitable at a particular time of the month."
+
+    Periodicity has been noted in various disorders of nervous
+    character. Periodic insanity has long been known and studied
+    (see, e.g., Pilcz, _Die periodischen Geistesstoerungen_, 1901); it
+    is much commoner in women than in men. Periodicity has been
+    observed in stammering (a six-weekly period in one case), and
+    notably in hemicrania or migraine, by Harry Campbell, Osler, etc.
+    (The periodicity of a case of hemicrania has been studied in
+    detail by D. Fraser Harris, _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, July,
+    1902.) But the cycle in these cases is not always, or even
+    usually, of a menstrual type.
+
+It is now possible to turn to an investigation which, although of very
+limited extent, serves to place the question of a male menstrual cycle for
+the first time on a sound basis. If there is such a cycle analogous to
+menstruation in women, it must be a recurring period of nervous erethism,
+and it must be demonstrably accompanied by greater sexual activity. In the
+_American Journal of Psychology_ for 1888, Mr. Julius Nelson, afterward
+Professor of Biology at the Rutgers College of Agriculture, New Brunswick,
+published a study of dreams in which he recorded the results of detailed
+observations of his dreams, and also of seminal emissions during sleep (by
+him termed "gonekbole" or "ecbole"), during a period of something over two
+years. Mr. Nelson found that both dreams and ecboles fell into a
+physiological cycle of 28 days. The climax of maximum dreaming (as
+determined by the number of words in the dream record) and the climax of
+maximum ecbole fell at the same point of the cycle, the ecbolic climax
+being more distinctly marked than the dream climax.
+
+    The question of cyclic physiological changes is considerably
+    complicated by our uncertainty regarding the precise length of
+    the cycle we may expect to find. Nelson finds a 28-day cycle
+    satisfactory. Perry-Coste, as we shall see, accepts a strictly
+    lunar cycle of 291/2 days. Fliess has argued that in both women and
+    men, many physiological facts fall into a cycle of 23 days, which
+    he calls male, the 28-day cycle being female. (W. Fliess, _Die
+    Beziehungen zwischen Nase und weiblichen Geschlechts-Organen_,
+    1897, pp. 113 et seq.) Although Fliess brings forward a number of
+    minutely-observed cases, I cannot say that I am yet convinced of
+    the reality of this 23-day cycle. It is somewhat curious,
+    however, that at the same time as Fliess, though in apparent
+    independence, and from a different point of view, another worker
+    also suggested that there is a 23-day physiological cycle (John
+    Beard, _The Span of Gestation and the Cause of Birth_, Jena,
+    1897). Beard approaches the question from the embryological
+    standpoint, and argues that there is what he terms an "ovulation
+    unit" of about 231/2 days, in the interval from the end of one
+    menstruation to the beginning of the next. Two "ovulation units"
+    make up one "critical unit," and the length of pregnancy,
+    according to Beard, is always a multiple of the "critical unit;"
+    in man, the gestation period amounts to six critical units. These
+    attempts to prove a new physiological cycle deserve careful study
+    and further investigation. The possibility of such a cycle should
+    be borne in mind, but at present we are scarcely entitled to
+    accept it.
+
+So far as I am aware, Professor Nelson's very interesting series of
+observations, which, for the first time, placed the question of a
+menstrual rhythm in men on a sound and workable basis, have not directly
+led to any further observations. I am, however, in possession of a much
+more extended series of ecbolic observations completed before Nelson's
+paper was published, although the results have only been calculated at a
+comparatively-recent date. I now propose to present a summary of these
+observations, and consider how far they confirm Nelson's conclusions.
+These observations cover no less a period than twelve years, between the
+ages of 17 and 29, the subject, W.K., being a student, and afterward
+schoolmaster, leading, on the whole, a chaste life. The records were
+faithfully made throughout the whole of this long period. Here, if
+anywhere, should be material for the construction of a menstrual rhythm
+on an ecbolic basis. While the results are in many respects instructive,
+it can scarcely, perhaps, be said that they absolutely demonstrate a
+monthly cycle. When summated in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted
+by Nelson in his ecbolic observations, it is not difficult to regard the
+maximum, which is reached on the 19th to 21st days of the summated
+physiological month, as a real menstrual ecbolic climax, for no other
+three consecutive days at all approach these in number of ecboles, while
+there is a marked depression occurring four days earlier, on the 16th day
+of the month. If, however, we split up the curve by dividing the period of
+twelve years into two nearly equal periods, the earlier of about seven
+years and the latter of about four years, and summate these separately,
+the two curves do not present any parallel as regards the menstrual cycle.
+It scarcely seems to me, therefore, that these curves present any
+convincing evidence in this case of a monthly ecbolic cycle (and,
+therefore, I refrain from reproducing them), although they seem to suggest
+such a cycle. Nor is there any reason to suppose that by adopting a
+different cycle of thirty days, or of twenty-three days, any more
+conclusive results would be obtained.
+
+It seems, however, when we look at these curves more closely, that they
+are not wholly without significance. If I am justified in concluding that
+they scarcely demonstrate a monthly cycle, it may certainly be added that
+they show a rudimentary tendency for the ecboles to fall into a
+fortnightly rhythm, and a very marked and unmistakable tendency to a
+weekly rhythm. The fortnightly rhythm is shown in the curve for the
+earlier period, but is somewhat disguised in the curve for the total
+period, because the first climax is spread over two days, the 7th and 8th
+of the month. If we readjust the curve for the total period by presenting
+the days in pairs, the fortnightly tendency is more clearly brought out
+(Chart I).
+
+A more pronounced tendency still is traceable to a weekly rhythm. This is,
+indeed, the most unquestionable fact brought out by these curves. All the
+maxima occur on Saturday or Sunday, with the minima on Tuesday, Wednesday,
+Thursday, or Friday. This very pronounced weekly rhythm will serve to
+swamp more or less completely any monthly rhythm on a 28-day basis.
+Although here probably seen in an exaggerated form, it is almost certainly
+a characteristic of the ecbolic curve generally.[123] I have been told by
+several young men and women, especially those who work hard during the
+week, that Saturday, and especially Sunday afternoon, are periods when the
+thoughts spontaneously go in an erotic direction, and at this time there
+is a special tendency to masturbation or to spontaneous sexual excitement.
+It is on Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, according to Guerry's
+tables,[124] that the fewest suicides are committed, Tuesday, Wednesday,
+and Thursday, with, however, a partial fall on Wednesday, those on which
+most suicides are committed, so that there would appear to be an
+antagonism between sexual activity and the desire to throw off life. It
+also appears (in the reports of the Bavarian factory inspectors) that
+accidents in factories have a tendency to occur chiefly at the beginning
+of the week, and toward the end rather than in the middle.[125] Even
+growth, as Fleischmann has shown in the case of children, tends to fall
+into weekly cycles. It is evident that the nervous system is profoundly
+affected by the social influences resulting from the weekly cycle.
+
+The analysis of this series of ecbolic curves may thus be said to recall
+the suggestion of Laycock, that the menstrual cycle is really made up of
+four weekly cycles, the periodic unit, according to Laycock, being three
+and one-half days. I think it would, however, be more correct to say that
+the menstrual cycle, perhaps originally formed with reference to the
+influence of the moon on the sexual and social habits of men and other
+animals, tends to break up by a process of segmentation into fortnightly
+and weekly cycles. If we are justified in assuming that there is a male
+menstrual cycle, we must conclude that in such a case as that just
+analyzed, the weekly rhythm has become so marked as almost entirely to
+obliterate the larger monthly rhythm.
+
+However constituted, there seems little doubt that a physiological weekly
+cycle really exists. This was, indeed, very clearly indicated many years
+ago by the observations of Edward Smith, who showed that there are weekly
+rhythms in pulse, respiration, temperature, carbonic acid evolution, urea,
+and body-weight, Sunday being the great day of repair and increase of
+weight.[126]
+
+In an appendix to this volume I am able to present the results of another
+long series of observations of nocturnal ecbolic manifestations carried
+out by Mr. Perry-Coste, who has elaborately calculated the results, and
+has convinced himself that on the basis of a strictly lunar month, thus
+abolishing the disturbing influence of the weekly rhythm, which in his
+case also appears, a real menstrual rhythm may be traced.[127]
+
+It does not appear to me, however, even yet, that a final answer to the
+question whether a menstrual sexual rhythm occurs in men can be decisively
+given in the affirmative. That such a cycle will be proved in many cases
+seems to me highly probable, but before this can be decisively affirmed it
+is necessary that a much larger number of persons should be induced to
+carry out on themselves the simple, but protracted, series of observations
+that are required.
+
+    Since the first edition of this volume appeared, numerous series
+    of ecbolic records have reached me from different parts of the
+    world. The most notable of these series comes from a professional
+    man, of scientific training, who has for the past six years lived
+    in different parts of India, where the record was kept. Though
+    the record extends over nearly six years, there are two breaks in
+    it, due to a visit to England, and to loss of interest. Both
+    involuntary and voluntary discharges are included in the record.
+    The involuntary discharges occurred during sleep, usually with an
+    erotic dream, in which the subject invariably awaked and
+    frequently made an effort to check the emission. The voluntary
+    discharges in most cases commenced during sleep, or in the
+    half-waking state; deliberate masturbation, when fully awake, was
+    comparatively rare. The proportion of involuntary to more or less
+    voluntary ecboles was about 3 to 1. A third kind of sexual
+    manifestation (of frequency intermediate between the other two
+    forms) is also included, in which a high degree of erethism is
+    induced during the half waking state, culminating in an orgasm in
+    which the power of preventing discharge has been artificially
+    acquired. The subject, E.M., was 32 years of age when the record
+    began. He belongs to a healthy family, and is himself physically
+    sound, 5 feet 6 inches in height, but weight low, due to rickets
+    in infancy. In early life he stammered badly; his temperament is
+    emotional and self-conscious, while his work is unusually
+    exacting, and he lives for most of the year in a very trying
+    climate. As a boy he was very religious, and has always felt
+    obliged to resist sexual vice to the utmost, though there have
+    been occasional lapses.
+
+    As regards lunar periodicity, E.M., has summated his results in a
+    curve, after the same manner as Mr. Perry-Coste, beginning with
+    the new moon. The periods covered include 54 lunar months, and
+    the total number of discharges is 176; the average frequency is
+    about 3 per month of twenty-eight days. The curve, for the most
+    part, zigzags between a frequency of 4 and 9, but on the
+    twenty-fourth day it falls to 1, and then rises uninterruptedly
+    to a height of 11 on the twenty-seventh day, falling to 2 on the
+    next day. Whether a really menstrual rhythm is thus indicated I
+    do not undertake to decide, but I am inclined to agree with E.M.
+    himself that there is no definite evidence of it. "It looks to
+    me," he writes, "as if the only real rhythm (putting aside the
+    annual cycle) will be found to be the average period between the
+    ecboles, varying in different persons, but in my case, about nine
+    and one-eighth days. May not the ecbolic period in men be
+    compared to the menstrual period in women, and be an example of
+    the greater katabolic activity of men? There is the period of
+    tumescence, and the ecbole constituting the detumescence. The
+    week-end holiday would hasten the detumescence, but about every
+    third week-end there would tend to be delay to enable the system
+    to get back into its regulation nine or ten days' stride. This
+    might possibly be the explanation of the curves. The recent
+    emissions were nearly all involuntary during sleep. Age may have
+    something to do with the change in character."
+
+    E.M.'s curves frequently show the influence of weekly
+    periodicity, in the tendency to ecbole on Sunday, or sometimes on
+    Saturday or Monday. In recent years there has been some tendency
+    for this climax to be thrown towards the middle of the week, but,
+    on the whole, Wednesday is the point of lowest frequency.
+
+    In another case, the subject, A.N., who has spent nearly all his
+    life in the State of Indiana, has kept a record of sexual
+    manifestations between the ages of 30 and 34. The data, which
+    cover four years, have not been sent to me in a form which
+    enables the possibility of a monthly curve to be estimated, but
+    A.N., who has himself arranged the data on a lunar monthly basis,
+    considers that a monthly curve is thus revealed. "My memoranda,"
+    he writes, "show that discharges occur most frequently on the
+    first, second, and third days after new moon. There is also
+    another period on the fourteenth and fifteenth, which might
+    indicate a semi-lunar rhythm. The days of minimum discharge are
+    the seventh, eighth, twenty-second, and twenty-third." It may be
+    added that the yearly average of ecbolic manifestations, varying
+    between 50 and 55, comes out as 52, or exactly one per week.
+
+    A weekly periodicity is very definitely shown by A.N.'s data.
+    Sunday once more stands at the head of the week as regards
+    frequency, in this case very decisively. The figures are as  follows:--
+
+        Sun.   Mon.   Tues.  Wed.  Thurs.  Fri.   Sat.
+         48     21     24     35     28     26     27
+
+    In another case which has reached me from the United States, the
+    data are slighter, but deserve note, as the subject is a trained
+    psychologist, and I quote the case in his own words. Here, it
+    will be seen, there appears to be a tendency for the ecbolic
+    cycle to cover a period of about six weeks. In this case, also,
+    there is a tendency for the climax to occur about Saturday or
+    Sunday. "X. is 38 years old, unmarried, fair health, pretty good
+    heredity; university trained, and engaged in academic pursuits.
+    He thinks he may have completed puberty at about 13, though he
+    has no proof that he was in the full possession of his sex-powers
+    until he was 15 years 3 months old (when he had his first
+    emission). His sex life has been normal. He masturbated somewhat
+    when he slept with other boys (or men) during early manhood, but
+    not to excess.
+
+    "During the autumn of 1889 (when 28 years of age) he observed
+    that at certain times he had an itching feeling about the
+    testicles; that he felt slightly irritable; that the penis
+    erected with the slightest provocation, and that this peculiar
+    feeling usually passed away with a nightly emission. Indeed, so
+    regular was the matter that he usually wore a loin garment at
+    these times, to prevent the semen getting on the bedding. This
+    peculiar feeling ordinarily continued for two or three days. He
+    recalls at these times that he felt that he would like to wrestle
+    with some one, for there seemed to be a muscular tension. These
+    states returned with apparent regularity, and the intervals
+    seemed to be about six weeks, though no effort was made to
+    measure the periods until 1893. The following notes are taken
+    from the diaries of  X.:--
+
+    "Thursday, December 29, 1892. The peculiar feeling.
+        (This is the only entry.)
+
+    "Thursday, February 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that X. awoke nights to find erections, and
+        that the feeling continued until Sunday night following, when
+        there was an emission.)
+
+    "Friday, March 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that there was an emission the next night,
+        and that the feeling disappeared.)
+
+    "Wednesday, May 3, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that it continued until Saturday night, when
+        X. had sexual relations, and that it then disappeared.)
+
+    "Wednesday, June 14, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary states that the next night X. had an emission,
+        and the disappearance of the feeling.)
+
+    "Thursday, July 27, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (The diary notes that it was apparent at about 3 o'clock
+        that afternoon. That night at 10 o'clock, X. had sexual
+        intercourse, and the feeling was not noted the next day.)
+
+    "Friday, September 8, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Tuesday, the 11th, and then disappeared.
+        No sexual intercourse, and no nightly emission.)
+
+    "Wednesday, October 25, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Saturday night, when there was a nightly
+        emission.)
+
+    "Saturday, December 9, 1893. The peculiar feeling.
+        (Continued until Monday night, when there was sexual
+        relations.)
+
+    "It will be noted that the intervals observed were of about six
+    weeks' duration, excepting one, that from September to October,
+    when it was nearly seven weeks.
+
+    "These observations were not recorded after 1893. X. thinks that
+    in 1894 the intervals were longer, an opinion which is based on
+    the fact that for a period of six months he had no sexual
+    intercourse and no nightly emissions. The times during this six
+    months when he had the 'peculiar feeling,' the sensation was so
+    slight as to be scarcely noted. In 1895, the feeling seemed more
+    pronounced than ever before, and X. thinks that it may have
+    recurred as often as once a month. In 1896, 1897, and 1898, the
+    intervals, he thinks, lengthened--at times, he thought, wholly
+    disappeared. During 1899, while they did not recur often, when
+    they did come the sensation was pronounced, although the
+    emission was less common. There was a peculiar 'heavy' feeling
+    about the testicles, and a marked tendency towards erection of
+    the penis, especially at night-time (while sleeping). X. often
+    awoke to find a tense erection. Moreover, these feelings usually
+    continued a week.
+
+    "1. In general, X. is of the opinion that as he grows older these
+    intervals lengthen, though this inference is not based on
+    _recorded_ data.
+
+    "2. He notes that a discharge (through sexual intercourse or in
+    sleep) invariably brings the peculiar feeling to a close for the
+    time being.
+
+    "3. He notes that sexual intercourse _at the time_ stops it; but,
+    when there has been sexual intercourse within a week or ten days
+    of the time (based upon the observations of 1893), that it had no
+    tendency to check the feeling."
+
+    In another case, that of F.C., an Irish farmer, born in
+    Waterford, the data are still more meagre, though the periodicity
+    is stated to be very pronounced. He is chaste, steady, with
+    occasional lapses from strict sobriety, healthy and mentally
+    normal, living a regular open-air life, far from the artificial
+    stimuli of towns. The observations refer to a period when he was
+    from 20 to 27 years of age. During this period, nocturnal
+    emissions occurred at regular intervals of exactly a month. They
+    were ushered in by fits of irritability and depression, and
+    usually occurred in dreamless sleep. The discharges were abundant
+    and physically weakening, but they relieved the psychic symptoms,
+    though they occasioned mental distress, since F.C. is scrupulous
+    in a religious sense, and also apprehensive of bad constitutional
+    effects, the result of reading alarmist quack pamphlets.
+
+    In another case known to me, a young man leading a chaste life,
+    experienced crises of sexual excitement every ten to fourteen
+    days, the crisis lasting for several days.
+
+    Finally, an interesting contribution to this subject, suggested
+    by this _Study_, has been made and published (in the proceedings
+    of the Amsterdam International Congress of Psychology, in 1907)
+    by the well-known Amsterdam neurologist and psychologist, Dr.
+    L.S.A.M. Von Roemer under the title, "Ueber das Verhaeltniss
+    zwischen Mondalter und Sexualitaet." Von Roemer's data are made up
+    not of nocturnal involuntary emissions, but of the voluntary acts
+    of sexual intercourse of an unmarried man, during a period of
+    four years. Von Roemer believes that these, to a much greater
+    extent than those of a married man, would be liable to periodic
+    influence, if such exist. On making a curve of exact lunar length
+    (similarly to Perry-Coste), he finds that there are, every month,
+    two maxima and two minima, in a way that approximately resemble
+    Perry-Coste's curve. The main point in Von Roemer's results is,
+    however, the correspondence that he finds with the actual lunar
+    phases; the chief maximum occurs at the time of the full moon,
+    and the secondary maximum at the time of the new moon, the minima
+    being at the first and fourth quarters. He hazards no theory in
+    explanation of this coincidence, but insists on the need for
+    further observations. It will be seen that A.N.'s results (_ante_
+    p. 117) seem in the main to correspond to Von Roemer's.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] Even counting the pulse is a comparatively recent method of
+physiological examination. It was not until 1450 that Nicolas of Cusa
+advocated counting the pulse-beats. (Binz, _Deutsche medizinische
+Wochenschrift_, October 6, 1898.)
+
+[118] I leave this statement as it stands, though since the first
+publication of this book it has ceased to be strictly accurate.
+
+[119] Sanctorius, _Medicina Statica_, Sect. I, aph. lxv.
+
+[120] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, xiv, 1882.
+
+[121] _Zooenomia_, Section XXXVI.
+
+[122] I reproduced these notes in full in earlier editions of this volume.
+
+[123] Moll refers to the case of a man whose erotic dreams occurred every
+fortnight, and always on Friday night (_Libido Sexualis_, Band I, p. 136).
+One is inclined to suspect an element of autosuggestion in such a case;
+still, the coincidence is noteworthy.
+
+[124] See Durkheim, _Le Suicide_, p. 101.
+
+[125] We must, of course, see here the results of the disorganization
+produced by holidays, and the exhaustion produced by the week's labor; but
+such influences are still the social effects of the cosmic week.
+
+[126] E. Smith, _Health and Disease_, Chapter III. I may remark that,
+according to Kemsoes (_Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift_, January 20,
+1908, and _British Medical Journal_, January 29, 1898), school-children
+work best on Monday and Tuesday.
+
+[127] See Appendix B.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Annual Sexual Rhythm--In Animals--In Man--Tendency of the Sexual
+Impulse to become Heightened in Spring and Autumn--The Prevalence of
+Seasonal Erotic Festivals--The Feast of Fools--The Easter and Midsummer
+Bonfires--The Seasonal Variations in Birthrate--The Causes of those
+Variations--The Typical Conception-rate Curve for Europe--The Seasonal
+Periodicity of Seminal Emissions During Sleep--Original
+Observations--Spring and Autumn the Chief Periods of Involuntary Sexual
+Excitement--The Seasonal Periodicity of Rapes--Of Outbreaks among
+Prisoners--The Seasonal Curves of Insanity and Suicide--The Growth of
+Children According to Season--The Annual Curve of Bread-consumption in
+Prisons--Seasonal Periodicity of Scarlet Fever--The Underlying Causes of
+these Seasonal Phenomena.
+
+
+That there are annual seasonal changes in the human organism, especially
+connected with the sexual function, is a statement that has been made by
+physiologists and others from time to time, and the statement has even
+reached the poets, who have frequently declared that spring is the season
+of love.
+
+    Thus, sixty years ago, Laycock, an acute pioneer in the
+    investigation of the working of the human organism, brought
+    together (in a chapter on "The Periodic Movements in the
+    Reproductive Organs of Woman," in his _Nervous Diseases of
+    Women_, 1840, pp. 61-70) much interesting evidence to show that
+    the system undergoes changes about the vernal and autumnal
+    equinoxes, and that these changes are largely sexual.
+
+    Edward Smith, also a notable pioneer in this field of human
+    periodicity, and, indeed, the first to make definite observations
+    on a number of points bearing on it, sums up, in his remarkable
+    book, _Health and Disease as Influenced by Daily, Seasonal, and
+    Other Cyclical Changes in the Human System_ (1861), to the effect
+    that season is a more powerful influence on the system than
+    temperature or atmospheric pressure; "in the early and middle
+    parts of spring every function of the body is in its highest
+    degree of efficiency," while autumn is "essentially a period of
+    change from the minimum toward the maximum of vital conditions."
+    He found that in April and May most carbonic acid is evolved,
+    there being then a progressive diminution to September, and then
+    a progressive increase; the respiratory rate also fell from a
+    maximum in April to a minimum maintained at exactly the same
+    level throughout August, September, October, and November;
+    spring was found to be the season of maximum, autumn of minimum,
+    muscular power; sensibility to tactile and temperature
+    impressions was also greater in spring.
+
+    Kulischer, studying the sexual customs of various human races,
+    concluded that in primitive times, only at two special
+    seasons--at spring and in harvest-time--did pairing take place;
+    and that, when pairing ceased to be strictly confined to these
+    periods, its symbolical representation was still so confined,
+    even among the civilized nations of Europe. He further argued
+    that the physiological impulse was only felt at these periods.
+    (Kulischer, "Die geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl bei den Menschen in
+    der Urzeit," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1876, pp. 152 and
+    157.) Cohnstein ("Ueber Praedilectionszeiten bei Schwangerschaft,"
+    _Archiv fuer Gynaekologie_, 1879) also suggested that women
+    sometimes only conceive at certain periods of the year.
+
+    Wiltshire, who made various interesting observations regarding
+    the physiology of menstruation, wrote: "Many years ago, I
+    concluded that every women had a law peculiar to herself, which
+    governed the times of her bringing forth (and conceiving); that
+    she was more prone to bring forth at certain epochs than at
+    others; and subsequent researches have established the accuracy
+    of the forecast." He further stated his belief in a "primordial
+    seasonal aptitude for procreation, the impress of which still
+    remains, and, to some extent, governs the breeding-times of
+    humanity." (A. Wiltshire, "Lectures on the Comparative Physiology
+    of Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March, 1883, pp.
+    502, etc.)
+
+    Westermarck, in a chapter of his _History of Human Marriage_,
+    dealing with the question of "A Human Pairing Season in Primitive
+    Times," brings forward evidence showing that spring, or, rather,
+    early summer, is the time for increase of the sexual instinct,
+    and argues that this is a survival of an ancient pairing season;
+    spring, he points out, is a season of want, rather than
+    abundance, for a frugivorous species, but when men took to herbs,
+    roots, and animal food, spring became a time of abundance, and
+    suitable for the birth of children. He thus considers that in
+    man, as in lower animals, the times of conception are governed by
+    the times most suitable for birth.
+
+    Rosenstadt, as we shall see later, also believes that men to-day
+    have inherited a physiological custom of procreating at a certain
+    epoch, and he thus accounts for the seasonal changes in the
+    birthrate.
+
+    Heape, who also believes that "at one period of its existence the
+    human species had a special breeding season," follows Wiltshire
+    in suggesting that "there is some reason to believe that the
+    human female is not always in a condition to breed." (W. Heape,
+    "Menstruation and Ovulation of _Macacus rhesus_," _Philosophical
+    Transactions_, 1897; id. "The Sexual Season of Mammals,"
+    _Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science_, 1900.)
+
+Except, however, in one important respect, with which we shall presently
+have to deal, few attempts have been made to demonstrate any annual
+organic sexual rhythm. The supposition of such annual cycle is usually
+little more than a deduction from the existence of the well-marked
+seasonal sexual rhythm in animals. Most of the higher animals breed only
+once or twice a year, and at such a period that the young are born when
+food is most plentiful. At other periods the female is incapable of
+breeding, and without sexual desires, while the male is either in the same
+condition or in a condition of latent sexuality. Under the influence of
+domestication, animals tend to lose the strict periodicity of the wild
+condition, and become apt for breeding at more frequent intervals. Thus
+among dogs in the wild state the bitch only experiences heat once a year,
+in the spring. Among domesticated dogs, there is not only the spring
+period of heat, early in the year, but also an autumn period, about six
+months later; the primitive period, however, remains the most important
+one, and the best litters of pups are said to be produced in the spring.
+The mare is in season in spring and summer; sheep take the ram in
+autumn.[128] Many of the menstruating monkeys also, whether or not sexual
+desire is present throughout the year, only conceive in spring and in
+autumn. Almost any time of the year may be an animal's pairing season,
+this season being apparently in part determined by the economic conditions
+which will prevail at birth. While it is essential that animals should be
+born during the season of greatest abundance, it is equally essential that
+pairing, which involves great expenditure of energy, should also take
+place at a season of maximum physical vigor.
+
+    As an example of the sexual history of an animal through the
+    year, I may quote the following description, by Dr. A.W.
+    Johnstone, of the habits of the American deer: "Our common
+    American deer, in winter-time, is half-starved for lack of
+    vegetation in the woods; the low temperature, snow, and ice, make
+    his conditions of life harder for lack of the proper amount of
+    food, whereby he becomes an easier prey to carnivorous animals.
+    He has difficulty even in preserving life. In spring he sheds his
+    winter coat, and is provided with a suit of lighter hair, and
+    while this is going on the male grows antlers for defence. The
+    female about this time is far along in pregnancy, and when the
+    antlers are fully grown she drops the fawn. When the fawns are
+    dropped vegetation is plentiful and lactation sets in. During
+    this time the male is kept fully employed in getting food and
+    guarding his more or less helpless family. As the season advances
+    the vegetation increases and the fawn begins to eat grass. When
+    the summer heat commences the little streams begin to dry up, and
+    the animal once more has difficulty in supporting life because of
+    the enervating heat, the effect of drought on the vegetation, and
+    the distance which has to be traveled to get water; therefore,
+    fully ten months in each year the deer has all he can do to live
+    without extra exertion incident to rutting. Soon after the autumn
+    rains commence vegetation becomes more luxurious, the antlers of
+    the male and new suits of hair for both are fully grown, heat of
+    the summer is gone, food and drink are plentiful everywhere, the
+    fawns are weaned, and both sexes are in the very finest
+    condition. Then, and then only, in the whole year, comes the rut,
+    which, to them as to most other animals, means an unwonted amount
+    of physical exercise besides the everyday runs for life from
+    their natural enemies, and an unusual amount of energy is used
+    up. If a doe dislikes the attention of a special buck, miles of
+    racing result. If jealous males meet, furious battles take place.
+    The strain on both sexes could not possibly be endured at any
+    other season of the year. With approach of cold weather, climatic
+    deprivations and winter dangers commence and rut closes. In all
+    wild animals, rut occurs only when the climatic and other
+    conditions favor the highest physical development. This law holds
+    good in all wild birds, for it is then only that they can stand
+    the strain incident to love-making. The common American crow is a
+    very good study. In the winter he travels around the ricefields
+    of the South, leading a tramp's existence in a country foreign to
+    him, and to which he goes only to escape the rigors of the
+    northern climate. For several weeks in the spring he goes about
+    the fields, gathering up the worms and grubs. After his long
+    flight from the South he experiences several weeks of an almost
+    ideal existence, his food is plentiful, he becomes strong and
+    hearty, and then he turns to thoughts of love. In the pairing
+    season he does more work than at any other time in the year:
+    fantastic dances, racing and chasing after the females, and
+    savage fights with rivals. He endures more than would be possible
+    in his ordinary physical state. Then come the care of the young
+    and the long flights for water and food during the drought of the
+    summer. After the molt, autumn finds him once more in flock, and
+    with the first frosts he is off again to the South. In the wild
+    state, rut is the capstone of perfect physical condition." (A.W.
+    Johnstone, "The Relation of Menstruation to the other
+    Reproductive Functions," _American Journal of Obstetrics_, vol.
+    xxxii, 1895.)
+
+    Wiltshire ("Lectures on the Comparative Physiology of
+    Menstruation," _British Medical Journal_, March, 1888) and
+    Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, Chapter II) enumerate
+    the pairing season of a number of different animals.
+
+    With regard to the breeding seasons of monkeys, little seems to
+    be positively known. Heape made special inquiries with reference
+    to the two species whose sexual life he investigated. He was
+    informed that _Semnopithecus entellus_ breeds twice a year, in
+    April and in October. He accepts Aitcheson's statement that the
+    _Macacus rhesus_, in Simla, copulates in October, and adds that
+    in the very different climate of the plains it appears to
+    copulate in May. He concludes that the breeding season varies
+    greatly in dependence on climate, but believes that the breeding
+    season is always preserved, and that it affects the sexual
+    aptitude of the male. He could not make his monkeys copulate
+    during February or March, but is unable to say whether or not
+    sexual intercourse is generally admitted outside the breeding
+    season. He quotes the observation of Breschet that monkeys
+    copulate during pregnancy.
+
+In primitive human races we very frequently trace precisely the same
+influence of the seasonal impulse as may be witnessed in the higher
+animals, although among human races it does not always result that the
+children are born at the time of the greatest plenty, and on account of
+the development of human skill such a result is not necessary. Thus Dr.
+Cook found among the Eskimo that during the long winter nights the
+secretions are diminished, muscular power is weak, and the passions are
+depressed. Soon after the sun appears a kind of rut affects the young
+population. They tremble with the intensity of sexual passion, and for
+several weeks much of the time is taken up with courtship and love. Hence,
+the majority of the children are born nine months later, when the four
+months of perpetual night are beginning. A marked seasonal periodicity of
+this kind is not confined to the Arctic regions. We may also find it in
+the tropics. In Cambodia, Mondiere has found that twice a year, in April
+and September, men seem to experience a "veritable rut," and will
+sometimes even kill women who resist them.[129]
+
+These two periods, spring and autumn--the season for greeting the
+appearance of life and the season for reveling in its final
+fruition--seem to be everywhere throughout the world the most usual
+seasons for erotic festivals. In classical Greece and Rome, in India,
+among the Indians of North and South America, spring is the most usual
+season, while in Africa the yam harvest of autumn is the season chiefly
+selected. There are, of course, numerous exceptions to this rule, and it
+is common to find both seasons observed. Taking, indeed, a broad view of
+festivals throughout the world, we may say that there are four seasons
+when they are held: the winter solstice, when the days begin to lengthen
+and primitive man rejoices in the lengthening and seeks to assist it;[130]
+the vernal equinox, the period of germination and the return of life; the
+summer solstice, when the sun reaches its height; and autumn, the period
+of fruition, of thankfulness, and of repose. But it is rarely that we find
+a people seriously celebrating more than two of these festival seasons.
+
+In Australia, according to Mueller as quoted by Ploss and Bartels, marriage
+and conception take place during the warm season, when there is greatest
+abundance of food, and to some extent is even confined to that period.
+Oldfield and others state that the Australian erotic festivals take place
+only in spring. Among some tribes, Mueller adds, such as the Watschandis,
+conception is inaugurated by a festival called _kaaro_, which takes place
+in the warm season at the first new moon after the yams are ripe. The
+leading feature of this festival is a moonlight dance, representing the
+sexual act symbolically. With their spears, regarded as the symbols of the
+male organ, the men attack bushes, which represent the female organs.
+They thus work themselves up to a state of extreme sexual excitement.[131]
+Among the Papuans of New Guinea, also, according to Miklucho-Macleay,
+conceptions chiefly occur at the end of harvest, and Guise describes the
+great annual festival of the year which takes place at the time of the yam
+and banana harvest, when the girls undergo a ceremony of initiation and
+marriages are effected.[132] In Central Africa, says Sir H.H. Johnston, in
+his _Central Africa_, sexual orgies are seriously entered into at certain
+seasons of the year, but he neglects to mention what these seasons are.
+The people of New Britain, according to Weisser (as quoted by Ploss and
+Bartels), carefully guard their young girls from the young men. At certain
+times, however, a loud trumpet is blown in the evening, and the girls are
+then allowed to go away into the bush to mix freely with the young men. In
+ancient Peru (according to an account derived from a pastoral letter of
+Archbishop Villagomez of Lima), in December, when the fruit of the
+_paltay_ is ripe, a festival was held, preceded by a five days' fast.
+During the festival, which lasted six days and six nights, men and women
+met together in a state of complete nudity at a certain spot among the
+gardens, and all raced toward a certain hill. Every man who caught up with
+a woman in the race was bound at once to have intercourse with her.
+
+Very instructive, from our present point of view, is the account given by
+Dalton, of the festivals of the various Bengal races. Thus the Hos (a
+Kolarian tribe), of Bengal, are a purely agricultural people, and the
+chief festival of the year with them is the _magh parah_. It is held in
+the month of January, "when the granaries are full of grain, and the
+people, to use their own expression, full of devilry." It is the festival
+of the harvest-home, the termination of the year's toil, and is always
+held at full moon. The festival is a _saturnalia_, when all rules of duty
+and decorum are forgotten, and the utmost liberty is allowed to women and
+girls, who become like bacchantes. The people believe that at this time
+both men and women become overcharged with vitality, and that a safety
+valve is absolutely necessary. The festival begins with a religious
+sacrifice made by the village priest or elders, and with prayers for the
+departed and for the vouchsafing of seasonable rain and good crops. The
+religious ceremonies over, the people give themselves up to feasting and
+to drinking the home-made beer, the preparation of which from fermented
+rice is one of a girl's chief accomplishments. "The Ho population," wrote
+Dalton, "are at other seasons quiet and reserved in manner, and in their
+demeanor toward women gentle and decorous; even in their flirtations they
+never transcend the bounds of decency. The girls, though full of spirits
+and somewhat saucy, have innate notions of propriety that make them modest
+in demeanor, though devoid of all prudery, and of the obscene abuse, so
+frequently heard from the lips of common women in Bengal, they appear to
+have no knowledge. They are delicately sensitive under harsh language of
+any kind, and never use it to others; and since their adoption of clothing
+they are careful to drape themselves decently, as well as gracefully; but
+they throw all this aside during the _magh_ feast. Their nature appears to
+undergo a temporary change. Sons and daughters revile their parents in
+gross language, and parents their children; men and women become almost
+like animals in the indulgence of their amorous propensities. They enact
+all that was ever portrayed by prurient artists in a bacchanalian festival
+or pandean orgy; and as the light of the sun they adore, and the presence
+of numerous spectators, seems to be no restraint on their indulgence, it
+cannot be expected that chastity is preserved when the shades of night
+fall on such a scene of licentiousness and debauchery." While, however,
+thus representing the festival as a mere debauch, Dalton adds that
+relationships formed at this time generally end in marriage. There is also
+a flower festival in April and May, of religious nature, but the dances
+at this festival are quieter in character.[133]
+
+In Burmah the great festival of the year is the full moon of October,
+following the Buddhist Lent season (which is also the wet season), during
+which there is no sexual intercourse. The other great festival is the New
+Year in March.[134]
+
+In classical times the great festivals were held at the same time as in
+northern and modern Europe. The _brumalia_ took place in midwinter, when
+the days were shortest, and the _rosalia_, according to early custom in
+May or June, and at a later time about Easter. After the establishment of
+Christianity the Church made constant efforts to suppress this latter
+festival, and it was referred to by an eighth century council as "a wicked
+and reprehensible holiday-making." These festivals appear to be intimately
+associated with Dionysus worship, and the flower-festival of Dionysus, as
+well as the Roman Liberales in honor of Bacchus, was celebrated in March
+with worship of Priapus. The festivals of the Delian Apollo and of
+Artemis, both took place during the first week in May and the Roman
+Bacchanales in October.[135]
+
+The mediaeval Feast of Fools was to a large extent a seasonal orgy licensed
+by the Church. It may be traced directly back through the barbatories of
+the lower empire to the Roman _saturnalia_, and at Sens, the ancient
+ecclesiastical metropolis of France, it was held at about the same time as
+the _saturnalia_, on the Feast of the Circumcision, i.e., New Year's Day.
+It was not, however, always held at this time; thus at Evreux it took
+place on the 1st of May.[136]
+
+The Easter bonfires of northern-central Europe, the Midsummer (St. John's
+Eve) fires of southern-central Europe, still bear witness to the ancient
+festivals.[137] There is certainly a connection between these bonfires and
+erotic festivals; it is noteworthy that they occur chiefly at the period
+of spring and early summer, which, on other grounds, is widely regarded as
+the time for the increase of the sexual instinct, while the less frequent
+period for the bonfires is that of the minor sexual climax. Mannhardt was
+perhaps the first to show how intimately these spring and early summer
+festivals--held with bonfires and dances and the music of violin--have
+been associated with love-making and the choice of a mate.[138] In spring,
+the first Monday in Lent (Quadrigesima) and Easter Eve were frequent days
+for such bonfires. In May, among the Franks of the Main, the unmarried
+women, naked and adorned with flowers, danced on the Blocksberg before the
+men, as described by Herbels in the tenth century.[139] In the central
+highlands of Scotland the Beltane fires were kindled on the 1st of May.
+Bonfires sometimes took place on Halloween (October 31st) and Christmas.
+But the great season all over Europe for these bonfires, then often held
+with erotic ceremonial, is the summer solstice, the 23d of June, the eve
+of Midsummer, or St. John's Day.[140]
+
+The Bohemians and other Slavonic races formerly had meetings with sexual
+license. This was so up to the beginning of the sixteenth century on the
+banks of rivers near Novgorod. The meetings took place, as a rule, the day
+before the Festival of John the Baptist, which, in pagan times, was that
+of a divinity known by the name of Jarilo (equivalent to Priapus). Half a
+century later, a new ecclesiastical code sought to abolish every vestige
+of the early festivals held on Christmas Day, on the Day of the Baptism,
+of Our Lord, and on John the Baptist's Day. A general feature of all these
+festivals (says Kowalewsky) was the prevalence of the promiscuous
+intercourse of the sexes. Among the Ehstonians, at the end of the
+eighteenth century, thousands of persons would gather around an old ruined
+church (in the Fellinschen) on the Eve of St. John, light a bonfire, and
+throw sacrificial gifts into it. Sterile women danced naked among the
+ruins; much eating and drinking went on, while the young men and maidens
+disappeared into the woods to do what they would. Festivals of this
+character still take place at the end of June in some districts. Young
+unmarried couples jump barefoot over large fires, usually near rivers or
+ponds. Licentiousness is rare.[141] But in many parts of Russia the
+peasants still attach little value to virginity, and even prefer women who
+have been mothers. The population of the Grisons in the sixteenth century
+held regular meetings not less licentious than those of the Cossacks.
+These were abolished by law. Kowalewsky regards all such customs as a
+survival of early forms of promiscuity.[142]
+
+    Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., 1900, vol. iii, pp. 236-350)
+    fully describes and discusses the dances, bonfires and festivals
+    of spring and summer, of Halloween (October 31), and Christmas.
+    He also explains the sexual character of these festivals. "There
+    are clear indications," he observes (p. 305), "that even human
+    fecundity is supposed to be promoted by the genial heat of the
+    fires. It is an Irish belief that a girl who jumps thrice over
+    the midsummer bonfire will soon marry and become the mother of
+    many children; and in various parts of France they think that if
+    a girl dances round nine fires she will be sure to marry within a
+    year. On the other hand, in Lechrain, people say that if a young
+    man and woman, leaping over the midsummer fire together, escape
+    unsmirched, the young woman will not become a mother within
+    twelve months--the flames have not touched and fertilized her.
+    The rule observed in some parts of France and Belgium, that the
+    bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent should be kindled by the
+    person who was last married, seems to belong to the same class of
+    ideas, whether it be that such a person is supposed to receive
+    from, or impart to, the fire a generative and fertilizing
+    influence. The common practice of lovers leaping over the fires
+    hand-in-hand may very well have originated in a notion that
+    thereby their marriage would be more likely to be blessed with
+    offspring. And the scenes of profligacy which appear to have
+    marked the midsummer celebration among the Ehstonians, as they
+    once marked the celebration of May Day among ourselves, may have
+    sprung, not from the mere license of holiday-makers, but from a
+    crude notion that such orgies were justified, if not required, by
+    some mysterious bond which linked the life of man, to the courses
+    of the heavens at the turning-point of the year."
+
+As regards these primitive festivals, although the evidence is scattered
+and sometimes obscure, certain main conclusions clearly emerge. In early
+Europe there were, according to Grimm, only two seasons, sometimes
+regarded as spring and winter, sometimes as spring and autumn, and for
+mythical purposes these seasons were alone available.[143] The appearance
+of each of these two seasons was inaugurated by festivals which were
+religious and often erotic in character. The Slavonic year began in March,
+at which time there was formerly, it is believed, a great festival, not
+only in Slavonic but also in Teutonic countries. In Northern Germany there
+were Easter bonfires always associated with mountains or hills. The Celtic
+bonfires were held at the beginning of May, while the Teutonic May-day, or
+_Walpurgisnacht_, is a very ancient sacred festival, associated with
+erotic ceremonial, and regarded by Grimm as having a common origin with
+the Roman _floralia_ and the Greek _dionysia_. Thus, in Europe, Grimm
+concludes: "there are four different ways of welcoming summer. In Sweden
+and Gothland a battle of winter and summer, a triumphal entry of the
+latter. In Schonen, Denmark, Lower Saxony, and England, simply May-riding,
+or fetching of the May-wagon. On the Rhine merely a battle of winter and
+summer, without immersion, without the pomp of an entry. In Franconia,
+Thuringia, Meissen, Silesia, and Bohemia only the carrying out of wintry
+death; no battle, no formal introduction of summer. Of these festivals the
+first and second fall in May, the third and fourth in March. In the first
+two, the whole population take part with unabated enthusiasm; in the last
+two only the lower poorer class.... Everything goes to prove that the
+approach of summer was to our forefathers a holy tide, welcomed by
+sacrifice, feast, and dance, and largely governing and brightening the
+people's life."[144] The early spring festival of March, the festival of
+Ostara, the goddess of spring, has become identified with the Christian
+festival of Resurrection (just as the summer solstice festival has been
+placed beneath the patronage of St. John the Baptist); but there has been
+only an amalgamation of closely-allied rites, for the Christian festival
+also may be traced back to a similar origin. Among the early Arabians the
+great _ragab_ feast, identified by Ewald and Robertson Smith with the
+Jewish _paschal_ feast, fell in the spring or early summer, when the
+camels and other domestic animals brought forth their young and the
+shepherds offered their sacrifices.[145] Babylonia, the supreme early
+centre of religious and cosmological culture, presents a more decisive
+example of the sex festival. The festival of Tammuz is precisely analogous
+to the European festival of St. John's Day. Tammuz was the solar god of
+spring vegetation, and closely associated with Ishtar, also an
+agricultural deity of fertility. The Tammuz festival was, in the earliest
+times, held toward the summer solstice, at the time of the first wheat and
+barley harvest. In Babylonia, as in primitive Europe, there were only two
+seasons; the festival of Tammuz, coming at the end of winter and the
+beginning of summer, was a fast followed by a feast, a time of mourning
+for winter, of rejoicing for summer. It is part of the primitive function
+of sacred ritual to be symbolical of natural processes, a mysterious
+representation of natural processes with the object of bringing them
+about.[146] The Tammuz festival was an appeal to the powers of Nature to
+exhibit their generative functions; its erotic character is indicated not
+only by the well-known fact that the priestesses of Ishtar (the Kadishtu,
+or "holy ones") were prostitutes, but by the statements in Babylonian
+legends concerning the state of the earth during Ishtar's winter absence,
+when the bull, the ass, and man ceased to reproduce. It is evident that
+the return of spring, coincident with the Tammuz festival, was regarded as
+the period for the return of the reproductive instinct even in man.[147]
+So that along this line also we are led back to a great procreative
+festival.
+
+Thus the great spring festivals were held between March and June,
+frequently culminating in a great orgy on Midsummer's Eve. The next great
+season of festivals in Europe was in autumn. The beginning of August was a
+great festival in Celtic lands, and the echoes of it, Rhys remarks, have
+not yet died out in Wales.[148] The beginning of November, both in Celtic
+and Teutonic countries, was a period of bonfires.[149] In Germanic
+countries especially there was a great festival at the time. The Germanic
+year began at Martinmas (November 11th), and the great festival of the
+year was then held. It is the oldest Germanic festival on record, and
+retained its importance even in the Middle Ages. There was feasting all
+night, and the cattle that were to be killed were devoted to the gods; the
+goose was associated with this festival.[150] These autumn festivals
+culminated in the great festival of the winter solstice which we have
+perpetuated in the celebrations of Christmas and New Year. Thus, while
+the two great primitive culminating festivals of spring and autumn
+correspond exactly (as we shall see) with the seasons of maximum
+fecundation, even in the Europe of to-day, the earlier spring (March)
+and--though less closely--autumn (November) festivals correspond with the
+periods of maximum spontaneous sexual disturbance, as far as I have been
+able to obtain precise evidence of such disturbance. That the maximum of
+physiological sexual excitement should tend to appear earlier than the
+maximum of fecundation is a result that might be expected.
+
+The considerations so far brought forward clearly indicate that among
+primitive races there are frequently one or two seasons in the
+year--especially spring and autumn--during which sexual intercourse is
+chiefly or even exclusively carried on, and they further indicate that
+these primitive customs persist to some extent even in Europe to-day. It
+would still remain, to determine whether any such influence affects the
+whole mass of the civilized population and determines the times at which
+intercourse, or fecundation, most frequently takes place.
+
+This question can be most conveniently answered by studying the seasonal
+variation in the birthrate, calculating back to the time of conception.
+Wargentin, in Sweden, first called attention to the periodicity of the
+birthrate in 1767.[151] The matter seems to have attracted little further
+attention until Quetelet, who instinctively scented unreclaimed fields of
+statistical investigation, showed that in Belgium and Holland there is a
+maximum of births in February, and, consequently, of conceptions in May,
+and a minimum of births about July, with consequent minimum of conceptions
+in October. Quetelet considered that the spring maximum of conceptions
+corresponded to an increase of vitality after the winter cold. He pointed
+out that this sexual climax was better marked in the country than in
+towns, and accounted for this by the consideration that in the country
+the winter cold is more keenly felt. Later, Wappaeus investigated the
+matter in various parts of northern and southern Europe as well as in
+Chile, and found that there was a maximum of conceptions in May and June
+attributable to season, and in Catholic countries strengthened by customs
+connected with ecclesiastical seasons. This maximum was, he found,
+followed by a minimum in September, October, and November, due to
+gradually increasing exhaustion, and the influence of epidemic diseases,
+as well as the strain of harvest-work. The minimum is reached in the south
+earlier than in the north. About November conceptions again become more
+frequent, and reach the second maximum at about Christmas and New Year.
+This second maximum is very slightly marked in southern countries, but
+strongly marked in northern countries (in Sweden the absolute maximum of
+conceptions is reached in December), and is due, in the opinion of
+Wappaeus, solely to social causes. Villerme reached somewhat similar
+results. Founding his study on 17,000,000 births, he showed that in France
+it was in April, May, and June, or from the spring equinox to the summer
+solstice, and nearer to the solstice than the equinox, that the maximum of
+fecundations takes place; while the minimum of births is normally in July,
+but is retarded by a wet and cold summer in such a manner that in August
+there are scarcely more births than in July, and, on the other hand, a
+very hot summer, accelerating the minimum of births, causes it to fall in
+June instead of in July.[152] He also showed that in Buenos Ayres, where
+the seasons are reversed, the conception-rate follows the reversed
+seasons, and is also raised by epochs of repose, of plentiful food, and of
+increased social life. Sormani studied the periodicity of conception in
+Italy, and found that the spring maximum in the southern provinces occurs
+in May, and gradually falls later as one proceeds northward, until, in the
+extreme north of the peninsula, it occurs in July. In southern Italy there
+is only one maximum and one minimum; in the north there are two. The
+minimum which follows the spring or summer maximum increases as we
+approach the south, while the minimum associated with the winter cold
+increases as we approach the north.[153] Beukemann, who studied the matter
+in various parts of Germany, found that seasonal influence was specially
+marked in the case of illegitimate births. The maximum of conceptions of
+illegitimate children takes place in the spring and summer of Europe
+generally; in Russia it takes place in the autumn and winter, when the
+harvest-working months for the population are over, and the period of
+rest, and also of minimum deathrate (September, October, and November),
+comes round. In Russia the general conception-rate has been studied by
+various investigators. Here the maximum number of conceptions is in
+winter, the minimum varying among different elements of the population.
+Looked at more closely, there are maxima of conceptions in Russia in
+January and in April. (In Russian towns, however, the maximum number of
+conceptions occurs in the autumn.) The special characteristics of the
+Russian conception-rate are held to be due to the prevalence of marriages
+in autumn and winter,[154] to the severely observed fasts of spring, and
+to the exhausting harvest-work of summer.
+
+It is instructive to compare the conception-rate of Europe with that of a
+non-European country. Such a comparison has been made by S.A. Hill for the
+Northwest Provinces of India. Here the Holi and other erotic festivals
+take place in spring; but spring is not the period when conceptions
+chiefly take place; indeed, the prevalence of erotic festivals in spring
+appears to Hill an argument in favor of those festivals having originated
+in a colder climate. The conceptions show a rise through October and
+November to a maximum in December and January, followed by a steady and
+prolonged fall to a minimum in September. This curve can be accounted for
+by climatic and economic conditions. September is near the end of the long
+and depressing hot season, when malarial influences are rapidly
+increasing to a maximum, the food-supply is nearly exhausted, and there is
+the greatest tendency to suicide. With October it forms the period of
+greatest mortality. December, on the other hand, is the month when food is
+most abundant, and it is also a very healthy month.[155]
+
+    For a summary of the chief researches into this question, see
+    Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_; also, Rosenstadt, "Zur Frage nach
+    den Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc,"
+    _Mittheilungen aus den embryologischen Institute Universitaet
+    Wien_, second series, fasc. 4, 1890. Rosenstadt concludes that
+    man has inherited from animal ancestors a "physiological custom"
+    which has probably been further favored by climatic and social
+    conditions. "Primitive man," he proceeds, "had inherited from his
+    ancestors the faculty of only reproducing himself at determined
+    epochs. On the arrival of this period of rut, fecundation took
+    place on a large scale, this being very easy, thanks to the
+    promiscuity in which primitive man lived. With the development of
+    civilization, men give themselves up to sexual relations all the
+    year around, but the 'physiological custom' of procreating at a
+    certain epoch has not completely disappeared; it remains as a
+    survival of the animal condition, and manifests itself in the
+    recrudescence of the number of conceptions during certain months
+    of the year." O. Rosenbach ("Bemerkungen ueber das Problem einer
+    Brunstzeit beim Menschen," _Archiv fuer Rassen und
+    Gesellschafts-Biologie_, Bd. III, Heft 5) has also argued in
+    favor of a chief sexual period in the year in man, with secondary
+    and even tertiary climaxes, in March, August, and December. He
+    finds that in some families, for several generations, birthdays
+    tend to fall in the same months, but his paper is, on the whole,
+    inconclusive.
+
+    Some years ago, Prof. J.B. Haycraft argued, on the basis of data
+    furnished by Scotland, that the conception-rate corresponds to
+    the temperature-curve (Haycraft, "Physiological Results of
+    Temperature Variation," _Transactions of the Royal Society of
+    Edinburgh_, vol. xxix, 1880). "Temperature," he concluded, "is
+    the main factor regulating the variations in the number of
+    conceptions which occur during the year. It increases their
+    number with its elevation, and this on an average of 0.5 per
+    cent, for an elevation of 1 deg. F." Whether or not this theory may
+    fit the facts as regards Scotland, it is certainly altogether
+    untenable when we take a broader view of the phenomena.
+
+    Recently Dr. Paul Gaedeken of Copenhagen has argued in a detailed
+    statistical study ("La Reaction de l'Organisme sous l'Influence
+    Physico-Chimiques des Agents Meteorologiques," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Feb., 1909) that the
+    conception-rate, as well as the periodicity of suicide and allied
+    phenomena, is due to the action of the chemical rays on the
+    unpigmented skin in early spring, this action being
+    physiologically similar to that of alcohol. He seeks thus to
+    account for the marked and early occurrence of such periodic
+    phenomena in Greenland and other northern countries where there
+    is much chemical action (owing to the clear air) in early spring,
+    but little heat. This explanation would not cover an autumnal
+    climax, the existence of which Gaedeken denies.
+
+In order to obtain a fairly typical conception-curve for Europe, and to
+allow the variations of local habit and custom to some extent to
+annihilate each other, I have summated the figures given by Mayr for about
+a quarter of a million births in Germany, France, and Italy,[156]
+obtaining a curve (Chart 2) of the conception-rate which may be said
+roughly to be that of Europe generally. If we begin at September as the
+lowest point, we find an autumn rise culminating in the lesser maximum of
+Christmas, followed by a minor depression in January and February. Then
+comes the great spring rise, culminating in May, and followed after June
+by a rapid descent to the minimum.
+
+    In Canada (see e.g., _Report of the Registrar General of the
+    Province of Ontario_ for 1904), the maximum and minimum of
+    conceptions alike fall later than in Europe; the months of
+    maximum conception are June, July, and August; of minimum
+    conception, January, February, and March. June is the favorite
+    month for marriage.
+
+    It would be of some interest to know the conception-curve for the
+    well-to-do classes, who are largely free from the industrial and
+    social influences which evidently, to a great extent, control the
+    conception-rate. It seems probable that the seasonal influence
+    would here be specially well shown. The only attempt I have made
+    in this direction is to examine a well-filled birthday-book. The
+    entries show a very high and equally maintained maximum of
+    conceptions throughout April, May and June, followed by a marked
+    minimum during the next three months, and an autumn rise very
+    strongly marked, in November. There is no December rise. As will
+    be seen, there is here a fairly exact resemblance to the yearly
+    ecbolic curve of people of the same class. The inquiry needs,
+    however, to be extended to a very much larger number of cases.
+
+    Mr. John Douglass Brown, of Philadelphia, has kindly prepared and
+    sent me, since the above was written, a series of curves showing
+    the, annual periodicity of births among the educated classes in
+    the State of Pennsylvania, using the statistics as to 4,066
+    births contained in the Biographical Catalogue of Matriculates of
+    the College of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Brown prepared
+    four curves: the first, covering the earliest period, 1757-1859;
+    the second, the period 1860-1876; the third, 1877-1893; while the
+    fourth presented the summated results for the whole period. (The
+    dates named are those of the entry to classes, and not of actual
+    occurrence of birth.) A very definite and well-marked curve is
+    shown, and the average number of births (not conceptions) per
+    day, for the whole period, is as  follows:--
+
+        Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.  May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
+        10.5 11.4  11  8.3  10.2 10.5 11.5 12.6 12.3  11.6  12  11.7
+
+    There is thus a well-marked minimum of conceptions (a depression
+    appearing here in each of the three periods, separately) about
+    the month of July. (In the second period, however, which contains
+    the smallest number of births, the minimum occurs in September.)
+    From that low minimum there is steady and unbroken rise up to the
+    chief maximum in November. (In the first period, however, the
+    maximum is delayed till January, and in the second period it is
+    somewhat diffused.) There is a tendency to a minor maximum in
+    February, specially well marked in the third and most important
+    period, and in the first period delayed until March.
+
+A very curious and perhaps not accidental coincidence might be briefly
+pointed out before we leave this part of the subject. It is found[157] by
+taking 3000 cases of children dying under one year that, among the general
+population, children born in February and September (and therefore
+conceived in May and December) appear to possess the greatest vitality,
+and those born in June, and, therefore, conceived in September, the least
+vitality.[158] As we have seen, May and December are precisely the periods
+when conceptions in Europe generally are at a maximum, and September is
+precisely the period when they are at a minimum, so that, if this
+coincidence is not accidental, the strongest children are conceived when
+there is the strongest tendency to procreate, and the feeblest children
+when that tendency is feeblest.
+
+Nelson, in his study of dreams and their relation to seasonal ecbolic
+manifestations, does not present any yearly ecbolic curve, as the two
+years and a half over which his observations extend scarcely supply a
+sufficient basis. On examining his figures, however, I find there is a
+certain amount of evidence of a yearly rhythm. There are spring and autumn
+climaxes throughout (in February and in November); there is no December
+rise. During one year there is a marked minimum from May to September,
+though it is but slightly traceable in the succeeding year. These figures
+are too uncertain to prove anything, but, as far as they go, they are in
+fair agreement with the much more extensive record, that of W.K. (_ante_
+p. 113), which I have already made use of in discussing the question of a
+monthly rhythm. This record, covering nearly twelve years, shows a general
+tendency, when the year is divided into four periods (November-January,
+February-April, May-July, August-October) and the results summated, to
+rise steadily throughout, from the minimum in the winter period to the
+maximum in the autumn period. This steady upward progress is not seen in
+each year taken separately. In three years there is a fall in passing from
+the November-January to the February-April quarter (always followed by a
+rise in the subsequent quarter); in three cases there is a fall in passing
+from the second to the third quarter (again always followed by a rise in
+the following quarter), and in two successive years there is a fall in
+passing from the third to the fourth quarter. If, however, beginning at
+the second year, we summate the results for each year with those for all
+previous years, a steady rise from season to season is seen throughout. If
+we analyze the data according to the months of the year, still more
+precise and interesting results (as shown in the curve, Chart 3) are
+obtained; two maximum points are seen, one in spring (March), one in
+autumn (October, or, rather, August-October), and each of these maximum
+points is followed by; a steep and sudden descent to the minimum points in
+April and in December. If we compare this result with Perry-Coste's also
+extending over a long series of years, we find a marked similarity. In
+both alike there are spring and autumn maxima, in both the autumn maximum
+is the highest, and in both also there is an intervening fall. In both
+cases, again, the maxima are followed by steep descents, but while in both
+the spring maximum occurs in March, in Perry-Coste's case the second
+maximum, though of precisely similar shape, occurs earlier, in
+June-September instead of August-October. In Perry-Coste's case, also,
+there is an apparently abnormal tendency, only shown in the more recent
+years of the record, to an additional maximum in January. The records
+certainly show far more points of agreement than of discrepancy, and by
+their harmony, as well with each other as with themselves, when the years
+are taken separately, certainly go far to prove that there is a very
+marked annual rhythm in the phenomena of seminal emissions during sleep,
+or, as Nelson has termed it, the ecbolic curve. We see, also, that the
+great yearly organic climax of sexual effervescence corresponds with the
+period following harvest, which, throughout the primitive world, has been
+a season of sexual erethism and orgy; though those customs have died out
+of our waking lives, they are still imprinted on our nervous texture, and
+become manifest during sleep.
+
+    The fresh records that have reached me since the first edition of
+    this book was published show well-marked annual curves, though
+    each curve always has some slight personal peculiarities of its
+    own. The most interesting and significant is that of E.M. (see
+    _ante_ p. 116), covering four years. It is indicated by the
+    following monthly frequencies, summated for the four  years:--
+
+        Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
+         16   13   14   22   19  19   12   12   14    14   12   24
+
+    E.M. lives in India. April, May, and June, are hot months, but
+    not unhealthy, and during this season, moreover, he lives in the
+    hills, under favorable conditions, getting plenty of outdoor
+    exercise. July, August, and September, are nearly as hot, but
+    much damper, and more trying; during these months, E.M. is living
+    in the city, and his work is then, also, more exacting than at
+    other times, September is the worst month of all; he has a short
+    holiday at the end of it. During December, January, and February,
+    the climate is very fine, and E.M.'s work is easier. It will be
+    seen that his ecbolic curve corresponds to his circumstances and
+    environment, although until he analyzed the record he had no idea
+    that any such relationship existed. Unfavorable climatic
+    conditions and hard work, favorable conditions and lighter work,
+    happen to coincide in his life, and the former depress the
+    frequency of seminal emissions; the latter increase their
+    frequency. At the same time, the curve is not out of harmony with
+    the northern curves. There is what corresponds to a late spring
+    (April) climax, and another still higher, late autumn (December)
+    climax. A very interesting point is the general resemblance of
+    the ecbolic curves to the Indian conception-curves as set forth
+    by Hill (_ante_ p. 140). The conception-curve is at its lowest
+    point in September, and at its highest point in December-January,
+    and this ecbolic curve follows it, except that both the minimum
+    and the maximum are reached a little earlier. When compared with
+    the English annual ecbolic curves (W.K. and Perry-Coste), both
+    spring and autumn maxima fall rather later, but all agree in
+    representing the autumn rise as the chief climax.
+
+    The annual curve of A.N. (_ante_ p. 117), who lives in Indiana,
+    U.S.A., also covers four years. It presents the usual spring
+    (May-June, in this case) and autumn (September-October) climaxes.
+    The exact monthly results, summated for the four years, are given
+    below; in order to allow for the irregular lengths of the months,
+    I have reduced them to daily averages, for convenience treating
+    the four years as one  year:--
+
+    Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.
+     13     9    13    20    23   22    20    20     21    23     9    16
+    .42   .32   .42   .66   .74  .73   .64   .64    .70   .74   .30   .52
+
+    In his book on _Adolescence_, Stanley Hall refers to three
+    ecbolic records in his possession, all made by men who were
+    doctors of philosophy, and all considering themselves normal. The
+    best of these records made by "a virtuous, active and able man,"
+    covered nearly eight years. Stanley Hall thus summarizes the
+    records, which are not presented in detail: "The best of these
+    records averages about three and a half such experiences per
+    month, the most frequent being 5.14 for July, and the least
+    frequent 2.28, for September, for all the years taken together.
+    There appears also a slight rise in April, and another in
+    November, with a fall in December." The frequency varies in the
+    different individuals. There was no tendency to a monthly cycle.
+    In the best case, the minimum number for the year was
+    thirty-seven, and the maximum, fifty. Fifty-nine per cent. of all
+    were at an interval of a week or less; forty per cent. at an
+    interval of from one to four days; thirty-four per cent, at an
+    interval of from eight to seventeen days, the longest being
+    forty-two days. Poor condition, overwork, and undersleep, led to
+    infrequency. Early morning was the most common time. Normally
+    there was a sense of distinct relief, but in low conditions, or
+    with over-frequency, depression. (G.S. Hall, _Adolescence_, vol.
+    i, p. 453.) I may add that an anonymous article on "Nocturnal
+    Emissions" (_American Journal of Psychology_, Jan., 1904) is
+    evidently a fuller presentation of the first of Stanley Hall's
+    three cases. It is the history of a healthy, unmarried, chaste
+    man, who kept a record of his nocturnal emissions (and their
+    accompanying dreams) from the age of thirty to thirty-eight. In
+    what American State he lived is not mentioned. He was ignorant of
+    the existence of any previous records. The yearly average was 37
+    to 50, remaining fairly constant; the monthly average was 3.43. I
+    reproduce the total results summated for the months, separately,
+    and I have worked out the daily average for each month, for
+    convenience counting the summated eight years as one  year:--
+
+    Jan. Feb. Mar.  Apr. May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.
+     27   27   27    31   29   28    36    25    18     27    30    24
+    .87  .94  .87  1.03  .93  .93  1.16   .81   .60    .87  1.00   .77
+
+    Here, as in all the other curves we have been able to consider,
+    we may see the usual two points of climax in spring and in
+    autumn; the major climax covers April, May, June, and July, the
+    minor autumnal climax is confined to November. In the light of
+    the evidence which has thus accumulated, we may conclude that the
+    existence of an annual ecbolic curve, with its spring and autumn
+    climaxes, as described in the first edition of this book, is now
+    definitely established.
+
+If we are to believe, as these records tend to show, that the nocturnal
+and involuntary voice of the sexual impulse usually speaks at least as
+loudly in autumn as in spring, we are confronted by a certain divergence
+of the sleeping sexual impulse from the waking sexual instinct, as
+witnessed by the conception-curve, and also, it may be added, by the
+general voice of tradition, and, indeed, of individual feeling, which
+concur, on the whole, in placing the chief epoch of sexual activity in
+spring and early summer, more especially as regards women.[159] It is not
+impossible to reconcile the contradiction, assuming it to be real, but I
+will refrain here from suggesting the various explanations which arise.
+We need a broader basis of facts.
+
+There are many facts to show that early spring and, to a certain extent,
+autumn are periods of visible excitement, mainly sexual in character. We
+have already seen that among the Eskimo menstruation and sexual desire
+occur chiefly in spring, but cases are known of healthy women in temperate
+climes who only menstruate twice a year, and in such cases the menstrual
+epochs appear to be usually in spring and autumn. Such, at all events, was
+the case in a girl of 20, whose history has been recorded by Dr. Mary
+Wenck, of Philadelphia.[160] She menstruated first when 15 years old. Six
+months later the flow again appeared for the second time, and lasted three
+weeks, without cessation. Since then, for five years, she menstruated
+during March and September only, each time for three weeks, the flow being
+profuse, but not exhaustingly so, without pain or systemic disturbance.
+Examination revealed perfectly normal uterus and ovarian organs.
+Treatment, accompanied by sitz-baths during the time of month the flow
+should appear, accomplished nothing. The semi-annual flow continued and
+the girl seemed in excellent health.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that, as noted by Dr. Hamilton Wey at Elmira,
+sexual outbursts among prisoners appear to occur at about March and
+October. "Beginning with the middle of February," writes Dr. Wey in a
+private letter, "and continuing for about two months, is a season of
+ascending sexual wave; also the latter half of September and the month of
+October. We are now (March 30th) in the midst of a wave."
+
+    According to Chinese medicine, it is the spring which awakens
+    human passions. In early Greek tradition, spring and summer were
+    noted as the time of greatest wantonness. "In the season of
+    toilsome summer," says Hesiod (_Works and Days_, xi, 569-90),
+    "the goats are fattest, wine is best, women most wanton, and men
+    weakest." It was so, also, in the experience of the Romans. Pliny
+    (_Natural History_, Bk. XII, Ch. XLIII) states that when the
+    asparagus blooms and the cicada sings loudest, is the season when
+    women are most amorous, but men least inclined to pleasure.
+    Paulus AEgineta said that hysteria specially abounds during spring
+    and autumn in lascivious girls and sterile women, while more
+    recent observers have believed that hysteria is particularly
+    difficult to treat in autumn. Oribasius (_Synopsis_, lib. i, cap.
+    6) quotes from Rufus to the effect that sexual feeling is most
+    strong in spring, and least so in summer. Rabelais said that it
+    was in March that the sexual impulse is strongest, referring this
+    to the early warmth of spring, and that August is the month least
+    favorable to sexual activity (_Pantagruel_, liv. v, Ch. XXIX).
+    Nipho, in his book on love dedicated to Joan of Aragon, discussed
+    the reasons why "women are more lustful and amorous in summer,
+    and men in winter." Venette, in his _Generation de l'homme_,
+    harmonized somewhat conflicting statements with the observation
+    that spring is the season of love for both men and women; in
+    summer, women are more amorous than men; in autumn, men revive to
+    some extent, but are still oppressed by the heat, which,
+    sexually, has a less depressing effect on women. There is
+    probably a real element of truth in this view, and both extremes
+    of heat and cold may be regarded as unfavorable to masculine
+    virility. It is highly probable that the well-recognized tendency
+    of piles to become troublesome in spring and in autumn, is due to
+    increased sexual activity. Piles are favored by congestion, and
+    sexual excitement is the most powerful cause of sudden congestion
+    in the genito-anal region. Erasmus Darwin called attention to the
+    tendency of piles to recur about the equinoxes (_Zooenomia_,
+    Section XXXVI), and since his days Gant, Bonavia, and Cullimore
+    have correlated this periodicity with sexual activity.
+
+    Laycock, quoting the opinions of some earlier authorities as to
+    the prevalence of sexual feeling in spring, stated that that
+    popular opinion "appears to be founded on fact" (_Nervous
+    Diseases of Women_, p. 69). I find that many people, and perhaps
+    especially women, confirm from their own experience, the
+    statement that sexual feeling is strongest in spring and summer.
+    Wichmann states that pollutions are most common in spring (being
+    perhaps the first to make that statement), and also nymphomania.
+    (In the eighteenth century, Schurig recorded a case of extreme
+    and life-long sexual desire in a woman whose salacity was always
+    at its height towards the festival of St. John, _Gynaecologia_, p.
+    16.) A correspondent in the Argentine Republic writes to me that
+    "on big estancias, where we have a good many shepherds, nearly
+    always married, or, rather, I should say, living with some woman
+    (for our standard of morality is not very high in these parts),
+    we always look out for trouble in springtime, as it is a very
+    common thing at this season for wives to leave their husbands and
+    go and live with some other man." A corresponding tendency has
+    been noted even among children. Thus, Sanford Bell ("The Emotion
+    of Love Between the Sexes," _American Journal Psychology_, July,
+    1902) remarks: "The season of the year seems to have its effect
+    upon the intensity of the emotion of sex-love among children. One
+    teacher, from Texas, who furnished me with seventy-six cases,
+    said that he had noticed that in the matter of love children
+    seemed 'fairly to break out in the springtime.' Many of the
+    others who reported, incidentally mentioned the love affairs as
+    beginning in the spring. This also agrees with my own
+    observations."
+
+Crichton-Browne remarks that children in springtime exhibit restlessness,
+excitability, perversity, and indisposition to exertion that are not
+displayed at other times. This condition, sometimes known as "spring
+fever," has been studied in over a hundred cases, both children and
+adults, by Kline. The majority of these report a feeling of tiredness,
+languor, lassitude, sometimes restlessness, sometimes drowsiness. There is
+often a feeling of suffocation, and a longing for Nature and fresh air and
+day-dreams, while work seems distasteful and unsatisfactory. Change is
+felt to be necessary at all costs, and sometimes there is a desire to
+begin some new plan of life.[161] In both sexes there is frequently a wave
+of sexual emotion, a longing for love. Kline also found by examination of
+a very large number of cases that between the ages of four and seventeen
+it is in spring that running away from home most often occurs. He suggests
+that this whole group of phenomena may be due to the shifting of the
+metabolic processes from the ordinary grooves into reproductive channels,
+and seeks to bring it into connection with the migrations of animals for
+reproductive purposes.[162]
+
+It has long been known that the occurrence of insanity follows an annual
+curve,[163] and though our knowledge of this curve, being founded on the
+date of admissions to asylums, cannot be said to be quite precise, it
+fairly corresponds to the outbreaks of acute insanity. The curve
+presented in Chart 4 shows the admissions to the London County Council
+Lunatic Asylums during the years 1893 to 1897 inclusive; I have arranged
+it in two-month periods, to neutralize unimportant oscillations. In order
+to show that this curve is not due to local or accidental circumstances,
+we may turn to France and take a special and chronic form of mental
+disease: Garnier, in his _Folie a Paris_, presents an almost exactly
+similar curve of the admissions of cases of general paralysis to the
+Infirmerie Speciale at Paris during the years 1886-88 (Chart 5). Both
+curves alike show a major climax in spring and a minor climax in autumn.
+
+    Crime in general in temperate climates tends to reach its maximum
+    at the beginning of the hot season, usually in June. Thus, in
+    Belgium, the minimum is in February; the maximum in June, thence
+    gradually diminishing (Lentz, _Bulletin Societe Medecine Mentale
+    Belgique_, March, 1901). In France, Lacassagne has summated the
+    data extending over more than 40 years, and finds that for all
+    crimes June is the maximum month, the minimum being reached in
+    November. He also gives the figures for each class of crime
+    separately, and every crime is found to have its own yearly
+    curve. Poisonings show a chief maximum in May, with slow fall and
+    a minor climax in December; assassinations have a February and a
+    November climax. Parricides culminate in May-June, and in October
+    (Lacassagne's tables are given by Laurent, _Les Habitues des
+    Prisons de Paris_, Ch. 1).
+
+    Notwithstanding the general tendency for crime to reach its
+    maximum in the first hot month (a tendency not necessarily due to
+    the direct influence of heat), we also find, when we consider the
+    statistics of crime generally (including sexual crime), that
+    there is another tendency for minor climaxes in spring and
+    autumn. Thus, in Italy, Penta, taking the statistics of nearly
+    four thousand crimes (murder, highway robbery, and sexual
+    offences), found the maximum in the first summer months, but
+    there were also minor climaxes in spring and in August and
+    September (Penta, _Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria_, 1899). In
+    nearly all Europe (as is shown by a diagram given by Lombroso and
+    Laschi, at the end of the first volume of _Le Crime Politique_),
+    while the chief climaxes occur about July, there is, in most
+    countries, a distinct tendency to spring (usually about March)
+    and autumn (September and November) climaxes, though they rarely
+    rise as high as the July climax.
+
+    If we consider the separate periodicity of sexual offences, we
+    find that they follow the rule for crimes generally, and usually
+    show a chief maximum in early summer. Aschaffenburg finds that
+    the annual periodicity of the sexual impulse appears more
+    strongly marked the more abnormal its manifestations, which he
+    places in the following order of increasing periodicity:
+    conceptions in marriage, conceptions out of marriage, offences
+    against decency, rape, assaults on children (_Centralblatt fuer
+    Nervenheilkunde_, January, 1903). In France, rapes and offences
+    against modesty are most numerous in May, June, and July, as
+    Villerme, Lacassagne, and others have shown. Villerme,
+    investigating 1,000 such cases, found a gradual ascent in
+    frequency (only slightly broken in March) to a maximum in June
+    (oscillating between May and July, when the years are considered
+    separately), and then a gradual descent to a minimum in December.
+    Legludic gives, for the 159 cases he had investigated, a table
+    showing a small February-March climax, and a large June-August
+    maximum, the minimum being reached in November-January.
+    (Legludic, _Attentats aux Moeurs_, 1896, p. 16.) In Germany,
+    Aschaffenburg finds that sexual offences begin to increase in
+    March and April, reach a maximum in June or July, and fall to a
+    minimum in winter (_Monatsschrift fuer Psychiatrie_, 1903, Heft
+    2). In Italy, Penta shows that sexual offences reach a minor
+    climax in May (corresponding, in his experience, with the maximum
+    for crimes generally, as well as with the maximum for
+    conceptions), and a more marked climax in August-September
+    (Penta, _I Pervertimenti Sessuali_, 1893, p. 115; id. _Rivista
+    Mensile di Psichiatria_, 1899).
+
+    Corre, in his _Crime en Pays Creole_, presents charts of the
+    seasonal distribution of crime in Guadeloupe, with relation to
+    temperature, which show that while, in a mild temperature like
+    that of France and England, crime attains its maximum in the hot
+    season, it is not so in a more tropical climate; in July, when in
+    Guadeloupe the heat attains its maximum degree, crime of all
+    kinds falls suddenly to a very low minimum. Even in the United
+    States, where the summer heat is often excessive, it tends to
+    produce a diminution of crime.
+
+    Dexter, in an elaborate study of the relationship of conduct to
+    the weather, shows that in the United States assaults present the
+    maximum of frequency in April and October, with a decrease during
+    the summer and the winter. "The unusual and interesting fact
+    demonstrated here with a certainty that cannot be doubted is," he
+    concludes, "that the unseasonably hot days of spring and autumn
+    are the pugnacious ones, even though the actual heat be much less
+    than for summer. We might infer from this that conditions of
+    heat, up to a certain extent, are vitalizing, while, at the same
+    time, irritating, but above that limit, heat is so devitalizing
+    in its effects as to leave hardly energy enough to carry on a
+    fight." (E.G. Dexter, _Conduct and the Weather_, 1899, pp. 63 _et
+    seq._)
+
+    It is not impossible that the phenomena of seasonal periodicity
+    in crimes may possess a real significance in relation to sexual
+    periodicity. If, as is possible, the occurrence of spring and
+    autumn climaxes of criminal activity is due less to any special
+    exciting causes at these seasons than to the depressing
+    influences of heat and cold in summer and winter, it may appear
+    reasonable to ask whether the spring and autumn climaxes of
+    sexual activity are not really also largely due to a like
+    depressing influence of extreme temperatures at the other two
+    seasons.
+
+Not only is there periodicity in criminal conduct, but even within the
+normal range of good and bad conduct seasonal periodicity may still be
+traced. In his _Physical and Industrial Training of Criminals_, H.D. Wey
+gives charts of the conduct of seven prisoners during several years, as
+shown by the marks received. These charts show that there is a very
+decided tendency to good behavior during summer and winter, while in
+spring (February, March, and April) and in autumn (August, September and
+October) there are very marked falls to bad conduct, each individual
+tending to adhere to a conduct-curve of his own. Wey does not himself
+appear to have noticed this seasonal periodicity. Marro, however, has
+investigated this question in Turin on a large scale and reaches results
+not very dissimilar from those shown by Wey's figures in New York. He
+noted the months in which over 4,000 punishments were inflicted on
+prisoners for assaults, insults, threatening language, etc., and shows the
+annual curve in Tavola VI of his _Caratteri dei Delinquenti_. There is a
+marked and isolated climax in May; a still more sudden rise leads to the
+chief maximum of punishment in August; and from the minimum in October
+there is rapid ascent during the two following months to a climax much
+inferior to that of May.
+
+    The seasonal periodicity of bad conduct in prisons is of interest
+    as showing that we cannot account for psychic periodicity by
+    invoking exclusively social causes. This theory of psychic
+    periodicity has been seriously put forward, but has been
+    investigated and dismissed, so far as crime in Holland is
+    concerned, by J.R.B. de Roos, in the Transactions of the sixth
+    Congress of Criminal Anthropology, at Turin, in 1906 (_Archivio
+    di Psichiatria_ fasc. 3, 1906).
+
+The general statistics of suicides in Continental Europe show a very
+regular and unbroken curve, attaining a maximum in June and a minimum in
+December, the curve rising steadily through the first six months, sinking
+steadily through the last six months, but always reaching a somewhat
+greater height in May than in July.[164] Morselli shows that in various
+European countries there is always a rise in spring and in autumn (October
+or November).[165] Morselli attributes these spring and autumn rises to
+the influence of the strain of the early heat and the early cold.[166] In
+England, also, if we take a very large number of statistics, for instance,
+the figures for London during the twenty years between 1865 and 1884, as
+given by Ogle (in a paper read before the Statistical Society in 1886), we
+find that, although the general curve has the same maximum and minimum
+points, it is interrupted by a break on each side of the maximum, and
+these two breaks occur precisely at about March and October.[167] This is
+shown in the curve in Chart 6, which presents the daily average for the
+different months.
+
+The growth of children follows an annual rhythm. Wahl, the director of an
+educational establishment for homeless girls in Denmark, who investigated
+this question, found that the increase of weight for all the ages
+investigated was constantly about 33 per cent. greater in the summer
+half-year than in the winter half-year. It was noteworthy that even the
+children who had not reached school-age, and therefore could not be
+influenced by school-life, showed a similar, though slighter, difference
+in the same direction. It is, however, Malling-Hansen, the director of an
+institution for deaf-mutes in Copenhagen, who has most thoroughly
+investigated this matter over a great many years. He finds that there are
+three periods of growth throughout the year, marked off in a fairly sharp
+manner, and that during each of these periods the growth in weight and
+height shows constant characteristics. From about the end of November up
+to about the end of March is a period when growth, both in height and
+weight, proceeds at a medium rate, reaching neither a maximum nor a
+minimum; increase in weight is slight, the increase in height, although
+trifling, preponderating. After this follows a period during which the
+children show a marked increase in height, while increase in weight is
+reduced to a minimum. The children constantly lose in weight during this
+period of growth in height almost as much as they gain in the preceding
+period. This period lasts from March and April to July and August. Then
+follows the third period, which continues until November and December.
+During this period increase in height is very slight, being at its early
+minimum; increase in weight, on the other hand, at the beginning of the
+period (in September and October), is rapid and to the middle of December
+very considerable, daily increase in weight being three times as great as
+during the winter months. Thus it may be said that the spring sexual
+climax corresponds, roughly, with growth in height and arrest of growth in
+weight, while the autumn climax corresponds roughly with a period of
+growth in weight and arrest of growth in height. Malling-Hansen found that
+slight variations in the growth of the children were often dependent on
+changes in temperature, in such a way that a rise of temperature, even
+lasting for only a few days, caused an increase of growth, and a fall of
+temperature a decrease in growth. At Halle, Schmid-Monnard found that
+nearly all growth in weight took place in the second half of the year, and
+that the holidays made little difference. In America, Peckham has shown
+that increase of growth is chiefly from the 1st of May to the 1st of
+September.[168] Among young girls in St. Petersburg, Jenjko found that
+increase in weight takes place in summer. Goepel found that increase in
+height takes place mostly during the first eight months of the year,
+reaching a maximum in August, declining during the autumn and winter, in
+February being _nil_, while in March there is sometimes loss in weight
+even in healthy children.
+
+In the course of a study as to the consumption of bread in Normal schools
+during each month of the year, as illustrating the relationship between
+intellectual work and nutrition, Binet presents a number of curves which
+bring out results to which he makes no allusion, as they are outside his
+own investigation. Almost without exception, these curves show that there
+is an increase in the consumption of bread in spring and in autumn, the
+spring rise being in February, March, and April; the autumn rise in
+October or November. There are, however, certain fallacies in dealing with
+institutions like Normal schools, where the conditions are not perfectly
+regular throughout the year, owing to vacations, etc. It is, therefore,
+instructive to find that under the monotonous conditions of prison-life
+precisely the same spring and autumn rises are found. Binet takes the
+consumption of bread in the women's prison at Clermont, where some four
+hundred prisoners, chiefly between the ages of thirty and forty, are
+confined, and he presents two curves for the years 1895 and 1896. The
+curves for these two years show certain marked disagreements with each
+other, but both unite in presenting a distinct rise in April, preceded and
+followed by a fall, and both present a still more marked autumn rise, in
+one case in September and November, in the other case in October.[169]
+
+    Some years ago, Sir J. Crichton-Browne stated that a
+    manifestation of the sexual stimulus of spring is to be found in
+    the large number of novels read during the month of March
+    ("Address in Psychology" at the annual meeting of the British
+    Medical Association, Leeds, 1889; _Lancet_, August 14, 1889).
+    The statement was supported by figures furnished by lending
+    libraries, and has since been widely copied. It would certainly
+    be interesting if we could so simply show the connection between
+    love and season, by proving that when the birds began to sing
+    their notes, the young person's fancy naturally turns to brood
+    over the pictures of mating in novels. I accordingly applied to
+    Mr. Capel Shaw, Chief Librarian of the Birmingham Free Libraries
+    (specially referred to by Sir J. Crichton-Browne), who furnished
+    me with the Reports for 1896 and 1897-98 (this latter report is
+    carried on to the end of March, 1898).
+
+    The readers who use the Birmingham Free Lending Libraries are
+    about 30,000 in number; they consist very largely of young people
+    between the ages of 14 and 25; somewhat less than half are women.
+    Certainly we seem to have here a good field for the determination
+    of this question. The monthly figures for each of the ten
+    Birmingham libraries are given separately, and it is clear at a
+    glance that without exception the maximum number of readers of
+    prose-fiction at all the libraries during 1897-98 is found in the
+    month of March. (I have chiefly taken into consideration the
+    figures for 1897-98; the figures for 1896 are somewhat abnormal
+    and irregular, probably owing to a decrease in readers,
+    attributed to increased activity in trade, and partly to a
+    disturbing influence caused by the opening of a large new library
+    in the course of the year, suddenly increasing the number of
+    readers, and drafting off borrowers from some of the other
+    libraries.) Not only so, but there is a second, or autumnal
+    climax, almost equaling the spring climax, and occuring with
+    equal certainty, appearing during 1897-98 either in October or
+    November, and during 1896, constantly in October. Thus, the
+    periodicity of the rate of consumption of prose-fiction
+    corresponds with the periodicity which is found to occur in the
+    conception rate and in sexual ecbolic manifestations.
+
+    It is necessary, however, to examine somewhat more closely the
+    tables presented in these reports, and to compare the rate of the
+    consumption of novels with that of other classes of literature.
+    In the first place, if, instead of merely considering the
+    consumption of novels per month, we make allowance for the
+    varying length of the months, and consider the average _daily_
+    consumption per month, the supremacy of March at once vanishes.
+    February is really the month during which most novels were read
+    during the first quarter of 1898, except at two libraries, where
+    February and March are equal. The result is similar if we
+    ascertain the daily averages for the first quarter in 1897,
+    while, in 1896 (which, however, as I have already remarked, is a
+    rather abnormal year), the daily average for March in many of the
+    libraries falls below that for January, as well as for February.
+    Again, when we turn to the other classes of books, we find that
+    this predominance which February possesses, and to some extent
+    shares with March and January, by no means exclusively applies to
+    novels. It is not only shared by both music and poetry,--which
+    would fit in well with the assumption of a sexual _nisus_,--but
+    the department of "history, biography, voyages, and travels"
+    shares it also with considerable regularity; so, also, does that
+    of "arts, sciences, and natural history," and it is quite well
+    marked in "theology, moral philosophy, etc.," and in "juvenile
+    literature." We even have to admit that the promptings of the
+    sexual instinct bring an increased body of visitors to the
+    reference library (where there are no novels), for here, also,
+    both the spring and autumnal climaxes are quite distinct.
+    Certainly this theory carries us a little too far.
+
+    The main factor in producing this very marked annual periodicity
+    seems to me to be wholly unconnected with the sexual impulse. The
+    winter half of the year (from the beginning of October to the end
+    of March), when outdoor life has lost its attractions, and much
+    time must be spent in the house, is naturally the season for
+    reading. But during the two central months of winter, December
+    and January, the attraction of reading meets with a powerful
+    counter-attraction in the excitement produced by the approach of
+    Christmas, and the increased activity of social life which
+    accompanies and for several weeks follows Christmas. In this way
+    the other four winter months--October and November at the
+    autumnal end, and February and March at the spring end--must
+    inevitably present the two chief reading climaxes of the year;
+    and so the reports of lending libraries present us with figures
+    which show a striking, but fallacious, resemblance to the curves
+    which are probably produced by more organic causes.
+
+    I am far from wishing to deny that the impulse which draws young
+    men and women to imaginative literature is unconnected with the
+    obscure promptings of the sexual instinct. But, until the
+    disturbing influence I have just pointed out is eliminated, I see
+    no evidence here for any true seasonal periodicity. Possibly in
+    prisons--the value of which, as laboratories of experimental
+    psychology we have scarcely yet begun to realize--more reliable
+    evidence might be obtained; and those French and other prisons
+    where novels are freely allowed to the prisoners might yield
+    evidence as regards the consumption of fiction as instructive as
+    that yielded at Clermont concerning the consumption of bread.
+
+Certain diseases show a very regular annual curve. This is notably the
+case with scarlet fever. Caiger found in a London fever hospital a marked
+seasonal prevalence: there was a minor climax in May (repeated in July),
+and a great autumnal climax in October, falling to a minimum in December
+and January. This curve corresponds closely to that usually observed in
+London.[170] It is not peculiar to London, or to urban districts, for in
+rural districts we find nearly the same spring minor maximum and major
+autumnal maximum. In Russia it is precisely the same. Many other epidemic
+diseases show very similar curves.
+
+An annual curve may be found in the expulsive force of the bladder as
+measured by the distance to which the urinary stream can be projected.
+This curve, as ascertained for one case, is interesting on account of the
+close relationship between sexual and vesical activity. After a minimum
+point in autumn there is a rise through the early part of the year to a
+height maintained through spring and summer, and reaching its maximum in
+August.[171] This may be said to correspond with the general tendency
+found in some cases of nocturnal seminal emissions from a winter minimum
+to an autumn maximum.
+
+There is an annual curve in voluntary muscle strength. Thus in Antwerp,
+where the scientific study of children is systematically carried out by a
+Pedological Bureau, Schuyten found that, measured by the dynamometer, both
+at the ages of 8 and 9, both boys and girls showed a gradual increase of
+strength from October to January, a fall from January to March and a rise
+to June or July. March was the weakest month, June and July the
+strongest.[172]
+
+Schuyten also found an annual curve for mental ability, as tested by power
+of attention, which for much of the year corresponded to the curve of
+muscular strength, being high during the cold winter months. Lobsien, at
+Kiel, seeking to test Schuyten's results and adopting a different method
+so as to gauge memory as well as attention, came to conclusions which
+confirmed those of Schuyten. He found a very marked increase of ability in
+December and January, with a fall in April; April and May were the
+minimum months, while July and October also stood low.[173] The inquiries
+of Schuyten and Lobsien thus seem to indicate that the voluntary aptitudes
+of muscular and mental force in children reach their maximum at a time of
+the year when most of the more or less involuntary activities we have been
+considering show a minimum of energy. If this conclusion should be
+confirmed by more extended investigations, it would scarcely be matter for
+surprise and would involve no true contradiction. It would, indeed, be
+natural to suppose that the voluntary and regulated activities of the
+nervous system should work most efficiently at those periods when they are
+least exposed to organic and emotional disturbance.
+
+So persistent a disturbing element in spring and autumn suggests that some
+physiological conditions underlie it, and that there is a real metabolic
+disturbance at these times of the year. So few continuous observations
+have yet been made on the metabolic processes of the body that it is not
+easy to verify such a surmise with absolute precision. Edward Smith's
+investigations, so far as they go, support it, and Perry-Coste's
+long-continued observations of pulse-frequency seem to show with fair
+regularity a maximum in early spring and another maximum in late
+autumn.[174] I may also note that Haig, who has devoted many years of
+observations to the phenomena of uric-acid excretion, finds that uric acid
+tends to be highest in the spring months, (March, April, May) and lowest
+at the first onset of cold in October.[175]
+
+Thus, while the sexual climaxes of spring and autumn are rooted in animal
+procreative cycles which in man have found expression in primitive
+festivals--these, again, perhaps, strengthening and developing the sexual
+rhythm--they yet have a wider significance. They constitute one among many
+manifestations of spring and autumn physiological disturbance
+corresponding with fair precision to the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
+They resemble those periods of atmospheric tension, of storm and wind,
+which accompany the spring and autumn phases in the earth's rhythm, and
+they may fairly be regarded as ultimately a physiological reaction to
+those cosmic influences.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[128] F. Smith, _Veterinary Physiology_; Dalziel, _The Collie_.
+
+[129] Mondiere, Art "Cambodgiens," _Dictionnaire des Sciences
+Anthropologiques_.
+
+[130] This primitive aspect of the festival is well shown by the human
+sacrifices which the ancient Mexicans offered at this time, in order to
+enable the sun to recuperate his strength. The custom survives in a
+symbolical form among the Mokis, who observe the festivals of the winter
+solstice and the vernal equinox. ("Aspects of Sun-worship among the Moki
+Indians," _Nature_, July 28, 1898.) The Walpi, a Tusayan people, hold a
+similar great sun-festival at the winter solstice, and December is with
+them a sacred month, in which there is no work and little play. This
+festival, in which there is a dance dramatizing the fructification of the
+earth and the imparting of virility to the seeds of corn, is fully
+described by J. Walter Fewkes (_American Anthropologist_, March, 1898).
+That these solemn annual dances and festivals of North America frequently
+merge into "a lecherous _saturnalia_" when "all is joy and happiness," is
+stated by H.H. Bancroft (_Native Races of Pacific States_, vol. i, p.
+352).
+
+[131] As regards the northern tribes of Central Australia, Spencer and
+Gillen state that, during the performance of certain ceremonies which
+bring together a large number of natives from different parts, the
+ordinary marital rules are more or less set aside (_Northern Tribes of
+Central Australia_, p. 136). Just in the same way, among the Siberian
+Yakuts, according to Sieroshevski, during weddings and at the great
+festivals of the year, the usual oversight of maidens is largely removed.
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, Jan.-June, 1901, p. 96.)
+
+[132] R.E. Guise, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1899, pp.
+214-216.
+
+[133] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 196 et seq. W. Crooke (_Journal
+of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 243, 1899) also refers to the annual
+harvest-tree dance and _saturnalia_, and its association with the seasonal
+period for marriage. We find a similar phenomenon in the Malay Peninsula:
+"In former days, at harvest-time, the Jakuns kept an annual festival, at
+which, the entire settlement having been called together, fermented
+liquor, brewed from jungle fruits, was drunk; and to the accompaniments of
+strains of their rude and incondite music, both sexes, crowning themselves
+with fragrant leaves and flowers, indulged in bouts of singing and
+dancing, which grew gradually wilder throughout the night, and terminated
+in a strange kind of sexual orgie." (W.W. Skeat, "The Wild Tribes of the
+Malay Peninsula," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1902, p.
+133.)
+
+[134] Fielding Hall, _The Soul of a People_, 1898, Chapter XIII.
+
+[135] See e.g., L. Dyer, _Studies of the Gods in Greece_, 1891, pp. 86-89,
+375, etc.
+
+[136] For a popular account of the Feast of Fools, see Loliee, "La Fete
+des Fous," _Revue des Revues_, May 15, 1898; also, J.G. Bourke,
+_Scatologic Rites of all Nations_, pp. 11-23.
+
+[137] J. Grimm (_Teutonic Mythology_, p. 615) points out that the
+observance of the spring or Easter bonfires marks off the Saxon from the
+Franconian peoples. The Easter bonfires are held in Lower Saxony,
+Westphalia, Lower Hesse, Geldern, Holland, Friesland, Jutland, and
+Zealand. The Midsummer bonfires are held on the Rhine, in Franconia,
+Thuringia, Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and Silesia. Schwartz (_Zeitschrift
+fuer Ethnologie_, 1896, p. 151) shows that at Lauterberg, in the Harz
+Mountains, the line of demarcation between these two primitive districts
+may still be clearly traced.
+
+[138] _Wald und Feldkulte_, 1875, vol. i, pp. 422 et seq. He also mentions
+(p. 458) that St. Valentine's Day (14th of February),--or Ember Day, or
+the last day of February,--when the pairing of birds was supposed to take
+place, was associated, especially in England, with love-making and the
+choice of a mate. In Lorraine, it may be added, on the 1st of May, the
+young girls chose young men as their valentines, a custom known by this
+name to Rabelais.
+
+[139] Rochholz, _Drei gaugoettinnen_, p, 37.
+
+[140] Mannhardt, ibid., pp. 466 et seq. Also J.G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_,
+vol ii, Chapter IV. For further facts and references, see K. Pearson (_The
+Chances of Death_, 1897, vol, ii, "Woman as Witch," "Kindred
+Group-marriage," and Appendix on "The '_Mailehn_' and '_Kiltgang_,'") who
+incidentally brings together some of the evidence concerning primitive
+sex-festivals in Europe. Also, E. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, 1896, pp.
+38-40; and for some modern survivals, see Deniker, _Races of Man_, 1900,
+Chapter III. On a lofty tumulus near the megalithic remains at Carnac, in
+Brittany, the custom still prevails of lighting a large bonfire at the
+time of the summer solstice; it is called Tan Heol, or Tan St. Jean. In
+Ireland, the bonfires also take place on St. John's Eve, and a
+correspondent, who has often witnessed them in County Waterford, writes
+that "women, with garments raised, jump through these fires, and conduct
+which, on ordinary occasions would be reprobated, is regarded as excusable
+and harmless." Outside Europe, the Berbers of Morocco still maintain this
+midsummer festival, and in the Rif they light bonfires; here the fires
+seem to be now regarded as mainly purificatory, but they are associated
+with eating ceremonies which are still regarded as multiplicative.
+(Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-Lore_, March, 1905.)
+
+[141] Mannhardt (op. cit., p. 469) quotes a description of an Ehstonian
+festival in the Island of Moon, when the girls dance in a circle round the
+fire, and one of them,--to the envy of the rest, and the pride of her own
+family,--is chosen by the young men, borne away so violently that her
+clothes are often torn, and thrown down by a youth, who places one leg
+over her body in a kind of symbolical coitus, and lies quietly by her side
+till morning. The spring festivals of the young people of Ukrainia, in
+which, also, there is singing, dancing, and sleeping together, are
+described in "Folk-Lore de l'Ukrainie." Kryptadia, vol. v, pp. 2-6, and
+vol. viii, pp. 303 et seq.
+
+[142] M. Kowalewsky, "Marriage Among the Early Slavs," _Folk-Lore_,
+December, 1890.
+
+[143] A. Tille, however (_Yule and Christmas_, 1899), while admitting that
+the general Aryan division of the year was dual, follows Tacitus in
+asserting that the Germanic division of the year (like the Egyptian) was
+tripartite: winter, spring, and summer.
+
+[144] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_ (English translation by Stallybrass),
+pp. 612-630, 779, 788.
+
+[145] Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, 1897, p. 98.
+
+[146] See, e.g., the chapter on ritual in Gerard-Varet's interesting book,
+_L'Ignorance et l'Irreflexion_, 1899, for a popular account of this and
+allied primitive conceptions.
+
+[147] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, especially pp. 485, 571; regarding
+the priestesses, Jastrow remarks: "Among many nations, the mysterious
+aspects of woman's fertility lead to rites that, by a perversion of their
+original import, appear to be obscene. The prostitutes were priestesses
+attached to the Ishtar cult, and who took part in ceremonies intended to
+symbolize fertility." Whether there is any significance in the fact that
+the first two months of the Babylonian year (roughly corresponding to our
+March and April), when we should expect births to be at a maximum, were
+dedicated to Ea and Bel, who, according to varying legends, were the
+creators of man, and that New Year's Day was the festival of Bau, regarded
+as the mother of mankind, I cannot say, but the suggestion may be put
+forward.
+
+[148] _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 421.
+
+[149] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, p. 1465. In England, the November,
+bonfires have become merged into the Guy Fawkes celebrations. In the East,
+the great primitive autumn festivals seem to have fallen somewhat earlier.
+In Babylonia, the seventh month (roughly corresponding to September) was
+specially sacred, though nothing is known of its festivals, and this also
+was the sacred festival month of the Hebrews, and originally of the Arabs.
+In Europe, among the southern Slavs, the Reigen, or Kolo--wild dances by
+girls, adorned with flowers, and with skirts girt high, followed by sexual
+intercourse--take place in autumn, during the nights following harvest
+time.
+
+[150] A. Tille, _Yule and Christmas_, p. 21, etc.
+
+[151] Long before Wargentin, however, Rabelais had shown some interest in
+this question, and had found that there were most christenings in October
+and November, this showing, he pointed out, that the early warmth of
+spring influenced the number of conceptions (_Pantagruel_, liv. v, Ch.
+XXIX). The spring maximum of conceptions is not now so early in France.
+
+[152] Villerme, "De la Distribution par mois des conceptions," _Annales
+d'Hygiene Publique_, tome v, 1831, pp. 55-155.
+
+[153] Sormani, _Giornale di Medicina Militare_, 1870.
+
+[154] Throughout Europe, it may be said, marriages tend to take place
+either in spring or autumn (Oettinger _Moralstatistik_, p. 181, gives
+details). That is to say, that there is a tendency for marriages to take
+place at the season of the great public festivals, during which sexual
+intercourse was prevalent in more primitive times.
+
+[155] Hill, _Nature_, July 12, 1888.
+
+[156] G. Mayr, _Die Gesetzmaessigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben_, 1877, p. 240.
+
+[157] Edward Smith (_Health and Disease_), who attributes this to the
+lessened vitality of offspring at that season. Beukemann also states that
+children born in September have most vitality.
+
+[158] Westermarck has even suggested that the December maximum of
+conceptions may be due to better chance of survival for September
+offspring (_Human Marriage_, Chapter II). It may be noted that though the
+maximum of conceptions is in May, relatively the smallest proportion of
+boys is conceived at that time. (Rauber, _Der Ueberschuss an
+Knabengeburten_, p. 39.)
+
+[159] Krieger found that the great majority of German women investigated
+by him menstruated for the first time in September, October, or November.
+In America, Bowditch states that the first menstruation of country girls
+more often occurs in spring than at any other season.
+
+[160] _Women's Medical Journal_, 1894.
+
+[161] It is, perhaps, worth while noting that the wisdom of the mediaeval
+Church found an outlet for this "spring fever" in pilgrimages to remote
+shrines. As Chaucer wrote, in the _Canterbury Tales_:--
+
+    "Whane that Aprille with his showers sote
+    The droughts of March hath pierced to the root,
+    Thaen longen folk to gon on pilgrimages,
+    And palmers for to seeken strange stronds."
+
+[162] L.W. Kline, "The Migratory Impulse," _American Journal of
+Psychology_, 1898, vol. x, especially pp. 21-24.
+
+[163] Mania comes to a crisis in spring, said the old physician, Aretaeus
+(Bk. 1, Ch. V).
+
+[164] This is, at all events, the case in France, Prussia, and Italy. See,
+for instance, Durkheim's discussion of the cosmic factors of suicide, _Le
+Suicide_, 1897, Chapter III. In Spain, as Bernaldo de Quiros shows
+(_Criminologia_, p. 69), there is a slight irregular rise in December, but
+otherwise the curve is perfectly regular, with maximum in June, and
+minimum in January.
+
+[165] This holds good of a south European country, taken separately. A
+chart of the annual incidence of suicide by hanging, in Roumania,
+presented by Minovici (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, 1905, p.
+587), shows climaxes of equal height in May and September.
+
+[166] Morselli, _Suicide_, pp. 55-72.
+
+[167] Ogle himself was inclined to think that these breaks were
+accidental, being unaware of the allied phenomena with which they may be
+brought into line. It is true that (as Gaedeken objects to me) the
+autumnal break is very slight, but it is probably real when we are dealing
+with so large a mass of data.
+
+[168] _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 298. For a very full summary
+and bibliography of investigations regarding growth, see F. Burk, "Growth
+of Children in Height and Weight," _American Journal of Psychology_,
+April, 1898.
+
+[169] _L'Annee Psychologique_, 1898.
+
+[170] _Lancet_, June 6, 1891. Edward Smith had pointed out many years
+earlier that scarlet fever is most fatal in periods of increasing
+vitality.
+
+[171] Havelock Ellis, "The Bladder as a Dynamometer," _American Journal of
+Dermatology_, May, 1902.
+
+[172] See, e.g., summary in _Internationales Centrablatt fuer
+Anthropologie_, 1902, Heft 4, p. 207.
+
+[173] Summarized in _Zeitschrift fuer Psychologie der Sinnesorgane_, 1903,
+p. 135.
+
+[174] Camerer found that from September to November is the period of
+greatest metabolic activity.
+
+[175] Haig, _Uric Acid_, 6th edition, 1903, p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+AUTO-EROTISM: A STUDY OF THE SPONTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF THE SEXUAL
+IMPULSE.
+
+
+I.
+
+Definition of Auto-erotism--Masturbation only Covers a Small Portion of
+the Auto-erotic Field--The Importance of this Study, especially
+To-day--Auto-erotic Phenomena in Animals--Among Savage and Barbaric
+Races--The Japanese _rin-no-tama_ and other Special Instruments for
+Obtaining Auto-erotic Gratification--Abuse of the Ordinary Implements and
+Objects of Daily Life--The Frequency of Hair-pin in the Bladder--The
+Influence of Horse-exercise and Railway Traveling--The Sewing-machine and
+the Bicycle--Spontaneous Passive Sexual Excitement--_Delectatio
+Morosa_--Day-dreaming--_Pollutio_--Sexual Excitement During Sleep--Erotic
+Dreams--The Analogy of Nocturnal Enuresis--Differences in the Erotic
+Dreams of Men and Women--The Auto-erotic Phenomena of Sleep in the
+Hysterical--Their Frequently Painful Character.
+
+
+By "auto-erotism" I mean the phenomena of spontaneous sexual emotion
+generated in the absence of an external stimulus proceeding, directly or
+indirectly, from another person. In a wide sense, which cannot be wholly
+ignored here, auto-erotism may be said to include those transformations of
+repressed sexual activity which are a factor of some morbid conditions as
+well as of the normal manifestation of art and poetry, and, indeed, more
+or less color the whole of life.
+
+Such a definition excludes the normal sexual excitement aroused by the
+presence of a beloved person of the opposite sex; it also excludes the
+perverted sexuality associated with an attraction to a person of the same
+sex; it further excludes the manifold forms of erotic fetichism, in which
+the normal focus of sexual attraction is displaced, and voluptuous
+emotions are only aroused by some object--hair, shoes, garments,
+etc.--which, to the ordinary lover, are of subordinate--though still,
+indeed, considerable--importance.[176] The auto-erotic field remains
+extensive; it ranges from occasional voluptuous day-dreams, in which the
+subject is entirely passive, to the perpetual unashamed efforts at sexual
+self-manipulation witnessed among the insane. It also includes, though
+chiefly as curiosities, those cases in which individuals fall in love with
+themselves. Among auto-erotic phenomena, or on the borderland, we must
+further include those religious sexual manifestations for an ideal object,
+of which we may find evidence in the lives of saints and ecstatics.[177]
+The typical form of auto-erotism is the occurrence of the sexual orgasm
+during sleep.
+
+I do not know that any apology is needful for the invention of the term
+"auto-erotism."[178] There is no existing word in current use to indicate
+the whole range of phenomena I am here concerned with. We are familiar
+with "masturbation," but that, strictly speaking, only covers a special
+and arbitrary subdivision of the field, although, it is true, the
+subdivision with which physicians and alienists have chiefly occupied
+themselves. "Self-abuse" is somewhat wider, but by no means covers the
+whole ground, while for various reasons it is an unsatisfactory term.
+"Onanism" is largely used, especially in France, and some writers even
+include all forms of homosexual connection under this name; it may be
+convenient to do so from a physiological point of view, but it is a
+confusing and antiquated mode of procedure, and from the psychological
+standpoint altogether illegitimate; "onanism" ought never to be used in
+this connection, if only on the ground that Onan's device was not
+auto-erotic, but was an early example of withdrawal before emission, or
+_coitus interruptus_.
+
+While the name that I have chosen may possibly not be the best, there
+should be no question as to the importance of grouping all these phenomena
+together. It seems to me that this field has rarely been viewed in a
+scientifically sound and morally sane light, simply because it has not
+been viewed as a whole. We have made it difficult so to view it by
+directing our attention on the special group of auto-erotic facts--that
+group included under masturbation--which was most easy to observe and
+which in an extreme form came plainly under medical observation in
+insanity and allied conditions, and we have wilfully torn this group of
+facts away from the larger group to which it naturally belongs. The
+questions which have been so widely, so diversely, and--it must
+unfortunately be added--often so mischievously discussed, concerning the
+nature and evils of masturbation are not seen in their true light and
+proportions until we realize that masturbation is but a specialized form
+of a tendency which in some form or in some degree normally affects not
+only man, but all the higher animals. From a medical point of view it is
+often convenient to regard masturbation as an isolated fact; but in order
+to understand it we must bear in mind its relationships. In this study of
+auto-erotism I shall frequently have occasion to refer to the old entity
+of "masturbation," because it has been more carefully studied than any
+other part of the auto-erotic field; but I hope it will always be borne in
+mind that the psychological significance and even the medical diagnostic
+value of masturbation cannot be appreciated unless we realize that it is
+an artificial subdivision of a great group of natural facts.
+
+The study of auto-erotism is far from being an unimportant or merely
+curious study. Yet psychologists, medical and non-medical, almost without
+exception, treat its manifestations--when they refer to them at all--in a
+dogmatic and off-hand manner which is far from scientific. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the most widely divergent opinions are
+expressed. Nor is it surprising that ignorant and chaotic notions among
+the general population should lead to results that would be ludicrous if
+they were not pathetic. To mention one instance known to me: a married
+lady who is a leader in social-purity movements and an enthusiast for
+sexual chastity, discovered, through reading some pamphlet against
+solitary vice, that she had herself been practicing masturbation for years
+without knowing it. The profound anguish and hopeless despair of this
+woman in face of what she believed to be the moral ruin of her whole life
+cannot well be described. It would be easy to give further examples,
+though scarcely a more striking one, to show the utter confusion into
+which we are thrown by leaving this matter in the hands of blind leaders
+of the blind. Moreover, the conditions of modern civilization render
+auto-erotism a matter of increasing social significance. As our
+marriage-rate declines, and as illicit sexual relationships continue to be
+openly discouraged, it is absolutely inevitable that auto-erotic phenomena
+of one kind or another, not only among women but also among men, should
+increase among us both in amount and intensity. It becomes, therefore, a
+matter of some importance, both to the moralist and the physician, to
+investigate the psychological nature of these phenomena and to decide
+precisely what their attitude should be toward them.
+
+I do not purpose to enter into a thorough discussion of all the aspects of
+auto-erotism. That would involve a very extensive study indeed. I wish to
+consider briefly certain salient points concerning auto-erotic phenomena,
+especially their prevalence, their nature, and their moral, physical, and
+other effects. I base my study partly on the facts and opinions which
+during the last thirty years have been scattered through the periodical
+and other medical literature of Europe and America, and partly on the
+experience of individuals, especially of fairly normal individuals.
+
+Among animals in isolation, and sometimes in freedom--though this can less
+often be observed--it is well known that various forms of spontaneous
+solitary sexual excitement occur. Horses when leading a lazy life may be
+observed flapping the penis until some degree of emission takes place.
+Welsh ponies, I learn from a man who has had much experience with these
+animals, habitually produce erections and emissions in their stalls; they
+do not bring their hind quarters up during this process, and they close
+their eyes, which does not take place when they have congress with mares.
+The same informant observed that bulls and goats produce emissions by
+using their forelegs as a stimulus, bringing up their hind quarters, and
+mares rub themselves against objects. I am informed by a gentleman who is
+a recognized authority on goats, that they sometimes take the penis into
+the mouth and produce actual orgasm, thus practicing auto-fellatio. As
+regards ferrets, the Rev. H. Northcote states: "I am informed by a
+gentleman who has had considerable experience of ferrets, that if the
+bitch, when in heat, cannot obtain a dog she pines and becomes ill. If a
+smooth pebble is introduced into the hutch, she will masturbate upon it,
+thus preserving her normal health for one season. But if this artificial
+substitute is given to her a second season, she will not, as formerly, be
+content with it."[179]
+
+Stags in the rutting season, when they have no partners, rub themselves
+against trees to produce ejaculation. Sheep masturbate; as also do camels,
+pressing themselves down against convenient objects; and elephants
+compress the penis between the hind legs to obtain emissions.[180]
+Blumenbach observed a bear act somewhat similarly on seeing other bears
+coupling, and hyenas, according to Ploss and Bartels, have been seen
+practicing mutual masturbation by licking each other's genitals. Mammary
+masturbation, remarks Fere, is found in certain female and even male
+animals, like the dog and the cat.[181] Apes are much given to
+masturbation, even in freedom, according to the evidence of good
+observers; for while no female apes are celibates, many of the males are
+obliged to lead a life of celibacy.[182] Male monkeys use the hand in
+masturbation, to rub and shake the penis.[183]
+
+In the human species these phenomena are by no means found in civilization
+alone. To whatever extent masturbation may have been developed by the
+conditions of European life, which carry to the utmost extreme the
+concomitant stimulation, and repression of the sexual emotions, it is far
+from being, as Mantegazza has declared it to be, one of the moral
+characteristics of Europeans.[184] It is found among the people of nearly
+every race of which we have any intimate knowledge, however natural the
+conditions under which men and women may live.[185] Thus, among the Nama
+Hottentots, among the young women at all events, Gustav Fritsch found that
+masturbation is so common that it is regarded as a custom of the country;
+no secret is made of it, and in the stories and legends of the race it is
+treated as one of the most ordinary facts of life. It is so also among the
+Basutos, and the Kaffirs are addicted to the same habit.[186] The Fuegians
+have a word for masturbation, and a special word for masturbation by
+women.[187] When the Spaniards first arrived at Vizcaya, in the
+Philippines, they found that masturbation was universal, and that it was
+customary for the women to use an artificial penis and other abnormal
+methods of sexual gratification. Among the Balinese, according to Jacobs
+(as quoted by Ploss and Bartels), masturbation is general; in the boudoir
+of many a Bali beauty, he adds, and certainly in every harem, may be found
+a wax penis to which many hours of solitude are devoted. Throughout the
+East, as Eram, speaking from a long medical experience, has declared,
+masturbation is very prevalent, especially among young girls. In Egypt,
+according to Sonnini, it is prevalent in harems. In India, a medical
+correspondent tells me, he once treated the widow of a wealthy Mohammedan,
+who informed him that she began masturbation at an early age, "just like
+all other women." The same informant tells me that on the _facade_ of a
+large temple in Orissa are bas-reliefs, representing both men and women,
+alone, masturbating, and also women masturbating men. Among the Tamils of
+Ceylon masturbation is said to be common. In Cochin China, Lorion remarks,
+it is practiced by both sexes, but especially by the married women.[188]
+Japanese women have probably carried the mechanical arts of auto-erotism
+to the highest degree of perfection. They use two hollow balls about the
+size of a pigeon's egg (sometimes one alone is used), which, as described
+by Joest, Christian, and others,[189] are made of very thin leaf of brass;
+one is empty, the other (called the little man) contains a small heavy
+metal ball, or else some quicksilver, and sometimes metal tongues which
+vibrate when set in movement; so that if the balls are held in the hand
+side by side there is a continuous movement. The empty one is first
+introduced into the vagina in contact with the uterus, then the other; the
+slightest movement of the pelvis or thighs, or even spontaneous movement
+of the organs, causes the metal ball (or the quicksilver) to roll, and the
+resulting vibration produces a prolonged voluptuous titillation, a gentle
+shock as from a weak electric inductive apparatus; the balls are called
+_rin-no-tama_, and are held in the vagina by a paper tampon. The women who
+use these balls delight to swing themselves in a hammock or rocking-chair,
+the delicate vibration of the balls slowly producing the highest degree of
+sexual excitement. Joest mentions that this apparatus, though well known
+by name to ordinary girls, is chiefly used by the more fashionable
+_geishas_, as well as by prostitutes. Its use has now spread to China,
+Annam, and India. Japanese women also, it is said, frequently use an
+artificial penis of paper or clay, called e.g.. Among the Atjeh, again,
+according to Jacobs (as quoted by Ploss), the young of both sexes
+masturbate and the elder girls use an artificial penis of wax. In China,
+also, the artificial penis--made of rosin, supple and (like the classical
+instrument described by Herondas) rose-colored--is publicly sold and
+widely used by women.[190]
+
+It may be noticed that among non-European races it is among women, and
+especially among those who are subjected to the excitement of a life
+professionally devoted to some form of pleasure, that the use of the
+artificial instruments of auto-erotism is chiefly practiced. The same is
+markedly true in Europe. The use of an artificial penis in solitary sexual
+gratification may be traced down from classic times, and doubtless
+prevailed in the very earliest human civilization, for such an instrument
+is said to be represented in old Babylonian sculptures, and it is referred
+to by Ezekiel (Ch. XVI. v. 17). The Lesbian women are said to have used
+such instruments, made of ivory or gold with silken stuffs and linen.
+Aristophanes (_Lysistrata_, v. 109) speaks of the manufacture by the
+Milesian women of a leather artificial penis, or olisbos. In the British
+Museum is a vase representing a _hetaira_ holding such instruments, which,
+as found at Pompeii, may be seen in the museum at Naples. One of the best
+of Herondas's mimes, "The Private Conversation," presents a dialogue
+between two ladies concerning a certain olisbos (or nbon), which one of
+them vaunts as a dream of delight. Through the Middle Ages (when from time
+to time the clergy reprobated the use of such instruments[191]) they
+continued to be known, and after the fifteenth century the references to
+them became more precise. Thus Fortini, the Siennese novelist of the
+sixteenth century, refers in his _Novelle dei Novizi_ (7th Day, Novella
+XXXIX) to "the glass object filled with warm water which nuns use to calm
+the sting of the flesh and to satisfy themselves as well as they can"; he
+adds that widows and other women anxious to avoid pregnancy availed
+themselves of it. In Elizabethan England, at the same time, it appears to
+have been of similar character and Marston in his satires tells how Lucea
+prefers "a glassy instrument" to "her husband's lukewarm bed." In
+sixteenth century France, also, such instruments were sometimes made of
+glass, and Brantome refers to the godemiche; in eighteenth century Germany
+they were called _Samthanse_, and their use, according to Heinse, as
+quoted by Duehren, was common among aristocratic women. In England by that
+time the dildo appears to have become common. Archemholtz states that
+while in Paris they are only sold secretly, in London a certain Mrs.
+Philips sold them openly on a large scale in her shop in Leicester Square.
+John Bee in 1835, stating that the name was originally dil-dol, remarks
+that their use was formerly commoner than it was in his day. In France,
+Madame Gourdan, the most notorious brothel-keeper of the eighteenth
+century, carried on a wholesale trade in _consolateurs_, as they were
+called, and "at her death numberless letters from abbesses and simple nuns
+were found among her papers, asking for a 'consolateur' to be sent."[192]
+The modern French instrument is described by Gamier as of hardened red
+rubber, exactly imitating the penis and capable of holding warm milk or
+other fluid for injection at the moment of orgasm; the compressible
+scrotum is said to have been first added in the eighteenth century.[193]
+
+In Islam the artificial penis has reached nearly as high a development as
+in Christendom. Turkish women use it and it is said to be openly sold in
+Smyrna. In the harems of Zanzibar, according to Baumann, it is of
+considerable size, carved out of ebony or ivory, and commonly bored
+through so that warm water may be injected. It is here regarded as an Arab
+invention.[194]
+
+Somewhat similar appliances may be traced in all centres of civilization.
+But throughout they appear to be frequently confined to the world of
+prostitutes and to those women who live on the fashionable or
+semi-artistic verge of that world. Ignorance and delicacy combine with a
+less versatile and perverted concentration on the sexual impulse to
+prevent any general recourse to such highly specialized methods of
+solitary gratification.
+
+On the other hand, the use, or rather abuse, of the ordinary objects and
+implements of daily life in obtaining auto-erotic gratification, among the
+ordinary population in civilized modern lands, has reached an
+extraordinary degree of extent and variety we can only feebly estimate by
+the occasional resulting mischances which come under the surgeon's hands,
+because only a certain proportion of such instruments are dangerous. Thus
+the banana seems to be widely used for masturbation by women, and appears
+to be marked out for the purpose by its size and shape[195]; it is,
+however, innocuous, and never comes under the surgeon's notice; the same
+may probably be said of the cucumbers and other vegetables more especially
+used by country and factory girls in masturbation; a lady living near
+Vichy told Pouillet that she had often heard (and had herself been able to
+verify the fact) that the young peasant women commonly used turnips,
+carrots, and beet-roots. In the eighteenth century Mirabeau, in his
+_Erotikca Biblion_ gave a list of the various objects used in convents
+(which he describes as "vast theatres" of such practices) to obtain
+solitary sexual excitement. In more recent years the following are a few
+of the objects found in the vagina or bladder whence they could only be
+removed by surgical interference[196]: Pencils, sticks of sealing-wax,
+cotton-reels, hair-pins (and in Italy very commonly the bone-pins used in
+the hair), bodkins, knitting-needles, crochet-needles, needle-cases,
+compasses, glass stoppers, candles, corks, tumblers, forks, tooth-picks,
+toothbrushes, pomade-pots (in a case recorded by Schroeder with a
+cockchafer inside, a makeshift substitute for the Japanese _rin-no-tama_),
+while in one recent English case a full-sized hen's egg was removed from
+the vagina of a middle-aged married woman. More than nine-tenths of the
+foreign bodies found in the female bladder or urethra are due to
+masturbation. The age of the individuals in whom such objects have been
+found is usually from 17 to 30, but in a few cases they have been found in
+girls below 14, infrequently in women between 40 and 50; the large
+objects, naturally, are found chiefly in the vagina, and in married
+women.[197]
+
+Hair-pins have, above all, been found in the female bladder with special
+frequency; this point is worth some consideration as an illustration of
+the enormous frequency of this form of auto-erotism. The female urethra is
+undoubtedly a normal centre of sexual feeling, as Pouillet pointed out
+many years ago; a woman medical correspondent, also, writes that in some
+women the maximum of voluptuous sensation is at the vesical sphincter or
+orifice, though not always so limited. E.H. Smith, indeed, considers that
+"the urethra is the part in which the orgasm occurs," and remarks that in
+sexual excitement mucus always flows largely from the urethra.[198] It
+should be added that when once introduced the physiological mechanism of
+the bladder apparently causes the organ to tend to "swallow" the foreign
+object. Yet for every case in which the hair-pin disappears and is lost
+in the bladder, from carelessness or the oblivion of the sexual spasm,
+there must be a vast number of cases in which the instrument is used
+without any such unfortunate result. There is thus great significance in
+the frequency with which cases of hair-pin in the bladder are strewn
+through the medical literature of all countries.
+
+In 1862, a German surgeon found the accident so common that he invented a
+special instrument for extracting hair-pins from the female bladder, as,
+indeed, Italian and French surgeons have also done. In France, Denuce, of
+Bordeaux, came to the conclusion that hair-pin in the bladder is the
+commonest result of masturbation as known to the surgeon. In England cases
+are constantly being recorded. Lawson Tait, stating that most cases of
+stone in the bladder in women are due to the introduction of a foreign
+body, very often a hair-pin, adds: "I have removed hair-pins encrusted
+with phosphates from ten different female bladders, and not one of the
+owners of these bladders would give any account of the incident."[199]
+Stokes, again, records that during four years he had four cases of
+hair-pin in the female urethra.[200] In New York one physician met with
+four cases in a short experience.[201] In Switzerland Professor Reverdin
+had a precisely similar experience.[202]
+
+There is, however, another class of material objects, widely employed for
+producing physical auto-erotism, which in the nature of things never
+reaches the surgeon. I refer to the effects that, naturally or
+unnaturally, may be produced by many of the objects and implements of
+daily life that do not normally come in direct contact with the sexual
+organs. Children sometimes, even when scarcely more than infants, produce
+sexual excitement by friction against the corner of a chair or other piece
+of furniture, and women sometimes do the same.[203] Guttceit, in Russia,
+knew women who made a large knot in their chemises to rub against, and
+mentions a woman who would sit on her naked heel and rub it against her.
+Girls in France, I am informed, are fond of riding on the
+_chevaux-de-bois_, or hobby-horses, because of the sexual excitement thus
+aroused; and that the sexual emotions play a part in the fascination
+exerted by this form of amusement everywhere is indicated by the ecstatic
+faces of its devotees.[204] At the temples in some parts of Central India,
+I am told, swings are hung up in pairs, men and women swinging in these
+until sexually excited; during the months when the men in these districts
+have to be away from home the girls put up swings to console themselves
+for the loss of their husbands.
+
+    It is interesting to observe the very wide prevalence of
+    swinging, often of a religious or magic character, and the
+    evident sexual significance underlying it, although this is not
+    always clearly brought out. Groos, discussing the frequency of
+    swinging (_Die Spiele der Menschen_, p. 114) refers, for
+    instance, to the custom of the Gilbert Islanders for a young man
+    to swing a girl from a coco palm, and then to cling on and swing
+    with her. In ancient Greece, women and grown-up girls were fond
+    of see-saws and swings. The Athenians had, indeed, a swinging
+    festival (Athenaeus, Bk. XIV, Ch. X). Songs of a voluptuous
+    character, we gather from Athenaeus, were sung by the women at
+    this festival. J.G. Frazer (_The Golden Bough_, vol. ii, note A,
+    "Swinging as a Magical Rite") discusses the question, and brings
+    forward instances in which men, or, especially, women swing. "The
+    notion seems to be," he states, "that the ceremony promotes
+    fertility, whether in the vegetable or in the animal kingdom;
+    though why it should be supposed to do so, I confess myself
+    unable to explain" (loc. cit., p. 450). The explanation seems,
+    however, not far to seek, in view of the facts quoted above, and
+    Frazer himself refers to the voluptuous character of the songs
+    sometimes sung.
+
+    Even apart from actual swinging of the whole body, a swinging
+    movement may suffice to arouse sexual excitement, and may,--at
+    all events, in women,--constitute an essential part of methods of
+    attaining solitary sexual gratification. Kiernan thus describes
+    the habitual auto-erotic procedure of a young American woman:
+    "The patient knelt before a chair, let her elbows drop on its
+    seat, grasping the arms with a firm grip, then commenced a
+    swinging, writhing motion, seeming to fix her pelvis, and moving
+    her trunk and limbs. The muscles were rigid, the face took on a
+    passionate expression; the features were contorted, the eyes
+    rolled, the teeth were set, and the lips compressed, while the
+    cheeks were purple. The condition bore a striking resemblance to
+    the passional stage of grand hysteria. The reveling took only a
+    moment to commence, but lasted a long time. Swaying induced a
+    pleasurable sensation, accompanied with a feeling of suction upon
+    the clitoris. Almost immediately after, a sensation of bursting,
+    caused by discharge from the vulvo-vaginal glands, occurs,
+    followed by a rapture prolonged for an indefinite time." The
+    accompanying sexual imagery is so vivid as almost to become
+    hallucinatory. (J.G. Kiernan, "Sex Transformation and Psychic
+    Impotence," _American Journal of Dermatology_, vol. ix, No. 2.)
+
+Somewhat similarly sensations of sexual character are sometimes
+experienced by boys when climbing up a pole. It is not even necessary that
+there should be direct external contact with the sexual organs, and Howe
+states that gymnastic swinging poles around which boys swing while
+supporting the whole weight on the hands, may suffice to produce sexual
+excitement.
+
+Several writers have pointed out that riding, especially in women, may
+produce sexual excitement and orgasm.[205] It is well-known, also, that
+both in men and women the vibratory motion of a railway-train frequently
+produces a certain degree of sexual excitement, especially when sitting
+forward. Such excitement may remain latent and not become specifically
+sexual.[206] I am not aware that this quality of railway traveling has
+ever been fostered as a sexual perversion, but the sewing-machine has
+attracted considerable attention on account of its influence in exciting
+auto-erotic manifestations. The early type of sewing-machine, especially,
+was of very heavy character and involved much up and down movement of the
+legs; Langdon Down pointed out many years ago that this frequently
+produced great sexual erethism which led to masturbation.[207] According
+to one French authority, it is a well-recognized fact that to work a
+sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual
+excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is
+indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds
+with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in
+large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents
+of the rooms to make the girls sit properly.[208]
+
+    "During a visit which I once paid to a manufactory of military
+    clothing," Pouillet writes, "I witnessed the following scene. In
+    the midst of the uniform sound produced by some thirty
+    sewing-machines, I suddenly heard one of the machines working
+    with much more velocity than the others. I looked at the person
+    who was working it, a brunette of 18 or 20. While she was
+    automatically occupied with the trousers she was making on the
+    machine, her face became animated, her mouth opened slightly, her
+    nostrils dilated, her feet moved the pedals with constantly
+    increasing rapidity. Soon I saw a convulsive look in her eyes,
+    her eyelids were lowered, her face turned pale and was thrown
+    backward; hands and legs stopped and became extended; a
+    suffocated cry, followed by a long sigh, was lost in the noise of
+    the workroom. The girl remained motionless a few seconds, drew
+    out her handkerchief to wipe away the pearls of sweat from her
+    forehead, and, after casting a timid and ashamed glance at her
+    companions, resumed her work. The forewoman, who acted as my
+    guide, having observed the direction of my gaze, took me up to
+    the girl, who blushed, lowered her face, and murmured some
+    incoherent words before the forewoman had opened her mouth, to
+    advise her to sit fully on the chair, and not on its edge.
+
+    "As I was leaving, I heard another machine at another part of the
+    room in accelerated movement. The forewoman smiled at me, and
+    remarked that that was so frequent that it attracted no notice.
+    It was specially observed, she told me, in the case of young
+    work-girls, apprentices, and those who sat on the edge of their
+    seats, thus much facilitating friction of the labia."
+
+In cases where the sewing-machine does not lead to direct self-excitement
+it has been held, as by Fothergill,[209] to predispose to frequency of
+involuntary sexual orgasm during sleep, from the irritation set up by the
+movement of the feet in the sitting posture during the day. The essential
+movement in working the sewing-machine is the flexion and extension of the
+ankle, but the muscles of the thighs are used to maintain the feet firmly
+on the treadle, the thighs are held together, and there is a considerable
+degree of flexion or extension of the thighs on the trunk; by a special
+adjustment of the body, and sometimes perhaps merely in the presence of
+sexual hyperaesthesia, it is thus possible to act upon the sexual organs;
+but this is by no means a necessary result of using the sewing-machine,
+and inquiry of various women, with well-developed sexual feelings, who are
+accustomed to work the treadle, has not shown the presence of any tendency
+in this direction.
+
+Sexual irritation may also be produced by the bicycle in women. Thus,
+Moll[210] remarks that he knows many married women, and some unmarried,
+who experience sexual excitement when cycling; in several cases he has
+ascertained that the excitement is carried as far as complete orgasm. This
+result cannot, however, easily happen unless the seat is too high, the
+peak in contact with the organs, and a rolling movement is adopted; in the
+absence of marked hyperaesthesia these results are only effected by a bad
+seat or an improper attitude, the body during cycling resting under proper
+conditions on the buttocks, and the work being mainly done by the muscles
+of the thighs and legs which control the ankles, flexion of the thigh on
+the pelvis being very small. Most medical authorities on cycling are of
+opinion that when cycling leads to sexual excitement the fault lies more
+with the woman than with the machine. This conclusion does not appear to
+me to be absolutely correct. I find on inquiry that with the old-fashioned
+saddle, with an elevated peak rising toward the pubes, a certain degree of
+sexual excitement, not usually producing the orgasm (but, as one lady
+expressed it, making one feel quite ready for it), is fairly common among
+women. Lydston finds that irritation of the genital organs may
+unquestionably be produced in both males and females by cycling. The
+aggravation of haemorrhoids sometimes produced by cycling indicates also
+the tendency to local congestion. With the improved flat saddles, however,
+constructed with more definite adjustment to the anatomical formation of
+the parts, this general tendency is reduced to a negligible minimum.
+
+Reference may be made at this point to the influence of tight-lacing. This
+has been recognized by gynaecologists as a factor of sexual excitement and
+a method of masturbation.[211] Women who have never worn corsets sometimes
+find that, on first putting them on, sexual feeling is so intensified that
+it is necessary to abandon their use.[212] The reason of this (as Siebert
+points out in his _Buch fuer Eltern_) seems to be that the corset both
+favors pelvic congestion and at the same time exerts a pressure on the
+abdominal muscles which brings them into the state produced during coitus.
+It is doubtless for the same reason that, as some women have found, more
+distension of the bladder is possible without corsets than with them.
+
+In a further class of cases no external object whatever is used to procure
+the sexual orgasm, but the more or less voluntary pressure of the thighs
+alone is brought to bear upon the sexual regions. It is done either when
+sitting or standing, the thighs being placed together and firmly crossed,
+and the pelvis rocked so that the sexual organs are pressed against the
+inner and posterior parts of the thighs.[213] This is sometimes done by
+men, and is fairly common among women, especially, according to
+Martineau,[214] among those who sit much, such as dressmakers and
+milliners, those who use the sewing-machine, and those who ride. Vedeler
+remarks that in his experience in Scandinavia, thigh-friction is the
+commonest form of masturbation in women. The practice is widespread, and a
+medical correspondent in India tells me of a Brahmin widow who confessed
+to this form of masturbation. I am told that in London Board Schools, at
+the present time, thigh-rubbing is not infrequent among the girl scholars;
+the proportion mentioned in one school was about ten per cent, of the
+girls over eleven; the thigh-rubbing is done more or less openly and is
+interpreted by the uninitiated as due merely to a desire to relieve the
+bladder. It is found in female infants. Thus, Townsend records the case of
+an infant, 8 months old, who would cross her right thigh over the left,
+close her eyes and clench her fists; after a minute or two there would be
+complete relaxation, with sweating and redness of face; this would occur
+about once a week or oftener; the child was quite healthy, with no
+abnormal condition of the genital organs.[215] The frequency of
+thigh-friction among women as a form of masturbation is due to the fact
+that it is usually acquired innocently and it involves no indecorum. Thus
+Soutzo reports the case of a girl of 12 who at school, when having to wait
+her turn at the water-closet, for fear of wetting herself would put her
+clothes between her legs and press her thighs together, moving them
+backwards and forwards in the effort to control the bladder; she
+discovered that a pleasurable sensation was thus produced and acquired the
+habit of practicing the manoeuvre for its own sake; at the age of 17 she
+began to vary it in different ways; thus she would hang from a tree with
+her legs swinging and her chemise pressed between her thighs which she
+would rub together.[216] Thigh-friction in some of its forms is so
+comparatively decorous a form of masturbation that it may even be
+performed in public places; thus, a few years ago, while waiting for a
+train at a station on the outskirts of a provincial town, I became aware
+of the presence of a young woman, sitting alone on a seat at a little
+distance, whom I could observe unnoticed. She was leaning back with legs
+crossed, swinging the crossed foot vigorously and continuously; this
+continued without interruption for some ten minutes after I first observed
+her; then the swinging movement reached a climax; she leant still further
+back, thus bringing the sexual region still more closely in contact with
+the edge of the bench and straightened and stiffened her body and legs in
+what appeared to be a momentary spasm; there could be little doubt as to
+what had taken place. A few moments later she slowly walked from her
+solitary seat into the waiting-room and sat down among the other waiting
+passengers, quite still now and with uncrossed legs, a pale quiet young
+woman, possibly a farmer's daughter, serenely unconscious that her
+manoeuvre had been detected, and very possibly herself ignorant of its
+true nature.
+
+There are many other forms in which the impulse of auto-erotism presents
+itself. Dancing is often a powerful method of sexual excitement, not only
+among civilized but among savage peoples, and Zache describes the erotic
+dances of Swaheli women as having a masturbatory object.[217] Stimulation
+of the nates is a potent adjuvant to the production of self-excitement,
+and self-flagellation with rods, etc., is practiced by some individuals,
+especially young women.[218] Urtication is another form of this
+stimulation; Reverdin knew a young woman who obtained sexual gratification
+by flogging herself with chestnut burrs, and it is stated that in some
+parts of France (departments of the Ain and Cote d'Or) it is not uncommon
+for young girls to masturbate by rubbing the leaves of the _Linaria
+cymbalaria_ (here called "pinton" or "timbarde") on to the sexual parts,
+thus producing a burning sensation.[219] Stimulation of the mamma,
+normally an erogenous centre in women, may occasionally serve as a method
+for obtaining auto-erotic satisfaction, including the orgasm, in both
+sexes. I have been told of a case in a man, and a medical correspondent in
+India informs me that he knows a Eurasian woman, addicted to masturbation,
+who can only obtain the orgasm by rubbing the genitals with one hand while
+with the other she rubs and finally squeezes her breasts. The tactile
+stimulation even of regions of the body which are not normally erogenous
+zones in either sex may sometimes lead on to sexual excitement;
+Hirschsprung, as well as Freud, believes that this is often the case as
+regards finger-sucking and toe-sucking in infancy. Even stroking the chin,
+remarks Debreyne, may produce a pollution.[220] Taylor refers to the case
+of a young woman of 22, who was liable to attacks of choreic movements of
+the hands which would terminate in alternately pressing the middle finger
+on the tip of the nose and the tragus of the ear, when a "far-away,
+pleased expression" would appear on her face; she thus produced sexual
+excitement and satisfaction. She had no idea of wrong-doing and was
+surprised and ashamed when she realized the nature of her act.[221]
+
+Most of the foregoing examples of auto-erotism, are commonly included, by
+no means correctly, under the heading of "masturbation." There are,
+however, a vast number of people, possessing strong sexual emotions and
+living a solitary life, who experience, sometimes by instinct and
+sometimes on moral grounds, a strong repugnance for these manifestations
+of auto-erotism. As one highly intelligent lady writes: "I have sometimes
+wondered whether I could produce it (complete sexual excitement)
+mechanically, but I have a curious unreasonable repugnance to trying the
+experiment. It would materialize it too much." The same repugnance may be
+traced in the tendency to avoid, so far as possible, the use of the hands.
+It is quite common to find this instinctive unreasoning repugnance among
+women, a healthy repugnance, not founded on any moral ground. In men the
+same repugnance exists, more often combined with, or replaced by, a very
+strong moral and aesthetic objection to such practices. But the presence of
+such a repugnance, however invincible, is very far from carrying us
+outside the auto-erotic field. The production of the sexual orgasm is not
+necessarily dependent on any external contact or voluntary mechanical
+cause.
+
+As an example, though not of specifically auto-erotic manifestations, I
+may mention the case of a man of 57, a somewhat eccentric preacher, etc.,
+who writes: "My whole nature goes out so to some persons, and they thrill
+and stir me so that I have an emission while sitting by them with no
+thought of sex, only the gladness of soul found its way out thus, and a
+glow of health suffused the whole body. There was no spasmodic conclusion,
+but a pleasing gentle sensation as the few drops of semen passed." (In
+reality, no doubt, not semen, but urethral fluid.) This man's condition
+may certainly be considered somewhat morbid; he is attracted to both men
+and women, and the sexual impulse seems to be irritable and weak; but a
+similar state of things exists so often in women, no doubt due to sexual
+repression, and in individuals who are in a general state of normal and
+good health, that in these it can scarcely be called morbid. Brooding on
+sexual images, which the theologians termed _delectatio morosa_, may lead
+to spontaneous orgasm in either sex, even in perfectly normal persons.
+Hammond described as a not uncommon form of "psychic coitus," a condition
+in which the simple act of imagination alone, in the presence of the
+desired object, suffices to produce orgasm. In some public conveyance,
+theatre, or elsewhere, the man sees a desirable woman and by concentrating
+his attention on her person and imagining all the stages of intimacy he
+quickly succeeds in producing orgasm.[222] Niceforo refers to an Italian
+work-girl of 14 who could obtain ejaculation of mucus four times a day, in
+the workroom in the presence of the other girls, without touching herself
+or moving her body, by simply thinking of sexual things.[223]
+
+If the orgasm occurs spontaneously, without the aid of mental impressions,
+or any manipulations _ad hoc_, though under such conditions it ceases to
+be sinful from the theological standpoint, it certainly ceases also to be
+normal. Serieux records the case of a somewhat neurotic woman of 50, who
+had been separated from her husband for ten years, and since lived a
+chaste life; at this age, however, she became subject to violent crises of
+sexual orgasm, which would come on without any accompaniment of voluptuous
+thoughts. MacGillicuddy records three cases of spontaneous orgasm in women
+coming under his notice.[224] Such crises are frequently found in both men
+and women, who, from moral reasons, ignorance, or on other grounds are
+restrained from attaining the complete sexual orgasm, but whose sexual
+emotions are, literally, continually dribbling from them. Schrenck-Notzing
+knows a lady who is spontaneously sexually excited on hearing music or
+seeing pictures without anything lascivious in them; she knows nothing of
+sexual relationships. Another lady is sexually excited on seeing beautiful
+and natural scenes, like the sea; sexual ideas are mixed up in her mind
+with these things, and the contemplation of a specially strong and
+sympathetic man brings the orgasm on in about a minute. Both these ladies
+"masturbate" in the streets, restaurants, railways, theatres, without
+anyone perceiving it.[225] A Brahmin woman informed a medical
+correspondent in India that she had distinct though feeble orgasm, with
+copious outflow of mucus, if she stayed long near a man whose face she
+liked, and this is not uncommon among European women. Evidently under such
+conditions there is a state of hyperaesthetic weakness. Here, however, we
+are passing the frontiers of strictly auto-erotic phenomena.
+
+    _Delectatio morosa_, as understood by the theologians, is
+    distinct from desire, and also distinct from the definite
+    intention of effecting the sexual act, although it may lead to
+    those things. It is the voluntary and complacent dallying in
+    imagination with voluptuous thoughts, when no effort is made to
+    repel them. It is, as Aquinas and others point out, constituted
+    by this act of complacent dallying, and has no reference to the
+    duration of the imaginative process. Debreyne, in his
+    _Moechialogie_ (pp. 149-163), deals fully with this question, and
+    quotes the opinions of theologians. I may add that in the early
+    Penitentials, before the elaboration of Catholic theology, the
+    voluntary emission of semen through the influence of evil
+    thoughts, was recognized as a sin, though usually only if it
+    occurred in church. In Egbert's Penitential of the eighth or
+    ninth century (cap. IX, 12), the penance assigned for this
+    offence in the case of a deacon, is 25 days; in the case of a
+    monk, 30 days; a priest, 40 days; a bishop, 50. (Haddon and
+    Stubbs, _Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents_, vol. iii, p.
+    426.)
+
+    The frequency of spontaneous orgasm in women seems to have been
+    recognized in the seventeenth century. Thus, Schurig
+    (_Syllepsilogia_, p. 4), apparently quoting Riolan, states that
+    some women are so wanton that the sight of a handsome man, or of
+    their lover, or speech with such a one, will cause them to
+    ejaculate their semen.
+
+There is, however, a closely allied, and, indeed, overlapping form of
+auto-erotism which may be considered here: I mean that associated with
+revery, or day-dreaming. Although this is a very common and important
+form of auto-erotism, besides being in a large proportion of cases the
+early stage of masturbation, it appears to have attracted little
+attention.[226] The day-dream has, indeed, been studied in its chief form,
+in the "continued story," by Mabel Learoyd, of Wellesley College. The
+continued story is an imagined narrative, more or less peculiar to the
+individual, by whom it is cherished with fondness, and regarded as an
+especially sacred mental possession, to be shared only, if at all, with
+very sympathizing friends. It is commoner among girls and young women than
+among boys and young men; among 352 persons of both sexes, 47 per cent.
+among the women and only 14 per cent. among the men, have any continued
+story. The starting-point is an incident from a book, or, more usually,
+some actual experience, which the subject develops; the subject is nearly
+always the hero or the heroine of the story. The growth of the story is
+favored by solitude, and lying in bed before going to sleep is the time
+specially sacred to its cultivation.[227] No distinct reference, perhaps
+naturally enough, is made by Miss Learoyd to the element of sexual emotion
+with which these stories are often strongly tinged, and which is
+frequently their real motive. Though by no means easy to detect, these
+elaborate and more or less erotic day-dreams are not uncommon in young
+men and especially in young women. Each individual has his own particular
+dream, which is always varying or developing, but, except in very
+imaginative persons, to no great extent. Such a day-dream is often founded
+on a basis of pleasurable personal experience, and develops on that basis.
+It may involve an element of perversity, even though that element finds no
+expression in real life. It is, of course, fostered by sexual abstinence;
+hence its frequency in young women. Most usually there is little attempt
+to realize it. It does not necessarily lead to masturbation, though it
+often causes some sexual congestion or even spontaneous sexual orgasm. The
+day-dream is a strictly private and intimate experience, not only from its
+very nature, but also because it occurs in images which the subject finds
+great difficulty in translating into language, even when willing to do so.
+In other cases it is elaborately dramatic or romantic in character, the
+hero or heroine passing through many experiences before attaining the
+erotic climax of the story. This climax tends to develop in harmony with
+the subject's growing knowledge or experience; at first, merely a kiss, it
+may develop into any refinement of voluptuous gratification. The day-dream
+may occur either in normal or abnormal persons. Rousseau, in his
+_Confessions_, describes such dreams, in his case combined with masochism
+and masturbation. A distinguished American novelist, Hamlin Garland, has
+admirably described in _Rose of Dutcher's Coolly_ the part played in the
+erotic day-dreams of a healthy normal girl at adolescence by a
+circus-rider, seen on the first visit to a circus, and becoming a majestic
+ideal to dominate the girl's thoughts for many years.[228]
+Raffalovich[229] describes the process by which in sexual inverts the
+vision of a person of the same sex, perhaps seen in the streets or the
+theatre, is evoked in solitary reveries, producing a kind of "psychic
+onanism," whether or not it leads on to physical manifestations.
+
+Although day-dreaming of this kind has at present been very little
+studied, since it loves solitude and secrecy, and has never been counted
+of sufficient interest for scientific inquisition, it is really a process
+of considerable importance, and occupies a large part of the auto-erotic
+field. It is frequently cultivated by refined and imaginative young men
+and women who lead a chaste life and would often be repelled by
+masturbation. In such persons, under such circumstances, it must be
+considered as strictly normal, the inevitable outcome of the play of the
+sexual impulse. No doubt it may often become morbid, and is never a
+healthy process when indulged in to excess, as it is liable to be by
+refined young people with artistic impulses, to whom it is in the highest
+degree seductive and insidious.[230] As we have seen, however,
+day-dreaming is far from always colored by sexual emotion; yet it is a
+significant indication of its really sexual origin that, as I have been
+informed by persons of both sexes, even in these apparently non-sexual
+cases it frequently ceases altogether on marriage.
+
+Even when we have eliminated all these forms of auto-erotic activity,
+however refined, in which the subject takes a voluntary part, we have
+still left unexplored an important portion of the auto-erotic field, a
+portion which many people are alone inclined to consider normal: sexual
+orgasm during sleep. That under conditions of sexual abstinence in healthy
+individuals there must inevitably be some auto-erotic manifestations
+during waking life, a careful study of the facts compels us to believe.
+There can be no doubt, also, that, under the same conditions, the
+occurrence of the complete orgasm during sleep with, in men, seminal
+emissions, is altogether normal. Even Zeus himself, as Pausanias has
+recorded, was liable to such accidents: a statement which, at all events,
+shows that to the Greek mind there was nothing derogatory in such an
+occurrence.[231] The Jews, however, regarded it as an impurity,[232] and
+the same idea was transmitted to the Christian church and embodied in the
+word _pollutio_, by which the phenomenon was designated in ecclesiastical
+phraseology.[233] According to Billuart and other theologians, pollution
+in sleep is not sin, unless voluntarily caused; if, however, it begins in
+sleep, and is completed in the half-waking state, with a sense of
+pleasure, it is a venial sin. But it seems allowable to permit a nocturnal
+pollution to complete itself on awaking, if it occurs without intention;
+and St. Thomas even says "_Si pollutio placeat ut naturae exoneratio vel
+alleviatio peccatum non creditur_."
+
+    Notwithstanding the fair and logical position of the more
+    distinguished Latin theologians, there has certainly been a
+    widely prevalent belief in Catholic countries that pollution
+    during sleep is a sin. In the "Parson's Tale," Chaucer makes the
+    parson say: "Another sin appertaineth to lechery that cometh in
+    sleeping; and the sin cometh oft to them that be maidens, and eke
+    to them that be corrupt; and this sin men clepe pollution, that
+    cometh in four manners;" these four manners being (1) languishing
+    of body from rank and abundant humors, (2) infirmity, (3) surfeit
+    of meat and drink, and (4) villainous thoughts. Four hundred
+    years later, Madame Roland, in her _Memoires Particulieres_,
+    presented a vivid picture of the anguish produced in an innocent
+    girl's mind by the notion of the sinfulness of erotic dreams. She
+    menstruated first at the age of 14. "Before this," she writes, "I
+    had sometimes been awakened from the deepest sleep in a
+    surprising manner. Imagination played no part; I exercised it on
+    too many serious subjects, and my timorous conscience preserved
+    it from amusement with other subjects, so that it could not
+    represent what I would not allow it to seek to understand. But an
+    extraordinary effervescence aroused my senses in the heat of
+    repose, and, by virtue of my excellent constitution, operated by
+    itself a purification which was as strange to me as its cause.
+    The first feeling which resulted was, I know not why, a sort of
+    fear. I had observed in my _Philotee_, that we are not allowed to
+    obtain any pleasure from our bodies except in lawful marriage.
+    What I had experienced could be called a pleasure. I was then
+    guilty, and in a class of offences which caused me the most shame
+    and sorrow, since it was that which was most displeasing to the
+    Spotless Lamb. There was great agitation in my poor heart,
+    prayers and mortifications. How could I avoid it? For, indeed, I
+    had not foreseen it, but at the instant when I experienced it, I
+    had not taken the trouble to prevent it. My watchfulness became
+    extreme. I scrupulously avoided positions which I found specially
+    exposed me to the accident. My restlessness became so great that,
+    at last I was able to awake before the catastrophe. When I was
+    not in time to prevent it, I would jump out of bed, with naked
+    feet on to the polished floor, and with crossed arms pray to the
+    Saviour to preserve me from the wiles of the devil. I would then
+    impose some penance on myself, and I have carried out to the
+    letter what the prophet King probably only transmitted to us as a
+    figure of Oriental speech, mixing ashes with my bread and
+    watering it with my tears."
+
+To the early Protestant mind, as illustrated by Luther, there was
+something diseased, though not impure, in sexual excitement during sleep;
+thus, in his _Table Talk_ Luther remarks that girls who have such dreams
+should be married at once, "taking the medicine which God has given." It
+is only of comparatively recent years that medical science has obtained
+currency for the belief that this auto-erotic process is entirely normal.
+Blumenbach stated that nocturnal emissions are normal.[234] Sir James
+Paget declared that he had never known celibate men who had not such
+emissions from once or twice a week to twice every three months, both
+extremes being within the limits of good health, while Sir Lauder Brunton
+considers once a fortnight or once a month about the usual frequency, at
+these periods the emissions often following two nights in succession.
+Rohleder believes that they may normally follow for several nights in
+succession. Hammond considers that they occur about once a fortnight.[235]
+Ribbing regards ten to fourteen days as the normal interval.[236]
+Loewenfeld puts the normal frequency at about once a week;[237] this seems
+to be nearer the truth as regards most fairly healthy young men. In proof
+of this it is only necessary to refer to the exact records of healthy
+young adults summarized in the study of periodicity in the present volume.
+It occasionally happens, however, that nocturnal emissions are entirely
+absent. I am acquainted with some cases. In other fairly healthy young men
+they seldom occur except at times of intellectual activity or of anxiety
+and worry.
+
+    Lately there has been some tendency for medical opinion to revert
+    to the view of Luther, and to regard sexual excitement during
+    sleep as a somewhat unhealthy phenomenon. Moll is a distinguished
+    advocate of this view. Sexual excitement during sleep is the
+    normal result of celibacy, but it is another thing to say that it
+    is, on that account, satisfactory. We might, then, Moll remarks,
+    maintain that nocturnal incontinence of urine is satisfactory,
+    since the bladder is thus emptied. Yet, we take every precaution
+    against this by insisting that the bladder shall be emptied
+    before going to sleep. (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 552.) This
+    remark is supported by the fact, to which I find that both men
+    and women can bear witness, that sexual excitement during sleep
+    is more fatiguing than in the waking state, though this is not an
+    invariable rule, and it is sometimes found to be refreshing. In
+    a similar way, Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 55) states
+    that nocturnal emissions are no more normal than coughing or
+    vomiting.
+
+Nocturnal emissions are usually, though not invariably, accompanied by
+dreams of a voluptuous character in which the dreamer becomes conscious in
+a more or less fantastic manner of the more or less intimate presence or
+contact of a person of the opposite sex. It would seem, as a general rule,
+that the more vivid and voluptuous the dream, the greater is the physical
+excitement and the greater also the relief experienced on awakening.
+Sometimes the erotic dream occurs without any emission, and not
+infrequently the emission takes place after the dreamer has awakened.
+
+    The widest and most comprehensive investigation of erotic dreams
+    is that carried out by Gualino, in northern Italy, and based on
+    inquiries among 100 normal men--doctors, teachers, lawyers,
+    etc.--who had all had experience of the phenomenon. (L. Gualino,
+    "Il Sogno Erotico nell' Uomo Normale," _Rivista di Psicologia_,
+    Jan.-Feb., 1907.) Gualino shows that erotic dreams, with
+    emissions (whether or not seminal), began somewhat earlier than
+    the period of physical development as ascertained by Marro for
+    youths of the same part of northern Italy. Gualino found that all
+    his cases had had erotic dreams at the age of seventeen; Marro
+    found 8 per cent, of youths still sexually undeveloped at that
+    age, and while sexual development began at thirteen years, erotic
+    dreams began at twelve. Their appearance was preceded, in most
+    cases for some months, by erections. In 37 per cent, of the cases
+    there had been no actual sexual experiences (either masturbation
+    or intercourse); in 23 per cent, there had been masturbation; in
+    the rest, some form of sexual contact. The dreams are mainly
+    visual, tactual elements coming second, and the _dramatis
+    persona_ is either an unknown woman (27 per cent, cases), or only
+    known by sight (56 per cent.), and in the majority is, at all
+    events in the beginning, an ugly or fantastic figure, becoming
+    more attractive later in life, but never identical with the woman
+    loved during waking life. This, as Gualino points out, accords
+    with the general tendency for the emotions of the day to be
+    latent in sleep. Masturbation only formed the subject of the
+    dream in four cases. The emotional state in the pubertal stage,
+    apart from pleasure, was anxiety (37 per cent.), desire (17 per
+    cent.), fear (14 per cent.). In the adult stage, anxiety and fear
+    receded to 7 per cent, and 6 per cent., respectively.
+    Thirty-three of the subjects, as a result of sexual or general
+    disturbances, had had nocturnal emissions without dreams; these
+    were always found exhausting. Normally (in more than 90 per
+    cent.) erotic dreams are the most vivid of all dreams. In no case
+    was there knowledge of any monthly or other cyclic periodicity in
+    the occurrence of the manifestations. In 34 per cent, of cases,
+    they tended to occur very soon after sexual intercourse. In
+    numerous cases they were peculiarly frequent (even three in one
+    night) during courtship, when the young man was in the habit of
+    kissing and caressing his betrothed, but ceased after marriage.
+    It was not noted that position in bed or a full bladder exerted
+    any marked influence in the occurrence of erotic dreams;
+    repletion of the seminal vesicles is regarded as the main factor.
+
+    In Germany erotic dreams have been discussed by Volkelt (_Die
+    Traum-Phantasie_, 1875, pp. 78-82), and especially by Loewenfeld
+    (_Sexual-Probleme_, Oct., 1908), while in America, Stanley Hall
+    thus summarizes the general characteristics of erotic dreams in
+    men: "In by far the most cases, consciousness, even when the act
+    causes full awakening from sleep, finds only scattered images,
+    single words, gestures, and acts, many of which would perhaps
+    normally constitute no provocation. Many times the mental
+    activity seems to be remote and incidental, and the mind retains
+    in the morning nothing except, perhaps, a peculiar dress pattern,
+    the shape of a finger-nail, the back of a neck, the toss of a
+    head, the movement of a foot, or the dressing of the hair. In
+    such cases, these images stand out for a time with the
+    distinctness of a cameo, and suggest that the origin of erotic
+    fetichisms is largely to be found in sexual dreams. Very rarely
+    is there any imagery of the organs themselves, but the tendency
+    to irradiation is so strong as to re-enforce the suggestion of so
+    many other phenomena in this field, that nature designs this
+    experience to be long circuited, and that it may give a peculiar
+    ictus to almost any experience. When waking occurs just
+    afterward, it seems at least possible that there may be much
+    imagery that existed, but failed to be recalled to memory,
+    possibly because the flow of psychic impressions was over very
+    familiar fields, and this, therefore, was forgotten, while any
+    eruption into new or unwonted channels, stood out with
+    distinctness. All these psychic phenomena, although very
+    characteristic of man in his prime, are not so of the dreams of
+    dawning puberty, which are far more vivid." (G. Stanley Hall,
+    _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 455.)
+
+    I may, further, quote the experience of an anonymous
+    contributor--a healthy and chaste man between 30 and 38 years of
+    age--to the _American Journal of Psychology_ ("Nocturnal
+    Emissions," Jan., 1904): "Legs and breasts often figured
+    prominently in these dreams, the other sexual parts, however,
+    very seldom, and then they turned out to be male organs in most
+    cases. There were but two instances of copulation dreamt. Girls
+    and young women were the, usual _dramatis personae_, and,
+    curiously enough, often the aggressors. Sometimes the face or
+    faces were well known; sometimes, only once seen; sometimes,
+    entirely unknown. The orgasm occurs at the most erotic part of
+    the dream, the physical and psychical running parallel. This most
+    erotic or suggestive part of the dream was very often quite an
+    innocent looking incident enough. As, for example: while passing
+    a strange young woman, overtaken on the street, she calls after
+    me some question. At first, I pay no heed, but when she calls
+    again, I hesitate whether to turn back and answer or
+    not--emission. Again, walking beside a young woman, she said,
+    'Shall I take your arm?' I offered it, and she took it, entwining
+    her arm around it, and raising it high--emission. I could feel
+    stronger erection as she asked the question. Sometimes, a word
+    was enough; sometimes, a gesture. Once emission took place on my
+    noticing the young woman's diminished finger-nails. Another
+    example of fetichism was my being curiously attracted in a dream
+    by the pretty embroidered figure on a little girl's dress. As an
+    illustration of the strange metamorphoses that occur in dreams, I
+    one night, in my dream (I had been observing partridges in the
+    summer) fell in love with a partridge, which changed under my
+    caresses to a beautiful girl, who yet retained an indescribable
+    wild-bird innocence, grace, and charm--a sort of Undina!"
+
+    These experiences may be regarded as fairly typical of the erotic
+    dreams of healthy and chaste young men. The bird, for instance,
+    that changes into a woman while retaining some elements of the
+    bird, has been encountered in erotic dreams by other young men.
+    It is indeed remarkable that, as De Gubernatis observes, "the
+    bird is a well-known phallic symbol," while Maeder finds
+    ("Interpretations de Quelques Reves," _Archives de Psychologie_,
+    April, 1907) that birds have a sexual significance both in life
+    and in dreams. The appearance of male organs in the dream-woman
+    is doubtless due to the dreamer's greater familiarity with those
+    organs; but, though it occurs occasionally, it can scarcely be
+    said to be the rule in erotic dreams. Even men who have never had
+    connection with a woman, are quite commonly aware of the presence
+    of a woman's sexual organs in their erotic dreams.
+
+    Moll's comparison of nocturnal emissions of semen with nocturnal
+    incontinence of urine suggests an interesting resemblance, and at
+    the same time seeming contrast. In both cases we are concerned
+    with viscera which, when overfilled or unduly irritable,
+    spasmodically eject their contents during sleep. There is a
+    further resemblance which usually becomes clear when, as
+    occasionally happens, nocturnal incontinence of urine persists on
+    to late childhood or adolescence: both phenomena are frequently
+    accompanied by vivid dreams of appropriate character. (See e.g.
+    Ries, "Ueber Enuresis Nocturna," _Monatsschrift fuer
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1904; A.P. Buchan, nearly
+    a century ago, pointed out the psychic element in the
+    experiences of young persons who wetted the bed, _Venus sine
+    Concubitu_, 1816, p. 47.) Thus, in one case known to me, a child
+    of seven, who occasionally wetted the bed, usually dreamed at the
+    same time that she wanted to make water, and was out of doors,
+    running to find a suitable spot, which she at last found, and, on
+    awaking, discovered that she had wetted the bed; fifteen years
+    later she still sometimes had similar dreams, which caused her
+    much alarm until, when thoroughly awake, she realized that no
+    accident had happened; these later dreams were not the result of
+    any actual strong desire to urinate. In another case with which I
+    am acquainted, a little girl of eight, after mental excitement or
+    indigestible meals, occasionally wetted the bed, dreaming that
+    she was frightened by some one running after her, and wetted
+    herself in consequence, after the manner of the Ganymede in the
+    eagle's clutch, as depicted by Rembrandt. These two cases, it may
+    be noted, belong to two quite different types. In the first case,
+    the full bladder suggests to imagination the appropriate actions
+    for relief, and the bladder actually accepts the imaginative
+    solution offered; it is, according to Fiorani's phrase,
+    "somnambulism of the bladder." In the other case, there is no
+    such somnambulism, but a psychic and nervous disturbance, not
+    arising in the bladder at all, irradiates convulsively, and
+    whether or not the bladder is overfull, attacks a vesical nervous
+    system which is not yet sufficiently well-balanced to withstand
+    the inflow of excitement. In children of somewhat nervous
+    temperament, manifestations of this kind may occur as an
+    occasional accident, up to about the age of seven or eight; and
+    thereafter, the nervous control of the bladder having become
+    firmly established, they cease to happen, the nervous energy
+    required to affect the bladder sufficing to awake the dreamer. In
+    very rare cases, however, the phenomenon may still occasionally
+    happen, even in adolescence or later, in individuals who are
+    otherwise quite free from it. This is most apt to occur in young
+    women even in waking life. In men it is probably extremely rare.
+
+    The erotic dream seems to differ flagrantly from the vesical
+    dream, in that it occurs in adult life, and is with difficulty
+    brought under control. The contrast is, however, very
+    superficial. When we remember that sexual activity only begins
+    normally at puberty, we realize that the youth of twenty is, in
+    the matter of sexual control, scarcely much older than in the
+    matter of vesical control he was at the age of six. Moreover, if
+    we were habitually, from our earliest years, to go to bed with a
+    full bladder, as the chaste man goes to bed with unrelieved
+    sexual system, it would be fully as difficult to gain vesical
+    control during sleep as it now is to gain sexual control.
+    Ultimately, such sexual control is attained; after the age of
+    forty, it seems that erotic dreams with emission become more and
+    more rare; either the dream occurs without actual emission,
+    exactly as dreams of urination occur in adults with full bladder,
+    or else the organic stress, with or without dreams, serves to
+    awaken the sleeper before any emission has occurred. But this
+    stage is not easily or completely attained. St. Augustine, even
+    at the period when he wrote his _Confessions_, mentions, as a
+    matter of course, that sexual dreams "not merely arouse pleasure,
+    but gain the consent of the will." (X. 41.) Not infrequently
+    there is a struggle in sleep, just as the hypnotic subject may
+    resist suggestions; thus, a lady of thirty-five dreamed a sexual
+    dream, and awoke without excitement; again she fell asleep, and
+    had another dream of sexual character, but resisted the tendency
+    to excitement, and again awoke; finally, she fell asleep and had
+    a third sexual dream, which was this time accompanied by the
+    orgasm. (This has recently been described also by Naecke, who
+    terms it _pollutio interrupta, Neurologisches Centralblatt_, Oct.
+    16, 1909; the corresponding voluntary process in the waking state
+    is described by Rohleder and termed _masturbatio interrupta,
+    Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Aug., 1908.) The factors
+    involved in the acquirement of vesical and sexual control during
+    sleep are the same, but the conditions are somewhat different.
+
+    There is a very intimate connection between the vesical and the
+    sexual spheres, as I have elsewhere pointed out (see e.g. in the
+    third volume of these _Studies_, "Analysis of the Sexual
+    Impulse"). This connection is psychic as well as organic. Both in
+    men and women, a full bladder tends to develop erotic dreams.
+    (See e.g. K.A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traums_, 1861, pp. 187 et
+    seq.; Spitta also points out the connection between vesical and
+    erotic dreams, _Die Schlaf und Traumzustaende_, 2d ed., 1882, pp.
+    250 et seq.) Raymond and Janet state (_Les Obscessions_, vol. ii,
+    p. 135) that nocturnal incontinence of urine, accompanied by
+    dreams of urination, may be replaced at puberty by masturbation.
+    In the reverse direction, Freud believes (_Monatsschrift fuer
+    Psychiatrie_, Bd. XVIII, p. 433) that masturbation plays a large
+    part in causing the bed-wetting of children who have passed the
+    age when that usually ceases, and he even finds that children are
+    themselves aware of the connection.
+
+    The diagnostic value of sexual dreams, as an indication of the
+    sexual nature of the subject when awake, has been emphasized by
+    various writers. (E.g., Moll, _Die Kontraere Sexualempfindung_,
+    Ch. IX; Naecke, "Der Traum als feinstes Reagens fuer die Art des
+    sexuellen Empfindens," _Monatsschrift fuer Kriminalpsychologie_,
+    1905, p. 500.) Sexual dreams tend to reproduce, and even to
+    accentuate, those characteristics which make the strongest sexual
+    appeal to the subject when awake.
+
+    At the same time, this general statement has to be qualified,
+    more especially as regards inverted dreams. In the first place, a
+    young man, however normal, who is not familiar with the feminine
+    body when awake, is not likely to see it when asleep, even in
+    dreams of women; in the second place, the confusions and
+    combinations of dream imagery often tend to obliterate sexual
+    distinctions, however free from perversions the subjects may be.
+    Thus, a correspondent tells me of a healthy man, of very pure
+    character, totally inexperienced in sexual matters, and never
+    having seen a woman naked, who, in his sexual dreams, always sees
+    the woman with male organs, though he has never had any sexual
+    inclinations for men, and is much in love with a lady. The
+    confusions and associations of dream imagery, leading to abnormal
+    combinations, may be illustrated by a dream which once occurred
+    to me after reading Joest's account of how a young negress, whose
+    tattoo-marks he was sketching, having become bored, suddenly
+    pressed her hands to her breasts, spirting two streams of
+    lukewarm milk into his face, and ran away laughing; I dreamed of
+    a woman performing a similar action, not from her breasts,
+    however, but from a penis with which she was furnished. Again, by
+    another kind of confusion, a man dreams sexually that he is with
+    a man, although the figure of the partner revealed in the dream
+    is a woman. The following dream, in a normal man who had never
+    been, or wished to be, in the position shown by the dream, may be
+    quoted: "I dreamed that I was a big boy, and that a younger boy
+    lay close beside me, and that we (or, certainly, he) had seminal
+    emissions; I was complacently passive, and had a feeling of shame
+    when the boy was discovered. On awaking I found I had had no
+    emission, but was lying very close to my wife. The day before, I
+    had seen boys in a swimming-match." This was, it seems to me, an
+    example of dream confusion, and not an erotic inverted dream.
+    (Naecke also brings forward inverted dreams by normal persons; see
+    e.g. his "Beitraege zu den sexuellen Traeumen," _Archiv fuer
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd. XX, 1908, p. 366.)
+
+So far as I have been able to ascertain, there seem to be, generally
+speaking, certain differences in the manifestations of auto-erotism during
+sleep in men and women which I believe to be not without psychological
+significance. In men the phenomenon is fairly simple; it usually appears
+about puberty continues at intervals of varying duration during sexual
+life provided the individual is living chastely, and is generally, though
+not always, accompanied by erotic dreams which lead up to the climax, its
+occurrence being, to some extent, influenced by a variety of
+circumstances: physical, mental, or emotional excitement, alcohol taken
+before retiring, position in bed (as lying on the back), the state of the
+bladder, sometimes the mere fact of being in a strange bed, and to some
+extent apparently by the existence of monthly and yearly rhythms. On the
+whole, it is a fairly definite and regular phenomenon which usually leaves
+little conscious trace on awaking, beyond probably some sense of fatigue
+and, occasionally, a headache. In women, however, the phenomena of
+auto-erotism during sleep seem to be much more irregular, varied, and
+diffused. So far as I have been able to make inquiries, it is the
+exception rather than the rule for girls to experience definitely erotic
+dreams about the period of puberty or adolescence.[238] Auto-erotic
+phenomena during sleep in women who have never experienced the orgasm when
+awake are usually of a very vague kind; while it is the rule in a chaste
+youth for the orgasm thus to manifest itself, it is the exception in a
+chaste girl. It is not, as a rule, until the orgasm has been definitely
+produced in the waking state--under whatever conditions it may have been
+produced--that it begins to occur during sleep, and even in a strongly
+sexual woman living a repressed life it is often comparatively
+infrequent.[239] Thus, a young medical woman who endeavors to deal
+strenuously with her physical sexual emotions writes: "I sleep soundly,
+and do not dream at all. Occasionally, but very rarely, I have had
+sensations which awakened me suddenly. They can scarcely be called dreams,
+for they are mere impulses, nothing connected or coherent, yet prompted, I
+know, by sexual feeling. This is probably an experience common to all."
+Another lady (with a restrained psycho-sexual tendency to be attracted to
+both sexes), states that her first sexual sensations with orgasm were felt
+in dreams at the age of 16, but these dreams, which she has now forgotten,
+were not agreeable and not erotic; two or three years later spontaneous
+orgasm began to occur occasionally when awake, and after this, orgasm
+took place regularly once or twice a week in sleep, but still without
+erotic dreams; she merely dreamt that the orgasm was occurring and awoke
+as it took place.
+
+It is possible that to the comparative rarity in chaste women of complete
+orgasm during sleep, we may in part attribute the violence with which
+repressed sexual emotion in women often manifests itself.[240] There is
+thus a difference here between men and women which is of some significance
+when we are considering the natural satisfaction of the sexual impulse in
+chaste women.
+
+In women, who have become accustomed to sexual intercourse, erotic dreams
+of fully developed character occur, with complete orgasm and accompanying
+relief--as may occasionally be the case in women who are not acquainted
+with actual intercourse;[241] some women, however, even when familiar with
+actual coitus, find that sexual dreams, though accompanied by emissions,
+are only the symptoms of desire and do not produce actual relief.
+
+Some interest attaches to cases in which young women, even girls at
+puberty, experience dreams of erotic character, or at all events dream
+concerning coitus or men in erection, although they profess, and almost
+certainly with truth, to be quite ignorant of sexual phenomena. Several
+such dreams of remarkable character have been communicated to me. One can
+imagine that the psychologists of some schools would see in these dreams
+the spontaneous eruption of the experiences of the race. I am inclined to
+regard them as forgotten memories, such as we know to occur sometimes in
+sleep. The child has somehow seen or heard of sexual phenomena and felt no
+interest, and the memory may subsequently be aroused in sleep, under the
+stimulation of new-born sexual sensations.
+
+    It is a curious proof of the ignorance which has prevailed in
+    recent times concerning the psychic sexual nature of women that,
+    although in earlier ages the fact that women are normally liable
+    to erotic dreams was fully recognized, in recent times it has
+    been denied, even by writers who have made a special study of the
+    sexual impulse in women. Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, 1895,
+    pp. 31, 79) appears to regard the appearances of sexual phenomena
+    during sleep, in women, as the result of masturbation. Adler, in
+    what is in many respects an extremely careful study of sexual
+    phenomena in women (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes_, 1904, p. 130), boldly states that they do not have
+    erotic dreams. In 1847, E. Guibout ("Des Pollutions Involontaires
+    chez la Femme," _Union Medicale_, p. 260) presented the case of a
+    married lady who masturbated from the age of ten, and continued
+    the practice, even after her marriage at twenty-four, and at
+    twenty-nine began to have erotic dreams with emissions every few
+    nights, and later sometimes even several times a night, though
+    they ceased to be voluptuous; he believed the case to be the
+    first ever reported of such a condition in a woman. Yet,
+    thousands of years ago, the Indian of Vedic days recognized
+    erotic dreams in women as an ordinary and normal occurrence.
+    (Loewenfeld quotes a passage to this effect from the Oupnek'hat,
+    _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 2d ed., p. 114.) Even savages
+    recognize the occurrence of erotic dreams in women as normal, for
+    the Papuans, for instance, believe that a young girl's first
+    menstruation is due to intercourse with the moon in the shape of
+    a man, the girl dreaming that a man is embracing her. (_Reports
+    Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v., p. 206.) In the
+    seventeenth century, Rolfincius, in a well-informed study (_De
+    Pollutione Nocturna_, a Jena Inaugural Dissertation, 1667),
+    concluded that women experience such manifestations, and quotes
+    Aristotle, Galen, and Fernelius, in the same sense. Sir Thomas
+    Overbury, in his _Characters_, written in the early part of the
+    same century, describing the ideal milkmaid, says that "her
+    dreams are so chaste that she dare tell them," clearly implying
+    that It was not so with most women. The notion that women are not
+    subject to erotic dreams thus appears to be of comparatively
+    recent origin.
+
+One of the most interesting and important characters by which the erotic
+dreams of women--and, indeed, their dreams generally--differ from those of
+men is in the tendency to evoke a repercussion on the waking life, a
+tendency more rarely noted in men's erotic dreams, and then only to a
+minor extent. This is very common, even in healthy and normal women, and
+is exaggerated to a high degree in neurotic subjects, by whom the dream
+may even be interpreted as a reality, and so declared on oath, a fact of
+practical importance.
+
+Hersman--having met with a case in which a school-girl with chorea, after
+having dreamed of an assault, accused the principal of a school of
+assault, securing his conviction--obtained the opinions of various
+American alienists as to the frequency with which such dreams in unstable
+mental subjects lead to delusions and criminal accusations. Dercum, H.C.
+Wood, and Rohe had not personally met with such cases; Burr believed that
+there was strong evidence "that a sexual dream may be so vivid as to make
+the subject believe she has had sexual congress"; Kiernan knew of such
+cases; C.H. Hughes, in persons with every appearance of sanity, had known
+the erotic dreams of the night to become the erotic delusions of the day,
+the patient protesting violently the truth of her story; while Hersman
+reports the case[242] of a young lady in an asylum who had nightly
+delusions that a medical officer visited her every night, and had to do
+with her, coming up the hot-air flue. I am acquainted with a similar case
+in a clever, but highly neurotic, young woman, who writes: "For years I
+have been trying to stamp out my passional nature, and was beginning to
+succeed when a strange thing happened to me last autumn. One night, as I
+lay in bed, I felt an influence so powerful that a man seemed present with
+me. I crimsoned with shame and wonder. I remember that I lay upon my back,
+and marveled when the spell had passed. The influence, I was assured, came
+from a priest whom I believed in and admired above everyone in the world.
+I had never dreamed of love in connection with him, because I always
+thought him so far above me. The influence has been upon me ever
+since--sometimes by day and nearly always by night; from it I generally go
+into a deep sleep, which lasts until morning. I am always much refreshed
+when I awake. This influence has the best effect upon my life that
+anything has ever had as regards health and mind. It is the knowledge that
+I am loved _fittingly_ that makes me so indifferent to my future. What
+worries me is that I sometimes wonder if I suffer from a nervous disorder
+merely." The subject thus seemed to regard these occurrences as
+objectively caused, but was sufficiently sane to wonder whether her
+experiences were not due to mental disorder.[243]
+
+The tendency of the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep to be manifested with
+such energy as to flow over into the waking life and influence conscious
+emotion and action, while very well marked in normal and healthy women, is
+seen to an exaggerated extent in hysterical women, in whom it has,
+therefore, chiefly been studied. Sante de Sanctis, who has investigated
+the dreams of many classes of people, remarks on the frequently sexual
+character of the dreams of hysterical women, and the repercussion of such
+dreams on the waking life of the following day; he gives a typical case of
+hysterical erotic dreaming in an uneducated servant-girl of 23, in whom
+such dreams occur usually a few days before the menstrual period; her
+dreams, especially if erotic, make an enormous impression on her; in the
+morning she is bad-tempered if they were unpleasant, while she feels
+lascivious and gives herself up to masturbation if she has had erotic
+dreams of men; she then has a feeling of pleasure throughout the day, and
+her sexual organs are bathed with moisture.[244] Pitres and Gilles de la
+Tourette, two of Charcot's most distinguished pupils, in their elaborate
+works on hysteria, both consider that dreams generally have a great
+influence on the waking life of the hysterical, and they deal with the
+special influence of erotic dreams, to which, doubtless, we must refer
+those conceptions of _incubi_ and _succubi_ which played so vast and so
+important a part in the demonology of the Middle Ages, and while not
+unknown in men were most frequent in women. Such erotic dreams--as these
+observers, confirming the experience of old writers, have found among the
+hysterical to-day--are by no means always, or even usually, of a
+pleasurable character. "It is very rare," Pitres remarks, when insisting
+on the sexual character of the hallucinations of the hysterical, "for
+these erotic hallucinations to be accompanied by agreeable voluptuous
+sensations. In most cases the illusion of sexual intercourse even provokes
+acute pain. The witches of old times nearly all affirmed that in their
+relations with the devil they suffered greatly.[245] They said that his
+organ was long and rough and pointed, with scales which lifted on
+withdrawal and tore the vagina." (It seems probable, I may remark, that
+the witches' representations, both of the devil and of sexual intercourse,
+were largely influenced by familiarity with the coupling of animals). As
+Gilles de la Tourette is careful to warn his readers, we must not too
+hastily assume, from the prevalence of nocturnal auto-erotic phenomena in
+hysterical women, that such women are necessarily sexual and libidinous in
+excess; the disorder is in them psychic, he points out, and not physical,
+and they usually receive sexual approaches with indifference and
+repugnance, because their sexual centres are anaesthetic or hyperaesthetic.
+"During the period of sexual activity they seek much more the care and
+delicate attention of men than the genital act, which they often only
+tolerate. Many households, begun under the happiest auspices--the bride
+all the more apt to believe that she loves her betrothed in virtue of her
+suggestibility, easily exalted, perhaps at the expense of the
+senses--become hells on earth. The sexual act has for the hysterical woman
+more than one disillusion; she cannot understand it; it inspires her with
+insurmountable repugnance."[246] I refer to these hysterical phenomena
+because they present to us, in an extreme form, facts which are common
+among women whom, under the artificial conditions of civilized life, we
+are compelled to regard as ordinarily healthy and normal. The frequent
+painfulness of auto-erotic phenomena is by no means an exclusively
+hysterical phenomenon, although often seen in a heightened form in
+hysterical conditions. It is probably to some extent simply the result of
+a conflict in consciousness with a merely physical impulse which is strong
+enough to assert itself in spite of the emotional and intellectual
+abhorrence of the subject. It is thus but an extreme form of the disgust
+which all sexual physical manifestations tend to inspire in a person who
+is not inclined to respond to them. Somewhat similar psychic disgust and
+physical pain are produced in the attempts to stimulate the sexual
+emotions and organs when these are exhausted by exercise. In the detailed
+history which Moll presents, of the sexual experiences of a sister in an
+American nursing guild,--a most instructive history of a woman fairly
+normal except for the results of repressed sexual emotion, and with strong
+moral tendencies,--various episodes are narrated well illustrating the way
+in which sexual excitement becomes unpleasant or even painful when it
+takes place as a physical reflex which the emotions and intellect are all
+the time struggling against.[247] It is quite probable, however, that
+there is a physiological, as well as a psychic, factor in this phenomenon,
+and Sollier, in his elaborate study of the nature and genesis of hysteria,
+by insisting on the capital importance of the disturbance of sensibility
+in hysteria, and the definite character of the phenomena produced in the
+passage between anaesthesia and normal sensation, has greatly helped to
+reveal the mechanism of this feature of auto-erotic excitement in the
+hysterical.
+
+No doubt there has been a tendency to exaggerate the unpleasant character
+of the auto-erotic phenomena of hysteria. That tendency was an inevitable
+reaction against an earlier view, according to which hysteria was little
+more than an unconscious expression of the sexual emotions and as such was
+unscientifically dismissed without any careful investigation. I agree with
+Breuer and Freud that the sexual needs of the hysterical are just as
+individual and various as those of normal women, but that they suffer from
+them more, largely through a moral struggle with their own instincts, and
+the attempt to put them into the background of consciousness.[248] In many
+hysterical and psychically abnormal women, auto-erotic phenomena, and
+sexual phenomena generally, are highly pleasurable, though such persons
+may be quite innocent of any knowledge of the erotic character of the
+experience. I have come across interesting and extreme examples of this in
+the published experiences of the women followers of the American religious
+leader, T.L. Harris, founder of the "Brotherhood of the New Life." Thus,
+in a pamphlet entitled "Internal Respiration," by Respiro, a letter is
+quoted from a lady physician, who writes: "One morning I awoke with a
+strange new feeling in the womb, which lasted for a day or two; I was so
+very happy, but the joy was in my womb, not in my heart."[249] "At last,"
+writes a lady quoted in the same pamphlet, "I fell into a slumber, lying
+on my back with arms and feet folded, a position I almost always find
+myself in when I awake, no matter in which position I may go to sleep.
+Very soon I awoke from this slumber with a most delightful sensation,
+every fibre tingling with an exquisite glow of warmth. I was lying on my
+left side (something I am never able to do), and was folded in the arms of
+my counterpart. Unless you have seen it, I cannot give you an idea of the
+beauty of his flesh, and with what joy I beheld and felt it. Think of it,
+luminous flesh; and Oh! such tints, you never could imagine without
+seeing. He folded me so closely in his arms," etc. In such cases there is
+no conflict between the physical and the psychic, and therefore the
+resulting excitement is pleasurable and not painful.
+
+At this point our study of auto-erotism brings us into the sphere of
+mysticism. Leuba, in a penetrating and suggestive essay on Christian
+mysticism, after quoting the present _Study_, refers to the famous
+passages in which St. Theresa describes how a beautiful little angel
+inserted a flame-tipped dart into her heart until it descended into her
+bowels and left her inflamed with divine love. "What physiological
+difference," he asks, "is there between this voluptuous sensation and that
+enjoyed by the disciple of the Brotherhood of New Life? St. Theresa says
+'bowels,' the woman doctor says 'womb,' that is all."[250]
+
+    The extreme form of auto-erotism is the tendency for the sexual
+    emotion to be absorbed and often entirely lost in
+    self-admiration. This Narcissus-like tendency, of which the
+    normal germ in women is symbolized by the mirror, is found in a
+    minor degree in some men, and is sometimes well marked in women,
+    usually in association with an attraction for other persons, to
+    which attraction it is, of course, normally subservient. "The
+    mirror," remarks Bloch (_Beitraege_ 1, p. 201), "plays an
+    important part in the genesis of sexual aberration.... It cannot
+    be doubted that many a boy and girl have first experienced sexual
+    excitement at the sight of their own bodies in a mirror."
+
+    Valera, the Spanish novelist, very well described this impulse in
+    his _Genio y Figura_. Rafaela, the heroine of this novel, says
+    that, after her bath: "I fall into a puerility which may be
+    innocent or vicious, I cannot decide. I only know that it is a
+    purely contemplative act, a disinterested admiration of beauty.
+    It is not coarse sensuality, but aesthetic platonism. I imitate
+    Narcissus; and I apply my lips to the cold surface of the mirror
+    and kiss my image. It is the love of beauty, the expression of
+    tenderness and affection for what God has made manifest, in an
+    ingenuous kiss imprinted on the empty and incorporeal
+    reflection." In the same spirit the real heroine of the _Tagebuch
+    einer Verlorenen_ (p. 114), at the point when she was about to
+    become a prostitute, wrote: "I am pretty. It gives me pleasure to
+    throw off my clothes, one by one, before the mirror, and to look
+    at myself, just as I am, white as snow and straight as a fir,
+    with my long, fine, hair, like a cloak of black silk. When I
+    spread abroad the black stream of it, with both hands, I am like
+    a white swan with black wings."
+
+    A typical case known to me is that of a lady of 28, brought up on
+    a farm. She is a handsome woman, of very large and fine
+    proportions, active and healthy and intelligent, with, however,
+    no marked sexual attraction to the opposite sex; at the same time
+    she is not inverted, though she would like to be a man, and has a
+    considerable degree of contempt for women. She has an intense
+    admiration for her own person, especially her limbs; she is
+    never so happy as when alone and naked in her own bedroom, and,
+    so far as possible, she cultivates nakedness. She knows by heart
+    the various measurements of her body, is proud of the fact that
+    they are strictly in accordance with the canons of proportion,
+    and she laughs proudly at the thought that her thigh is larger
+    than many a woman's waist. She is frank and assured in her
+    manners, without sexual shyness, and, while willing to receive
+    the attention and admiration of others, she makes no attempt to
+    gain it, and seems never to have experienced any emotions
+    stronger than her own pleasure in herself. I should add that I
+    have had no opportunity of detailed examination, and cannot speak
+    positively as to the absence of masturbation.
+
+    In the extreme form in which alone the name of Narcissus may
+    properly be invoked, there is comparative indifference to sexual
+    intercourse or even the admiration of the opposite sex. Such a
+    condition seems to be rare, except, perhaps, in insanity. Since I
+    called attention to this form of auto-erotism (_Alienist and
+    Neurologist_, April, 1898), several writers have discussed the
+    condition, especially Naecke, who, following out the suggestion,
+    terms the condition Narcissism. Among 1,500 insane persons, Naecke
+    has found it in four men and one woman (_Psychiatrische en
+    Neurologische Bladen_, No. 2, 1899), Dr. C.H. Hughes writes (in a
+    private letter) that he is acquainted with such cases, in which
+    men have been absorbed in admiration of their own manly forms,
+    and of their sexual organs, and women, likewise, absorbed in
+    admiration of their own mammae and physical proportions,
+    especially of limbs. "The whole subject," he adds, "is a singular
+    phase of psychology, and it is not all morbid psychology, either.
+    It is closely allied to that aesthetic sense which admires the
+    nude in art."
+
+    Fere (_L'Instinct Sexuel_, 2d ed., p. 271) mentions a woman who
+    experienced sexual excitement in kissing her own hand. Naecke knew
+    a woman in an asylum who, during periodical fits of excitement,
+    would kiss her own arms and hands, at the same time looking like
+    a person in love. He also knew a young man with dementia praecox?
+    who would kiss his own image ("Der Kuss bei Geisteskranken,"
+    _Allgemeine Zeitschrift fuer Psychiatrie_, Bd. LXIII, p. 127).
+    Moll refers to a young homosexual lawyer, who experienced great
+    pleasure in gazing at himself in a mirror (_Kontraere
+    Sexualempfindung_, 3d ed., p. 228), and mentions another inverted
+    man, an admirer of the nates of men, who, chancing to observe his
+    own nates in a mirror, when changing his shirt, was struck by
+    their beauty, and subsequently found pleasure in admiring them
+    (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, Theil I, p. 60). Krafft-Ebing knew a
+    man who masturbated before a mirror, imagining, at the same time,
+    how much better a real lover would be.
+
+    The best-observed cases of Narcissism have, however, been
+    recorded by Rohleder, who confers upon this condition the
+    ponderous name of automonosexualism, and believes that it has not
+    been previously observed (H. Rohleder, _Der Automonosexualismus_,
+    being Heft 225 of _Berliner Klinik_, March, 1907). In the two
+    cases investigated by Rohleder, both men, there was sexual
+    excitement in the contemplation of the individual's own body,
+    actually or in a mirror, with little or no sexual attraction to
+    other persons. Rohleder is inclined to regard the condition as
+    due to a congenital defect in the "sexual centre" of the brain.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[176] All the above groups of phenomena are dealt with in other volumes of
+these _Studies_: the manifestations of normal sexual excitement, in vols.
+iii, iv, and v; homosexuality, in vol. ii, and erotic fetichism, in vol.
+v.
+
+[177] See Appendix C.
+
+[178] Letamendi, of Madrid, has suggested "_auto-erastia_" to cover what
+is probably much the same field. In the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, Hufeland, in his _Makrobiotic_, invented the term "_geistige
+Onanie_," to express the filling and heating of the imagination with
+voluptuous images, without unchastity of body; and in 1844, Kaan, in his
+_Psychopathia Sexualis_, used, but did not invent, the term "_onania
+psychica_." Gustav Jaeger, in his _Entdeckung der Seele_, proposed
+"monosexual idiosyncrasy," to indicate the most animal forms of
+masturbation taking place without any correlative imaginative element, a
+condition illustrated by cases given in Moll's _Untersuchungen ueber die
+Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, pp. 13 et seq. Dr. Laupts (a pseudonym for the
+accomplished psychologist, Dr. Saint-Paul) uses the term _autophilie_, for
+solitary vice. (_Perversion et Perversite Sexuelles_, 1896, p. 337.) But
+all these terms only cover a portion of the field.
+
+[179] H. Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 231.
+
+[180] Rosse observed two elephants procuring erection by entwining their
+proboscides, the act being completed by one elephant opening his mouth and
+allowing the other to tickle the roof of it. (I. Rosse, _Virginia Medical
+Monthly_, October, 1892.)
+
+[181] Fere, "Perversions sexuelles chez les animaux," _Revue
+Philosophique_, May, 1897.
+
+[182] Tillier, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, 1889, p. 270.
+
+[183] Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 76. The same author mentions
+(ibid., p. 373) that parrots living in solitary confinement masturbate by
+rubbing the posterior part of the body against some object until
+ejaculation occurs. Edmund Selous ("Habits of the Peewit," _Zooelogist_,
+April, 1902) suggests that the peewit, when rolling on the ground, and
+exerting pressure on the anal region, is moved by a sexual impulse to
+satisfy desire; he adds that actual orgasm appears eventually to take
+place, a spasm of energy passing through the bird.
+
+[184] Dr. J.W. Howe (_Excessive Venery, Masturbation, and Continence_,
+London and New York, 1883, p. 62) writes of masturbation: "In savage lands
+it is of rare occurrence. Savages live in a state of Nature. No moral
+obligations exist which compel them to abstain from a natural
+gratification of their passions. There is no social law which prevents
+them from following the dictates of their lower nature. Hence, they have
+no reason for adopting onanism as an outlet for passions. The moral
+trammels of civilized society, and ignorance of physiological laws, give
+origin to the vice." Every one of these six sentences is incorrect or
+misleading. They are worth quoting as a statement of the popular view of
+savage life.
+
+[185] I can recall little evidence of its existence among the Australian
+aborigines, though there is, in the Wiradyuri language, spoken over a
+large part of New South Wales, a word (whether ancient or not, I do not
+know) meaning masturbation (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
+July-Dec., 1904, p. 303). Dr. W. Roth (_Ethnological Studies Among the
+Northwest-Central Queensland Aborigines_, p. 184), who has carefully
+studied the blacks of his district, remarks that he has no evidence as to
+the practice of either masturbation or sodomy among them. More recently
+(1906) Roth has stated that married men in North Queensland and elsewhere
+masturbate during their wives' absence. As regards the Maori of New
+Zealand, Northcote adds, there is a rare word for masturbation (as also at
+Rarotonga), but according to a distinguished Maori scholar there are no
+allusions to the practice in Maori literature, and it was probably not
+practiced in primitive times. The Maori and the Polynesians of the Cook
+Islands, Northcote remarks, consider the act unmanly, applying to it a
+phrase meaning "to make women of themselves." (Northcote, loc. cit., p.
+232.)
+
+[186] Greenlees, _Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1895. A gentleman long
+resident among the Kaffirs of South Natal, told Northcote, however, that
+he had met with no word for masturbation, and did not believe the practice
+prevailed there.
+
+[187] Hyades and Deniker, _Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn_, vol. vii, p.
+295.
+
+[188] _La Criminalite en Cochin-Chine_, 1887, p. 116; also Mondiere,
+"Monographie de la Femme Annamite," _Memoires Societe d'Anthropologie_,
+tome ii, p. 465.
+
+[189] Christian, article on "Onanisme," _Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des
+Sciences Medicales_; Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_; Moraglia, "Die Onanie
+beim normalen Weibe," _Zeitschrift fuer Criminal-Anthropologie_, 1897;
+Dartigues, _De la Procreation Volontaire des Sexes_, p. 32. In the
+eighteenth century, the _rin-no-tama_ was known in France, sometimes as
+"pommes d'amour." Thus Bachaumont, in his Journal (under date July 31,
+1773), refers to "a very extraordinary instrument of amorous mystery,"
+brought by a traveler from India; he describes this "boule erotique" as
+the size of a pigeon's egg, covered with soft skin, and gilded. Cf. F.S.
+Krauss, _Geschlechtsleben in Brauch und Sitte der Japaner_, Leipzig, 1907.
+
+[190] It may be worth mentioning that the Salish Indians of British
+Columbia have a myth of an old woman having intercourse with young women,
+by means of a horn worn as a penis (_Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute_, July-Dec., 1904, p. 342).
+
+[191] In Burchard's Penitential (cap. 142-3), penalties are assigned to
+the woman who makes a phallus for use on herself or other women.
+(Wasserschleben, _Bussordnungen der abendlaendlichen Kirche_, p. 658.) The
+_penis succedaneus_, the Latin _phallus_ or _fascinum_, is in France
+called _godemiche_; in Italy, _passatempo_, and also _diletto_, whence
+_dildo_, by which it is most commonly known in England. For men, the
+corresponding _cunnus succedaneus_ is, in England, called _merkin_, which
+meant originally (as defined in old editions of Bailey's _Dictionary_)
+"counterfeit hair for women's privy parts."
+
+[192] Duehren, _Der Marquis de Sade und Seine Zeit_, 3d ed., pp. 130, 232;
+id. _Geschlechtsleben in England_, Bd. II, pp. 284 et seq.
+
+[193] Gamier, _Onanisme_, p. 378.
+
+[194] _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, p. 669.
+
+[195] The mythology of Hawaii, one may note, tells of goddesses who were
+impregnated by bananas they had placed beneath their garments. B. Stern
+mentions (_Medizin in der Tuerkei_, Bd. II, p. 24) that the women of Turkey
+and Egypt use the banana, as well as the cucumber, etc., for masturbation.
+In a poem in the _Arabian Nights_, also ("History of the Young Nour with
+the Frank"), we read: "O bananas, of soft and smooth skins, which dilate
+the eyes of young girls ... you, alone among fruits are endowed with a
+pitying heart, O consolers of widows and divorced women." In France and
+England they are not uncommonly used for the same purpose.
+
+[196] See, e.g., Winckel, _Die Krankheiten der weiblichen Harnrohre und
+Blase_, 1885, p. 211; and "Lehrbuch der Frauenkrankheiten," 1886, p. 210;
+also, Hyrtl, _Handbuch du Topographischen Anatomie_, 7th ed., Bd. II, pp.
+212-214. Gruenfeld (_Wiener medizinische Blaetter_, November 26, 1896),
+collected 115 cases of foreign body in the bladder--68 in men, 47 in
+women; but while those found in men were usually the result of a surgical
+accident, those found in women were mostly introduced by the patients
+themselves. The patient usually professes profound ignorance as to how the
+object came there; or she explains that she accidentally sat down upon it,
+or that she used it to produce freer urination. The earliest surgical case
+of this kind I happen to have met with, was recorded by Plazzon, in Italy,
+in 1621 (_De Partibus Generationi Inservientibus_, lib. ii, Ch. XIII); it
+was that of a certain honorable maiden with a large clitoris, who, seeking
+to lull sexual excitement with the aid of a bone needle, inserted it in
+the bladder, whence it was removed by Aquapendente.
+
+[197] A. Poulet, _Traite des Corps etrangers en Chirurgie_, 1879. English
+translation, 1881, vol. ii, pp. 209, 230. Rohleder (_Die Masturbation_,
+1899, pp. 24-31) also gives examples of strange objects found in the
+sexual organs.
+
+[198] E.H. Smith, "Signs of Masturbation in the Female," _Pacific Medical
+Journal_, February, 1903, quoted by R.W. Taylor, _Practical Treatise on
+Sexual Disorders_, 3d ed., p. 418.
+
+[199] L. Tait, _Diseases of Women_, 1889, vol. i, p. 100.
+
+[200] _Obstetric Journal_, vol. i, 1873, p. 558. Cf. G.J. Arnold,
+_British, Medical Journal_, January 6, 1906, p. 21.
+
+[201] Dudley, _American Journal of Obstetrics_, July, 1889, p. 758.
+
+[202] A. Reverdin, "Epingles a Cheveux dans la Vessie," _Revue Medicale de
+la Suisse Romande_, January 20, 1888. His cases are fully recorded, and
+his paper is an able and interesting contribution to this by-way of sexual
+psychology. The first case was a school-master's wife, aged 22, who
+confessed in her husband's presence, without embarrassment or hesitation,
+that the manoeuvre was habitual, learned from a school-companion, and
+continued after marriage. The second was a single woman of 42, a _cure's_
+servant, who attempted to elude confession, but on leaving the doctor's
+house remarked to the house-maid, "Never go to bed without taking out your
+hair-pins; accidents happen so easily." The third was an English girl of
+17 who finally acknowledged that she had lost two hair-pins in this way.
+The fourth was a child of 12, driven by the pain to confess that the
+practice had become a habit with her.
+
+[203] "One of my patients," remarks Dr. R.T. Morris, of New York,
+(_Transactions of the American Association of Obstetricians_, for 1892,
+Philadelphia, vol. v), "who is a devout church-member, had never allowed
+herself to entertain sexual thoughts referring to men, but she masturbated
+every morning, when standing before the mirror, by rubbing against a key
+in the bureau-drawer. A man never excited her passions, but the sight of a
+key in any bureau-drawer aroused erotic desires."
+
+[204] Freud (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, p. 118) refers to the
+sexual pleasure of swinging. Swinging another person may be a source of
+voluptuous excitement, and one of the 600 forms of sexual pleasure
+enumerated in De Sade's _Les 120 Journees de Sodome_ is (according to
+Duehren) to propel a girl vigorously in a swing.
+
+[205] The fact that horse exercise may produce pollutions was well
+recognized by Catholic theologians, and Sanchez states that this fact need
+not be made a reason for traveling on foot. Rolfincius, in 1667, pointed
+out that horse-riding, in those unaccustomed to it, may lead to nocturnal
+pollutions. Rohleder (_Die Masturbation_, pp. 133-134) brings together
+evidence regarding the influence of horse exercise in producing sexual
+excitement.
+
+[206] A correspondent, to whom the idea was presented for the first time,
+wrote: "Henceforward I shall know to what I must attribute the
+bliss--almost the beatitude--I so often have experienced after traveling
+for four or five hours in a train." Penta mentions the case of a young
+girl who first experienced sexual desire at the age of twelve, after a
+railway journey.
+
+[207] Langdon Down, _British Medical Journal_, January 12, 1867.
+
+[208] Pouillet, _L'Onanisme chez la Femme_, Paris, 1880; Fournier, _De
+l'Onanisme_, 1885; Rohleder, _Die Masturbation_, p. 132.
+
+[209] _West-Riding Asylum Reports_, 1876, vol. vi.
+
+[210] _Das Nervoese Weib_, 1898, p. 193.
+
+[211] In the Appendix to volume iii of these _Studies_, I have recorded
+the experience of a lady who found sexual gratification in this manner.
+
+[212] Dr. J.G. Kiernan, to whom I am indebted for a note on this point,
+calls my attention also to the case of a homosexual and masochistic man
+(_Medical Record_, vol. xix) whose feelings were intensified by
+tight-lacing.
+
+[213] Some women are also able to produce the orgasm, when in a state of
+sexual excitement, by placing a cushion between the knees and pressing the
+thighs firmly together.
+
+[214] _Lecons sur les Deformations Vulvaires_, p. 64. Martineau was
+informed by a dressmaker that it is very frequent in workrooms and can
+usually be done without attracting attention. An ironer informed him that
+while standing at her work, she crossed her legs, slightly bending the
+trunk forward and supporting herself on the table by the hands; then a few
+movements of contraction of the adductor muscles of the thigh would
+suffice to produce the orgasm.
+
+[215] C.W. Townsend, "Thigh-friction in Children under one Year," Annual
+Meeting of the American Pediatric Society, Montreal, 1896. Five cases are
+recorded by this writer, all in female infants.
+
+[216] Soutzo, _Archives de Neurologie_, February, 1903, p. 167.
+
+[217] Zache, _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, p. 72. I have discussed
+what may be regarded as the normally sexual influence of dancing, in the
+third volume of these _Studies_, "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[218] The case has been recorded of a Russian who had the spontaneous
+impulse to self-flagellation on the nates with a rod, for the sake of
+sexual excitement, from the age of 6. (_Rivista Mensile di Psichiatria_
+April, 1900, p. 102.)
+
+[219] Kryptadia, vol. v, p. 358. As regards the use of nettles, see
+Duehren, _Geschlechtsleben in England_, Bd. II, p. 392.
+
+[220] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 177.
+
+[221] R.W. Taylor, _A Practical Treatise on Sexual Disorders_, 3rd ed.,
+Ch. XXX.
+
+[222] Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, pp. 70 et seq.
+
+[223] Niceforo, _Il Gergo_, p. 98.
+
+[224] _Functional Disorders of the Nervous System in Women_, p. 114.
+
+[225] Schrenck-Notzing, _Suggestions-therapie_, p. 13. A. Kind (_Jahrbuch
+fuer Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang ix, 1908, p. 58) gives the case of
+a young homosexual woman, a trick cyclist at the music halls, who often,
+when excited by the sight of her colleague in tights, would experience the
+orgasm while cycling before the public.
+
+[226] Janet has, however, used day-dreaming--which he calls "_reveries
+subconscients_"--to explain a remarkable case of demon-possession, which
+he investigated and cured. (_Nevroses et Idees fixes_, vol. i, pp. 390 et
+seq.)
+
+[227] "Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of Wellesley
+College," _American Journal of Psychology_, vol. vii, No. 1. G.E.
+Partridge ("Reverie," _Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1898) well describes
+the physical accompaniments of day-dreaming, especially in Normal School
+girls between sixteen and twenty-two. Pick ("Clinical Studies in
+Pathological Dreaming," _Journal of Mental Sciences_, July, 1901) records
+three more or less morbid cases of day-dreaming, usually with an erotic
+basis, all in apparently hysterical men. An important study of
+day-dreaming, based on the experiences of nearly 1,500 young people (more
+than two-thirds girls and women), has been published by Theodate L. Smith
+("The Psychology of Day Dreams," _American Journal Psychology_, October,
+1904). Continued stories were found to be rare--only one per cent. Healthy
+boys, before fifteen, had day-dreams in which sports, athletics, and
+adventure had a large part; girls put themselves in the place of their
+favorite heroines in novels. After seventeen, and earlier in the case of
+girls, day-dreams of love and marriage were found to be frequent. A
+typical confession is that of a girl of nineteen: "I seldom have time to
+build castles in Spain, but when I do, I am not different from most
+Southern girls; i.e., my dreams are usually about a pretty fair specimen
+of a six-foot three-inch biped."
+
+[228] The case has been recorded of a married woman, in love with her
+doctor, who kept a day-dream diary, at last filling three bulky volumes,
+when it was discovered by her husband, and led to an action for divorce;
+it was shown that the doctor knew nothing of the romance in which he
+played the part of hero. Kiernan, in referring to this case (as recorded
+in John Paget's _Judicial Puzzles_), mentions a similar case in Chicago.
+
+[229] _Uranisme_, p. 125.
+
+[230] The acute Anstie remarked, more than thirty years ago, in his work
+on _Neuralgia_: "It is a comparatively frequent thing to see an unsocial,
+solitary life (leading to the habit of masturbation) joined with the bad
+influence of an unhealthy ambition, prompting to premature and false work
+in literature and art." From the literary side, M. Leon Bazalgette has
+dealt with the tendency of much modern literature to devote itself to what
+he calls "mental onanism," of which the probable counterpart, he seems to
+hint, is a physical process of auto-erotism. (Leon Bazalgette, "L'onanisme
+considere comme principe createur en art," _L'Esprit Nouveau_, 1898.)
+
+[231] Pausanias, _Achaia_, Chapter XVII. The ancient Babylonians believed
+in a certain "maid of the night," who appeared to men in sleep and roused
+without satisfying their passions. (Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia_, p.
+262.) This succubus was the Assyrian Liler, connected with the Hebrew
+Lilith. There was a corresponding incubus, "the little night man," who had
+nocturnal intercourse with women. (Cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 7th ed., pp. 521
+et seq.) The succubus and the incubus (the latter being more common) were
+adopted by Christendom; St. Augustine (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XV, Ch.
+XXIII) said that the wicked assaults of sylvans and fauns, otherwise
+called incubi, on women, are so generally affirmed that it would be
+impudent to deny them. Incubi flourished in mediaeval belief, and can
+scarcely, indeed, be said to be extinct even to-day. They have been
+studied by many authors; see, e.g., Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_,
+vol. v, Ch. XXV, Saint-Andre, physician-in-ordinary to the French King,
+pointed out in 1725 that the incubus was a dream. It may be added that the
+belief in the succubus and incubus appears to be widespread. Thus, the
+West African Yorubas (according to A.B. Ellis) believe that erotic dreams
+are due to the god Elegbra, who, either as a male or a female, consorts
+with men and women in sleep.
+
+[232] "If any man's seed of copulation go out from him, then he shall
+bathe all his flesh in water and be unclean until the even. And every
+garment, and every skin, whereon is the seed of copulation, shall be
+washed with water and be unclean until the even." Leviticus, XV, v. 16-17.
+
+[233] It should be added that the term _pollutio_ also covers voluntary
+effusion of semen outside copulation. (Debreyne, _Moechialogie_,
+p. 8; for a full discussion of the opinions of theologians concerning
+nocturnal and diurnal pollutions, see the same author's _Essai sur la
+Theologie Morale_, pp. 100-149.)
+
+[234] _Memoirs_, translated by Bendyshe, p. 182.
+
+[235] _Sexual Impotence_, p. 137.
+
+[236] _L'Hygiene Sexuelle_, p. 169.
+
+[237] _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, p. 164.
+
+[238] I may here refer to the curious opinion expressed by Dr. Elizabeth
+Blackwell, that, while the sexual impulse in man is usually relieved by
+seminal emissions during sleep, in women it is relieved by the occurrence
+of menstruation. This latter statement is flagrantly at variance with the
+facts; but it may perhaps be quoted in support of the view expressed above
+as to the comparative rarity of sexual excitement during sleep in young
+girls.
+
+[239] Loewenfeld has recently expressed the same opinion. Rohleder believes
+that pollutions are physically impossible in a _real_ virgin, but that
+opinion is too extreme.
+
+[240] It may be added that in more or less neurotic women and girls,
+erotic dreams may be very frequent and depressing. Thus, J.M. Fothergill
+(_West-Riding Asylum Report_, 1876, vol. vi) remarks: "These dreams are
+much more frequent than is ordinarily thought, and are the cause of a
+great deal of nervous depression among women. Women of a highly-nervous
+diathesis suffer much more from these drains than robust women. Not only
+are these involuntary orgasms more frequent among such women, but they
+cause more disturbance of the general health in them than in other women."
+
+[241] I may remark here that a Russian correspondent considers that I have
+greatly underestimated the frequency of erotic manifestations during sleep
+in young girls. "All the women I have interrogated on this point," he
+informs me, "say that they have had such pollutions from the time of
+puberty, or even earlier, accompanied by erotic dreams. I have put the
+question to some twenty or thirty women. It is true that they were of
+southern race (Italian, Spanish, and French), and I believe that
+Southerners are, in this matter, franker than northern women, who consider
+the activity of the flesh as shameful, and seek to conceal it." My
+correspondent makes no reference to the chief point of sexual difference,
+so far as my observation goes, which is that erotic dreams are
+comparatively rare in those women "_who have yet had no sort of sexual
+experience in waking life_." Whether or not this is correct, I do not
+question the frequency of erotic dreams in girls who have had such
+experience.
+
+[242] C.C. Hersman, "Medico-legal Aspects of Eroto-Choreic Insanities,"
+_Alienist and Neurologist_, July, 1897. I may mention that Pitres (_Lecons
+cliniques sur l'Hysterie_, vol. ii, p. 34) records the almost identical
+case of a hysterical girl in one of his wards, who was at first grateful
+to the clinical clerk to whom her case was intrusted, but afterward
+changed her behavior, accused him of coming nightly through the window,
+lying beside her, caressing her, and then exerting violent coitus three or
+four times in succession, until she was utterly exhausted. I may here
+refer to the tendency to erotic excitement in women under the influence of
+chloroform and nitrous oxide, a tendency rarely or never noted in men, and
+of the frequency with which the phenomenon is attributed by the subject to
+actual assault. See H. Ellis, _Man and Woman_, pp. 269-274.
+
+[243] In Australia, some years ago, a man was charged with rape, found
+guilty of "attempt," and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment, on
+the accusation of a girl of 13, who subsequently confessed that the charge
+was imaginary; in this case, the jury found it impossible to believe that
+so young a girl could have been lying, or hallucinated, because she
+narrated the details of the alleged offence with such circumstantial
+detail. Such cases are not uncommon, and in some measure, no doubt, they
+may be accounted for by auto-erotic nocturnal hallucinations.
+
+[244] Sante de Sanctis, _I sogni e il sonno nell'isterismo e nella
+epilessia_, Rome, 1896, p. 101.
+
+[245] Pitres, _Lecons cliniques sur l'Hysterie_, vol. ii, pp. 37 et seq.
+The Lorraine inquisitor, Nicolas Remy, very carefully investigated the
+question of the feelings of witches when having intercourse with the
+Devil, questioning them minutely, and ascertained that such intercourse
+was usually extremely painful, filling them with icy horror (See, e.g.,
+Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. v, p. 127; the same author
+presents an interesting summary of the phenomena of the Witches' Sabbath).
+But intercourse with the Devil was by no means always painful. Isabel
+Gowdie, a Scotch witch, bore clear testimony to this point: "The youngest
+and lustiest women," she stated, "will have very great pleasure in their
+carnal copulation with him, yea, much more than with their own
+husbands.... He is abler for us than any man can be. (Alack! that I should
+compare him to a man!)" Yet her description scarcely sounds attractive; he
+was a "large, black, hairy man, very cold, and I found his nature as cold
+within me as spring well-water." His foot was forked and cloven; he was
+sometimes like a deer, or a roe; and he would hold up his tail while the
+witches kissed that region (Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in Scotland_, vol.
+iii, Appendix VII; see, also, the illustrations at the end of Dr. A.
+Marie's _Folie et Mysticisme_, 1907).
+
+[246] Gilles de la Tourette, loc. cit., p. 518. Erotic hallucinations have
+also been studied by Bellamy, in a Bordeaux thesis, _Hallucinations
+Erotiques_, 1900-1901.
+
+[247] On one occasion, when still a girl, whenever an artist whom she
+admired touched her hand she felt erection and moisture of the sexual
+parts, but without any sensation of pleasure; a little later, when an
+uncle's knee casually came in contact with her thigh, ejaculation of mucus
+took place, though she disliked the uncle; again, when a nurse, on
+casually seeing a man's sexual organs, an electric shock went through her,
+though the sight was disgusting to her; and when she had once to assist a
+man to urinate, she became in the highest degree excited, though without
+pleasure, and lay down on a couch in the next room, while a conclusive
+ejaculation took place. (Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 354.)
+
+[248] Breuer and Freud, _Studien ueber Hysterie_, 1895, p. 217.
+
+[249] Calmeil (_De la Folie_, vol. i, p. 252) called attention to the
+large part played by uterine sensations in the hallucinations of some
+famous women ascetics, and added: "It is well recognized that the
+narrative of such sensations nearly always occupies the first place in the
+divagations of hysterical virgins."
+
+[250] H. Leuba, "Les Tendances Religieuses chez les Mystiques Chretiens,"
+_Revue Philosophique_, November, 1902, p. 465. St. Theresa herself states
+that physical sensations played a considerable part in this experience.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Hysteria and the Question of Its Relation to the Sexual Emotions--The
+Early Greek Theories of its Nature and Causation--The Gradual Rise of
+Modern Views--Charcot--The Revolt Against Charcot's Too Absolute
+Conclusions--Fallacies Involved--Charcot's Attitude the Outcome of his
+Personal Temperament--Breuer and Freud--Their Views Supplement and
+Complete Charcot's--At the Same Time they Furnish a Justification for the
+Earlier Doctrine of Hysteria--But They Must Not be Regarded as Final--The
+Diffused Hysteroid Condition in Normal Persons--The Physiological Basis of
+Hysteria--True Pathological Hysteria is Linked on to almost Normal States,
+especially to Sex-hunger.
+
+
+The nocturnal hallucinations of hysteria, as all careful students of this
+condition now seem to agree, are closely allied to the hysterical attack
+proper. Sollier, indeed, one of the ablest of the more recent
+investigators of hysteria, has argued with much force that the subjects of
+hysteria really live in a state of pathological sleep, of
+vigilambulism.[251] He regards all the various accidents of hysteria as
+having a common basis in disturbances of sensibility, in the widest sense
+of the word "sensibility,"--as the very foundation of personality,--while
+anaesthesia is "the real _sigillum hysteriae_." Whatever the form of
+hysteria, we are thus only concerned with a more or less profound state of
+vigilambulism: a state in which the subject seems, often even to himself,
+to be more or less always asleep, whether the sleep may be regarded as
+local or general. Sollier agrees with Fere that the disorder of
+sensibility may be regarded as due to an exhaustion of the sensory centres
+of the brain, whether as the result of constitutional cerebral weakness,
+of the shock of a violent emotion, or of some toxic influence on the
+cerebral cells.
+
+We may, therefore, fitly turn from the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep
+which in women generally, and especially in hysterical women, seem to
+possess so much importance and significance, to the question--which has
+been so divergently answered at different periods and by different
+investigators--concerning the causation of hysteria, and especially
+concerning its alleged connection with conscious or unconscious sexual
+emotion.[252]
+
+It was the belief of the ancient Greeks that hysteria came from the womb;
+hence its name. We first find that statement in Plato's _Timaeus_: "In men
+the organ of generation--becoming rebellious and masterful, like an animal
+disobedient to reason, and maddened with the sting of lust--seeks to gain
+absolute sway; and the same is the case with the so-called womb, or
+uterus, of women; the animal within them is desirous of procreating
+children, and, when remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper time, gets
+discontented and angry, and, wandering in every direction through the
+body, closes up the passages of the breath, and, by obstructing
+respiration,[253] drives them to extremity, causing all varieties of
+disease."
+
+Plato, it is true, cannot be said to reveal anywhere a very scientific
+attitude toward Nature. Yet he was here probably only giving expression to
+the current medical doctrine of his day. We find precisely the same
+doctrine attributed to Hippocrates, though without a clear distinction
+between hysteria and epilepsy.[254] If we turn to the best Roman
+physicians we find again that Aretaeus, "the Esquirol of antiquity," has
+set forth the same view, adding to his description of the movements of the
+womb in hysteria: "It delights, also, in fragrant smells, and advances
+toward them; and it has an aversion to foetid smells, and flies from them;
+and, on the whole, the womb is like an animal within an animal."[255]
+Consequently, the treatment was by applying foetid smells to the nose and
+rubbing fragrant ointments around the sexual parts.[256]
+
+The Arab physicians, who carried on the traditions of Greek medicine,
+appear to have said nothing new about hysteria, and possibly had little
+knowledge of it. In Christian mediaeval Europe, also, nothing new was added
+to the theory of hysteria; it was, indeed, less known medically than it
+had ever been, and, in part it may be as a result of this ignorance, in
+part as a result of general wretchedness (the hysterical phenomena of
+witchcraft reaching their height, Michelet points out, in the fourteenth
+century, which was a period of special misery for the poor), it flourished
+more vigorously. Not alone have we the records of nervous epidemics, but
+illuminated manuscripts, ivories, miniatures, bas-reliefs, frescoes, and
+engravings furnish the most vivid iconographic evidence of the prevalence
+of hysteria in its most violent forms during the Middle Ages. Much of this
+evidence is brought to the service of science in the fascinating works of
+Dr. P. Richer, one of Charcot's pupils.[257]
+
+In the seventeenth century Ambroise Pare was still talking, like
+Hippocrates, about "suffocation of the womb"; Forestus was still, like
+Aretaeus, applying friction to the vulva; Fernel was still reproaching
+Galen, who had denied that the movements of the womb produced hysteria.
+
+It was in the seventeenth century (1618) that a French physician, Charles
+Lepois (Carolus Piso), physician to Henry II, trusting, as he said, to
+experience and reason, overthrew at one stroke the doctrine of hysteria
+that had ruled almost unquestioned for two thousand years, and showed that
+the malady occurred at all ages and in both sexes, that its seat was not
+in the womb, but in the brain, and that it must be considered a nervous
+disease.[258] So revolutionary a doctrine could not fail to meet with
+violent opposition, but it was confirmed by Willis, and in 1681, we owe to
+the genius of Sydenham a picture of hysteria which for lucidity,
+precision, and comprehensiveness has only been excelled in our own times.
+
+It was not possible any longer to maintain the womb theory of Hippocrates
+in its crude form, but in modified forms, and especially with the object
+of preserving the connection which many observers continued to find
+between hysteria and the sexual emotions, it still found supporters in the
+eighteenth and even the nineteenth centuries. James, in the middle of the
+eighteenth century, returned to the classical view, and in his _Dictionary
+of Medicine_ maintained that the womb is the seat of hysteria. Louyer
+Villermay in 1816 asserted that the most frequent causes of hysteria are
+deprivation of the pleasures of love, griefs connected with this passion,
+and disorders of menstruation. Foville in 1833 and Landouzy in 1846
+advocated somewhat similar views. The acute Laycock in 1840 quoted as
+"almost a medical proverb" the saying, "_Salacitas major, major ad
+hysteriam proclivitas_," fully indorsing it. More recently still Clouston
+has defined hysteria as "the loss of the inhibitory influence exercised on
+the reproductive and sexual instincts of women by the higher mental and
+moral functions" (a position evidently requiring some modification in view
+of the fact that hysteria is by no means confined to women), while the
+same authority remarks that more or less concealed sexual phenomena are
+the chief symptoms of "hysterical insanity."[259] Two gynaecologists of
+high position in different parts of the world, Hegar in Germany and
+Balls-Headley in Australia, attribute hysteria, as well as anaemia, largely
+to unsatisfied sexual desire, including the non-satisfaction of the "ideal
+feelings."[260] Lombroso and Ferrero, again, while admitting that the
+sexual feelings might be either heightened or depressed in hysteria,
+referred to the frequency of what they termed "a paradoxical sexual
+instinct" in the hysterical, by which, for instance, sexual frigidity is
+combined with intense sexual pre-occupations; and they also pointed out
+the significant fact that the crimes of the hysterical nearly always
+revolve around the sexual sphere.[261] Thus, even up to the time when the
+conception of hysteria which absolutely ignored and excluded any sexual
+relationship whatever had reached its height, independent views favoring
+such a relationship still found expression.
+
+Of recent years, however, such views usually aroused violent antagonism.
+The main current of opinion was with Briquet (1859), who, treating the
+matter with considerable ability and a wide induction of facts,
+indignantly repelled the idea that there is any connection between
+hysteria and the sexual facts of life, physical or psychic. As he himself
+admitted, Briquet was moved to deny a sexual causation of hysteria by the
+thought that such an origin would be degrading for women ("_a quelque
+chose de degradant pour les femmes_").
+
+It was, however, the genius of Charcot, and the influence of his able
+pupils, which finally secured the overthrow of the sexual theory of
+hysteria. Charcot emphatically anathematized the visceral origin of
+hysteria; he declared that it is a psychic disorder, and to leave no
+loop-hole of escape for those who maintained a sexual causation he
+asserted that there are no varieties of hysteria, that the disease is one
+and indivisible. Charcot recognized no primordial cause of hysteria beyond
+heredity, which here plays a more important part than in any other
+neuropathic condition. Such heredity is either direct or more occasionally
+by transformation, any deviation of nutrition found in the ancestors
+(gout, diabetes, arthritis) being a possible cause of hysteria in the
+descendants. "We do not know anything about the nature of hysteria,"
+Charcot wrote in 1892; "we must make it objective in order to recognize
+it. The dominant idea for us in the etiology of hysteria is, in the widest
+sense, its hereditary predisposition. The greater number of those
+suffering from this affection are simply born _hysterisables_, and on them
+the occasional causes act directly, either through autosuggestion or by
+causing derangement of general nutrition, and more particularly of the
+nutrition of the nervous system."[262] These views were ably and
+decisively stated in Gilles de la Tourette's _Traite de l'Hysterie_,
+written under the inspiration of Charcot.
+
+While Charcot's doctrine was thus being affirmed and generally accepted,
+there were at the same time workers in these fields who, though they by no
+means ignored this doctrine of hysteria or even rejected it, were inclined
+to think that it was too absolutely stated. Writing in the _Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine_ at the same time as Charcot, Donkin, while
+deprecating any exclusive emphasis on the sexual causation, pointed out
+the enormous part played by the emotions in the production of hysteria,
+and the great influence of puberty in women due to the greater extent of
+the sexual organs, and the consequently large area of central innervation
+involved, and thus rendered liable to fall into a state of unstable
+equilibrium. Enforced abstinence from the gratification of any of the
+inherent and primitive desires, he pointed out, may be an adequate
+exciting cause. Such a view as this indicated that to set aside the
+ancient doctrine of a physical sexual cause of hysteria was by no means to
+exclude a psychic sexual cause. Ten years earlier Axenfeld and Huchard had
+pointed out that the reaction against the sexual origin of hysteria was
+becoming excessive, and they referred to the evidence brought forward by
+veterinary surgeons showing that unsatisfied sexual desire in animals may
+produce nervous symptoms very similar to hysteria.[263] The present
+writer, when in 1894 briefly discussing hysteria as an element in
+secondary sexual characterization, ventured to reflect the view, confirmed
+by his own observation, that there was a tendency to unduly minimize the
+sexual factor in hysteria, and further pointed out that the old error of a
+special connection between hysteria and the female sexual organs, probably
+arose from the fact that in woman the organic sexual sphere is larger than
+in man.[264]
+
+When, indeed, we analyze the foundation of the once predominant opinions
+of Charcot and his school regarding the sexual relationships of hysteria,
+it becomes clear that many fallacies and misunderstandings were involved.
+Briquet, Charcot's chief predecessor, acknowledged that his own view was
+that a sexual origin of hysteria would be "degrading to women"; that is to
+say, he admitted that he was influenced by a foolish and improper
+prejudice, for the belief that the unconscious and involuntary morbid
+reaction of the nervous system to any disturbance of a great primary
+instinct can have "_quelque chose de degradant_" is itself an immoral
+belief; such disturbance of the nervous system might or might not be
+caused, but in any case the alleged "degradation" could only be the
+fiction of a distorted imagination. Again, confusion had been caused by
+the ancient error of making the physical sexual organs responsible for
+hysteria, first the womb, more recently the ovaries; the outcome of this
+belief was the extirpation of the sexual organs for the cure of hysteria.
+Charcot condemned absolutely all such operations as unscientific and
+dangerous, declaring that there is no such thing as hysteria of menstrual
+origin.[265] Subsequently, Angelucci and Pierracini carried out an
+international inquiry into the results of the surgical treatment of
+hysteria, and condemned it in the most unqualified manner.[266] It is
+clearly demonstrated that the physical sexual organs are not the seat of
+hysteria. It does not, however, follow that even physical sexual desire,
+when repressed, is not a cause of hysteria. The opinion that it was so
+formed an essential part of the early doctrine of hysteria, and was
+embodied in the ancient maxim: "_Nubat illa et morbus effugiet_." The
+womb, it seemed to the ancients, was crying out for satisfaction, and when
+that was received the disease vanished.[267] But when it became clear that
+sexual desire, though ultimately founded on the sexual apparatus, is a
+nervous and psychic fact, to put the sexual organs out of count was not
+sufficient; for the sexual emotions may exist before puberty, and persist
+after complete removal of the sexual organs. Thus it has been the object
+of many writers to repel the idea that unsatisfied sexual desire can be a
+cause of hysteria. Briquet pointed out that hysteria is rare among nuns
+and frequent among prostitutes. Krafft-Ebing believed that most
+hysterical women are not anxious for sexual satisfaction, and declared
+that "hysteria caused through the non-satisfaction of the coarse sensual
+sexual impulse I have never seen,"[268] while Pitres and others refer to
+the frequently painful nature of sexual hallucinations in the hysterical.
+But it soon becomes obvious that the psychic sexual sphere is not confined
+to the gratification of conscious physical sexual desire. It is not true
+that hysteria is rare among nuns, some of the most tremendous epidemics of
+hysteria, and the most carefully studied, having occurred in
+convents,[269] while the hysterical phenomena sometimes associated with
+revivals are well known. The supposed prevalence among prostitutes would
+not be evidence against the sexual relationships of hysteria; it has,
+however, been denied, even by so great an authority as Parent-Duchatelet
+who found it very rare, even in prostitutes in hospitals, when it was
+often associated with masturbation; in prostitutes, however, who returned
+to a respectable life, giving up their old habits, he found hysteria
+common and severe.[270] The frequent absence of physical sexual feeling,
+again, may quite reasonably be taken as evidence of a disorder of the
+sexual emotions, while the undoubted fact that sexual intercourse usually
+has little beneficial effect on pronounced hysteria, and that sexual
+excitement during sleep and sexual hallucinations are often painful in
+the same condition, is far from showing that injury or repression of the
+sexual emotions had nothing to do with the production of the hysteria. It
+would be as reasonable to argue that the evil effect of a heavy meal on a
+starving man must be taken as evidence that he was not suffering from
+starvation. The fact, indeed, on which Gilles de la Tourette and others
+have remarked, that the hysterical often desire not so much sexual
+intercourse as simple affection, would tend to show that there is here a
+real analogy, and that starvation or lesion of the sexual emotions may
+produce, like bodily starvation, a rejection of those satisfactions which
+are demanded in health. Thus, even a mainly _a priori_ examination of the
+matter may lead us to see that many arguments brought forward in favor of
+Charcot's position on this point fall to the ground when we realize that
+the sexual emotions may constitute a highly complex sphere, often hidden
+from observation, sometimes not conscious at all, and liable to many
+lesions besides that due to the non-satisfaction of sexual desire. At the
+same time we are not thus enabled to overthrow any of the positive results
+attained by Charcot and his school.
+
+It may, however, be pointed out that Charcot's attitude toward hysteria
+was the outcome of his own temperament. He was primarily a neurologist,
+the bent of his genius was toward the investigation of facts that could be
+objectively demonstrated. His first interest in hysteria, dating from as
+far back as 1862, was in hystero-epileptic convulsive attacks, and to the
+last he remained indifferent to all facts which could not be objectively
+demonstrated. That was the secret of the advances he was enabled to make
+in neurology. For purely psychological investigation he had no liking, and
+probably no aptitude. Anyone who was privileged to observe his methods of
+work at the Salpetriere will easily recall the great master's towering
+figure; the disdainful expression, sometimes, even, it seemed, a little
+sour; the lofty bearing which enthusiastic admirers called Napoleonic. The
+questions addressed to the patient were cold, distant, sometimes
+impatient. Charcot clearly had little faith in the value of any results so
+attained. One may well believe, also, that a man whose superficial
+personality was so haughty and awe-inspiring to strangers would, in any
+case, have had the greatest difficulty in penetrating the mysteries of a
+psychic world so obscure and elusive as that presented by the
+hysterical.[271]
+
+The way was thus opened for further investigations on the psychic side.
+Charcot had affirmed the power, not only of physical traumatism, but even
+of psychic lesions--of moral shocks--to provoke its manifestations, but
+his sole contribution to the psychology of this psychic malady,--and this
+was borrowed from the Nancy school,--lay in the one word "suggestibility";
+the nature and mechanism of this psychic process he left wholly
+unexplained. This step has been taken by others, in part by Janet, who,
+from 1889 onward, has not only insisted that the emotions stand in the
+first line among the causes of hysteria, but has also pointed out some
+portion of the mechanism of this process; thus, he saw the significance of
+the fact, already recognized, that strong emotions tend to produce
+anaesthesia and to lead to a condition of mental disaggregation, favorable
+to abulia, or abolition of will-power. It remained to show in detail the
+mechanism by which the most potent of all the emotions effects its
+influence, and, by attempting to do this, the Viennese investigators,
+Breuer and especially Freud, have greatly aided the study of
+hysteria.[272] They have not, it is important to remark, overturned the
+positive elements in their great forerunner's work. Freud began as a
+disciple of Charcot, and he himself remarks that, in his earlier
+investigations of hysteria, he had no thought of finding any sexual
+etiology for that malady; he would have regarded any such suggestion as an
+insult to his patient. The results reached by these workers were the
+outcome of long and detailed investigation. Freud has investigated many
+cases of hysteria in minute detail, often devoting to a single case over a
+hundred hours of work. The patients, unlike those on whom the results of
+the French school have been mainly founded, all belonged to the educated
+classes, and it was thus possible to carry out an elaborate psychic
+investigation which would be impossible among the uneducated. Breuer and
+Freud insist on the fine qualities of mind and character frequently found
+among the hysterical. They cannot accept suggestibility as an invariable
+characteristic of hysteria, only abnormal excitability; they are far from
+agreeing with Janet (although on many points at one with him), that
+psychic weakness marks hysteria; there is merely an appearance of mental
+weakness, they say, because the mental activity of the hysterical is split
+up, and only a part of it is conscious.[273] The superiority of character
+of the hysterical is indicated by the fact that the conflict between their
+ideas of right and the bent of their inclinations is often an element in
+the constitution of the hysterical state. Breuer and Freud are prepared to
+assert that the hysterical are among "the flower of humanity," and they
+refer to those qualities of combined imaginative genius and practical
+energy which characterized St. Theresa, "the patron saint of the
+hysterical."
+
+To understand the position of Breuer and Freud we may start from the
+phenomenon of "nervous shock" produced by physical traumatism, often of a
+very slight character. Charcot had shown that such "nervous shock," with
+the chain of resulting symptoms, is nothing more or less than hysteria.
+Breuer and Freud may be linked on to Charcot at this point. They began by
+regarding the most typical hysteria as really a _psychic traumatism_; that
+is to say, that it starts in a lesion, or rather in repeated lesions, of
+the emotional organism. It is true that the school of Charcot admitted the
+influence of moral shock, especially of the emotion of fear, but that
+merely as an "_agent provocateur_," and with a curious perversity Gilles
+de la Tourette, certainly reflecting the attitude of Charcot, in his
+elaborate treatise on hysteria fails to refer to the sphere of the sexual
+emotions even when enumerating the "_agents provocateurs_."[274]
+
+The influence of fear is not denied by Breuer and Freud, but they have
+found that careful psychic analysis frequently shows that the shock of a
+commonplace "fear" is really rooted in a lesion of the sexual emotions. A
+typical and very simple illustration is furnished in a case, recorded by
+Breuer, in which a young girl of seventeen had her first hysterical attack
+after a cat sprang on her shoulders as she was going downstairs. Careful
+investigation showed that this girl had been the object of somewhat ardent
+attentions from a young man whose advances she had resisted, although her
+own sexual emotions had been aroused. A few days before, she had been
+surprised by this young man on these same dark stairs, and had forcibly
+escaped from his hands. Here was the real psychic traumatism, the
+operation of which merely became manifest in the cat. "But in how many
+cases," asks Breuer, "is a cat thus reckoned as a completely sufficient
+_causa efficiens_?"
+
+In every case that they have investigated Breuer and Freud have found some
+similar secret lesion of the psychic sexual sphere. In one case a
+governess, whose training has been severely upright, is, in spite of
+herself and without any encouragement, led to experience for the father of
+the children under her care an affection which she refuses to acknowledge
+even to herself; in another, a young woman finds herself falling in love
+with her brother-in-law; again, an innocent girl suddenly discovers her
+uncle in the act of sexual intercourse with her playmate, and a boy on his
+way home from school is subjected to the coarse advances of a sexual
+invert. In nearly every case, as Freud eventually found reason to believe,
+a primary lesion of the sexual emotions dates from the period of puberty
+and frequently of childhood, and in nearly every case the intimately
+private nature of the lesion causes it to be carefully hidden from
+everyone, and even to be unacknowledged by the subject of it. In the
+earlier cases Breuer and Freud found that a slight degree of hypnosis is
+necessary to bring the lesion into consciousness, and the accuracy of the
+revelations thus obtained has been tested by independent witness. Freud
+has, however, long abandoned the induction of any degree of hypnosis; he
+simply tries to arrange that the patient shall feel absolutely free to
+tell her own story, and so proceeds from the surface downwards, slowly
+finding and piecing together such essential fragments of the history as
+may be recovered, in the same way he remarks, as the archaeologist
+excavates below the surface and recovers and puts together the fragments
+of an antique statue. Much of the material found, however, has only a
+symbolic value requiring interpretation and is sometimes pure fantasy.
+Freud now attaches great importance to dreams as symbolically representing
+much in the subject's mental history which is otherwise difficult to
+reach.[275] The subtle and slender clues which Freud frequently follows in
+interpreting dreams cannot fail sometimes to arouse doubt in his readers'
+minds, but he certainly seems to have been often successful in thus
+reaching latent facts in consciousness. The primary lesion may thus act as
+"a foreign body in consciousness." Something is introduced into psychic
+life which refuses to merge in the general flow of consciousness. It
+cannot be accepted simply as other facts of life are accepted; it cannot
+even be talked about, and so submitted to the slow usure by which our
+experiences are worn down and gradually transformed. Breuer illustrates
+what happens by reference to the sneezing reflex. "When an irritation to
+the nasal mucous membrane for some reason fails to liberate this reflex,
+a feeling of excitement and tension arises. This excitement, being unable
+to stream out along motor channels, now spreads itself over the brain,
+inhibiting other activities.... _In the highest spheres of human activity
+we may watch the same process_." It is a result of this process that, as
+Breuer and Freud found, the mere act of confession may greatly relieve the
+hysterical symptoms produced by this psychic mechanism, and in some cases
+may wholly and permanently remove them. It is on this fact that they
+founded their method of treatment, devised by Breuer and by him termed the
+cathartic method, though Freud prefers to call it the "analytic" method.
+It is, as Freud points out, the reverse of the hypnotic method of
+suggestive treatment; there is the same difference, Freud remarks, between
+the two methods as Leonardo da Vinci found for the two technical methods
+of art, _per via di porre_ and _per via di levare_; the hypnotic method,
+like painting, works by putting in, the cathartic or analytic method, like
+sculpture, works by taking out.[276]
+
+It is part of the mechanism of this process, as understood by these
+authors, that the physical symptoms of hysteria are constituted, by a
+process of conversion, out of the injured emotions, which then sink into
+the background or altogether out of consciousness. Thus, they found the
+prolonged tension of nursing a near and dear relative to be a very
+frequent factor in the production of hysteria. For instance, an originally
+rheumatic pain experienced by a daughter when nursing her father becomes
+the symbol in memory of her painful psychic excitement, and this perhaps
+for several reasons, but chiefly because _its presence in consciousness
+almost exactly coincided with that excitement_. In another way, again,
+nausea and vomiting may become a symbol through the profound sense of
+disgust with which some emotional shock was associated. Then the symbol
+begins to have a life of its own, and draws hidden strength from the
+emotion with which it is correlated. Breuer and Freud have found by
+careful investigation that the pains and physical troubles of hysteria are
+far from being capricious, but may be traced in a varying manner to an
+origin in some incident, some pain, some action, which was associated with
+a moment of acute psychic agony. The process of conversion was an
+involuntary escape from an intolerable emotion, comparable to the physical
+pain sometimes sought in intense mental grief, and the patient wins some
+relief from the tortured emotions, though at the cost of psychic
+abnormality, of a more or less divided state of consciousness and of
+physical pain, or else anaesthesia. In Charcot's third stage of the
+hysterical convulsion, that of "_attitudes passionnelles_," Breuer and
+Freud see the hallucinatory reproduction of a recollection which is full
+of significance for the origin of the hysterical manifestations.
+
+The final result reached by these workers is clearly stated by each
+writer. "The main observation of our predecessors," states Breuer,[277]
+"still preserved in the word 'hysteria,' is nearer to the truth than the
+more recent view which puts sexuality almost in the last line, with the
+object of protecting the patient from moral reproaches. Certainly the
+sexual needs of the hysterical are just as individual and as various in
+force as those of the healthy. But they suffer from them, and in large
+measure, indeed, they suffer precisely through the struggle with them,
+through the effort to thrust sexuality aside." "The weightiest fact,"
+concludes Freud,[278] "on which we strike in a thorough pursuit of the
+analysis is this: From whatever side and from whatever symptoms we start,
+we always unfailingly reach the region of the sexual life. Here, first of
+all, an etiological condition of hysterical states is revealed.... At the
+bottom of every case of hysteria--and reproducible by an analytical effort
+after even an interval of long years--may be found one or more facts of
+precocious sexual experience belonging to earliest youth. I regard this as
+an important result, as the discovery of a _caput Nili_ of
+neuropathology." Ten years later, enlarging rather than restricting his
+conception, Freud remarks: "Sexuality is not a mere _deus ex machina_
+which intervenes but once in the hysterical process; it is the motive
+force of every separate symptom and every expression of a symptom. The
+morbid phenomena constitute, to speak plainly, the patient's sexual
+activity."[279] The actual hysterical fit, Freud now states, may be
+regarded as "the substitute for a once practiced and then abandoned
+_auto-erotic_ satisfaction," and similarly it may be regarded as an
+equivalent of coitus.[280]
+
+It is natural to ask how this conception affects that elaborate picture of
+hysteria laboriously achieved by Charcot and his school. It cannot be said
+that it abolishes any of the positive results reached by Charcot, but it
+certainly alters their significance and value; it presents them in a new
+light and changes the whole perspective. With his passion for getting at
+tangible definite physical facts, Charcot was on very safe ground. But he
+was content to neglect the psychic analysis of hysteria, while yet
+proclaiming that hysteria is a purely psychic disorder. He had no cause of
+hysteria to present save only heredity. Freud certainly admits heredity,
+but, as he points out, the part it plays has been overrated. It is too
+vague and general to carry us far, and when a specific and definite cause
+can be found, the part played by heredity recedes to become merely a
+condition, the soil on which the "specific etiology" works. Here probably
+Freud's enthusiasm at first carried him too far and the most important
+modification he has made in his views occurs at this point: he now
+attaches a preponderant influence to heredity. He has realized that sexual
+activity in one form or another is far too common in childhood to make it
+possible to lay very great emphasis on "traumatic lesions" of this
+character, and he has also realized that an outcrop of fantasies may
+somewhat later develop on these childish activities, intervening between
+them and the subsequent morbid symptoms. He is thus led to emphasize anew
+the significance of heredity, not, however, in Charcot's sense, as general
+neuropathic disposition but as "sexual constitution." The significance of
+"infantile sexual lesions" has also tended to give place to that of
+"infantilism of sexuality."[281]
+
+The real merit of Freud's subtle investigations is that--while possibly
+furnishing a justification of the imperfectly-understood idea that had
+floated in the mind of observers ever since the name "hysteria" was first
+invented--he has certainly supplied a definite psychic explanation of a
+psychic malady. He has succeeded in presenting clearly, at the expense of
+much labor, insight, and sympathy, a dynamic view of the psychic processes
+involved in the constitution of the hysterical state, and such a view
+seems to show that the physical symptoms laboriously brought to light by
+Charcot are largely but epiphenomena and by-products of an emotional
+process, often of tragic significance to the subject, which is taking
+place in the most sensitive recess of the psychic organism. That the
+picture of the mechanism involved, presented to us by Professor Freud,
+cannot be regarded as a final and complete account of the matter, may
+readily be admitted. It has developed in Freud's own hands, and some of
+the developments will require very considerable confirmation before they
+can be accepted as generally true.[282] But these investigations have at
+least served to open the door, which Charcot had inconsistently held
+closed, into the deeper mysteries of hysteria, and have shown that here,
+if anywhere, further research will be profitable. They have also served to
+show that hysteria may be definitely regarded as, in very many cases at
+least, a manifestation of the sexual emotions and their lesions; in other
+words, a transformation of auto-erotism.
+
+The conception of hysteria so vigorously enforced by Charcot and his
+school is thus now beginning to appear incomplete. But we have to
+recognize that that incompleteness was right and necessary. A strong
+reaction was needed against a widespread view of hysteria that was in
+large measure scientifically false. It was necessary to show clearly that
+hysteria is a definite disorder, even when the sexual organs and emotions
+are swept wholly out of consideration; and it was also necessary to show
+that the lying and dissimulation so widely attributed to the hysterical
+were merely the result of an ignorant and unscientific misinterpretation
+of psychic elements of the disease. This was finally and triumphantly
+achieved by Charcot's school.
+
+There is only one other point in the explanation of hysteria which I will
+here refer to, and that because it is usually ignored, and because it has
+relationship to the general psychology of the sexual emotions. I refer to
+that physiological hysteria which is the normal counterpart of the
+pathological hysteria which has been described in its physical details by
+Charcot, and to which alone the term should strictly be applied. Even
+though hysteria as a disease may be described as one and indivisible,
+there are yet to be found, among the ordinary and fairly healthy
+population, vague and diffused hysteroid symptoms which are dissipated in
+a healthy environment, or pass nearly unnoted, only to develop in a small
+proportion of cases, under the influence of a more pronounced heredity, or
+a severe physical or psychic lesion, into that definite morbid state which
+is properly called hysteria.
+
+This diffused hysteroid condition may be illustrated by the results of a
+psychological investigation carried on in America by Miss Gertrude Stein
+among the ordinary male and female students of Harvard University and
+Radcliffe College. The object of the investigation was to study, with the
+aid of a planchette, the varying liability to automatic movements among
+normal individuals. Nearly one hundred students were submitted to
+experiment. It was found that automatic responses could be obtained in two
+sittings from all but a small proportion of the students of both sexes,
+but that there were two types of individual who showed a special aptitude.
+One type (probably showing the embryonic form of neurasthenia) was a
+nervous, high-strung, imaginative type, not easily influenced from
+without, and not so much suggestible as autosuggestible. The other type,
+which is significant from our present point of view, is thus described by
+Miss Stein: "In general the individuals, often blonde and pale, are
+distinctly phlegmatic. If emotional, decidedly of the weakest, sentimental
+order. They may be either large, healthy, rather heavy, and lacking in
+vigor or they may be what we call anaemic and phlegmatic. Their power of
+concentrated attention is very small. They describe themselves as never
+being held by their work; they say that their minds wander easily; that
+they work on after they are tired, and just keep pegging away. They are
+very apt to have premonitory conversations, they anticipate the words of
+their friends, they imagine whole conversations that afterward come true.
+The feeling of having been there is very common with them; that is, they
+feel under given circumstances that they have had that identical
+experience before in all its details. They are often fatalistic in their
+ideas. They indulge in day-dreams. As a rule, they are highly
+suggestible."[283]
+
+There we have a picture of the physical constitution and psychic
+temperament on which the classical symptoms of hysteria might easily be
+built up.[284] But these persons were ordinary students, and while a few
+of their characteristics are what is commonly and vaguely called "morbid,"
+on the whole they must be regarded as ordinarily healthy individuals. They
+have the congenital constitution and predisposition on which some severe
+psychic lesion at the "psychological moment" might develop the most
+definite and obstinate symptoms of hysteria, but under favorable
+circumstances they will be ordinary men and women, of no more than
+ordinary abnormality or ordinary power. They are among the many who have
+been called to hysteria at birth; they may never be among the few who are
+chosen.
+
+We may have to recognize that on the side of the sexual emotions, as well
+as in general constitution, a condition may be traced among normal persons
+that is hysteroid in character, and serves as the healthy counterpart of a
+condition which in hysteria is morbid. In women such a condition Has been
+traced (though misnamed) by Dr. King.[285]
+
+    Dr. King describes what he calls "sexual hysteria in women,"
+    which he considers a chief variety of hysteria. He adds, however,
+    that it is not strictly a disease, but simply an automatic
+    reaction of the reproductive system, which tends to become
+    abnormal under conditions of civilization, and to be perpetuated
+    in a morbid form. In this condition he finds twelve characters:
+    1. Time of life, usually between puberty and climacteric. 2.
+    Attacks rarely occur when subject is alone. 3. Subject appears
+    unconscious, but is not really so. 4. She is instinctively
+    ashamed afterward. 5. It occurs usually in single women, or in
+    those, single or married, whose sexual needs are unsatisfied. 6.
+    No external evidence of disease, and (as Aitken pointed out) the
+    nates are not flattened; the woman's physical condition is not
+    impaired, and she may be specially attractive to men. 7. Warmth
+    of climate and the season of spring and summer are conducive to
+    the condition. 8. The paroxysm in short and temporary. 9. While
+    light touches are painful, firm pressure and rough handling give
+    relief. 10. It may occur in the occupied, but an idle,
+    purposeless life is conducive. 11. The subject delights in
+    exciting sympathy and in being fondled and caressed. 12. There is
+    defect of will and a strong stimulus is required to lead to
+    action.
+
+    Among civilized women, the author proceeds, this condition does
+    not appear to subserve any useful purpose. "Let us, however, go
+    back to aboriginal woman--to woman of the woods and the fields.
+    Let us picture ourselves a young aboriginal Venus in one of her
+    earliest hysterical paroxysms. In doing so, let us not forget
+    some of the twelve characteristics previously mentioned. She will
+    not be 'acting her part' alone, or, if alone, it will be in a
+    place where someone else is likely soon to discover her. Let this
+    Venus be now discovered by a youthful Apollo of the woods, a man
+    with fully developed animal instincts. He and she, like any other
+    animals, are in the free field of Nature. He cannot but observe
+    to himself: 'This woman is not dead; she breathes and is warm;
+    she does not look ill; she is plump and rosy.' He speaks to her;
+    she neither hears (apparently) nor responds. Her eyes are closed.
+    He touches, moves, and handles her at his pleasure. She makes no
+    resistance. What will this primitive Apollo do next? He will cure
+    the fit, and bring the woman back to consciousness, satisfy her
+    emotions, and restore her volition--not by delicate touches that
+    might be 'agonizing' to her hyperesthetic skin, but by vigorous
+    massage, passive motions, and succussion that would be painless.
+    The emotional process on the part of the woman would end,
+    perhaps, with mingled laughter, tears, and shame; and when
+    accused afterward of the part which the ancestrally acquired
+    properties of her nervous system had compelled her to act, as a
+    preliminary to the event, what woman would not deny it and be
+    angry? But the course of Nature having been followed, the natural
+    purpose of the hysterical paroxysm accomplished, there would
+    remain as a result of the treatment--instead of one discontented
+    woman--two happy people, and the possible beginning of a third."
+
+    "Natural, primary sexual hysteria in woman," King concludes, "is
+    a temporary modification of the nervous government of the body
+    and the distribution of nerve-force (occurring for the most part,
+    as we see it to-day, in prudish women of strong moral principle,
+    whose volition has disposed them to resist every sort of liberty
+    or approach from the other sex), consisting in a transient
+    abdication of the general, volitional, and self-preservational
+    ego, while the reins of government are temporarily assigned to
+    the usurping power of the reproductive ego, so that the
+    reproductive government overrules the government by volition, and
+    thus, as it were, forcibly compels the woman's organism to so
+    dispose itself, at a suitable time and place, as to allow,
+    invite, and secure the approach of the other sex, whether she
+    will or not, to the end that Nature's imperious demand for
+    reproduction shall be obeyed."
+
+This perhaps rather fantastic description is not a presentation of
+hysteria in the technical sense, but we may admit that it presents a state
+which, if not the real physiological counterpart of the hysterical
+convulsion, is yet distinctly analogous to the latter. The sexual orgasm
+has this correspondence with the hysterical fit, that they both serve to
+discharge the nervous centres and relieve emotional tension. It may even
+happen, especially in the less severe forms of hysteria, that the sexual
+orgasm takes place during the hysterical fit; this was found by Rosenthal,
+of Vienna, to be always the case in the semiconscious paroxysms of a young
+girl whose condition was easily cured;[286] no doubt such cases would be
+more frequently found if they were sought for. In severe forms of
+hysteria, however, it frequently happens, as so many observers have noted,
+that normal sexual excitement has ceased to give satisfaction, has become
+painful, perverted, paradoxical. Freud has enabled us to see how a shock
+to the sexual emotions, injuring the emotional life at its source, can
+scarcely fail sometimes to produce such a result. But the necessity for
+nervous explosion still persists.[287] It may, indeed, persist, even in an
+abnormally strong degree, in consequence of the inhibition of normal
+activities generally. The convulsive fit is the only form of relief open
+to the tension. "A lady whom I long attended," remarks Ashwell, "always
+rejoiced when the fit was over, since it relieved her system generally,
+and especially her brain, from painful irritation which had existed for
+several previous days." That the fit mostly fails to give real
+satisfaction, and that it fails to cure the disease, is due to the fact
+that it is a morbid form of relief. The same character of hysteria is
+seen, with more satisfactory results for the most part, in the influence
+of external nervous shock. It was the misunderstood influence of such
+shocks in removing hysteria which in former times led to the refusal to
+regard hysteria as a serious disease. During the Rebellion of 1745-46 in
+Scotland, Cullen remarks that there was little hysteria. The same was true
+of the French Revolution and of the Irish Rebellion, while Rush (in a
+study _On the Influence of the American Revolution on the Human Body_)
+observed that many hysterical women were "restored to perfect health by
+the events of the time." In such cases the emotional tension is given an
+opportunity of explosion in new and impersonal channels, and the chain of
+morbid personal emotions is broken.
+
+It has been urged by some that the fact that the sexual orgasm usually
+fails to remove the disorder in true hysteria excludes a sexual factor of
+hysteria. It is really, one may point out, an argument in favor of such an
+element as one of the factors of hysteria. If there were no initial lesion
+of the sexual emotions, if the natural healthy sexual channel still
+remained free for the passage of the emotional overflow, then we should
+expect that it would much oftener come into play in the removal of
+hysteria. In the more healthy, merely hysteroid condition, the psychic
+sexual organism is not injured, and still responds normally, removing the
+abnormal symptoms when allowed to do so. It is the confusion between this
+almost natural condition and the truly morbid condition, alone properly
+called hysteria, which led to the ancient opinion, inaugurated by Plato
+and Hippocrates, that hysteria may be cured by marriage.[288] The
+difference may be illustrated by the difference between a distended
+bladder which is still able to contract normally on its contents when at
+last an opportunity of doing so is afforded and the bladder in which
+distension has been so prolonged that nervous control had been lost and
+spontaneous expulsion has become impossible. The first condition
+corresponds to the constitution, which, while simulating the hysterical
+condition, is healthy enough to react normally in spite of psychic
+lesions; the second corresponds to a state in which, owing to the
+prolonged stress of psychic traumatism,--sexual or not,--a definite
+condition of hysteria has arisen. The one state is healthy, though
+abnormal; the other is one of pronounced morbidity.
+
+The condition of true hysteria is thus linked on to almost healthy states,
+and especially to a condition which may be described as one of sex-hunger.
+Such a suggestion may help us to see these puzzling phenomena in their
+true nature and perspective.
+
+    At this point I may refer to the interesting parallel, and
+    probable real relationship, between hysteria and chlorosis. As
+    Luzet has said, hysteria and chlorosis are sisters. We have seen
+    that there is some ground for regarding hysteria as an
+    exaggerated form of a normal process which is really an
+    auto-erotic phenomenon. There is some ground, also, for regarding
+    chlorosis as the exaggeration of a physiological state connected
+    with sexual conditions, more specifically with the preparation
+    for maternity. Hysteria is so frequently associated with anaemic
+    conditions that Biernacki has argued that such conditions really
+    constitute the primary and fundamental cause of hysteria
+    (_Neurologisches Centralblatt_, March, 1898). And, centuries
+    before Biernacki, Sydenham had stated his belief that poverty of
+    the blood is the chief cause of hysteria.
+
+    It would be some confirmation of this position if we could
+    believe that chlorosis, like hysteria, is in some degree a
+    congenital condition. This was the view of Virchow, who regarded
+    chlorosis as essentially dependent on a congenital hyoplasia of
+    the arterial system. Stieda, on the basis of an elaborate study
+    of twenty-three cases, has endeavored to prove that chlorosis is
+    due to a congenital defect of development (_Zeitschrift fuer
+    Geburtshuelfe und Gynaekologie_, vol. xxxii, Part I, 1895). His
+    facts tend to prove that in chlorosis there are signs of general
+    ill-development, and that, in particular, there is imperfect
+    development of the breasts and sexual organs, with a tendency to
+    contracted pelvis. Charrin, again, regards utero-ovarian
+    inadequacy as at least one of the factors of chlorosis.
+    Chlorosis, in its extreme form, may thus be regarded as a
+    disorder of development, a sign of physical degeneracy. Even if
+    not strictly a cause, a congenital condition may, as Stockman
+    believes (_British Medical Journal_, December 14, 1895), be a
+    predisposing influence.
+
+    However it may be in extreme cases, there is very considerable
+    evidence to indicate that the ordinary anaemia of young women may
+    be due to a storing up of iron in the system, and is so far
+    normal, being a preparation for the function of reproduction.
+    Some observations of Bunge's seem to throw much light on the real
+    cause of what may be termed physiological chlorosis. He found by
+    a series of experiments on animals of different ages that young
+    animals contain a much greater amount of iron in their tissues
+    than adult animals; that, for instance, the body of a rabbit an
+    hour after birth contains more than four times as much iron as
+    that of a rabbit two and a half months old. It thus appears
+    probable that at the period of puberty, and later, there is a
+    storage of iron in the system preparatory to the exercise of the
+    maternal functions. It is precisely between the ages of fifteen
+    and twenty-three, as Stockman found by an analysis of his own
+    cases (_British Medical Journal_, December 14, 1895), that the
+    majority of cases occur; there was, indeed, he found, no case in
+    which the first onset was later than the age of twenty-three. A
+    similar result is revealed by the charts of Lloyd Jones, which
+    cover a vastly greater number of cases.
+
+    We owe to Lloyd Jones an important contribution to the knowledge
+    of chlorosis in its physiological or normal relationships. He has
+    shown that chlorosis is but the exaggeration of a condition that
+    is normal at puberty (and, in many women, at each menstrual
+    period), and which, there is good reason to believe, even has a
+    favorable influence on fertility. He found that
+    light-complexioned persons are more fertile than the
+    dark-complexioned, and that at the same time the blood of the
+    latter is of less specific gravity, containing less haemoglobin.
+    Lloyd Jones also reached the generalization that girls who have
+    had chlorosis are often remarkably pretty, so that the tendency
+    to chlorosis is associated with all the sexual and reproductive
+    aptitudes that make a woman attractive to a man. His conclusion
+    is that the normal condition of which chlorosis is the extreme
+    and pathological condition, is a preparation for motherhood (E.
+    Lloyd Jones, "Chlorosis: The Special Anaemia of Young Women,"
+    1897; also numerous reports to the British Medical Association,
+    published in the _British Medical Journal_. There was an
+    interesting discussion of the theories of chlorosis at the Moscow
+    International Medical Congress, in 1898; see proceedings of the
+    congress, volume in, section v, pp. 224 et seq.).
+
+    We may thus, perhaps, understand why it is that hysteria and
+    anaemia are often combined, and why they are both most frequently
+    found in adolescent young women who have yet had no sexual
+    experiences. Chlorosis is a physical phenomenon; hysteria,
+    largely a psychic phenomenon; yet, both alike may, to some extent
+    at least, be regarded as sexual aptitude showing itself in
+    extreme and pathological forms.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[251] _Genese et Nature de l'Hysterie_, 1898; and, for Sollier's latest
+statement, see "Hysterie et Sommeil," _Archives de Neurologie_, May and
+June, 1907. Lombroso (_L'Uomo Delinquente_, 1889, vol. ii, p. 329),
+referring to the diminished metabolism of the hysterical, had already
+compared them to hibernating animals, while Babinsky states that the
+hysterical are in a state of subconsciousness, a state, as Metchnikoff
+remarks (_Essais optimistes_, p. 270), reminiscent of our prehistoric
+past.
+
+[252] Professor Freud, while welcoming the introduction of the term
+"auto-erotism," remarks that it should not be made to include the whole of
+hysteria. This I fully admit, and have never questioned. Hysteria is far
+too large and complex a phenomenon to be classed as entirely a
+manifestation of auto-erotism, but certain aspects of it are admirable
+illustrations of auto-erotic transformation.
+
+[253] The hysterical phenomenon of _globus hystericus_ was long afterward
+attributed to obstruction of respiration by the womb. The interesting case
+has been recorded by E. Bloch (_Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift_, 1907, p.
+1649) of a lady who had the feeling of a ball rising from her stomach to
+her throat, and then sinking. This feeling was associated with thoughts of
+her husband's rising and falling penis, and was always most liable to
+occur when she wished for coitus.
+
+[254] As Gilles de la Tourette points out, it is not difficult to show
+that epilepsy, the _morbus sacer_ of the ancients, owed much of its sacred
+character to this confusion with hysteria. Those priestesses who, struck
+by the _morbus sacer_, gave forth their oracles amid convulsions, were
+certainly not the victims of epilepsy, but of hysteria (_Traite de
+l'Hysterie_, vol. i, p. 3).
+
+[255] Aretaeus, _On the Causes and Symptoms of Acute Diseases_, Book ii,
+Chapter II.
+
+[256] It may be noted that this treatment furnishes another instance of
+the continuity of therapeutic methods, through all changes of theory, from
+the earliest to the latest times. Drugs of unpleasant odor, like
+asafoetida, have always been used in hysteria, and scientific medicine
+to-day still finds that asafoetida is a powerful sedative to the uterus,
+controlling nervous conditions during pregnancy and arresting uterine
+irritation when abortion is threatened (see, e.g., Warman, _Der
+Frauenarzt_, August, 1895). Again, the rubbing of fragrant ointments into
+the sexual regions is but a form of that massage which is one of the
+modern methods of treating the sexual disorders of women.
+
+[257] _Les Demoniaques dans l'Art_, 1887; _Les Malades et les Difformes
+dans l'Art_, 1889.
+
+[258] Glafira Abricosoff, of Moscow, in her Paris thesis, _L'Hysterie aux
+xvii et xviii siecles_, 1897, presents a summary of the various views held
+at this time; as also Gilles de la Tourette, _Traite de l'Hysterie_, vol.
+i, Chapter I.
+
+[259] _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, June, 1883, p. 1123, and _Mental
+Diseases_, 1887, p. 488.
+
+[260] Hegar, _Zusammenhang der Geschlechtskrankheiten mit nervoesen
+Leiden_, Stuttgart, 1885. (Hegar, however, went much further than this,
+and was largely responsible for the surgical treatment of hysteria now
+generally recognized as worse than futile.) Balls-Headley, "Etiology of
+Nervous Diseases of the Female Genital Organs," Allbutt and Playfair,
+_System of Gynecology_, 1896, p. 141.
+
+[261] Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_, 1893, pp. 613-14.
+
+[262] Charcot and Marie, article on "Hysteria," Tuke's _Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine_.
+
+[263] Axenfeld and Huchard, _Traite des Nevroses_, 1883, pp. 1092-94.
+Icard (_La Femme pendant la Periode Menstruelle_, pp. 120-21) has also
+referred to recorded cases of hysteria in animals (Coste's and Peter's
+cases), as has Gilles de la Tourette (op. cit., vol. i, p. 123). See also,
+for references, Fere, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, p. 59.
+
+[264] _Man and Woman_, 4th ed., p. 326. A distinguished gynaecologist,
+Matthews Duncan, had remarked some years earlier (_Lancet_, May 18, 1889)
+that hysteria, though not a womb disease, "especially attaches itself to
+the generative system, because the genital system, more than any other,
+exerts emotional power over the individual, power also in morals, power in
+social questions."
+
+[265] Gilles de la Tourette, _Archives de Tocologie et de Gynecologie_,
+June, 1895.
+
+[266] _Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria_, 1897, p. 290; summarized in
+the _Journal of Mental Science_, January, 1898.
+
+[267] From the earliest times it was held that menstruation favors
+hysteria; more recently, Landouzy recorded a number of observations
+showing that hysterical attacks coincide with perfectly healthy
+menstruation; while Ball has maintained that it is only during
+menstruation that hysteria appears in its true color. See the opinions
+collected by Icard, _La Femme pendant la Periode Menstruelle_, pp. 75-81.
+
+[268] Krafft-Ebing, "Ueber Neurosen und Psychosen durch Sexuelle
+Abstinenz," _Jahrbuecher fuer Psychiatrie_, vol. iii, 1888. It must,
+however, be added that the relief of hysteria by sexual satisfaction is
+not rare, and that Rosenthal finds that the convulsions are thus
+diminished. (_Allgemeine Wiener Medizinal-Zeitung_, Nos. 46 and 47, 1887.)
+So they are also, in simple and uncomplicated cases, according to Mongeri,
+by pregnancy.
+
+[269] "All doctors who have patients in convents," remarks Marro (_La
+Puberta_, p. 338), "know how hysteria dominates among them;" he adds that
+his own experience confirms that of Raciborski, who found that nuns
+devoted to the contemplative life are more liable to hysteria than those
+who are occupied in teaching or in nursing. It must be added, however,
+that there is not unanimity as to the prevalence of hysteria in convents.
+Brachet was of the same opinion as Briquet, and so considered it rare.
+Imbert-Goubeyre, also (_La Stigmatisation_, p. 436) states that during
+more than forty years of medical life, though he has been connected with a
+number of religious communities, he has not found in them a single
+hysterical subject, the reason being, he remarks, that the unbalanced and
+extravagant are refused admission to the cloister.
+
+[270] Parent-Duchatelet, _De la Prostitution_, vol. i, p. 242.
+
+[271] It may not be unnecessary to point out that here and throughout, in
+speaking of the psychic mechanism of hysteria, I do not admit that any
+process can be _purely_ psychic. As Fere puts it in an admirable study of
+hysteria (_Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine_, 1897, vol. x, p. 556):
+"In the genesis of hysterical troubles everything takes place as if the
+psychical and the somatic phenomena were two aspects of the same
+biological fact."
+
+[272] Pierre Janet, _L'Automatisme Psychologique_, 1889; _L'Etat mental
+des Hysteriques_, 1894; _Nevroses et Idees fixes_, 1898; Breuer und Freud,
+_Studien ueber Hysterie_, Vienna, 1895; the best introduction to Freud's
+work is, however, to be found in the two series of his _Sammlung Kleiner
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, published in a collected form in 1906 and
+1909. It may be added that a useful selection of Freud's papers has lately
+(1909) been published in English.
+
+[273] We might, perhaps, even say that in hysteria the so-called higher
+centres have an abnormally strong inhibitory influence over the lower
+centres. Gioffredi (_Gazzetta degli Ospedali_, October 1, 1895) has shown
+that some hysterical symptoms, such as mutism, can be cured by
+etherization, thus loosening the control of the higher centres.
+
+[274] Charcot's school could not fail to recognize the erotic tone which
+often dominates hysterical hallucinations. Gilles de la Tourette seeks to
+minimize it by the remark that "it is more mental than real." He means to
+say that it is more psychic than physical, but he implies that the
+physical element in sex is alone "real," a strange assumption in any case,
+as well as destructive of Gilles de la Tourette's own fundamental
+assertion that hysteria is a real disease and yet purely psychic.
+
+[275] See, e.g., his substantial volume, _Die Traumdeutung_, 1900, 2d ed.
+1909.
+
+[276] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 208.
+
+[277] _Studien ueber Hysterie_, p. 217.
+
+[278] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 162.
+
+[279] _Sammlung_, second series, p. 102.
+
+[280] Ib. p. 146.
+
+[281] _Sammlung_, first series, p. 229. Freud has developed his conception
+of sexual constitution in _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905.
+
+[282] As Moll remarks, Freud's conceptions are still somewhat subjective,
+and in need of objective demonstration; but whatever may be thought of
+their theories, he adds, there can be no doubt that Breuer and Freud have
+done a great service by calling attention to the important action of the
+sexual life on the nervous system.
+
+[283] Gertrude Stein, "Cultivated Motor Automatism," _Psychological
+Review_, May, 1898.
+
+[284] Charcot's most faithful followers refuse to recognize a "hysteric
+temperament," and are quite right, if such a conception is used to destroy
+the conception of hysteria as a definite disease. We cannot, however, fail
+to recognize a diathesis which, while still apparently healthy, is
+predisposed to hysteria. So distinguished a disciple of Charcot as Janet
+thoroughly recognizes this, and argues (_L'Etat mental_, etc., p. 298)
+that "we may find in the habits, the passions, the psychic automatism of
+the normal man, the germ of all hysterical phenomena." Fere held a
+somewhat similar view.
+
+[285] A.F.A. King, "Hysteria," _American Journal of Obstetrics_, May 18,
+1891.
+
+[286] M. Rosenthal, _Diseases of the Nervous System_, vol. ii, p. 44. Fere
+notes similar cases (_Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine_, vol. x, p.
+551). Long previously, Gall had recorded the case of a young widow of
+ardent temperament who had convulsive attacks, apparently of hysterical
+nature, which always terminated in sexual orgasm (_Fonctions du Cerveau_,
+1825, vol. iii, p. 245).
+
+[287] There seems to be a greater necessity for such explosive
+manifestations in women than in men, whatever the reason may be. I have
+brought together some of the evidence pointing in this direction in _Man
+and Woman_, 4th ed., revised and enlarged, Chapters xii and xiii.
+
+[288] There is no doubt an element of real truth in this ancient belief,
+though it mainly holds good of minor cases of hysteria. Many excellent
+authorities accept it. "Hysteria is certainly common in the single,"
+Herman remarks (_Diseases of Women_, 1898, p. 33), "and is generally cured
+by a happy marriage." Loewenfeld (_Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, p. 153)
+says that "it cannot be denied that marriage produces a beneficial change
+in the general condition of many hysterical patients," though, he adds, it
+will not remove the hysterical temperament. The advantage of marriage for
+the hysterical is not necessarily due, solely or at all, to the exercise
+of sexual functions. This is pointed out by Mongeri, who observes
+(_Allgemeine Zeitschrift fuer Psychiatrie_, 1901, Heft 5, p. 917): "I have
+known and treated several hysterical girls who are now married, and do not
+show the least neuropathic indications. Some of these no longer have any
+wish for sexual gratification, and even fulfil their marital duties
+unwillingly, though loving their husbands and living with them in an
+extremely happy way. In my opinion, marriage is a sovereign remedy for
+neuropathic women, who need to find a support in another personality, able
+to share with them the battle of life."
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+The Prevalence of Masturbation--Its Occurrence in Infancy and
+Childhood--Is it More Frequent in Males or Females?--After Adolescence
+Apparently more Frequent in Women--Reasons for the Sexual Distribution of
+Masturbation--The Alleged Evils of Masturbation--Historical Sketch of the
+Views Held on This Point--The Symptoms and Results of Masturbation--Its
+Alleged Influence in Causing Eye Disorders--Its Relation to Insanity and
+Nervous Disorders--The Evil Effects of Masturbation Usually Occur on the
+Basis of a Congenitally Morbid Nervous System--Neurasthenia Probably the
+Commonest Accompaniment of Excessive Masturbation--Precocious Masturbation
+Tends to Produce Aversion to Coitus--Psychic Results of Habitual
+Masturbation--Masturbation in Men of Genius--Masturbation as a Nervous
+Sedative--Typical Cases--The Greek Attitude toward Masturbation--Attitude
+of the Catholic Theologians--The Mohammedan Attitude--The Modern
+Scientific Attitude--In What Sense is Masturbation Normal?--The Immense
+Part in Life Played by Transmuted Auto-erotic Phenomena.
+
+
+The foregoing sketch will serve to show how vast is the field of life--of
+normal and not merely abnormal life--more or less infused by auto-erotic
+phenomena. If, however, we proceed to investigate precisely the exact
+extent, degree, and significance of such phenomena, we are met by many
+difficulties. We find, indeed, that no attempts have been made to study
+auto-erotic phenomena, except as regards the group--a somewhat artificial
+group, as I have already tried to show--collected under the term
+"masturbation" while even here such attempts have only been made among
+abnormal classes of people, or have been conducted in a manner scarcely
+likely to yield reliable results.[289] Still there is a certain
+significance in the more careful investigations which have been made to
+ascertain the precise frequency of masturbation.
+
+Berger, an experienced specialist in nervous diseases, concluded, in his
+_Vorlesungen_, that 99 per cent. of young men and women masturbate
+occasionally, while the hundredth conceals the truth;[290] and Hermann
+Cohn appears to accept this statement as generally true in Germany. So
+high an estimate has, of course, been called in question, and, since it
+appears to rest on no basis of careful investigation, we need not
+seriously consider it. It is useless to argue on suppositions; we must
+cling to our definite evidence, even though it yields figures which are
+probably below the mark. Rohleder considers that during adolescence at
+least 95 per cent. of both sexes masturbate, but his figures are not
+founded on precise investigation.[291] Julian Marcuse, on the basis of his
+own statistics, concludes that 92 per cent. male individuals have to some
+extent masturbated in youth. Perhaps, also, weight attaches to the opinion
+of Dukes, physician to Rugby School, who states that from 90 to 95 per
+cent. of all boys at boarding school masturbate.[292] Seerley, of
+Springfield, Mass., found that of 125 academic students only 8 assured him
+they had never masturbated; while of 347, who answered his questions, 71
+denied that they practiced masturbation, which seems to imply that 79 per
+cent. admitted that they practiced it.[293] Brockman, also in America,
+among 232 theological students, of the average age of 231/2 years and coming
+from various parts of the United States, found that 132 spontaneously
+admitted that masturbation was their most serious temptation and all but
+one of these admitted that he yielded, 69 of them to a considerable
+extent. This is a proportion of at least 56 per cent., the real proportion
+being doubtless larger, since no question had been asked as to sexual
+offenses; 75 practiced masturbation after conversion, and 24 after they
+had decided to become ministers; only 66 mentioned sexual intercourse as
+their chief temptation; but altogether sexual temptations outnumbered all
+others together.[294] Moraglia, who made inquiry of 200 women of the lower
+class in Italy, found that 120 acknowledged either that they still
+masturbate or that they had done so during a long period.[295] Gualino
+found that 23 per cent. men of the professional classes in North Italy
+masturbate about puberty; no account was taken of those who began later.
+"Here in Switzerland," a correspondent writes, "I have had occasion to
+learn from adult men, whom I can trust, that they have reached the age of
+twenty-five, or over, without sexual congress. '_Wir haben nicht dieses
+Beduerfniss_,' is what they say. But I believe that, in the case of the
+Swiss mountaineers, moderate onanism is practiced, as a rule." In hot
+countries the same habits are found at a more precocious age. In
+Venezuela, for instance, among the Spanish creoles, Ernst found that in
+all classes boys and girls are infested with the vice of onanism. They
+learn it early, in the very beginning of life, from their wet-nurses,
+generally low Mulatto women, and many reasons help to foster the habit;
+the young men are often dissipated and the young women often remain
+single.[296] Niceforo, who shows a special knowledge of the working-girl
+class at Rome, states that in many milliners' and dressmakers' workrooms,
+where young girls are employed, it frequently happens that during the
+hottest hours of the day, between twelve and two, when the mistress or
+forewoman is asleep, all the girls without exception give themselves up to
+masturbation.[297] In France a country _cure_ assured Debreyne that among
+the little girls who come up for their first communion, 11 out of 12 were
+given to masturbation.[298] The medical officer of a Prussian reformatory
+told Rohleder that nearly all the inmates over the age of puberty
+masturbated. Stanley Hall knew a reform school in America where
+masturbation was practiced without exception, and he who could practice
+it oftenest was regarded with hero-worship.[299] Ferriani, who has made an
+elaborate study of youthful criminality in Italy, states that even if all
+boys and girls among the general population do not masturbate, it is
+certainly so among those who have a tendency to crime. Among 458 adult
+male criminals, Marro (as he states in his _Caratteri dei Delinquenti_)
+found that only 72 denied masturbation, while 386 had practiced it from an
+early age, 140 of them before the age of thirteen. Among 30 criminal women
+Moraglia found that 24 acknowledged the practice, at all events in early
+youth (8 of them before the age of 10, a precocity accompanied by average
+precocity in menstruation), while he suspected that most of the remainder
+were not unfamiliar with the practice. Among prostitutes of whatever class
+or position Moraglia found masturbation (though it must be pointed out
+that he does not appear to distinguish masturbation very clearly from
+homosexual practices) to be universal; in one group of 50 prostitutes
+everyone had practiced masturbation at some period; 28 began between the
+ages of 6 and 11; 19, between 12 and 14, the most usual period--a
+precocious one--of commencing puberty; the remaining 3 at 15 and 16; the
+average age of commencing masturbation, it may be added, was 11, while
+that of the first sexual intercourse was 15.[300] In a larger group of 180
+prostitutes, belonging to Genoa, Turin, Venice, etc., and among 23
+"elegant cocottes," of Italian and foreign origin, Moraglia obtained the
+same results; everyone admitted masturbation, and not less than 113
+preferred masturbation, either solitary or mutual, to normal coitus. Among
+the insane, as among idiots, masturbation is somewhat more common among
+males, according to Blandford, in England, as also it is in Germany,
+according to Naecke,[301] while Venturi, in Italy, has found it more common
+among females.[302]
+
+There appears to be no limit to the age at which spontaneous masturbation
+may begin to appear. I have already referred to the practice of
+thigh-rubbing in infants under one year of age. J.P. West has reported in
+detail 3 cases of masturbation in very early childhood--2 in girls, 1 in a
+boy--in which the practice had been acquired spontaneously, and could only
+be traced to some source of irritation in pressure from clothing,
+etc.[303] Probably there is often in such cases some hereditary lack of
+nervous stability. Block has recorded the case of a girl--very bright for
+her age, though excessively shy and taciturn--who began masturbating
+spontaneously at the age of two; in this case the mother had masturbated
+all her life, even continuing the practice after marriage, and, though she
+succeeded in refraining during pregnancy, her thoughts still dwelt upon
+it, while the maternal grandmother had died in an asylum from
+"masturbatory insanity."
+
+Freud considers that auto-erotic manifestations are common in infancy, and
+that the rhythmic function of any sensitive spot, primarily the lips, may
+easily pass into masturbation. He regards the infantile manifestations of
+which thumb-sucking is the most familiar example (Luedeln or Lutschen in
+German) as auto-erotic, the germ arising in sucking the breasts since the
+lips are an erogenous zone which may easily be excited by the warm stream
+of milk. But this only occurs, he points out, in subjects in whom the
+sensitivity of the lip zone is heightened and especially in those who at a
+later age are liable to become hysterical.[304] Shuttleworth also points
+out that the mere fidgetiness of a neurotic infant, even when only a few
+months old, sometimes leads to the spontaneous and accidental discovery of
+pleasurable sexual sensations, which for a time appease the restlessness
+of nervous instability, though a vicious circle is thus established. He
+has found that, especially among quite young girls of neurotic heredity,
+self-induced excitement, often in the form of thigh-friction, is more
+common than is usually supposed.[305]
+
+Normally there appears to be a varying aptitude to experience the sexual
+organism, or any voluptuous sensations before puberty. I find, on
+eliciting the recollections of normal persons, that in some cases there
+have been voluptuous sensations from casual contact with the sexual organs
+at a very early age; in other cases there has been occasional slight
+excitement from early years; in yet other cases complete sexual anaesthesia
+until the age of puberty. That the latter condition is not due to mere
+absence of peripheral irritation is shown by a case I am acquainted with,
+in which a boy of 7, incited by a companion, innocently attempted, at
+intervals during several weeks, to produce erection by friction of the
+penis; no result of any kind followed, although erections occurred
+spontaneously at puberty, with normal sexual feelings.[306]
+
+    I am indebted to a correspondent for the following notes:--
+
+    "From my observation during five years at a boarding-school, it
+    _seems_ that eight out of ten boys were more or less addicted to
+    the practice. But I would not state _positively_ that such was
+    the proportion of masturbators among an average of thirty pupils,
+    though the habit was very common. I know that in one bedroom,
+    sleeping seven boys, the whole number masturbated frequently. The
+    act was performed in bed, in the closets, and sometimes in the
+    classrooms during lessons. Inquiry among my friends as to onanism
+    in the boarding-schools to which they were sent, elicited
+    somewhat contradictory answers concerning the frequency of the
+    habit. Dr. ----, who went to a French school, told me that _all_
+    the older boys had younger accomplices in mutual masturbation. He
+    also spoke with experience of the prevalence of the practice in a
+    well-known public school in the west of England. B. said _all_
+    the boys at his school masturbated; G. stated that _most_ of his
+    schoolmates were onanists; L. said 'more than half' was the
+    proportion.
+
+    "At my school, manual masturbation was both solitary and mutual;
+    and sometimes younger boys, who had not acquired the habit, were
+    induced to manipulate bigger boys. One very precocious boy of
+    fifteen always chose a companion of ten 'because his hand was
+    like a woman's.' Sometimes boys entered their friend's bed for
+    mutual excitement. In after-life they showed no signs of
+    inversion. Another boy, aged about fourteen, who had been seduced
+    by a servant-girl, embraced the bolster; the pleasurable
+    sensations, according to his statement, were heightened by
+    imagining that the bolster was a woman. He said that the
+    enjoyment of the act was greatly increased during the holidays,
+    when he was able to spread a pair of his sister's drawers upon
+    the pillow, and so intensify the illusion.
+
+    "Before puberty the boys appeared to be more continent than
+    afterward. A few of the older and more intelligent masturbators
+    regulated the habit, as some married men regulate intercourse.
+    The big boy referred to, who chose always the same manipulator,
+    professed to indulge only once in twenty days, his reason being
+    that more frequent repetition of the act would injure his health.
+    About twice a week for boys who had reached puberty, and once a
+    week for younger boys, was, I think, about the average
+    indulgence. I have never met with a parallel of one of those
+    cases of excessive masturbation recorded by many doctors. There
+    may have been such cases at this school; but, if so, the boys
+    concealed the frequency of their gratifications.
+
+    "My experience proved that many of the lads regarded masturbation
+    as reprehensible; but their plea was 'everyone does it.' Some,
+    often those who indulged inordinately and more secretly than
+    their companions, gravely condemned the practice as sinful. A few
+    seemed to think there was 'no harm in it,' but that the habit
+    might stunt the growth and weaken the body if practiced very
+    frequently. The greater number made no attempt to conceal the
+    habit, they enlarged upon the pleasure of it; it was 'ever so
+    much nicer than eating tarts,' etc.
+
+    "The chief cause I believe to be initiation by an older
+    schoolmate. But I have known accidental causes, such as the
+    discovery that swarming up a pole pleasurably excited the organ,
+    rubbing to allay irritation, and simple, curious handling of the
+    erect penis in the early morning before rising from bed."
+
+    I quote the foregoing communication as perhaps a fairly typical
+    experience in a British school, though I am myself inclined to
+    think that the prevalence of masturbation in schools is often
+    much overrated, for, while in some schools the practice is
+    doubtless rampant, in others it is practically unknown, or, at
+    all events, only practiced by a few individuals in secret. My own
+    early recollections of (private) school-life fail to yield any
+    reminiscences of any kind connected with either masturbation or
+    homosexuality; and, while such happy ignorance may be the
+    exception rather than the rule, I am certainly inclined to
+    believe that--owing to race and climate, and healthier conditions
+    of life--the sexual impulse is less precocious and less
+    prominently developed during the school-age in England than in
+    some Continental countries. It is probably to this delayed
+    development that we should attribute the contrast that Ferrero
+    finds (_L'Europa Giovane_, pp. 151-56), and certainly states too
+    absolutely, between the sexual reserve of young Englishmen and
+    the sexual immodesty of his own countrymen.
+
+    In Germany, Naecke has also stated ("Kritisches zum Kapitel der
+    Sexualitaet," _Archiv fuer Psychiatrie_, pp. 354-56, 1899) that he
+    heard nothing at school either of masturbation or homosexuality,
+    and he records the experience of medical friends who stated that
+    such phenomena were only rare exceptions, and regarded by the
+    majority of the boys as exhibitions of "_Schweinerei_." At other
+    German schools, as Hoche has shown, sexual practices are very
+    prevalent. It is evident that at different schools, and even at
+    the same school at different times, these manifestations vary in
+    frequency within wide limits.
+
+    Such variations, it seems to me, are due to two causes. In the
+    first place, they largely depend upon the character of the more
+    influential elder boys. In the second place, they depend upon the
+    attitude of the head-master. With reference to this point I may
+    quote from a letter written by an experienced master in one of
+    the most famous English public schools: "When I first came to
+    ----, a quarter of a century ago, Dr. ---- was making a crusade
+    against this failing; boys were sent away wholesale; the school
+    was summoned and lectured solemnly; and the more the severities,
+    the more rampant the disease. I thought to myself that the remedy
+    was creating the malady, and I heard afterward, from an old boy,
+    that in those days they used to talk things over by the fireside,
+    and think there must be something very choice in a sin that
+    braved so much. Dr. ---- went, and, under ----, we never spoke of
+    such things. Curiosity died down, and the thing itself, I
+    believe, was lessened. We were told to warn new boys of the
+    dangers to health and morals of such offences, lest the innocent
+    should be caught in ignorance. I have only spoken to a few; I
+    think the great thing is not to put it in boys' heads. I have
+    noticed solitary faults most commonly, and then I tell the boy
+    how he is physically weakening himself. If you notice, it is
+    puppies that seem to go against Nature, but grown dogs, never.
+    So, if two small boys acted thus, I should think it merely an
+    instinctive feeling after Nature, which would amend itself. Many
+    here would consider it a heinous sin, but those who think such
+    things sins make them sins. I have seen, in the old days, most
+    delightful little children sent away, branded with infamy, and
+    scarce knowing why--you might as well expel a boy for scratching
+    his head when it itched. I am sure the soundest way is to treat
+    it as a doctor would, and explain to the boy the physical effects
+    of over-indulgence of any sort. When it is combated from the
+    monkish standpoint, the evil becomes an epidemic." I am, however,
+    far from anxious to indorse the policy of ignoring the sexual
+    phenomena of youth. It is not the speaking about such things that
+    should be called in question, but the wisdom and good sense of
+    the speaker. We ought to expect a head-master to possess both an
+    adequate acquaintance with the nature of the phenomena of
+    auto-erotism and homosexuality, and a reasonable amount of tact
+    in dealing with boys; he may then fairly be trusted to exercise
+    his own judgment. It may be doubted whether boys should be made
+    too alive to the existence of sexual phenomena; there can be no
+    doubt about their teachers. The same is, of course, true as
+    regards girls, among whom the same phenomena, though less
+    obtrusive, are not less liable to occur.
+
+As to whether masturbation is more common in one sex than the other, there
+have been considerable differences of opinion. Tissot considered it more
+prevalent among women; Christian believed it commoner among men; Deslandes
+and Iwan Bloch hold that there are no sexual differences, and Garnier was
+doubtful. Lawson Tait, in his _Diseases of Women_, stated his opinion that
+in England, while very common among boys, it is relatively rare among
+women, and then usually taught. Spitzka, in America, also found it
+relatively rare among women, and Dana considers it commoner in boys than
+in girls or adults.[307] Moll is inclined to think that masturbation is
+less common in women and girls than in the male sex. Rohleder believes
+that after puberty, when it is equally common in both sexes, it is more
+frequently found in men, but that women masturbate with more passion and
+imaginative fervor.[308] Kellogg, in America, says it is equally prevalent
+in both sexes, but that women are more secretive. Morris, also in America,
+considers, on the other hand, that persistent masturbation is commoner in
+women, and accounts for this by the healthier life and traditions of boys.
+Pouillet, who studied the matter with considerable thoroughness in France,
+came to the conclusion that masturbation is commoner among women, among
+whom he found it to be equally prevalent in rich and poor, and especially
+so in the great centres of civilization. In Russia, Guttceit states in his
+_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, that from the ages of 10 to 16 boys masturbate
+more than girls, who know less about the practice which has not for them
+the charm of the forbidden, but after 16 he finds the practice more
+frequent in girls and women than in youths and men. Naecke, in Germany,
+believes that there is much evidence pointing in the same direction, and
+Adler considers masturbation very common in women. Moraglia is decidedly
+of the opinion, on the ground of his own observations already alluded to,
+that masturbation is more frequent among women; he refers to the fact--a
+very significant fact, as I shall elsewhere have to point out--that, while
+in man there is only one sexual centre, the penis, in woman there are
+several centres,--the clitoris, the vagina, the uterus, the
+breasts,[309]--and he mentions that he knew a prostitute, a well-developed
+brunette of somewhat nervous temperament, who boasted that she knew
+fourteen ways of masturbating herself.
+
+My own opinion is that the question of the sexual distribution of
+masturbation has been somewhat obscured by that harmful tendency, to which
+I have already alluded, to concentrate attention on a particular set of
+auto-erotic phenomena. We must group and divide our facts rationally if we
+wish to command them. If we confine our attention to very young children,
+the available evidence shows that the practice is much more common in
+females,[310] and such a result is in harmony with the fact that
+precocious puberty is most often found in female children.[311] At
+puberty and adolescence occasional or frequent masturbation is common in
+both boys and girls, though, I believe, less common than is sometimes
+supposed; it is difficult to say whether it is more prevalent among boys
+or girls; one is inclined to conclude that it prevails more widely among
+boys. The sexual impulse, and consequently the tendency to masturbation,
+tend to be aroused later, and less easily in girls than in youths, though
+it must also be remembered that boys' traditions and their more active
+life keep the tendency in abeyance, while in girls there is much less
+frequently any restraining influence of corresponding character.[312] In
+my study of inversion I have found that ignorance and the same absence of
+tradition are probably factors in the prevalence of homosexual tendencies
+among women.[313] After adolescence I think there can be no doubt that
+masturbation is more common in women than in men. Men have, by this time,
+mostly adopted some method of sexual gratification with the opposite sex;
+women are to a much larger extent shut out from such gratification;
+moreover, while in rare cases women are sexually precocious, it more often
+happens that their sexual impulses only gain strength and
+self-consciousness after adolescence has passed. I have been much
+impressed by the frequency with which masturbation is occasionally
+(especially about the period of menstruation) practiced by active,
+intelligent, and healthy women who otherwise lead a chaste life. This
+experience is confirmed by others who are in a position to ascertain the
+facts among normal people; thus a lady, who has received the confidence of
+many women, told me that she believes that all women who remain unmarried
+masturbate, as she found so much evidence pointing in this direction.[314]
+This statement certainly needs some qualification, though I believe it is
+not far from the truth as regards young and healthy women who, after
+having normal sexual relationships, have been compelled for some reason or
+other to break them off and lead a lonely life.[315] But we have to
+remember that there are some women, evidently with a considerable degree
+of congenital sexual anaesthesia (no doubt, in some respect or another
+below the standard of normal health), in whom the sexual instinct has
+never been aroused, and who not only do not masturbate, but do not show
+any desire for normal gratification; while in a large proportion of other
+cases the impulse is gratified passively in ways I have already referred
+to. The auto-erotic phenomena which take place in this way, spontaneously,
+by yielding to revery, with little or no active interference, certainly
+occur much more frequently in women than in men. On the other hand,
+contrary to what one might be led to expect, the closely-related
+auto-erotic phenomena during sleep seem to take place more frequently in
+men, although in women, as we have found ground for concluding, they
+reverberate much more widely and impressively on the waking psychical
+life.
+
+    We owe to Restif de la Bretonne what is perhaps the earliest
+    precise description of a woman masturbating. In 1755 he knew a
+    dark young woman, plain but well-made, and of warm temperament,
+    educated in a convent. She was observed one day, when gazing from
+    her window at a young man in whom she was tenderly interested, to
+    become much excited. "Her movements became agitated; I approached
+    her, and really believe that she was uttering affectionate
+    expressions; she had become red. Then she sighed deeply, and
+    became motionless, stretching out her legs, which she stiffened,
+    as if she felt pain." It is further hinted that her hands took
+    part in this manoeuvre (_Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. vi, p. 143).
+
+    Pictorial representations of a woman masturbating also occur in
+    eighteenth century engravings. Thus, in France, Baudouin's "Le
+    Midi" (reproduced in Fuchs's _Das Erotische Element in der
+    Karikatur_, Fig. 92), represents an elegant young lady in a
+    rococo garden-bower; she has been reading a book she has now just
+    dropped, together with her sunshade; she leans languorously back,
+    and her hand begins to find its way through her placket-hole.
+
+    Adler, who has studied masturbation in women with more care than
+    any previous writer, has recorded in detail the auto-erotic
+    manifestations involved in the case of an intelligent and
+    unprejudiced woman, aged 30, who had begun masturbating when
+    twenty, and practiced it at intervals of a few weeks. She
+    experienced the desire for sexual gratification under the
+    following circumstances: (1) spontaneously, directly before or
+    after menstruation; (2) as a method to cure sleeplessness; (3)
+    after washing the parts with warm (but not cold) water; (4) after
+    erotic dreams; (5) quite suddenly, without definite cause. The
+    phenomena of the masturbatory process fell into two stages: (1)
+    incomplete excitement, (2) the highest pleasurable gratification.
+    It only took place in the evening, or at night, and a special
+    position was necessary, with the right knee bent, and the right
+    foot against the knee of the extended left leg. The bent index
+    and middle fingers of the right hand were then applied firmly to
+    the lower third of the left labium minus, which was rubbed
+    against the underlying parts. At this stage, the manifestations
+    sometimes stopped, either from an effort of self-control or from
+    fatigue of the arm. There was no emission of mucus, or general
+    perspiration, but some degree of satisfaction and of fatigue,
+    followed by sleep. If, however, the manipulation was continued,
+    the second stage was reached, and the middle finger sank into the
+    vagina, while the index finger remained on the labium, the rest
+    of the hand holding and compressing the whole of the vulva, from
+    pubes to anus, against the symphysis, with a backwards and
+    forwards movement, the left hand also being frequently used to
+    support and assist the right. The parts now gave a mushroom-like
+    feeling to the touch, and in a few seconds, or after a longer
+    interval, the complete feeling of pleasurable satisfaction was
+    attained. At the same moment there was (but only after she had
+    had experience of coitus) an involuntary elevation of the pelvis,
+    together with emission of mucus, making the hand wet, this mucus
+    having an odor, and being quite distinct from the ordinary
+    odorless mucus of the vagina; at the same time, the finger in the
+    vagina felt slight contractions of the whole vaginal wall. The
+    climax of sexual pleasure lasted a few seconds, with its
+    concomitant vaginal contractions, then slowly subsided with a
+    feeling of general well-being, the finger at the same time
+    slipping out of the vagina, and she was left in a state of
+    general perspiration, and sleep would immediately follow; when
+    this was not the case, she was frequently conscious of some
+    degree of sensibility in the sacrum, lasting for several hours,
+    and especially felt when sitting. When masturbation was the
+    result of an erotic dream (which occurred but seldom), the first
+    stage was already reached in sleep, and the second was more
+    quickly obtained. During the act it was only occasionally that
+    any thoughts of men or of coitus were present, the attention
+    being fixed on the coming climax. The psychic state afterwards
+    was usually one of self-reproach. (O. Adler, _Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, 1904, pp. 26-29.) The
+    phenomena in this case may be regarded as fairly typical, but
+    there are many individual variations; mucus emissions and vaginal
+    contractions frequently occur before actual orgasm, and there is
+    not usually any insertion of the finger into the vagina in women
+    who have never experienced coitus, or, indeed, even in those who
+    have.
+
+We must now turn to that aspect of our subject which in the past has
+always seemed the only aspect of auto-erotic phenomena meriting attention:
+the symptoms and results of chronic masturbation. It appears to have been
+an Englishman who, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, first
+called popular attention to the supposed evils of masturbation. His book
+was published in London, and entitled: _Onania, or the Heinous Sin of
+Self-pollution, and all its Frightful Consequences in both Sexes,
+Considered, with Spiritual and Physical Advice_, etc. It is not a serious
+medical treatise, but an early and certainly superior example of a kind of
+literature which we have since become familiar with through the daily
+newspapers. A large part of the book, which is cleverly written, is
+devoted in the later editions to the letters of nervous and
+hypochondriacal young men and women, who are too shy to visit the author,
+but request him to send a bottle of his "Strengthening Tincture," and
+mention that they are inclosing half a guinea, a guinea, or still larger
+sum. Concerning the composition of the "Strengthening Tincture" we are not
+informed.[316] This work, which was subsequently attributed to a writer
+named Bekkers, is said to have passed through no less than eighty
+editions, and it was translated into German. Tissot, a physician of
+Lausanne, followed with his _Traite de l'Onanisme: Dissertation sur les
+Maladies produites par la Masturbation_, first published in Latin (1760),
+then in French (1764), and afterward in nearly all European languages. He
+regarded masturbation as a crime, and as "an act of suicide." His book is
+a production of amusing exaggeration and rhetoric, zealously setting forth
+the prodigious evils of masturbation in a style which combines, as
+Christian remarks, the strains of Rousseau with a vein of religious piety.
+Tissot included only manual self-abuse under the term "onanism;" shortly
+afterward, Voltaire, in his _Dictionnaire Philosophique_, took up the
+subject, giving it a wider meaning and still further popularizing it.
+Finally Lallemand, at a somewhat later period (1836), wrote a book which
+was, indeed, more scientific in character, but which still sought to
+represent masturbation as the source of all evils. These four writers--the
+author of _Onania_, Tissot, Voltaire, Lallemand--are certainly responsible
+for much. The mistaken notions of many medical authorities, carried on by
+tradition, even down to our own time; the powerful lever which has been
+put into the hand of unscrupulous quacks; the suffering, dread, and
+remorse experienced in silence by many thousands of ignorant and often
+innocent young people may all be traced in large measure back to these
+four well-meaning, but (on this question) misguided, authors.
+
+There is really no end to the list of real or supposed symptoms and
+results of masturbation, as given by various medical writers during the
+last century. Insanity, epilepsy, numerous forms of eye disease,
+supra-orbital headache, occipital headache (Spitzka), strange sensations
+at the top of the head (Savage), various forms of neuralgia (Anstie, J.
+Chapman), tenderness of the skin in the lower dorsal region (Chapman),
+mammary tenderness in young girls (Lacassagne), mammary hypertrophy
+(Ossendovsky), asthma (Peyer), cardiac murmurs (Seerley), the appearance
+of vesicles on wounds (Baraduc), acne and other forms of cutaneous
+eruptions (the author of _Onania_, Clipson), dilated pupils (Skene,
+Lewis, Moraglia), eyes directed upward and sideways (Pouillet), dark rings
+around the eyes, intermittent functional deafness (Bonnier), painful
+menstruation (J. Chapman), catarrh of uterus and vagina (Winckel,
+Pouillet), ovarian disease (Jessett), pale and discolored skin (Lewis,
+Moraglia), redness of nose (Gruner), epistaxis (Joal, J.N. Mackenzie),
+morbid changes in nose (Fliess), convulsive cough of puberty (Gowers),
+acidity of vagina (R.W. Shufeldt), incontinence of urine in young women
+(Girandeau), warts on the hands in women (Durr, Kreichmar, von Oye),
+hallucinations of smell and hearing, (Griesinger, Lewis), intermittent
+functional deafness (Bonnier), indican in the urine (Herter), an
+indescribable odor of the skin in women (Skene), these are but a few of
+the signs and consequences of masturbation given by various prominent
+authorities.[317]
+
+That many of these manifestations do occur in connection with masturbation
+is unquestionable; there is also good reason to believe that some of them
+may be the results of masturbation acting on an imperfectly healthy
+organism. But in all such cases we must speak with great caution, for
+there appears to be little reliable evidence to show that simple
+masturbation, in a well-born and healthy individual, can produce any evil
+results beyond slight functional disturbances, and these only when it is
+practiced in excess. To illustrate the real pathological relationships of
+masturbation, a few typical and important disorders may be briefly
+considered.
+
+The delicate mechanism of the eye is one of the first portions of the
+nervous apparatus to be disturbed by any undue strain on the system; it is
+not surprising that masturbation should be widely incriminated as a cause
+of eye troubles. If, however, we inquire into the results obtained by the
+most cautious and experienced ophthalmological observers, it grows evident
+that masturbation, as a cause of disease of the eye, becomes merged into
+wider causes. In Germany, Hermann Cohn, the distinguished ophthalmic
+surgeon of Breslau, has dealt fully with the question.[318] Cohn, who
+believes that all young men and women masturbate to some extent, finds
+that masturbation must be excessive for eye trouble to become apparent. In
+most of his cases there was masturbation several times daily during from
+five to seven years, in many during ten years, and in one during
+twenty-three years. In such cases we are obviously dealing with abnormal
+persons, and no one will dispute the possibility of harmful results; in
+some of the cases, when masturbation was stopped, the eye trouble
+improved. Even in these cases, however, the troubles were but slight, the
+chief being, apparently, photopsia (a subjective sensation of light) with
+otherwise normal conditions of pupil, vision, color-sense, and retina. In
+some cases there was photophobia, and he has also found paralysis of
+accommodation and conjunctivitis. At a later date Salmo Cohn, in his
+comprehensive monograph on the relationship between the eye and the sexual
+organs in women, brought together numerous cases of eye troubles in young
+women associated with masturbation, but in most of these cases
+masturbation had been practiced with great frequency for a long period and
+the ocular affections were usually not serious.[319] In England, Power has
+investigated the relations of the sexual system to eye disease. He is
+inclined to think that the effects of masturbation have been exaggerated,
+but he believes that it may produce such for the most part trivial
+complaints as photopsisae, muscsae, muscular asthenopia, possibly
+blepharospasm, and perhaps conjunctivitis. He goes on, however, to point
+out that more serious complaints of the eye are caused by excess in normal
+coitus, by sexual abstinence, and especially by disordered menstruation.
+Thus we see that even when we are considering a mechanism so delicately
+poised and one so easily disturbed by any jar of the system as vision,
+masturbation produces no effect except when carried to an extent which
+argues a hereditarily imperfect organism, while even in these cases the
+effects are usually but slight, moreover, in no respect specific, but are
+paralleled and even exceeded by the results of other disturbances of the
+sexual system.
+
+Let us turn to the supposed influence of masturbation in causing insanity
+and nervous diseases. Here we may chiefly realize the immense influence
+exerted on medical science by Tissot and his followers during a hundred
+years. Mental weakness is the cause and not the result of excessive
+masturbation, Gall declared,[320] but he was a man of genius, in
+isolation. Sir William Ellis, an alienist of considerable reputation at
+the beginning of the last century, could write with scientific equanimity:
+"I have no hesitation in saying that, in a very large number of patients
+in all public asylums, the disease may be attributed to that cause." He
+does, indeed, admit that it may be only a symptom sometimes, but goes on
+to assert that masturbation "has not hitherto been exhibited in the awful
+light in which it deserves to be shown," and that "in by far the greater
+number of cases" it is the true cause of dementia.[321] Esquirol lent his
+name and influence to a similar view of the pernicious influence of
+masturbation. Throughout the century, even down to the present day, this
+point of view has been traditionally preserved in a modified form. In
+apparent ignorance of the enormous prevalence of masturbation, and
+without, so far as can be seen, any attempt to distinguish between cause
+and effect or to eliminate the hereditary neuropathic element, many
+alienists have set down a large proportion of cases of insanity, idiocy,
+epilepsy, and disease of the spinal cord to uncomplicated masturbation.
+Thus, at the Matteawan State Hospital (New York) for criminal lunatics and
+insane prisoners, from 1875 to 1907, masturbation was the sole assigned
+cause of insanity in 160 men (out of 2,595); while, according to Dr. Clara
+Barrus, among 121 cases of insanity in young women, masturbation is the
+cause in ten cases.[322] It is unnecessary to multiply examples, for this
+traditional tendency is familiar to all.
+
+It appears to have been largely due to Griesinger, in the middle of the
+last century, that we owe the first authoritative appearance of a saner,
+more discriminating view regarding the results of masturbation. Although
+still to some extent fettered by the traditions prevalent in his day,
+Griesinger saw that it was not so much masturbation itself as the feelings
+aroused in sensitive minds by the social attitude toward masturbation
+which produced evil effects. "That constant struggle," he wrote, "against
+a desire which is even overpowering, and to which the individual always in
+the end succumbs, that hidden strife between shame, repentance, good
+intentions, and the irritation which impels to the act, this, after not a
+little acquaintance with onanists, we consider to be far more important
+than the primary direct physical effect." He added that there are no
+specific signs of masturbation, and concluded that it is oftener a symptom
+than a cause. The general progress of educated opinions since that date
+has, in the main, confirmed and carried forward the results cautiously
+stated by Griesinger. This distinguished alienist thought that, when
+practiced in childhood, masturbation might lead to insanity. Berkhan, in
+his investigation of the psychoses of childhood, found that in no single
+case was masturbation a cause. Vogel, Uffelmann, and Emminghaus, in the
+course of similar studies, have all come to almost similar
+conclusions.[323] It is only on a congenitally morbid nervous system,
+Emminghaus insists, that masturbation can produce any serious results.
+"Most of the cases charged to masturbation," writes Kiernan (in a private
+letter), basing his opinion on wide clinical experience, "are either
+hebephrenia or hysteria in which an effect is taken for the cause."
+Christian, during twenty years' experience in hospitals, asylums, and
+private practice in town and country, has not found any seriously evil
+effects from masturbation.[324] He thinks, indeed, that it may be a more
+serious evil in women than in men. But Yellowlees considers that in women
+"it is possibly less exhausting and injurious than in the other sex,"
+which was also the opinion of Hammond, as well as of Guttceit, though he
+found that women pushed the practice much further than men, and Naecke, who
+has given special attention to this point, could not find that
+masturbation is a definite cause of insanity in women in a single
+case.[325] Koch also reaches a similar conclusion, as regards both sexes,
+though he admits that masturbation may cause some degree of psychopathic
+deterioration. Even in this respect, however, he points out that "when
+practiced in moderation it is not injurious in the certain and
+exceptionless way in which it is believed to be in many circles. It is the
+people whose nervous systems are already injured who masturbate most
+easily and practice it more immoderately than others"; the chief source of
+its evil is self-reproach and the struggle with the impulse.[326]
+Kahlbaum, it is true, under the influence of the older tradition, when he
+erected katatonia into a separate disorder (not always accepted in later
+times), regarded prolonged and excessive masturbation as a chief cause,
+but I am not aware that he ever asserted that it was a sole and sufficient
+cause in a healthy organism. Kiernan, one of the earliest writers on
+katatonia, was careful to point out that masturbation was probably as much
+effect as cause of the morbid nervous condition.[327] Maudsley (in _Body
+and Mind_) recognized masturbation as a special exciting cause of a
+characteristic form of insanity; but he cautiously added: "Nevertheless, I
+think that self-abuse seldom, if ever, produces it without the
+co-operation of the insane neurosis."[328] Schuele also recognized a
+specific masturbatory insanity, but the general tendency to reject any
+such nosological form is becoming marked; Krafft-Ebing long since rejected
+it and Naecke decidedly opposes it. Kraepelin states that excessive
+masturbation can only occur in a dangerous degree in predisposed
+subjects; so, also, Forel and Loewenfeld, as at an earlier period,
+Trousseau.[329] It is true that Marro, in his admirable and detailed study
+of the normal and abnormal aspects of puberty, accepts a form of
+masturbatory insanity; but the only illustrative case he brings forward is
+a young man possessing various stigmata of degeneracy and the son of an
+alcoholic father; such a case tells us nothing regarding the results of
+simple masturbation.[330] Even Spitzka, who maintained several years ago
+the traditional views as to the terrible results of masturbation, and
+recognized a special "insanity of masturbation," stated his conclusions
+with a caution that undermined his position: "Self-abuse," he concluded,
+"to become a sole cause of insanity, must be begun early and carried very
+far. In persons of sound antecedents it rarely, under these circumstances,
+suffices to produce an actual vesania."[331] When we remember that there
+is no convincing evidence to show that masturbation is "begun early and
+carried very far" by "persons of sound antecedents," the significance of
+Spitzka's "typical psychosis of masturbation" is somewhat annulled. It is
+evident that these distinguished investigators, Marro and Spitzka, have
+been induced by tradition to take up a position which their own scientific
+consciences have compelled them practically to evacuate.
+
+    Recent authorities are almost unanimous in rejecting masturbation
+    as a cause of insanity. Thus, Rohleder, in his comprehensive
+    monograph (_Die Masturbation_, 1899, pp. 185-92), although taking
+    a very serious view of the evil results of masturbation, points
+    out the unanimity which is now tending to prevail on this point,
+    and lays it down that "masturbation is never the direct cause of
+    insanity." Sexual excesses of any kind, he adds (following
+    Curschmann), can, at the most, merely give an impetus to a latent
+    form of insanity. On the whole, he concludes, the best
+    authorities are unanimous in agreeing that masturbation may
+    certainly injure mental capacity, by weakening memory and
+    depressing intellectual energy; that, further, in hereditarily
+    neurotic subjects, it may produce slight psychoses like _folie du
+    doute_, hypochondria, hysteria; that, finally, under no
+    circumstances can it produce severe psychoses like paranoia or
+    general paralysis. "If it caused insanity, as often as some
+    claim," as Kellogg remarks, "the whole race would long since have
+    passed into masturbatic degeneracy of mind.... It is especially
+    injurious in the very young, and in all who have weak nervous
+    systems," but "the physical traits attributed to the habit are
+    common to thousands of neurasthenic and neurotic individuals."
+    (Kellogg, _A Text-book of Mental Diseases_, 1897, pp. 94-95.)
+    Again, at the outset of the article on "Masturbation," in Tuke's
+    _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_, Yellowlees states that,
+    on account of the mischief formerly done by reckless statements,
+    it is necessary to state plainly that "unless the practice has
+    been long and greatly indulged, no permanent evil effects may be
+    observed to follow." Naecke, again, has declared ("Kritisches zum
+    Kapitel der Sexualitaet," _Archiv fuer Psychiatrie_, 1899): "There
+    are neither somatic nor psychic symptoms peculiar on onanism. Nor
+    is there any specific onanistic psychosis. I am prepared to deny
+    that onanism ever produces any psychoses in those who are not
+    already predisposed." That such a view is now becoming widely
+    prevalent is illustrated by the cautious and temperate discussion
+    of masturbation in a recent work by a non-medical writer,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer (_Chapters on Human Love_, pp. 199-205).
+
+The testimony of expert witnesses with regard to the influence of
+masturbation in producing other forms of psychoses and neuroses is
+becoming equally decisive; and here, also, the traditions of Tissot are
+being slowly effaced. "I have not, in the whole of my practice," wrote
+West, forty years ago, "out of a large experience among children and
+women, seen convulsions, epilepsy, or idiocy _induced_ by masturbation in
+any child of either sex. Neither have I seen any instance in which
+hysteria, epilepsy, or insanity in women after puberty was _due_ to
+masturbation, as its efficient cause."[332] Gowers speaks somewhat less
+positively, but regards masturbation as not so much a cause of true
+epilepsy as of atypical attacks, sometimes of a character intermediate
+between the hysteroid and the epileptoid form; this relationship he has
+frequently seen in boys.[333] Leyden, among the causes of diseases of the
+spinal cord, does not include any form of sexual excess. "In moderation,"
+Erb remarks, "masturbation is not more dangerous to the spinal cord than
+natural coitus, and has no bad effects";[334] it makes no difference, Erb
+considers, whether the orgasm is effected normally or in solitude. This is
+also the opinion of Toulouse, of Fuerbringer, and of Curschmann, as at an
+earlier period it was of Roubaud.
+
+While these authorities are doubtless justified in refusing to ascribe to
+masturbation any part in the production of psychic or nervous diseases, it
+seems to me that they are going somewhat beyond their province when they
+assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than coitus. If
+sexual coitus were a purely physiological phenomenon, this position would
+be sound. But the sexual orgasm is normally bound up with a mass of
+powerful emotions aroused by a person of the opposite sex. It is in the
+joy caused by the play of these emotions, as well as in the discharge of
+the sexual orgasm, that the satisfaction of coitus resides. In the absence
+of the desired partner the orgasm, whatever relief it may give, must be
+followed by a sense of dissatisfaction, perhaps of depression, even of
+exhaustion, often of shame and remorse. The same remark has since been
+made by Stanley Hall.[335] Practically, also, as John Hunter pointed out,
+there is more probability of excess in masturbation than in coitus.
+Whether, as some have asserted, masturbation involves a greater nervous
+effort than coitus is more doubtful.[336] It thus seems somewhat
+misleading to assert that masturbation has no more injurious effect than
+coitus.[337]
+
+Reviewing the general question of the supposed grave symptoms and signs
+of masturbation, and its pernicious results, we may reach the conclusion
+that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born
+individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow.[338] With
+regard to the general signs, we may accept, as concerns both sexes, what
+the Obstetrical and Gynecological Society of Berlin decided in 1861, in a
+discussion of it in women, that there are none which can be regarded as
+reliable.[339]
+
+We may conclude finally, with Clouston, that the opposing views on the
+subject may be simply explained by the fact that the writers on both sides
+have ignored or insufficiently recognized the influence of heredity and
+temperament. They have done precisely what so many unscientific writers on
+inebriety have continued to do unto the present day, when describing the
+terrible results of alcohol without pointing out that the chief factor in
+such cases has not been the alcohol, but the organization on which the
+alcohol acted. Excess may act, according to the familiar old-fashioned
+adage, like the lighted match. But we must always remember the obvious
+truth, that it makes a considerable difference whether you threw your
+lighted match into a powder magazine or into the sea.
+
+While we may thus dismiss the extravagant views widely held during the
+past century, concerning the awful results of masturbation, as due to
+ignorance and false tradition, it must be pointed out that, even in
+healthy or moderately healthy individuals, any excess in solitary
+self-excitement may still produce results which, though slight, are yet
+harmful. The skin, digestion, and circulation may all be disordered;
+headache and neuralgia may occur; and, as in normal sexual excess or in
+undue frequency of sexual excitement during sleep, there is a certain
+general lowering of nervous tone. Probably the most important of the
+comparatively frequent results--though this also arises usually on a
+somewhat morbid soil--is neurasthenia with its manifold symptoms. There
+can be little doubt that the ancient belief, dating from the time of
+Hippocrates, that sexual excesses produce spinal disease, as well as the
+belief that masturbation causes insanity, are largely due to the failure
+to diagnose neurasthenia.
+
+    The following case of neurasthenia, recorded by Eulenburg, may be
+    given as a classical picture of the nervous disturbances which
+    may be associated with masturbation, and are frequently regarded
+    as solely caused by habits of masturbation: Miss H.H., 28 years
+    of age, a robust brunette, with fully developed figure, without
+    any trace of anaemia or chlorosis, but with an apathetic
+    expression, bluish rings around the eyes, with hypochondriacal
+    and melancholy feelings. She complains of pressure on the head
+    ("as if head would burst"), giddiness, ringing in the ears,
+    photopsia, hemicrania, pains in the back and at sacrum, and
+    symptoms of spinal adynamia, with a sense of fatigue on the least
+    exertion in walking or standing; she sways when standing with
+    closed eyes, tendon-reflexes exaggerated; there is a sense of
+    oppression, intercostal neuralgia, and all the signs of
+    neurasthenic dyspepsia; and cardialgia, nausea, flatulence,
+    meteorism, and alternate constipation and diarrhoea. She chiefly
+    complains of a feeling of weight and pain in the abdomen, caused
+    by the slightest movement, and of a form of pollution (with
+    clitoridian spasms), especially near menstruation, with copious
+    flow of mucus, characteristic pains, and hyperexcitability.
+    Menstruation was irregular and profuse. Examination showed tumid
+    and elongated nymphae, with brown pigmentation; rather large
+    vagina, with rudimentary hymen; and retroflexion of uterus.
+    After much persuasion the patient confessed that, when a girl of
+    12, and as the result of repeated attempts at coitus by a boy of
+    16, she had been impelled to frequent masturbation. This had
+    caused great shame and remorse, which, however, had not sufficed
+    to restrain the habit. Her mother having died, she lived alone
+    with her invalid father, and had no one in whom to confide.
+    Regarding herself as no longer a virgin, she had refused several
+    offers of marriage, and thus still further aggravated her mental
+    condition. (Eulenburg, _Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 31.)
+
+    Since Beard first described neurasthenia, many diverse opinions
+    have been expressed concerning the relationships of sexual
+    irregularities to neurasthenia. Gilles de la Tourette, in his
+    little monograph on neurasthenia, following the traditions of
+    Charcot's school, dismisses the question of any sexual causation
+    without discussion. Binswanger (_Die Pathologie und Therapie der
+    Neurasthenie_), while admitting that nearly all neurasthenic
+    persons acknowledge masturbation at some period, considers it is
+    not an important cause of neurasthenia, only differing from
+    coitus by the fact that the opportunities for it are more
+    frequent, and that the sexual disturbances of neurasthenia are,
+    in the majority of cases, secondary. Rohleder, on the other hand,
+    who takes a very grave view of the importance of masturbation,
+    considers that its most serious results are a question of
+    neurasthenia. Krafft-Ebing has declared his opinion that
+    masturbation is a cause of neurasthenia. Christian, Leyden, Erb,
+    Rosenthal, Beard, Hummel, Hammond, Hermann Cohn, Curschmann,
+    Savill, Herman, Fuerbringer, all attach chief importance to
+    neurasthenia as a result of masturbation. Collins and Phillip
+    (_Medical Record_, March 25, 1899), in an analysis of 333 cases
+    of neurasthenia, found that 123 cases were apparently due to
+    overwork or masturbation. Freud concludes that neurasthenia
+    proper can nearly always be traced to excessive masturbation, or
+    to spontaneous pollutions. (E.g., _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur
+    Neurosenlehre_, first series, p. 187.) This view is confirmed by
+    Gattel's careful study (_Ueber die Sexuellen Ursachen der
+    Neurasthenie und Angstneurose_, 1898). Gattel investigated 100
+    consecutive cases of severe functional nervous disorder in
+    Krafft-Ebing's clinic at Vienna, and found that in every case of
+    neurasthenia in a male (28 in all) there was masturbation, while
+    of the 15 women with neurasthenia, only one is recorded as not
+    masturbating, and she practiced _coitus reservatus_. Irrespective
+    of the particular form of the nervous disorder, Gattel found that
+    18 women out of 42, and 36 men out of 58, acknowledged
+    masturbation. (This shows a slightly larger proportion among the
+    men, but the men were mostly young, while the women were mostly
+    of more mature age.) It must, however, always be remembered that
+    we have no equally careful statistics of masturbation in
+    perfectly healthy persons. We must also remember that we have to
+    distinguish between the _post_ and the _propter_, and that it is
+    quite possible that neurasthenic persons are specially
+    predisposed to masturbation. Bloch is of this opinion, and
+    remarks that a vicious circle may thus be formed.
+
+    On the whole, there can be little doubt that neurasthenia is
+    liable to be associated with masturbation carried to an excessive
+    extent. But, while neurasthenia is probably the severest
+    affection that is liable to result from, or accompany,
+    masturbation, we are scarcely yet entitled to accept the
+    conclusion of Gattel that in such cases there is no hereditary
+    neurotic predisposition. We must steer clearly between the
+    opposite errors of those, on the one hand, who assert that
+    heredity is the sole cause of functional nervous disorders, and
+    those, on the other hand, who consider that the incident that may
+    call out the disorder is itself a sole sufficient cause.
+
+In many cases it has seemed to me that masturbation, when practiced in
+excess, especially if begun before the age of puberty, leads to inaptitude
+for coitus, as well as to indifference to it, and sometimes to undue
+sexual irritability, involving premature emission and practical impotence.
+This is, however, the exception, especially if the practice has not been
+begun until after puberty. In women I attach considerable importance, as a
+result of masturbation, to an aversion for normal coitus in later life. In
+such cases some peripheral irritation or abnormal mental stimulus trains
+the physical sexual orgasm to respond to an appeal which has nothing
+whatever to do with the fascination normally exerted by the opposite sex.
+At puberty, however, the claim of passion and the real charm of sex begin
+to make themselves felt, but, owing to the physical sexual feelings having
+been trained into a foreign channel, these new and more normal sex
+associations remain of a purely ideal and emotional character, without the
+strong sensual impulses with which under healthy conditions they tend to
+be more and more associated as puberty passes on into adolescence or
+mature adult life. I am fairly certain that in many women, often highly
+intellectual women, the precocious excess in masturbation has been a main
+cause, not necessarily the sole efficient cause, in producing a divorce in
+later life between the physical sensuous impulses and the ideal emotions.
+The sensuous impulse having been evolved and perverted before the
+manifestation of the higher emotion, the two groups of feelings have
+become divorced for the whole of life. This is a common source of much
+personal misery and family unhappiness, though at the same time the clash
+of contending impulses may lead to a high development of moral character.
+When early masturbation is a factor in producing sexual inversion it
+usually operates in the manner I have here indicated, the repulsion for
+normal coitus helping to furnish a soil on which the inverted impulse may
+develop unimpeded.
+
+    This point has not wholly escaped previous observers, though they
+    do not seem to have noted its psychological mechanism. Tissot
+    stated that masturbation causes an aversion to marriage. More
+    recently, Loiman ("Ueber Onanismus beim Weibe," _Therapeutische
+    Monatshefte_, April, 1890) considered that masturbation in women,
+    leading to a perversion of sexual feeling, including inability to
+    find satisfaction in coitus, affects the associated centres.
+    Smith Baker, again ("The Neuropsychical Element in Conjugal
+    Aversion," _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, September,
+    1892), finds that a "source of marital aversion seems to lie in
+    the fact that substitution of mechanical and iniquitous
+    excitations affords more thorough satisfaction than the mutual
+    legitimate ones do," and gives cases in point. Savill, also, who
+    believes that masturbation is more common in women than is
+    usually supposed, regards dyspareunia, or pain in coition, as one
+    of the signs of the habit.
+
+    Masturbation in women thus becomes, as Raymond and Janet point
+    out (_Les Obsessions_, vol. ii, p. 307) a frequent cause of
+    sexual frigidity in marriage. These authors illustrate the train
+    of evils which may thus be set up, by the case of a lady, 26
+    years of age, a normal woman, of healthy family, who, at the age
+    of 15, was taught by a servant to masturbate. At the age of 18
+    she married. She loved her husband, but she had no sexual
+    feelings in coitus, and she continued to masturbate, sometimes
+    several times a day, without evil consequences. At 24 she had to
+    go into a hospital for floating kidney, and was so obliged to
+    stop masturbating. She here accidentally learnt of the evil
+    results attributed to the habit. She resolved not to do it again,
+    and she kept her resolution. But while still in hospital she fell
+    wildly in love with a man. To escape from the constant thought of
+    this man, she sought relations with her husband, and at times
+    masturbated, but now it no longer gave her pleasure. She wished
+    to give up sexual things altogether. But that was easier said
+    than done. She became subject to nervous crises, often brought on
+    by the sight of a man, and accompanied by sexual excitement. They
+    disappeared under treatment, and she thereupon became entirely
+    frigid sexually. But, far from being happy, she has lost all
+    energy and interest in life, and it is her sole desire to attain
+    the sexual feelings she has lost. Adler considers that even when
+    masturbation in women becomes an overmastering passion, so far as
+    organic effects are concerned it is usually harmless, its effects
+    being primarily psychic, and he attaches especial significance to
+    it as a cause of sexual anaesthesia in normal coitus, being,
+    perhaps, the most frequent cause of such anaesthesia. He devotes
+    an important chapter to this matter, and brings forward numerous
+    cases in illustration (Adler, _Die Mangelhafte
+    Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, pp. 93-119, also 21-23). Adler
+    considers that the frequency of masturbation in women is largely
+    due to the fact that women experience greater difficulties than
+    men in obtaining sexual satisfaction, and so are impelled by
+    unsatisfying coitus to continue masturbation after marriage. He
+    adds that partly from natural shyness, partly from shame of
+    acknowledging what is commonly accounted a sin, and partly from
+    the fear of seeming disgusting or unworthy of sympathy in the
+    doctor's eyes, women are usually silent on this matter, and very
+    great tact and patience may be necessary before a confession is
+    obtained.
+
+On the psychic side, no doubt, the most frequent and the most
+characteristic result of persistent and excessive masturbation is a morbid
+heightening of self-consciousness without any co-ordinated heightening of
+self-esteem.[340] The man or woman who is kissed by a desirable and
+desired person of the opposite sex feels a satisfying sense of pride and
+elation, which must always be absent from the manifestations of
+auto-erotic activity.[341] This must be so, even apart from the
+masturbator's consciousness of the general social attitude toward his
+practices and his dread of detection, for that may also exist as regards
+normal coitus without any corresponding psychic effects. The masturbator,
+if his practice is habitual, is thus compelled to cultivate an artificial
+consciousness of self-esteem, and may show a tendency to mental arrogance.
+Self-righteousness and religiosity constitute, as it were, a protection
+against the tendency to remorse. A morbid mental soil is, of course,
+required for the full development of these characteristics. The habitual
+male masturbator, it must be remembered, is often a shy and solitary
+person; individuals of this temperament are especially predisposed to
+excesses in all the manifestations of auto-erotism, while the yielding to
+such tendencies increases the reserve and the horror of society, at the
+same time producing a certain suspicion of others. In some extreme cases
+there is, no doubt, as Kraepelin believes, some decrease of psychic
+capacity, an inability to grasp and co-ordinate external impressions,
+weakness of memory, deadening of emotions, or else the general phenomena
+of increased irritability, leading on to neurasthenia.
+
+I find good reason to believe that in many cases the psychic influence of
+masturbation on women is different from its effect on men. As Spitzka
+observed, although it may sometimes render women self-reproachful and
+hesitant, it often seems to make them bold. Boys, as we have seen, early
+assimilate the tradition that self-abuse is "unmanly" and injurious, but
+girls have seldom any corresponding tradition that it is "unwomanly," and
+thus, whether or not they are reticent on the matter, before the forum of
+their own conscience they are often less ashamed of it than men are and
+less troubled by remorse.
+
+    Eulenburg considers that the comparative absence of bad effects
+    from masturbation in girls is largely due to the fact that,
+    unlike boys, they are not terrorized by exaggerated warnings and
+    quack literature concerning the awful results of the practice.
+    Forel, who has also remarked that women are often comparatively
+    little troubled by qualms of conscience after masturbation,
+    denies that this is due to a lower moral tone than men possess
+    (Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 247). In this connection, I may
+    refer to History IV, recorded in the Appendix to the fifth volume
+    of these _Studies_, in which it is stated that of 55 prostitutes
+    of various nationalities, with whom the subject had had
+    relations, 18 spontaneously told him that they were habitual
+    masturbators, while of 26 normal women, 13 made the same
+    confession, unasked. Guttceit, in Russia, after stating that
+    women of good constitution had told him that they masturbated as
+    much as six or ten times a day or night (until they fell asleep,
+    tired), without bad results, adds that, according to his
+    observations, "masturbation, when not excessive, is, on the
+    whole, a quite innocent matter, which exerts little or no
+    permanent effect," and adds that it never, in any case, leads to
+    _hypochondria onanica_ in women, because they have not been
+    taught to expect bad results (_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, p. 306).
+    There is, I think, some truth--though the exceptions are
+    doubtless many--in the distinction drawn by W.C. Krauss
+    ("Masturbational Neuroses," _Medical News_, July 13, 1901): "From
+    my experience it [masturbation] seems to have an opposite effect
+    upon the two sexes, dulling the mental and making clumsy the
+    physical exertions of the male, while in the female it quickens
+    and excites the physical and psychical movements. The man is
+    rendered hypoesthetic, the woman hyperesthetic."
+
+In either sex auto-erotic excesses during adolescence in young men and
+women of intelligence--whatever absence of gross injury there may
+be--still often produce a certain degree of psychic perversion, and tend
+to foster false and high-strung ideals of life. Kraepelin refers to the
+frequency of exalted enthusiasms in masturbators, and I have already
+quoted Anstie's remarks on the connection between masturbation and
+premature false work in literature and art. It may be added that excess in
+masturbation has often occurred in men and women whose work in literature
+and art cannot be described as premature and false. K.P. Moritz, in early
+adult life, gave himself up to excess in masturbation, and up to the age
+of thirty had no relations with women. Lenau is said--though the statement
+is sometimes denied--to have been a masturbator from early life, the habit
+profoundly effecting his life and work. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+admirably describes how his own solitary, timid, and imaginative life
+found its chief sexual satisfaction in masturbation.[342] Gogol, the
+great Russian novelist, masturbated to excess, and it has been suggested
+that the dreamy melancholy thus induced was a factor in his success as a
+novelist. Goethe, it has been asserted, at one time masturbated to excess;
+I am not certain on what authority the statement is made, probably on a
+passage in the seventh book of _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, in which,
+describing his student-life at Leipzig, and his loss of Aennchen owing to
+his neglect of her, he tells how he revenged that neglect on his own
+physical nature by foolish practices from which he thinks he suffered for
+a considerable period.[343] The great Scandinavian philosopher, Soeren
+Kierkegaard, suffered severely, according to Rasmussen, from excessive
+masturbation. That, at the present day, eminence in art, literature, and
+other fields may be combined with the excessive practice of masturbation
+is a fact of which I have unquestionable evidence.
+
+    I have the detailed history of a man of 30, of high ability in a
+    scientific direction, who, except during periods of mental
+    strain, has practiced masturbation nightly (though seldom more
+    than once a night) from early childhood, without any traceable
+    evil results, so far as his general health and energy are
+    concerned. In another case, a schoolteacher, age 30, a hard
+    worker and accomplished musician, has masturbated every night,
+    sometimes more than once a night, ever since he was at school,
+    without, so far as he knows, any bad results; he has never had
+    connection with a woman, and seldom touches wine or tobacco.
+    Curschmann knew a young and able author who, from the age of 11
+    had masturbated excessively, but who retained physical and mental
+    freshness. It would be very easy to refer to other examples, and
+    I may remark that, as regards the histories recorded in various
+    volumes of these _Studies_, a notable proportion of those in
+    which excessive masturbation is admitted, are of persons of
+    eminent and recognized ability.
+
+It is often possible to trace the precise mechanism of the relationship
+between auto-erotic excitement and intellectual activity. Brown-Sequard,
+in old age, considered that to induce a certain amount of sexual
+excitement, not proceeding to emission, was an aid to mental work. Raymond
+and Janet knew a man considering himself a poet, who, in order to attain
+the excitation necessary to compose his ideal verses, would write with one
+hand while with the other he caressed his penis, though not to the extent
+of producing ejaculation.[344] We must not believe, however, that this is
+by any means the method of workers who deserve to be accepted seriously;
+it would be felt, to say the least, as unworthy. It is indeed a method
+that would only appeal to a person of feeble or failing mental power. What
+more usually happens is that the auto-erotic excitement develops, _pari
+passu_ and spontaneously, with the mental activity and at the climax of
+the latter the auto-erotic excitement also culminates, almost or even
+quite spontaneously, in an explosion of detumescence which relieves the
+mental tension. I am acquainted with such cases in both young men and
+women of intellectual ability, and they probably occur much more
+frequently than we usually suspect.
+
+    In illustration of the foregoing observations, I may quote the
+    following narrative, written by a man of letters: "From puberty
+    to the age of 30 (when I married), I lived in virgin continence,
+    in accord with my principle. During these years I worked
+    exceedingly hard--chiefly at art (music and poetry). My days
+    being spent earning my livelihood, these art studies fell into my
+    evening time. I noticed that productive power came in
+    periods--periods of irregular length, and which certainly, to a
+    partial extent, could be controlled by the will. Such a period of
+    vital power began usually with a sensation of melancholy, and it
+    quickened my normal revolt against the narrowness of conventional
+    life into a red-hot detestation of the paltriness and pettiness
+    with which so many mortals seem to content themselves. As the
+    mood grew in intensity, this scorn of the lower things mixed with
+    and gave place to a vivid insight into higher truths. The
+    oppression began to give place to a realization of the eternity
+    of the heroic things; the fatuities were seen as mere fashions;
+    love was seen as the true lord of life; the eternal romance was
+    evident in its glory; the naked strength and beauty of men were
+    known despite their clothes. In such mood my work was produced;
+    bitter protest and keen-sighted passion mingled in its building.
+    The arising vitality had certainly deep relation to the
+    periodicity of the sex-force of manhood. At the height of the
+    power of the art-creative mood would come those natural emissions
+    with which Nature calmly disposes of the unused force of the
+    male. Such emissions were natural and healthy, and not exhaustive
+    or hysterical. The process is undoubtedly sane and protective,
+    unless the subject be unhealthy. The period of creative art power
+    extended a little beyond the end of the period of natural seed
+    emission--the art work of this last stage being less vibrant, and
+    of a gentler force. Then followed a time of calm natural rest,
+    which gradually led up to the next sequence of melancholy and
+    power. The periods certainly varied in length of time, controlled
+    somewhat by the force of the mind and the mental will to create;
+    that is to say, I could somewhat delay the natural emission, by
+    which I gained an extension of the period of power."
+
+How far masturbation in moderately healthy persons living without normal
+sexual relationships may be considered normal is a difficult question only
+to be decided with reference to individual cases. As a general rule, when
+only practiced at rare intervals, and _faute de mieux_, in order to obtain
+relief for physical oppression and mental obsession, it may be regarded as
+the often inevitable result of the unnatural circumstances of our
+civilized social life. When, as often happens in mental degeneracy,--and
+as in shy and imaginative persons, perhaps of neurotic temperament, may
+also sometimes become the case,--it is practiced in preference to sexual
+relationships, it at once becomes abnormal and may possibly lead to a
+variety of harmful results, mental and physical.[345]
+
+It must always be remembered, however, that, while the practice of
+masturbation may be harmful in its consequences, it is also, in the
+absence of normal sexual relationships, frequently not without good
+results. In the medical literature of the last hundred years a number of
+cases have been incidentally recorded in which the patients found
+masturbation beneficial, and such cases might certainly have been
+enormously increased if there had been any open-eyed desire to discover
+them. My own observations agree with those of Sudduth, who asserts that
+"masturbation is, in the main, practiced for its sedative effect on the
+nervous system. The relaxation that follows the act constitutes its real
+attraction.... Both masturbation and sexual intercourse should be classed
+as typical sedatives."[346]
+
+    Gall (_Fonctions du Cerveau_, 1825, vol. iii, p. 235) mentioned a
+    woman who was tormented by strong sexual desire, which she
+    satisfied by masturbation ten or twelve times a day; this caused
+    no bad results, and led to the immediate disappearance of a
+    severe pain in the back of the neck, from which she often
+    suffered. Clouston (_Mental Diseases_, 1887, p. 496) quotes as
+    follows from a letter written by a youth of 22: "I am sure I
+    cannot explain myself, nor give account of such conduct.
+    Sometimes I felt so uneasy at my work that I would go to the
+    water-closet to do it, and it seemed to give me ease, and then I
+    would work like a hatter for a whole week, till the sensation
+    overpowered me again. I have been the most filthy scoundrel in
+    existence," etc. Garnier presents the case of a monk, aged 33,
+    living a chaste life, who wrote the following account of his
+    experiences: "For the past three years, at least, I have felt,
+    every two or three weeks, a kind of fatigue in the penis, or,
+    rather, slight shooting pains, increasing during several days,
+    and then I feel a strong desire to expel the semen. When no
+    nocturnal pollution follows, the retention of the semen causes
+    general disturbance, headache, and sleeplessness. I must confess
+    that, occasionally, to free myself from the general and local
+    oppression, I lie on my stomach and obtain ejaculation. I am at
+    once relieved; a weight seems to be lifted from my chest, and
+    sleep returns." This patient consulted Gamier as to whether this
+    artificial relief was not more dangerous than the sufferings it
+    relieved. Gamier advised that if the ordinary _regime_ of a
+    well-ordered monastry, together with anaphrodisiac sedatives,
+    proved inefficacious, the manoeuvre might be continued when
+    necessary (P. Garnier, _Celibat et Celibataires_, 1887, p. 320).
+    H.C. Coe (_American Journal of Obstetrics_, p. 766, July, 1889)
+    gives the case of a married lady who was deeply sensitive of the
+    wrong nature of masturbation, but found in it the only means of
+    relieving the severe ovarian pain, associated with intense sexual
+    excitement, which attended menstruation. During the
+    intermenstrual period the temptation was absent. Turnbull knew a
+    youth who found that masturbation gave great relief to feelings
+    of heaviness and confusion which came on him periodically; and
+    Wigglesworth has frequently seen masturbation after epileptic
+    fits in patients who never masturbated at other times. Moll
+    (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. I, p. 13) refers to a woman of 28, an
+    artist of nervous and excitable temperament, who could not find
+    sexual satisfaction with her lover, but only when masturbating,
+    which she did once or twice a day, or oftener; without
+    masturbation, she said, she would be in a much more nervous
+    state. A friend tells me of a married lady of 40, separated from
+    her husband on account of incompatibility, who suffered from
+    irregular menstruation; she tried masturbation, and, in her own
+    words, "became normal again;" she had never masturbated
+    previously. I have also been informed of the case of a young
+    unmarried woman, intellectual, athletic, and well developed, who,
+    from the age of seven or eight, has masturbated nearly every
+    night before going to sleep, and would be restless and unable to
+    sleep if she did not.
+
+Judging from my own observations among both sexes, I should say that in
+normal persons, well past the age of puberty, and otherwise leading a
+chaste life, masturbation would be little practiced except for the
+physical and mental relief it brings. Many vigorous and healthy unmarried
+women or married women apart from their husbands, living a life of sexual
+abstinence, have asserted emphatically that only by sexually exciting
+themselves, at intervals, could they escape from a condition of nervous
+oppression and sexual obsession which they felt to be a state of hysteria.
+In most cases this happens about the menstrual period, and, whether
+accomplished as a purely physical act--in the same way as they would
+soothe a baby to sleep by rocking it or patting it--or by the co-operation
+of voluptuous mental imagery, the practice is not cultivated for its own
+sake during the rest of the month.
+
+    In illustration of the foregoing statements I will here record a
+    few typical observations of experiences with regard to
+    masturbation. The cases selected are all women, and are all in a
+    fairly normal, and, for the most part, excellent, state of
+    health; some of them, however, belong to somewhat neurotic
+    families, and these are persons of unusual mental ability and
+    intelligence.
+
+    OBSERVATION I.--Unmarried, aged 38. She is very vigorous and
+    healthy, of a strongly passionate nature, but never masturbated
+    until a few years ago, when she was made love to by a man who
+    used to kiss her, etc. Although she did not respond to these
+    advances, she was thrown into a state of restless sexual
+    excitement; on one occasion, when in bed in this restless state,
+    she accidentally found, on passing her hand over her body, that,
+    by playing with "a round thing" [clitoris] a pleasurable feeling
+    was produced. She found herself greatly relieved and quieted by
+    these manipulations, though there remained a feeling of tiredness
+    afterward. She has sometimes masturbated six times in a night,
+    especially before and after the menstrual period, until she was
+    unable to produce the orgasm or any feeling of pleasure.
+
+    OBSERVATION II.--Unmarried, aged 45, of rather nervous
+    temperament. She has for many years been accustomed, usually
+    about a week before the appearance of the menses, to obtain
+    sexual relief by kicking out her legs when lying down. In this
+    way, she says, she obtains complete satisfaction. She never
+    touches herself. On the following day she frequently has pains
+    over the lower part of the abdomen, such pains being apparently
+    muscular and due to the exertion.
+
+    OBSERVATION III.--Aged 29, recently married, belonging to a
+    neurotic and morbid family, herself healthy, and living usually
+    in the country; vivacious, passionate, enthusiastic,
+    intellectual, and taking a prominent part in philanthropic
+    schemes and municipal affairs; at the same time, fond of society,
+    and very attractive to men. For many years she had been
+    accustomed to excite herself, though she felt it was not good for
+    her. The habit was merely practiced _faute de mieux_. "I used to
+    sit on the edge of the bed sometimes," she said, "and it came
+    over me so strongly that I simply couldn't resist it. I felt that
+    I should go mad, and I thought it was better to touch myself than
+    be insane.... I used to press my clitoris in.... It made me very
+    tired afterward--not like being with my husband." The confession
+    was made from a conviction of the importance of the subject, and
+    with the hope that some way might be found out of the
+    difficulties which so often beset women.
+
+    OBSERVATION IV.--Unmarried, aged 27; possesses much force of
+    character and high intelligence; is actively engaged in a
+    professional career. As a child of seven or eight she began to
+    experience what she describes as lightning-like sensations,
+    "mere, vague, uneasy feelings or momentary twitches, which took
+    place alike in the vulva or the vagina or the uterus, not
+    amounting to an orgasm and nothing like it." These sensations,
+    it should be added, have continued into adult life. "I always
+    experience them just before menstruation, and afterward for a few
+    days, and, occasionally, though it seems to me not so often,
+    during the period itself. I may have the sensation four or five
+    times during the day; it is not dependent at all upon external
+    impressions, or my own thoughts, and is sometimes absent for days
+    together. It is just one flash, as if you would snap your
+    fingers, and it is over."
+
+    As a child, she was, of course, quite unconscious that there was
+    anything sexual in these sensations. They were then usually
+    associated with various imaginary scenes. The one usually
+    indulged in was that a black bear was waiting for her up in a
+    tree, and that she was slowly raised up toward the bear by means
+    of ropes and then lowered again, and raised, feeling afraid of
+    being caught by the bear, and yet having a morbid desire to be
+    caught. In after years she realized that there was a physical
+    sexual cause underlying these imaginations, and that what she
+    liked was a feeling of resistance to the bear giving rise to the
+    physical sensation.
+
+    At a somewhat later age, though while still a child, she
+    cherished an ideal passion for a person very much older than
+    herself, this passion absorbing her thoughts for a period of two
+    years, during which, however, there was no progress made in
+    physical sensation. It was when she was nearly thirteen years of
+    age, soon after the appearance of menstruation, and under the
+    influence of this ideal passion, that she first learned to
+    experience conscious orgasm, which was not associated with the
+    thought of any person. "I did not associate it with anything high
+    or beautiful, owing to the fact that I had imbibed our current
+    ideas in regard to sexual feelings, and viewed them in a very
+    poor light indeed." She considers that her sexual feelings were
+    stronger at this period than at any other time in her life. She
+    could, however, often deny herself physical satisfaction for
+    weeks at a time, in order that she might not feel unworthy of the
+    object of her ideal passion. "As for the sexual satisfaction,"
+    she writes, "it was experimental. I had heard older girls speak
+    of the pleasure of such feelings, but I was not taught anything
+    by example, or otherwise. I merely rubbed myself with the
+    wash-rag while bathing, waiting for a result, and having the same
+    peculiar feeling I had so often experienced. I am not aware of
+    any ill effects having resulted, but I felt degraded, and tried
+    hard to overcome the habit. No one had spoken to me of the habit,
+    but from the secrecy of grown people, and passages I had heard
+    from the Bible, I conceived the idea that it was a reprehensible
+    practice. And, while this did not curb my desire, it taught me
+    self-control, and I vowed that each time should be the last. I
+    was often able to keep the resolution for two or three weeks."
+    Some four years later she gradually succeeded in breaking herself
+    of the practice in so far as it had become a habit; she has,
+    however, acquired a fuller knowledge of sexual matters, and,
+    though she has still a great dread of masturbation as a vice, she
+    does not hesitate to relieve her physical feelings when it seems
+    best to her to do so. "I am usually able to direct my thoughts
+    from these sensations," she writes, "but if they seem to make me
+    irritable or wakeful, I relieve myself. It is a physical act,
+    unassociated with deep feeling of any kind. I have always felt
+    that it was a rather unpleasant compromise with my physical
+    nature, but certainly necessary in my case. Yet, I have abstained
+    from gratification for very long periods. If the feeling is not
+    strong at the menstrual period, I go on very well without either
+    the sensation or the gratification until the next period. And,
+    strange as it may seem, the best antidote I have found and the
+    best preventive is to think about spiritual things or someone
+    whom I love. It is simply a matter of training, I suppose,--a
+    sort of mental gymnastics,--which draws the attention away from
+    the physical feelings." This lady has never had any sexual
+    relationships, and, since she is ambitious, and believes that the
+    sexual emotions may be transformed so as to become a source of
+    motive power throughout the whole of life, she wishes to avoid
+    such relationships.
+
+    OBSERVATION V.--Unmarried, aged 31, in good health, with,
+    however, a somewhat hysterical excess of energy. "When I was
+    about 26 years of age," she writes, "a friend came to me with the
+    confession that for several years she had masturbated, and had
+    become such a slave to the habit that she severely suffered from
+    its ill effects. At that time I had never heard of self-abuse by
+    women. I listened to her story with much sympathy and interest,
+    but some skepticism, and determined to try experiments upon
+    myself, with the idea of getting to understand the matter in
+    order to assist my friend. After some manipulation, I succeeded
+    in awakening what had before been unconscious and unknown. I
+    purposely allowed the habit to grow upon me, and one night--for I
+    always operated upon myself before going to sleep, never in the
+    morning--I obtained considerable pleasurable satisfaction, but
+    the following day my conscience awoke; I also felt pain located
+    at the back of my head and down the spinal column. I ceased my
+    operations for a time, and then began again somewhat regularly,
+    once a month, a few days after menstruation. During those months
+    in which I exercised moderation, I think I obtained much local
+    relief with comparatively little injury, but, later on, finding
+    myself in robust health, I increased my experiments, the habit
+    grew upon me, and it was only with an almost superhuman effort
+    that I broke myself free. Needless to say that I gave no
+    assistance to my suffering friend, nor did I ever refer to the
+    subject after her confession to me.
+
+    "Some two years later I heard of sexual practices between women
+    as a frequent habit in certain quarters. I again interested
+    myself in masturbation, for I had been told something that led me
+    to believe that there was much more for me to discover. Not
+    knowing the most elementary physiology, I questioned some of my
+    friends, and then commenced again. I restricted myself to relief
+    from local congestion and irritation by calling forth the
+    emission of mucus, rather than by seeking pleasure. At the same
+    time, I sought to discover what manipulation of the clitoris
+    would lead to. The habit grew upon me with startling rapidity,
+    and I became more or less its slave, but I suffered from no very
+    great ill effects until I started in search of more discoveries.
+    I found that I was a complete ignoramus as to the formation of a
+    woman's body, and by experiments upon myself sought to discover
+    the vagina. I continued my operations until I obtained an
+    entrance. I think the rough handling of myself during this final
+    stage disturbed my nervous system, and caused me considerable
+    pain and exhaustion at the back of my head, the spinal column,
+    the back of my eyes, and a general feeling of languor, etc.
+
+    "I could not bear to be the slave of a habit, and after much
+    suffering and efforts, which only led to falls to lower depths of
+    conscious failure, my better self rebelled, until, by a great
+    effort and much prayer, I kept myself pure for a whole week. This
+    partial recovery gave me hope, but then I again fell a victim to
+    the habit, much to my chagrin, and became hopeless of ever
+    retracing my steps toward my ideal of virtue. For some days I
+    lost energy, spirit, and hope; my nervous system appeared to be
+    ruined, but I did not really despair of victory in the end. I
+    thought of all the drunkards chained by their intemperate habits,
+    of inveterate smokers who could not exist without tobacco, and of
+    all the various methods by which men were slaves, and the longing
+    to be freed of what had, in my case, proved to be a painful and
+    unnecessary habit, increased daily until, after one night when I
+    struggled with myself for hours, I believed I had finally
+    succeeded.
+
+    "At times, when I reached a high degree of sexual excitement, I
+    felt that I was at least one step removed from those of morbid
+    and repressed sex, who had not the slightest suspicion of the
+    latent joys of womanhood within them. For a little while the
+    habit took the shape of an exalted passion, but I rapidly tired
+    it out by rough, thoughtless, and too impatient handling.
+    Revulsion set in with the pain of an exhausted and badly used
+    nervous system, and finding myself the slave of a passion, I
+    determined to endeavor to be its master.
+
+    "In conclusion, I should say that masturbation has proved itself
+    to be to me one of the blind turnings of my life's history, from
+    which I have gained much valuable experience."
+
+    The practice was, however, by no means thus dismissed. Some time
+    later the subject writes: "I have again restarted masturbation
+    for the relief of localized feelings. One morning I was engaged
+    in reading a very heavy volume which, for convenience sake, I
+    held in my lap, leaning back on my chair. I had become deep in
+    my study for an hour or so when I became aware of certain
+    feelings roused by the weight of the book. Being tempted to see
+    what would happen by such conduct, I shifted so that the edge of
+    the volume came in closer contact. The pleasurable feelings
+    increased, so I gave myself up to my emotions for some thirty
+    minutes.
+
+    "Notwithstanding the intense pleasure I enjoyed for so long a
+    period, I maintain that it is wiser to refrain, and, although I
+    admit in the same breath that, by gentle treatment, such pleasure
+    may be harmless to the general health, it does lead to a desire
+    for solitude, which is not conducive to a happy frame of mind.
+    There is an accompanying reticence of speech concerning the
+    pleasure, which, therefore, appears to be unnatural, like the
+    eating of stolen fruit. After such an event, one seems to require
+    to fly to the woods, and to listen to the song of the birds, so
+    as to shake off after-effects."
+
+    In a letter dated some months later, she writes: "I think I have
+    risen above the masturbation habit." In the same letter the
+    writer remarks: "If I had consciously abnormal or unsatisfied
+    appetites I would satisfy them in the easiest and least harmful
+    way."
+
+    Again, eighteen months later, she writes: "It is curious to note
+    that for months this habit is forgotten, but awakens sometimes to
+    self-assertion. If a feeling of pressure is felt in the head, and
+    a slight irritation elsewhere, and experience shows that the time
+    has come for pacification, exquisite pleasure can be enjoyed,
+    never more than twice a month, and sometimes less often."
+
+    OBSERVATION VI.--Unmarried, actively engaged in the practice of
+    her profession. Well-developed, feminine in contour, but boyish
+    in manner and movements; strong, though muscles small, and
+    healthy, with sound nervous system; never had anaemia. Thick brown
+    hair; pubic hair thick, and hair on toes and legs up to
+    umbilicus; it began to appear at the age of 10 (before pubic
+    hair) and continued until 18. A few stray hairs round nipples,
+    and much dark down on upper lip, as well as light down on arms
+    and hands. Hips, normal; nates, small; labia minora, large; and
+    clitoris, deeply hooded. Hymen thick, vagina, probably small.
+    Considerable pigmentation of parts. Menstruation began at 15, but
+    not regular till 17; is painless and scanty; the better the state
+    of health, the less it is. No change of sexual or other feelings
+    connected with it; it lasts one to three days.
+
+    "I believe," she writes, "my first experience of physical sex
+    sensations was when I was about 16, and in sleep. But I did not
+    then recognize it, and seldom, indeed, gave the subject of sex a
+    thought. I was a child far beyond the age of childhood. The
+    accompanying dreams were disagreeable, but I cannot remember what
+    they were about. It was not until I was nearly 19 that I knew the
+    sexual orgasm in my waking state. It surprised me completely,
+    but I knew that I had known it before in my sleep.
+
+    "The knowledge came one summer when I was leading a rather
+    isolated life, and my mind was far from sex subjects, being deep
+    in books, Carlyle, Ruskin, Huxley, Darwin, Scott, etc. I noticed
+    that when I got up in the morning I felt very hot and
+    uncomfortable. The clitoris and the parts around were swollen and
+    erect, and often tender and painful. I had no idea what it was,
+    but found I was unable to pass my water for an hour or two. One
+    day, when I was straining a little to pass water, the full orgasm
+    occurred. The next time it happened, I tried to check it by
+    holding myself firmly, of course, with the opposite result. I do
+    not know that I found it highly pleasurable, but it was a very
+    great relief. I allowed myself a good many experiments, to come
+    to a conclusion in the matter, and I thought about it. I was much
+    too shy to speak to any one, and thought it was probably a sin. I
+    tried not to do it, and not to think about it, saying to myself
+    that surely I was lord of my body. But I found that the matter
+    was not entirely under my control. However unwilling or passive I
+    might be, there were times when the involuntary discomfort was
+    not in my keeping. My touching myself or not did not save me from
+    it. Because it sometimes gave me pleasure, I thought it might be
+    a form of self-indulgence, and did not do it until it could
+    scarcely be helped. Soon the orgasm began to occur fairly
+    frequently in my sleep, perhaps once or twice a week. I had no
+    erotic dreams, then or at any other time, but I had nights of
+    restless sleep, and woke as it occurred, dreaming that it was
+    happening, as, in fact, it was. At times I hardly awoke, but went
+    to sleep again in a moment. I continued for two or three years to
+    be sorely tried by day at frequent intervals. I acquired a
+    remarkable degree of control, so that, though one touch or
+    steadily directed thought would have caused the orgasm, I could
+    keep it off, and go to sleep without 'wrong doing.' Of course,
+    when I fell asleep, my control ended. All this gave me a good
+    deal of physical worry, and kept my attention unwillingly fixed
+    upon the matter. I do not think my body was readily irritable,
+    but I had unquestionably very strong sexual impulses.
+
+    "After a year or two, when I was working hard, I could not afford
+    the attention the control cost me, or the prolonged mitigated
+    sexual excitement it caused. I took drugs for a time, but they
+    lost effect, produced lassitude, and agreed with me badly. I
+    therefore put away my scruples and determined to try the effect
+    of giving myself an instant and business-like relief. Instead of
+    allowing my feelings to gather strength, I satisfied them out of
+    hand. Instead of five hours of heat and discomfort, I did not
+    allow myself five minutes, if I could help it.
+
+    "The effect was marvelous. I practically had no more trouble. The
+    thing rarely came to me at all by day, and though it continued at
+    times by night, it became less frequent and less strong; often it
+    did not wake me. The erotic images and speculations that had
+    begun to come to me died down. I left off being afraid of my
+    feelings, or, indeed, thinking about them. I may say that I had
+    decided that I should be obliged to lead a single life, and that
+    the less I thought about matters of sex, the more easy I should
+    find life. Later on I had religious ideas which helped me
+    considerably in my ideals of a decent, orderly, self-contained
+    life. I do not lay stress on these; they were not at all
+    emotional, and my physical and psychical development do not
+    appear to have run much on parallel lines. I had a strong moral
+    sense before I had a religious one, and a 'common-sense' which I
+    perhaps trusted more than either.
+
+    "When I was about 28 I thought I might perhaps leave off the
+    habit of regular relief I had got into. (It was not regular as
+    regards time, being anything from one day to six weeks.) The
+    change was probably made easier by a severe illness I had had. I
+    gave this abstinence a fair trial for several years (until I was
+    about 34), but my nocturnal manifestations certainly gathered
+    strength, especially when I got much better in health, and,
+    finally, as at puberty, began to worry my waking life. I reasoned
+    that by my attempt at abstinence I had only exchanged control for
+    uncontrol, and reverted to my old habits of relief, with the same
+    good results as before. The whole trouble subsided and I got
+    better at once. (The orgasm during sleep continued, and occurs
+    about once a fortnight; it is increased by change of air,
+    especially at the seaside, when it may occur on two or three
+    nights running.) I decided that, for the proper control of my
+    single life, relief was normal and right. It would be very
+    difficult for anyone to demonstrate the contrary to me. My aim
+    has always been to keep myself in the best condition of physical
+    and mental balance that a single person is capable of."
+
+There is some interest in briefly reviewing the remarkable transformations
+in the attitude toward masturbation from Greek times down to our own day.
+The Greeks treated masturbation with little opprobrium. At the worst they
+regarded it as unmanly, and Aristophanes, in various passages, connects
+the practice with women, children, slaves, and feeble old men. AEschines
+seems to have publicly brought it as a charge against Demosthenes that he
+had practiced masturbation, though, on the other hand, Plutarch tells us
+that Diogenes--described by Zeller, the historian of Greek philosophy, as
+"the most typical figure of ancient Greece"--was praised by Chrysippus,
+the famous philosopher, for masturbating in the market-place. The more
+strenuous Romans, at all events as exemplified by Juvenal and Martial,
+condemned masturbation more vigorously.[347] Aretaeus, without alluding to
+masturbation, dwells on the tonic effects of retaining the semen; but, on
+the other hand, Galen regarded the retention of semen as injurious, and
+advocated its frequent expulsion, a point of view which tended to justify
+masturbation. In classical days, doubtless, masturbation and all other
+forms of the auto-erotic impulse were comparatively rare. So much scope
+was allowed in early adult age for homosexual and later for heterosexual
+relationships that any excessive or morbid development of solitary
+self-indulgence could seldom occur. The case was altered when Christian
+ideals became prominent. Christian morality strongly proscribed sexual
+relationships except under certain specified conditions. It is true that
+Christianity discouraged all sexual manifestations, and that therefore its
+ban fell equally on masturbation, but, obviously, masturbation lay at the
+weakest line of defence against the assaults of the flesh; it was there
+that resistance would most readily yield. Christianity thus probably led
+to a considerable increase of masturbation. The attention which the
+theologians devoted to its manifestations clearly bears witness to their
+magnitude. It is noteworthy that Mohammedan theologians regarded
+masturbation as a Christian vice. In Islam both doctrine and practice
+tended to encourage sexual relationships, and not much attention was paid
+to masturbation, nor even any severe reprobation directed against it. Omer
+Haleby remarks that certain theologians of Islam are inclined to consider
+the practice of masturbation in vogue among Christians as allowable to
+devout Mussulmans when alone on a journey; he himself regards this as a
+practice good neither for soul nor body (seminal emissions during sleep
+providing all necessary relief); should, however, a Mussulman fall into
+this error, God is merciful![348]
+
+    In Theodore's Penitential of the seventh century, forty days'
+    penance is prescribed for masturbation. Aquinas condemned
+    masturbation as worse than fornication, though less heinous than
+    other sexual offences against Nature; in opposition, also, to
+    those who believed that _distillatio_ usually takes place without
+    pleasure, he observed that it was often caused by sexual emotion,
+    and should, therefore, always be mentioned to the confessor.
+    Liguori also regarded masturbation as a graver sin than
+    fornication, and even said that _distillatio_, if voluntary and
+    with notable physical commotion, is without doubt a mortal sin,
+    for in such a case it is the beginning of a pollution. On the
+    other hand, some theologians have thought that _distillatio_ may
+    be permitted, even if there is some commotion, so long as it has
+    not been voluntarily procured, and Caramuel, who has been
+    described as a theological _enfant terrible_, declared that
+    "natural law does not forbid masturbation," but that proposition
+    was condemned by Innocent XI. The most enlightened modern
+    Catholic view is probably represented by Debreyne, who, after
+    remarking that he has known pious and intelligent persons who had
+    an irresistible impulse to masturbate, continues: "Must we
+    excuse, or condemn, these people? Neither the one nor the other.
+    If you condemn and repulse absolutely these persons as altogether
+    guilty, against their own convictions, you will perhaps throw
+    them into despair; if, on the contrary, you completely excuse
+    them, you maintain them in a disorder from which they may,
+    perhaps, never emerge. Adopt a wise middle course, and, perhaps,
+    with God's aid, you may often cure them."
+
+    Under certain circumstances some Catholic theologians have
+    permitted a married woman to masturbate. Thus, the Jesuit
+    theologian, Gury, asserts that the wife does not sin "_quae se
+    ipsam tactibus excitat ad seminationem statim post copulam in qua
+    vir solus seminavit_." This teaching seems to have been
+    misunderstood, since ethical and even medical writers have
+    expended a certain amount of moral indignation on the Church
+    whose theologians committed themselves to this statement. As a
+    matter of fact, this qualified permission to masturbate merely
+    rests on a false theory of procreation, which is clearly
+    expressed in the word _seminatio_. It was believed that
+    ejaculation in the woman is as necessary to fecundation as
+    ejaculation in the man. Galen, Avicenna, and Aquinas recognized,
+    indeed, that such feminine semination was not necessary; Sanchez,
+    however, was doubtful, while Suarez and Zacchia, following
+    Hippocrates, regarded it as necessary. As sexual intercourse
+    without fecundation is not approved by the Catholic Church, it
+    thus became logically necessary to permit women to masturbate
+    whenever the ejaculation of mucus had not occurred at or before
+    coitus.
+
+    The belief that the emission of vaginal mucus, under the
+    influence of sexual excitement in women, corresponded to
+    spermatic emission, has led to the practice of masturbation on
+    hygienic grounds. Garnier (_Celibat_, p. 255) mentions that
+    Mesue, in the eighteenth century, invented a special pessary to
+    take the place of the penis, and, as he stated, effect the due
+    expulsion of the feminine sperm.
+
+Protestantism, no doubt, in the main accepted the general Catholic,
+tradition, but the tendency of Protestantism, in reaction against the
+minute inquisition of the earlier theologians, has always been to exercise
+a certain degree of what it regarded as wholesome indifference toward the
+less obvious manifestations of the flesh. Thus in Protestant countries
+masturbation seems to have been almost ignored until Tissot, combining
+with his reputation as a physician the fanaticism of a devout believer,
+raised masturbation to the position of a colossal bogy which during a
+hundred years has not only had an unfortunate influence on medical opinion
+in these matters, but has been productive of incalculable harm to ignorant
+youth and tender consciences. During the past forty years the efforts of
+many distinguished physicians--a few of whose opinions I have already
+quoted--have gradually dragged the bogy down from its pedestal, and now,
+as I have ventured to suggest, there is a tendency for the reaction to be
+excessive. There is even a tendency to-day to regard masturbation, with
+various qualifications, as normal. Remy de Gourmont, for instance,
+considers that masturbation is natural because it is the method by which
+fishes procreate: "All things considered, it must be accepted that
+masturbation is part of the doings of Nature. A different conclusion might
+be agreeable, but in every ocean and under the reeds of every river,
+myriads of beings would protest."[349] Tillier remarks that since
+masturbation appears to be universal among the higher animals we are not
+entitled to regard it as a vice; it has only been so considered because
+studied exclusively by physicians under abnormal conditions.[350] Hirth,
+while asserting that masturbation must be strongly repressed in the young,
+regards it as a desirable method of relief for adults, and especially,
+under some circumstances, for women.[351] Venturi, a well-known Italian
+alienist, on the other hand, regards masturbation as strictly
+physiological in youth; it is the normal and natural passage toward the
+generous and healthy passion of early manhood; it only becomes abnormal
+and vicious, he holds, when continued into adult life.
+
+    The appearance of masturbation at puberty, Venturi considers, "is
+    a moment in the course of the development of the function of that
+    organ which is the necessary instrument of sexuality." It finds
+    its motive in the satisfaction of an organic need having much
+    analogy with that which arises from the tickling of a very
+    sensitive cutaneous surface. In this masturbation of early
+    adolescence lies, according to Venturi, the germ of what will
+    later be love: a pleasure of the body and of the spirit,
+    following the relief of a satisfied need. "As the youth develops,
+    onanism becomes a sexual act comparable to coitus as a dream is
+    comparable to reality, imagery forming in correspondence with the
+    desires. In its fully developed form in adolescence," Venturi
+    continues, "masturbation has an almost hallucinatory character;
+    onanism at this period psychically approximates to the true
+    sexual act, and passes insensibly into it. If, however, continued
+    on into adult age, it becomes morbid, passing into erotic
+    fetichism; what in the inexperienced youth is the natural
+    auxiliary and stimulus to imagination, in the degenerate onanist
+    of adult age is a sign of arrested development. Thus, onanism,"
+    the author concludes, "is not always a vice such as is fiercely
+    combated by educators and moralists. It is the natural transition
+    by which we reach the warm and generous love of youth, and, in
+    natural succession to this, the tranquil, positive, matrimonial
+    love of the mature man." (Silvio Venturi, _Le Degenerazioni
+    Psico-sessuale_, 1892, pp. 6-9.)
+
+    It may be questioned whether this view is acceptable even for the
+    warm climate of the south of Europe, where the impulses of
+    sexuality are undoubtedly precocious. It is certainly not in
+    harmony with general experience and opinion in the north; this is
+    well expressed in the following passage by Edward Carpenter
+    (_International Journal of Ethics_, July, 1899): "After all,
+    purity (in the sense of continence) _is_ of the first importance
+    to boyhood. To prolong the period of continence in a boy's life
+    is to prolong the period of _growth_. This is a simple
+    physiological law, and a very obvious one; and, whatever other
+    things may be said in favor of purity, it remains, perhaps, the
+    most weighty. To introduce sensual and sexual habits--and one of
+    the worst of them is self-abuse--at an early age, is to arrest
+    growth, both physical and mental. And what is even more, it means
+    to arrest the capacity for affection. All experience shows that
+    the early outlet toward sex cheapens and weakens affectional
+    capacity."
+
+I do not consider that we can decide the precise degree in which
+masturbation may fairly be called normal so long as we take masturbation
+by itself. We are thus, in conclusion, brought back to the point which I
+sought to emphasize at the outset: masturbation belongs to a group of
+auto-erotic phenomena. From one point of view it may be said that all
+auto-erotic phenomena are unnatural, since the natural aim of the sexual
+impulse is sexual conjunction, and all exercise of that impulse outside
+such conjunction is away from the end of Nature. But we do not live in a
+state of Nature which answers to such demands; all our life is
+"unnatural." And as soon as we begin to restrain the free play of sexual
+impulse toward sexual ends, at once auto-erotic phenomena inevitably
+spring up on every side. There is no end to them; it is impossible to say
+what finest elements in art, in morals, in civilization generally, may not
+really be rooted in an auto-erotic impulse. "Without a certain overheating
+of the sexual system," said Nietzsche, "we could not have a Raphael."
+Auto-erotic phenomena are inevitable. It is our wisest course to recognize
+this inevitableness of sexual and transmuted sexual manifestations under
+the perpetual restraints of civilized life, and, while avoiding any
+attitude of excessive indulgence or indifference,[352] to avoid also any
+attitude of excessive horror, for our horror not only leads to the facts
+being effectually veiled from our sight, but itself serves to manufacture
+artificially a greater evil than that which we seek to combat.
+
+The sexual impulse is not, as some have imagined, the sole root of the
+most massive human emotions, the most brilliant human aptitudes,--of
+sympathy, of art, of religion. In the complex human organism, where all
+the parts are so many-fibred and so closely interwoven, no great
+manifestation can be reduced to one single source. But it largely enters
+into and molds all of these emotions and aptitudes, and that by virtue of
+its two most peculiar characteristics: it is, in the first place, the
+deepest and most volcanic of human impulses, and, in the second
+place,--unlike the only other human impulse with which it can be compared,
+the nutritive impulse,--it can, to a large extent, be transmuted into a
+new force capable of the strangest and most various uses. So that in the
+presence of all these manifestations we may assert that in a real sense,
+though subtly mingled with very diverse elements, auto-erotism everywhere
+plays its part. In the phenomena of auto-erotism, when we take a broad
+view of those phenomena, we are concerned, not with a form of insanity,
+not necessarily with a form of depravity, but with the inevitable
+by-products of that mighty process on which the animal creation rests.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[289] For a bibliography of masturbation, see Rohleder, _Die
+Masturbation_, pp. 11-18; also, Arthur MacDonald, _Le Criminel Type_, pp.
+227 et seq.; cf. G. Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, pp. 432 _et seq._
+
+[290] Oskar Berger, _Archiv fuer Psychiatrie_, Bd. 6, 1876.
+
+[291] _Die Masturbation_, p. 41.
+
+[292] Dukes, _Preservation of Health_, 1884, p. 150.
+
+[293] G. Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 434.
+
+[294] F.S. Brockman, "A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of Students
+in the United States," _Pedagogical Seminary_, September, 1902. Many
+pitiful narratives are reproduced.
+
+[295] Moraglia, "Die Onanie beim normalen Weibe und bei den Prostituten,"
+_Zeitschrift fuer Criminal-Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 489. It should be added
+that Moraglia is not a very critical investigator. It is probable,
+however, that on this point his results are an approximation to the truth.
+
+[296] Ernst, "Anthropological Researches on the Population of Venezuela,"
+_Memoirs of the Anthropological Society_, vol. iii, 1870, p. 277.
+
+[297] Niceforo, _Il Gergo nei Normali_, etc., 1897, cap. V.
+
+[298] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 64. Yet theologians and casuists,
+Debreyne remarks, frequently never refer to masturbation in women.
+
+[299] Stanley Hall, op. cit., vol. i, p. 34. Hall mentions, also, that
+masturbation is specially common among the blind.
+
+[300] Moraglia, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xvi, fasc. 4 and 5, p.
+313.
+
+[301] See his careful study, "Die Sexuellen Perversitaeten in der
+Irrenanstalt," _Psychiatrische Bladen_, No. 2. 1899.
+
+[302] Venturi, _Degenerazioni Psico-sessuali_, pp. 105, 133, 148, 152.
+
+[303] J.P. West, _Transactions of the Ohio Pediatric Society_, 1895.
+_Abstract in Medical Standard_, November, 1895; cases are also recorded by
+J.T. Winter, "Self-abuse in Infancy and Childhood," _American Journal
+Obstetrics_, June, 1902.
+
+[304] Freud, _Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, pp. 36 et seq.
+
+[305] G.E. Shuttleworth, _British Medical Journal_, October 3, 1903.
+
+[306] See for a detailed study of sexuality in childhood, Moll's valuable
+book, _Das Sexualleben des Kindes_; cf. vol. vi of these _Studies_, Ch.
+II.
+
+[307] This is, no doubt, the most common opinion, and it is frequently
+repeated in text-books. It is scarcely necessary, however, to point out
+that only the opinions of those who have given special attention to the
+matter can carry any weight. R.W. Shufeldt ("On a Case of Female
+Impotency," pp. 5-7) quotes the opinions of various cautious observers as
+to the difficulty of detecting masturbation in women.
+
+[308] This latter opinion is confirmed by Naecke so far as the insane are
+concerned. In a careful study of sexual perversity in a large asylum,
+Naecke found that, while moderate masturbation could be more easily traced
+among men than among women, excessive masturbation was more common among
+women. And, while among the men masturbation was most frequent in the
+lowest grades of mental development (idiocy and imbecility), and least
+frequent in the highest grades (general paralysis), in the women it was
+the reverse. (P. Naecke, "Die Sexuellen Perversitaeten in der Irrenanstalt,"
+_Psychiatrische en Neurologische Bladen_, No. 2, 1899.)
+
+[309] Mammary masturbation sometimes occurs; see, e.g., Rohleder, _Die
+Masturbation_ (pp. 32-33); it is, however, rare.
+
+[310] Hirschsprung pointed out this, indeed, many years ago, on the ground
+of his own experience. And see Rohleder, op. cit., pp. 44-47.
+
+[311] In many cases, of course, the physical precocity is associated with
+precocity in sexual habits. An instructive case is reported (_Alienist and
+Neurologist_, October, 1895) of a girl of 7, a beautiful child, of healthy
+family, and very intelligent, who, from the age of three, was perpetually
+masturbating, when not watched. The clitoris and mons veneris were those
+of a fully-grown woman, and the child was as well informed upon most
+subjects as an average woman. She was cured by care and hygienic
+attention, and when seen last was in excellent condition. A medical friend
+tells me of a little girl of two, whose external genital organs are
+greatly developed, and who is always rubbing herself.
+
+[312] R.T. Morris, of New York, has also pointed out the influence of
+traditions in this respect. "Among boys," he remarks, "there are
+traditions to the effect that self-abuse is harmful. Among girls, however,
+there are no such saving traditions." Dr. Kiernan writes in a private
+letter: "It has been by experience, that from ignorance or otherwise,
+there are young women who do not look upon sexual manipulation with the
+same fear that men do." Guttceit, similarly, remarks that men have been
+warned of masturbation, and fear its evil results, while girls, even if
+warned, attach little importance to the warning; he adds that in healthy
+women, masturbation, even in excess, has little bad results. The attitude
+of many women in this matter may be illustrated by the following passage
+from a letter written by a medical friend in India: "The other day one of
+my English women patients gave me the following reason for having taught
+the 17-year-old daughter of a retired Colonel to masturbate: 'Poor girl,
+she was troubled with dreams of men, and in case she should be tempted
+with one, and become pregnant, I taught her to bring the feeling on
+herself--as it is safer, and, after all, nearly as nice as with a man.'"
+
+[313] H. Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, volume ii, "Sexual
+Inversion," Chapter IV.
+
+[314] See, also, the Appendix to the third volume of these _Studies_, in
+which I have brought forward sexual histories of normal persons.
+
+[315] E.H. Smith, also, states that from 25 to 35 is the age when most
+women come under the physician's eye with manifest and pronounced habits
+of masturbation.
+
+[316] It may, however, be instructive to observe that at the end of the
+volume we find an advertisement of "Dr. Robinson's Treatise on the Virtues
+and Efficacy of a Crust of Bread, Eat Early in the Morning Fasting."
+
+[317] Pouillet alone enumerates and apparently accepts considerably over
+one hundred different morbid conditions as signs and results of
+masturbation.
+
+[318] "Augenkrankheiten bei Masturbanten," Knapp-Schweigger's _Archiv fuer
+Augenheitkunde_, Bd. II, 1882, p. 198.
+
+[319] Salmo Cohn, _Uterus und Auge_, 1890, pp. 63-66.
+
+[320] _Fonctions du Cerveau_, 1825, vol. iii, p. 337.
+
+[321] W. Ellis, _Treatise on Insanity_, 1838, pp. 335, 340.
+
+[322] Clara Barrus, "Insanity in Young Women," _Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Disease_, June, 1896.
+
+[323] See, for instance, H. Emminghaus, "Die Psychosen des Kindesalters,"
+Gerlandt's _Handbuch der Kinder-Krankheiten_, Nachtrag II, pp. 61-63.
+
+[324] Christian, article "Onanisme," _Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des
+Sciences Medicales_.
+
+[325] Naecke, _Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe_, 1894, p. 57.
+
+[326] J.L.A. Koch, _Die Psychopathischen Minderwertigkeiten_, 1892, p. 273
+et seq.
+
+[327] J.G. Kiernan, _American Journal of Insanity_, July, 1877.
+
+[328] Maudsley dealt, in his vigorous, picturesque manner, with the more
+extreme morbid mental conditions sometimes found associated with
+masturbation, in "Illustrations of a Variety of Insanity," _Journal of
+Mental Science_, July, 1868.
+
+[329] See, e.g., Loewenfeld, _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 2d. ed., Ch.
+VIII.
+
+[330] Marro, _La Puberta_, Turin, 1898, p. 174.
+
+[331] E.C. Spitzka, "Cases of Masturbation," _Journal of Mental Science_,
+July, 1888.
+
+[332] Charles West, _Lancet_, November 17, 1866.
+
+[333] Gowers, _Epilepsy_, 1881, p. 31. Loewenfeld believes that epileptic
+attacks are certainly caused by masturbation. Fere thought that both
+epilepsy and hysteria may be caused by masturbation.
+
+[334] Ziemssen's _Handbuch_, Bd. XI.
+
+[335] _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 441.
+
+[336] See a discussion of these points by Rohleder, _Die Masturbation_,
+pp. 168-175.
+
+[337] The surgeons, it may be remarked, have especially stated the
+harmlessness of masturbation in too absolute a manner. Thus, John Hunter
+(_Treatise on the Venereal Disease_, 1786, p. 200), after pointing out
+that "the books on this subject have done more harm than good," adds, "I
+think I may affirm that this act does less harm to the constitution in
+general than the natural." And Sir James Paget, in his lecture on "Sexual
+Hypochondriasis," said: "Masturbation does neither more nor less harm than
+sexual intercourse practiced with the same frequency, in the same
+conditions of general health and age and circumstances."
+
+[338] It is interesting to note that an analogous result seems to hold
+with animals. Among highly-bred horses excessive masturbation is liable to
+occur with injurious results. It is scarcely necessary to point out that
+highly-bred horses are apt to be abnormal.
+
+[339] With regard to the physical signs, the same conclusion is reached by
+Legludic (in opposition to Martineau) on the basis of a large experience.
+He has repeatedly found, in young girls who acknowledged frequent
+masturbation, that the organs were perfectly healthy and normal, and his
+convictions are the more noteworthy, since he speaks as a pupil of
+Tardieu, who attached very grave significance to the local signs of sexual
+perversity and excess. (Legludic, _Notes et Observations de Medecine
+Legale_, 1896, p. 95.) Matthews Duncan (_Goulstonian Lectures on Sterility
+in Women_, 1884, p. 97) was often struck by the smallness, and even
+imperfect development, of the external genitals of women who masturbate.
+Clara Barrus considers that there is no necessary connection between
+hypertrophy of the external female genital organs and masturbation, though
+in six cases of prolonged masturbation she found such a condition in three
+(_American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1895, p. 479). Bachterew denies
+that masturbation produces enlargement of the penis, and Hammond considers
+there is no evidence to show that it enlarges the clitoris, while Guttceit
+states that it does not enlarge the nymphae; this, however, is doubtful. It
+would not suffice in many cases to show that large sexual organs are
+correlated with masturbation; it would still be necessary to show whether
+the size of the organs stood to masturbation in the relation of effect or
+of cause.
+
+[340] Thus, Bechterew ("La Phobie du Regard," _Archives de Neurologie_,
+July, 1905) considers that masturbation plays a large part in producing
+the morbid fear of the eyes of others.
+
+[341] It is especially an undesirable tendency of masturbation, that it
+deadens the need for affection, and merely eludes, instead of satisfying,
+the sexual impulse. "Masturbation," as Godfrey well says (_The Science of
+Sex_, p. 178), "though a manifestation of sexual activity, is not a sexual
+act in the higher, or even in the real fundamental sense. For sex implies
+duality, a characteristic to which masturbation can plainly lay no claim.
+The physical, moral, and mental reciprocity which gives stability and
+beauty to a normal sexual intimacy, are as foreign to the masturbator as
+to the celibate. In a sense, therefore, masturbation is as complete a
+negative of the sexual life as chastity itself. It is, therefore, an
+evasion of, not an answer to, the sexual problem; and it will ever remain
+so, no matter how surely we may be convinced of its physical
+harmlessness."
+
+[342] "I learnt that dangerous supplement," Rousseau tells us (Part I, Bk.
+III), "which deceives Nature. This vice, which bashfulness and timidity
+find so convenient, has, moreover, a great attraction for lively
+imaginations, for it enables them to do what they will, so to speak, with
+the whole fair sex, and to enjoy at pleasure the beauty who attracts them,
+without having obtained her consent."
+
+[343] "Ich hatte sie wirklich verloren, und die Tollheit, mit der ich
+meinen Fehler an mir selbst raechte, indem ich auf mancherlei unsinnige
+Weise in meine physische Natur sturmte, um der sittlichen etwas zu Leide
+zu thun, hat sehr viel zu den koerperlichen Uebeln beigetragen, unter denen
+ich einige der besten Jahre meines Lebens verlor; ja ich waere vielleicht
+an diesem Verlust vollig zu Grunde gegangen, haette sich hier nicht das
+poetische Talent mit seinen Heilkraften besonders huelfreich erwiesen."
+This is scarcely conclusive, and it may be added that there were many
+reasons why Goethe should have suffered physically at this time, quite
+apart from masturbation. See, e.g., Bielschowsky, _Life of Goethe_, vol.
+i, p. 88.
+
+[344] _Les Obsessions_, vol. ii, p. 136.
+
+[345] A somewhat similar classification has already been made by Max
+Dessoir, who points out that we must distinguish between onanists _aus
+Noth_, and onanists _aus Leidenschaft_, the latter group alone being of
+really serious importance. The classification of Dallemagne is also
+somewhat similar; he distinguishes _onanie par impulsion_, occurring in
+mental degeneration and in persons of inferior intelligence, from _onanie
+par evocation ou obsession_.
+
+[346] W. Xavier Sudduth, "A Study in the Psycho-physics of Masturbation,"
+_Chicago Medical Recorder_, March, 1898. Haig, who reaches a similar
+conclusion, has sought to find its precise mechanism in the
+blood-pressure. "As the sexual act produces lower and falling
+blood-pressure," he remarks, "it will of necessity relieve conditions
+which are due to high and rising blood-pressure, such, for instance, as
+mental depression and bad temper; and, unless my observation deceives me,
+we have here a connection between conditions of high blood-pressure with
+mental and bodily depression and acts of masturbation, for this act will
+relieve these conditions and tend to be practiced for this purpose."
+(_Uric Acid_, 6th edition, p. 154.)
+
+[347] Northcote discusses the classic attitude towards masturbation,
+_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 233.
+
+[348] _El Ktab_, traduction de Paul de Regla, Paris, 1893.
+
+[349] Remy de Gourmont, _Physique de l'Amour_, p. 133.
+
+[350] Tillier, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, Paris, 1889, p. 270.
+
+[351] G. Hirth, _Wege zur Heimat_, p. 648.
+
+[352] Fere, in the course of his valuable work, _L'Instinct Sexuel_,
+stated that my conclusion is that masturbation is normal, and that
+"_l'indulgence s'impose_." I had, however, already guarded myself against
+this misinterpretation.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF MENSTRUATION ON THE POSITION OF WOMEN.
+
+
+A question of historical psychology which, so far as I know, has never
+been fully investigated is the influence of menstruation in constituting
+the emotional atmosphere through which men habitually view women.[353] I
+do not purpose to deal fully with this question, because it is one which
+may be more properly dealt with at length by the student of culture and by
+the historian, rather than from the standpoint of empirical psychology. It
+is, moreover, a question full of complexities in regard to which it is
+impossible to speak with certainty. But we here strike on a factor of such
+importance, such neglected importance, for the proper understanding of the
+sexual relations of men and women, that it cannot be wholly ignored.
+
+Among the negroes of Surinam a woman must live in solitude during the time
+of her period; it is dangerous for any man or woman to approach her, and
+when she sees a person coming near she cries out anxiously: "_Mi kay! Mi
+kay!_"--I am unclean! I am unclean! Throughout the world we find traces of
+the custom of which this is a typical example, but we must not too hastily
+assume that this custom is evidence of the inferior position occupied by
+semi-civilized women. It is necessary to take a broad view, not only of
+the beliefs of semi-civilized man regarding menstruation, but of his
+general beliefs regarding the supernatural forces of the world.
+
+There is no fragment of folk-lore so familiar to the European world as
+that which connects woman with the serpent. It is, indeed, one of the
+foundation stones of Christian theology.[354] Yet there is no fragment of
+folk-lore which remains more obscure. How has it happened that in all
+parts of the world the snake or his congeners, the lizard and the
+crocodile, have been credited with some design, sinister or erotic, on
+women?
+
+Of the wide prevalence of the belief there can be no doubt. Among the Port
+Lincoln tribe of South Australia a lizard is said to have divided man from
+woman.[355] Among the Chiriguanos of Bolivia, on the appearance of
+menstruation, old women ran about with sticks to hunt the snake that had
+wounded the girl. Frazer, who quotes this example from the "_Lettres
+edifiantes et curieuses_," also refers to a modern Greek folk-tale,
+according to which a princess at puberty must not let the sun shine upon
+her, or she would be turned into a lizard.[356] The lizard was a sexual
+symbol among the Mexicans. In some parts of Brazil at the onset of puberty
+a girl must not go into the woods for fear of the amorous attacks of
+snakes, and so it is also among the Macusi Indians of British Guiana,
+according to Schomburgk. Among the Basutos of South Africa the young girls
+must dance around the clay image of a snake. In Polynesian mythology the
+lizard is a very sacred animal, and legends represent women as often
+giving birth to lizards.[357] At a widely remote spot, in Bengal, if you
+dream of a snake a child will be born to you, reports Sarat Chandra
+Mitra.[358] In the Berlin Museum fuer Volkerkunde there is a carved wooden
+figure from New Guinea of a woman into whose vulva a crocodile is
+inserting its snout, while the same museum contains another figure of a
+snake-like crocodile crawling out of a woman's vulva, and a third figure
+shows a small round snake with a small head, and closely resembling a
+penis, at the mouth of the vagina. All these figures are reproduced by
+Ploss and Bartels. Even in modern Europe the same ideas prevail. In
+Portugal, according to Reys, it is believed that during menstruation women
+are liable to be bitten by lizards, and to guard against this risk they
+wear drawers during the period. In Germany, again, it was believed, up to
+the eighteenth century at least, that the hair of a menstruating woman, if
+buried, would turn into a snake. It may be added that in various parts of
+the world virgin priestesses are dedicated to a snake-god and are married
+to the god.[359] At Rome, it is interesting to note, the serpent was the
+symbol of fecundation, and as such often figures at Pompeii as the _genius
+patrisfamilias_, the generative power of the family.[360] In Rabbinical
+tradition, also, the serpent is the symbol of sexual desire.
+
+There can be no doubt that--as Ploss and Bartels, from whom some of these
+examples have been taken, point out--in widely different parts of the
+world menstruation is believed to have been originally caused by a snake,
+and that this conception is frequently associated with an erotic and
+mystic idea.[361] How the connection arose Ploss and Bartels are unable to
+say. It can only be suggested that its shape and appearance, as well as
+its venomous nature, may have contributed to the mystery everywhere
+associated with the snake--a mystery itself fortified by the association
+with women--to build up this world-wide belief regarding the origin of
+menstruation.
+
+This primitive theory of the origin of menstruation probably brings before
+us in its earliest shape the special and intimate bond which has ever been
+held to connect women, by virtue of the menstrual process, with the
+natural or supernatural powers of the world. Everywhere menstruating women
+are supposed to be possessed by spirits and charged with mysterious
+forces. It is at this point that a serious misconception, due to ignorance
+of primitive religious ideas, has constantly intruded. It is stated that
+the menstruating woman is "unclean" and possessed by an evil spirit. As a
+matter of fact, however, the savage rarely discriminates between bad and
+good spirits. Every spirit may have either a beneficial or malignant
+influence. An interesting instance of this is given in Colenso's _Maori
+Lexicon_ as illustrated by the meaning of the Maori word _atua_.
+
+The importance of recognizing the special sense in which the word
+"unclean" is used in this connection was clearly pointed out by Robertson
+Smith in the case of the Semites. "The Hebrew word _tame_ (unclean)," he
+remarked, "is not the ordinary word for things physically foul; it is a
+ritual term, and corresponds exactly to the idea of _taboo_. The ideas
+'unclean' and 'holy' seem to us to stand in polar opposition to one
+another, but it was not so with the Semites. Among the later Jews the Holy
+Books 'defiled the hands' of the reader as contact with an impure thing
+did; among Lucian's Syrians the dove was so holy that he who touched it
+was unclean for a day; and the _taboo_ attaching to the swine was
+explained by some, and beyond question correctly explained, in the same
+way. Among the heathen Semites,[362] therefore, unclean animals, which it
+was pollution to eat, were simply holy animals." Robertson Smith here
+made no reference to menstruation, but he exactly described the primitive
+attitude toward menstruation. Wellhausen, however, dealing with the early
+Arabians, expressly mentions that in pre-Islamic days, "clean" and
+"unclean" were used solely with reference to women in and out of the
+menstrual state. At a later date Frazer developed this aspect of the
+conception of taboo, and showed how it occurs among savage races
+generally. He pointed out that the conceptions of holiness and pollution
+not having yet been differentiated, women at childbirth and during
+menstruation are on the same level as divine kings, chiefs, and priests,
+and must observe the same rules of ceremonial purity. To seclude such
+persons from the rest of the world, so that the dreaded spiritual danger
+shall not spread, is the object of the taboo, which Frazer compares to "an
+electrical insulator to preserve the spiritual force with which these
+persons are charged from suffering or inflicting, harm by contact with the
+outer world." After describing the phenomena (especially the prohibition
+to touch the ground or see the sun) found among various races, Frazer
+concludes: "The object of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralize
+the dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such
+times. The general effect of these rules is to keep the girl suspended, so
+to say, between heaven and earth. Whether enveloped in her hammock and
+slung up to the roof, as in South America, or elevated above the ground in
+a dark and narrow cage, as in New Zealand, she may be considered to be out
+of the way of doing mischief, since, being shut off both from the earth
+and from the sun, she can poison neither of these great sources of life by
+her deadly contagion. The precautions thus taken to isolate or insulate
+the girl are dictated by regard for her own safety as well as for the
+safety of others.... In short, the girl is viewed as charged with a
+powerful force which, if not kept within bounds, may prove the destruction
+both of the girl herself and of all with whom she comes in contact. To
+repress this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all
+concerned is the object of the taboos in question. The same explanation
+applies to the observance of the same rules by divine kings and priests.
+The uncleanliness, as it is called, of girls at puberty and the sanctity
+of holy men do not, to the primitive mind, differ from each other. They
+are only different manifestations of the same supernatural energy, which,
+like energy in general, is in itself neither good nor bad, but becomes
+beneficent or malignant according to its application."[363]
+
+More recently this view of the matter has been further extended by the
+distinguished French sociologist, Durkheim. Investigating the origins of
+the prohibition of incest, and arguing that it proceeds from the custom of
+exogamy (or marriage outside the clan), and that this rests on certain
+ideas about blood, which, again, are traceable to totemism,--a theory
+which we need not here discuss,--Durkheim is brought face to face with the
+group of conceptions that now concern us. He insists on the extreme
+ambiguity found in primitive culture concerning the notion of the divine,
+and the close connection between aversion and veneration, and points out
+that it is not only at puberty and each recurrence of the menstrual epoch
+that women have aroused these emotions, but also at childbirth. "A
+sentiment of religious horror," he continues, "which can reach such a
+degree of intensity, which can be called forth by so many circumstances,
+and reappears regularly every month to last for a week at least, cannot
+fail to extend its influence beyond the periods to which it was originally
+confined, and to affect the whole course of life. A being who must be
+secluded or avoided for weeks, months, or years preserves something of the
+characteristics to which the isolation was due, even outside those special
+periods. And, in fact, in these communities, the separation of the sexes
+is not merely intermittent; it has become chronic. The two elements of the
+population live separately." Durkheim proceeds to argue that the origin of
+the occult powers attributed to the feminine organism is to be found in
+primitive ideas concerning blood. Not only menstrual blood but any kind of
+blood is the object of such feelings among savage and barbarous peoples.
+All sorts of precautions must be observed with regard to blood; in it
+resides a divine principle, or as Romans, Jews, and Arabs believed, life
+itself. The prohibition to drink wine, the blood of the grape, found among
+some peoples, is traced to its resemblance to blood, and to its
+sacrificial employment (as among the ancient Arabians and still in the
+Christian sacrament) as a substitute for drinking blood. Throughout, blood
+is generally taboo, and it taboos everything that comes in contact with
+it. Now woman is chronically "the theatre of bloody manifestations," and
+therefore she tends to become chronically taboo for the other members of
+the community. "A more or less conscious anxiety, a certain religious
+fear, cannot fail to enter into all the relations of her companions with
+her, and that is why all such relations are reduced to a minimum.
+Relations of a sexual character are specially excluded. In the first
+place, such relations are so intimate that they are incompatible with the
+sort of repulsion which the sexes must experience for each other; the
+barrier between them does not permit of such a close union. In the second
+place, the organs of the body here specially concerned are precisely the
+source of the dreaded manifestations. Thus it is natural that the feelings
+of aversion inspired by women attain their greatest intensity at this
+point. Thus it is, also, that of all parts of the feminine organization it
+is this region which is most severely shut out from commerce." So that,
+while the primitive emotion is mainly one of veneration, and is allied to
+that experienced for kings and priests, there is an element of fear in
+such veneration, and what men fear is to some extent odious to them.[364]
+
+These conceptions necessarily mingled at a very early period with men's
+ideas of sexual intercourse with women and especially with menstruating
+women. Contact with women, as Crawley shows by abundant illustration, is
+dangerous. In any case, indeed, the same ideas being transferred to women
+also, coitus produces weakness, and it prevents the acquisition of
+supernatural powers. Thus, among the western tribes of Canada, Boas
+states: "Only a youth who has never touched a woman, or a virgin, both
+being called _te 'e 'its_, can become shamans. After having had sexual
+intercourse men as well as women, become _t 'k-e 'el_, i.e., weak,
+incapable of gaining supernatural powers. The faculty cannot be regained
+by subsequent fasting and abstinence."[365] The mysterious effects of
+sexual intercourse in general are intensified in the case of intercourse
+with a menstruating woman. Thus the ancient Indian legislator declares
+that "the wisdom, the energy, the strength, the sight, and the vitality of
+a man who approaches a woman covered with menstrual excretions utterly
+perish."[366] It will be seen that these ideas are impartially spread over
+the most widely separated parts of the globe. They equally affected the
+Christian Church, and the Penitentials ordained forty or fifty days
+penance for sexual intercourse during menstruation.
+
+Yet the twofold influence of the menstruating woman remains clear when we
+review the whole group of influences which in this state she is supposed
+to exert. She by no means acts only by paralyzing social activities and
+destroying the powers of life, by causing flowers to fade, fruit to fall
+from the trees, grains to lose their germinative power, and grafts to die.
+She is not accurately summed up in the old lines:--
+
+    "Oh! menstruating woman, thou'rt a fiend
+    From whom all nature should be closely screened."
+
+Her powers are also beneficial. A woman at this time, as AElian expressed
+it, is in regular communication with the starry bodies. Even at other
+times a woman when led naked around the orchard protected it from
+caterpillars, said Pliny, and this belief is acted upon (according to
+Bastanzi) even in the Italy of to-day.[367] A garment stained with a
+virgin's menstrual blood, it is said in Bavaria, is a certain safeguard
+against cuts and stabs. It will also extinguish fire. It was valuable as a
+love-philter; as a medicine its uses have been endless.[368] A sect of
+Valentinians even attributed sacramental virtues to menstrual blood, and
+partook of it as the blood of Christ. The Church soon, however, acquired a
+horror of menstruating women; they were frequently not allowed to take the
+sacrament or to enter sacred places, and it was sometimes thought best to
+prohibit the presence of women altogether.[369] The Anglo-Saxon
+Penitentials declared that menstruating women must not enter a church. It
+appears to have been Gregory II who overturned this doctrine.
+
+In our own time the slow disintegration of primitive animistic
+conceptions, aided certainly by the degraded conception of sexual
+phenomena taught by mediaeval monks--for whom woman was "_templum
+aedificatum super cloacam_"--has led to a disbelief in the more salutary
+influences of the menstruating woman. A fairly widespread faith in her
+pernicious influence alone survives. It may be traced even in practical
+and commercial--one might add, medical--quarters. In the great
+sugar-refineries in the North of France the regulations strictly forbid a
+woman to enter the factory while the sugar is boiling or cooling, the
+reason given being that, if a woman were to enter during her period, the
+sugar would blacken. For the same reason--to turn to the East--no woman is
+employed in the opium manufactory at Saigon, it being said that the opium
+would turn and become bitter, while Annamite women say that it is very
+difficult for them to prepare opium-pipes during the catamenial
+period.[370] In India, again, when a native in charge of a limekiln which
+had gone wrong, declared that one of the women workers must be
+menstruating, all the women--Hindus, Mahometans, aboriginal Gonds,
+etc.,--showed by their energetic denials that they understood this
+superstition.[371]
+
+In 1878 a member of the British Medical Association wrote to the _British
+Medical Journal_, asking whether it was true that if a woman cured hams
+while menstruating the hams would be spoiled. He had known this to happen
+twice. Another medical man wrote that if so, what would happen to the
+patients of menstruating lady doctors? A third wrote (in the _Journal_ for
+April 27, 1878): "I thought the fact was so generally known to every
+housewife and cook that meat would spoil if salted at the menstrual
+period, that I am surprised to see so many letters on the subject in the
+_Journal_. If I am not mistaken, the question was mooted many years ago in
+the periodicals. It is undoubtedly the fact that meat will be tainted if
+cured by women at the catamenial period. Whatever the rationale may be, I
+can speak positively as to the fact."
+
+It is probably the influence of these primitive ideas which has caused
+surgeons and gynaecologists to dread operations during the catamenial
+period. Such, at all events, is the opinion of a distinguished authority,
+Dr. William Goodell, who wrote in 1891[372]: "I have learned to unlearn
+the teaching that women must not be subjected to a surgical operation
+during the monthly flux. Our forefathers, from time immemorial, have
+thought and taught that the presence of a menstruating woman would pollute
+solemn religious rites, would sour milk, spoil the fermentation in
+wine-vats, and much other mischief in a general way. Influenced by hoary
+tradition, modern physicians very generally postpone all operative
+treatment until the flow has ceased. But why this delay, if time is
+precious, and it enters as an important factor in the case? I have found
+menstruation to be the very best time to curette away fungous vegetations
+of the endometrium, for, being swollen then by the afflux of blood, they
+are larger than at any other time, and can the more readily be removed.
+There is, indeed, no surer way of checking or of stopping a metrorrhagia
+than by curetting the womb during the very flow. While I do not select
+this period for the removal of ovarian cysts, or for other abdominal work,
+such as the extirpation of the ovaries, or a kidney, or breaking up
+intestinal adhesions, etc., yet I have not hesitated to perform these
+operations at such a time, and have never had reason to regret the course.
+The only operations that I should dislike to perform during menstruation
+would be those involving the womb itself."
+
+It must be added to this that we still have to take into consideration not
+merely the surviving influence of ancient primitive beliefs, but the
+possible existence of actual nervous conditions during the menstrual
+period, producing what may be described as an abnormal nervous tension. In
+this way, we are doubtless concerned with a tissue of phenomena,
+inextricably woven of folk-lore, autosuggestion, false observation, and
+real mental and nervous abnormality. Laurent (loc. cit.) has brought
+forward several cases which may illustrate this point. Thus, he speaks of
+two young girls of about 16 and 17, slightly neuropathic, but without
+definite hysterical symptoms, who, during the menstrual period, feel
+themselves in a sort of electrical state, "with tingling and prickling
+sensations and feelings of attraction or repulsion at the contact of
+various objects." These girls believe their garments stick to their skin
+during the periods; it was only with difficulty that they could remove
+their slippers, though fitting easily; stockings had to be drawn off
+violently by another person, and they had given up changing their chemises
+during the period because the linen became so glued to the skin. An
+orchestral performer on the double-bass informed Laurent that whenever he
+left a tuned double-bass in his lodgings during his wife's period a
+string snapped; consequently he always removed his instrument at this time
+to a friend's house. He added that the same thing happened two years
+earlier with a mistress, a _cafe-concert_ singer, who had, indeed, warned
+him beforehand. A harpist also informed Laurent that she had been obliged
+to give up her profession because during her periods several strings of
+her harp, always the same strings, broke, especially when she was playing.
+A friend of Laurent's, an official in Cochin China, also told him that the
+strings of his violin often snapped during the menstrual periods of his
+Annamite mistress, who informed him that Annamite women are familiar with
+the phenomenon, and are careful not to play on their instruments at this
+time. Two young ladies, both good violinists, also affirmed that ever
+since their first menstruation they had noted a tendency for the strings
+to snap at this period; one, a genuine artist, who often performed at
+charity concerts, systematically refused to play at these times, and was
+often embarrassed to find a pretext; the other, who admitted that she was
+nervous and irritable at such times, had given up playing on account of
+the trouble of changing the strings so frequently. Laurent also refers to
+the frequency with which women break things during the menstrual periods,
+and considers that this is not simply due to the awkwardness caused by
+nervous exhaustion or hysterical tremors, but that there is spontaneous
+breakage. Most usually it happens that a glass breaks when it is being
+dried with a cloth; needles also break with unusual facility at this time;
+clocks are stopped by merely placing the hand upon them.
+
+I do not here attempt to estimate critically the validity of these alleged
+manifestations (some of which may certainly be explained by the
+unconscious muscular action which forms the basis of the phenomena of
+table-turning and thought-reading); such a task may best be undertaken
+through the minute study of isolated cases, and in this place I am merely
+concerned with the general influence of the menstrual state in affecting
+the social position of women, without reference to the analysis of the
+elements that go to make up that influence.
+
+There is only one further point to which attention may be called. I
+allude to the way in which the more favorable side of the primitive
+conception of the menstruating woman--as priestess, sibyl, prophetess, an
+almost miraculous agent for good, an angel, the peculiar home of the
+divine element--was slowly and continuously carried on side by side with
+the less favorable view, through the beginnings of European civilization
+until our own times. The actual physical phenomena of menstruation, with
+the ideas of taboo associated with that state, sank into the background as
+culture evolved; but, on the other hand, the ideas of the angelic position
+and spiritual mission of women, based on the primitive conception of the
+mystery associated with menstruation, still in some degree persisted.
+
+It is evident, however, that, while, in one form or another, the more
+favorable aspect of the primitive view of women's magic function has never
+quite died out, the gradual decay and degradation of the primitive view
+has, on the whole, involved a lower estimate of women's nature and
+position. Woman has always been the witch; she was so even in ancient
+Babylonia; but she has ceased to be the priestess. The early Teutons saw
+"_sanctum aliquid et providum_" in women who, for the mediaeval German
+preacher, were only "_bestiae bipedales_"; and Schopenhauer and even
+Nietzsche have been more inclined to side with the preacher than with the
+half-naked philosophers of Tacitus's day. But both views alike are but the
+extremes of the same primitive conception; and the gradual evolution from
+one extreme of the magical doctrine to the other was inevitable.
+
+In an advanced civilization, as we see, these ideas having their ultimate
+basis on the old story of the serpent, and on a special and mysterious
+connection between the menstruating woman and the occult forces of magic,
+tend to die out. The separation of the sexes they involve becomes
+unnecessary. Living in greater community with men, women are seen to
+possess something, it may well be, but less than before, of the
+angel-devil of early theories. Menstruation is no longer a monstrific
+state requiring spiritual taboo, but a normal physiological process, not
+without its psychic influences on the woman herself and on those who live
+with her.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[353] Several recent works, however, notably Frazer's _Golden Bough_ and
+Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, throw light directly or indirectly on this
+question.
+
+[354] Robertson Smith points out that since snakes are the last noxious
+animals which man is able to exterminate, they are the last to be
+associated with demons. They were ultimately the only animals directly and
+constantly associated with the Arabian _jinn_, or demon, and the serpent
+of Eden was a demon, and not a temporary disguise of Satan (_Religion of
+Semites_, pp. 129 and 442). Perhaps it was, in part, because the snake was
+thus the last embodiment of demonic power that women were associated with
+it, women being always connected with the most ancient religious beliefs.
+
+[355] In the northern territory of the same colony menstruation is said to
+be due to a bandicoot scratching the vagina and causing blood to flow
+(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, p. 177, November, 1894). At
+Glenelg, and near Portland, in Victoria, the head of a snake was inserted
+into a virgin's vagina, when not considered large enough for intercourse
+(Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, vol. ii, p. 319).
+
+[356] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. ii, p. 231. Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_,
+p. 192) also brings together various cases of primitive peoples who
+believe the bite of a snake to be the cause of menstruation.
+
+[357] Meyners d'Estrez, "Etude ethnographique sur le lezard chez les
+peuples malais et polynesiens," _L'Anthropologie_, 1892; see also, as
+regards the lizard in Samoan folk-lore, _Globus_, vol. lxxiv, No. 16.
+
+[358] _Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay_, 1890, p. 589.
+
+[359] Boudin (_Etude Anthropologique: Culte du Serpent_, Paris, 1864, pp.
+66-70) brings forward examples of this aspect of snake-worship.
+
+[360] Attilio de Marchi, _Il Culto privato di Roma_, p. 74. The
+association of the power of generation with a god in the form of a serpent
+is, indeed, common; see, e.g. Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Cities of Phrygia_, vol.
+i, p. 94.
+
+[361] It is noteworthy that one of the names for the penis used by the
+Swahili women of German East Africa, in a kind of private language of
+their own, is "the snake" (Zache, _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, p. 73,
+1899). It may be added that Maeder ("Interpretation de Quelques Reves,"
+_Archives de Psychologie_, April, 1907) brings forward various items of
+folk-lore showing the phallic significance of the serpent, as well as
+evidence indicating that, in the dreams of women of to-day, the snake
+sometimes has a sexual significance.
+
+[362] W.R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1885, p. 307.
+The point is elaborated in the same author's _Religion of Semites_, second
+edition, Appendix on "Holiness, Uncleanness, and Taboo," pp. 446-54. See
+also Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_, second edition, pp.
+167-77. Even to the early Arabians, Wellhausen remarks (p. 168), "clean"
+meant "profane and allowed," while "unclean" meant "sacred and forbidden."
+It was the same, as Jastrow remarks (_Religion of Babylonia_, p. 662),
+among the Babylonian Semites.
+
+[363] J.C. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, Chapter IV.
+
+[364] E. Durkheim, "La Prohibition de l'Inceste et ses Origines," _L'Annee
+Sociologique_, Premiere Annee, 1898, esp. pp. 44, 46-47, 48, 50-57.
+Crawley (_Mystic Rose_, p. 212) opposes Durkheim's view as to the
+significance of blood in relation to the attitude towards women.
+
+[365] _British Association Report on North Western Tribes of Canada_,
+1890, p. 581.
+
+[366] _Laws of Manu_, iv, 41.
+
+[367] Pliny, who, in Book VII, Chapter XIII, and Book XXVIII, Chapter
+XXIII, of his _Natural History_, gives long lists of the various good and
+evil influences attributed to menstruation, writes in the latter place:
+"Hailstorms, they say, whirlwinds, and lightnings, even, will be scared
+away by a woman uncovering her body while her monthly courses are upon
+her. The same, too, with all other kinds of tempestuous weather; and out
+at sea, a storm may be stilled by a woman uncovering her body merely, even
+though not menstruating at the time. At any other time, also, if a woman
+strips herself naked while she is menstruating, and walks round a field of
+wheat, the caterpillars, worms, beetles, and other vermin will fall from
+off the ears of corn."
+
+[368] See Bourke, _Scatologic Rites of all Nations_, 1891, pp. 217-219,
+250 and 254; Ploss and Max Bartels, _Das Weib_, vol. i; H.L. Strack, _Der
+Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit_, fourth edition, 1892, pp. 14-18. The
+last mentioned refers to the efficacy frequently attributed to menstrual
+blood in the Middle Ages in curing leprosy, and gives instances, occurring
+even in Germany to-day, of girls who have administered drops of menstrual
+blood in coffee to their sweethearts, to make sure of retaining their
+affections.
+
+[369] See, e.g., Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. iii, p. 115.
+
+[370] Dr. L. Laurent gives these instances, "De Quelques Phenomenes
+Mecaniques produits au moment de la Menstruation," _Annales des Sciences
+Psychiques_, September and October, 1897.
+
+[371] _Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay_, 1890, p. 403. Even the
+glance of a menstruating woman is widely believed to have serious results.
+See Tuchmann, "La Fascination," _Melasine_, 1888, pp. 347 _et seq._
+
+[372] As quoted in the _Provincial Medical Journal_, April, 1891.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+
+SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEN.
+
+BY F.H. PERRY-COSTE, B. Sc. (LOND.).
+
+
+In a recent _brochure_ on the "Rhythm of the Pulse"[373] I showed _inter
+alia_ that the readings of the pulse, in both man and woman, if arranged
+in lunar monthly periods, and averaged over several years, displayed a
+clear, and sometimes very strongly marked and symmetrical, rhythm.[374]
+After pointing out that, in at any rate some cases, the male and female
+pulse-curves, both monthly and annual, seemed to be converse to one
+another, I added: "It is difficult to ignore the suggestion that in this
+tracing of the monthly rhythm of the pulse we have a history of the
+monthly function in women; and that, if so, the tracing of the male pulse
+may eventually afford us some help in discovering a corresponding monthly
+period in men: the existence of which has been suggested by Mr. Havelock
+Ellis and Professor Stanley Hall, among other writers. Certainly the mere
+fact that we can trace a clear monthly rhythm in man's pulse seems to
+point strongly to the existence of a monthly physiological period in him
+also."
+
+Obviously, however, it is only indirectly and by inference that we can
+argue from a monthly rhythm of the pulse in men to a male sexual
+periodicity; but I am now able to adduce more direct evidence that will
+fairly demonstrate the existence of a sexual periodicity in men.
+
+We will start from the fact that celibacy is profoundly unnatural,
+and is, therefore, a physical--as well as an emotional and
+intellectual--abnormality. This being so, it is entirety in accord with
+all that we know of physiology that, when relief to the sexual secretory
+system by Nature's means is denied, and when, in consequence, a certain
+degree of tension or pressure has been attained, the system should relieve
+itself by a spontaneous discharge--such discharge being, of course, in the
+strict sense of the term, pathological, since it would never occur in any
+animal that followed the strict law of its physical being without any
+regard to other and higher laws of concern for its fellows.
+
+Notoriously, that which we should have anticipated _a priori_ actually
+occurs; for any unmarried man, who lives in strict chastity, periodically
+experiences, while sleeping, a loss of seminal fluid--such phenomena being
+popularly referred to as _wet dreams_.[375]
+
+During some eight or ten years I have carefully recorded the occurrence of
+such discharges as I have experienced myself, and I have now accumulated
+sufficient data to justify an attempt to formulate some provisional
+conclusions.[376]
+
+In order to render these observations as serviceable as may be to students
+of periodicity, I here repeat (at the request of Mr. Havelock Ellis) the
+statement which was subjoined, for the same reasons, to my "Rhythm of the
+Pulse." These observations upon myself were made between the ages of 20
+and 33. I am about 5 feet, 9 inches tall, broad-shouldered, and weigh
+about 10 stone 3 lbs. _net_--this weight being, I believe, about 7 lbs.
+below the normal for my height. Also I have green-brown eyes, very
+dark-brown hair, and a complexion that leads strangers frequently to
+mistake me for a foreigner--this complexion being, perhaps, attributable
+to some Huguenot blood, although on the maternal side I am, so far as all
+information goes, pure English. I can stand a good deal of heat, enjoy
+relaxing climates, am at once upset by "bracing" sea-air, hate the cold,
+and sweat profusely after exercise. To this it will suffice to add that my
+temperament is of a decidedly nervous and emotional type.
+
+Before proceeding to remark upon the various rhythms that I have
+discovered, I will tabulate the data on which my conclusions are founded.
+The numbers of discharges recorded in the years in question are as
+follows:--
+
+    In 1886, 30. (Records commenced in April.)
+    In 1887, 40.
+    In 1888, 37.
+    In 1889, 18. (Pretty certainly not fully recorded.)
+    In 1890,  0  (No records kept this year.[377])
+    In 1891, 19. (Records recommenced in June.)
+    In 1892, 35.
+    In 1893, 40.
+    In 1894, 38.
+    In 1895, 36.
+    In 1896, 36.
+    In 1897, 35.
+    Average, 37. (Omitting 1886, 1889, and 1891.)
+
+Thus I have complete records for eight years, and incomplete records for
+three more; and the remarkable concord between the respective annual
+numbers of observations in these eight years not only affords us intrinsic
+evidence of the accuracy of my records, but, also, at once proves that
+there is an undeniable regularity in the occurrence of these sexual
+discharges, and, therefore, gives us reason for expecting to find this
+regularity rhythmical. Moreover, since it seemed reasonable to expect
+that there might be more than one rhythm, I have examined my data with a
+view to discovering (1) an annual, (2) a lunar-monthly, and (3) a weekly
+rhythm, and I now proceed to show that all three such rhythms exist.
+
+
+THE ANNUAL RHYTHM.
+
+It is obvious that, in searching for an annual rhythm, we must ignore the
+records of the three incomplete years; but those of the remaining eight
+are graphically depicted upon Chart 8. The curves speak so plainly for
+themselves that any comment were almost superfluous, and the concord
+between the various curves, although, of course, not perfect, is far
+greater than the scantiness of the data would have justified us in
+expecting. The curves all agree in pointing to the existence of three
+well-defined maxima,--viz., in March, June, and September,--these being,
+therefore, the months in which the sexual instinct is most active; and the
+later curves show that there is also often a fourth maximum in January. In
+the earlier years the March and June maxima are more strikingly marked
+than the September one; but the uppermost curve shows that on the average
+of all eight years the September maximum is the highest, the June and
+January maxima occupying the second place, and the March maximum being the
+least strongly marked of all.
+
+Now, remembering that, in calculating the curves of the annual rhythm of
+the pulse, I had found it necessary to average two months' records
+together, in order to bring out the full significance of the rhythm, I
+thought it well to try the effect upon these curves also of similarly
+averaging two months together. At first my results were fairly
+satisfactory; but, as my data increased year by year, I found that these
+curves were contradicting one another, and therefore concluded that I had
+selected unnatural periods for my averaging. My first attempted remedy was
+to arrange the months in the pairs December-January, February-March, etc.,
+instead of in January-February, March-April, etc.; but with these pairs I
+fared no better than with the former. I then arranged the months in the
+triplets, January-February-March, etc.; and the results are graphically
+recorded on Chart 7. Here, again, comment would be quite futile, but I
+need only point out that, _on the whole_, the sexual activity rises
+steadily during the first nine months in the year to its maximum in
+September, and then sinks rapidly and abruptly during the next three to
+its minimum in December.
+
+The study of these curves suggests two interesting questions, to neither
+of which, however, do the data afford us an answer.
+
+In the first place, are the alterations, in my case, of the maximum of the
+discharges from March and June in the earlier years to September in the
+later, and the interpolation of a new secondary maximum in January,
+correlated with the increase in age; or is the discrepancy due simply to a
+temporary irregularity that would have been equally averaged out had I
+recorded the discharges of 1881-89 instead of those from 1887 to 1897?
+
+The second question is one of very great importance--socially, ethically,
+and physically. How often, in this climate, should a man have sexual
+connection with his wife in order to maintain himself in perfect
+physiological equilibrium? My results enable us to state definitely the
+minimum limits, and to reply that 37 embraces annually would be too few;
+but, unfortunately, they give us no clue to the maximum limit. It is
+obvious that the necessary frequency should be greater than 37 times
+annually,--possibly very considerably in excess thereof,--seeing that the
+spontaneous discharges, with which we are dealing, are due to
+over-pressure, and occur only when the system, being denied natural
+relief, can no longer retain its secretions; and, therefore, it seems very
+reasonable to suggest that the frequency of natural relief should be some
+multiple of 37. I do not perceive, however, that the data in hand afford
+us any clue to this multiple, or enable us to suggest either 2, 3, 4, or 5
+as the required multiple of 37. It is true that other observations upon
+myself have afforded me what I believe to be a fairly satisfactory and
+reliable answer so far as concerns myself; but these observations are of
+such a nature that they cannot be discussed here, and I have no
+inclination to offer as a counsel to others an opinion which I am unable
+to justify by the citation of facts and statistics. Moreover, I am quite
+unable to opine whether, given 37 as the annual frequency of spontaneous
+discharges in a number of men, the multiple required for the frequency of
+natural relief should be the same in every case. For aught I know to the
+contrary, the physiological idiosyncrasies of men may be so varied that,
+given two men with an annual frequency of 37 spontaneous discharges, the
+desired multiple may be in one case X and in the other 2X.[378] Our data,
+however, do clearly denote that the frequency in the six or eight summer
+months should bear to the frequency of the six or four winter months the
+proportion of three or four to two.[379] It should never be forgotten,
+however, that, under all conditions, both man and wife should exercise
+prudence, both _selfward_ and _otherward_, and that each should utterly
+refuse to gratify self by accepting a sacrifice, however willingly
+offered, that may be gravely prejudicial to the health of the other; for
+only experience can show whether, in any union, the receptivity of the
+woman be greater or less than, or equal to, the _physical_ desire of the
+man. To those, of course, who regard marriage from the old-fashioned and
+grossly immoral standpoint of Melancthon and other theologians, and who
+consider a wife as the divinely ordained vehicle for the chartered
+intemperance of her husband, it will seem grotesque in the highest degree
+that a physiological inquirer should attempt to advise them how often to
+seek the embraces of their wives; but those who regard woman from the
+standpoint of a higher ethics, who abhor the notion that she should be
+only the vehicle for her husband's passions, and who demand that she shall
+be mistress of her own body, will not be ungrateful for any guidance that
+physiology can afford them. It will be seen presently, moreover, that the
+study of the weekly rhythm does afford us some less inexact clue to the
+desired solution.
+
+One curious fact may be mentioned before we quit this interesting
+question. It is stated that "Solon required [of the husband] three
+_payments_ per month. By the Misna a daily debt was imposed upon an idle
+vigorous young husband; _twice a week_ on a citizen; once in thirty days
+on a camel-driver; once in six months on a seaman."[380] Now it is
+certainly striking that Solon's "three payments per month" exactly
+correspond with my records of 37 discharges annually. Had Solon similarly
+recorded a series of observations upon himself?
+
+
+THE LUNAR-MONTHLY RHYTHM.
+
+We now come to that division of the inquiry which is of the greatest
+physiological interest, although of little social import. Is there a
+monthly period in man as well as in woman? My records indicate clearly
+that there is.
+
+In searching for this monthly rhythm I have utilized not only the data of
+the eight completely-recorded years, but also those of the three years of
+1886, 1889, and 1891, for, although it would obviously have been
+inaccurate to utilize these incomplete records when calculating the
+yearly rhythm, there seems no objection to making use of them in the
+present section of the inquiry. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
+terms "first day of the month," "second day," "third day," etc., are to be
+understood as denoting "new-moon day," "day after new moon," "third lunar
+day," and so on; but it should be explained that, since these discharges
+occur at night, I have adopted the astronomical, instead of the civil,
+day; so that a new moon occurring between noon yesterday and noon to-day
+is reckoned as occurring yesterday, and yesterday is regarded as the first
+lunar day: thus, a discharge occurring in the night between December 31st
+and January 1st is tabulated as occurring on December 31st, and, in the
+present discussion, is assigned to the lunar day comprised between noon of
+December 31st and noon of January 1st.
+
+Since it is obvious that the number of discharges in any one
+year--averaging, as they do, only 1.25 per day--are far too few to yield a
+curve of any value, I have combined my data in two series. The dotted
+curve on Chart 9 is obtained by combining the results of the years
+1886-92: two of these years are incompletely recorded, and there are no
+records for 1890; the total number of observations was 179. The broken
+curve is obtained by combining those of the years 1893-97, the total
+number of observations being 185. Even so, the data are far too scanty to
+yield a really characteristic curve; but the _continuous_ curve, which
+sums up the results of the eleven years, is more reliable, and obviously
+more satisfactory.
+
+If the two former curves be compared, it will be seen that, on the whole,
+they display a general concordance, such differences as exist being
+attributable chiefly to two facts: (1) that the second curve is more even
+throughout, neither maximum nor minimum being so strongly marked as in the
+first; and (2) that the main maximum occurs in the middle of the month
+instead of on the second lunar day, and the absence of the marked initial
+maximum alters the character of the first week or so of this curve. It is,
+however, scarcely fair to lay any great stress on the characters of curves
+obtained from such scanty data, and we will, therefore, pass to the
+continuous curve, the study of which will prove more valuable.[381]
+
+Now, even a cursory examination of this continuous curve will yield the
+following results:--
+
+1. The discharges occur most frequently on the second lunar day.
+
+2. The days of the next most frequent discharges are the 22d; the 13th;
+the 7th, 20th, and 26th; the 11th and 16th; so that, if we regard only the
+first six of these, we find that the discharges occur most frequently on
+the 2d, 7th, 13th, 20th, 22d, and 26th lunar days--i.e., the discharges
+occur most frequently on days separated, on the average, by four-day
+intervals; but actually the period between the 20th and 22d days is that
+characterized by the most frequent discharges.
+
+3. The days of minimum of discharge are the 1st, 5th, 15th, 18th, and
+21st.
+
+4. The curve is characterized by a continual see-sawing; so that every
+notable maximum is immediately followed by a notable minimum. Thus, the
+curve is of an entirely different character from that representing the
+monthly rhythm of the pulse,[382] and this is only what one might have
+expected; for, whereas the _mean_ pulsations vary only very slightly from
+day to day,--thus giving rise to a gradually rising or sinking curve,--a
+discharge from the sexual system relieves the tension by exhausting the
+stored-up secretion, and is necessarily followed by some days of rest and
+inactivity. In the very nature of the case, therefore, a curve of this
+kind could not possibly be otherwise than most irregular if the discharges
+tended to occur most frequently upon definite days of the month; and thus
+the very irregularity of the curve affords us proof that there is a
+regular male periodicity, such that on certain days of the month there is
+greater probability of a spontaneous discharge than on any other days.
+
+5. Gratifying, however, though this irregularity of the curve may be, yet
+it entails a corresponding disadvantage, for we are precluded thereby from
+readily perceiving the characteristics of the monthly rhythm as a whole. I
+thought that perhaps this aspect of the rhythm might be rendered plainer
+if I calculated the data into two-day averages; and the result, as shown
+in Chart 10, is extremely satisfactory. Here we can at once perceive the
+wonderful and almost geometric symmetry of the monthly rhythm; indeed, if
+the third maximum were one unit higher, if the first minimum were one unit
+lower, and if the lines joining the second minimum and third maximum, and
+the fourth maximum and fourth minimum, were straight instead of being
+slightly broken, then the curve would, in its chief features, be
+geometrically symmetrical; and this symmetry appears to me to afford a
+convincing proof of the representative accuracy of the curve. We see that
+the month is divided into five periods; that the maxima occur on the
+following pairs of days: the 19th-20th, 13th-14th, 25th-26th, 1st-2d,
+7th-8th; and that the minima occur at the beginning, end, and exact middle
+of the month. There have been many idle superstitions as to the influence
+of the moon upon the earth and its inhabitants, and some beliefs
+that--once deemed equally idle--have now been re-instated in the regard of
+science; but it would certainly seem to be a very fascinating and very
+curious fact if the influence of the moon upon men should be such as to
+regulate the spontaneous discharges of their sexual system. Certainly the
+lovers of all ages would then have "builded better than they knew," when
+they reared altars of devotional verse to that chaste goddess Artemis.
+
+
+THE WEEKLY RHYTHM.
+
+We now come to the third branch of our inquiry, and have to ask whether
+there be any weekly rhythm of the sexual activity. _A priori_ it might be
+answered that to expect any such weekly rhythm were absurd, seeing that
+our week--unlike the lunar month of the year--is a purely artificial and
+conventional period; while, on the other hand, it might be retorted that
+the existence of an _induced_ weekly periodicity is quite conceivable,
+such periodicity being induced by the habitual difference between our
+occupation, or mode of life, on one or two days of the week and that on
+the remaining days. In such an inquiry, however, _a priori_ argument is
+futile, as the question can be answered only by an induction from
+observations, and the curves on Chart 11 (_A_ and _B_) prove conclusively
+that there is a notable weekly rhythm. The existence of this weekly rhythm
+being granted, it would naturally be assumed that either the maximum or
+the minimum would regularly occur on Saturday or Sunday; but an
+examination of the curves discloses the unexpected result that the day of
+maximum discharge varies from year to year. Thus it is[383]
+
+    Sunday in    1888, 1892, 1896.
+    Tuesday in   1894.
+    Thursday in  1886, 1897.
+    Friday in    1887.
+    Saturday in  1893 and 1895.
+
+Since, in Chart 11, the curves are drawn from Sunday to Sunday, it is
+obvious that the real symmetry of the curve is brought out in those years
+only which are characterized by a Sunday maximum; and, accordingly, in
+Chart 12 I have depicted the curves in a more suitable form.
+
+Chart 12 _A_ is obtained by combining the data of 1888, 1892, and 1896:
+the years of a Sunday maximum. Curve 12 _B_ represents the results of
+1894, the year of a Tuesday maximum--multiplied throughout by three in
+order to render the curve strictly comparable with the former. Curve 12
+_C_ represents 1886 and 1897--the years of a Thursday maximum--similarly
+multiplied by 1.5. In Curve 12 _D_ we have the results of 1887--the year
+of a Friday maximum--again multiplied by three; and in Curve 12 _E_ those
+of 1893 and 1895--the years of a Saturday maximum--multiplied by 1.5.
+Finally, Curve 12 _F_ represents the combined results of all nine years
+plus (the latter half of) 1891; and this curve shows that, on the whole
+period, there is a very strongly marked Sunday maximum.
+
+I hardly think that these curves call for much comment. In their general
+character they display a notable concord among themselves; and it is
+significant that the most regular of the five curves are _A_ and _E_,
+representing the combinations of three years and of two years,
+respectively, while the least regular is _B_, which is based upon the
+records of one year only. In every case we find that the maximum which
+opens the week is rapidly succeeded by a minimum, which is itself
+succeeded by a secondary maximum,--usually very secondary, although in
+1894 it nearly equals the primary maximum,--followed again by a second
+minimum--usually nearly identical with the first minimum,--after which
+there is a rapid rise to the original maximum. The study of these curves
+fortunately amplifies the conclusion drawn from our study of the annual
+rhythm, and suggests that, in at least part of the year, the physiological
+condition of man requires sexual union at least twice a week.
+
+As to Curve 12_F_, its remarkable symmetry speaks for itself. The
+existence of two secondary maxima, however, has not the same significance
+as had that of our secondary maximum in the preceding curves; for one of
+these secondary maxima is due to the influence of the 1894 curve with its
+primary Tuesday maximum, and the other to the similar influence of Curve
+_C_ with its primary Thursday maximum. Similarly, the veiled third
+secondary maximum is due to the influence of Curve _E_. Probably, any
+student of curves will concede that, on a still larger average, the two
+secondary maxima of Curve _F_ would be replaced by a single one on
+Wednesday or Thursday.
+
+One more question remains for consideration in connection with this weekly
+rhythm. Is it possible to trace any connection between the weekly and
+yearly rhythms of such a character that the weekly day of maximum
+discharge should vary from month to month in the year; in other words,
+does the greater frequency of a Sunday discharge characterize one part of
+the year, that of a Tuesday another, and so on? In order to answer this
+question I have re-calculated all my data, with results that are
+graphically represented in Chart 13. These curves prove that the Sunday
+maxima discharges occur in March and September, and the minima in June;
+that the Monday maxima discharges occur in September, Friday in July, and
+so on. Thus, there is a regular rhythm, according to which the days of
+maximum discharge vary from one month of the year to another; and the
+existence of this final rhythm appears to me very remarkable. I would
+especially direct attention to the almost geometric symmetry of the Sunday
+curve, and to the only less complete symmetry of the Thursday and Friday
+curves. Certainly in these rhythms we have an ample field for farther
+study and speculation.
+
+I have now concluded my study of this fascinating inquiry; a study that is
+necessarily incomplete, since it is based upon records furnished by one
+individual only. The fact, however, that, even with so few observations,
+and notwithstanding the consequently exaggerated disturbing influence of
+minor irregularities, such remarkable and unexpected symmetry is evidenced
+by these curves, only increases one's desire to have the opportunity of
+handling a series of observations sufficiently numerous to render the
+generalizations induced from them absolutely conclusive. I would again
+appeal[384] to heads of colleges to assist this inquiry by enlisting in
+its aid a band of students. If only one hundred students, living under
+similar conditions, could be induced to keep such records with scrupulous
+regularity for only twelve months, the results induced from such a series
+of observations would be more than ten times as valuable as those which
+have only been reached after ten years' observations on my part; and, if
+other centuries of students in foreign and colonial colleges--e.g., in
+Italy, India, Australia, and America--could be similarly enlisted in this
+work, we should quickly obtain a series of results exhibiting the sexual
+needs and sexual peculiarities of the male human animal in various
+climates. Obviously, however, the records of any such students would be
+worse than useless unless their care and accuracy, on the one hand, and
+their habitual chastity, on the other, could be implicitly guaranteed.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[373] First published in the _University Magazine and Free Review_ of
+February, 1898, and since reprinted as a pamphlet. A preliminary
+communication appeared in _Nature_, May 14, 1891.
+
+[374] [Later study (1906) has convinced me that my attempt to find a
+lunar-monthly period in the female pulse was vitiated by a hopeless error:
+for any monthly rhythm in a woman must be sought by arranging her records
+according to her own menstrual month; and this menstrual month may vary in
+different women, from considerably less than a lunar month to thirty days
+or more.]
+
+[375] I may add, however, that in my own case these discharges are--so far
+as I can trust my waking consciousness--frequently, if not usually,
+dreamless; and that strictly sexual dreams are extremely rare,
+notwithstanding the possession of a strongly emotional temperament.
+
+[376] If I can trust my memory, I first experienced this discharge when a
+few months under fifteen years of age, and, if so, within a few weeks of
+the time when I was, in an instant, suddenly struck with the thought that
+possibly the religion in which I had been educated might be false. It is
+curiously interesting that the advent of puberty should have been heralded
+by this intellectual crisis.
+
+[377] This unfortunate breach in the records was due to the fact that,
+failing to discover any regularity in, or law of, the occurrences of the
+discharges, I became discouraged and abandoned my records. In June, 1891,
+a re-examination of my pulse-records having led to my discovery of a
+lunar-monthly rhythm of the pulse, my interest in other physiological
+periodicities was reawakened, and I recommenced my records of these
+discharges.
+
+[378] As a matter of fact, I take it that we may safely assert that no man
+who is content to be guided by his own instinctive cravings, and who
+neither suppresses these, on the one hand, nor endeavors to force himself,
+on the other hand, will be in any danger of erring by either excess or the
+contrary.
+
+[379] [It is obvious that the opportunity of continuing such an inquiry as
+that described in this Appendix, ceases with marriage; but I may add
+(1906) that certain notes that I have kept with scrupulous exactness
+during eight years of married life, lend almost no support to the
+suggestion made in the text--i.e., that sexual desire is greater at one
+season of the year than at another. The nature of these notes I cannot
+discuss; but, they clearly indicate that, although there is a slight
+degree more of sexual desire in the second and third quarters of the year,
+than in the first and fourth, yet, this difference is so slight as to be
+almost negligible. Even if the months be rearranged in the
+triplets--November-December-January, etc.,--so as to bring the maximum
+months of May, June, and July together, the difference between the highest
+quarter and the lowest amounts to an increase of only ten per cent, upon
+the latter--after allowing, of course, for the abnormal shortness of
+February; and, neglecting February, the increase in the maximum months
+(June and July) over the minimum (November) is equal to an increase of
+under 14 per cent, upon the latter. These differences are so vastly less
+than those shown on Chart 7 that they possess almost no significance: but,
+lest too much stress be laid upon the apparently _equalizing_ influence of
+married life, it must be added that the records discussed in the text were
+obtained during residence in London, whereas, since my marriage, I have
+lived in South Cornwall, where the climate is both milder and more
+equable.]
+
+[380] Selden's _Uxor Hebraica_ as quoted in Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_,
+vol. v, p. 52, of Bonn's edition.
+
+[381] I may add that the curve yielded by 1896-97 is remarkably parallel
+with that yielded by the preceding nine years, but I have not thought it
+worth while to chart these two additional curves.
+
+[382] See "Rhythm of the Pulse," Chart 4.
+
+[383] As will be observed, I have omitted the results of the incompletely
+recorded years of 1889 and 1891. The apparent explanation of this curious
+oscillation will be given directly.
+
+[384] See "Rhythm of the Pulse," p. 21.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+THE AUTO-EROTIC FACTOR IN RELIGION.
+
+
+The intimate association between the emotions of love and religion is well
+known to all those who are habitually brought into close contact with the
+phenomena of the religious life. Love and religion are the two most
+volcanic emotions to which the human organism is liable, and it is not
+surprising that, when there is a disturbance in one of these spheres, the
+vibrations should readily extend to the other. Nor is it surprising that
+the two emotions should have a dynamic relation to each other, and that
+the auto-erotic impulse, being the more primitive and fundamental of the
+two impulses, should be able to pass its unexpended energy over to the
+religious emotion, there to find the expansion hitherto denied it, the
+love of the human becoming the love of the divine.
+
+    "I was not good enough for man,
+    And so am given to God."
+
+Even when there is absolute physical suppression on the sexual side, it
+seems probable that thereby a greater intensity of spiritual fervor is
+caused. Many eminent thinkers seem to have been without sexual desire.
+
+It is a noteworthy and significant fact that the age of love is also the
+age of conversion. Starbuck, for instance, in his very elaborate study of
+the psychology of conversion shows that the majority of conversions take
+place during the period of adolescence; that is, from the age of puberty
+to about 24 or 25.[385]
+
+It would be easy to bring forward a long series of observations, from the
+most various points of view, to show the wide recognition of this close
+affinity between the sexual and the religious emotions. It is probable, as
+Hahn points out, that the connection between sexual suppression and
+religious rites, which we may trace at the very beginning of culture, was
+due to an instinctive impulse to heighten rather than abolish the sexual
+element. Early religious rites were largely sexual and orgiastic because
+they were largely an appeal to the generative forces of Nature to exhibit
+a beneficial productiveness. Among happily married people, as Hahn
+remarks, the sexual emotions rapidly give place to the cares and anxieties
+involved in supporting children; but when the exercise of the sexual
+function is prevented by celibacy, or even by castration, the most
+complete form of celibacy, the sexual emotions may pass into the psychical
+sphere to take on a more pronounced shape.[386] The early Christians
+adopted the traditional Eastern association between religion and celibacy,
+and, as the writings of the Fathers amply show, they expended on sexual
+matters a concentrated fervor of thought rarely known to the Greek and
+Roman writers of the best period.[387] As Christian theology developed,
+the minute inquisition into sexual things sometimes became almost an
+obsession. So far as I am aware, however (I cannot profess to have made
+any special investigation), it was not until the late Middle Ages that
+there is any clear recognition of the fact that, between the religious
+emotions and the sexual emotions, there is not only a superficial
+antagonism, but an underlying relationship. At this time so great a
+theologian and philosopher as Aquinas said that it is especially on the
+days when a man is seeking to make himself pleasing to God that the Devil
+troubles him by polluting him with seminal emissions. With somewhat more
+psychological insight, the wise old Knight of the Tower, Landry, in the
+fourteenth century, tells his daughters that "no young woman, in love,
+can ever serve her God with that unfeignedness which she did aforetime.
+For I have heard it argued by many who, in their young days, had been in
+love that, when they were in the church, the condition and the pleasing
+melancholy in which they found themselves would infallibly set them
+brooding over all their tender love-sick longings and all their amorous
+passages, when they should have been attending to the service which was
+going on at the time. And such is the property of this mystery of love
+that it is ever at the moment when the priest is holding our Saviour upon
+the altar that the most enticing emotions come." After narrating the
+history of two queens beyond the seas who indulged in amours even on Holy
+Thursday and Good Friday, at midnight in their oratories, when the lights
+were put out, he concludes: "Every woman in love is more liable to fall in
+church or at her devotion than at any other time."
+
+The connection between religious emotion and sexual emotion was very
+clearly set forth by Swift about the end of the seventeenth century, in a
+passage which it may be worth while to quote from his "Discourse
+Concerning the Mechanical Operation of the Spirit." After mentioning that
+he was informed by a very eminent physician that when the Quakers first
+appeared he was seldom without female Quaker patients affected with
+nymphomania, Swift continues: "Persons of a visionary devotion, either men
+or women, are, in their complexion, of all others the most amorous. For
+zeal is frequently kindled from the same spark with other fires, and from
+inflaming brotherly love will proceed to raise that of a gallant. If we
+inspect into the usual process of modern courtship, we shall find it to
+consist in a devout turn of the eyes, called _ogling_; an artificial form
+of canting and whining, by rote, every interval, for want of other matter,
+made up with a shrug, or a hum; a sigh or a groan; the style compact of
+insignificant words, incoherences, and repetitions. These I take to be the
+most accomplished rules of address to a mistress; and where are these
+performed with more dexterity than by the _saints_? Nay, to bring this
+argument yet closer, I have been informed by certain sanguine brethren of
+the first class, that in the height and _orgasmus_ of their spiritual
+exercise, it has been frequent with them[388]; ... immediately after
+which, they found the _spirit_ to relax and flag of a sudden with the
+nerves, and they were forced to hasten to a conclusion. This may be
+farther strengthened by observing with wonder how unaccountably all
+females are attracted by visionary or enthusiastic preachers, though never
+so contemptible in their _outward mien_; which is usually supposed to be
+done upon considerations purely spiritual, without any carnal regards at
+all. But I have reason to think, the sex hath certain characteristics, by
+which they form a truer judgment of human abilities and performings than
+we ourselves can possibly do of each other. Let that be as it will, thus
+much is certain, that however spiritual intrigues begin, they generally
+conclude like all others; they may branch upwards toward heaven, but the
+root is in the earth. Too intense a contemplation is not the business of
+flesh and blood; it must, by the necessary course of things, in a little
+time let go its hold, and fall into _matter_. Lovers for the sake of
+celestial converse, are but another sort of Platonics, who pretend to see
+stars and heaven in ladies' eyes, and to look or think no lower; but the
+same _pit_ is provided for both."
+
+To come down to recent times, in the last century the head-master of
+Clifton College, when discussing the sexual vices of boyhood, remarked
+that the boys whose temperament exposes them to these faults are usually
+far from destitute of religious feelings; that there is, and always has
+been, an undoubted co-existence of religion and animalism; that emotional
+appeals and revivals are far from rooting out carnal sin; and that in some
+places, as is well known, they seem actually to stimulate, even at the
+present day, to increased licentiousness.[389]
+
+It is not difficult to see how, even in technique, the method of the
+revivalist is a quasi-sexual method, and resembles the attempt of the male
+to overcome the sexual shyness of the female. "In each case," as W. Thomas
+remarks, "the will has to be set aside, and strong suggestive means are
+used; and in both cases the appeal is not of the conflict type, but of an
+intimate, sympathetic and pleading kind. In the effort to make a moral
+adjustment it consequently turns out that a technique is used which
+was derived originally from sexual life, and the use, so to speak,
+of the sexual machinery for a moral adjustment involves, in some
+cases, the carrying over into the general process of some sexual
+manifestations."[390]
+
+The relationship of the sexual and the religious emotions--like so many
+other of the essential characters of human nature--is seen in its nakedest
+shape by the alienist. Esquirol referred to this relationship, and, many
+years ago, J.B. Friedreich, a German alienist of wide outlook and
+considerable insight, emphasized the connection between the sexual and the
+religious emotions, and brought forward illustrative cases.[391] Schroeder
+van der Kolk also remarked: "I venture to express my conviction that we
+should rarely err if, in a case of religious melancholy, we assumed the
+sexual apparatus to be implicated."[392] Regis, in France, lays it down
+that "there exists a close connection between mystic ideas and erotic
+ideas, and most often these two orders of conception are associated in
+insanity."[393] Berthier considered that erotic forms of insanity are
+those most frequently found in convents. Bevan-Lewis points out how
+frequently religious exaltation occurs at puberty in women, and religious
+depression at the climacteric, the period of sexual decline.[394]
+"Religion is very closely allied to love," remarks Savage, "and the love
+of woman and the worship of God are constantly sources of trouble in
+unstable youth; it is very interesting to note the frequency with which
+these two deep feelings are associated."[395] "Closely connected with
+salacity, particularly in women," remarks Conolly Norman, when discussing
+mania (Tuke's _Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_), "is religious
+excitement.... Ecstasy, as we see in cases of acute mental disease, is
+probably always connected with sexual excitement, if not with sexual
+depravity. The same association is constantly seen in less extreme cases,
+and one of the commonest features in the conversation of an acutely
+maniacal woman is the intermingling of erotic and religious ideas."
+"Patients who believe," remarks Clara Barrus, "that they are the Virgin
+Mary, the bride of Christ, the Church, 'God's wife,' and 'Raphael's
+consort,' are sure, sooner or later, to disclose symptoms which show that
+they are some way or other sexually depraved."[396] Forel, who devotes a
+chapter of his book _Die Sexuelle Frage_, to the subject, argues that the
+strongest feelings of religious emotion are often unconsciously rooted in
+erotic emotion or represent a transformation of such emotion; and, in an
+interesting discussion (Ch. VI) of this question in his _Sexualleben
+unserer Zeit_, Bloch states that "in a certain sense we may describe the
+history of religions as the history of a special manifestation of the
+human sexual instinct." Ball, Brouardel, Morselli, Vallon and Marie,[397]
+C.H. Hughes,[398] to mention but a few names among many, have emphasized
+the same point.[399] Krafft-Ebing deals briefly with the connection
+between holiness and the sexual emotion, and the special liability of the
+saints to sexual temptations; he thus states his own conclusions:
+"Religious and sexual emotional states at the height of their development
+exhibit a harmony in quantity and quality of excitement, and can thus in
+certain circumstances act vicariously. Both," he adds, "can be converted
+into cruelty under pathological conditions."[400]
+
+After quoting these opinions it is, perhaps, not unnecessary to point out
+that, while sexual emotion constitutes the main reservoir of energy on
+which religion can draw, it is far from constituting either the whole
+content of religion or its root. Murisier, in an able study of the
+psychology of religious ecstasy, justly protests against too crude an
+explanation of its nature, though at the same time he admits that "the
+passion of the religious ecstatic lacks nothing of what goes to make up
+sexual love, not even jealousy."[401]
+
+Serieux, in his little work, _Recherches Cliniques sur les Anomalies de
+l'Instinct Sexuel_, valuable on account of its instructive cases, records
+in detail a case which so admirably illustrates this phase of auto-erotism
+on the borderland between ordinary erotic day-dreaming and religious
+mysticism, the phenomena for a time reaching an insane degree of
+intensity, that I summarize it. "Therese M., aged 24, shows physical
+stigmata of degeneration. The heredity is also bad; the father is a man of
+reckless and irregular conduct; the mother was at one time in a lunatic
+asylum. The patient was brought up in an orphanage, and was a troublesome,
+volatile child; she treated household occupations with contempt, but was
+fond of study. Even at an early age her lively imagination attracted
+attention, and the pleasure which she took in building castles in the air.
+From the age of seven to ten she masturbated. At her first communion she
+felt that Jesus would for ever be the one master of her heart. At
+thirteen, after the death of her mother, she seemed to see her, and to
+hear her say that she was watching over her child. Shortly afterward she
+was overwhelmed by a new grief, the death of a teacher for whom she
+cherished great affection on account of her pure character. On the
+following day she seemed to see and hear this teacher, and would not leave
+the house where the body lay. Tendencies to melancholy appeared. Saddened
+by the funeral ceremonies, exhorted by nuns, fed on mystic revery, she
+passed from the orphanage to a convent. She devoted herself solely to the
+worship of Jesus; to be like Jesus, to be near Jesus, became her constant
+pre-occupations. The Virgin's name was rarely seen in her writings, God's
+name never. 'I wanted', she said, 'to love Jesus more than any of the nuns
+I saw, and I even thought that he had a partiality for me.' She was also
+haunted by the idea of preserving her purity. She avoided frivolous
+conversation, and left the room when marriage was discussed, such a union
+being incompatible with a pure life; 'it was my fixed idea for two years
+to make my soul ever more pure in order to be agreeable to Him; the
+Beloved is well pleased among the lilies.'
+
+"Already, however, in a rudimentary form appeared contrary tendencies
+[strictly speaking they were not contrary, but related, tendencies].
+Beneath the mystic passion which concealed it sexual desire was sometimes
+felt. At sixteen she experienced emotions which she could not master, when
+thinking of a priest who, she said, loved her. In spite of all remorse she
+would have been willing to have relations with him. Notwithstanding these
+passing weaknesses, the idea of purity always possessed her. The nuns,
+however, were concerned about her exaltation. She was sent away from the
+convent, became discouraged, and took a place as a servant, but her fervor
+continued. Her confessor inspired her with great affection; she sends him
+tender letters. She would be willing to have relations with him, even
+though she considers the desire a temptation of the devil. The ground was
+now prepared for the manifestation of hallucinations. 'One evening in
+May', she writes, 'after being absorbed in thoughts of my confessor, and
+feeling discouraged, as I thought that Jesus, whom I loved so much, would
+have nothing to do with me, "Mother," I cried out, "what must I do to win
+your son?" My eyes were fixed on the sky, and I remained in a state of
+mad expectation. It was absurd. I to become the mother of the World! My
+heart went on repeating: "Yes, he is coming; Jesus is coming!"' The
+psychic erethism, reverberating on the sensorial and sensory centres, led
+to genital, auditory, and visual hallucinations, which produced the
+sensation of sexual connection. 'For the first time I went to bed and was
+not alone. As soon as I felt that touch, I heard the words: "Fear not, it
+is I." I was lost in Him whom I loved. For many days I was cradled in a
+world of pleasure; I saw Him everywhere, overwhelming me with His chaste
+caresses.' On the following day at mass she seemed to see Calvary before
+her. 'Jesus was naked and surrounded by a thousand voluptuous
+imaginations; His arms were loosened from the cross, and he said to me:
+"Come!" I longed to fly to Him with my body, but could not make up my mind
+to show myself naked. However, I was carried away by a force I could not
+control, I threw myself on my Saviour's neck, and felt that all was over
+between the world and me.' From that day, 'by sheer reasoning,' she has
+understood everything. Previously she thought that the religious life was
+a renunciation of the joys of marriage and enjoyment generally; now she
+understands its object. Jesus Christ desires that she should have
+relations with a priest; he is himself incarnated in priests; just as St.
+Joseph was the guardian of the Virgin, so are priests the guardians of
+nuns. She has been impregnated by Jesus, and this imaginary pregnancy
+pre-occupies her in the highest degree. From this time she masturbated
+daily. She cannot even go to communion without experiencing voluptuous
+sensations. Her delusions having thus become systematized, nothing shakes
+her tenacity in seeking to carry them out; she attempts at all costs to
+have relations with her confessor, embraces him, throws herself at his
+knees, pursues him, and so becomes a cause of scandal. When brought to the
+asylum, there is intense sexual excitement, and she masturbates a dozen
+times a day, even when talking to the doctor. The sexual organs are
+normal, the vulva moist and red, the vagina is painful to touch; the
+contact of the finger causes erectile turgescence. She has had no rest,
+she says, since she has learned to love her Jesus. He desires her to have
+sexual relations with someone, and she cannot succeed; 'all my soul's
+strength is arrested by this constant endeavor.' Her new surroundings
+modify her behavior, and now it is the doctor whom she pursues with her
+obsessions. 'I expected everything from the charity of the priests I have
+known; I have not deserved what I wanted from them. But is not a doctor
+free to do everything for the good of the patients intrusted to him by
+Providence? Cannot a doctor thus devote himself? Since I have tasted the
+tree of life I am tormented by the desire to share it with a loving
+friend.' Then she falls in love with an employee, and makes the crudest
+advances to him, believing that she is thus executing the will of Jesus.
+'Necessity makes laws,' she exclaims to him, 'the moments are pressing, I
+have been waiting too long.' She still speaks of her religious vocation
+which might be compromised by so long a delay. 'I do not want to get
+married.' Gradually a transformation took place; the love of God was
+effaced and earthly love became more intense than ever. 'Quitting the
+heights in which I wished to soar, I am coming so near to earth that I
+shall soon fix my desires there.' In a last letter Therese recognizes with
+terror the insanity to which the exaltation of her imagination had led
+her. 'Now I only believe in God and in suffering; I feel that it is
+necessary for me to get married.'"
+
+Mariani[402] has very fully described a case of erotico-religious insanity
+(climacteric paranoia on an hysterical basis) in a married woman of 44.
+During the early stages of her disorder she inflicted all sorts of
+penances upon herself (fasting, constant prayer, drinking her own urine,
+cleaning dirty plates with her tongue, etc.). Finally she felt that by her
+penances she had obtained forgiveness of her sins, and then began a stage
+of joy and satisfaction during which she believed that she had entered
+into a state of the most intimate personal relationship with Jesus. She
+finally recovered. Mariani shows how closely this history corresponds with
+the histories of the saints, and that all the acts and emotions of this
+woman can be exactly paralleled in the lives of famous saints.[403]
+
+The justice of these comparisons becomes manifest when we turn to the
+records that have been left by holy persons. A most instructive record
+from this point of view is the autobiography of Soeur Jeanne des Anges,
+superior of the Ursulines of Loudun in the seventeenth century.[404] She
+was clever, beautiful, ambitious, fond of pleasure, still more of power.
+With this, as sometimes happens, she was highly hysterical, and in the
+early years of her religious life was possessed by various demons of
+unchastity and blasphemy with whom for many years she was in constant
+struggle. She fell in love with a priest of Loudun, Grandier, a man whom
+she had never even seen, only knowing of him as a powerful and fascinating
+personality at whose feet all women fell, and she imagined that she and
+the other nuns of her convent were possessed through his influence. She
+was thus the cause of the trial and execution of Grandier, a famous case
+in the annals of witchcraft. In her autobiography Soeur Jeanne describes
+in detail how the demons assailed her at night, appearing in lascivious
+attitudes, making indecent proposals, raising the bed-clothes, touching
+all parts of her body, imploring her to yield to them, and she tells how
+strong her temptation was to yield. On one night, for instance, she
+writes: "I seemed to feel someone's breath, and I heard a voice saying:
+'The time for resistance has gone by, you must no longer rebel; by putting
+off your consent to what has been proposed you will be injured; you cannot
+persist in this resistance; God has subjected you to the demands of a
+nature which you must satisfy on occasions so urgent.' Then I felt impure
+impressions in my imagination and disordered movements in my body. I
+persisted in saying at the bottom of my heart that I would do nothing. I
+turned to God and asked Him for strength in this extraordinary struggle.
+Then there was a loud noise in my room, and I felt as if someone had
+approached me and put his hand into my bed and touched me; and having
+perceived this I rose, in a state of restlessness, which lasted for a long
+time afterward. Some days later, at midnight, I began to tremble all over
+my body as I lay in bed, and to experience much mental anxiety without
+knowing the cause. After this had lasted for some time I heard noises in
+various parts of my room; the sheet was twice pulled without entirely
+uncovering me; the oratory close to my bed was upset. I heard a voice on
+the left side, toward which I was lying. I was asked if I had thought over
+the advantageous offer that had been made to me. It was added: 'I have
+come to know your reply; I will keep my promise if you will give your
+consent; if, on the contrary, you refuse, you will be the most miserable
+girl in the world, and all sorts of mischances will happen to you.' I
+replied: 'If there were no God I would fear those threats; I am
+consecrated to Him.' It was replied to me: 'You will not get much help
+from God; He will abandon you.' I replied: 'God is my father; He will take
+care of me; I have resolved to be faithful to Him.' He said: 'I will give
+you three days to think over it.' I rose and went to the Holy Sacrament
+with an anxious mind. Having returned to my room, and being seated on a
+chair, it was drawn from under me so that I fell on the floor. Then the
+same things happened again. I heard a man's voice saying lascivious and
+pleasant things to seduce me; he pressed me to give him room in my bed; he
+tried to touch me in an indecent way; I resisted and prevented him,
+calling the nuns who were near my room; the window had been open, it was
+closed; I felt strong movements of love for a certain person, and improper
+desire for dishonorable things."
+
+She writes again, at a later period: "These impurities and the fire of
+concupiscence which the evil spirit caused me to feel, beyond all that I
+can say, forced me to throw myself on to braziers of hot coal, where I
+would remain for half an hour at a time, in order to extinguish that other
+fire, so that half my body was quite burnt. At other times, in the depth
+of winter, I have sometimes passed part of the night entirely naked in the
+snow, or in tubs of icy water. I have besides often gone among thorns so
+that I have been torn by them; at other times I have rolled in nettles,
+and I have passed whole nights defying my enemies to attack me, and
+assuring them that I was resolved to defend myself with the grace of God."
+With her confessor's permission, she also had an iron girdle made, with
+spikes, and wore this day and night for nearly six months until the spikes
+so entered her flesh that the girdle could only be removed with
+difficulty. By means of these austerities she succeeded in almost
+exorcising the demons of unchastity, and a little later, after a severe
+illness, of which she believed that she was miraculously cured by St.
+Joseph, she appeared before the world almost as a saint, herself
+possessing a miraculous power of healing; she traveled through France,
+bringing healing wherever she went; the king, the queen, and Cardinal
+Richelieu were at her feet, and so great became the fame of her holiness
+that her tomb was a shrine for pilgrims for more than a century after her
+death. It was not until late in life, and after her autobiography
+terminates, that sexual desire in Soeur Jeanne (though its sting seems
+never to have quite disappeared) became transformed into passionate love
+of Jesus, and it is only in her later letters that we catch glimpses of
+the complete transmutation. Thus, in one of her later letters we read: "I
+cried with ardor, 'Lord! join me to Thyself, transform Thyself into me!'
+It seemed to me that that lovable Spouse was reposing in my heart as on
+His throne. What makes me almost swoon with love and admiration is a
+certain pleasure which it seems to me that He takes when all my being
+flows into His, restoring to Him with respect and love all that He has
+given to me. Sometimes I have permission to speak to our Lord with more
+familiarity, calling Him my Love, interesting Him in all that I ask of
+Him, as well for myself as for others."
+
+The lives of all the great saints and mystics bear witness to operations
+similar to those so vividly described by Soeur Jeanne des Anges, though it
+is very rarely that any saint has so frankly presented the dynamic
+mechanism of the auto-erotic process. The indications they give us,
+however, are sufficiently clear. It is enough to refer to the special
+affection which the mystics have ever borne toward the Song of
+Songs,[405] and to note how the most earthly expressions of love in that
+poem enter as a perpetual refrain into their writings.[406]
+
+The courage of the early Christian martyrs, it is abundantly evident, was
+in part supported by an exaltation which they frankly drew from the sexual
+impulse. Felicula, we are told in the acts of Achilles and Nereus,[407]
+preferred imprisonment, torture, and death to marriage or pagan
+sacrifices. When on the rack she was bidden to deny Christianity, she
+exclaimed: "_Ego non nego amatorem meum!_"--I will not deny my lover who
+for my sake has eaten gall and drunk vinegar, crowned with thorns, and
+fastened to the cross.
+
+Christian mysticism and its sexual coloring was absorbed by the Islamic
+world at a very early period and intensified. In the thirteenth century it
+was reintroduced into Christendom in this intensified form by the genius
+of Raymond Lull who had himself been born on the confines of Islam, and
+his "Book of the Lover and the Friend" is a typical manifestation of
+sexual mysticism which inspired the great Spanish school of mystics a few
+centuries later. The "delicious agony" the "sweet martyrdom," the strongly
+combined pleasure and pain experienced by St. Theresa were certainly
+associated with physical sexual sensations.[408]
+
+The case of Marguerite-Marie Alacoque is typical. Jesus, as her
+autobiography shows, was always her lover, her husband, her dear master;
+she is betrothed to Him, He is the most passionate of lovers, nothing can
+be sweeter than His caresses, they are so excessive she is beside herself
+with the delight of them. The central imagination of the mystic consists
+essentially, as Ribot remarks, in a love romance.[409]
+
+If we turn to the most popular devotional work that was ever written, _The
+Imitation of Christ_, we shall find that the "love" there expressed is
+precisely and exactly the love that finds its motive power in the emotions
+aroused by a person of the other sex. (A very intellectual woman once
+remarked to me that the book seemed to her "a sort of religious
+aphrodisiac.") If we read, for instance, Book III, Chapter V, of this work
+("De Mirabili affectu Divini amoris"), we shall find in the eloquence of
+this solitary monk in the Low Countries neither more nor less than the
+emotions of every human lover at their highest limit of exaltation.
+"Nothing is sweeter than love, nothing stronger, nothing higher, nothing
+broader, nothing pleasanter, nothing fuller nor better in heaven or in
+earth. He who loves, flies, runs, and rejoices; he is free and cannot be
+held. He gives all in exchange for all, and possesses all in all. He looks
+not at gifts, but turns to the giver above all good things. Love knows no
+measure, but is fervent beyond all measure. Love feels no burden, thinks
+nothing of labor, strives beyond its force, reckons not of impossibility,
+for it judges that all things are possible. Therefore it attempts all
+things, and therefore it effects much when he who is not a lover fails and
+falls.... My Love! thou all mine, and I all thine."
+
+There is a certain natural disinclination in many quarters to recognize
+any special connection between the sexual emotions and the religious
+emotions. But this attitude is not reasonable. A man who is swayed by
+religious emotions cannot be held responsible for the indirect emotional
+results of his condition; he can be held responsible for their control.
+Nothing is gained by refusing to face the possibility that such control
+may be necessary, and much is lost. There is certainly, as I have tried to
+indicate, good reason to think that the action and interaction between
+the spheres of sexual and religious emotion are very intimate. The obscure
+promptings of the organism at puberty frequently assume on the psychic
+side a wholly religious character; the activity of the religious emotions
+sometimes tends to pass over into the sexual region; the suppression of
+the sexual emotions often furnishes a powerful reservoir of energy to the
+religious emotions; occasionally the suppressed sexual emotions break
+through all obstacles.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[385] Starbuck, _The Psychology of Religion_, 1899. Also, A.H. Daniels,
+"The New Life," _American Journal of Psychology_, vol. vi, 1893. Cf.
+William James, _The Varieties of Religious Experience_.
+
+[386] Ed. Hahn, _Demeter und Baubo_, 1896, pp. 50-51. Hahn is arguing for
+the religious origin of the plough, as a generative implement, drawn by a
+sacred and castrated animal, the ox. G. Herman, in his _Genesis_, develops
+the idea that modern religious rites have arisen out of sexual feasts and
+mysteries.
+
+[387] Bloch (_Beitraege zur AEtiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Bd. I, p.
+98) points out the great interest taken by the saints and ascetics in sex
+matters.
+
+[388] This omission was made by the original publisher of the "Discourse;"
+several of the most important passages throughout have been similarly cut
+out.
+
+[389] Rev. J.M. Wilson, _Journal of Education_, 1881. At about the same
+period (1882) Spurgeon pointed out in one of his sermons that by a
+strange, yet natural law, excess of spirituality is next door to
+sensuality. Theodore Schroeder has recently brought together a number of
+opinions of religious teachers, from Henry More the Platonist to Baring
+Gould, concerning the close relationship between sexual passion and
+religious passion, _American Journal of Religious Psychology_, 1908.
+
+[390] W. Thomas, "The Sexual Element in Sensibility," _Psychological
+Review_, Jan., 1904.
+
+[391] _System der gerichtlichen Psychologie_, second edition, 1842, pp.
+266-68; and more at length in his _Allgemeine Diagnostik der psychischen
+Krankheiten_, second edition, 1832, pp. 247-51.
+
+[392] _Handboek van de Pathologie en Therapie der Krankzinnigheid_, 1863,
+p. 139 of English edition.
+
+[393] _Manuel pratique de Medecine mentale_, 1892, p. 31.
+
+[394] _Text-book of Mental Diseases_, p. 393.
+
+[395] G.H. Savage, _Insanity_, 1886.
+
+[396] _American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1895.
+
+[397] "Des Psychoses Religieuses," _Archives de Neurologie_, 1897.
+
+[398] "Erotopathia," _Alienist and Neurologist_, October, 1893.
+
+[399] Reference may be specially made to the interesting chapter on
+"Delire Religieux" in Icard's _La Femme pendant la Periode Menstruelle_,
+pp. 211-234.
+
+[400] _Psychopathia Sexualis_, eighth edition, pp. 8 and 11. Gannouchkine
+("La Volupte, la Cruante et la Religion," _Annales Medico-Psychologique_,
+1901, No. 3) has further emphasized this convertibility.
+
+[401] E. Murisier, "Le Sentiment Religieux dans l'Extase," _Revue
+Philosophique_, November, 1898. Starbuck, again (_Psychology of Religion_,
+Chapter XXX), in a brief discussion of this point, concludes that "the
+sexual life, although it has left its impress on fully developed religion,
+seems to have originally given the psychic impulse which called out the
+latent possibilities of developments, rather than to have furnished the
+raw material out of which religion was constructed."
+
+[402] "Una Santa," _Archivio di Psichiatria_, vol. xix, pp. 438-47, 1898.
+
+[403] With regard to the sexual element in the worship of the Virgin, see
+"Ueber den Mariencultus," L. Feuerbach's _Sammtliche Werke_, Bd. I, 1846.
+
+[404] Published for the first time (with a Preface by Charcot) in a volume
+of the _Bibliotheque Diabolique_, 1886.
+
+[405] The Hebrews, themselves, used the same word for the love of woman
+and for the Divine love (Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, p.
+140).
+
+[406] Thus, in St. Theresa's _Conceptos del Amor de Dios_, the words
+"_Beseme con el beso de su boca_,"--Let him kiss me with the kisses of his
+mouth--constantly recur.
+
+[407] _Acta Sanctorum_, May 12th.
+
+[408] Leuba and Montmorand, in their valuable and detailed studies of
+Christian mysticism, though differing from each other in some points, are
+agreed on this; H. Leuba, "Les Tendances Religieuses chez les Mystiques
+Chretiens," _Revue Philosophique_, July and Nov., 1902; B. de Montmorand,
+"L'Erotomanie des Mystiques Chretiens," id., Oct., 1903. Montmorand points
+out that physical sexual manifestations were sometimes recognized and
+frankly accepted by mystics. He quotes from Molinos, a passage in which
+the famous Spanish quietist states that there is no reason to be
+disquieted even at the occurrence of pollutions or masturbation, _et etiam
+pejora_.
+
+[409] Ribot, _La Logique des Sentiments_, p. 174.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS.
+
+Abricosoff, G.
+Addinsell
+Adler
+AElian
+AEschines
+Aetius
+Alacoque, M.
+Albrecht
+Allin
+Anagnos
+Angelucci
+Anges, Soeur Jeanne des
+Angus, H.C.
+Anstie
+Apuleius
+Aquinas, St. Thomas
+Archemholtz
+Aretaeus
+Aretino
+Aristophanes
+Aristotle
+Arnold, G.J.
+Aschaffenburg
+Ashe, T.
+Ashwell
+Athenaeus
+Augustine, St.
+Avicenna
+Axenfeld
+Azara
+
+Babinsky
+Bachaumont
+Baelz
+Baker, Smith
+Baldwin, J.M.
+Ball
+Ballantyne
+Ballion
+Balls-Headley
+Bancroft, H.H.
+Baraduc
+Bargagli
+Barnes, K.
+Barrus, Clara
+Bartels, Max
+Bastanzi
+Bastian
+Batut
+Bauer, Max
+Baumann
+Bazalgette
+Beard
+Beard, J.
+Bechterew
+Bee, J.
+Bekkers
+Bell, Blair
+Bell, Sanford
+Berger
+Bellamy
+Berkhan
+Berthier
+Beukemann
+Beuttner
+Bevan-Lewis
+Biernacki
+Billuart
+Binet
+Binswanger
+Bishop, Mrs.
+Blackwell, Elizabeth
+Blandford
+Bloch, Iwan
+Block
+Blumenbach
+Boas, F.
+Boethius
+Bohnius
+Bolton, T.L.
+Bonavia
+Bond, C.H.
+Bonnier
+Bossi
+Boudin
+Bourke, J.G.
+Brachet
+Brantome
+Breuer
+Briquet
+Brockman
+Brouardel
+Brown, J.D.
+Brown-Sequard
+Brunton, Sir Lauder
+Bryce, T.
+Buchan, A.P.
+Buechler
+Buechner
+Buffon
+Bunge
+Burchard
+Burdach
+Burk, F.
+Burnet
+Burns, J.
+Burr
+Burton, Robert
+Buxton, D.W.
+
+Caiger
+Callari
+Calmeil
+Camerer
+Cameron
+Campbell, H.
+Caramuel
+Carmichael
+Carpenter, E.
+Carrara
+Casanova
+Chamberlain, A.F.
+Chapman, J.
+Charcot
+Charrin
+Chaucer
+Christian
+Chrysostom
+Cicero
+Clark, Campbell
+Clement of Alexandria
+Clement of Rome
+Clipson
+Clouston
+Coe, H.C.
+Cohn, Hermann
+Cohn, Salmo
+Cohnstein
+Colenso, W.
+Cook, Capt.
+Cook, Dr. F.
+Corre
+Coryat
+Crawley, A.E.
+Crichton-Browne, Sir J.
+Crooke, W.
+Croom, Sir J. Halliday
+Cullen
+Cullingworth
+Curr
+Curschmann
+Cuvier
+Cyprian
+
+Dallemagne
+Dalton, E.T.
+Dalziel
+Dana
+Dandinus
+Daniels
+Dartigues
+Darwin, C.
+Darwin, Erasmus
+Davidsohn
+Debreyne
+Deniker
+Dennis
+Denuce
+Depaul
+D'Epinay, Mme.
+Dercum
+Deslandes
+Dessoir, Max
+Dexter
+Diday
+Diderot
+Distant, W.L.
+Donkin
+Down, Langdon
+Dudley
+Dufour, P.
+Dugas
+Duehren, _see_ Bloch, Iwan.
+Dukes, C.
+Dulaure
+Du Maurier
+Duncan, Matthews
+Durr
+Duval, A.
+Duveyrier
+Dyer, L.
+
+Ellenberger
+Ellis, Sir A.B.
+Ellis, Havelock
+Ellis, Sir W.
+Ellis, W.G.
+Emin, Pasha
+Emminghaus
+Epicharmus
+Eram
+Erb
+Ernst
+Esquirol
+Eulenburg
+Evans, M.M.
+Ezekiel
+
+Fahne
+Fasbender
+Fehling
+Felkin
+Fere
+Fernel
+Ferrero
+Ferriani
+Fewkes, J.W.
+Findley
+Fleischmann
+Fliess
+Forel
+Forestus
+Forster, J.R.
+Fortini
+Fothergill, J.M.
+Fournier
+Foville
+Franklin, A.
+Frazer, J.G.
+Freeman, R.A.
+French-Sheldon, Mrs.
+Freud
+Friedreich, J.B.
+Fritsch, G.
+Fuchs
+Fuerbringer
+
+Gaedeken
+Galen
+Gall
+Gant
+Gardiner, J.S.
+Garland, Hamlin
+Gamier
+Gason
+Gattel
+Gehrung
+Gennep, A. von
+Gerard-Varet
+Gerland
+Gibbon
+Giessler
+Giles, A.E.
+Gillen
+Gilles de la Tourette
+Gioffredi
+Girandeau
+Godfrey
+Goepel
+Goethe
+Goncourt
+Goodell, W.
+Goodman
+Gould
+Gourmont, Remy de
+Gowers, Sir W.R.
+Grashoff
+Greenlees
+Griesinger
+Grimaldi
+Grimm, J.
+Groos
+Grosse
+Gruner
+Gruenfeld
+Gualino
+Gubernatis
+Gueniot
+Guerry
+Guibout
+Guise, R.E.
+Gury
+Guttceit
+Guyau
+Guyot
+
+Haddon, A.C.
+Hahn, E.
+Haig
+Hall, Fielding
+Hall, G. Stanley
+Haller
+Hammond, W.
+Harris, D.F.
+Hartmann
+Hawkesworth, J.
+Haycraft
+Heape, W.
+Hegar
+Helbigius, O.
+Heifer, J.W.
+Henle
+Herman
+Herodotus
+Herondas
+Herrick
+Hersman
+Herter
+Hesiod
+Hick, P.
+Hill, S.A.
+Hinton, James
+Hippocrates
+Hirschsprung
+Hirth, G.
+Hoche
+Hohenemser
+Holder, A.B.
+Holm
+Homer
+Hopkins, H.R.
+Houssay
+Howe, J.W.
+Huchard
+Hufeland
+Hughes, C.H.
+Hummel
+Hunter, John
+Hutchinson, Sir J.
+Hyades
+Hyrtl
+
+Icard
+Imbert-Goubeyre
+
+Jacobi, M.P.
+Jacobs
+Jaeger
+James
+James, W.
+Janet, Pierre
+Jastrow, Morris
+Jenjko
+Jerome, St.
+Jessett
+Joal
+Joest
+Johnston, Sir H.H.
+Johnstone, A.W.
+Jolly
+Jones, Lloyd
+Jortin
+Juvenal
+
+Kaan
+Kahlbaum
+Keill
+Keith
+Keller
+Kellogg
+Kemble, Fanny
+Kemsoes
+Kiernan, J.G.
+Kind, A.
+King, A.F.A.
+Kleinpaul
+Klemm, K.
+Kline, L.W.
+Koch, J.L.A.
+Koster
+Kossmann
+Kowalewsky, M.
+Kraepelin
+Krafft-Ebing
+Krauss, F.S.
+Krauss, W.C.
+Krieger
+Kreichmar
+Kroner
+Kulischer
+
+Lacassagne
+Lactantius
+Lallemand
+Landouzy
+Landry
+Lane
+Laschi
+Laupts
+Laurent, L.
+Laycock
+Learoyd, Mabel
+Lecky
+Legludic
+Lentz
+Lepois, C.
+Letamendi
+Letourneau
+Leuba
+Leyden
+Liguori
+Lippert
+Lipps
+Lobsien
+Loiman
+Loliee
+Lombroso, C.
+Lombroso, P.
+Lorion
+Loewenfeld
+Lucretius
+Lull, Raymond
+Luther
+Luzet
+Lydston
+
+MacDonald, A.
+MacGillicuddy
+Mackenzie, J.N.
+MacLean
+MacMurchy
+Maeder
+Malins
+Malling-Hansen
+Man, E.H.
+Mandeville
+Mannhardt
+Mantegazza
+Marchi, Attilio de
+Marcuse, J.
+Mariani
+Marie, A.
+Marie, P.
+Marro
+Marsh
+Marshall, F.
+Marston
+Martial
+Martineau
+Mason, Otis
+Matignon
+Maudsley
+Mayr, G.
+Melinaud
+Menjago
+Mercier
+Metchnikoff
+Meteyard
+Meyners, d'Estrez
+Michelet
+Miklucho-Macleay
+Minovici
+Mirabeau
+Mitchell, H.W.
+Mitford
+Modigliani
+Moliere
+Moll
+Mondiere
+Mongeri
+Montague, Lady M.W.
+Montaigne
+Montmorand
+Moraglia
+Morris, R.T.
+Morselli
+Mortimer, G.
+Moryson, Fynes
+Moses, Julius
+Mueller, R.
+Murisier
+
+Naecke
+Nansen
+Negrier
+Nelson, J.
+Neugebauer
+Niceforo
+Nicolas of Cusa
+Niebuhr, C.
+Nietzsche
+Nipho
+Norman, Conolly
+Northcote, H.
+
+Oettinger
+Ogle
+Oldfield
+Oliver
+Omer, Haleby
+Oribasius
+Osier
+Ossendovsky
+Osterloh
+Ostwald, Hans
+Ott, von
+Overbury, Sir T.
+Ovid
+
+Paget, Sir J.
+Paget, John
+Pare, A.
+Parent-Duchatelet
+Parke, T.H.
+Partridge
+Passek
+Paulus, AEgineta
+Pausanias
+Pearson, K.
+Pechuel-Loesche
+Peckham
+Penta
+Pepys, S.
+Perez
+Perry-Coste
+Peschel
+Peyer, A.
+Peyer, J.
+Pick
+Pierracini
+Pilcz
+Pitcairn
+Pitres
+Plant
+Plato
+Plazzon
+Pliny the Elder
+Ploss
+Plutarch
+Pouchet
+Pouillet
+Poulet
+Power
+Prat
+Priestley, Sir W.
+Procopius
+Pyle
+
+Quetelet
+Quiros, Bernaldo de
+
+Rabelais
+Raciborski
+Raffalovich
+Ramsay, Sir W.M.
+Rasmussen
+Ratzel
+Rauber
+Raymond
+Regis
+Reinach, S.
+Reinl
+Rengger
+Renooz, Mine. Celine
+Renouvier
+Restif de la Bretonne
+Reuss
+Reverdin
+Reys
+Rhys, Sir J.
+Ribbing
+Ribot
+Richelet
+Richer
+Richet
+Riedel
+Ries
+Riolan
+Ritter
+Rochholz
+Rohe
+Rohleder
+Roland, Mme.
+Rolfincius
+Roemer, L.S.A.M. von
+Roos, J. de
+Rosenbach
+Rosenstadt
+Rosenthal
+Rosner
+Rosse, Irving
+Roth, H. Ling
+Roth, W.
+Roubaud
+Rousseau
+Routh, A.
+Rudeck
+Rush
+
+Sade, De
+St. Andre
+St. Hilaire, J.G.
+St. Paul, Dr.
+Salerni
+Sanchez, T.
+Sanctis, Sante de
+Sanctorius
+Savage
+Savill
+Schemer
+Schmid-Monnard
+Schrenck-Notzing
+Schroeder, T.
+Schroeder, van der Kolk
+Schuele
+Schultz, Alwyn
+Schulz
+Schurig
+Schurtz
+Schuyten
+Schwartz
+Schweinfurth
+Scott, Colin
+Seerley
+Selden
+Seler
+Selous, E.
+Semon
+Semper
+Senancour
+Serieux
+Sergi
+Shakespeare
+Shaw, Capel
+Shufeldt, R.W.
+Shuttleworth
+Siebert
+Sieroshevski
+Skeat, W.W.
+Skene
+Smith, E.
+Smith, E.H.
+Smith, F.
+Smith, Robertson
+Smith, Theodate
+Smyth, Brough
+Sollier
+Solon
+Somerville
+Sonnini
+Sorel
+Sormani
+Soutzo
+Spencer, Baldwin
+Spencer, Herbert
+Spitta
+Spitzka, E.C.
+Spurgeon
+Starbuck
+Stein, G.
+Steinen, Karl von den
+Stendhal
+Stephenson
+Stern, B.
+Sterne
+Stevens, H.V.
+Stieda
+Stirling
+Stockman
+Stokes
+Storer
+Strack
+Stratz
+Stubbs
+Sudduth
+Sumner, W.G.
+Susruta
+Sutton, Bland
+Swift
+Sydenham
+
+Tacitus
+Tait, Lawson
+Tallemont des Reaux
+Tardieu
+Taylor, R.W.
+Teacher, J.
+Tertullian
+Theresa, St.
+Thomas, W.
+Thucydides
+Thurn, Sir E. im
+Tille
+Tillier
+Tilt
+Tissot
+Toulouse
+Tout, Hill
+Townsend, C.W.
+Treutler
+Trousseau
+Tuchmann
+Turner
+
+Uffelmann
+
+Vahness
+Valera
+Valleix
+Vallon
+Vedeler
+Velde, van de
+Velpeau
+Venette
+Venturi
+Viazzi
+Villagomez
+Villermay
+Villerme
+Virchow
+Vogel
+Volkelt
+Voltaire
+Voornveld, van
+
+Wade, Sir W.F.
+Wahl
+Waitz
+Walker, A.
+Wappaeus
+Ward, H.
+Wargentin
+Warman
+Wasserschleben
+Wedge wood
+Weismann
+Weisser
+Wellhausen
+Wenck
+West, C.
+West, J.P.
+Westcott, Wynn
+Westermarck
+Wey, H.D.
+Wichmann
+Wiel, Van der
+Willis
+Wilson, J.M.
+Wiltshire, A.
+Winckel
+Winkler, G.
+Winter, J.T.
+Witkowski
+Wollstonecraft, M.
+Wood, H.C.
+Wraxall, Sir N.
+
+Yellowlees
+
+Zacchia
+Zache
+Zeller
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
+
+Africa,
+  modesty in
+  sexual periodicity in
+Ainu,
+  modesty of
+American Indians,
+  menstruation in
+  modesty of
+Anaemia and hysteria
+Andamanese modesty
+Animals,
+  breeding season of
+  hysteria in
+  masturbation in
+  modesty in
+  their dislike of dirt
+Annual sexual rhythm
+Anus as a centre of modesty
+Apes,
+  masturbation in
+  menstruation in
+Arabian festivals
+Arabs,
+  modesty in
+  their ancient conception of uncleanness
+Art and auto-erotism
+Asafoetida in hysteria
+_Attitudes passionnelles_
+Australia,
+  modesty in
+  sexual festivals in
+Autumn festivals
+
+Baboon,
+  menstruation in
+Babylonian festivals
+Bashfulness
+Bathing,
+  promiscuous
+Beltane fires
+Bengal,
+  modesty in
+  sexual periodicity in
+Birds,
+  dreams of
+Birthrate,
+  periodicity of
+Bladder,
+  as a source of dreams
+  foreign bodies in
+  periodicity in expulsive force of
+Blindness in relation to modesty
+Blood,
+  primitive ideas about
+  supposed virtues of menstrual
+Blood-pressure
+Blushing,
+  the significance of
+Bonfire festivals
+Borneo,
+  modesty in
+Bosom in relation to modesty
+Brazil,
+  modesty in
+Bread,
+  periodicity in consumption of
+Breeding season
+_Brumalia_
+
+Camargo
+Catholic theologians,
+  on _delectatio morosa_
+  on erotic dreams
+  on masturbation
+Celibacy and religion
+Ceremonial element in religion
+Chastity in Polynesia
+Chemical rays and sexual periodicity
+Childbirth,
+  modesty in
+Children,
+  masturbation in
+  periodicity of growth in
+  spring fever in
+  their lack of modesty
+Chimpanzee, menstruation in
+Chinese modesty
+Chivalry and modesty
+Chlorosis and hysteria
+Christianity,
+  in relation to modesty
+  its attitude towards masturbation
+Christmas festivals
+Clothing and modesty
+Cod-piece
+Coitus,
+  and ceremonial ritual
+  as a sedative
+  in relation to masturbation
+  in relation to menstruation
+  in relation to modesty
+  often painful in hysteria
+Conception rate
+Conduct,
+  periodicity in
+Continence,
+  importance of
+Convents,
+  hysteria in
+Coquetry,
+  function of
+Courtship,
+  the essential element in
+Crime,
+  periodicity of
+Criminals,
+  masturbation among
+  sexual outbursts in
+Crow,
+  breeding habits of
+Cycling in relation to sexual excitement
+
+Dancing,
+  auto-erotic aspects of
+Dancing and modesty
+Darkness in relation to blushing
+Day-dreaming
+Deer,
+  breeding habits of
+_Delectatio morosa_
+Denmark,
+  modesty in
+Diogenes
+Dionysian festivals
+Disgust as a factor of modesty
+_Distillatio_
+Dog,
+  breeding season of
+Drawers,
+  origin of feminine
+Dreams,
+  and sexual periodicity
+  day
+  erotic
+  Freud on
+  inverted
+  vesical
+
+Easter festivals
+Eating,
+  modesty in
+Ecbolic curve
+Economic factor of modesty
+Elephants,
+  masturbation in
+Enuresis,
+  nocturnal
+Epilepsy,
+  anciently confused with hysteria
+  in relation to masturbation
+Erotic dreams
+  festivals
+  hallucinations
+Eskimo,
+  menstruation in
+  modesty of
+  sexual habits of
+Etruscans,
+  modesty among
+Evil eye and modesty
+Excretory customs and modesty
+Eye disorders and masturbation
+
+Face as a centre of modesty
+Fear,
+  modesty based on
+Ferrets,
+  masturbation in
+Festivals,
+  erotic
+Fools,
+  Feast of
+Foot and modesty
+Frigidity caused by masturbation
+Fuegians,
+  modesty of
+
+General paralysis,
+  annual curve of
+_Globus hystericus_
+Goethe
+Gogol
+Greeks,
+  festivals of
+  modesty among
+  their attitude towards masturbation
+
+Growth, periodicity in
+
+Hair-pin used in masturbation
+Hallucinations,
+  erotic
+Head,
+  covering the
+Heart disease,
+  monthly rhythm in
+
+"Heat" in animals
+  its relation to menstruation
+Hemicrania,
+  periodicity in
+Horse exercise and sexual excitement
+Horses,
+  masturbation in
+Hottentots,
+  masturbation among
+Hymen in relation to modesty
+Hysteria,
+  alleged seasonal prevalence of
+  and chlorosis
+  and masturbation
+  Breuer and Freud on
+  Charcot and
+  coitus often painful in
+  in relation to sexual emotion
+  nocturnal hallucinations of
+  physiological
+  the theory of
+
+Iceland,
+  modesty in
+Illegitimate births,
+  periodicity of
+Incubus
+India,
+  conception rate in
+  masturbation in
+  modesty in
+Infants,
+  masturbation in
+Insane,
+  masturbation in the
+  modesty in the
+Insanity and masturbation
+  periodicity of
+Inversion,
+  dreams in
+Ireland,
+  modesty in
+Ishtar
+Italy,
+  modesty in
+
+Japanese,
+  masturbation among
+  modesty of
+Jealousy in relation to modesty
+
+Kadishtu
+Kierkegaard
+
+Lapps,
+  menstruation among
+ modesty of
+Lizard and women in folk-lore
+Love largely based on modesty
+
+Macaque,
+  menstruation in
+Malay festivals
+Maori,
+  modesty
+Marriage caused by masturbation,
+  aversion to
+Marriage and the hysterical
+Masturbation among animals
+  among lower human races
+  among higher human races
+  as a sedative
+  combined with religious emotions
+  in men of genius
+  interrupted
+  in the insane
+  methods of
+  periodicity of
+  prevalence of
+  symptoms and results of
+May-day festivals
+Mediaeval modesty
+Medicean Venus,
+  attitude of
+Menstrual blood,
+  supposed virtues of
+Menstrual cycle in men
+Menstruation,
+  among primitive peoples
+  and hysteria
+  and modesty
+  and pregnancy
+  and social position of women
+  as a continuous process
+  as a process of purification
+  cause doubtful
+  euphemisms for
+  in animals
+  occasional absence in health
+  origin of
+  precocity in
+  primitive theory of
+  relation to "heat"
+  relation to ovulation
+  relation to sexual desire
+Mental energy, periodicity of
+Metabolism,
+  seasonal influences on
+_Mittelschmerz_
+Mohammedans,
+  attitude towards menstruation
+  modesty of
+  mysticism among
+Midsummer festivals
+Monkeys,
+  breeding season of
+  masturbation in
+  menstruation in
+
+Moon and masturbation
+Moral element in modesty
+Moritz, K.P.
+Muscular force,
+  periodicity of
+Mysticism and sexual emotion
+
+Nakedness,
+  chaste in its effects
+  in relation to modesty
+Narcissism
+Nates as a centre of modesty
+Negroes,
+  modesty of
+Nervous diseases and masturbation
+Neurasthenia and masturbation
+New England,
+  modesty in
+New Georgians,
+  modesty among
+New Guinea,
+  folk-lore of menstruation in
+  modesty in
+New Hebrides,
+  modesty in
+New Zealand,
+  modesty in
+Nicobarese modesty
+Night-inspiration
+Novel-reading,
+  alleged sexual periodicity in
+
+Obscenity,
+  Roman horror of
+Oestrus
+"Onanism,"
+  the term
+Orang-utan,
+  menstruation in
+Orgasm,
+  spontaneous
+Ornament as a sexual lure
+Ovaries with hysteria,
+  alleged association of
+Ovulation and menstruation
+
+Papuans,
+  modesty of
+  sexual periodicity among
+_Penis suecedaneus_
+_Pollutio_
+_Pollutio interruptus_
+Polynesian modesty
+Precocity,
+  sexual
+Pregnancy,
+  menstrual cycle during
+Prostitutes,
+  hysteria among
+  masturbation in
+  modesty of
+Prudery
+Prurience based on modesty
+Psychic coitus
+Psychic traumatism
+Pulse,
+  periodicity of the
+
+Railway travelling as cause of sexual excitement
+Rapes,
+  periodicity of
+Religion and sexual emotions
+Revery
+Rhythm
+Riding as a cause of sexual excitement
+Ritual factor of modesty
+Roland, Mme.
+Romans,
+  modesty of
+Rosalia
+Rousseau
+Russia,
+  conception rate in
+  modesty in
+Rest
+
+Sacro-pubic region as a centre of modesty
+St. John's Eve,
+  festival of
+Samoa
+Samoyeds,
+  menstruation among
+Saturnalia
+Scarlet fever,
+  periodicity of
+Schools,
+  auto-erotic phenomena in
+Seasonal periodicity of sexual impulse
+Seduction and menstruation
+Seminal emissions during sleep
+Serpent in folk-lore
+Sewing-machine as a cause of sexual excitement
+Sexual anaesthesia induced by masturbation
+Sexual factor of modesty
+Sexual desire,
+  in relation to blushing
+  in relation to hysteria
+  in relation to menstruation
+  in relation to modesty
+  in relation to season
+  in women
+Sexual periodicity in men
+  what we owe to irradiations of
+Sexual organs viewed differently by savage and civilized peoples
+Shame,
+  definition and nature of
+Short sight and modesty
+Shyness
+Slang,
+  private
+Sleep in relation to sexual activity
+Snake and women in folk-lore
+Somnambulism of bladder
+Speech,
+  modesty in
+Spring,
+  as season of sexual excitement
+  festivals of
+Swinging,
+  auto-erotic aspects of
+Succubus
+Suicide,
+  periodicity of
+
+Taboo and menstruation
+  and modesty
+Tahiti
+Tammuz festival
+Theologians,
+  opinions of
+Theresa, St.
+Thigh-friction
+Thumb-sucking
+Timidity
+Tight-lacing as a cause of sexual excitement
+Torres Straits,
+  modesty at
+Turkish modesty
+
+Uncleanness,
+  primitive conception of
+Uric acid,
+  excretion, periodicity of
+Urine,
+  incontinence of
+Urtication,
+  as a form of auto-erotism
+
+Valentine's Day
+Veil,
+  origin of the
+Vesical dreams
+Vocabularies,
+  private
+
+_Walpurgisnacht_
+Weekly sexual rhythm
+Witches,
+  erotic hallucinations of
+Womb anciently thought source of hysteria
+Women,
+  as property in relation to modesty
+  masturbation among
+  menstruation in
+  sexual impulse in
+  their auto-erotic manifestations in sleep
+  their night-inspiration
+  whether more modest than men
+
+Year,
+  primitive divisions of
+
+Zeus,
+  auto-erotic manifestations in
+
+DIAGRAMS
+
+     I.--The Monthly Ecbolic Curve.
+    II.--The Annual Curve of the Conception-rate in Europe.
+   III.--The Annual Ecbolic Curve.
+    IV.--Curve of the Annual Incidence of Insanity in London.
+     V.--Curve of the Annual Incidence of General Paralysis in Paris
+         (Garnier).
+    VI.--The Suicide-rate in London.
+   VII.
+  VIII.
+    IX.--Lunar-monthly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+     X.--Curves of Lunar-monthly Rhythm as Smoothed by taking Pairs of
+         Days.
+   XIa.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+   XIb.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+   XII.--Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period.
+  XIII.--Joint Weekly Rhythm of Male Sexual Period, years 1886, 1887,
+         1888, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897 combined.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
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